History of Rastrakutas of Malkhed and Jainism

Author(s): Nagarajaiah Hampa
Publisher: Ankita Pustak
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006719/1

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A HISTORY OF
THE RĂSTRAKŪTAS OF MALKHED AND JAINISM
NAGARAJAIAH, HAMPA
BRONZE IMAGE OF
MANIKYA JINA
COMMISSIONED BY KUNDANARASI IN C.E.960 DAUGHTER OF GANGA BŪTUGA (C.E. 935-61)

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About the Author
Prof. Nagarajaiah, Hampa one of the major literatteurs of Karnataka, has authored more than 70 Books in Kannada and English, on varied subjects including Linguistics, History and Epigraphy, Textual Criticism, Folklore, Biography, Translation, Children Literature and Jainism. Some of his books have been translated to English, Hindi, Marathi and Telugu. He has taught under-graduate and post-graduate classes for 371/2 years. He has served Kannada Sāhitya Parishat as Secretary, (8yrs) and as President (8 yrs). With 'hampana’ as his nom de plume he is a recipient of a number of state and national awards. Contemporary men of letters have honoured him by presenting five felicitatory volumes. Dr. Nagarajaiah has presented papers at the National and Inter-National congress and delivered endowment lectures at various Universities. His contribution to the study of Jainology is voluminous and significant.

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A HISTORY OF THE RĀȘTRAKŪTAS OF MAĻKHĒD AND JAINISM
Prof. Nagarajaiah, Hampa (Former Professor of Bangalore University)
yota
ANKITA PUSTAKA 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhi Bazar Main Road Basavanagudi, Bangalore - 560 004
Karnataka, INDIA 699 2014(0) 652 6134 (R)

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A HISTORY OF THE RĀȘTRAKŪTAS OF MALKHED AND JAINISM by Dr. Nagarājaiah, Hampa Published by Ankita Pustaka, 53, Shamsingh Complex Gandhi Bazar Main Road, Basavanagudi Bangalore-560 004, Karnataka, INDIA. © 699 2014(0) 652 6134 (R)
Price : Rs. 350/- $ 40 $20 Pages : XVI + 44 pages illustrations + 312 First Impression : 2000 © Author Cover Page : Makali ISBN: 81-87321-37-7
Published by
Ankita Pustaka 53, Shamsingh Complex Gandhi Bazar Main Road Basavanagudi Bangalore-560 004 Karnataka, INDIA
699 2014(0) 652 6134 (R)
Printed at
kಮುದ್ರಣಾಲಯ
LARSKO KUDRA MALAYA Chamarajpet Bangalore - 560 018
6613123, 6618752

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Dedicated
to
ŚRĪ VIDYĀCHAND KOTHĀRI
founder
of
VIDYA VINIYA PRATISHTANA
Gulbarga

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AVANT PROPOS Hampa. Nagarajaiah
KSR
T'
0.1. This is the sixth in the series of books
in English, that I have proposed to publish on different topics apropos to Jainism, with an emphasis on its
historical aspect. 0.2. Main aim of this book is to record the
character, position, genesis and chronicler of Jainism as it prevailed in the Rāstrakūta age. Major sources of this book are epigraphs and corroborative literary works of the eon. Proper care is bestowed to shift the grain from the husk, leaving aside the legends and exaggeration. Without loading the writing with too many technical terms, of either Jaina religion or architectural details, I have endeavoured to delineate the history of the
Rāstrakūtas and Jainism. 0.3. Sri. Vidyāchand Kothāri, a born trader
and burgher of Gulbarga city, in the evening of his life, had withdrawn from terrestrial interests, devoting most of his time for a deep study on Jainology. His personal library, containing thousands of books on art, architecture, religion and literature, is one
Monolith Column Ellorā

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of the best individual libraries in the state. It was his cherished ambition that I should author a book on 'A History of the Rāstrakūtas of Malkhēd
and Jainism'. 0.4. When everything was going well, all of
a sudden death snatched away Mr. Vidyāchand Kothāri, leaving his imprints on the socio-cultural ethos of Gulbarga. It is so unfortunate that he could not see his wish was accomplished. I pay homage to the departed soul by dedicating the work
to his memory. 0.5. After the sad demise of Sri Vidyāchand
Kothāri, his wife Smt. Kothāriji persisted that I should fulfill the last desire of her husband. I express my deep sense of gratitude to Mrs. Kothāriji, for her generous assistance
and enlightened concern. 0.6. The author acknowledges help and
encouragement received from: * Trustees of Vidyā Vinaya Pratishthāna. * Prof. M. A. Dhaky, Prof. Kamala
Hampana, D. N. Akki, V. G. Andani, S. K. Aruni. Prakash Kambattalli (publisher - Ankita Pustaka), Makäli (artist), Ashok Kumar (Printers) American Institute of Indian Studies - for permitting to make use of their photos and to quote the paragraphs from the volume of Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture [(eds) Michael W. Meister and M. A. Dhaky). A. V. Nagnoor (ASI, Dharwada), A. B. Pandit, J. V. Vardhaman, Subhashcandra
Babu and Vijaya kumar Kivade. 23 January 2000
SCINA
Se Teutre
P
PIHITA
Tyāgada Brahmmadeva Pillar
Śravaņabeļagoļa

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Avant Propos
Illustrations
1. The Raṣṭrakūta Monarchs - A/1
2. The Raṣṭrakūta Monarchs - B/19
3.
The Rāṣṭrakūta Feudatories/45
4.
Sanskrit Literature / 61
5. Kannada Literature / 108
6. Prakrit Literature / 166
7. Jaina Sangha / 192
8.
CONTENTS
Art and Architecture/212
Appendix / 256
*
* Maps
* Index Opinion

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ABBREVIATIONS
AKT: Ārādhanā Karņāta Tikā C. E.: Current Era Cent. : Century C'Raya : Cāmundarāya Comm. : Commentary Dt: District EC: Epigraphia Carnatika Volumes EI : Epigraphia Indica Volumes EITA : Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture ed(s): Editor (s) IA : Indian Antiquary Volumes IAP : Inscriptions of Andhra Pradesh ibid : ibidem, same as above "Intro" : Introduction KI: Karnatak Inscription Volumes MAR: Mysore Archaeological Report Pk: Prakrit pp : pages SB : Sravanabelagola SII : South Indian Inscription Volumes Sk : Sanskrit

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F.5
10 15 20 Kambadahalli. Pancaküta-basti, plan. (Courtesy: Department of Archaeology, Karnataka.)
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+*N
Śravana Belagola. Cámundaraya-basti.plan. (Courtesy: Department of Archaeology. Karnataka.)
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9462999
ITMI

F. 50
Sravana Belago!a. Candragupta-basti, elevation. (Courtesy: Department of Archaeology. Karnataka.)

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104

ESECEI GATTA
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ALA

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1

Śravana Belago!a. Cámundaraya-basti, side elevation. (Courtesy: Department of Archaeology, Karnataka.)

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NAVODA
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DORADO
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AVUMILITIAVE IND
.
Waumas
GRAVIDA
month
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F.OU
Ellora. Indrasabhá cave, monolithic column.
105

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
DETAILS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS
Earliest Jina Parsva image with five-hooded canopy, at Mallasamudra (Gadag Dt): early 8th cent.
Jina Pārsva image in the Jinālaya at Gaḍi-Kēśvāra : late 7th or early 8th cent.
Gaḍi-Kēśvāra Navaranga Pillar details
Bankēśa Jinālaya at Koṇnür (Gadag Dt); C. E. 860: Vimāna, back-side
Garbhagṛha doorframe details with lalāṭa Jinabimba, Koņņūr Slab containing charter of C. E. 860, inside sabhāmandapa Arhat Pārśva image at the spot where the broken cupola of the shrine had fallen from the top
8.
Front-view of the shrine as it exists now
9.
Mahavira Jina at Mallasamudra : early 9th cent.
10. Jina from Harasur; mid 9th cent. (Govt. Museum, Gulbarga) 11. Nēminātha Jina, Harijanvāḍa: mid 9th cent.
12. Pillar details
13. Arhat Pārsva in trikūta-Jinālaya at Mulgunda, C. E. 902-03
14. Mulgunda inscription of C. E. 902 and sculuptural details
15. Decorated elephant, Mulgunda, east vimana
16. Decorated elephant, Mulgunda, west vimana
17. Yaḍrāmi (Jēvargi Tk) crumbled Jaina temple ruins of 10th
cent.
18. Bankur Jaina vestiges of early 10th cent.
19. Kalasapura Jina image: 10th cent.
20. Kaļasāpura: aged ruins of Yaksi and caumukha
21. Kalasapura: Tall image of Jina
22. Kalasapura: Niśidhi sculptures 23. Jina images at Aland: early 10th cent.

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24. Huge Arhat Pārsva mutilated figure at Mangalagi : late 9th
cent. 25. Ruined Temple site 26. Vacant cushion (behind seated Jina) 27. Trikūta - Jinālaya, Kāļagi : early 10th cent. front-view 28. Kāļagi Jinālaya Vimāna 29. Arhat Pārsva mutilated, Kāļagi 30. Brhmakānta - simhapāda class of column at Jēvargi-Jinālaya
(now Mārutiguļi): laté 9th cent. 31. Brahmakānta - simhapada pillar 32. Makara-tõraņa above the columns 33. Dilapidated dvitala Jaina shrine at Dandoti, 10th cent. 34. Ruined basadi at Sēdam : early 10th cent. 35. Padmabbarasi basadi at Naregal, C. E. 950. Vimāna, south
east
36. Pillar details 37. Padmašilā in the ceiling 38. Gudhamandapa door-frame, Harasūr 39. Torso of Yakṣa at Gadi-Kēśvāra, 7th_gth cent. 40. Sarvāhņa Yakşa, Bankūr, mid 9th cent. 41. Sarvāhna Yakşa, Kollūr, mid 9th cent. 42. Kuşmāņdi Yaksi, in the vestibule, early gth cent. at
Harijanvāļa 43. Āmră Yakşi inside Bankūr Jinālaya, mid 9th cent. 44. Pediment shaped Amrā Yakşi at Āļand basadi, mid. 9th cent. 45. Amră with aureola at Maļkhēd, late 9th cent. 46. Dharaṇendra in the sanctum at Mangaļagi, late 9th cent. 47. Srutadēvi, seated on lotus placed on swanpedestal, at Tadakal 48. Arampart inside the fort with its reareside entrance; late 10th
cent.; Maļkhēļ 49. Arhat-Pārsva figure at the lalāta, as tutelary figure of the
entrace door frame of the palace: Tailapa-II period : Maļkhēd 50. Kāginā river on the backside of the fortress : Maļkhēļ

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51. Ellārā, Indra Sabhā, Jaina cave 32 52. Ellörā, Jagannātha Sabhā, Jaina cave 33 53. Jagannātha Sabhā ground floor 54. Homage to Bāhabali, Elloră 55. Sarvāhņa Yakşa, Jagannatha Sabhā 56. Ambikā Yaksi, Jagannātha Sabhā 57. Indra Sabhā, upper floor 58. Jaina shrine, Biccavolu (A. P.): c. 9th cent. 59. Caturmukha Jina image, Vijayavāda (Museum): 9th cent. 60. Excavated remains at Dānavulapādu (AP), early 10th cent. 61. Arhat Pārsva, Dānavulapāļu 62. Carved pillar, Dānavulapādu 63. Supārsvanātha in Caumukha, inscribed, Răştrakūta
Nityavarsa period Dānavulapādu 64. Sarvāhņa, Indrasabhā Upper Storey Verandah of the Main
Hall, Ellorā 65. Ambikā, Indra Sabhā South wall, Ellārā 66. Yakşa at Kelsūru, renovated 67. Mahāvira-Jina, Kambadahalli 68. Bāhubali and Pārsva, A pillar in Bögarabasadi, Hombuja 69. Kūge Brahmmadēva Pillar, Candragiri 70. Cāmundarāya basadi, Vimāna 71. Pārsva shrine, Vimāna, Hombuja 72. Dhavaļa-Saras, Śravanabelagoļa 73. Jina Pārśva in Makkaļa basadi, Hombuja 74. Arhad Pārsva at Hombuja 75. Earliest five-hooded Pārsva, Mallasamudra 76. Jina-Pārsva, Hombuja 77. Păráva stele, upper portion details 78. Pärsva stele, Hombuja 79. C'Rāya Temple, Candragiri 80. Votive Caumukha, Lakşmēśvara 81. Pañcakūța basadi, Kambadahalli

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82. Niśidhi Pillar of Indra-IV, C. E. 982, Candragiri
83. Hasti-hasta banister, Mulgunda
84. Seated Jina, Are-Tippur
85. Jaina Vestiges, Are-Tippür 86. Camaradhara, Kambadahalli 87. Pillar at Hale - Belagola
88. Vidyadevi, Saligrama
89. Maleyur Jinālaya Vimāna
90. Bronze sculpture of Bahubali, 9th cent., Prince of Wales Mu
seum, Bombay
91. Bahubali on the crest of a Hill, Are-Tippur
92. Cikka - Hanasoge Jinalaya
93. Koppala Fort
94. Gommatesvara of World Heritage 95. A seated diety at Kambadahalli
96. Jina sculpture on the Hill, Koppala 97. A panoramic view of the Candragiri Hill 98. Jina sculpture, Gavimatha, Koppala 99. Jina sculpture, Candrama Rock, Koppala 100. Trikūṭa-basadi, Vimāna, Kambadahalli 101. Kambadahalli basadi plan
102. Cămundaraya basadi plan
103. Camuṇḍarāya basadi, elevation 104. Camuṇḍarāya basadi, side elevation 105. Ellōrā, Monolithic column

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CHAPTER - 1
THE RĀȘTRAKŪTA MONARCHS - A
1.1. The origin of the Rāstrakūtas has been traced to Lātūr (Lattalūr/Lattanür/Rattanūr), a town in modern Osmānābād Dt, in the Marățhvāda region of the modern Mahārāstra. Lātūr situated in between Ellora and Maļkhēd lends support to this theory. Some epigraphs contain the expression of Lattalūra - Puravarādhisa, lord of the city Lattalür. It is suggested that the imperial family name Rāstrakūta’was professional designation meaning, the head of territorial division of Rāştra'.
1.1.1. But, difference of opinion regarding the original home and the location of their capital, still persists. Available data suggests that Govindarāja (C. 611 C.E.), the probable progenitor of the Rāştrakūta dynasty, was a vassal of Budharāja, the Kalacuri monarch, settled in Ēlāpura (Ellārā) area. Govinda migrated to south only after Pulakēsin-II accorded him a fief in C.E. 611, accepting the Cālukya suzerainty. For nearely a hundred years or more, they remained loyal to the Cālukyas of Bādāmi (Sk. Vātāpi), till Dantidurga became their chief. Thus, the period between C. E. 620 and 730 was unconsequential. Gökāk Plates
1.2. Gōkāk copper plates mention the name of Dējja Mahārāja of the Rāştrakūta dynasty. It states that

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2/The Rāṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
Indranandi of Sendrakas, Duke of Jambukhandi under Dējja Mahārāja, alloted 50 nivartanas of land in the village Jaļāra of Kaṣmandi-Visaya, for the worship of Arhanta, 'one who has attained omniscience and worthy of worship'. The donee was Āryaṇandi of Jambukhaṇḍa gaṇa, a cohort of Jaina friars. This donation was made in the year C.E. 532-33.
1.2.1. The earliest known incription of the Raṣṭrakūṭa's are Samanagaḍa charter of Dantidurga (? 753 C.E) and Pune epigraph of Kṛṣṇa-1 (C.E. 758), in the south. In the Madhya Pradesh, Tivārkhēḍ copper plate of Nannarāja and Undikavāṭikā epigraph of Abhimanyu are of the same period as the Gōkāk plate of Dējja Mahārāja. But the name of Dējja does not appear in the known genealogy of the Rāsṭrakūtas of Malkhed.
1.2.1.1. It is presumed to have been that, the Rāṣṭrakūtas, of the first phase in the south, were subjugated by the Calukyas of Bādāmī in the mid sixth century, and the defeated Rāṣṭrakūtas migrated to Ēlapura region. Again, after they were extended a refuge, they imigrated southward to mobilise under the aegis of the Calukyas. In the mid eighth century, once again the Rāṣṭrakūtas emerged victorious to reign for over two hundred years as the greatest imperial dynasty, far greater than the Calukyas who were their overlords. This would be their second phase, if Dējja Mahāraja's authenticity is accepted. Albeit, as history repeated once again, the Rāṣṭrakūtas were heavily crushed, never to soar again, by the same branch of the Calukyas, who opened their second phase more brilliantly than their first phase, to rule far greater empire for another two hundred years.
1.2.2. Towards the end of sixth century, in the south, the Kadamba power was on decline giving room for the Calukyas of Bādāmi to consolidate their political might. By the beginning of eighth century, the Raṣṭraküṭas were slowly

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The Raṣṭrakūtas Monarchs - A/3
but steadily gaining prominence. Mānāka was in possession of Vidarbha and Aśmaka, seized from the Vākāṭakas. The weakened potence of the Calukyas gave fresh impetus to the Rāṣṭrakūtas might that was in abeyance. They gained firm foot hold and held their sway extended from Mānpur in Mälva to Pandurangapalli in the south.
1.2.3. After vanquishing the Calukyas of Bādāmi (Sk. Vātāpi), the Rāṣṭrakūtas, the greatest of India's imperial dynasties, like the Mauryas and the Guptas, founded a great empire, vaster than any before their times, which included not only Karṇāṭaka but also most of the Daksiṇāpatha.
1.2.3.1. Subordinates usurping the throne of their overlords is proverbial in history. The Raṣṭrakūtas who had remained faithful to the Calukyas of Bādāmi, their masters, from the time of Govindarāja-I (C.E. 611) to the later period of Dantidurga, who routed Kirtivarma-II in C. E. 753, himself assuming sovereign titles. His uncle Kṛṣṇa-I did the rest of subjugating the imperial Calukyas on one side and quelling the Gangas on the other side.
1.2.3.2. Thus, Dantidurga and Kṛṣṇa-I successfully completed their conquests by ejecting the Calukyas, the provine of Valabhi, and Kheṭakāhāra-Viṣaya (Kaira Dt). With the acquisition of the dominions held by the Bādāmi Calukyas and a large extent of adjacent territory, the Räṣṭrakūtas stamped their supermacy over greater portion of south India. Dantidurga assumed the imperial epithet of Rāja Paramēśvara. By then, as stated above, the Ganga sway had ceased and their sovereignty was methodically wrested from them by the Rāṣṭrakūtas, who went on consolidating their political strength.
1.2.4. By the time of Amōghavarṣa-I the Raṣṭrakūtas had virtually become Dakṣiņā-pathēśvaras, the masters of large parts of southern and western India. They were considered on par with other imperial dynasties like the

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4 / The Rāştrakūtas and Jainism
Mauryas and the Guptas. As will be seen, during the reign of Govindarāja-III (794-814), they successfully marched upto Kanauj and the river Gangā. Pulakēsi was the first of Karņāțaka kings to be recognised as Dakşiņā-pathēśvara. But it was left to the era of Rāstrakūta kingdom to cross the lakṣmaṇa-rēkha of Dakşiņāpatha to knock the strong walls of Uttarā patha monarchs. Daksināpatha extends from the Gödāvari in the north down to Kāvēri in the south, bordered on the west by the Arabian sea and in the east extending approximately to 780 longitude.
1.2.4.1. Puligere (Lakşmēśvara), Onkunda, Kopaņa and Kisuvoļal (Pattadakal) - were the main nerve centres where Kannada was spoken in all its purity, during this period. Vanavāsi (Banavāsi, Vijaya-Vaijayanti) Vişaya - 12,000, to the east of Konkaņa, Kalvappu, Pannāța, Gangavādi - 96,000, Kuhūņdi-mandala-3000, Puligere-300, Beļvola-300, Pānungal-500, Sāntalige-1000, Mandali-1000 and many other nādus, Kampaņas in the northern region were included in the vast empire. From its dawning as imperial power in around C. E. 757 to its downfall by C. E. 973/79, the Rāstrakūtas were in complete sway over all these minor and major administrative units.
1.2.4.2. Subhatunga Indra, father of Dantidurga and duchy of Lāța, who had heavy leanings to wards Jaina faith, commissioned Subhatunga-vasati in Vātagrāma (Vātanagara/Vādnēr: Nasik Dt), a famous Jaina settlement. Svāmi Virasēna of Pañca stūpānvaya and Jinasēnācārya lived in the cloister at Vātagrāma. Before taking the stupendous commentary on the Satkhaņdāgama, JinasenaII completed Pārsvābhyudaya, poem in Sanskrit, in C. E. 782, which has been referred in Harivamsa-purāņa of Jinasena-I (C. E. 784). Since the period of Amõghavarşa-I was the pivot and peak of the imperial dynasty and Jainism, it deserves an in extenso discussion.

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The Răstrakūtas Monarchs - A/5
1.2.5. During the reign of Govinda-III, the Rāstrakūta kingdom had expanded on all the four cardinal directions. Srivijaya (C.E. 850) states that the Kāvēri and the Gödāvari had demarcated the southern and northern boundaries, in the north it extended for beyound the Godāvari upto Narmadā. His work Kavirājamārga (CE. 850) is silent about the western and eastern boundaries of the state. The Rāştrakūta dominion stretched as for as the Arabian sea in the west and the tracts of Warrangal and Cuddapah in the east. In toto, the Rāştrakūtas held sway over the present Mahārastra and Karņāțaka, parts of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnādu. Even when the rest of India was not included in its territory, reputation of the kingdom traversed from Mount Himālaya to Kanyākumāri, āsētu Himācala, and from Saurāṣtra to Kāmarūpa.
1.3. Rācamalla-I (C.E.816-43), the Ganga king, seething with discontent, was allowed to rule over only the southern part of the vast Gangavādi - 96000. Bankēsa was governing the northern portion. Rācamalla-I made a futile attempt to recover the whole Gangavādi territory, and was thwarted by the gallant Bankarasa. The Gangas persisted their attempt, met with a brief success, when Nitimărga annexed the much wanted northern part of the Gangavādi, ceasing the opportunity of the nonresidence of the general Bankarasa who had left for Gurjaradēśa to quell a rebellion.
1.3.1. At the behest of the emperor Amõghavarşa-I, Gunaga Vijayāditya of Vēngi, grandson of Vijayāditya-II, rushed to the spot to crush the unruly bellingerent, and the Ganga king had to sue for peace. For the Gangas, that was the end of their independent rule, and the years that followed was of sugar plum subordination. Bankēśa captured Kaidāļa, on the outskirts of the modern Tumkur, and Talavanapura. As a reward Bankėya obtained Banavāsi - 12000.
1.4. It was the same period when there was such a

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6/The Rāṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
cordial relationship between Gujarat and Karṇāṭaka. The royalty has close contacts with Gujarāta, and a seperate, rather an independent Räṣṭrakūṭa principality was established in Gujarāta, at the time of Kakkarāja-II, uncle of Amōghavarṣa-I.
1.4.1. The cheering that Nirgrantha creed received in medieval Gujarat during the period of the Räsṣṭrakūtas, i.e., between C. E. 808-88, deserves attention and encomium : "some copper-plate records of the Rāṣṭrakūta period mention the existence of certain groups in the Jaina church. For instance, a copper plate grant of 821, belonging to the period of Karkarāja Suvarṇavarṣa, mentions the existence of the Jaina monastic community of the sena and the Mulasanghas along with a Jaina temple and a monastery at Nāgasārikā, identified with modern Navsari" [Ghosh, A. (ed): vol. 1.:31, EI. XXI. pp. 136-44, C. E. 821]. It is interessing to note that the Rāṣṭrakūṭas of Gujarat have used Kannada for the signmanual in the Sanskrit records.
1.4.2. Jaina ācāryas, their congregation and cohorts moved freely between Karṇāṭaka and Gujarāta. Prominent to migrate from Kittur, metropolis city of Punnāța country in Karṇāṭaka, was Punnāța - samgha. Both Jinasena-I who wrote the Jaina Epic Harivamsapurāņa in C. E. 783 at Vardhamanapura (Wardhvan Kathaiwar). Harişeņa composed his magnum opus narrative kavya Bṛhat-kathā-koś in 931-32 at the same place. Vinayapāla alias Vinayakapāla of the Gurjara Pratihara dynasty of Kanauj was on the throne. Jinasena-I, Hariṣeņa and Vinayapala were disciples of Punnāta-samgha. King Indrarāja of Kanauj was ruling in the north, Śrivallabha alias Govinda-II (son of Kṛṣṇanṛpa-I in the south, Vatsarāja, king of Avanti, in the East, and Vira Janavaraha in the West ruling over the Sauramandala, i.e., Saurāṣṭra. Therefore, indirectly speaking, the works of Jinasena-I and Hariṣēņa may be considered as the literary product of Karnataka and of Rāṣṭrakūta age.

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1.4.3. Jainism proceeded on the path of all round prosperity. It sprang to unprecedented grandeur. Jinasena (-I and -II), Virasēna, Mahāvirācārya, Śākațāyana, Guņabhadra, Asaga, and many more monk-scholars belonged to Kannada stock. Their association with Karnātaka is not accidental, where as Gollācārya from Golladēsa, Puşpadanta from north, Nēmicandra Siddhānta Cakravartti from Tamilnādu is worth consideration. During the hey days of the Rāştrakūtas, Karņātaka had become the melting pot of creative genius and other talents. The roads of opportunity for the glow of gift and knack were connected to the Rāstrakūta avenue.
1.4.4. Wether the Rāstrakūtas were Jains ab initio like the Gangas, is not definite. Some of them were Jains ad libitum, at one's pleasure. Like all royal dynasties, the Rāstrakūtas had developed a sense of liberality and catholicism. Whatever be the creed they had adopted as their own, the Rāstrakūtas willingly conceeded to others a similar freedom of choice and action. Many are instances illustrating this phenomenon. All religions and faiths were treated with exemplary tolerance and equal respect to large extent with the following dictum permeating in the kingdom:
God is one His names are many The goal of spiritualism is one
The paths leading to it are numerous 1.4.5. Jaina institution has passed through ages. Its growth and survival has had its wax and wane. De facto advancement of Jainism was from the beginning tied to the fortunes of various ruling houses. Jainas, both the patriarchs and their laics, had remarkable ability of repeatedly being amicus curiae, friend of the court, actively supporting local monarchs. Drawing upon the literary and epigraphical

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premises of specific periods and localities, Jaina community appears to have sailed safe in the Rästrakūta eon. The period of Jaina ascendancy was fast drawing to its zenith, when the throne was occupied by Amõghavarşa-I, the Rāstrakūta's greatest king and an ardent follower - benefactor of Jainism. He had grown in the bon vivant, good companion of eminent Jainas de novo, from the beginning, which will be explained in the appropriate context.
1.4.6. Similar to other ruling families that preceeded, the Rāştrakūtas actively befriended Jaina faith. Recently, new sculptures and inscriptions have been discovered which prove the popularity of Jaina faith during the time of the Rāștrakūtas.
1.4.7. Without landing in the controversy of whether it was Malkhēd or Mörkhand (Nasik Dt), or Markhandi (Chanda Dt), or Kandara (Nāndēd Dt), or Ellārā or Acalapura (Mahārāstra) that was the main capitol of the Rāstrakūta empire, this monograph subscribes to the largely accepted suggestion of the historians that Maļkhēd was their metropolis.
1.4.8. It is presumed that Amõghavarşa developed Malkhēd (Sk. Mānyakhēța) into a royal residence. But, the distinction of improving the city into celebrity, goes to Govindrāja-III, who as the first maker of Maļkhēd, laid a robust foundation and expanded it into an official seat of the state. Making use of the infrastructure, Amõghavarsa fortified and glorified the place to become the greater capitol of a prosperous monarchy.
1.5. Starting from the period of Govinda-III and Amõghavarşa-I Mānyakheța (Maļkhēd, Malayakhēda), majestic capitol of an ancient kingdom, was the pivotal city of Jaina activities. Vīrasēna, Jinasēna, Srivijaya, sākatāyana, Mahāvirācārya, Indranandi, Ponna, Puşpadanta, Asaga, Kavi-Paramēśvara, Guņabhadra and

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host of Jaina authors, scholars, preceptors had their base at the capitol city of Malkhed. Räṣṭrakūtas shifted their imperial seat to Manyakhēṭa, (which was already a nerve centre of Nirgranta movement), on the suggession of Jaina pontiffs.
1.5.1. Bhatta - Akalankadeva (C. 730-50) had earned greater fame for himself and for the city. One of the biggest Jaina-maṭhas was at Malkhed. These men of letters produced monumental works in the theological field too. Satkhanda-agama in Prakrit was the axis of rotation that augmented major commentaries. Under the patronage of Govinda-III and Amoghavarṣa-I, exhaustive and authoritative commentaries were initiated. Most distinguished dual of guru-siṣya, the teacher and pupil, Virasēna and Jinasena jointly shouldered the completion of gigantic commentaries popularly known as Dhavala and Jaya-Dhavala, together running to a stupendous volume of one lakh and ninety six thousand slōkas, a great feat of the Rāṣṭrakūta empire.
1.5.2. Mānyakhēṭa and Śvetāmbara sect
Manyakheṭa, capitol of the Raṣṭrakūtas, had become a major settlement of Jaina assembly. According to Haribhadrasūri, when Padalipatācārya, Svētāmbara Jaina pontiff, entered the southern region, Śvētāmbara lay votaries were found in and around Manyakhēṭa [MAR. 1923. pp. 10-11]. The early Kadambas of Banaväsi had endowed for the sustenance of the Svētapaṭas (śvētāmbaras). It is clearely recorded, in the fifth cen. C. E. copper plates, that Mrgēśavarma, the Kadamba king had donated gifts to Śvetapaṭa-Mahā-śramaṇa-sangha' [IA. VII. p. 37].
1.5.3. These allotment go to establish the entity of Śvētāmbara cloister of monks and their followers in a sizable number. Praśnōttara-Ratnamālikā of Nṛpatunga, who had

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Amoghavarṣa as his second name, was attributed to Vimaladitya, said to be a Svētāmbara ascetic [Govinda Pai, M: Nṛpatunga Matavicăra - article in Kannada Sahitya Parishat Patrike, vol. XII-4]. There is nothing to substantiate this assumption. On the other hand, available evidences go in favour of Nṛpatunga alias Amoghavarṣa as the probable author of the above work, which has been discussed elsewhere in this monogrash. The only other later reference to Śvētāmbara sect' comes from a lithic record of Śravanabelagola (EC. II (R) 254, C. E. 1318] in denunciation
of the sect.
1.5.4. Elsewhere in the south, reliable medieval references speak of the subsistence of Svētāmbara house holders in the neighbouring Andhradeśa. Hence the possibility of the presence of Svētāmbara adherents in the northern region of Karṇāṭaka, including Malkhed, can not be over ruled. Still, in the south, as shown earlier, the Svētāmbaras and their frairs did flourish in the reign of the early Kadambas.
1.5.6. Malkhēḍ had flowered into a marvellous city which could put to shame even the city of gods. But, king Siyaka of the Parmara dynasty of Malva had sacked and destroyed Manyakheța towards the end of 969-70 C. E. Again it was renovated and restored to old glory by Tailapa in C. E. 974. However, now it does not possess anything vital than a Jaina shrine and a moderate fortress. Yet the township is not archaeologically barren. The well planned fort on the bank of river Kagina, geniune archeaological ruins, marvellous temple, and literary evidences attest to the widely prevalent theory. The present Jaina fortress, with Jina Parsva as its lalaṭabimba, was reshaped during the regency of Tailapa-II (973-98). The remains of the fort confirm that it was a spacious royal palace having different gates, and one of them being a rājadvāra for the members of the palace and of the seraglio.

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1.6. The Raṣṭrakūṭas were king of kings. None of the dynasties and monarchs during that time were so powerful as the Rāṣṭrakūtas. In the mid eighth cent. they inflicted a major defeat on the then potential Gangas and vanquished the puissant Calukyas of Bādāmi. Whether they were friend or foe, it is curious to note that all these three dynasties favoured the cause of predominant Jaina faith. The Rāṣṭrakūṭa monarchs carried further the chariot of Jinadharma from where the Gangas and Bādāmi Calukyas had left it. Rāṣṭrakūṭas defeated Calukyas politically, but the Jainism of Calukyas defeated the Rāṣṭrakūtas.
1.6.1. In C. E. 754, Dantivarma spearheaded an invasion on Kirtivarmā (745-57), the Cälukya king and crushed a heavy defeat on him. Wherewith, it was Kṛṣṇa-I, a war like prince who carried out several expeditions and superseded the Calukya kingdom in C.E. 757 to seal their fate. Even though Kṛṣṇa could not wipe out the Gangas, he frustrated them, subjugated the recalcitrant feudatory, took Śivamāra, the Ganga prince, captive.
1.6.2. Thus, the Räṣṭraküṭas had crossed swords with the Gangas, initially for a stretched period of over a century. As the political wisdom prevailed, cordial relationship developed between the two houses and was further cemented by marriage alliances, primarily motivated by political consideration. Once more, it was Jainism, a common religion, that opened the flood gates of friendship. After inevitably accepting the suzerainty, the Gangas faithfully stood by their overlords. Būtuga-II and his sons, definitely the valiant Mārasimha, successfully lead the Rāṣṭrakūṭa army against their formidable foe.
1.6.2. The imperial Rāṣṭrakūtas, who replaced the Calukyas of Bādāmi (Vātāpi) holding up the southern expansion of the Pallavas on the bank of river Kāvēri, continued unabated in power from 8th to 10th cent. C.E., With

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their metropolis at Malkhed from the very beginning of ninth cent. "Gangas, Pallavas of Kanchi and the Rastrakutas of Malkhed were staunch Jains" [Krishna Rao, M. V.: 193 and 198]. The period of interrugnum between Sivamāra-II and his father Sripuruşa (son of Sripurușa-I), Kambarāja, Rāṣṭrakūta king, ruled the Gangavādi, region. It was during this time that Beneyetti, a lay lady votary endowed the field of Kalvappu and Pergalvappu to a Jaina monk. Some mandalikas also alloted the village Govindapāḍi in Belgola-12.
1.6.3. The powerful Dantidurga (C. 735-56), son of Govindaraja-I, after conquering the shaky Calukyas, invaded northern India, seized Avanti, where he performed Hiranyagarbha-yajña. But the mention of Pratihāra, king of Avanti, being made a door keeper appears to be an exaggeration, making pun on the nomen of the king.
1.6.4. The famous Nirgrantha dialectician Bhaṭṭa - Akalanka who authored some prominent works on Jaina epistemology and logic, was a contemporary of both Dantidurga and his successor Kṛṣṇarāja-I (C. 756-74). Like their predecessors, these two monarchs initiated alliances with Jaina faith in the form of generous patronage.
1.6.5. Kaviparamēśvara alias Kaviparameṣṭhi, the illustrious Jaina connoisseur, had begun his magnum opus Vāgartha-samgraha during this generation. He completed it in the reign of Prabhutavarṣa. Govinda-II. In the series to follow, Vagartha-samgraha was one of the early Mahāpuraṇas in Sanskrit language. Though the work today is unavailable, yet some of its verses are quoted in Camuṇḍarayapurāṇa (C. E. 978). Since only verses in metrical composition are quoted there, scholars are tempted to consider Vägartha-samgraha as a poem in verses. But Gunabhadrācārya (C. 880) had mentioned in unambiguous terms that the above work was a gadya-kathā, a prose

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narrative. This lends support to ruminate the possibility of the work being a campū-kāvya.
1.6.5.1. Śrīnandi had writtenJaina Mahāpurāṇa in the time of Dhärāvarṣa Dhruva and Kücibhaṭṭāraka in the period of Jagattunga Govinda. Thus, Kaviparamēṣṭhi was the third author to write on the same subject. But, none of the three works are available.
1.6.6. However, Mahāpurāņa, a full -blooded master piece in Sanskrit, co-authored by Jinasena-Gunabhadra ācāryas is extant. Jinasena (758-848) wrote the first part, Adipurāṇa, addressing it to his favourite king disciple Amōghavarṣa. As the apostle Indrabhūti Gautama (Pk. Indabui-Gōyama) directs king Śrēņika (Pk. Sēņiya) in the proper behaviour of a king, so does the patriarch Jinasēna educates Amōghavarṣa. (fruitful showerer'). He preferred to entertain religious propensities to expansionist tendencies, often giving vent to the scholar and composer in him. His great leanings towards śramaņa dharma made Amōghavarṣa to pass some days in retirement and contemplation in the company of his Jaina ascetics, placing the yuvarāja, heir apparent or the ministry in charge of state administration [Altekar, A. S: 88-89]. "(Amoghavarṣa) was a pious king, and in the years after A.D. 860 he was more and more inclined to practicing the tenets of Jainism: [Soundara Rajan, K. V. in EITA: 1986: 107: (eds) Meister and Dhaky].
1.6.7. Praśnottara-Ratna-mālika, a concise and honeyed Jaina philosophical lyric in Sanskrit echos the king's thought and muse over the values of life. It has the invocatory passage of 'Pranipatya-Vardhmanasya'. This short poem with religion oriented verses in Arya metre is in the form of prasna-, questions, and uttara, answers, all woven together like a mālikā garland. This work being sometimes wrongly attributed to Vimala or Sankarācārya or some unknown author, reflects the universal application of the work.

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1.7. Prabhūtavarsa Govinda-II (774-80), elder son of Krsna-I, made several incursion on the northern India. Govinda, an able fighter, actively participated in the triumphant battles against the Gangas in the south and Vēngi Calukyas in the east. Unfortunately, soon he had exhausted all his flaire for a political career. Realising elan vital, the essence of life, he had the magnanimity of gracefully transferring the much coveted throne to Dhruva, his younger brother. Historians have differed on the interpretation of the exact reasons for the political shift..
1.7.1. Though, how exactly Govinda-II ended his life is unknown, a possiblity of his accepting sallekhanā needs consideration, based on the circumstantial evidences. His association with Vengi, a major seat of Jainsim, his close contact with the Gangas, staunch followers of Jainism, weighs in this assumption. Dhruva, his ambitious brother planned to seize the throne for himself had caused agony, puts an extra stich to the supposition. Easy going monarch Govinda, disgusted with the political evils, must have preferred to willing submission to the inevitable.
1.7.2. Dhruva (780-93) carved a niche in the hall of Rāstrakūta's fame, by his remarkable achievements of land mark in the span of over a decade. Success smiled on Dhruva Nirupama ('nonpareil') who had undefatigable steel arms in the form of his two sons, Govinda-III and Indra-II. Dhruva ('eternal') undertook the conquest of North, defeated Vatsarāja, Gūrjara Pratihara monarch, and Dharmapāla of Pāla-Vamsa (Bengal). Jinasena-I, an epic poet of the age, authored Harivamsapurāṇa, of which the first recension was completed in C. E. 783-84.
1.7.3. The spirit of adventure and political ambition animated Jagattunga ('Prominent in the world') Govindara-III (783-814), unbeaten potentate. Till then, the southern sovereigns, however strong and valiant, had mainly

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concentrated on defending the northern invasions. Pulakēsin, so powerful to defeat the uttarāpathēśvara, was content to be called daksināpathēśvara, and refrained to go beyond Narmadā. Govindara-III, mightiest of all the southern monarchs, made the north taste the warlike virtues, strength and glory of Karnātaka army, generously eulogised by the adroit Rājasekhara, Sanskrit poet. Consolidating his resources, Govindara embarked on a career of conquest, ushering in a period of unflinching valour and political supremacy for the Rāstrakūta monarchy.
1.7.4. Govindarāja spear headed an invasion to defeat Gurjara, Māļava, Vēngi, Odraganga, Kalinga, Kanauj, Kosala, Hāhaļa, Cola, Pāņdya, Pallava, and even kings of Lanka, and put the Răstrakūta kingdom on the political map of India. His horses bathed in the holy river Gangā and the sound of their hoof, khurapuța-dhavani echoed in the slopes of mount Himālayas. He virtually augmented the real glory of the dynasty and the Rāstrakūta monarchy attained imperial status, with Karņāțaka.
1.7.5. Imperial Karnātaka accomplishing the rank of Govinda, credited with providing the best of infrastructure for the syādvāda mata to leap with joy. Jaina monastery at Malkhēd had become a nest of singing birds and an abode of great patriarchs of unparalleled eminence. Govinda had recognised the primacy and majesty of the system of education imparted in the cloisters of Jaina monks, and allowed his son Amõghavarşa to spend his childhood in the company of great masters of the age. He created a congenial atmosphere for the Jaina lamasery to take up the most serious and scholarly work of writing commentary on the basic canons, a need of the hour.
1.7.6. Fortunately, most illustrious mentors of the age, Virasēna and Jinasēna ācāryas were thoroughly trained and equipped for undertaking such specialised work. Under the

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benediction of the learned patriarchs and the benefaction of the monarch the huge task of drafting voluminous Dhavalā ('the luminary') commentary on the Satkhanda-āgama, Jaina canon in six parts, took off in the first decade of ninth century C. E. It was the first recension on the primordial text of Digambara philosophy.
1.8. Imperial preference boosted the steady overall growth of Jaina Institution. Govinda gave contribution to impeccable Arkakirti, Jaina pontiff of Yāpaniya sangha, for warding off the evil influence of Saturn from Vimalāditya of the Calukya dynasty and son of Yaśövarma. Cākirāja, adhirāja, chief-ruler of the entire Ganga-mandala was brother-in-law of Yasovarma, and thus, Vimalāditya was Cākiräja's sister's son, who was enjoying a fief of Kuningal principality. On the application of his vassal Cākirāja, the Vallabhēndra, Rāstrakūța monarch, residing in his victorious camp at Mayūrkhandi, gave the village named Jālamangalam situated within the Idagūr-visaya in C. E. 812-13. The allotment was for the Jinēndra shrine at Sāligrāma, the ornament on the western side of the Mānyapura [EC. XII (old) Gubbi. 61. C. E. 812. Kadaba plate. pp. 84 ff.).
1.8.1. Srivijaya sēnādhipati, commander-in-chief of the army of Lokatrinetra Mārasima-I (C.E. 796), a feudatory, had commissioned a lofty, grand, and imposing Jinabhavana at Manne (Sk. Mānyapura), and granted an endowment of the village Kiruvakkūr in C. E. 798, with boundaries marked [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1999-A:24-25]. This Jaina house of worship was also patronised by Govinda in C. E. 802. [EC. IX (old) NI. 61).
1.8.2. Manne was one of the metropolis of the Gangas and the Jaina temple had the name of Vijaya-Jinālaya. Prince Ranāvaloka Kambhadēva (Sk. Stambhadēva), governor of Gangavādi, donated the village Vadanaguppe in

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C. E. 808, for the maintenance of the Vijayavasati of Talaikkaḍu (Sk. Talavanapura). The donee of the allotment was Vardhamanaguru of Kondakundanvaya.
1.8.3. In order to authenticate the role of the Jaina elitist class in the establishment of the Malkhed as superior to the previous capitols, we should look at the supportive circumstantial evidences. Amoghavarṣa, eversince was a lad on the lap of his father, had maintained a close affinity with the Jaina church. After succeeding to the throne and assuming the imperial power, he entrusted the state responsibility, under the prevailing influence of his Jaina officials, to Karkka-I his elder uncle till he could come of age to shoulder the responsibility. Thus, Karkka-I became kingregent during the minority of Amōghavarṣa.
1.9. The period of Amōghavarṣa was the heyday of Jaina creed. Nṛpatunga ('paramount king'), Amōghavarṣa ('fruitful showerer'), Vira-Nārāyaṇa (Valorous god Nārāyaṇa), Atiśaya-dhavala ('exceedingly pure') and many more titles befittingly adorned the emperor. Sarva, his first name, obviously receeded making room for his other appellations to be used more frequently.
1.9.1. A charter dated C. E. 860, from Ranebennur (Hāvēri Dt) of the later period of Amōghavarṣa, mentions the allotment of lands to Naganandi-ācārya of Simhavuragana. He had granted land to the Jinālaya at the request of Bankesa, his feudatory and general [EI. VI. No. 4].
1.9.2. Broadly speaking, Amōghavarṣa or his predecessors did not build the city of Malkhed. The city was there, long before these sovereigns settled there. For centuries it was thriving as a Jaina settlement. It was formally extended and embellished to become a metropolis, to suit the imperial designs of a vast empire by Govindaraja-III.

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1.9.2.1. Ascetics of the Jaina monastery, hierarchy of influential Jaina officials and merchants were mainly responsible for the transfer of royal residence from Ellāpura (Ellora) or some other pre-Maļkhēd capital to the Maļkhēd. The city bloomed even to surpass the state house of Indra : Indrapurādadhikam (IA. XII. p. 263].
1.9.3. It is said that Virasēna christened his commentary as Dhavalā after the title of Tribhuvana Dhavalā, ‘of unsullied glory in the three worlds', of king Govinda-III. His other special birudas: Prabhūtavarşa, 'the abundant rainer', Srivallabha, 'the favourite of goddess of fortune', Janavallabha, 'the favourite of the people', and Kirti-Narāyaṇa 'a very Narāyaṇa in respect of fame'. Kannada epigraphs mention his name as Gõyinda, evidently a Prakrit form of Sanskrit Govinda. His queen consort's name was Gāmundabbe, a typical Kannada nomen.

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CHAPTER - 2
THE RĀȘTRAKŪTA MONARCHS - B
2.1. Amõghavarşa, the Asöka of Jainas, was a tiny tot and a precious child of fourteen years when he ascended the throne of an imperial dynasty. But having grown segacious, nurtured in the learned Jaina monastery at Maļkhed, he was sensitive, possessing an independent spirit. His star was in the ascendant.
2.1.1. "The Rāstrakūta monarchs... were particularly interested in Jainism... Amoghavarşa-I was more a Jaina than a Hindu. His chief preceptor was Jinasena, and he had appointed Gunabhadra as the preceptor for his son, Krsna-II. Amõghavarşa is also said to be the originator of the ritual of the Jaina monasteries at Banavāsi. An exact contemporary work Ganita-sāra-samgraha of Mahāvirācārya, graphically describes Amõghavarşa's initiation to Jainism" [Majumdar, A. K. : Concise History of Ancient India, vol. III : 1983 : 289-90).
2.1.2. The Rāstrakūta kingdom was so vast during this period that it was considered as one of the four major kingdoms in the world, according to Sulēmān(C.E. 851), the famous Arabbi travellor (the other three being Arab, China, and Constantenople). "Yet another contemporary Jain writer viz., Ugrāditya, the author of the medical treatise Kalyāṇakāraka, which was composed on mount Rāmagiri, situated in the level plains of Vengi in the country of

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Trikalinga, refers to the fact that he delivered a discourse on the uselessness of meat diet in the court of Sri Nṛpatunga Vallabha Mahārājādhirāja, who is no other than Amoghavarṣa-I" [Chatterji A.K.: 205].
2.1.2.1. It is the loyalty and didication of such persons of high rank and distinction like Bankeśa that the morale of the king and kingdom was boosted. In the history, instances of the palace becoming the home of lawless, for want of discipline, are not lacking. Luckily Nṛpatunga, 'Paramount king', had an easy access to the wise counselling of the sages. He was trained under great masters of his times. Many brilliant gems adorned his court.
2.1.2.2. Amōghavarṣa was sitting pretty on the throne for longer duration sufficient enough to irk his son. Great expectation warped Kṛṣṇa-I who could not wait any more to succeed the throne. He lost his patience and came out openly claiming his legitamate right to the throne. For an aged father of over seventy, it was too much to gulp, but for the overgrown and long awaited son, this was the question of now or never. Peculiar situation of the prince revolting against the crown would have been fatal to Amōghavarṣa but for the timely intervention of Bankeya, reliabe as always.
2.1.2.3. Bańkarāja very tactfully handled the aggravated and complex situation. With his political wisdom he could bridge the gulf and save the prestige of both the king and prince. Bankarasa was amply rewarded by the overwhelmed emperor who showered bounties. The modern Bankapura town was named after Bankarāja. Lōkate alias Lōkāditya, worthy son of Bankarasa, was made the duchy of a province. Bankeśa, chief of the Raṣṭrakūta army, was also Duke of Banavāsi, a Jaina dominated region for over a millenium.
2.1.3. In his royal edict of Konṇur, which opens with an invocation of Jina, Amōghavarṣa has acclaimed Bankarasa

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as : madiyo vitata jyotirnisito sirivāparah "like another scintillating sharp sword of mine". As commander of the hereditary forces, Bankēśa has uprooted, like trees, my adversaries. By my favour he has received and rules the thirty-thousand villages of which Vanavāsi is the foremost, never ceasing to prosper. At the request of this my dear servant Bankeya, I have given the village of Taleyūra to Dēvēndra, who has been appointed to take care of the Jaina sanctuary founded by Barkeya. Devendra, chief of ascetics, disciple of Trikālayõgisa, born from the Pustaka gaccha of the Desiyagana of the Mülasangha, for any new work connected with the sanctuary, for future repairs, for the cleaning, plastering, maintaing of it, and for other acts of piety (boundaries stipulated). I also have given twelve nivartanas of land at Kalanūra itself and at each of the following thirty villages within its bhukti (names of the 30 villages mentioned)" (EI. VI. No. 4. pp. 24-38). This cakravartidatti, endowment of the emperor, replete with historical significance, was authored by Vatsarāja, a bard of eminence and trained in Jaina tradition.
2.2. Amöghavarsa, the Aśõka of Jaina sangha, worked for the spread of śramaņa culture. “During the reign of Amõghavarşa-I special activity was displayed in temple building, particularly Jaina ones, as he was a great patron of that sect, if, indeed he was not a convert to that religion. Jainism was at the zenith of prosperity during his long reign. He became so religiously inclined that he is said to have eventually abdicated the throne 'in consequence of the growth of the ascetic spirit in him', and several religious works are attributed to him' [Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. I. part-II, p.201): "His son, who succeeded him, was Akālavarsha or Krishņa-II during whose reign there is mention of Jaina temples being built and grants being alloted to them" (ibid: 10).

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2.1.4. Amõghavarşa was a lover of literature, both religious and secular. He was himself a litterateur, proficient in Kannada, Sanskrit and Prakrit. As discussed elsewhere, he was authored Praśnõttara-ratnamālā in Sankrit, after abdicating the throne in the evening of his life. The opening stanzas of Ganitasāra-samgraha, of the dexterous Mahāvirācārya, also substantiate that the monarch had renunciated his terrestrial interests and had partiality towards syādvāda philosophy (Jaina Siddhānta Bhāskara, vol. IX, part. I. pp. 1-8]. Dhavala-Tikā (C. E. 816). Jaya-dhavala-Tikā (C. E. 837), Pārsvābhyudaya (825), Caūpannamahāpurisa-cariya (Silacārya, C. E. 869), Jambūdiva paņņatti (Padmanandi) and other works of this period created ripples of fresh impetus and stimulus in the Jaina Church.
2.1.5. The best connoisseurs during his time were his court-scholars. Great luminaries of classical Sanskrit like Asaga, the brilliant exponent, and Jinasina-II the nestor. Of śāstra literature like Śākatāyana (Pālyakirti) the felicitous grammarian and Mahāvirācārya, the skilled arithmetician; of Prakrti literature like Virasina, Jinasena and Puspadanta the epic writers, of Kannada literature like Srivijaya, Bhrājisņu, Guņavarma-I, Pampa and Ponna- lived at this epoch. The dimension and visage of their contribution needs in extenso coverage and will be taken up at the appropriate place. (Vide the chapter on literature).
2.1.6. Famous Jaina settlements like Biccavolu [AP:East Gödāvari Dt], and Rāmatirtham [AP : Vishākapatnam Dt] received plenteous patronage from Amõghavarşa. Sīla, consort of Kalivişnuvardhana, and daughter of Karka, a regent of Amõghavarşa, commissioned the east Gödāvari Biccavol Vardhamāna temple at Biccavol [Birudankarāya prõlu). Fortunately the Jina idol of this shrine is recovered and is now in the Madras Museum.
2.2.1. The reign of Akālavarşa Krsna-II (878-914) saw

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mixed fortunes, with serious troubles erupting from all sides. He lost Acalapura, Kiraṇapura and Malava. Adding insult to the injury, Bhojaraja of Kanauj and Gunaga Vinayaditya of the Eastern Cālukyas had disturbed the empire. Luckily for Kṛṣṇa, he could muster timely support from the chiefs of Lāṭa, Cēdi and Vēmulavāḍa.
2.2.2. Kṛṣṇa-II exhibited a difinite leaning towards the creed of Arhats. He was a disciple of his preceptor Gunabhadradeva. Jinasēna-II, mentor of Amōghavarṣa had composed Adipuräna, first part of Mahāpurāṇa, a Jaina epic, of 20,000 stanzas, during the age of his pupil on the throne. Gunabhadra composed the last five cantos of Adipurāṇa and the entire Uttarapurāṇa, second part of Mahāpurāṇa, in the reign of his pupil. It was completed at Bankapura when Lokasēna, who had the aliases of Lōkāditya and Lōkate (Lōkaṭeyarasa), son of Bankēśa (Bankarāja/Bankarasa/ Bankeya) was governor of Bankapura. Uttarapurāṇa was consecrated on June 23 of C. E. 897, as recorded in the prasasti, colophon. It contains hundreds of stories, big and small, rotating round the pivot of 23 Tirthankaras, 11 Cakravartins, 9 Baladevas, 9 Vāsudēvas (Nārāyaṇas) and 9 prati-Vāsudēvas (Prati-Nārāyaṇas). Abridged versions of the two immortal epics of Rāmāyaṇa and Mahā-Bhārata, long narrative sotries of Jivandhara, Vāsudēva and Candanabālā, find a prominent place in Uttarapurāṇa. Lōkāditya was also incharge of Bandalike (Sk. Bāndhavanagara) which boomed into a Jaina tirtha, sacred seat, during this time.
2.2.2.1. Lokaditya, Kṛṣṇa's feudatory and son of Bankesa, founded shrines to Jina, Hari, Hara and Buddha, and a reservoir after his name, Lōkasamudra, at Lōkāpura, a town bearing his name (Bijapur Dt, Mudhō! Tk) in C. E. 890.
2.2.3. During the time of Krsna-II, Jainism flickered into greater brilliance. Mulgunda, with sanctuaries and

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monasteries, had become a prominent Jaina settlement. Aryasēna, teacher of Ajitasēna, Kumārasēna, Virasēna and other monks at Mulgunda cloister were at the peak of their fame. These ascetics belonged to the line of Candrikāvāta of Sēnā vaya. Preceptor Kumārasēna accepted the rite of sallēkhan) at Mułgunda and left for Kopaņa- tirtha, another great seat for Jaina pilgrim, to breathe his last on the sepulchral hillock there. ,
2.2.3.1. Krsņa-II endowed Mulgunda Jinālaya with taxfree grants (JBBRAS, X. p. 192]. Paravādimalla, (C.E. 880) a famous monk-scholar, lived in the age of Krsna-II. A medieval inscription mentions that great minister Kammața Mācayya, superintendent of ceremonies, who together with his father-in-law Ballayya, donated the tax on oil mills for the Paravadimalla Jinālaya in Kumbeyanahalli (EC(old) V. cn. 151. C. 1200. p. 193]. This temple might have been commissioned in the name of the same mendicant.
2.2.3.1.1. Cīkārya, son of Candrāya, a leading burgher and tradesman (vara-vaisya), had commissioned a Jaina triple-shrine. Arasārya, son of Cīkārya and brother of Nāgārya, proficient in the Nayavāda(view point) and Agama, donated garden and lands to this temple in C.E. 902-03, and the donee was Kanakasena muni. Arasārya Acārya consecrated the image of Kamathôpasarga Jina-Pārsva in the temple founded by his father (pitr kārita-jinālayāya). It was my fortune that this unique bas-relief sculpture, with significant iconographic details, and seven lines of a Sanskrit inscription, both dated C. E. 902, were discovered by me in early 1999.
2.2.3.2. Candiyabbe, wife of Kannara founded a Jaina house of worship at Nandavara, dedicated it her preceptor Padmanandi-ācārya in C. E. 932, and made suitable provision for its sustenance. . 2.2.4. An epigraph, of Pārsvanātha basadi at
o

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Sravanabelagola, had recorded an incident of historical import, which took place in the court of the Rāstrakūta king Krsna-II. Paravādimalla, Jaina patriarch was skilled in many chains of arguments, and eloquent among the learned, 'doubtless a god’ When asked for his name by the emperor Krsnarāja, Paravādimalla gave out to the king the following derivation of his name: 'the position other than the one taken up is para, the other. Those who maintain it are paravādinah, maintainers of the other. He who wrestles with them is Paravādimalla, the wrestler with the maintainers of other. This name, good men say, is my name'. While commenting on this, B. A. Saletore remarks - "We do not know what reward the astounded monarch gave this remarkable Jaina teacher. This ruler, it may be noted in passing, has been identified with Kșsņa-II" [Saletore : 39).
2.2.4.1. King Prithvivarma son of Merada of SaunadattiRatta house and a collateral branch, constructed a Jinālaya at Saundatti, his metropolis (Belgaum Dt), at the instance of Mullabhattāraka, pupil of Guņakirti, Patriarch of Mailāpa-tirtha, a cohort of Yāpaniya samgha in C. E. 875-76 [SII. XX. No. 13]. Saundatti Rattas, governors of high rank, after the fall of the Rāstrakūtas, shifted their allegiance to the Cālukyas of Kalyana. Nālgāvuņdi Jakkiyabbe, a zealot lady votary (śrāvikā/upāsaki), who was made to supplant Sattara-Nāgārjunayya, her deceased husband, as the chief of Nāgarakhanda fief, courted ritual death by abstinence from all kinds of food. [EC. VII-i (BLR) Sk. 213, C. E. 918] in the Jaina basadi at Balligāve (Shimoga Dt), a major Jaina centre of the time. Krsna's sāmantas of cikka-Māgadi (Shimoga Dt, Shikaripura Tk) also were fervent followers of Jainism.
2.2.6. Vikrama Sāntara alias Vikramāditya [895-935] of Sāntara dynasty, had emerged as a powerful feudatory of Krsna in the south. He founded a magnificent Jaina shrine

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in C. E. 898, a Kāma-jinālaya, on the crest of the hill at Hombuja (Pombuļca/Pomburca, Shimoga Dt) in stone and dedicated it to his preceptor Mauni-bhatāra. [Nāgarājaiah, Hampa : 1997 42-44).
2.2.6.1. Pāļiyakka, spouse of Vikrama Sāntara and daughter of the palace-cook, who met her death with equanimity, commissioned two Jaina temples in C.E. 898. Of the two shrines, the one built in stone and dedicated to Arhat Pārsva, the 23rd Tirthankara, continues to exist in good condition. (ibid; 176-77).
2.2.7. Gunanandi (circa 880 C. E.) completed Sabdārņava, 'an ocean of grammar', a gloss on Dēvanandi Pūjyapāda's Jainēndra-Vyākaraṇa (late 6th cent.). Guñanandi, logician - grammarian and a poet, had a learned pupil in Dēvēndra Munindra (C. E. 900), who was the preceptor of Adikavi Pampa (C. E. 941), the greatest of Kannada men of letters.
2.3. Indra-III (914-29), son of Kșsna-II, sucessfully captured the Pratihāra rājadhāni and the king Mahipāla had to flee for shelter.
2.3.1. Srivijaya, general of Indra-III, made Dānavulapādu (AP: Cuddapah Dt, Jammalamadugu Tk) a nerve centre of Jainism. Srivijaya, like the author of Kavirājamarga, of the some name, was a poet and had studied Jaina scriptures. Leņdeyarasa, a governor, donated Vutavura village to a Jaina establishment in C. E. 916.
2.3.2. Preceptor Candraprabha Bhatāra, chief of Dhora Jinālaya and Bankāpura diocese, was also administering Pasundi (Asundi). An inscription dated C. E. 925 from Asuņdi (Gadag Dt) of the reign of Nityavarşa Govinda-IV, registers an endowment of land made by Nāgayya to the Jinālaya founded by him [SII. XI-i. 34. C. E. 925. Asundi. p. 20).
2.3.3. A basadi called Indra-Jinālaya founded in the

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name of Indra-III continued to receive donations for centuries. Danḍanāyaka Padmanābhayya, a general of Vikramaditya-V (1008-14), emperor of Calukyas of Kalyāna, made a grant of land in C. E. 1012 to the Annal-Atisaya Pārsvadeva of the Indra-Jinalaya, pratibaddha, attached to Antara-vasati of Cilakūru [Pillar inscription of Cilur; EA. Vol. II. pp. 50 ff. C. E. 1012]. Both the adjectives of annal and atisaya require an explanation: annal is a Dravidian word equivalent to the Sanskrit Arhat/Jina, and atiśaya is a Sanskrit word signifying benign power and extraordinary glory phenomena of the Parsva image.
2.3.4. Indra-III, a devout Jaina, alloted two villages for fostering of Amōghavasati built in Candanāpuripattana (Nasik Dt) in C. E. 915. He also gifted six villages for the Urimma-vasati Jaina temple at Baḍaner-pattana (Vädner). In both the above endowments, the donee was Vardhamanaguru, Jaina pontiff. Indra-III extended his patronisation to Jainism like his predecessors, as is evidenced by his commissioning a stone pedestal for the bathing ceremony of Santinatha Tirthankara at Danavulapāḍu (AP).
2.3.5. An inscription of Trailokyamalla Ahavamalla Sōmēśvara-I (1042-68), dated C. E. 1056, clearely states that the capital of the Räṣṭrakūṭa emperor Indravallabha alias Nityavarṣa Indra-III was Bodhan, now a taluka headquarters in Nizamabad Dt of A. P. : "The mosque known by the significant name Deval Masjid here must have been originally a Jaina temple. This fact is evident from its pillars bearing the figures of Tirthankaras carved on them" [Desai, P. B: 102].
2.4. Amōghavarṣa-II (929-30) hardly ruled for one year, because he was ejected by Govinda-IV (930-34), his younger brother, who in turn also could not reign for a longer period. According to the Gōkāk copper-plates of Indranandi,

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Aryanandi of Jambukhandi-gana, a cohort of the Jaina friars and nuns, was the donee of a grant of fifty nivartanas of land. This donation had the official consent of Gojja (Gojjiga/ Govinda), in the year C. E. 923. Evidently Govinda-IV, as prince, was placed in charge of the Gōkāk sub-division [Karnatak Historical Review, vol. I-ii. pp. 43 ff.].
2.4.1. Govindaraja, according to Dandapura charter had the epithet of Prabutavarṣa [IA. XII. P. 223], where as Kalasapura [Gadag Dt] epigraph refers to him with the title of Suvarnavarṣa [IA. vol. XII. p. 250. C. E. 933]. His daughter was married to Būtuga-II, scion of the Ganga dynasty, and a victor of many battles, who actively assisted his overlords for over a period of three decades.
2.4.2. Recently, in the period of 1998-99, I had the fortune of discovering Jaina mounuments of Govinda's period at Kalasapura, which flourished as a seat of Jaina faith. Either a trikūta-Jinālaya, triple shrine with a manastambha, characteristic Jaina pillar, mounted with a caturmukha votive, or three independent basadis existed at Kalasapura, built around C. E. 930.
-
2.4.3. A Jaina shrine was commissioned during the reign of Baddega Amōghavarṣa and was named after him as Baddega Jinālaya, in the town of Ujjivolal, the modern Ujjili [AP.: Mahbubnagar Dt]. The mulanāyaka, presiding deity of the sanctuary was Cenna-Pārśvadēva and renewed grants were made to the temple in saka 888, corresponding to C. E. 966-67 [APGAS. No. 6.; I AP-Warangal No. 26. pp. 71 ff.]. The donee was Indrasena Panditācārya.
2.5. In the political feud, with the might and wisdom of the two faithful feudatories, Būtuga-II of Gangavāḍi and Arikēsari-II of Vēmulavāḍa, the aged Baddega Amoghavarṣa-III (934-36) was brought back from his fatherin law's court in Cedi country, and was formally throned. In a reciprocative move, Amoghavarṣa extended support to

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Būtuga and deputed yuvarāja, crown-prince Kșsna-III, to oust Răcamalla-II, brother of Būtuga. Rājamalla-II died on the battlefield.
2.5.1. Illustrious successor Krsna-III (936-67) alias Kannaradeva, Samprati Candragupta of Jainas, heralded lustrous epoch, retrived the lost glory. Giving a new dimension to the empire, he embarked on career of conquest on Cēdi, Pratihāra, Lallēya, Cola and Pāņdya. Many biruda including Tañjaikkonda and Kāncikkonda kaccega, acquirer of Tañjāvūr and Kānchi, adorned the emperor who set up his jayastambha at Rāmēśvaram in the extreeme south. His other epithets, like Anevedanga, vana mada-gajamalla, ankatriņētra and bhuvanaikarāma - mirror his prowess Anevedanga and Ānevinnaņi are equivalents in the local Kannada dialect of the Sanskrit Gaja-sāstra-nipuņaha. The Gangas and later, after their model, the Rāstrakūtas were reputed for a proverbial army of more elephants. Krsna-III had immense regard to the learned Jaina scholar Vādighangala Bhatta. It is because of this ascetics advice that Krsna was able to conquer all regions, as recorder in the Kūdlūr plates of Mārasimha.
2.5.1.1. In the times of Krsna-III, Jainism reached greater stature of patronage and popularity. Krsna had more intimacy with and affection for the Gangas. His attachment to the family members of Būtuga, Parama-Jaina, a passionate Jaina votary, is recorded in many inscriptions. Būtuga gained much importance for valid reasons. Gunaduttaranga and Jayaduttaranga Būtuga was extended highest regarded and honor which was equalled by a similar treatment meted out to another Jaina feudatory after a time gap of a century. Nanni Sāntara (Goggiga/Govindara), Duke of Sāntaļigenādu, gained greater distinction than even Būtuga. Because, Vikramāditya-VI (1076-1126) came half way to meet Nanni-Sāntara, and giving him half the seat on

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his metal throne, the Cālukya emperor placed the valiant vassal at his side [EC. VII-i (BLR) Nagara. 35. C. E. 1077. Hombuja (Shimoga Dt)]. Būtuga and his sons were close associates which lead to marriage allainces between the two houses. Būtuga was brother-in-law of Krsna and the latter was son-in-law of the former.
2.5.2. Verily, prominent among the contemporary stalwarts who rendered yoemen service to the spread of Nirgrantha faith was Sankaraganda. He started his illustrious career as a loyal warrior of Indra-III, and remained to serve Indra's two sons, Amõghavarşa-II and Govinda-IV, and stayed to assist Indra's breother Amõghavarşa-III and finally Krsna-III. Sankaraganda was elevated to the status of chief of the Rāstrakūta army and a grandee of a province. During C. E. 924, Banavāsi-12000 was divided into two divisions and was being administered by Bankēya-II and Sankaraganda (ARIE 1947-48. No. 203. C. E. 924. p. 25].
2.5.3. Sankaraganda became a celebrity during his life time by founding some stately and splendid Jaina shrines, commissioning superb monasteries attached to the temples. and endowing liberal grants to the sustenance of holy centres. He was a patron of religion and literature. He promoted art and architecture. Sankaraganda had become a legend of his age.
2.5.4 Sankaraganda had many epithets of which bhuvanaikarāma was widely prevalent. Curiously, emperor Kṛṣṇa also had similar cognomen which is mentioned in the Prakrit poem as Bhuvanekkarāmu (Sk. Bhuvanaikarāma). Poet Ponna, poet-laureate of Krsna, who honored the author with the title of Kavi-cakravartti, has composed BhuvanaikaRāmābhyudaya an epic of 14 cantos in campū style in Kannada. Except for some stray verses, quoted in the later anthologies, this work is not extant. In the nonavailability

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of the complete poem, scholars are debating on the density of the hero of this epic, whether it is the emperor Krşņa or his subordinate Sankaraganda. For arguments sake, critics on either side are equipped with convincing facts and figures!
2.5.4.1. Sankaraganda had another popular epithet of Jayadhira. An inscription from Uppina-Bețageri (Koppa! Dt) reveals that he commissioned a Jaina shrine called Jayadhira-Jinālaya, apparently named after his cognomen, in C. E. 964. Ranna, Kavi-cakravarti, poet-laureate of Tailapa-II, also a protege of the illustrious Attimabbe, has included the name of Sankaraganda along with Būtuga-II, Maruladeva, Mārasimha-II, and Cāmundarāya as the matchless celebrities of 10th cent., in one of his verses in the Ajitapurāņa (C. E. 993). He has the highest compliment in his title Rattara-mēru, ‘Mount-Mēru of the Rāstrakūtas'.
2.5.4.2. Among the Rāstrakūta monarchs, Guņāvaloka Nannarāja's son (C. 8th cent.) and Raņā valūka Kambadēva's son (early 9th cent.) had the name of Sankaragana. Under the influence of the names of their liegelords, the parents of Sankaraganda must have christened him as Sankaragana which in course of time assumed the popular nomenclature of Sankaraganda.
2.5.5. Most celebrated Vādighangala, who had Muñjārya as his first name, a Brāhmaṇa of Parāśara gotra, migrated from Varātadēśa of the North, had proselytized to Jainamata to 'worship the lotus feet of Jinēśvara', mastered the dogmas of syādvāda and anēkānta theory. Vādighangala had become so proficient in Jaina philosophy that he was a recognised Jaina scholar - teacher in the Jaina convent. He was adroit in Lõkāyata, Sānkhya, Vēdānta, Bauddha and Jaina philosophy. His eloquence in the exposition of literature made Ganga Gāngēya Satyavākya alias BūtugaII, a cuckoo in the grove of delighters of all learning, his pupil. Krşņa-III had heighest regard for Vādighanghala alias

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Muñjarya, felicitons scholar teacher. Mārasimha-II dedicated Bāgiyūr, a village, to Vādighanghala, his religious teacher as a token of Śrutaguru dakşiņa in March 963 C. E. Bāgiyūr had an income of 20 gadyāṇa and the village was a part of Badagare - 300 of the Pūnādu-6000 included in Gangavāại - 96,000 (Sk. Gangapāți) (MAR 1921, pp. 18 ff. C. E. 963).
2.5.6. Regarding , the identification of Padiyara Dhorapayya figuring in Kadūr charter of C. E. 971, B. L. Rice takes him to be the same as Dhörappa, the father-inlaw of Vaddiga-I (C. 935-70), follower of Krsnarāja-III. Vaddiga-I was of the Sēuņa dynasty. Padmabbe, sister of Būtuga-II and consort of Padiyara Dhörapayya, breathed her last, after observing a prolonged penance of three decades. Rice interprets that, after the death of Dorapayya in C. E. 941, his widowed wife Pāmbabbe alias Padmabbe renounced the profane life and took to the life of Jaina nunhood.
2.6. Būtuga was most influential and conspicuous in the duration of Krsna-III. Mañalera, a subordinate of Būtuga, belonged to Sagara olim Mañalera house of devoted Jains. Mañalera, an intrepid Spartan, fought with Cēļas, in front of his master, so gallantly that he attacked the mighty elephant which was like a fort of the Cāļa (Coļana-kõte), and instantly hit hard on the head of the huge elephant in rut that it was smashed (sindhūra sirāgramam biriye poyidam). With the act of valor, Mañalera's titles of KadanaikaŚūdraka, 'the only Śūdraka in the battle ground and ammana-gandha-vāraṇa, 'father's (master's) elephant in rut, were appropriated. His immediate lord Būtuga, gallant as ever, smite down Rājāditya, with the howdah, an uncovered chair upon an elephant, itself becoming the scene of battle.
2.6.1. Great chivalry has its rewards too! The mettlesome Būtuga was rewarded with the Dukeship of

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Banavase 12,000, Belvola-300, Purigere-300, Kisukāḍu-70 and Bāgenāḍ-70. Būtuga's ancesteral Gangavāḍi-96,000 was also rested with him since he had slayed Racamalla, son of Ereyappa. In turn, pleased with the spirited Maṇalera, Būtuga honored him with Atakur-12 and Kādiyür in Belvola. [EI. VI. pp. 180; MAR 1910-II para-77; Nagarajaiah, Hampa 1995: 45-52; IWG: No. 135; EC. VII (R) Maddur. 42. C. E. 949-50].
2.6.2. Kṛṣṇa-III had conquered Uttarapatha and Kuśasthala [Kuśasthalam pathayati panthayat yuttara patnam-Halayudha Kavi-Rahasya]. but, he was yet to establish his stamp of supremacy on the south. After despatching Cōla Rājādity at Takkola, Kannaradēva (Kṛṣṇarāja) was on his victorious march. Maṇalera, hero of the battle, obtained Kāli, a female hunting dog, the best of dogs in the army of Kṛṣṇa.
2.6.2.1. Once, Kali, the ferocious dog, attacked a big boar near Belatur in Kalalenādu (Mandya Dt, Malavalli tk). In the horrendons fight both Kali and the boar were deprived of life. Manalera, a typical Jaina house holder (śrāvaka) cremated the dog with full honor and gave two khanḍugas of land in memory of Kāli. It was a unique instance of showing respect and gratitude to the departed soul, whether human or animal. In the final analysis, the event is nothing short of the frequent practice of parōkṣavinaya, causing a basadi or a dēhāra, a Jaina monument, for the merit of the departed.
2.6.2.2. Maruladeva, eldest son of Bütuga and son-inlaw of Kṛṣṇa-III, was honored with the distinguished royal parasol called Madanāvatāra. In the history of Karṇāṭaka, poet Ranna (C. E. 993) was the only other person to be awarded Madanā vatāra parasol. Maruladeva alias Puneseya Marula [Kamada/Kaliyuga Bhima etc] had defeated Magadhas, the Kalingas, the Colas and Pandyas. It was a pity that he passed away in the prime of his youth.

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2.6.3. A good number of epigraphs of this period bear testimony to the construction of Jaina edifices by Būtuga-II (936-61), and other members of his family: his four consorts, five sons, two daughters and many grand and great-grand children. Būtuga Permmādi, (Būtayya, Būtārya, Būtuga Narēndra, Bhūtayya, Būtugendra) had exterminated Dantivarmma (Bijja) and Rājāditya of Emaganduga, assasinated Kakka, king of Acalapura and extorted the white parasol, horse and the throne from Lallēya, infavour of his over lord Krşņa-III. He had wrested Citrakūta, Dāhaļa, Cāļamandala, Kālanjara and Pudumandala. Būtuga ruled Gangavādi-96,000, upto the border of river Krşņā (Ka. Perdore olim Doddahole] in the north, inclusive of Beļvola300 and Puligere-300.
2.6.3.1. Būtuga, famous Duke of the age, commissioned excellent Jinālayas at Aņņigere and number of other places that were destroyed by his foe Pāņdya Cāļa [EI. XV. 23. 107172. Gāvarivāda (Gadag Dt)]. He had alloted tax free endowments of Mūdagēri, Gummangoļa, Ittage, Gāvirivāda and other villages to the abbot Guņkirti Pandita and others. Būtuga had Ganga-Gāngēya ('the Bhişma in the Ganga dynasty') Kõņeya-Ganga, Ganga-Permmādi, GangaNārayaņa (“the protector of the Ganga family'); Jayaduttaranga, Nanniya (Sk. Satyavākya) Ganga, ('the Ganga (king) in truth') and other epithets. These appellations, therefore, establish that Būtuga was a person pre-eminently excellent. He was brother-in-law of Kannaradēva alias Krsna-III [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1997A: 36-37), as noted before.
2.6.3.2. Būtuga had four spouses of whom Rēvakanimadi was daughter of Baddega Amõghavarşa-III. Padmāvati (Padmabbe, Paddabbarasi), his second wife has been penegyrized as manānayana vallabhe, 'sweet-heart', and kalikāla pratyakşa Gowri-Lakşmi; 'goddess Lakşmi and

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Gowri of the present eon'. She had founded a basadi and dānasāle at Narēgal town (Gadag Dt) in C. E. 950. Divalāmbā, third wife of Būtuga, had founded a Jinālaya at Sūdi and her spouse Būtuga made a donation of land in C. E. 938. Kallabā was his fourth consort. Revakanimmadi and Padmāvați died at Koppala, willingly submitting themselves to the inevitable death by performing the rite of sallēkhanā [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1999-C : 56-57].
2.6.3.3. An inscription from Kuragallu states that Paramabbe, consort of Ganga Permmāļi Būtuga, was ruling Kūragallu in Konganādu - 8000. If Paramabbe can be identified with Paddabbarasi (Padmāvati), then the chances of considering her as a different person and a fifth wife a Būtuga are remote; otherwise, she figures as the fifth consort.
2.6.4. Kundanarasi alias Kundaņa Sāmidēvi, elder daughter of Būtuga and elder sister of Mārasimha-II, a perfect treasure trove, pioneered the cause of supporting Jainism of unparalleled magnitude. She installed a Māņikyajina bronze icon in C. E. 970. Luckily this image, discovered in the estate of crawford saheb, is preserved in the Jaina matha of Sravanabelago!a. Kundanarasi breathed her last at Koppala by the ritual rite of sanyasana. Recently discovered Koppaļa inscription has recorded the following encomium: 'with the death of people like Kundaņasāmidevi, kind words of charitable disposition like dana-dharma, bounteousness and righteousness, vanished from the world [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1999-A : 39 and 1999-C] Contemporary charters profusely panegyrize Kundaņasāmi's talents and virtues. She was the first poetess of Karnataka.
2.6.5. Of the other two stalwarts, Cāmundarāya and Mārasimha, so much writing has been published. Therefore, their description in this monograph is restricted to a concise but comprohensive account. Brawny Cāmundarāya,

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affectionately referred as Raya and Anna, had a number of appellations repeated in the epigraphs and literary works. Virtually, Būtuga, Rāya, Mārasimha and Sankaraganda formed the strong rampart of the Räṣṭrakūta fort and also they were the true mänastambha pillars of the Jaina church.
2.6.5.1. Raya, a wise minister and a brave warrior of very many decisive battles, erected the huge 58' monolith colossus of Gommatesvara on the crest of larger hill at Śravanabelagola. His service to Jainism is multifacet. He founded Camuṇḍarāya basadi on the smaller hill at Śravanabelagola and on top of it his son Jinadevana erected another abode of worship. Early life of Raya was devoted to wars in favour of the Raṣṭrakūṭas, and the later life was dedicated to religious activities. He was a lay votary of Ajitasēna and Nemicandra ācāryas. He wrote Caritrasāra in Sanskrit and rendered Sanskrit Mahāpurāņa into Kannada in prose in C. E. 978. Viramārtaṇḍi, his third work, supposed to be a commentary on Gommaṭsāra, is not available. Raya has patronised Ranna, his comrade, who migrated to Malkhed to become the poet-laureate of the later Calukyas. Ranna and Raya fast friends have left their autograph on Candragiri. Rāya's younger sister Pullabba met her end by the vow of sallekhana in the Candranatha basadi at Vijayamangalam [TN: Periyar Dt, Erode tk].
2.6.6. Camuṇḍarāya has recorded that the husky Mārasimha was his master. Marasimha (961-74) became immediate successor of his father, because his elder brother, Maruladēva, first son of Būtuga, had died a premature death, perhaps even before his father. Mārasimha, spirited Duke and crest-jewel of the Ganga dynasty, was crowned by KṛṣṇaIII, the emperor himself. Mārasimha was like his father Būtuga, was incharge Puligere -300 and Belvola-300 put together popularly known as the "Two Three Hundred', and Gangava di-96,000. He commissioned 'Ganga-Kandarpa

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Jinendra-Mandira' in Puligere (Lakṣmēśvara Gadag Dt, Śirahatti Tk) and gave it a grant of land [SII. XII. 244] 45, C. E. 968-69]. He also founded one more Ganga-KandarpaJinalaya at Annigere [Dharwar Dt, Navalgund Tk) in memory of his parents, Būtuga and Rēvakanimmaḍi. Mārasimha constructed Santinatha basadi at Hungund [SII. XI-i. 122. C. 10th cent. pp. 141-42].
2.6.6.1. A charter reports his granting of land to a Jaina shrine built by his step-mother Padmabbarasi alias Padmavati of Konguladeśa. Similar instances vociferously speak in defence of the statement made in the kuge Brahmadēva column on the Candragiri hill at Śravanabelagola, that Mārasimha caused to be made several Jaina temples and many mānastambhas [EC.II (R) 64 (59) C. 974-75 pp. 20-23].
2.6.6.2. He had a number of titles of which the following mentioned by Camuṇḍarāya are conspicuous: Ganga Kulacalaśikhara - śekhara, ‘a sun shining bright on the mountain of the Ganga family', Ganga-Cūḍāmaņi, 'a crestjewel of Gangas', Jagadēkavira, 'the sole hero of the world', dharmmāvatara, 'the incarnation of the religion', and Nolamba-Kulantakadeva, 'the death of the family of the Nolambas (Pallavas)'. These and other appellations, repeated in several records, settle that Marasimha had held high rank in the reign of Kṛṣṇa. The relationship between them was not confined to the ruler and ruled jurisdiction. It was cordial and worthy of reverence. Kṛṣṇa had taken Mārasimha into complete confidence and considered him as an intimate friend. Major role of Marasimha continued during the period of Kṛṣṇa's successors.
2.6.7. Kannada, Sanskrit and Prakrit languages were patronised and flourished on par and on such a large scale, in quality and quantity, that such a thing never happened again. Particularly for Prakrit, it was the period of climax

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and what followed after that was only an anticlimax. Virtually the language and literature of Prakrit did not witness an author of the stature of Puspadanta again. In other words the language and literatre of Prakrit and its variants receeded to a state of oblivion. Kṛṣṇa-III took special interest in rejuvenating the religious activities of the Jaina sangha.
2.6.8. The grandeur and glory of the empire reached its acme in this eon and what followed after Kṛṣṇa's epoch was only dark days descending in quick succession. Kṛṣṇa had given Tailapa-II, carte blanche, unlimited authority by making him maha-samanta, the governor of Tardavāḍi, which finally turned out to be faux pas, a false step. Under Kṛṣṇa's weak successors, particularly during C. E. 966-73, deterioration, anarchy and confusion were rampant in the political, economic and social spheres.
2.7. Khoṭṭiga alias Khōṭika (967-71), half brother of Kṛṣṇa-III, succeeded to the throne as regent for Indra-IV. But, those were very bad days and veritably the dynasty was rushing to its decline. Khoṭṭiga, a dissolute and incompetent ruler, lacked statesmanship. Rāṣṭrakūṭa administration slackened and deteriorated, and only fomented trouble for the very existence of the empire.
2.7.1. Neither did Karkka-II alias Kakkala (971-73), his nephew, fared any better. He tried to over power the outside enemies like the Gurjaras, the Hūņas, the Pallavas and the Pandyas. But he could not check the invasions of formidable adversary. He had neither the willing followers nor the strong supporter. The Paramaras and other foe, seething with discontent and hatred against the Rāṣṭrakūṭa authority, rebelled and rushed with turbulent force. Incessant warfare continued and the kingdom suffered severely from several plundering expeditions from outside.
2.7.2. Paramāra Siyaka Harṣa of Mālavā, waiting on the lurk to wreak and square his old humiliating defeat got

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the opportune. Sparing no time to invade, he and his army, defeating the feeble Rāṣṭraküṭa forces on the banks of river Narmadā, rushed to sack and burn the capital. "They ruthlessly plundered Malkhed in C. E. 971-72. Entire kingdom faced adversity; scattered corpses, bones and other parts of human bodies were visible everywhere" [Poet Puspadanta Jasahara cariu (Sk. yasodhara-carita) : C. E. 972-73].
2.7.3. Mārasimha, who did not like to jump on the bandwagon stood alone on the burning deck of the unprotected Rāṣṭrakūta cruiser. Like his father, Marasimha shone with great brilliance on the Rāṣṭrakūṭa firmament. By placing Indra-IV, (grand)son of Kṛṣṇa-III on the throne, the everfaithful Gangas tried to stop serious incursion. Mārasimha moved earth and heaven to re-establish the Rāṣṭrakūta power, but in vain. Indra-IV, very versatile in playing polo, but certainly not proficient in waging war!
2.7.4. It was Tailapa-II, who knew how to fish in troubled waters, hit the last nail on the coffin. The loyal turned foe, Tailapa, powerful duchy of Tardavāḍi, left Indra in the lurch and leapt in the dark to usurp the kingdom. Most suprisingly he directed his army towards the capital Malkhed, seized the empty throne and proclaimed himself as the new emperor. In 973-74 Tailapa extricated and resurrected his Calukya dynasty from the suzerainty of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, without giving any room, either for Indra-IV or for Mārasimha, to recover from the sudden shock.
2.7.5. Indra and Mārasimha not withstanding coup d'etat, were forced to abandon the warfield and flee to Bankapura to find refuge in the Jaina monastery. Ajitasēnācārya advised Indra-IV to proceed to Śravanabelgola, the only place of safety under the watchful eye of Camuṇḍarāya, his pupil. Mārasimha died by voluntary starvation at the feet of his guru Ajitasinācārya, in C. E. 974.

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There were none in the Ganga family to wield influence in imperial politics after Mārasimha.
2.7.6. After the death of Marasimha, held in high regard, a veil of uncertainty overcast the glorious history of the Gangas. However, the Gangas soon recovered from the calamity submitting to the new overlords of the later Calukyas, and continued to flourish in Mandali-Thousand division [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1999-B].
2.7.7. During the last years of the empire, amidst political turbulence, theological and pious activities had continued. Jainism possessed its status quo ante. A broken slab in the compound of the Kalamēśvara temple at Kōlivāḍa (Gadag Dt), bears the sculpture of Jina at the top. A rare invocatory, Sanskrit verse in praise of Jina, states the importance of the place as a Jaina settlement. This inscription belongs to the rule of Khottiga, the penultimate emperor [KI. V. No. 5. C. E. 971-72].
2.7.8. "We have a few Jaina inscriptions of the reign of Khoṭṭiga, the brother and successor of Kṛṣṇa-III. An inscription from Chitaldrug district dated 968 A. D. mentions the fact that Jakki Sundari, the wife of Pandayya, a Calukyan feudatory of Khoṭṭiga, built a Jaina temple for which her husband gave a grant. Another inscription, praising the Jain religion, of his reign has been discovered from Dharwar district" [Chatterji, A. K.: 210]. "Khoṭṭiga Nityavarṣa, who seems to have been also a Jaina by persuation" [Saletore: 40]. Puspadanta composed his two narrative Apabhramśa poems, Jasaharacariu and Nayakumaracariu, in the reign of Khottiga. Nanna, son of Bharata, was the minister of Khottiga.
2.7.9. Ankabbarasi, daughter of Dānārṇava (970-73), monarch of the Eastern Calukyas, and queen consort of Mārasimha, was governing Pullungur, modern Hulgur, in C. E. 972. She had Ganga Mahādēvi as her second name.

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Hulgur charter of C. E. 972 [EI. XXXIV. No. 12. 972. pp. 59-62] validates that Mārasimha, as feudatory of Khottiga, was still ruling Gangavādi-96,000, Kisukādu-70, Purigere and Belvala ‘Three-Hundred each'and proves his Jaina faith.
2.8. Indra-IV, grand son of Krsna-III and son of Kannaradēva and Gangamahādēvi the daughter of GangaGangĒya, on the counsel of his preceptor Ajitasēnācārya, stayed at the outskirts of Sravanabelagola called Indranapālya after his name, between C. E. 974 and 982. No sooner did he reach Sravanabelagola from Bankāpura, Indra erected a huge column cum Mānastambha in 974-75 for the merit of Mārasimha, his mentor. Indra searched the dim vista of his childhood, and slowly realised that the kingdom and the throne was beyond his reach. Totally devoid of zest in life, he had lost all the radiance of life. Having subdued the senses, Indra impulsively opted for slow starvation olim samādhi-marana as elan vital for all the times, and for the summum bonum of the eternal soul.
2.8.1. "The influence of Jainism on the Rāstrakūtas is testified by the fact that, the last prince Indra, a grand son of Krishna-III, after failing to reign his kingdom with the help of his uncle, the Ganga king Marasimha-III, turned ascetic, and like Mārasimha.... gave up his life by the sallekhanā vow" (Majumdar, A. K. : Concise History of Ancient India, Vol. III : 1983 : 290]. Indrarāja crowned his life with the highest sacrifice a Jaina may hope to offer to his faith, viz., Jaina rite of withholding food, on the crest of Candragiri, the smaller hillock at Sravanabelagola, on saka 904 citrabhānu Bahula Astami tuesday, corresponding to C. E. 802.".. he died like a true Jain... we are told that as a believer in the doctrine of Mahāvira, he never uttered a falsehood" (Chatterji, A. K. : 210). The same expression that Indra Rāja acquired the power of the king of gods (Indra) is found in the epigraph from Sira in Tumkur Dt.

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2.8.1. Indra's post-mortem epigraph refers to him with the cognomen of Rajamartanda, 'a very sun of a king', Raṭṭakandarpa, 'the Raṭṭa cupid', and Kirti-Nārāyaṇa, 'the famous Nārāyaṇa'. It may be noted that Indra-III, son of Kṛṣṇa-II had these epithets. It is not known as to who administered the vow of sallekhanā, who authored the epitaph and who erected the post-obitum slab. "Evidently the celebrated example set by the Emperor Candragupta Maurya was not forgotten by the Karṇāṭaka monarchs even in the tenth century A. D." [Saletore 40]. Thus, the rājyaśrī, 'goddess of the kingdom' of the Raṣṭrakūtas disappeared from the face of earth.
2.8.3. Political panorama had changed in quick succession as Tailapa-II (973-998) had opened up new vistas to his ambition, but Jainism does not seem to have suffered by the change. It had taken firm roots throughout the empire, grown powerful succeeded in winning over the royal aegis of the immediate successor. Thus, Jaina sangha continued to retain its support and the chief strongholds of Jainism were undisturbed.
2.9. Considering the extent of extensive imperial auspices, popular support and the rich harvest of Jaina literature in the Raṣṭrakūṭa age, A. S. Altekar's observation appears to be free from exaggeration : 'about one-third of the population of the present Andhra-Karṇātaka professed Jainism during the heydays of the Raṣṭrakūtas. It is to be noted that Jaina leaders ceased to be merely exponents of dogmas and turned themselves into leaders of people and guides of princes" [Altekar: 313].
2.9.1. "It is, indeed, interesting to note that successful generals of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas were Jainas by persuation. Their regard for the gospel of Mahavira does not seem to have very much affected their participation in the wars. It is not therefore unlikely that during the Rāṣṭrakūṭa period the

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gospel of ahimsa in its extreme was not intended for laymen, but only for monks and nuns, because the Raṣṭrakūta rulers and their generals were continuously participating in their sanguinary battles even though they had embraced Jainism" [Jawaharlal, G: 48].
2.9.2. Jainism is by no means just pacifist. With its thrust on ahimsā, non-violence, Jainism did not strongly denounce militarism. Sōmadēvasūri endorsed worldaffirming philosophy in harmony with Pan-Indian tradition of political thinking. Jaina kings have executed their worldly duties of shielding their kingdoms, their subjects, and their faith. Jainism has produced not merely pious and strict adherents who could perform the orthodox duties and gain for themsleves liberation by the rite of self-mortification, but valiant generals of armies. Those warriors were simultaneously sincere Jainas and also freed their countries from its hostiles. Jaina faith was not an impediment to nation's liberation. Instead, it was an adjunct to active freedom both in the field of religion and in the field of politics. Bankēśa, Śrīvijaya, Būtuga, Mārasimha and Camuṇḍarāya, Sankaraganda, great celebrities of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa age illustrate the synthesis of war and peace, and reconciliation of himsa and ahimsa. They were powerful and at the same time faithful. The king was prabhusakti and these men of valor and wisdom were utsäha-śakti and mantraśakti. The Rāṣṭrakūṭa monarchs were lucky to get loyal Dukes who served and sacrificed their might with honesty to the core.
2.9.3. Jaina seers did not live in utopia. They participated in the wordly affairs, like the drop of water on the lotus-leaf, maintaining the distance and striking a via media between the delicate boundary of ahimsa and himsā. Involvement of the Jaina abbey in the political fortunes of the nation echoes true in the instances of Simhanandin, Sudattācārya, Jinasēnācārya, Sōmadēvasūri, Nemicandra

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Siddhanta cakravarti etc. Jainism, primarily advocating non-injury does not rule out the inevitable warfare, is a tested case of religious doctrine coming to terms with social and political reality. Some of the steadfast supporters of the Jaina faith in Karṇāṭaka were military men who were not excoriated for participating in many battles, a fotiori, all the more, they were honoured with status and peerage.
2.9.4. The fact is that Jaina church has made a marginal provision for practicing their profession to its adherents, as is crystal clear by the commandments laid down by Simhanandin for his Ganga protege. The Rāṣṭrakūtas adopted this way of life in toto, as it came so handy to them. Because of the preponderance and sway of Jaina faith on the state, none of the Rāṣṭrakūța monarchs, ab initio to ad finem, performed horse sacrifice. From Dantidurga to IndraIV, all the emperors abandoned rituals involving animal sacrifice and strictly adhered the tenets of Jainism: 'Jainism was extremely popular.... one can even say that the cultural life of Karnataka in those days was dominated by the Jains... In fact, it is a period of cultural ascendancy of the Jainas in Karnataka history" [Kamath, Suryanath : 1997: 92].

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CHAPTER - 3
THE RĀȘTRAKŪTA FEUDATORIES
3.1. 'The Rāstrakūtas did not directly rule the vast territory they had conquered; some of their vassal chieftains were thoroughbred Kannadigas, fully imbued with the spirit and culture of Karņāțadēša. The buildings raised during the Rāstrakūta hegemony in their territories, therefore, show many surviving and thriving local elements'[Soundararajan, K. V: EITA: 1986: 109]. A concise study of some of the Jaina feudatories will very much substantiate the reality of this statement.
3.1.1. A study of collateral line of the Rāştrakūta dynasty also confirms, once more that, the Jaina faith had rooted deep in the length and breadth of the empire. A number of epigraphs and verses commend their varied accomplishments to a state of prosperity that Jainism was able to reach.
3.1.2. The lesser kingdoms were wedged in between the major states acting as buffers. These smaller political allies had their own share of contributions to the artistic and literary traditions of Jaina church. Total attainments of the Rāştrakūta times were shared by minor monarchs. Jaina creed received further boom in the courts of smaller states, which resulted in the increase of a sizable percentage of Jaina population. The fillip that Jainism received in Kārņāțaka under the Rāstrakūtas and their subordinate houses, has

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left a permanent effect on the succeeding royal families. The patronage Jainism acquired in the courts of the Santaras of Pomburca, Calukyas of Vemulavāḍa and Vengi, the Raṭṭas of Saundatti, the Callakētanas, the Maṇaleras, the Sēnavaras, the Sendrakas et cetera, is of no smaller measure. The Sēnavāras
3.2. The Sēnavāras of Kacara-vamsa, who ruled between C. E. 690 and 1150, as the feudatories of the Rāṣṭrakūtas, were Jains ab initio. Mārekkeyarasa of the Sēnavāras (sēnāvara/sēņavāra), a Duchy under Dhruva and Kṛṣṇa-I, ruled Banavāsi-mandala between 760 and 782 C. E. Sēnavāras have introduced themselves as 'Padmavaticaraṇa-sarōja-bhranga', 'bee of the lotus feet of Padmavati (Yakṣi of Jina Pārśva)'. They ruled mainly the province around the modern Kaḍur, Cikka-Magalur, and NagaraKhanda. It is of historical significance to note that the system of Gōsāsa, gifting a herd of cows to the priests of Jaina church, started during this period. It was initiated for the Jaina friars by the Sēnavāras. Mārakke, a Jaina and Duchy of BanavasiViṣaya, endowed the cowherd to the Jaina clerics called Devasena Pandita and Adityasēna Pandita in C. E. 760.
3.3. The governors of Cikka-Magadi ruled between C. E. 902 and 1256, as vassals of the Raṣṭrakūtas, the later Calukyas and the Hoysalas. This Jaina family of Anduvamsa, a collateral branch of Sattara (Sāntara), Nagarjunayya, a county sheriff of Nāgarakhaṇḍa and spouse of Jakkiyabbe the Jaina lady who succeeded her husband to rule Nagarakhanda-70, under the orders of Kṛṣṇa-II. She was a devout Jaina lady votary and died in the premises of Jaina temple at Bandalike by the vow of sallekhana in C. E. 918. An epitaph authored by Nagavarma, a gifted bard, has recorded an entrancing vivid picture of Jakkiyabbe's spiritual accomplishment.

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3.4. The Silāhāras of Bāsavura (Hāngal Tk) belonged to the lineage of Jimütavāhana vamsa and khacarakula. They were the devotes of goddess Padmāvati. Kaliyammarasa, a county sheriff in the reign of Amõghavarşa-I, in C. E. 850, his successors also served the later Cālukyas. The Callakētanas
3.5. The Callakētanas, (Cellakētanas) an indigenous Jaina dynasty with its origin in the milieu of Bandaļike in Nāgarakhanda (Shimoga Dt), projected as a distinguished family during this period. In their history of 175 years, the Callakētanas served as vassals de novo and remained loyal to the plighted word ad finem. Callakētanas may be collateral family of Kellas, another Jaina house figuring prominently in many epigraphs spread over a span of a millenium.
3.5.1. Dhora-I, Kolanūrādhipa 'Lord of Kolanūr', (i.e. Koņņūr) a general of the Rāştrakūtas, had earned the goodwill of Govinda-III. Dhora-I shifted his residence to Barkāpura, where he caused to be made a Jaina temple in C. E. 800, named after him as Dhõrajinālaya. From then on Bankāpura became the base of operations for Callakētanas. Kalivitta-I, son of Lõkate alias Lokāditya, constructed another Jaina house of prayer called Kalivita jinālaya in C. E. 914 at Bankāpura, and this was the same temple that Hulla daņdādhipa, Lord of the Hoysaļa treasury, renovated in C. E. 1159.
3.5.2. Callakētana family, entitled for the honor of five great sounds, reached its acme in the days of Bankēya (Bankarāja, Bankēša) son of Dhora-I, a trusted feudatory and a fidus Achates of Amõghavarşa-I. He was a dandanāyaka placed incharge of the chief capitol and some other places. Bankēya was made the Duke of Banavāsi12,000, Belagali-300, Kundarage-70, Kundūr-500 and

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Purigere-300. Kundaţte, his eldest son was placed in charge of Nidugundage-12. Krsna-II had married the daughter of Bankeya. Barkarasa commissioned a magnificent Jaina temple at Koņņūr (Kolanūr) and another Jinālaya at Vadavațţi.
3.5.3. He selected Konnur, because his father Dhöra was chief of that town. Catholic disposition of Callakētanas is mirrored in their liberal approach. Bankēsa founded Callēsvara temples at Atakūr (Mandya Dt) and at Bankāpura. Emperor Amõghavarşa donated the village Taleyūr to the Jaina temple of Koņņūr.
3.5.4. Loyalty of the Callakētanas was so transperent that even a common religion did not come in the way between them and the Gangas, both the dynasties being Jainas. The truly great man Bankēśa pitched his battle against the formidable Gangas who were going stouthearted. He successfully lead the Rāştrakūta army and skillfully manouvered tough situations.
3.5.5. The devotion and support that Bankeśa extended can only be compared to the prowess and nonpareil loyalty o daņdanāyaka Gangarāja extended to Hoysala Vişnuvardhana. This comparison is so apt that it can be extended to the other members of the two families, politically and culturally. Callakētanas were Jains and so were the Gangas.
3.5.6. Bankarasa and Tailakabbe, his spouse, had four sons - Kundaţte (Kundațe, Kundayya setti), Lõkate (Lõkāditya), Dhora-II, Bankēya-II and Dhõnda. Of the four sons, Kundate, the eldest one, died a typical Jaina holy death 'by the rite of sallekhanā. Observing the vow of sanyasana for 30 days in the Jaina monastery at Henjēru or Penjēru (AP : Madakasirā tk, Anantapur Dt), Kundaţe died in circa 860 C. E.

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3.5.7. The glory of Callakētanas reached its pinnacle once again during the period of Lõkate alias Lõkāditya, second son of Bankēya. Lõkāditya was ruling 31102 bādas (villages) as adelantado, governor under Krsna-II. Lõkate was a confident of Krsna, as was Bankēsa, his father, to Amõghavarşa, father of Krsna. Lokāțe commissioned a Jinālaya, Lokamāhēśvara dēvālaya, a tank called Lokasamudra sarõvara, and a town named Lõkāpura (Bijāpur Dt), Hari-Hara-Buddha-Jinālaya, in C. E. 902. It is during this epoch that the adept Guņabhadra completed the last cantos of Uttara Purana at Bankāpura Jinālaya in C. E. 897-98.
3.5.7.1. Callakētana's sway over the Jaina chiefs of Bhārangi is attested by epigraphic evidences. Bittayya a Perggade, 'a head man/minister' under Lokateyarasa alias Lõkāditya, founded a Jaina shrine at Bandaļike in C. E. 902. Bittayya’s consort and a gāvundi, 'county sheriff of Bhārangi, commissioned Mahāvīra Jinālaya at Bhārangi in C. E. 904.
3.5.7.2. Kalivitta-I, Dhora-III, Bankiya-III, the three sons of Lõkate, and Kalivitta-II (928-46), grand son of Lõkate, continued to serve their overlords. It is curious to note the historical coincidence that, with the exit of the imperial Rāstrakūta dynasty, the Callakētanas and the Vēmulavāda Cālukyas, both faithful feudatories, vanquished into a state of political limbo.
3.5.8. Jina Pārsva temple at Koņņür, Lõkāpura basadi, Bandaļike basadi of śāntínātha Jina, Mahävira Jinālaya at Bhārangi, Dhora Jinālaya, Uripattāyaṇa basadi, Kalivița Jinālaya, Konti Mahādevi basadi, Nittasingi basadi and another basadi at Bandaņike built by Bittayya in C. E. 902 for which Lõkateyarasa donated the village Dandapalli - were some of the Jaina shrines that flourished with the refuge of Callakētanas. There are Jaina temples elsewhere at Chabbi, Halasangi and other places with the name of

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Dhõra-Jinālaya as at Bankapura, all recorded in the epigraphs. The Cālukyas of Vēmulavāda
3.6. The nomenclature Vēmulavāda has different variants : Vēmulavāda, Lēmulavāda, Lembulapāțaka, Lembulavāda and Lembulavāțaka. Of these variants, preference to Vēmulavāda is based on historians inclination. Geographically and politically the area of Vēmulavāda principality, to the north-east of Maleyakhēda, Rāstrakūta imperial seat, was nearer to the capitol than either Sravanabelagola or Pomburca or Talavanapura in the extreme south.
3.6.1. Vēmulavāda Cālukyas ruled a dominion consisting of sapāda-lakṣa kşiti-pradēśa, i.e., 11/4 lakh area (Dāhala), as an egregious feudals of the Rāstrakūtas. Which included the present day Karimnagar and Nizamabad region. Arikēsari-I, succedding Yuddhamalla, rose to prominence in the reign of Nirupama Dhruva. Bhadradeva (Baddega), son of Arikēsari-I, captured his powerful enemy Bhima in battle, as though he would catch an alligator in water. Narasimha-II alias Naraga, grand son of Baddega waged successful wars conquering seven Maļawas, repulsed Gūrjara king, drove away Mahipāla, bathed his horses in the Ganges, and set up a Vijayastambha, pillar of victory at Kālapriya. Arikēsari-II, son of Naraga and Jākavve, extended the boundaries by defeating hostile governors.
3.6.2. Ariga alias Arikēsari was the best of Dukes that ruled Vēmulavāda, and was head of all feudatories. He guarded Vijayāditya from the wrath of the emperor Gojjiga (Govindara). He was entitled from to the five great musical instruments. Arikesari had many titles : Ammanagandhavāraṇa 'fathers's elephant in rut, Guņārņava 'ocean of virtues', Tribhuvanamalla 'Wrestler of the three world',

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Maruvakkadallanaterror of the foe', and sāmanta-cūdamani 'crest jewel of the vassals’. Till he ascended the throne, Bödhana (Podhana) was the metropolis of the state. Arikēsari-II shifted his capitol to Vēmulavāda. Bödhana/ Podhona/Bahudhānyapura was a nerve centre of śramaņatirtha from 7th to 13th centuries.
3.6.3. Jākavve, mother of Arikēsari (930-55), was the daughter of Indra-III. Arikēsari had married two princesses of the Rāstrakūta family, Rēvakanimmadi and Lõkāmbikā, the former being the daughter of emperor Indra-III. Arikēsari ‘had grown powerful enough to take part in the Vēngi politics of succession and had given asylum to the Eastern Cālukya prince Vijayāditya-V. In the Rāstrakūta family feuds, he assisted Baddega Amõghavarşa-III, against the wayward and wicked Govinda-IV, who had as a result, sent one of his feudatories to counter as well as punish Arikēsari, but his attack was successfully repulsed. In A. D. 936, Govinda was dethroned and replaced by Amõghavarşa' [Dhaky, M. A. : EITA, vol. I. part. III : 1996 : 415].
3.6.4. Arikēsari's court was graced by Pampa, who had by that time authored Adipurāņa: "The poet also composed one other master piece of Kannada literature, the Vikramārjunavijaya, which sings the glory of the Calukya dynasty and of the exploits of its scions including his patron Arikēsari for whom he composed this epic. Arikēsari, in recognition of the poet's merits, bestowed on him the gift of the village Dharmavūr. Pampa's brother Jinavallabha founded Tribhuvanatilaka Jinālaya on Vịşabhādri (Bommalagutta) near Kurkiyāla village.
3.6.5. Jinavallabha's wife Bhagiyabbe had setup a metal caturviņśatipatta image of a Jina, now in Nahar Museum, Calcutta, and had also founded a basadi named after her as known from the Jina metal image in the Government Museum, Madras (ibid, 415) Jinavallabha a pupil of

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Jayanandi Siddhānta Bhatāra has authored an inscription, composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu, in C. E. 950 on the huge boulder of Bommalagutta.
3.6.6. Bhaddega-II (C.959-60), step brother of Vāgarāja (955-65), assisted Jaina sangha to a greater extent. He commissioned Subhadhāma Jinalaya in the capitol Lēmubulapāțaka, and dedicated it to Sõmadēvasūri, a celebrity of his time and author of Yaśastilaka and Nitivākyāmrta. The Parabhaņi charter of C. E. 966, giving these details, open with a Sanskrit verse in praise of the Jaina faith and the text of the incription was composed by poet Peddaṇabhatta. Subhadhāma-Jinālaya was endowed with the gift of village Kuttumvșitti-Vamkatupalu situated in the middle of the Rēpāka-12, in Sabbi-1000, on 7th April 966. Arikēsari founded a Jaina temple and alloted lands to the Jaina chapels at Ganupalli. Yuddhamalla-II (825-50) had constructed a Jaina temple, named after him as Yuddhamalla Jinālaya. Rēpāka inscription records that Vujaya constructed a Jaina temple in C. E. 966 and donated lands (IAP. Kr. No. 5). Thus, the Calukyas of Vemulavāda were great benefactors of Jaina faith like their overlords. The Rattas of Saundatti
3.7. Some native dynasties who ruled small principalities favoured Jainism without being intolerant to other creeds. Among them the Rattas of Saundatti and the Sānataras of Sānta?ge-1000 on the west-coastal territory deserve acolade.
3.7.1. The Rattas of Saundatti zealously contributed to the revival of Jaina creed. Jainism marched in the feudal state of Saundatti without let. It was the wont of the Rattas to faithfully follow their Jaina faith. Jainism as a common creed of the rulers and the ruled alike, had once a very great hold on Saundatti. The very etymology of the place name

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also approves the statements made in their rock edicts. The word sramanadatti, endowment (area) of the sramanas, 'the Jaina friars', after undergoing the usual phonetic changes, has become Saundatti, and Sugundhavartti is its Sanskritized version. It was an important settlement of Jaina sangha. Saudatti was a seat of Mailā pa-tirtha, a branch of Yāpaniya sangha. Many princesses who were disciples of Mailāpatirtha were named after it as Mailaladēvi.
3.7.2. The political region of the Rattas in Kuntaladēša was called Kuhūndi-mandala or Kūņdi-3000. It is believed that the Rattas hailed from Rattanūr/Lattanūr/Lãtur, and one branch migrated to Malkhed to later flower into an imperial dynasty, and another branch reached Saudatti to be called as the Rattas of Saudatti. The word Ratta is connected to Rāstrakūta though, a branch of a common stalk, they were the governors under the Rästrakūtas, and later under Cālukyas, when they shifted their metropolis to Belgaum (Vēņugrārama, Vēnupuri).
3.7.3. Prithvirāma, son of Merada, a royal Duke of Krsna-II, caused a Jinēndra bhavana in C. E. 875-76 at Saundatti. This Jaina temple had allotments from emperor. Kārtavirya (Katta), chief of the Rattas, and his senior queen, Bhāgalāmbika, once again confirmed the donation gifted earlier by the imperials. The donee, a pupil of Indrakirtisvāmin, who in turn was a disciple of Gunakirti and Mullabhattāraka of Maiļāpatirtha, Kāreyagaña [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : Candrakode: 1997-B:34-39]. Rattas had founded their Pattajinālaya on the hillock at Saudatti dedicated Jina Pārsva and goddess Padmăvatidevi.
3.7.4. The Rattas were the worshippers of the lotus feet of Jina. Sāntivarma, Ratta king, founded another Jaina sanctuary at the same place, Saundatti, their residence, and granted land in C. E. 981. Šāntivarma, a subordinate of

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Khottliga, was the earliest to become a vassal and acknowledge the suzerainty of Tailapa-II. The Rattas persisted to favour Jaina art, architecture, literature, sanctuary and monastery for a prolonged period. The Sāntaras
3.7.5. The Sāntaras, one of the minor hereditory chiefs of provinces, were governing their own particular principality, with all authority of petty rulers. The tiny principality of the Sāntaras started as feudatories of the Cālukyas of Bādāmi. Vikramāditya-I(C.E.654-81) won over the Sāntaras to his side by confirming Pombu!ca as a fief to Jinadatta, who seemingly was the progenitor of the Sāntara olim Mahā Ugravamsa dynasty, an ancient clan of Jina Pārsva, the 23rd Tirthankara.
3.7.5.1. Jinadatta, first maker of Pomburcapura, launched the Sāntara's political career sometime in mid seventh century, and wiped out the local petti chiefs. He usurped some areas from the hold of the Alupas, Pombuļca in particular, and fortified it by conquering the border villages, during the reign of Aļuvarasa-I alias Gunasāgara Āļupēndra (C. E. 650-80). Whatever be his mother tongue before he developed provincial affiliation, Jinadatta and all his successors most willingly adopted Kannada for all practical and official purposes.
3.7.5.2. It is amazing to note that with so much of vigor, vitality and innovation, politically and otherwise, the Sāntaras were not ambitious to widen their territories beyond a particular line of control of their own. Sāntaligenādu, a division of the larger Banavāsi-12,000 province, had stipulated boundaries of the Gangavādi to the East, extensive coastal land strip of the Aļupas to the south, Kadambavādi of the Kadambas to the North. After they completely established their hold on Pombuļca, they made

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it their official residence. From then on, the Sāntaras never looked back, grew from strength to strength, but never aspiring to become themselves overlords.
3.7.6. Jagēsi alias Jayakēśi was a feudatory of Amõghavarşa-I. His successor Vikrama Sāntara alias Vikramāditya (895-935), emerged as a powerful vassal of Krsna-II, in the south. He assumed the title of Tolāpuruşa Sāntara, symbolising his outstanding attribute of charity. Vikrama Sāntara promoted art and religious edifices. He founded magnificent Jaina shrine, a Kāma-Jinālaya on the crown of the Hill at Hombuja, and dedicated it to his preceptor Mauni Bhatāra, in C. E. 897-98 [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: The Sāntaras - A study: 1997 - A).
3.7.6.1. Vikrama Sāntara, valorous warrior, placed his family in the position of a prestigious ruling dynasty and ushered in a eventful period. Krşņa-II, his overlord, proved favourable to him in his political endeavours. His records recount a list of conquests which he accomplished. He performed Hiranyagarbha sacrifice. His successors did not defy the suzerainty of the imperial Rāştrakūta dynasty. Cāgi Sāntara had married Jākaladevi, daughter of Adeyūra śāntivarma. Vira Sāntara's consort Enjaladēvi was daughter of Alupa king Raņañjaya. Kannara Sāntara bore the epithet of Kannara alias Krsna-III. All the three successors of Vikrama Sāntara did not wield any authority of consequence. The real glory of Sāntara dynasty reached its zenith once again in the period of the Cālukyas of Kalyaņa.
3.7.7. The Sāntaras were devout Jainas, from the beginning to the end. Without facing any dynastic feud, they ruled with Patti-Pombuļcapura, ‘city of gold', the modern Hombuja (Shimoga Dt, Hosanagara Tk), a forest-clad town as their capital, forover a thousand years, unobtrusively. Hombuja was a seat of Pañca-matha, monasteries of the five dominant sects of the period. A glowing description of the

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fertility of the Sāntaranādu, recorded in the epigraphs, explains their liberal outlook. Their pledge to Jaina faith did not hamper liberality to other creeds. Jaina monastery at Hombuja was a seat of learning. The savant patriarchs and friars of Arungaļānvaya, a schism of original congregation, were profusely patronised.
3.7.8. The Sāntara dynasty, a bulwark to the Jaina creed, took pleasure in gifts of food, shelter, medicine and learning. They commissioned many beautiful Jinālayas. Nokkiyabbe olim Padmāvatidēvi-gudi, earliest of their temples, commissioned by Jinadatta, progenitor of the Sāntaras, in the late seventh century, has been completely restructured. The architectural style evolved under the aegis of the Sāntaras vies with, and in some instances eclipses, that of the Mandalinād. Women of the Sāntara harem actively shared alike in cultural activities. Architecture and sculpture of Bāgāra basadi, Pārsva basadi, Guddada basadi, Sūļe basadi, Makkala basadi etc of the Rāstrakūța age deserve a special mention. A detailed discussion of these and other Jaina edifices will be taken up again in the chapter number eight on architecture. The Gangas
3.8. Under the protection and patronage of the Gangas, Jainism flourished in the south without hindrance. The Gangas belonged to Jaina faith and they remained fervent Jainas ab initio ad finem, from the beginning to the end. Epigraphs endorse that the Gangas were born to champion the cause of Jinadharma of the Kailāsa Mountain - Kailāsa saila Jinadharmma suraksaņārtham. Kailāsa is sacred because Ķsabha, the first Ford Maker attained release from bondage on the summit.
3.8.1. It is the Gangas, a native and martial race, who made the history of Jainism an integral, and not the least

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interesting part of the history of south. It blossomed into full bloom with the sustained refuge of the Gangas and it reached its summit in the reign of the Rāştrakūtas. Gangavāời had the reputation of being the land of Jaina sanctuaries and lamasery.
3.8.2. When the Rāstrakūtas became the overall suzerians of Karnātadēśa, prominent princely family of the Gangas who were ruling for over four hundred years, came under their sway. While examining the position of the Gangas in the age of the Rāstrakūtas, leaving aside their early and later history, it becomes clear that they were accorded far higher rank among all the vassals of the imperial Rāştrakūtas. Inscriptions have extolled the cordial and cardinal relationship that prevailed between the Gangas and their overlords, demonstrated by other literary records.
3.8.3. Amõghavarşa-I, the Asöka of Jainas, worked for the spread of Jainism with the help of the Gangas. The period of Gangas with the Rāstrakūtas, which spans a long epoch of two centuries, was the unequalled age of prominence for Jainism in south. Jaina art, architecture, literature, sanctuary and monastery reached its climax. Archaelogical remains of historical consequence, unearthed so far, has provided required corroborative evidences to prove the Ganga's earnest dedication to śramaṇadharma. As revealed in the epigraphs of this time, free, handed bounty flowed to the Jaina temples, monks, nuns, holymen, to the lustral ceremony of Jina, to the sustenance of monasteries and men of letters.
3.8.3.1. Gangavādi-96,000 had included many minor sub-divisions like Gangasāsira, Punnādu-6000, Kongannādu-8000, Male-1000, Mandali-1000, Kolāra-300, Edenādu-70, Aridāļike-70, Beddoregere-70, Nirgunda-300, sērinādu, Bayalnādu etc. Geographical boundaries of Gangavādi (şaņņavati sahasra, śrīrājya, Gāngiyarājya,

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Ganga sasira - are other variants): Marandale to the North, Tondaninaḍu to the East, Cēranāḍu and the sea to the west, and Kongunādu to the south. Therefore, the modern Kolar, Mandya, Mysore, Bangalore, Cikkamagalur and some parts of Shimoga formed Gangavaḍi. In addition to this, during the period of the later Raṣṭrakūtas, Būtuga and his son Mārasimha ruled Puligere-300, Belvola-300, Banavase12,000 Kisukāḍu-70 and Bāgenāḍu-70.
3.8.4. The Raṣṭrakūṭa hegemony was completely cast on the Gangavāḍi-96,000, in the reign of Saigotta ŚivamāraII, who threw open all avenues for the furtherence of Jaina influence. Candranatha basadi at Śravanabelagola, Kummadavāḍa basadi in Belgaum Dt, Duggamāra Koyil basadi at Hebbalaguppe (Mysore Dt) were his contributions. Rājamalla-I founded Jaina cave at Vallimalai (TN: North Arcot Dt), Rājamalla-II founded two temples dedicated to Arhats at Siyamomgalam [TN: North Arcot Dt, Wandiwash TkJ. Nitimārga Ereyappa patronised Gunavarma, one of the earliest of poets in Karṇātaka, who rendered the famous Harivamsapurana into Kannada.
3.8.5. Marital and political alliances between the Gangas and the Raṣṭrakūṭas had brought them nearer. They had a shared goal to achieve and a common faith to follow. Some of the Gangas chiefs were allowed Carte blanche, unlimited authority to exercise. This mutual relationship was so wellknit that they had to stand or fall together. The irony of it was that in C. E. 973-74, together they sank as the ship carrying them was shattered to wreck before they could realise what was happening to them.
3.8.6. Karnataka is one of the oldest inhabited regions by śramaņa cult with pre-Aryan elements in it. For an active expansion of this transmarine movement, Karṇāṭaka provided a bedrock base. The boom of Jainism started in south around the very end of B. C., and the beginning of

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C. E. Definitely.it set out in the last centuries of B. C. in Tamilnādu, and from the early centuries of C.E. in Karnataka. The early Gangas and their coevals AdiKadambas of Banavāsi, and the Adi-Calukyas of Bādāmi prepared a brawny infrastructure for Nirgrantha creed to take off. Obviously it was left to the Rāştrakūtas to reap a rich harvest and enjoy the fruits of Anēkantamata.
3.8.6.1. The Mauryas, the Sātavāhanas, the Cutus - were all alien to the soil of Karņāțaka. They employed either Prakrit or Sanskrit as their language of administration. Indigenous dynasties like the Gangas, early and later Cālukyas and the Rāstrakūtas employed and encouraged languages of the inhabitants of the region. Adi-Kadambas, though a native family, adopted Prakrit and more prominently Sanskrit as their official language.
3.8.7. A salient feature worth musing is the mutual influence of the Rāstrakūtas and the Gangas. Preponderance of the Rāstrakūtas on the Gangas operated on two levels. One, personal names like Govinda (Govindara, Govindaradeva and its corrupt forms of Goggi, Gojjiga etc) and the biruda like Jayaduttaranga. Secondly, the Gangas started restructuring their old temples and erecting new basadis, using stone instead of wood and brick, with which they were familiar. This shift in the material used, from wood and brick to stone, was because of the weight of the Rāstrakūtas stone structures, in particular Ellōrā. It is possible that the planners and artisans of the major monuments of the Gangas were familiar with the magnificent monuments at Aihole, Pattadakal, Bādāmi and Ellārā (Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1999-B : 54).
3.8.8. On the other hand, the influence of the Gangas on their superior, the Rāştrakūtas, was in the field of religion and language, in other words Jainism and Kannada. Many of the emperors of the Rāstrakūța royal house faithfully

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followed Jaina church because of the impact of the Gangas. Kannada became the official language and adopted as their mother tongue, thanks to the Gangas. Following is the statistics and distribution of the Rāstrakūta inscriptions, as I have worked out: out of 516 charters, 340 are in Kannada, 90 are in Sanskrit, 104 are in Tamil, 7 are in Telugu and only one in Marathi, out of 90 Sanskrit epigraphs 19 are bilingual of which 17 are in Sanskrit and Kannada. This predominence of Kannada was due to the power exerted by the Gangas. [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1999-B : 54-55).
3.9. The Nolambas of Hēmāvati (C. E. 850-1000), as subordinates to the imperial Rāştrakūtas, extended patronage to Jainism. Donation of gifts to Jaina shrines by Mahēndra-I (860-95), a staunch Jaina by faith, has been recorded in the charters at Hēmāvati and Dharmapuri. He had founded a basadi in the village limits of Kāmagondanahalli and Pattanāyakanahalli, in the late ninth century, of which only a seated Sarvāhņa yakşa sculpture has outlasted. King Mahēndra had also commissioned another basadi at Tagadūr (TN: Dharmapuri) and made provision for its maintenance. A tumbledown temple near the Anehonda, 'elephants pond', on the hill at Niềugal, of Mahēndra's period appears to be a typical Jaina temple with vacant dēvakõșthas inside.

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CHAPTER - 4
SANSKRIT LITERATURE
4.1. Jaina literature is by no means pacifist. For a proper perspective of the age-old heritage of Indian culture, a study of Indian art, architecture, language, literature and religion is highly essential. Jaina works, both literary and epigraphical records, afford a well-documented details of the Rāstrakūta dynasty, their vassals, forts, battles, improtant cities and persons, rivers, dominions, authors, religious customs, patriarchs and preceptors, nuns, shrines and monasteries, rituals etc in the Dakṣiṇāpatha. In brief, the literature of this age, in whichever language it may be, not only mirrors the religious liberalism, but also reflects the military strength, immense wealth, religious catholicity, cultural opulance, literary affluence, and love of art and architecture. Jaina works have become an essential component of Indian culture. .
4.1.1. Motivating spirit of Jaina literature of this period had been both spiritual and social, though much of it is essentially religious in disposition. Jains, from time immemorial, have nurtured tastes and tendencies conducive to the development of art, architecture and literature. Jaina monasteries were the house of scholars and monks of letters. Jaina tradition has attached great importance to the copying, reciation and worship of sacred texts. There are Vidyādēvis, goddesses exclusively of learning, besides Sarasvati,

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presiding deity of knowledge, associated with sacred manuscripts.
4.1.2. The veneration of the Holy scripture Dhavalā, Jayadhavalā and similar canonical texts is often alluded to the grace of saints who had the spell of divinity. Historical truth embedded in the works and inscriptions of Jaina order is established in the light of corroborative evidence supplied from other contemporary lithic records. Incidental references of historical personages, men and women, are abundant. Epics and classics, Pan-jaina or otherwise, often contain panegyric stanzas recording incidents of historical consequence. Thanks to the scholarly pursuits of outstanding authors, immense vitality has pervaded the Jaina tradition.
4.1.2.1. Jaina literature of the period under discussion has stressed the sanctity of life and implanted a strong sense of enviornment-consciousness. The learned ācāryas have emphasised the utility and purity of animals, water, trees and many other aspects of the enviornment. Jaina writers, whether a recluse or a house holder, did not lack required historical sense. Major authors like Srivijaya, Jinasēna-II, Guņabhadra, Pampa, Ponna, Mahāvirācārya, Śākatāyana, and Cāmundarāya possessed a robust and reliable historical knowlege. Thus all of them have contributed to the authentic reconstruction of the political, socio-cultural chronicle of Karņāțaka. The historicle fragments embedded in the Jaina works has attracted the attention of chronicler.
4.2. The Rāstrakūţa era ushered in palmy days for Jaina literary renaissance. Many Jaina authors in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada heralded a series of epics and classics. A chronicle of the Jaina authors, composing in lucid Sanskrit in Karņāțaka, starts from Ravikirti. He was the earliest poetlaureate of Karnataka. In his celebrated Aihole charter in Sanskrit, Ravikirti has recorded the political achievements of the illustrious Pulakēsin-II (609-42), who had the cognomen of dakşiņā-pathēśvara.

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4.2.1. Ravikirti's composition of poetic - excellence has been acclaimed as a Khanda-kavya, a short poem of historical improtance. His intimacy with the king reminds of similar close association that Pampa had with Arikēsari-II, that Ranna had with Satyāśarya Iṛivabeḍanga, and all of them were poet-laureates. Ravikirti founded an excellent Jaina shrine. His mention of the name of Kālidāsa has helped the Sanskrit scholars to suggest a probable and positive upper limit in fixing the date of Kalidāsa.
4.2.2. To counter balance the traditional Jaina denial of a theistic creation and Brahmanic supremacy, in either spiritual or secular realm, 'Jaina teachers had to develop a system that would not violate these basic tenets. This feat was accomplished largely through the ingenuity and literary skill of the ācārya Jinasena, whose massive Adipurāņa was nothing less than a Jaina version of the history of the world. Exploiting the rich potentialities in the tale of Rṣabha, the first king and the first Tirthankara, Jinasena made of this figure a virtual "Jaina Brahmā", one who pronounced a set of "Jaina Vedas", and, most germane to the present discussion, instituted the division of castes. Rṣabha's status, reflected in such epithets as prajapati (lord of creatures) and ādi-deva (first lord), became that of "creator" in a sense acceptable to Jaina tradition; he was not held to have made the world, but he did supposedly create the organisation of human society" [Padmanabh S. Jaini: 288].
4.2.3. Adipurāṇa, based on vast canvas, has wide spectrum covering the pros and cons of Jaina church, is an integrated net-work, Adoration and worship of Jinas and recitation of hymns, followed with rites, rituals, was sanctified in Mahāpurāṇa. To strengthen the force of lay disciple, Jinasena described that the Jinas do grant the desired results : 'A man who wants wealth and prosperity should concentrate his mind on the Jinas who are described

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as the giver of the heaven. The devotee can rid himself of the disease and bondage and can free himself from the clutches of lion, snake and fire. King Bharata is said to have marched against his enemies in the south direction after offering worship to the Jina... Like his predecessor, Jinasēna too describes the Jina as Brahma, Vişnu, and Svayambhū. Almost all the epithets and names, expressive of his qualities, functions and associations, are liberally ascribed to the Jinas with some explanation. Rşabhadēva is again compared with Samkara.... Jina is spoken of as the creator and destroyer of the universe... Jinasena explains the ten incarnations of the First Jina, and tries to prove that he represents Krsna and Vişnu" [Singh RBP: 30-31).
4.2.3. Jinasēna-II adverts to the recitation of Jaina litany. He declares that a person, with pure ancestry, who bears virtues and not devoid of physical deficiency is entitled to initiation into monkhood. There are understandable traits of a metamorphic shift of Jaina customs and beliefs from its original Dravidian grip to Aryan fold, making room for fourfold varņa system.
4.2.3.1. No epic material drops from Utopia. The theme of a poem, major or minor, develops gradually with its roots some where in the folk literature and takes the final shape, recast in the mould of the poet's genius. So is the case with Jaina narrative literature. Mahāpurāņa is one such major work. It has a long drawn continuity in Jaina purāņa kāvya tradition. Śrinandi, Kūcibhattāraka, Kavi-paramēșthi, Silānka, Jinasēna-II, Guņabhadra, Puspadanta, Cämunda rāya, Mallisēņa (1049) and other prolific men of letters flourished to chisel Mahāpurāņa, time and again.
4.2.3.2. Mahāpurana, biographies of 63 ‘great men', distinguished authors in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Kannada, during the epoch of the Rāstrakūtas. It is a beacon light for flashing the message of peace and non-injury, a

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documentation of the voice of the victors' and Makers of River Crossing. This great work of the great empire can rightly be considered as a discovery of Jaina ethos. Etiquette of Jaina community as a whole, et hoc genus omne, and everything of this and other similar features, find their best and symbolic expression in Mahāpurāņa. It is a miniature Jaina world. It became a roller-coaster for many poets in Karnataka, who let their creative juices flow in the local languages. Mahāpurāņa continued to inspire the resurgence of new generation. Those who sought recharges for their imagination from roots of their religion, would avail of this epic of perennial interest.
4.2.3.3. Mahāpurāņa, a holy classic for ceremonial reading, is recited at festival and special occassions in Jaina shrines and public places. It is quite common to find Mahāpurāņa, either in Sanskrit or in other lanugages, text tied into a cloth, sitting on Jaina pūja altars, in Jaina sanctuaries, monasteries and houses.
4.2.3.4. The Rāstrakūta monarchs created a congenial atmosphere for the Jaina genius to flourish. It was a rare coincidence that Jaina epics appeared in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tamil and Kannada languages during this time. CivakaCintamani by Tiruttakka-tēvar, Digambara Jaina savant saint of Circa 9th cent. C. E., has the distinction of being one of the 'aimperun-kāppiyanka”, “Five Great Epics’, in Tamil literature. Similarly, pre-eminent Jaina commentators, particularly of Digambara sect, wrote authoritative commentaries on canonical texts.
4.2.3.5. The Rāstrakūtas extended the same liberal stand to the field of religion. Their catholicity is attested by the condescension stretched to all isms of the state. Śiva, Visņu and Jina are invoked in the beginning of the Rāstrakūta charters, testifying to their liberality of their religious leanings.

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4.3. Kaviparamēşthi(C. 750 C.E.), a copiously credited Sanskrit author of the age of Rāstrakūtas, is known by two other aliases of Kaviparamēśvara and Kaviśvara. Though, applauds are profusely heaped on him, his work has not directly come down to us.
4.3.1. Cămundarāya (C.E. 978) categorically affirms that Kaviparamesthi was the third litterateur to author on the theme of Trişasti-salākapuruşa-purāņa or Mahāpurāna as it is familarly known. Kūcibhattārāka and Srinandi were the other two recognised predecessors to compose Mahāpurāņa in Sanskrit.
4.3.1.1. Unfortunately, except for the patchy statement of C'Rāya, nothing comes forth about the life, works and date of the last two men of letters. A solitary reference of Küciācārya, chief patriarch of Yāpaniya Nandisangha PunnāgaVỊkşamüla gana and preceptor of Vijayakirti, comes from an inscription of C. E. 812, a coeval record of svāmi Virasēna. Kūciācārya, revered by the assembly of learned monks, flourished in the mid eighth century C.E. The date and locality suit the identification of Küci-äcārya with Kūchibhattāraka, author of Mahāpurāņa, mentioned by C'Rāya.
4.3.1.2. Therefore, Śrinandi, second author in the sequence of Mahāpurāņa, and Kaviparamēști, third in the order, must have prospered in late eighth century. Srinandi can difinitely be recognised as the same scholar-monk, who was the preceptor of Ugrāditya (770-840) of Kalyāṇakāraka, treatise on the science of medicine. This possibility agrees and explains the chronological sequence of the authorship of Mahapurāņa, in temporal terms. Evidently, these three ācāryas were the protegee of the Ganga and Rāstrakūta monarchs.
4.3.2. Fortunately, Kaviparamēsthi (Kaviparamēs vara), who succeeded Kūcibhattāraka and Srinandi, is known through some later complimentary references.

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According to CRāya, Kaviparamēśvara attained matchless fame by authoring the unparalleled Trişaşți-salākā-puruşapurāņa, a biography of 63 great men, celebrities of the Jaina Church, in Sanskrit. The illustrious Jinasēna-II (C. E. 825) was the earliest to respectfully advert the Vāgrathasamgraha of Kavipaparamēșthi. Guṇabhadrācārya, śişya, pupil of Jinasena-II, who completed Uttarapurāņa on 23rd June 897, records that the above work of Kavīśvara was a gadya-kathā, a prose-narrative.
4.3.2.1. Commencing from Pampa (C. E. 941) to Doddayya (C. E. 1600), many Kannada men of letters respectfully mention Kaviparamēșthi. C'Rāya had direct access to this purāņa-kavya, legendary poem, and has quoted some Sanskrit verses in a metrical form, which subscribe to the reliance that the work was in Sanskrit, and a campū in its form. Since he is ranked with Samantabhadradēva and Pujyapāda, Kaviparamēșthi's individuality stands as that of a famed, worthy and authoritative author.
4.3.2.2. Based on the circumstantial evidence, it can be said that Kūcibhattāraka and Srinandi composed Mahapurāņa in the time of Prabhūtavarşa Govinda-II (C. E. 774-80) and Kaviparamēsthi during the reign of Dhruva (C. 780-93). In the light of this discussion, a possibility of Kaviśvara, mentioned by Srivijaya in Kavirājamārga (C. E. 850), being identical with the celebrated Kaviparamēşthi or Kaviparamēśvara can be contemplated. Another statement, worth pondering in this context, comes from (a Kannada poet) of post medieval period. Doddayya (C. E. 1600) states that the work of KaviParamēşthi consisted of 1,25,000 granthas. A grantha is an unit of 36 letters. This amounts to suggest the huge volume of Kavi-Paramēsthi's work.
4.3.3. Bhatta-Akalankadeva (C. E. 720-80) had profuesly authored most enduring works. He has endowed the field of Indian logic affluent with his luxuriant works.

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He is famous for his captivating arguments, ravishing style, and enchanting illustrations. Akalanka had the aliasas of Bhatta-Akalanka, Akalankadēva, and Akalankacandra.
The probity of systematizing Jaina canonical edification into an integrated philosophical school belongs to apostle Umāsvāti and his magnum opus Tattvārtha-sūtra, recognised as authoritative by both the Jaina sects. Of the early Digambara glosses, Bhatta-Akalankadēva's Rāja vārttika stands sui generis, befitting its title. Chronologically, and in disposition Rājavārttika is only next to Sarvārthasiddhi, an encyclopedic commentary of Dēvanandi alias Pūjyapāda (late 6th and early 7th cent.) (Tattvārtha). Rājavārttika-bhāsya is voluminous and has as much bearing on the Jaina doctrinal system. Though this work has the stamp of Pūjpāda, Akalanka's work is not just the echo of a cave. It has a distinctive originality of its own.
4.3.3.1. Akalanka is credited with the authorship of several Sanskrit texts which together form the paramount textual material used by advanced scholars in the Jaina cloisters. Akalanka had become a legend during his lifetime. Like many other ascetics Akalanka, an astute philosopher and dialectiacian has remained silent about his biographical details, not even mentioning his coeval rulers. Luckily, some information is coming forth from Kathā-kāśa and other literary sources.
4.3.3.2. Different versions : 1) Peterson has credited, with authenticity, Jaina tradition of equating Akalanka with the son of Subhatunga alias Krsnarāja-I (753-75). It is said that Akalanka and Nişkalanka were sons of Subhatunga, and Akalanka, elder of the two sons, renunciated the life of palace and accepted the monknood. 2) Puruşõttama and Padmāvati were the parents of Akalanka Puruşõttama was a minister of Subhatunga. 3) Mallişeņa prasasti inscription of Śravaṇabeļago!a, states that Akalanka was prestigious

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scholar in the court of Sahasatunga: 'there was no other grandeur king like Kṛṣṇarāja alias Sāhasatunga on earth'. 4) Akalanka was a priest at Sravanabelagola from where he proceeded to the court of Himaśitala, a Pallava king of Kanci, and drove the Bauddha disputants to Kandy in Ceylon. While defeating the opponents, Akalanka proclaims that he did it out of clemency and not out of arrogance or malice:
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nāhankāra vasikṛtēna manasă
na dveṣiņā kēvalam kāruṇya buddhyā mayā
4.3.3.3. Scholars have agreed on one point, that Akalanka was a native of Manyakhēta and he lived during the sway of Sahasatunga Dantidurga Khaḍgāvalōka (C. 74256), Subhatunga Kṛṣṇa-I Akālavarṣa (C. E. 756-73) and his son Prabhutavarṣa Govinda-II Vikramāvalōka (773-80). Undoubtedly, Akalanka was a tarkkika, dialectician of unequalled eminence. He had challenged the vadis in a dialectical disputation at the court of Sahasatunga Dantidurga, who was ruling from his capital at Elapura (Ellōra).
1.
4.3.3.4. Akalanka has authored basic texts on varied subjects including Jaina epistomology, logic and metaphysics :
Tattvārtha - Rājavārthika a lucid commentary on Tattvärtha - sūtra of Umäsvāti, has made the latter more comprohensible.
2. Aṣṭaśati is an erudite and extensive gloss on Samantabhadradeva's Aptamimāmsā (Dēvāgama stōtra), an examination of the perfect teacher.
3. Siddhiviniścaya Pramāṇa-samgraha (with vivriti modelled on Dinnaga's Nyāyapraveśa and Pramāņa Varttika of Dharmakirti), still enjoy a highly venerated place in the learned circle.

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4.3.4. Akalanka, an ardent advocate of syādvāda theory was a poet too. His devotional work, Akalarkastötra, though contains some interpolated stanzas, is read and recited with devotion. Pramāņa-samgraha with 871/2 verses has nine cantos and an auto-gloss. Hundred's of inscriptions of Karņāțaka open with the Sanskrit invocatory verse of Akalanka taken from his brilliant work Pramāņasamgraha :
Srimat-parama gambhira syādvādāmogha lāñchanam jiyāt trailokya nāthasya śāsanam Jinaśāsanam
May the doctrine of Jina be victorious - the doctrine of the Lord of the three worlds, the unfailing characteristic of which is the glorious and most profound syādvāda, the doctrine of qualified assertion.
4.3.4.1. Akalanka's works divulge his scintillating intellect and incisive insight of a master genius. He was the protagonist who laid solid foundation for greater progress achieved by later Jaina logicians. The following verse from Akalanka carita, employing the metaphor of pun, is worth meditating:
kim vādyo bhagavān=amëya mahimā dīvā=akalankah kalau kālē yö janatāsu dharma nihito devõ=akalanko jinah
4.3.5. Ugrāditya (C.E. 770-840) has made robust contribution to the science of medicine. Primarily advocating vegetarianism, his wealth of prescription has more relevance to the modern world. Ugrāditya Pandita has authored a perennial Jaina medical text called Kalyāṇakāraka, “means to prosperity.

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4.3.5.1. Kalyāṇakāraka, a medical work, was completed at Rāmagiri, the level plains in Vengimandala of Trikalinga vişaya (AP : Višakapatnam Dt), the modern Rāmakonda. Ugrāditya was a disciple of Srinandi ācārya, worshipped by Srivişnurāja alias Vişnuvardhana-IV (772808) of Eastern Cālukya dynasty, who gave his daughter Silābhattārikā in marriage to Dhārāvarsa Dhruva. Srivişnurāja, his son Vijayāditya-II (808-47) extended their support. Particularly Vişnuvardhana-IV, a rājādhirāja, king of kings, was a patron of anēkāntamata, like his forefathers. Ugrăditya has mentioned the names of Lalitakirti, Dēvacandra and Dayāpāla, famed friars of his period. For compiling Kalyāṇakāraka, a treatise on medicine, Ugrāditya states that Mēghanāda, Simhanāda, Pūjyapāda, Samantabhadra, Siddhasēna and Pātrasvāmi were his authorities.
4.3.5.2. The great royal physician, in the tradition of Pūjyapāda Dēvanandi, Ugrāditya, a confere of Lalitakirti ācārya, visited the Rāstrakūța court of Amõghavarşa-I, in about C. E. 830, where he delivered a discourse on meatless diet and advocated the solemnity of vegetarianism for a healthy and spiritual progress.
4.3.5.3. Ugrāditya was a recluse of Mūlasamgha, original congregation, Dēsiga gana pustakagaccha Panasoge vaļi, a cohort of Jaina abbots. in the line of Ācārya Kondakunda. Śrinandi, his professor and founder of the Jaina monastic order at Rāmagiri, is, as I have pointed out elsewhere, identical with Śrinandi, the author of Mahāpurāņa, mentioned by Cāmuṇdarāya in his Trişaşțilaksaņa-Mahāpurāņa (C. E. 978).
4.3.5.4. Kalyāṇakāraka is a comprohensive and original exposition on the science of medicine composed in Sanskrit verse. The work consisting of 25 chapters is divided into two parts, devoted to the cause of diseases and treatment of

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diseases, with an appendix on the subject of fatal symptoms, and an additional chapter, on meatless diet, in the end. A succinct sketch of the origins of Prāņavādapūrva of the original canon which covered medicine and diagnosis. T. V. G. Sastry observes : "The text has no sectarian touch and is purely scientific and technical in treatment. It also has quotes from both the Jaina and non-Jaina authors. In the puşpikas found at the end of each chapter, there are references to the family pedigree of Ugraditya’s gurus, his contemporary collegues and others. Thus the work provides information to fix the date for the work. In an additional chapter, published at the end of the text, there is reference to Ugraditya's discourse on 'Hitāhita Adhyāya', delivered in the presence of Rastrakuta emperor Amoghavarsa who ruled between A. D. 815-877 A. D. Ugraditya also mentions the name of Patrakesari (C. A. D. 575-650), a celebrated surgeon of the times". [Jinamanjari, 10-2, october 1994 : p. 53).
4.3.5.5. Srinandi, author of Mahāpurāņa, Ugrāditya, Lalitakirti and other Jaina saints conducted austerities at Rāmagiri monastery and made it a famous Jaina settlement.
4.3.5.6. Ugrāditya has mentioned the name of Pātrakēsari (C. E. 575-650), a celebrated surgeon. JinsēnaII has also mentioned Pătrakësari as Pātrasvāmi. Pūjyapāda, preceptor of king Durvinita, and Pātrakēsari were contemporary luminaries who were famous doctors of their age.
4.4. Svāmi Virasēna (735-820) of Pañcastūpa anvaya, a posterity of original congregation of Jaina monks. He was skilled in Jaina doctrine, prosody, astrology, grammar, Jaina epistomology and logic. To top his proficiency in varied discipline, he was an expert in the lore of Satkhaņda-āgama. He was a profound scholar of kaṣāya-Prābrta knowledge. In brief he a was a wizard of savior-faire knowledge of what to do.

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4.4.1. Adept Virasēna had the benifit of being the student of wise Elacarya. Indranandi (930) has explicitly recorded in his Śrutavatara that Virasēna had the benifit of councilling from his versatile master Ēlācārya. The region of Ponnur (Sk. Hēmagrāma) and Nilagiri hills was known as Maleyadeśa, the zone of mountains where lived Ēlācārya, an enlightened monk :
Dakṣinadēsē maleya Hēmagrāmē munirmahātmāsīt Elācārya namna Dravida gaṇādhiśōdhīmān
4.4.2. It is hard to fix up the identity of Elācārya. Veteran Kondakundācārya (Circa 2nd cent.) had the cognomen of Elācārya. Indranandi (930) refers to a miracle performed by one Elācārya who lived in the Hēmagrāma refered above, vide his work Jvälinikalpa. Some epigraphs speak of the austerity of accomplished Elācārya, a pupil of Sridharadeva [EC. V (R) K. R. Nagara. 36 (XIV Ye 84) C. 10th cent. Cikka-Hanasōge, p. 23; ibid. No. 33]. Therefore, it can only be said that the revered gūru of Virasēna lived in the mid eighth century.
4.4.3. Svāmi Virasēna has authored three works on Jaina philosophy: 1. Dhavala-Tikā, 2. Jaya-Dhavala-Tikā, and 3. Siddha-Bhu-Paddhati-Tikā. Of the three Books, the last one is not extant, except that it has been duly mentioned in Uttarapuraṇa of Gunabhadra, in the colophon. The very title suggests that the text had incorporated material dealing with Jaina concept of the science of computation and Cosmography and kṣētra-ganita.
4.4.3.1. During the last years of SahasatungaDantidurga and in the reign of Kṛṣṇa-I and his two sons, Prabhutavarṣa Govinda-II and Nirupama Dhruva, Acārya Virasēna, on the advice of his teacher Elācārya, left Citrakūta monastery to join the illustrions cloister at Vaṭagrāma. With an orchestra of scholar-mendicants, like Dasaratha,

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Vinayasēna, Jayasēna and (Jinasēna-I) and Jinasēna-II the brilliant pupil of Virasēna, the Jaina Magha of Vāțagrāma attained the status of a celebrated university.
4.4.3.2. In the age of Jagattunga Govinda-III, Virasēna commenced Dhavalā-Tikā, in the year C. E. 792 and completed the chef d'oeuvre, master piece on gth october 816 C. E. in the reign of Amõghavarşa-I. Its colophon Bhattārēņa ?ikā Vihiyēsa Virasēņēņa, states that Bhattāraka Virasēna composed the commentary. Ācārya Bhūtabali and ācārya Puspadanta (circa late 5th cent. and early 6th cent. C. E.), clairvoyants of early current Era, had the knowledge of the 24 chapters of Mahākarma-Praksti. It was preserved and transmitted earlier by the brilliant mendicant Dharasēna (C. 156 C. E.), earliest redactor of the canon, with an intention of again transmitting the traditional store of canonical knowledge to the successive generation of scholar anchorite. Bhūtabali and Puşpadanta, later redactors of canon, had co-authored Satkhaņdāgama, 'Scripture in six parts’, in sūtra style, i.e., aphoristic mode of presenting the canonical scriptures, which resembles cūrņi-type of work. That was the earliest written scripture of veneration of the Jainas.
4.4.3.3. Redaction of the canon was continued by Guņadhara's (C. late 2nd cent. C. E.) Kaşāya prābhrta (Pk. Kasāya pāhuda) not in sūtras but in verses, containing 233 original gāthās, dealing with theories of bondage of the soul. Aryamumuksu (Āryamaksu), Nāgahasti, Ucchāraṇācārya (Vrttisūtra) and Yati-Vrsabha (Cūrņisūtra of 6000 granthas) - has authored extensive glosses, opening the flood gates for the luxuriant literary activity of the erudite men of letters. A vast and varied exegetical literature like the glosses and commentraries, opulent independent works on different subjects, were produced.
4.4.3.4. A number of leading commentaries on Şaţkhaņdāgama text, written between 2nd and 7th centuries,

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are not available. Virasena's Dhavalā commentary throws some light on the early works. It is evident that he has composed his gloss with the help of Bappadevaguru's Vyākhyā-prajñapti, an earlier commentary. Virasēna has increased the prominence and utility of his gloss by quoting principal Digambara authors. He has also comprohensively quoted from the canonical literature such as the Acārānga, the BỊhatkalpa sūtra, the Dasavaikālika, the Anuyogadvāra, the Avasyaka Niryukti and others.
4.4.3.5. Above all, a note worthy point of Virasēna's Dhavalā commentary is that he has referred to two different pratipattis, assertions that existed before gth century. Of the two assertions known as uttara-pratipatti and dakşiņapratipatti, Virasēna mentions that the latter was direct and traditional, whereas the former was perverse and untraditional. Virasēna does not hesitate to point out that the teachings of Nāgahastin was pavāijjanta, traditional, and those of Arya Mankşu (Mangu) apavāijjamāņu, untraditional. Virasēna's acumen is so sharp that he has recorded diverge variants of the texts, deviation of opinions among early masters, and often tried to illustrate them. All this substantiate that Virasēna was a scholar of class, equipped with the knowledge of all the early attempts and their settled variations. In the modern terminology, Virasēna was the earliest to have possessed a fair knowledge of textual criticism, of noting different recensions.
4.4.3.6. Monach Virasēna composed and merrily completed, single handed, a voluminous commentary of Dhavalā-Ţikā 'the luminous' commentary of the size of 72,000 verses, on Satkhandāgama. His coup de maitre, master stroke continued. He once again launched on a similar work, christening it, Jaya-Dhavalā-Țikā, 'the victoriously luminous', commentary on Kaşāyaprābrta. This time, patriarch-scholar Virasēna could compose 20,000

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granthagras, and his student Jinasena composing the remaining 40,000 granthagras, completed in C. E. 837-38. Thus, the two commentaries run altogether to 132,000 verses, massive feat of human intelligence. This entire literature has been critically edited and published in 38 volumes.
4.4.3.6.1. Jinasēna has said that Virasēna, his noble teacher was a debater, most knowledgeable orator, poet immaculate with proficiecny in spiritual wisdom, and kavicakravarti. The last epithet may appear to be an exxaggeration, but categorically svami Virasēna was an agama-cakravarti.
4.4.3.7. Acarya Virasēna belonged to the pedigree of pañca stupānvaya, the monachs of eastern school, who were the custodians of the Jaina ancient karma (a form of matter) lore. All his pupil belonged to Senagana, a cohort of monks and nuns of Mulasamgha, the original Digambara congregation. Virasēna was the last of Pañcastūpānvaya ascetics. With Jinasēna and others, Sēnagaṇa, replaceing Pañcastūpānvaya, thrived to greater prominence.
4.4.3.8. To abbreviate, illustrious Virasēna, a mānastambha of the time of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, was the first and best commentator and crystalizer of Satkhaṇḍāgama and kaṣāyaprabhṛta. In the apt words of Jinasena-II, 'Acārya Virasēna had put Vācaspati, god Brahma, to silence, with his ocean of knowledge!'. Adroit in the philosophy of nonabsolutism, connoisseur in the doctrine of manifold aspects, abbot of a mendicant group, felicitous in canonical literature, a specialist in Sanskrit and Prakrit languages, a monkscholar and spiritual leader, Virasēna was verily a VidyaVacastpati. Thanks to the Dhavala, Jaya-Dhavala commentaries, the vital flow of the Tirthankara's teachings has sustained through so many centuries.
4.4.3.9. Emanating as marvels of human authorship,

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Dhavalā, Jayadhavalä as spiritual revealation to man, have had an epic tradition of verbal bequest much preceding their codifications by the austere anchorite. In a bid to salvage the near extinct knowledge of canons, Virasēna and Jinasēna, monk-scholars of Jaina scriptures from the Rāstrakūta empire, embarked upon restoring it for posterity. It was a marathon enterprise spanning more than forty years of tapasya, painstaking commitment.
4.4.4. Dhanañjaya (C. late 8th cent.), a poet of eminence also pioneered Jaina literature in Sanskrit during the reign Nirupama Dhruva. Details of his biography are obscure. His Jiterary accomplishment has won laurels. Acārya Virasēna has quoted, a slöka of Anēkārtha-Nānamāla of Dhanañjaya, in Dhavalā commentary (C. E. 816-17). Since Dasaratha was the preceptor of Dhanañjaya, he was a senior co-student of Jinasena. But Dhanañjaya was not a monk. He remained an house holder observing the six vows prescribed for a Jaina votary.
4.4.4.1. Dhananjaya has authored some works out of which a peom, a lexicon and a stötra kãvya, peom of orison. Vişāpahära-stõtra, a short peom containing only 39 verses, deals with the remarkable effect of prayer to god. A person charged with intense devotion will not succumb even to deadly poison of a snake. The verses of this short poem are composed in Indravajrā metre. .
4.4.4.2. Dhanañjaya-Nāmamāla or AnēkārthaNāmamāla is a small lexicon. It contains 200 stanzas of synonyms, with an appendix of homonyms in 46 verses in the end, both composed in easy flowing style, facilitating to learning by rote.
4.4.4.3. Dhanañjaya is remembered forever for his masterpiece Dvisandhāna Mahākāvya also known as Rāghava-Pāņdaviya, which has embodied his poetic imagination and rich vocabulory. His amazing craftmanship,

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fancy, mastery in Sanskrit language are unique. That too, delineating in the frame of each verse, the sotry of Rāma and Pandavas, of Rāmāyaṇa and Mahā-Bharata simulataneously, is a feat rarely achieved. Cleverely manipulating and chiseling the structure of each stanza Dhanañjaya is able to drive Rāmakathā and Krşnakathā at the some time, in the same poem.
4.4.4.4. Dhanañjaya does it, not by legerdemain but by his dexterity in regulating the language and composition of each stanza. He is rated a peerless poet by the critics and the two commentators, (Acārya Padmacandra's disciple) Nėmicandra and kavi-Devara, son of Paravādigharatta Rāmacandra, who have composed glosses on Dvisandhānakāvya in Sanskrit. A salient feature of this poem is that the poet Dhanañjaya has not in the least attempted to bring any Jaina elements.
4.4.4.5. Vădirāja (C. E. 1020) greatfully remembers Matisāgara, Hēmasēna and Dāyāpāla in his magnum opus Nyāyaviniscayavivarana, a philosophical work. Of these poets, Hēmasēna has been identified with Dhanañjaya. But, Vādirāja has indubitably mentioned Dhanañjaya in his Pārsvanātha carita :
anekabheda samdhānah khanante hrdaye muhuh Bāņa Dhanañjayonmuktah
Karṇasyeva priyāh katham Poet Vādirāja has made use of the pun, figure of speech, of verbal equivocation - of Arjuna and poet Dhanañja, and of Karņa (son of kunti) and the ear.
4.5. Jinasēna-II (755-855), most illustrious partiarch revered by the Jaina church, gifted with unquestionable literary flair, has authored prominent works of extraordinary merit, both in Prakrit and Sanskrit. By any standard,

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undoubtedly, Jinasēna was the uncrowned monarch of the Jaina literary world of the Rāstrakūta age. His works are revered as tour de force, feat of skill, with a stamp of permanency on them.
4.5.1. Nestor Jinasēna is said to have lived the full circle of 'centurian' for his 'swan song in and around C. E. 855. But, before breathing his last, Jinasēna had become immortal by his unique achievements. He has been attributed divinity. Jaina men of letters and Jaina church as a whole, refer to him with the honorary epithet as ‘Bhagavad Jinasena'. Jinasēna of Bịhat Punnāta sangha, a senior contemporary and author of Jaina epic poem Harivamsapurāņa (C. E. 783) is recognised as Jinasena-I. Jinasena of Sēna sangha, author of Adipurāna and other works is identified as Jinasean-II. Jinasena-I completed Harivamsapurāņa in the Nannarāja, basadi, a Jina Pārsva temple, in saka 705 corresponding to C. E.783. The Upāsakas and upăsakis, Jaina adherents of Daustaţikā joined to worship this work of religious merit at the temple of śāntinātha. Jinasēna-I has mentioned the names of Virasēna, Kirtisēna and Jinasēna-II.
4.5.1.1. Most revered svāmi Virasēna ācārya tutored Jinasena-II. He had his religious initiation from the adept Jayasēna ācārya in the prestigeous cloister of Malkhēd. In the last quarter of eighth cent. and in the early 9th cent., Jaina monastery of Mānyakhēta had become a den of great recluse and a coterie of eminent monk-scholars. Aryanandi, Virasēna, Jayasēna, Jinasēna, Lokasēna, Daśarathamuni, Guṇabhadra, Ēkacattuga - a band of prominent patriarch pandits, Jināgama experts had converted the Jaina lamasory into a hammock of goddess of learning. Among the group of genius, Jinasēna-II was in the front rank.
4.5.2. It is said that Jinasena-II was initiated into monkhood as a bāla-brahmacāri and he continued to lead

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the life of celibacy. He was wedded to greater cause of serving religion and mankind. He had complete mastery in Prakrit and Sankrit. His knowledge of cononical literature was extraordinary and his observation of human nature is out standing. Dimension of his vast reading is evident from the list of galaxy of brilliant scholars that he has recorded: Siddhasena, Samantabhadradeva, Śridatta, Yaśōbhadra, Prabhācandra of Nyāyakumuda-candrodaya, Sivakōṭi of Ārādhanā (Mülārādhana/Bṛhadärādhana/BhagavatiĀrādhanā), Jaṭācārya (Jaṭasimhanandi Varänga-carita), Kāṇabikṣu of Kathālaṁkāra, Bhaṭṭ-Akalanka, Śrīpāla, Pātrakēsari, Vadisimha, Virasena, Jayasena and KaviParamēśvara of Vagartha-samgraha.
4.5.3. In the field of religion, Jinasena was the keyman, head of the Jaina church. In the sphere of literature, he is undoutedly the best of men of letters in the Rāṣṭrakūta empire. He was a gifted scholar of eminence. His creative faculty, pratibhā, was playing the second fiddle, because he chose to write on the theme of spiritual experience. Albeit, at times, his genius raises to greater heights in Adipurāṇa (Pūrvapurāṇa, i.e., early part of Mahāpuräṇa).
4.5.4. Jinasena aspired to compose and complete Trisasti-lakṣaṇa-Purușa-puraṇa (Mahāpurāņa), i.e., biographies of 63 'Great men' in the Jaina mythology. The list of 63 excellent men includes 24 Tirthankaras and their contemporaries, 12 Cakravartins ('rulers of the world'), Baladēvas, Vasudevas and Prativasudevas, the last three are 9 each in number. Trisaṣṭilakṣaṇapurana or caritas, are a favourite subject in Jaina literature. Jinasēna, inspite of his ambition to author the entire Mahapurāņa himself (Purāṇam samgrahiṣyāmi Triṣasti puruṣāśritam), he could compose only Adipurāņa portion, containing 10,380 verses in 42 parvas and 3 ślōkas in the 43rd parva. Gunabhadra, his gifted pupil, continued to complete the epic by composing

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1620 verses in Adipurāņa of 47 parvas, and uttarapuräna, containing 9500 verses. Adipurāņa narrates mainly the story of Rsabha, the first Ford Maker, Bharata, the first ruler of the universe, and Bāhubali, the first Kāmadēva, the god of love in the Jaina tradition.
4.5.4.1. Before a critical assessment of the scope and prominence of Adipurāna, it should be said to the credit of Jinasēna that the greatest teacher had the benifit of Amõghavarşa-I, one of the greatest emperor, being his pupil. Amõghavarşa had his paramount veneration for his teacher Jinasēna. Having joyously prostrated and kneeled before Jinasēna the monarch would congratulate himself: "The king Amõghavarşa remembered himself to have been purified that day, when the lustre of the gems was heightened in consequence of his diadem becoming reddish by the dust pollen of Jinasēna's foot-lotuses appearing in the stream of waterlike lustre, flowing from the collection of the brilliant rays of his nails; - enough - that prosperous Jinasēna with the worshipful and revered feet is the blessing of the world" [Gunabhadra : Uttarapurāņa). Jinasena describes himself in the Pārśvābhyudaya, his earliest poem, as the paramaguru, chief preceptor, of Amõghavarşa. Sañjan plates makes it clear that Amõghavarşa did abdicate the throne, not once, but several times, temporarily as a retreat, to lead the life of an ascetic.
4.5.4.2. As noted earlier, his flaire for religious literature and attachment to Jaina creed was an accalaimed fact. Titles like Dhavala of Govinda, Atisaya-Dhavaļa of Amõghavarşa possess an aureola of Jaina lustre, since the connotation of this biruda has an historical background. It was during the reign of Govinda that svāmi, Virāsēna commenced composing Dhavală, ‘Luminous' commentary of 72,000 slökas on Șatkhandāgama, the primordial canonical text of Jaina surrogate and completed in the times of Amõghavarsa,

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in C. E. 816-17. Further, Jinasēna completed Jaya-Dhavalā, 'victoriously luminous’in C. E. 836-37. To commemorate the two auspicious events of the successful completion of Dhavalā and Jaya-Dhavalā glosses, the ruling emperor was blessed by the Jaina assemblage with the extraordinary singular biruda of Atişaya-Dhavaļa, 'exceedingly pure', who was also a disciple of Jinasēna.
4.5.4.3. Veritable Jaina saint Jinasena, accomplished completion of Jaya-Dhavalā by composing another 40,000 slokas to the 20,000 slökās composed earlier by his teacher Virasēna, on kaşāya prābhrta of Guņadhara, a connoisseur in Jaina tenet. Jayadhavalā-Tikā was completed on Saka 759 phalguņa śuddha Dasami Nandiśvara, a Jaina festival day, at Vāțagrāma in the jurisdiction of Gūrjarājya.Jinasēna again refers to his dear pupil Amõghavarşa with the epithet of Gurjara Narēndra, in his Jaya-Dhavalā commentary. That means to prove that Amõghavarşa was ruling Gujarat in C. E. 836-37. Vātagrāmapura olim Vāțanagara (Vādnēr in Nāsik Dt) was a nerve centre of Jaina church in 8th and 9th cent, and Subhatunga Indra had commissioned a Jaina shrine, named after him, called Subhatunga-vasati.
4.5.4.4. Taking advantage of the charisma of Mēghasandēsa ('cloud messenger') of Kālidāsa, Jinasēna attempted - Pārsvābhyudaya kāvya.
4.5.4.4.1. Pārsvābhyudaya, a vēstita-kavya, minor a famous poem of 364 verses in mandā-krānta metre, has been one of the curiosities of Sanskrit literature. It exhibits the poetic talent and the rich imagination of Jinasēna. He has proficiently managed to propagate the biography of Jina Pārsva and the Jaina doctrine by employing Mēghasandēša paradigm, a work of mass appeal. Jinasēna has sincerely acknowledged his debt to Kālidāsa : kāvyam vyadhāyi parivestita-meghadūtam. Pārsvābhyudaya kāvya was his first poem composed at the instance of Vinayasēna, in C. E.

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780, when Jinasēna was in the prime of youth, and the exuberance of creative grace flows freely with lyrical elegance.
4.5.4.4.2. Adopting verbatim, generally the last line of Kālidasa's Mēgha-sandeśa, and adding the first three lines of his own composition, Jinasēna has achieved remarkable exultation. Students of textual criticism find it useful that abovt 400 pādas, original lines of Kālidāsa are preserved here as it existed in eighth century. In the stylistic variations of samasyāpūrtis in Pādavēștita (taking any one line from Mēghaduta stanza), Ardhavēstita (taking any two lines) and Antaritāvēstita (employing either first and fourth, or second and fourth, or first and third, or second and third lines). Thus, Jinasēna chiselled and redefined original Mēghasandēśa and enhanced the glory of Sanskrit poetry. But the fact remains that Jinasena's Pārśvābhyudaya kõvya is a better poem, but Kālidāsa's Mēghasandeśa is the best poem.
4.5.4.4.3. If Pārśvābhyudaya was a better poem of a youngman, Adipurāṇa was the best poem of a nestor author. Jinasēna composed it at his very old age of above 90, perhaps in C. E. 845-50.
4.5.4.4.4. In Adipurana, a biography of Rşabha, the first Ford Maker, while enumerating the conquests of Bharata, son of Rşabha and the first universal emperor, Jinasēna has mentioned a number of his contemporary southern kingdoms, big and small: Antara Pāņdya, Ausa, Cora, kachāndhra, Karņātaka, Kērala, Kūțastha-Aulika (Aluka?), Māhișaka, Mēkura, Pāņdya, Prātara, Punnața and Trikalinga. Bharata after crossing the river Godāvari, defeated Karņāțaka. According to Jinasēna, the people of Karņāțaka wore strange dress and fond of turmeric and betel leaves, which is very true of the Mahārāștrians also. Finally Bharata came to Vaijayanta-mahādvăra near the sea, which is the modern Banavāsi. Decidedly Adipurāņa is a popular

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composition of the period which provides valuable sociohistorical material.
4.5.4.4.5. Undoubtedly Jinasēna's Adipurāņa is one of the greatest epics. Its theme has a lovely and moving saga of a soul in quest of highest sublimity. The story is a mixture of romance, of tenderest pathos and similar moving human emotions. Adipurāņa has a popular appeal. It is ornate poetry. No Jaina purāņa can bear comparison with Jinasēna's Adipurāņa in Sanskrit and with Pampa's Adipurāņa in Kannada, for their poetic excellence. Both Jinasēna-II and Pampa stand out as litterateurs of the utmost poetic accomplishment. Jinasēna's command of language, metre, alankāras, rasabhāvas, poetic competency and descriptive skill-are remarkably praise worthy. However, in the display of the wealth of peotic craftsmanship, in the flights of poetic fancy soaring to sublime altitude, which are refreshingly novel, Pampa is superior. Adopting the some theme of Jinasēna-II in toto, has not only made it his own, but has made it superior. In Jinasena, the ascetic in him often over-rides his poem; in Pampa, the poet in him inundates his poem.
4.5.4.4.5.1. In short, Adipurāna or for that matter, the entire Mahāpurāņa is a fine specimen of classical Sanskrit peom. Interpretation of dreams, treatise on town planning, duties of the warrior, and the art of governing the state - are some of the interesting portions, perhaps specially intended for the wise consideration of Amõghavarşa, the Răstrakūta monarch.
4.5.5. Vidyānanda (900-50), philosopher, epistemologist, commentator, was another author of height and repute in this period.
4.5.5.1. This survey would be complete by introducing Vidyānanda, early 9th cent. scholiast and commentator, as brilliant as Akalanka. He composed the Tattvārtha-sloka

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vārttika, the Astasahasri, the Yuktyanusāsanālankāra, the Vidyānanda-mahodaya, the Apta-parikṣā, the Satyaśāsanaparikṣā, and the Sripura-Pārsvanātha-stotra.
4.5.5.2. Vidyānanda has carved a niche in the hall of fame by his substantial contribution. Even a bird's eye view of his noteworthy works will call the attention of the learned. With his comprohensive and deep command over the Jaina doctrinal subtle distinction that he could speak ex cathedra, with authority. Tattvārthaílokavārttika, a voluminous commentary on Tattvārthasūtra of Umāsvāti (350-75), is a continuity of southern adoption of Umāsvāti's work, in the same line of thought and approach of Pūjyapāda and BhattaAkalanka, his predecessors. Aştasahasri, his celebrated work, is a commentary on the Aptamimāmsă of Svāmi Samantabhadradēva (575-625). Vidyānanda has developed his commentary on the model of Akalanka's Astašati, (73080) and both are extnensive and scholarly treatises. Yuktyanusasanālarkāra is again a commentary on the Yukyanusāsana of Samantabhadra.
4.5.5.3. This work mirrors the reasoning power of Vidyānanda. He has used the epithet of satyavākyādhipa in the last stanza. Based on this, it is said that Vidyānanda lived during the reign of the Ganga king Rājamalla Satyavākya. But, recent evidences prove that Satyavākya referred here is not Rajamalla, but indubitably MārasimhaII (962-74). Aptapariksă is an attempt at defining the virtues of Apta, i.e., god, inspired by Sarvārthasidhi-tika by Pūjayapāda (early 7th cent.). Patrapariksa deals with the consultation between a complainant and a respondent. It provides information about the characteristic of patras, charters drafted. Pramāņa-parikṣā is a inspired by Akalankadēva's Pramāṇasamgraha.
4.5.5.4. Till recently, the date of Mahāvādi Vidyānanda was almost convincingly fixed to circa C. E. 775-840 by Darbarilal Kothiya in his introduction to Āpatapariksă. But,

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of late Prof. M. A. Dhaky has established unambiguously, based on literary and epigraphical evidence, the temporal bracket of Vidyānanda as C. E. 900 and 950. Dhaky has firmly ascertained that the great Digambara epistemologist Vidyānanda belonged to Mūlasangha-nandi-sangha V(B)aļagāra-gana, and that he was a contemporary of Ganga Permāļi alias Mārasimha-II who founded a Jaina shrine at Annigere in memory of his father Būtuga-II [Dhaky, M. A.; in Nirgrantha, vol. 2; 1996 : 25-28].
4.5.5.5. Vidyānanda is a sharp critic of Buddhist doctrines and other schools of philosophy. He is gifted with facile poetic style in Sanskrit which flows like a river on the plane. He has made of some the Jaina philosophical points more sharp. He has been influenced by Samantabhadra, Pujyapāda and Akalanka more than by any of his other predecessors. Syādvāda-Ratnākara of Vādidēvasūri, a later author of 13th cent., alludes to Vidyānanda-Mahödaya, as another work of Vidyānanda, but it is not extant.
4.5.6. Guņabhadra (820-98) au courant, an uptodate author of greater merit has the repute of executing and completing his teacher's dream. He had the singular distinction of being a brilliant pupil of rare masters of the Rāstrakūta age. Jinasēna-II and Dasaratha guru were his instructors who trained Guņabahdra in a scholastic and academic atmosphere. He had the best tution and at the some time he had the guidance of sparkling confreres like Lõkasēna.
4.5.6.1. While his educator Jinasēna-II was a spiritual professor of Amõghavarşa, Gunabhadra was the preacher of Krşņa-II. Thus, the teacher and disciple, Jinasēna and Guņabhadra, had implanted the seeds of sramaņa dharma along with enlightening rājadharma in father and son, Amoghavarşa and Kșşņa.

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4.5.6.2. Hermit Gunabhadra had mastered, grammar, poetics, the doctrine of non-absolutism and was an fait, well informed. Jinasēna had fulfulled his teacher Virasēna's nonexecuted Jaya-Dhavalā Tika. Gunabhadra also accomplished his apostle Jinasēna's half measured Mahāpurāṇa composition. De'facto, infact, it was destined that Gunabhadra should achieve the goal, before the final glory of the Rāṣṭrakūta empire comes to an end. Anchorite Virasēna had embarked Dhavala-Tikā during the reign of Govinda-III, and finished it in the time of Amōghavarsa, Govinda's son. Mahāpurāṇa was initiated in the epoch of Amōghavarṣa and terminated during the period of Kṛṣṇa-II, son of Amōghavarṣa. Thus, somehow, a combination of father and son, and teacher and pupil running parallel can be noted.
4.5.6.3. Adept Jinasēna almost completed Adipurāṇa, first part of Mahāpurāṇa. When he could not continue any further, at the age of 95, Jinasēna knew that his end was drawing near. He asked his diligent and intelligent pupils to describe a withered tree standing before them. One of them described the arid tree- 'suskam kāṣṭam tiṣṭhatyagre. Jinasēna, unimpressed with the unimagi- native pedantry, asked Gunabhadra to describe the parched tree. Guṇabhadra characterized: Nirasa taruriha vilasati puratah!. Convinced with his imaginative power to handle the epic theme, Jinasēna entrusted Gunabhadra the work of completing Uttarapurana. Gunabhadra justified Jinasēna's choice, by efficiently handling the vast theme.
4.5.6.4. Bankāpura, a moderate town in Shiggaon taluka of Dharwar Dt, was a fief given to conscientious Bankesa, grandee of Banavasi, by Amōghavarṣa. Lōkāditya, son of Bankesa, was made the governor of Bankāpura, by Kṛṣṇa-II, son of Amōghavarṣa. The Rāṣṭrakūtas had ameliorated Bankāpura into a majestic Jaina nucleus.

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Guņabhadra, a celebrity of late ninth century, was deservedly entrusted with the stupendous task of Uttarapurāņa. He continued the epic in and around C. E. 850, and completed it at Bankāpura, in 8000 slökas. He first completed the remaining four chapters in Adipurāņa composing 1620 verses. Later, the poem could not progress as fast as was expected. The story of Bharata and Bāhubali, their conflict and battle over establishing supreme suzerainty on six parts of the universe - has found its best expression in the graphic description of Guṇabhadra.
4.5.6.5. Jinasēna had provided an infrastructure for his pupil. But Guņabhadra had intricate challenges of abbreviating the biographies of 61 'Great persons in the frame of uttarapurāņa. His humility was endless. With his unpretentiousness, ācārya Guņabhadra confesses that if his poem is laudable, it is the grace of his great teacher Jinasēna : "Because for the sweetness of fruits it is the tree that is responsible. Words descent from the heart and my heart is an abode of my learned master who is refining each and everyword. With Jinasēna's vouchsafement it is not at all difficult for me to complete Uttarapurāņa. While his disciples are easily crossing the ocean of worldly life with the help of Jinasēna's Adipurāņa, how can it be difficult for me to reach the shore of this Mahāpurāņa"?
4.5.6.5.1. Guņabhadra's contribution is plenteous and luxurious. Atmānusāsana and Jinadattacarita are his other poems, composed in simple and fluent style. Atmānušāsana, designed on the specimen of Vairāgya-sataka, centum of poet Bhartshari, has its theme relating to the soul, advocating disinterest in worldly matters. This short poem containing 272 stanzas, with its blooming tender style, wields influence on the readers. Acārya Prabhācandra has written a gloss in Sanskrit. There are commentaries in Kannada and Hindi also. These commentaries go to prove the popularity and prominence of Atmānusasana.

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4.5.6.5.2. Jinadatta-carita, composed in Anuştup metre, is a short-poem in nine cantos. The poem with its enchanting story, enshouded by incidents of and surprise, has a graceful style, and the readers find it curious.
4.5.6.5.3. It is believed that Guņabhadra also authored another short work called Bhāva-Samgrah of which nothing more is known so far.
4.5.6.5.4. Guṇabhadradēva had equal regard for his another teacher, Dasaratha: "As the moon has the distinctive quality of the sun, so was Dasaratha, the wise mendicant a co-student-monk of Jinasēna. Entire scriptural knowledge had settled in the words of Dasarathaguru. Moonshine emitting from his mellifluous words had pervaded everywhere."
4.5.6.5.5. Speaking of his own self he has these details: "Gunabhadra was proficient in learning, had crossed the ocean of canons, had sharp wisdom, specialist in nayavāda and pramāņa, ocean of virtues, considering that 'the goddess of fortune conducts herself most obidiently before him', tapõlakshmi goddess of austerity (i.e. prayer and meditation), a friend of mokşalakshmi goddess of eternal bliss (salvasion) cheerfully presented herself. KaviParamēśvara composed Mahāpurāņa in prose, Jinasēna composed Purudēvacarita metrically. The rest was composed by Guṇabhadrasūri. Lokasēnamuni, pupil of Guņabhadra, versatile in all sciences, is a poet. Lõkasēna of good conduct has rendered his assistence in composing Mahāpurāņa. Men of rectitude have honoured Lõkasēna".
4.5.6.5.6. "Lokāditya, a feudatory of Akālavarsa Kļşņa-II, had earned dotless renown person of radiant personality, affluent Lokasēna, annihilating his enemies had been the proud possessor of Mayūra-dhvaja, ‘parasol of the peacock'. He is the younger brother of Celladhvaja and son of Cellakētana (Bankarasa)".

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4.5.6.5.7. "Lõkāditya has been the light of Jaina faith. His father (Bankarāja) has the alias of Vanka in whose name Barkāpura was built. With his residence at Bankāpura, he ruled Banavāsidēša for a long period".
4.5.6.5.8. "When Akālavarsa was on the throne, Lõkāditya, his vassal, administering the whole of Banavāsidēša, on saka 820 Pingala samvatsara Jyestha śukla pañcami Thursday (i.e. 23.6.897), Uttarapurāṇa was completed. The devout worshipped this hallowed poem, composed by Guņabhadra, excellent of poets" (Uttarapurana : Prasasti (colophon) verses).
4.5.6.6. Jinasēna-II and Guṇabhadra seem to have largely followed the Mahāpurāņa version of KaviParamēșthi. Rāma story of Guṇabhadra differs markedly from Vimalasūri's Paumacariya in regard to story elements, characterisation etcetera. Surprisingly, Gunabhadra has not followed Ravişeņa (C. E. 678), his Digambara predecessor. Padmapurāņa (Padma-carita) of Ravişeņa of sēna-gana was the first Jaina Rāmāyaṇa poem in Sanskrit. Since, Jinasēna and Guņabhadra deviated from other extant works and known traditions, it is all the more confirmed that they largely followed Kaviparamēșthi for whom both of them had elevated veneration. It is the Kaviparamēșthi school of Mahāpurāņa that has pervaded Jaina purāṇas in Sanskrit and Kannada, including CRāya, Nāgacandra and others. Apabhramsa Mahāpurāņa of Puspadanta also has employed and developed the same tradition. Thus, the Mahāpuraņa of Kaviparamesthi has both perforated and proliferated in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada literature.
4.5.6.7. In the analysis of Jaina Purāņas, a salient feature to be noted is that many a time the words Purāņa and kathā are used as synonyms to historical knowledge as conceived in the Jaina tradition. It is often said that Jaina version of Ramayana and Mahābhārata are distorted

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versions of Vālmiki and Vyāsa. "In case we accept the opinion that Padmacarita was composed in the year V. S. 734 (A. D. 677) then we have to accept that it is earlier than any known manuscript of the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki. Thus in case of Rāmakathā, etc., it would be wrong to say that Jains were trying to debunk the Brahmanical history and myth" [Singh, Y. B.: The Historical Traditions in Jain Purāņas - A study of their Nature and purpose - in Jainism and Prakrit in Ancient and medieval India, ed. Bhattacharyya, N. N.:1994 : 288].
4.5.6.8. "... Jains had details about Krsna-kathā too. And they have tried present it in an objective way. Not this alone. The Jain account tries to present certain episodes of Mahābhārata even in a much more sobre way. Gunabhadra, while describing the birth of Karņa, says that he was born because of the pre-marital sex relations of Pāņdu and Kunti. He does not say that Pāndu was not the father of Pāndavas. He aslo says that Karna was found by Rāja of Champā and his queen Rādhā accepted him as her own son.
4.5.6.9. Thus, the Jain Purāņas nowhere try to denigrate the heroes of Brahmanical texts.... However, the Jain authors always tried to narrate only those events of the past which were fit to provide models to the masses. The concept of history which can bring good to all the people has a deep rooted tradition in India. It continued in later years and its reflection is found even in the Rāmacaritamānasa of saint poet Tulsidāsa. He states that eulogy, poetry and material possessions are good only if they do good to each and every person.... they (the Jains) did not ignore the facts and therefore, the distortion of past episodes is absent. The changes which they made, were in relation to the importance and antiquity of the Jain religion" (ibid : 289-90).
4.6. Pälyakīrti Sākatāyana (C. 840 C. E.), reputed scholar grammarian of the Rāstrakūta period lived in the court of Amõghavarsa. Jaina grammatical system had two famous exponents in Pūjyapāda and Sākatāyana. The latter

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was also, like the former, an expert in Jaina philosophy. Pālyakirti Sākatāyana is held in high esteem by the learned class :
kutastyā tasya sā saktih pälyakirtirmahaujasah śripadaśravanam yasya
śābdikān kurutējanān 4.6.1. Sākatāyana, who had Pālyakirti as his first name is equally respected in both the Jaina sects of Digambara and Svētāmbara. Pālyakirti alias sākatāyana belonged to the Yāpaniya sect which was popular in the years of the Rāştrakūtas. He was a pupil of Arkakirti, an abbot of Yāpaniya diocese.
4.6.2. Śākațāyana completed his grammar Sabdānusāsana, as a court-scholar-monk of Amõghavarşa. He composed Vrtti, an auto - commentary, on his grammatical work Sabdānusāsana and rightly termed it, in honor of his patron, as Amõgha-Vrtti. In his Sabdānušāsana, though a grammatical treatise, sākatāyana hạs attempted to embellish the śāstra-krti with pearls of his contemporary history. To cite an example, while illustrating the anadyatana-bhūta tense, Sākatāyana refers to the conquest of his overlord Amöghavarsa over the Pāņdyas and the burning of the enemies :
bhūte anadyatanē.. aruņaddēvaha pāņdyam adahad=amõghavarşõ= arātin (sabdā mušāsana : VI - 3- 202]
Historians also suggest that a governor of Gujarāt was crushed a heavy defeat by Amõghavarsa when he attempted a coup d'etat.
4.6.3. Sākațāyana system of Sanskrit grammar is equally famous as Jainēndra system, both the school of

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grammar being founded in Karņāțaka. Sākațāyana, a protege of Amõghavarşa, has compressed Pāṇini and Jainēndra in convenient form. Sākațāyana, a fore runner in arrangement of sūtras topic-wise, a model later followed by other grammarians.
4.6.4. Ācārya Pālyakirti, who had Śākatāyana as his second name, occupied a place of worship by successive generations. Author of Sākatayana prakriyā-samgraha has addressed Pālyakirti as Munindra, ‘chief of saints', and Jinēśvara, 'victor'. Yakşavarma, composer of Cintāmaņicommentary on Sabdānnsasana, has referred to Śākațāyana as 'saphala-jñana sāmrājyapadam=āptavān’. Cidānanda, Kannada poet, has given a glowing tribute :
"Benediction to Ācārya Pālyakirti reflecting the ocean of canonical knowledge with the Mandara Mountain of his percipience Pālyakirti has brought out the nector of grammar and earned endless name and fame".
4.6.5. Amogha-Vrtti, śākațāyana-nyāsa (Prabhā candra), Cintāmaņi-Tikā (Yakşavarma), Maniprakāśika (Ajitasena), Prakriyā-samgrah (Abhayacandra), Sākațayana-Tīkā (Bhāvasēna-Traividya), Rūpasiddhi (Dayāpāla)- et cetera glosses on this work approve the merit of Sākatāyana. In defence of the salvation of woman, against the Digambara doctrinal position, Pālyakirti has also authored another work of 34 kārikas, called Strimukti - prakaraṇa and Kēvalibhukti.
4.6.5.1. The role of nudity in the holy life of a monach is an issue between the Jaina schisms. Digambaras, more conservative, emphasise nudity as an absolute prerequisite to the mendicant path, and hence a woman must be born as a man to attain salvation. Svētāmbaras, more liberal and pragmatic, admit that clothing per se is not an obstacle to salvation, and hence women are capable, in the present life

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time, of the same spiritual accomplishments as men. Malli, the 19th Tirthankara, was a woman. Marudēvi, mother of Bharata and Bāhubali, attained salvation in her present life. With this polemics in the background, Sākațāyana's work strimukti stands significant. Its exposition is in averment of the theory that clothing per se is not an impediment to mākşa. Sākatāyana very well justifies the policy of Yāpaniya school of philosophy
4.6.6. Jaina grammatical tradition was prevelant before Pāṇini (C. 5th cent. B. C.), the greatest grammarian ever known. Saddapāhuda (Sk. Sabdaprābhịta), in the group of Pūrvas (C. 8-7th cent. B. C.) had discussed sthāna and prayatna words with their definitions and illustrations. Bopadēva has mentioned eight grammarians of Indra, Candra, Kāśakřtsna, Āpisali, sākațāyana-I, Pāṇini, Amara and Jainēndra. Pūjyapāda avers six Jaina Vaiyākaranas, not traceable. Jainēndrabuddhinyāsa of Pūjyapāda (late 6th cent. C. E.), earliest availabe Jaina grammar, consists of 5 chapters, 20 padas and 2067 sūtras. It has two recensions of north and south, and many commentaries.
4.6.7. Sākatāyana-I has been mentioned by Pāṇini (Astādhyāyi : 3. 4. 11 and 8. 6. 18), and Bopadeva. Sākațāyana-II is the author of Sabdānuśāsana and Amõghavștti. Bhagchandra Jain has provided a synopsis of the innovations of Sākațāyana (Pālyakirti): 1. Sākatāyana's grammar sabdānusāsana along with its
commentary, is divided into four chapters. Each of them
contains four padas with sūtras. 2. He gives no rules on acents. He also omits every
reference to the language of the Veda. 3. He discusses nine types of sūtras 4. In comparison with Pāṇini's terminology, śākațāyana
can be divided into three groups.

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5. It appears that Sākațāyana employs different terms
belonging to different systems of grammar such as
Pāṇini, Candra and Jainēndra. 6. He accepted 10 Upakaras
Some of the innovations of the Amõghavịtti may be enumerated as follows: 1. It contains everything except Gaņapāțha, Dhātupātha,
Lingānušāsana and Uņādi. 2. It does not possess the Uņādi prakaraṇa, which is found
in the Brhadvștti. 3. Amõghavṛtti enumerated all the Gaņas except the
Idhādigaņa. 4. It follows more or less the Kāsika. 5. Śākatāyana informs in the sūtra 2.4.182, that Pre
Paņini grammarian Apasala's vyākaraṇa was divided into eight chapters [Jinamanjari, ed. S. A. Bhuvanendra kumar, 12-2-, octo. 1995 : pp. 80-81).
4.7. Mahāvīrācārya (C. 850 C. E.) of Ganitasāra - samgraha, a protege of Amõghavarşa-I, was the principal mathematician of not only the Rāstrakūța times, but also of Karņātaka.
4.7.1. It is believed that Mahāvīrācārya was also one of the tutors of Amõghavarşa. In the Gaạitasāra-samgraha of Mahaviracārya it is stated that the subjects under the rule of Amõghavarşa were happy, and the land yielded plenty of grain. The author has this benediction : ‘may the kingdom of this king (NȚpatunga-Amõghavarsa), the follower of Jainism ever increase far the wide'. Amõghavarşa had Sarva as his first name and Nrpatunga, Dēva, Cakrikā-bhanjana were his other aliases.
4.7.1.1. Mahāvīräcarya has given an account of some coins, weights and measures of the Rāstrakūta time which is invaluable record for the students of history. He has

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mentioned different varieties of weights and measures where grain, gold, silver and metal were used with the terms that were current during mid 9th cent. C. E. Mahāvīrācārya says that two Draksus(Drachma-a Greek name), were quavalent to one Dināra (Dinārieus - a Roman coin), and two Dinārās were equal to one stātēra (stater).
4.7.2. Ganitasāra samgraha is an exceptional work on Indian Mathematics, simpler than the work of Brahmagupta. It deals with geometrical progression. Mahāvirācārya has vividly specified the universal utility of mathematics :
In all transactions which relate to worldly, vedic, or other similar religious affairs, calculation is of most use. In the science of love, in economics, in music and in drama, in the science of cooking, in medical science, in architecture, in prosody, poetiecs and poetry, in logic and grammar, and in relation to all that constitutes the peculiar value of the arts, the mathematics is held in most high esteem. In relation to the movements of the sun and other planets, in eclipses, in conjunction of the planets, in problems related to direction, position, once time, in the moon's phases, indeed in all these, the use of mathematics is most accepted. The number, the diameter, and the perimeter of islands, oceans, and mountains; the dimensions of the habitations and halls belonging to the inhabitants of the world, between the worlds, of the jyotirlūka, of the world of gods and of hell-dwellers and other miscellaneous measurements etc.. - all these are known through mathematics. The configuration of living beings, the span of their lives, their journeys and dwelling together, etc., are all dependent upon mathematics. What is the use of saying much? Whatever there is in all the three worlds with living or moving and non-moving beings cannot be comprohended without mathematics.
[Jinamanjari, vol. 19. No. 1. April 1999, special number on Jaina mathematics theme guest ed. Padmavatamma. Gupta, R.C., Intro' to Jaina Mathematics).

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4.7.3. Gaṇitasāra - samgraha establishes the existence of the Jaina School of Mathematics in South India. Prof. L. C. Jain and Padmavatamma substantiate it : "(Gaṇitasara-samgraha) was full book on practical mathematics. He (Mahāvīrācārya) was the first mathematician in the world to recognise the imaginary qualities. Most of his formulae may be seen in other forms in the Digambara Jaina texts on the karma theory. Formulae given in the commentary of the sūryprajñapti deserve special attention" [Jain Journal: 19-1, April 1999: pp. 22-23].
4.8. Indranandi (C. E. 930), an ascetic - scholar of greater eminence, has authored some works in Sanskrit. As a native of Manyakhēța, he studied and stayed at Malkhēḍ Jaina lamasery, which was truly a nursery of productive talents of the age of Raṣṭrakūtas.
4.8.1. Indranandi has authored the following works in Sanskrit Samayabhūṣaṇa, Śrutāvatāra, Nītisāra, Śrutapañcami, and Jvālāmālini-kalpa. Among these works Śrutavatāra is in wide circulation, because it has chronologically recorded an authentic list of the pontiffs of Jaina order. For a study of the details regarding Jaina monachism, Indranandi's work is a must. So, Śrutāvatāra has an important place of honor in the history of Jainism.
4.8.2. Indranandi was so felicitous in Jaina philosophy of non-absolutism that Nemicandra Siddanti, noble Pope of the Jaina Vatican Śravanabelagola, has referred to Indranandi with a distinct epithet of 'Śrutasāgara-pāragāmi”, proficient in Jaina scriptures.
4.8.2.1. Jvālāmālinī-kalpa his last work was completed at Manyakheța in saka 861 on the Akṣaya tṛtiya tithi corresponding to C. E. 939, when Kṛṣṇarāja-III was on his throne. Indranandi has made this point clear in the prasasti colophon :

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astāsatasaika şaşti pramāņa saka samvatsarēspatitēșu sri Mānyakhēta kațakē parvanyakşaya tặtiyāyām satadala sahita catussata pariņāma grantha racanayāyuktam śri Krsnarāja rājyē samāpta= mētanmatam dēvyāha
4.8.2.2. Indranandi was the preceptor of Ponna (C.E. 965), poet-laureate of Krsna-III, and one of the 'three gems' of Kannada literature. Ponna proudly recalls that he was a student of celebrated Indranandi, from whom he learnt the art of poesy and dexterity in debate, in one of his stanzas of Šāntipurāņa. Indranandi was adept in Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Kannada. He lived and wrote during the period of Indra-III, Amõghavarşa-II, Govinda-IV, Amõghavarşa-III and Krşņa-III.
4.8.2.3. Jvālāmālinikalpa has a Kannada commentary supposed to be an auto-commentary of Indranandi : "The work is a rare specimen of an early Sanskrit work commented upon in Kannada. The name of the commentator is not disclosed, but it is not impossible that Indranandi himself added a Kannada commentary'[Pancamukhi, R. S.: Progress of Kannada Research in Bombay province from 1941-46 : p.25].
4.8.2.4. Of his other earlier works, Indranandi composed the famous Śrutāvatāra in C. E. 930.
4.8.3. Kandarpa and Gunandai, were Indranandi's senior preceptors teaching in the monastery of Małkhēd, who were active in C. E. 900. During their discourses, Kandarpa erudite scholar preceptor, narrated to his pupil cum confrere Gunanandi the theme of Jvālinikalpa. Indranandi, a junior to them, had the benifit of listening the converse, which prompted him to put it in writing.

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4.8.4. "The Jvālini-kalpa gives an interesting story of the beginning of this cult. It states that Helācārya of the famous Drāvida sangha first started her worship on the summit of the Nilgiri hill near Hemagrāma in the south in order to remove the bad influence of an evil spirit, known as Brahmarākşasa who had overpowered his lady disciple Kamalasri. After continuous meditation for a number of days he succeeded on the 7th day, when the goddess appeared and asked him to write an incantation on a sheet of iron to imancipate her from the influence of evil spirit. She also advised him to systematise the occult practices for achieving all the earthly and heavenly blessings" (Singh, R. B. P.:1975:53).
4.8.5. Jvālini-kalpa, a tantric text, specifies the forinulae and spells invoking the deity to rest in an image to receive worship. Goddess Jvālini after invoked with proper worship is supposed to bestow the worshippers superhuman powers by which a person could be controlled, enmity evoked/ eradicated, an evil could be averted et cetera. Thus, Indranandi is primarily responsible for a methodical exposition of the occultlore in Karņāțaka through this treatise. Mallişeņa and other men or letters were influenced by the line of thought of Indranandi.
4.8.6. Indranandi has recorded some orthodox and heterodox Jaina schools and sects. According to him the authors, mentioned beneath, represent orthodox school of thought : Bhadrabāhu, Sricandra, Jinacandra, Gșdhrapiñcha, Lāhācārya, Elācārya, Pūjyapāda, Simha nandin, Jinasēna, Virasēna, Gunanandi, Samantabhadra. Kumbha, Sivakoti, Sivāyana, Visņsēna, Gunabhadra, Akalanka, Sõmadēva, Prabhācandra, Nemicandra etc.
4.8.7. Indranandi's mention of five sub-sects of the Jaina church in his Nitisara is or historical significance :
Gopucchakah svetāvāsā Drāvidö Yāpaniyakah Nihpicchaśceti pañcaite Jainābhāsah prakirtitah

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It gives an idea of how the contemporary sects and subsects, within the fold of their own religion, reacted to one another. It provides valuable data about the Yāpaniya sangha that was prevalent and enjoying high status in the Rāştrakūța empire.
4.9. Sõmadēvasūri, distinguished productive talent of the age, was a monk disciple of Nēmadēva of Dēva-samgha, a cohort of Mūla-samgha the original congregation, and one of the four ecclesiastical orders of the Digambara synod in the south. Mahēndradēva was his elder brother in the sense of a senior confrere. Monk Mahēndra is the selfsame Mahēndra Pandita of Kondakunda anvaya and Desiga -gana who figures in an inscription of C. E. 950, from Narēgal [Gadag Dt. SII. XI-i. 38. 950. p. 23). Sõmadēva has provided bits of information in the prasasti, the colophon, about his life, lineage, teachers, benefactors and patrons. He started his career as a court-scholar of Mahēndrapāla-II, the Pratihāra monarch of Kanauj, where he authored the Nitivākyāmộta in C. E. 957, and the Trivarga- Mahēndra - Mātali-Jalpa. On the request of Baddega, the duchy of Vēmulavāda, Sõmadēva migrated to south.
4.9.1. Sõmadēvasūi composed Yasastilaka of surpassing excellence in saka 881, siddhārti caitra Madana-Trayodasi, corresponding to C. E. 959-60, the date synchronising the Rāştrakūta emperor's victorious camp at Mēlpāți (Mēlpādi: North Arcot/Citoor Dt.). Krşņa-III, repulsing the Pāņdyas, the Simhaļa, the Auca, the Cērama etc, had camped at Mélpāți. Baddega-II (C. E.955-65), elder son of Arikēsari-II (C. E. 930-55), crest jewel of the māņdalikas, Dukes under the Rāştrakūtas, commissioned the work of Yasastilaka (Yasodhara-carita), an unmatched classic of its type, composed in chaste Sanskrit. It was composed and completed at Gangādharam (AP : Karimnagar Dt) olim Gangadhārā, a subsidiary metropolis, near the Vrsabhādri, more widely

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known as Bommalaguṭṭa. Handiqui's identification of Gangadhara with Gangavati in the Raicur Dt of Karṇāṭaka is not correct.
4.9.2. Sōmadēva flourished as a court-poet of the Calukyas of Vēmulavāḍa olim Lēmulavāḍa (Sk. Lēmuļa pāṭaka/Lembulapāṭaka/Lēmuļavāṭaka) feudatories of the Rāṣṭrakūtas. Yaśastilaka, composed in campu style on the model of Prakrit Jaina works, stands unsurpassed in many respects. Exploiting the creative dimensions of campu style and form, the standard Yasastilaka, in prose and verse, Somadeva took it to sublime heights: 'It represents a lively picture of India at a time when the Buddhist, Jaina and Brahminical religions were still engaged in a contest that drew towards it the attention, and well-nigh absorbed the intellectual energies of all thinking men' [Peterson's Report, 1., p. 33]. It is said that his prose vies with Bāṇa and his poetry with that of Magha.
4.9.3. Yasastilaka, a mahā-kā vya, great-poem, portrayed on a broad canvas of eight parts dealing with various subjects. The story of prince Yasodhara and his cycle of births, most popular theme in Jaina narrative lore, is the nucleus of the epic. Befittingly, this portion is popular as Yasodhara-mahārāja-carita. The character of Amṛtamati, queen-consort of Yasodhara is portrayed in such a way that it turns out to be the core of the story. Ever since K. K. Handiqui published his researcher on the historical and cultural importance in his famous work Yasastilaka and Indian culture', Sōmadēvasūri is very often referred cum lande, with the highest praise, by the Sanskrit scholars and philosophers:
'Somadeva has shown an encyclopaedic genius that a scholar to-day could reconstruct all shades of Vedic, Agamic, Tantric and popular thought and wisdom current in the time by dint of patient research on this work. There is nothing secular or religious, social or political, that escapes the far

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flung net of the great author. It can be regarded as a unique work in Sanskrit literature'.. [Krishnamoorthy, in - The Rastrakutas of Malkhed, (ed). Gopal. B. R. : 1994 : 395].
4.9.3.1. The last chapters, six to eight, of Yaśastilaka are known as Upasakādhyana, 'readings for lay men', i.e., an authentic text for the lay votaries of Diagambara tradition, enjoying the status of an independent text. While denouncing the delusion pertaining gods, Sõmadēvasūri criticizes the alleged divinity of the popular gods. He shuns superstitious practices such as making food offerings to the manes, worshipping trees, touching the tail of a cow with the belief that such acts avert disasters. He adverts to the different methods of uttering the Jaina formula, including the popular one, consisting of 35 letters.
4.9.3.2. Niti-Vākyāmsta, nectar of political sayings, exhaustive treatise of polity in 32 chapters in sūtras, easily stands on par with Artha śāstra of Kautilya (Cāņkya/ Vişnugupta?). Yaśastilaka can be considered as the coup demaitre, master stroke, and Nitivākyāmộta can be regarded as coup d'etat, political stroke of poet Somadēvasūri. Incidentally, it may be mentioned here that S. R. Goyal has argued that Artha-śāstra is a work of a Jaina monk. Sõmadēva's cognition on Indian niti, polity, or rājadharma, statecraft, is amazing. His wealth of material has made the work a notable contribution to the theory and science of politics, and the political significance of the work needs no exaggeration. This political treatise deals with neither on Jaina ethics nor on syādvāda philosophy, the doctrine of qualified assertion, though authored by a Jaina litterateur. Critics have voted Nīti-Vākyāmộta as the chef d'oeuvre, masterpiece of Somadēva.
4.9.4. Sõmadēvasūri authored the famous Nitivākyāmsta, avowedly nonsectarian work, to advice princes like Krsna, Baddega-II Arikesari-III (966-75), and

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Mārasimha-II, on how best to govern their kingdoms. The author has the following benediction about the work : this righteous policy brings forth the fruits of all efforts of human existence, fulfillment of worldly needs, desires and attainment to salvation. His predecessors, Jinasēna-II and Guṇabhadra of Mahāpurāņa fame, and Hēmacandra of Laghvarahaniti, had bestowed thought on political philosophy. However, it is Somadēvasūri who summed up the current political wisdom in a striking manner, furnishing many valuable details of administrative setup, such as the appointment of ministers, Talāraksas, and astādaśaPradhānas. Local taxes were collected by the mandalikas; at the time of coronation of the rāja king and yuvarāja, the heir-apparent, patta-bandhan was done.
4.9.5. Scholars have emphasised the significance of the work and its sūtras in which Somadēvācārya has contrived to amalgamate utmost concision with considerable perspicacity of expression. Nitivākyāmộta has been translated into Italian. Famous Kannada authors Brahmasiva (C. E. 1175) and Cidānanda (C. E. 1680) have been deeply influenced by this work. Neminātha (C. 13th cent.) has written a Kannada commentary on Nitivākyāmệta. It deals with the values of life, the saptāngas, the seven limbs of the state, diplomacy, general envoy, spy, the minister, judiciary, preceptor, war and peace - which go to confirm that Sõmadēva was an author of extraordinary genius.
4.9.5.1. Sõmadēva was a prolific author. His other extant works are the Şaņvati-prakaraṇa, the Trivarga mahēndra - Mātali-jalpa, the Yukti-cintāmaņi-stava. Of these, Trivarga-mahēndra-mātalisanjalpa is in the form of a dialogue between Indra and his charioteer Mātali on dharma, artha, and kāma, a work on the science of polity which can be considered as an appendix to Nitivākyāmộta.

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The Sindhūra-prakarana, the Adhyātma-Tarangini, the Syādvādāpanişat and Siddhiprada - are the other works either not extant or still hidden in bhandāras. Thus, Sõmadēvasūri was a poet, philosopher, epistemologist, pontiff, well-known in the theory of political, science, and a dialectician of considerable merit.
4.9.6. Analogus to Jinasēna, Guņabhadra, and Ajitasēna, a contemporary patriarch, Sõmadēva exerted deep and erudite influence upon the ruling monarchs. During the three productive decades between C. E. 950 and 980, Somadēva was considered as the egregious political thinker. He was to Krsna, the Rāstrakūta emperor, what Jinasēna was to Amöghavarşa-I. Thus, his influence was not confined to the courts of the lieges only. His preponderance extended from Mānyakhēta the metropolis, to Vēmulavāda in the east and to Gangavādi in the south.
4.9.6.1. According to the authentic details recorded in the Koppal inscription No. 34, discovered and edited by me, Sõmadēva lived to see both the wax and wane of the Rāstrakūta kingdom which was liquidated in C. E. 973-74. The above Sanskrit epigraph in two parts, has the following information : 1. Sõmadēva had the cognomen of vāk-kallola-payõnidhi,
kavirāja-kunjara, gadya-padya vidyadhara-cakravartti,
vādindra-kālānala, tārkika-cakravartti. 2. Nēmidēva and Mahēndradēva were his spiritual frairs. 3. He was versatile in poetics, dramaturgy, poetry,
grammar and state craft. 4. He was praised by Krsna-III and Nolambāntaka, i.e.,
Mārasimha-II (961-73/74). Sõmadēva panditadēva died on 2.10.984 Thursday at Koppaļa by the rite of sallekhanā [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: Jaina Corpus of Kopaļa inscriptions x rayed : 1999].

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4.9.7. Some scholars are of the opinion that Sõmadevasūri was originally a saint from Bengal, since it is mentioned in an inscription that he belongs to the Gauda samgha. But this suggestion lacks substantive evidence either from epigraphy or from literature.
4.9.7.1. Three eminent literary luminaries, Ponna (C. E. 960), poet-laureate of Krsna, Puspadanta, a mahākavi of Apabhramśa literature, and Vādigangaļa Bhatta, courtier, statesman-scholar and a grammarian of the Gangavādi principality, were contemporaneous to Sõmadēva. Vādirāja and Vādībhasimha, illustrious Jaina ascetics and authors, were disciples of Sõmadēva; the former has authored Yasõdhara-carita in Sanskrit and the latter ksatra-cūdāmaņi also in Sanskrit, both the works bearing the stamp of their revered guru.
4.9.8. Baddega (Vaddega/Vādyega/Bhadradeva) a scion of the Calukyas of Vēmulavāda and son of Arikēsari-II, was sămanta (governor).of sapada-laksa-kşiti country, i.e., Vēmulavāda. At the instance of his teacher Sōmadēvasūri of the Gauda-samgha, Baddega, calukya-kula-bhāskara, founded a Jaina shrine called Subhadhāma-Jinālaya exclusively for Sõmadevasūri at Lembuļa pāțaka, his metropolis. For the maintenance of the sanctuary, Sõmadēvasūri, poet of surpassing excellence, was endowed with Vanikațupulu village in Kuttumvștti which belonged to Rēpāka-12 of Sabbisahasra division by Arikesari-III. Sömadēva continued to live during the reign of ArikēsariIII, son of Baddega, who granted the author a village of the name of Vanikațupula for the up keep and repairs of Subhadhāma-Jinālaya built by his father, in C. E.966. There are no traces of this Jinālaya at present at Vēmulavāda, excepte the broken pillars and statues of the old temple which are now kept in the Rājarājēśvara temple. On the pedestal of a Jaina image, kept in this temple, an inscription of king Baddega is engraved [ARIE 1945 - 52, p.4).

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4.9.8.1. The post-obitum epitaph of Indra-IV dated C. E. 982, composed in standard Sankrit language, erected on the crest of Candragiri hill at Śravanabelagola, may have been authored by Somadēvasūri; circumstantial premises lend support to this conjecture.
4.9.8.2. Scholars have lauded Sõmadēva profusely with encomiums worth quoting : 1. "The Yaśastilaka is in itself a work of true poetical merit,
which nothing but the bitterness of theological hatred would have excluded so long from the list of the classics of India" [Peterson). "Much bloodshed would have been avoided and Europe would have been spared infinite misery, if during the last years Somadeva's wise rule had always been followed - Military authorities should not be authorities in (political) counsels" (M. Winternitz]. "He is one of the most versatile talents in the history of Indian literature, and his masterpiece Yasastilaka reveals the manifold aspects of his genius. He is a master of prose and verse, a profound scholar with a wellstocked memory, an authority on Jaina dogma, and a critic of contemporary philosophical systems. He is a close student of the art of the government, and in this respect his Yaśastilaka and Nitivākyamệta supplement each other. He is a redactor of ancient folktale and religious stories and at times shows himself an adept in dramatic dialogue.
4.9. Last but not least, he is a keen observer of men and manners. The position of Sõmadēva is, indeed, unique in Sanskrit literature. [K. K. Handiqui]. his poems disprove the general misconception that Jaina works are a literature of philosophy and religion and establish that Jaina poems are of pure literature.
3.

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4.9.1. There were many other frias scholars who had made the Rāştrakūta eon an El Dorado, heaven on earth, for Jainism. Prabhācandra-I (C. 800 C. E.), pupil of Akalanka, Māņikyanandi and Padmanandi. He composed Candrõdaya-Mărtaņda, which is cited by Jinasena-II. Prabhācandra-II, a later author was contemporaneous of king Bhõja and Āvidhakarņa Padmanandi. 4. "Sõmadēva was a great Sanskrit writer. Besides his
famous Yaśastilaka champu, he wrote many other works including a tratise on rājaniti called the Nitivākyāmțitam. Sõmadēva cultivated a highly ornate style replete with Sabda and artha alankarāras. Sõmadēva’s Yaśastilaka is well stocked with interesting information on all possible subjects which makes it an in dispensable aid to the historian of mediaeval Inida" [Venkataramanayya, N: 1953 : 46).

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CHAPTER-5
KANNADA LITERATURE
5.1. "There is scarcely any province of Indian literature in which the Jains have not been able to hold their own. Above all, they have developed a voluminous narrative literature, they have written epics and novels, they have composed dramas and hymns; sometimes, they have written in the simple language of the people, at other times they have competed, in highly elaborate poems, with the best masters of ornate court poetry, and they have also produced important works of scholarship". [Winternitz, M: History of Indian Literature, vol. II. 1933: 483].
5.1.1. The above statement holds good and appropriately sums up the attempts of Jaina authors in Kannada, Sanskrit and Prakrit literature in the years of Rāṣṭrakūta rule. Infact, a brief chronicle of Jaina literature will be in defense or an expansion of the above statement. Jainism had deeprooted in the fertile soil of Karṇāṭaka, under very favourable circumstances, before the Rāṣṭrakūṭa's could become the sovereigns. Jains had become the warp and the woof of all fields. In brief, they had contributed immensely to the enrichmentment of Karnataka's heritage in various branches of knowledge. The inspiration generated by Jainism and Jaina intelligence has been a factor of inestimable value in the out growth of language and literature, both religious and secular.

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5.1.2. In addition to the Jaina literature in Kannada language being very extensive and cover a wide range of subjects, highest number of Jaina works and inscriptions are found in Karņāțaka. Kannada language, spoken by about 40 million, is one of the 26 Dravidian languages in the south. It possess oldest literature, perhaps as ancient as Tamil, and in the temporal terms only next to Sanskrit and Prakrit. The development of Kannada language, literature, and literary forms, both religious and secular, owes its allegiance to the works of Jaina scholars of yore. A strong impetus to Kannada literature came from the language and literature of the north, both Sanskrit and the dialects of Prakrit being notable. Generally, the incentive originated from the works of both Jaina and non-Jaina authors. But, mainly the authors of Jaina church and the works for the propagation of the creed, motivated Kannada poets.
5.1.3. Kannada language in the early epigraphs of the period of the Gangas, the Cālukyas of Bādāmi, and the Rāstrakūtas, of which specimens are extant from fifth to the tenth century in particular, was not the same as that of the present day. Language of the literary works, availabe from the early ninth century, and onwards upto 12th cent., has also changed considerably. Kannada language of the early period is called old-Kannada and the ancient authors were profficient in old-Kannada and its literary style. For the sake of convenience to assess its changes in the course of its annals which stretches over a millenium and half, literary scholars, based on the linguistic evidences, have marked four stages :
Pre-old Kannada period : from the beginning of the fifth cent. C. E. to the end of gth cent.
Old-Kannada : from the beginning of ninth cent. C. E. to the end of 12th cent.
Post-Old Kannada or Middle-Kannada period : from 12th cent. to 18th cent.
Modern Kannada period : from 18th cent. onwards.

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5.1.4. A characteristic of the literary style of the authors of the period of Old Kannada was its extraordinary amount of polish and refinement. All the authors were Jains, who had Prakrit and Sanskrit literature as their prototype.The period upto fifth century was the period of ploughing the firtile land of Kannada language, up to eighth cent. was the period of sowing the seed, and ninth cent. onwards was the age of longeval dynamism of reaping a rich harvest. The magnitude of Kannada literature can not be comprohensively condensed in a few pages. Only succinct account of Nirgrantha literature of the Rāstrakūta epoch is attempted in the following pages.
5.1.5. Kannada literature of this eon was completely dominated by the connoisseurship of Jaina authors without any exception. Jaina authors did not confine to the traditional religious literature of their own faith. With their typical catholicity they were alive to the best from all quarters and sources. They had greater regard for Vālmiki, Vyāsa, Bhāsa, Guņādhya, Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, Bāņa, Māgha, Bhāravi, Bhatta-Nārayana and a host of major and minor talents. Jaina men of letters did not hesitate to imbibe and emulate these intellectual giants or even freely translate/adopt the works of Sansrit into Kannada. Kavirājamārga (C. E. 850), second earliest work extant, betrays clear traces of Sanskrit Kā vyādarśa (Dandin) and Kavyālankārah (Bhāmaha), in the idiom of Kannada, a Dravidian language.
5.1.6. In the field of general literature of non-sectarian nature, works of Jaina authors are of high rank. Among such works, Vikramārjuna-vijayam (Pampa), BhuvanaikaRāmabhyudyam (Ponna), and Sāhasa-Bhima-vijayam (Ranna) are most outstanding. A broad survey of Jaina literature of the Rāstrakūta age would indicate that royal patronage and religious fervour proved to be two primary factors that promoted and prompted the literary animation.

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Geographically, the region of the modern North Karņāțaka was more prolific of the sramaņa faculty during this period.
5.2. Jaina authors of this age were equally proficient in all three languages of Prakrit, Sanskrit and Kannada. Jaina authors had a number of titles too. Most of them are recorded in their works. Some of the praśastis were common. But, each poet had distinct and peculiar birudas of his own. The epithet of ubhaya-bhāṣā-viśārada was not unusual, whereas kavi-cakravartti was rare. Only four poets-Ponna, Ranna, Janna and Brhamasiva had this unique distinction and all of them were Jains. A few of them like Pampa, Ponna, Jinavallabha, son of Pampa, were versed in Telugu also. It is said that Ponna has authored the earliest work in Telugu language. Pampa was poet-laureate of Vēmulavāda kings who were holding Telugu speaking area also as their fief. Therefore, Pampa was obviously conversant in Telugu. This assumption is ratified by the fact that Jinavallabha, his younger brother, has composed the famous charter of Gangādharam in C. E. 950, in three languages of Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu, perhaps the only poet to do so. From inscriptions it is established that there were few Jaina families in Andhradeśa who had Telugu as their mothertongue. Besides, those who were placed in the bilingual border regions were freely knowledgeable in both Telugu and Kannada, whichever of the two be there mother-tongue. Vēngi, a buffer region, was a sweet-home of many Jaina families of warriors and of authors, during the Rāstrakūta times. Pampa, Ponna, Nāgavarma originally belonged to Vēnigi-Vişaya, but preferred to author in the pure and plithy Kannada, that too in the dialect spoken in and around Puligere, the modern Lakşmeśvara.
5.2.1. In the Rāştrakūta period some memorable Brāhmin families accepted Jaina faith on their own accord, mostly in the region of Kamme-nādu in Vengi-visaya. Among

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them, Nāgamayya, lord of Punganür, was prominent. Nāgamayya of Kauņdinya götra, knowledgeable and trained in many discipline, was an ardent follower of Jinacandra muni, an accomplished Jaina saint. His two sons, Mallapayya (Mallapa) and Punnamayya, started their career as officers in the Rāştrakūta army and later they shifted their loyalty to Tailapa-II. Dānacintāmaņi Attimabbe, a celebrity, was the daughter of Mallapa and grand daughter of Nāgamayya. Bhimapayya, father of Adi-kavi Pampa, and Joyisasingha, father-in-law of Bhimapayya, both were neophytes to Jainism. Vādighanghala alias Muñjārya, a savant and protege of Būtuga and Mārasimha, a proselyte, was versatile Jaina scholar. Puşpadanta, one of the greatest of Prakrit authors, was a Jaina convert. Kannada literature was on the threshold of steppingout of the commentary phase. The period of writing commentaries on Tattvārtha sūtra of Umāsvāti had preceeded the stage of classical literature in Kannada language. By the time AmõghavarşaI could succeed to the throne in the early decades of ninth cent. C. E., Kannada literature had entered the plane of epics and classics, with Sanskrit and Prakrit as its backdrop. Kannada authors ransacked the literary riches of Sanskrit and the opulence of Prakrit poems, that was easily obtainable at their doors.
5.2.2. Jaina authors of this period made most valuable contribution to Sanskrit and Prakrit literature. Jainas had by this time opted to Sanskrit and the regional languages, by consigning Prakrit to secondary place. Ever since the skillful Umāsvāti wrote Tattvārthasütra and Jațāsimha nandi composed Varānga caritam in Sankrit, Jaina literatary genius authored some important polemical works also. The Rāştrakūta empire was a nest of singing birds comprising illustrious Jainas. This is indicative of the flourishing state of śramaņa dharma in this age. Jaina men of letters could

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spread their gospel through Kannada language of the state. The main theme of Rāmāyaṇa, Mahā-Bhārata, Bṛhat-kathā (Guṇādhya), Ārādhanā (Śivakōṭi) and Mahāpurāṇa was initiated into texture of Kannada fabric by the Jainas who were radical in their approach. Epic, classic, prose, verse and works of other genre was their model.
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5.2.3. The period of Amoghavarṣa was the golden age for the Raṣṭrakūṭas which augmented palmy days for Jainism. Virasēnācārya completed Dhavala-Tikā, his chef d'oeuvre, masterpiece, in C. E. 816. As a consequence of it Nṛpatunga got the cognomen of Atisaya-Dhavala. Jinasēna-II was the respected partriarch whose holy feet were worhipped by Amōghavarṣa. Jinasēna continued and completed his commentary Jayadhavala on the JainaĀgama, authored Ādipurāṇam, first part of the greater Mahāpurāṇa, and Pārśvābhyudaya. The royal court of Amoghavarṣa was adorned with Sākaṭāyana, eminent grammarian and Mahāvīrācārya, renowned mathematician. They were the masters who moulded the monarch's religious life. Amōghavarṣa found solace by retiring to a Jaina monastery more than once in the course of his long reign [Sastry, K. A. N.: 1958: 426, Altekar, A. S.: 1934: 89]. He also authored a small Jaina catechism entitled Praśnottararatnamālikā, jewel wreath of question and
answers.
5.2.3.1. Some of the Jaina authors were savya-sācis, equally at ease, both on the war field and to drive a quill. Pampa, Ranna, Santinātha and Janna started their career as soldiers and shifted their genius and creative faculties to compose copiously creditable works and poems, and rose to the status of poet-laureateship. Jaina authors elevated Kannada to a literary level not previously achieved. Abundently admirable Jaina generals like Śrīvijaya, Būtuga, Sankaraganda, Bankēśa, Mārasimha, Camuṇḍarāya,

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Gangaraja placed Karṇāṭaka on a pedestal that was held in high deference.
5.2.4. The Raṣṭrakūtas ruled greater Karṇāṭāka, the expansion of which was their own achievement. With their political will, dazzling victories, dauntless courage, Karṇāṭaka stood as a territorial unit. Political sway and cultural impact of Karṇāṭaka, during this epoch, extended to the regions beyond her geographical boundaries. Karnataka culture traversed to the rivers Narmada and Gōdāvari belt. Definitely, in the matters of scholarly pursuits, religious faiths, and philosophical thoughts, the wake of political expansion followed other influences. Impact on the socio-economic life, cultural factors, expanded in all directions of the of vast kingdom. Kannada from its initial stage. Its Rāṣṭrakūta dynasty was in the grip Kannada affinity was cemented after their association with the Gangas.
5.2.4.1. Very many lithic records of the Raṣṭrakūtas are written in Kannada script, and many of them are in Kannada language also. Their love of Kannada was so deep rooted that they were not embarrassed to fix their Kannada epigraphs beyond the boundaries of Karṇāṭaka. An inscription of Kṛṣṇa-III, composed in ornate Sanskrit literary style, engraved in Kannada found at Jūrā [Mahārāṣṭra: Jabalpur Dt] validate their zeal for Kannada. The Rāṣṭrakūta's of Gujarat have used Kannada for the sign - manual in the Sanskrit records. Personal names like Ariga, Asaga, Baddega, Khottiga, Gojjiga, Naraga, Govindara, Kannara, Rēvakanimmadi et cetara, substantiate the influence of Kannada in this age. There are other corroborative evidences to prove it beyond doubt.
Early Agama literature in Kannaḍa
5.3. A proper understanding of the scope and

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significance of Dhavalā Tīkā that appeared in the Rāstrakūta eon, needs a brief introduction of its background. Therefore, with an intention of facilitating the novice, following material is provided.
5.3.1. The volume of Jaina-āgama, canonical literature that developed in Sanskrit and Kannada, in Karņāțaka is very vast and can not be reviewed here in its entirety, except noting the names of the major authors/commentators. The literature of syādvāda philosophy, the doctrine of qualified assertion, takes off from the great Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra, the best known digest among the manuals of Jainism. There are three score and more commentaries on this ancient primordial text. So far published portion itself covers over 5000 pages. The early commentaries were in prose and the verse was yet to follow.
5.3.1. The task of writing comm. on Tattvārtha-sūtra, refining and restating the doctrines enunciated earlier, went on slowly but steadily from generation to generation. The most significant and best known works in the later derivative literature are from Karņāțaka. Umāsvāti is held in high regard by the Nirgranthologists, and Tattvārthasūtra has widely influenced for over a thousand years. Gandha-hastimahābhāsya, the earliest and fore runner of the commentaries, attributed to Samantabhadradēva is not extant, but some of the later authors have sought in their own way to determine the size of the lost text as of 96,000 verses.
5.3.1.2. Among the extant works, outstanding being the classic expositions of Pūjyapāda, Akalanka and Vidyānanda. These esteemed and elaborate commentaries are in Sanskrit. The period between C. E. 350-950 was the age of many celebrated commentaries by eloquent scholars. The learned pontiffs in the reign of the Ganga kings had scholar pupil who became authors of repute.

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5.3.1.3. The earliest works known in Kannada language belong to this group of Jaina commentaries. Fixing the exact date of some of the early ācāryas and authors has posed certain problems. Without going into the details of those scholastic discussions, I have chosen to mention the nearest and reasonably a safe date, wherever such controverseries are involved.
5.3.2. Tumbalurācārya wrote a vlouminous comm. Cūdāmaņi, the head-jewel, consisting of 84 thousand verses in Kannada language; and, an appendix for the sixth part, called the mahã-bandha, of ubhayasiddhānta, consisting of another 7000 verses. Totally this Cūdāmaņi comm. on ubhaya-siddhānta consisted of (84+7) 91,000 verses, by any standard is a great feat of an author, who achieved it in Kannada language, in and around 4th - 6th cent. C. E. Indranandi in his Sștāvatāra (C. E. 930), Cāmundaraya in his Cāmundarāya-purāņa (C. E. 978), Dēvancandra in his Rājāvali-Kathāsāra (19th cent.) and Pūjyapadacarite (19th cent.), chronologically, narrate the tradition and history of how the redaction of the primordial scripture took place. Bhatta-Akalanka, in his sabdānuśāsana, a Kannada grammar written in Sanskrit language (early 16th cent.) has considered Cūdāmaņi the greatest work in Kannada language.
5.3.2.1. Srivardhadēva, an author of about 6th - 7th cent. different from Sāmakunda and Tumbalūrācārya, definitely a later author to both of them, also wrote a Cūļāmaņi olim Cūdāmaņi. What is important is that it was a kāvya, a peom and not a comm. Its title has lead the scholars into confusion, as a consequence of which, some have even mistaken Tumbalūrācārya and Srivardhadēva to be one and the same. But the three nomens are variants.
5.3.2.2. Following is the verbaitem English translation of the portion of an inscription [EC. 11(R) 77(67) C. E. 1129.

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p. 44.] which has relevance to the discussion: 'How is it possible not to praise the noble chief of sages, Cintamani, who composed for use in every house, the Cintamani, which contains fine thoughts on virtue, wealth, pleasure and solution, for men who are (thereby) enjoying sweet happiness? A crest - jewel of poets and the author of a worthy poem named Cūlamaņi, Śrīvardhadēva alone was possessed of sufficient merit to acquire fame. He was thus praised by Dandi: 'Siva bore Jahnu's daughter (Ganga) on the top of his matted hair; O Śrīvadhadēva, you bear Sarasvati on the tip of your tongue' [ibid, p. 385].
5.3.2.3. It is clear that Śrivardhadēva was a poet per excellence and his work Cūlāmaṇi olim Cūdamaņi was a classic so well received by his contemporary and later poets of Sanskrti language. Śrīvardhadeva is chronologically placed after Samantabhadra, Kumārasena and Cintamani. He got Chintamani, as his second name because of his authorship of Cūlāmaņi; - ļa -, and-da-being interchangeable according to the phonetic law. Another suggestion that Tolamolideva (Tolamol-Tēvar), author of Sūlāmaṇi olim Cūḍāmaņi, a Jaina work in Tamil language (C. 7th - 10th cent.), and Śrivardhadēva are identical has not been accepted. The very fact that a Sanskrit author of the eminence of Dandin, has extoled Śrīvardhadeva confirms that he wrote Cūdāmaņi sēvya-kävya in Sanskrit or in Prakrit, as it is doubtful whether Dandin knew Kannada language, though he was from the south. Unless and untill it is proved beyond doubt, that Dandi also knew Kannada language, it can not be even suggested that Śrivardhadēva wrote his Cuḍamani in Kannada. His name also does not figure in the list of early authors of Kannada mentioned in Kavirājamārga, 'poet's avenue' (C. E. 850).
5.3.3. Many mendicants who had memorized major portions of the original canons, the agamās, perished in the

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great famine of twelve long years in the mid 4th cent. B. C. The Jaina community, both mendicant and lay votaries, scattered to distant places of safety. During the migration of monks and nuns to south and other parts, Nirgranthism suffered a major set back and loss of its traditionally well preserved texts. A close contact of the ācāryas, the leaders of the mendicant community, who possessed a sound knowledge of the basic texts and who had an easy access to the-source material, became difficult. This created a void, a wide gap of communication and subsequent isolation from the main stalk. The patriarchate who survived the calamity felt the necessity of resurrection in the slackened Jaina order and immediately swung into action, convened the synods at regular intervals and that was the period of redaction.
5.3.3.1. It was under these circumstances, that a large bulk of the friars and nuns entered Karņāțaka, where Jainism had already footed firmly with its followers. Jainism did not spread in a continous process, but in a series of waves of migrations to different regions in India. In this spread, it could get royal as well as popular support which had beneficial as well as adverse effects on its organisation and monastic life (DEO, S. B.: 1956 : 577). At this juncture the Digambara apostle Dharasēna transmitted (c. 156 B. C.) to his two disciples Puspadanta and Bhūtabali (C. 500 A. D.) who compiled Satkhanda-āgama, scriputre in six parts [Jivathāna, Khudda-bandha, bandha svāmitva-vicaya, vēdana, vargana and mahā-bandha). Guņadhara alias Guņabhadra-I, compiled, kasāya-pāhuda (Sk. kaşāyaprābhịta) olim Pejja-dosa-pāhuda (Sk. preyas dvēşaprābhịta 'Love and Malice') dealing with the theories of bondage of the soul. Of course, the topics of these two āgama works are comprehensive mostly to the advanced scholars and mendicants.
5.3.3.2. Pontiff svāmi Virasena (A. D. 816) of Pañca

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stūpa-anvaya, of Karnataka wrote Dhavala, the luminous, a lucid comm. on Sat-khanda-agama of Prathama Śṛtaskanda. Adept Jinasēna (A. D. 820) wrote Jayadhavalā, the victoriously lumnious, a comm. on kaṣaya-pahuḍa of Dvitiya śṛtaskanda. A mendicant possessing full knowledge of these two premordial siddhanta, canonical works, was honoured with title of 'siddhanta-cakravartti', which explains that even for the ascetics these works were not so easy to digest. Therefore, many monks used to devote more time to master these works. So many ṛṣis bear the title siddhantadeva, siddhāntācārya siddhanti, traividyadeva. A possessor of the knowledge of the first three sections viz., jiva-sthāna, kṣudraka-bandha and bandha svāmitva-vicaya is called traividyadeva. But, śabdagama, yuktyāgama and paramagama are also considered as traividyas.
5.3.3.3. Kamma-pāhuḍa (karma-prabhṛta) olim the Satkhaṇḍāgama and kasāya-pāhuḍa (kaṣāyaprabhṛta) are popularly referred to as ubhaya-siddhanta. These basic agama works were preserved intact in their original form in Karṇāṭaka, with glosses and commentaries written by celebrated ācāryas who had the inborn gift of digesting the original and passing it to the successive generations, with lucid commentaries, giving the quintessence of the sutras. Yati-Vṛṣabha's curni-sutra, Uccaraṇācāya's uccāraṇa-sūtra, Konda-kunda-ācārya's Parikarma.on the first three parts of ṣaṭ-khaṇḍa-agama, are a unique feat of master minds. Of the Kannada commentators Samakunda (C. 4-6 cent.) being one of the ealriest, deserves a prominent place. He wrote on satkhand-agama's first five parts (leaving maha-bandha, the sixth part) and on kasaya-pahuḍa a comm. of 12,000 granthapramāņa in a language of combination of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada. According to the opinion of Hiralal Jain, the learned Nirgranthologist, Samakunda wrote his comm. on the glosses of Parikarma of Kondakundācārya and cūrņi

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vịtti of Yati-Vrsabha. Since the comm. of Sāmakunda is perhaps lost once for all, nothing difinitely could be said. The method of Šāmakunda's comm., according to the statement ofJinasena ācārya made in Jaya-dhavalā, is called paddhati : Vitti-sutta-visamapaya bhanjie vivaraņāe paddhai vava esādo. It is an explanation for the difficult words that occur in the gloss and sūtra.
5.3.4. In some ways Karņātaka occupied, from the beginning, a special position as regards the commentarial literature on Prakritāgamas and Sanskrit Tattvārtha-sūtra and its learning. Jaina institutions became more apparent from the 4th and 5th cent. A. D., when the Gangas were powerful rulers of Gangavādi 9600. This flourishing state of the Niragrantha faith attracted Jaina scholars, friars and nuns from different parts.
5.3.4.1. Early commentators developed a quaint style called manipravālam, crystal and coral, loaded with Sanskrit and Prakrit words, not easily understood outside the limited learned circle. But, these extensive commentaries hugging the original text, have also assumed the proportion of independent treatise. The fine literary flavour of the commentaries is yet to be assessed properly. What is the real development from one comm. to the other is to be carefully examined, and such a study will enable the reader to discern the progress achieved.
5.3.4.2. As mentioned earlier, the early commentaries were composed at a period when the Gangas were profusely patronising their Jaina faith as guided by their preceptors. Of the Kannada commentaries it is widely believed that cūdamaņi is the earliest (C. 6th cent.). On the basis of inscriptional evidences, it is suggested that Āryadēva of about 4th cent. C. E. composed a comm. on Tattvārthasūtra, in which case he may be the author of Cūdamaņi. This suggession needs a serious consideration. Thus, cūdamaņi

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marks an improtant stage of take off in the history of Kannada literature, though not even a fragment of this learned exposition has been traced so far. Pujyapada's Sarvartha-siddhi is one of the oldest commentaries, so far known from south India. The gloss has given unmsitakable evidence of the commentator's originality and dialectical skill, with a stress on the tenets of Digambara sect. On internal and external evidences, and on linguistic grounds, Pujyapada's work is assigned by critics to the period of C. E. 530-80 (it may be possible to bring down the peirod to an earlier date-is immaterial). Pujyapāda, supposed to be a preceptor of Durvinita, the Ganga king, has some more works to his credit. Samantabhadradēva and Akalanka-ācārya were keen controversialists and travelled incessantly to hold religious disputations, where as Pujyapada was mainly limited to his writing. His influence on Kannaḍa commentators is obvious. Divākaraṇandi (1060) and Bālacandradeva faithfully follow his sarvārtha-siddhi commentary.
5.3.5. While a gradual and constant development was taking place in the sphere of religion, a parallel growth could be seen in the domain of literature also, which saw a spring time efflorescence, during the period of tenth and eleventh centuries. Jaina literature of the eight and ninth centuries, except for the two extant work, is, for want of material, very vague. Regarding the content, contribution, significance and literary status of Jain a literature, an in extenso discussion will follow, which corroborate the flourishing state of Jainism in Karṇātaka. Since, frequent allusion to Punnāḍu, a Dravidian nomen equivalent to Sanskrit Punnāṭadeśa, occurs its location may be cleared in this context. Punnāța had included the area of the modern coimbatore Dt in Tamilnadu. Punnața was a part and parcel of Karṇāṭaka, and it was situated to the south-west region of Mysore Dt,

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with Kittur (Sk. Kirtipura) of the modern Heggada dēvanakōte tk, as its metropolis. Geographist Ptolemy (150 B. C) has mentioned this country as Paunnāța. Apabhramśa poet Puspadanta (C. E. 965) had mentioned Dravida, Gavuda, Kannada, Barāḍavi, Pārasa, Pāriyāya, Punṇādavi and other regions in Mahāpurāṇa. Poet Hariṣena (C. E. 931) in his poem Bṛhat-kathākōśa states in the Bhadrabahukatha :
anekasaha samghopi samasto guruvakyatah Dakṣinapatha deśastha Punnāṭaviśayam yayau
5.3.5.1. Inscriptional references are not lacking. Punnāṭa samgha and Kittūru samgha, are one and the same. It originated from Punnāḍu and Kittūru. Jinasena-I, Harişena and some other prominent authors and ascetics of this period were affiliated to Punnāța.
5.3.5.2. Punnaḍu samgha monk-authors also stayed at Vardhamānapura, a prominant seat of Jaina church in the period of 8th and 10th centuries, which had intimate tie with Karṇāṭaka. Ācārya Jinasēna-I of Punnāța samgha commensed composing his renowned epic Harivamsapurāna in the Jina Parsva temple at Vardhamanapura, which was founded by Nannrāja [Jinasena: Harivamsa: verse No. 55 in the prasasti 'colophon']. In C. E. 783, Jinasena-I completed the above poem in the Santinātha shrine commissioned by the Jaina votraries of Daustaṭikā. [Epic Harivamśapurāṇa is a voluminous poem with 66 cantos and 12,000 ślōkas, containing verses composed in drutavilambita, vasantalilakā, śārdūlavikrīḍita metres]. Acārya Hariṣena composed Bṛhatkatha kosa 'voluminous treasury of stories', in C. E. 931, at Vardhamanapura. An epigraph of C. E. 1234, from Ellora cave also mentions Vardhamanapura.
5.3.5.3. The following pages vividly demonstrate as to how the Raṣṭrakūṭa era ushered in the golden age of

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Kannada literary renaissance. Jaina authors heralded a series of epics and classiscs of exceptional accomplishments which vies with that of Prakrit and Tamil, and in some instances eclipses that of Sanskrit classics.
Ārādhana-Karnāṭa-Tikā
5.4. In Jaina narrative literatre there are anumber of stories and anthologies of stories (katha-kośa) which belong to the tradition of Ārādhanā, a treatise on the superior and the inferior varieties of death, authored by Sivakoti alias Śivarya (Pk. Sivajja). The Ārādhanā olim Mulārā dhanā, also called Bhagavati-Ārādhanā and Bṛhadāradhanā, in Jaina Sauraseni Prakrit, containing about 2170 gathās, is one of the very early texts (C. 1-2nd cent. C. E.), which belongs to the tradition of Loharya alias Lohacarya. Aradhana has been a primordial Nirgrantha surrogate of Dravyānuyōga canonical text for both the major sects for more than a thousand years. Among its commentators Bhrājiṣṇu (C. 800 C. E.) has composed a Kannada comm., perhaps even earlier to Vijayōdayāṭikā of Aparajitasūri (C. 9th cent) and definitely earlier to Bṛhat-katha-kośa of Harisena (C. 930).
5.4.1. Aparajitasūri is said to be a Yapaniya, where as Mūlārādhanā-Darpaṇa of Aṣādhara Pandita is Digambara. Ārādhana is respected by both the traditions. Ārādhanā - KarnataȚikā, the Kannada Comm. of Bhrājiṣņu, was fairly a voluminous work consisting of not less than of about 175 tales, practically covering the whole range of Ärädhana text. Albeit, only a bunch of 19 tales apropos of the 'Kavaca'section has come down to us. The word Kavaca is of greater significance; it is an armour of spiritual protection to the ārādhaka, the person who is committed to emaciation of body and passions through external and internal penances. Like the kavaca, coat of armour, protecting a soldier, here the kavaca, in the form of exhortation by illustration of stories

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of religious martyrs who boldly sustained the calamities and the visiting afflictions. It is a sort of psychological morale boosting to take more courage, to make the ārādhaka more determined to face the vertibale death.
5.4.2.1. Bhrājisņu is totally unknown enitity in the entire corpus of the known patriarchs and pontiffs and authors of Karnāțaka. But still, Bharājişņu is not an unusual name. It is mentioned in the list of 1008 names for Tirthankaras. Therefore, it is a pakka typical nomen of the Jina tradition. One and only author, in the whole body of Jaina literature, to mention the name of Bhrājisnu and his work Ārādhanā Karņāța Țikā was Rāmacandramumkşu (C. 10th cent.), friar and a Sanskrit author of PunyāsravaKathākośa, an anthology of tales of wholesome Kārmic influx. Rāmacandra also admits that he borrowed the theme and model, in narrating the story of Śrēņika, from Bhrājişnu's AKT. From this statement two things become clear : i. Bhrājisnu's work was so famous and popular that even the Sanskrit author had the inspiration to immitate its model. ii. Rāmacandramumukşu was well-versed in Kannada.
5.4.3. Bhrājisņu (C. 800 C. E.) is one of the earliest authors of Kannada literature. Of the extant works, Arādhanā Karņāța Țikā olim Voddārādhane is the first work, in temporal terms. No other work, prose or poetry, earlier to this has survived in Kannada. Bhrājişnu comes from Pallikheda, modern Hallikheda in Bidar district. He lived and wrote at Maļkhed (Mānyakheta), the capital of Rāstrakūtas during the reign of Govinda-III (793-814). The work is composed mostly in the pre-old Kannada style that existed before ninth century C. E.
5.4.4. The great luminary Bhrājisnu was felicitous in Prakrit, adroit in Sanskrit and an adept in Kannada. His theme is religion and philosophy in which he is a connoisseur.

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Basically, Bhrājisnu is gifted with poetic craftsmanship. A born genius, he conferred literary dignity on the spoken dialect of Kannada language by adopting it to the highest purposes of literay art. Pondering on the vanity of riches, the uncertainty of life, the spiritual previleges of Nirgrantha philosophy, Bhrājişņu effectively drives the reader to live lives of detachment and sobriety, and to turn to introspection. The call to give up the terrestrial interests is so powerfully portrayed, with illustrations of the ideal life of the ascetics, that it has the unmatched tranquilizing effect on the reader.
5.4.5. When most of the authors around him were busy in writing their works in Sanskrit, Bhrājisņu opted to write in Kannada. When his contemporary authors were after the verses in different metres, Bhrājişņu preferred prose, that. too a pithy Kannada which has no match to it in the entire hoard of Kannada works. Kannada prose saw its apogee in this work. The author has exploited the grandeur, brilliance, elegance and other possibilities of Kannada prose; it is almost a work of prose-poem.
5.4.5.1. Even piquant situations, like the wife or mother lamenting over the seperation of her husband or son, the prince leaving the entire property and accepting the vows of an ascetic, are carved to perfection in chaste Kannada language. For Bhrājişņu language is tool, a brush to paint, a chisel to carve the wax and wane of the profane life, which can be used as a ladder to reach a state of eternal bliss. It does not mean that there are no limitations in the work. For example there are repetitions, which are justifiable. If every story is treated as a seperate entity, the question of repitition does not arise. There are some portions, often an entire paragraph, loaded with religious sermons and with Prakrit gāthās and Sanskrit ślākas. On the whole, Bhrājişnu's style is less Sanskrit - ridden and more Prakrit oriented.
5.4.5.2. Following is the format of Ārādhanā Karnāța -

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Tikā (Vadḍārädhane): the text opens with the invocatory Sanskrit sloka of Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, attributed to Samantabhadradeva; (namah sri vardhamānāya nirdhūta) followed by a prose passage, which surves the purpose of introductory remarks for the whole comm. cum gloss. At the end of this preamble, Bhrājisņu states that thereafter he is going to narrate the tales of all-redeeming personalities, the mahā-puruṣas. Accordingly, he starts telling the stories of 19 eminent personages, one by one. Each story opens with a Prakrit gāthā. All the 19 gāthās, one each at the beginning of each tale, are taken from the Aradhana of Śivarya, corresponding to gathäs Nos. 1539 to 1557 of the text. Each gāthā is literally explained in Kannada by giving word to word meaning and immediately after that follows the detailed narration which expands the encoded gist of the (Ārādhanā) gāthā.
5.4.5.3. In the body of each story also, often Prakrit and Sanskrit verses are quoted. Wherever the dogmatical discourses are prominently discussed to focuss the spiritutal aspect, the quotations abound in number and sometimes it covers the whole page. The felicitous Bhrājiṣṇu is easily at home in Kannada, Prakrit and Sanskrit, as stated earlier. His reading is vast, his catholicity outstanding, he quotes from Bhavabhuti also. The format of each story is so well defined and framed, from the opening line to the closing paragraph that very soon the reader will be familiarised with the pattern.
5.4.6. It is evident that Bhrājiṣṇu has not followed Hariṣena (C. 930) or Prabhacandra or any of the extant Sanskrit commentaries which are all later to AKT., in temporal terms. AKT is definitely based on a Prakrit source. For instance it very much resembles the kaha-kōsu (kathakośa) of Siricanda (Śrīcandra) in Apabhramśa; in the narrative format and in content there is so much similarity

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that Bhrājiṣṇu and Śricandra have followed a common Prakrit comm. of Ārādhanā text, which is not extant. It should be said to the credit of Bhrājiṣṇu, Sricandra and of course Harisena that they have elaborated the stories in their own way, keeping the outline and the motive, as envisaged by the original author, in tact.
5.4.6.1. The depth and dimension of the AKT has a wide range which includes religious, social, cultural, political, historical and literary aspects, only the three stories of Bhadrabahu, Cilataputra and Caṇakya are quasi-historical, containing historical allusions to the period of the Maurya dynasty. Rest of the stories are purely legendary, studded with folk motifs and socio-cultural elements. Bhrājiṣṇu's insight and knowledge of his contemporary life, the animal world, the royal house, the merchant community, and above all the Jaina monachism is remarkable. The author is so meticulous that he vividly portrays the minor characters also with appropriate details. The wisdom and timely action of womankind is personified even in minor characters like Birdi, Gambire and Sumati.
5.4.7. Though the title of the comm. cum gloss of the work is Ārādhana-Karṇāṭa-Tikā, it is more popular and familiar in Karnataka as Vaddārädhane. Vodḍārādhane, a nomen derived from or equivalent to Sanskrit Bṛhadārādhana. The etymology of the word Vadḍārādhane is worth pondering, because it has the connotation and denotation of Nirgrantha tradition. Vaḍḍārādhane is a compound word consisting of Vaḍda+arādhane, two noun forms. Vadda-, the first part of the word is a cognate of Prakrit Vadda, meaning 'great'. Aradhane, the second part of the compound, is the nomen of Mulārādhana of the adept Śivakoți alias Šivarya, as suggeted in the beginning. Therefore, literal meaning of the compound word Vaddārādhane is - 'the great Aradhana text', highly respected

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as a holy book. Another suggestion as a probable title of the work is upasarga kevali stories, a variant of mahā-puruṣa stories. But these are all innovations of later period. The title of the work, as intended by its author, is Ārādhana-KarṇāṭaTikā.
5.4.8. Till recently the work was wrongly attributed to the authorship of Sivakōtimuni. Of all the commentaries on Ārādhanā, and of all the katha-kōśas of the Ārādhanā tradition including that of Harisena and Sricandra (kahakosu), the best is Bhrājiṣṇu's Ārādhanā-Karṇāṭa-Ṭikā. Bhrājiṣṇu's monastic or cognomenic appellation is not known. But the supremacy of AKT, a work of soaring ambition, is that it was written at a transition period of Kannada language. Exactly that was the stage when the preold Kannada language was slipping away making room for the familiar old Kannada phase. From the beginning of ninth cent. onwards and upto the end of eleventh cent., oldKannada dominated the scene of Kannada literature. The traits of modification of pre-old Kannada into old-Kannada are explicitly seen in Vaḍḍārādhane. Bhrājiṣṇu is facile in different Prakrit languages such as Ardhamāgadhi, Apabhramsa, Śauraseni and Jaina Mahārāṣṭrī:
grāma-nagara-maḍamba-pattana-droṇāmukha, types
i.
of villages and towns.
ii. grāme eka-rātram nagare-pañca-rātram aṭavyā daśarātram, a standard phraseology prescribed for the stay and movement of Jaina friars and nuns in the canonical literature.
iii. Vata-pitta-śleṣma-svāsa-khāsa-jarã-aruci-cardi etc, the names of seven hundred diseases.
5.4.8.1. Such other descriptive and enumerative repititions often found in different storeis of AKT, is the influence of Ardhāmagadhi prose style. This confirms that

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the author was well acquainted with Ardhamāgadhi canonical texts.
5.4.9. Though the present edited texts of AKT have given prominence to the manuscripts with the opening of Sanskrit śloka of ‘namah sri Vardhamānāya; as they belong to the recension of a particular group of preserving the text intact, equal weightage should be given to the other manuscripts which open with three Prakrit gāthās of one each of the invocatory gāthās from PrakritNirvāṇabhakti, Pravacanasāra and Pañcāstikāya of the adept Kondakundācārya. Actully commencing the AKT with the Prakrit - gāthās is in tone with the disposition of the author and the text. The Sanskrit sloka has been interpolated and substituted by the later copyists. [AKT : Arādhanā Karņāta Țikā].
5.5. Srivijaya (C. E. 850) is one of the earliest Kannada authors of greater significance. He is the first poet-laureate among Kannada men of letters. Guņavarma-I, Pampa and Ponna being the second, third and fourth to attain the status of court - poets. After Bhrājişnu and his Arādhanā-KarnātaTikā, Srivijaya is the second earliest author, and his Kavirājamārga, a work on rhetoric and poetics, is the second oldest Kannada work that is extant. For over a period of three score and more years, Kannada scholarship was under the belief that, Nrpatunga alias Amõghavarşa-I (814-78), the Rāştrakūța emperor authored Kavirājamārga which had Nrpatungābhyudaya as its second name. But, a doubt was often expressed that the work was inspired, and not actually composed by the king, its ostensible author. J. F. Fleet had suggested as far back as in 1911 that Kaviśvara was the author. Recently the myth has been exploded. It has been finally settled that the author is Srivijaya, who composed the work at the instance of his benefactor Nệpatunga who had Amõghavarsa as his second name.
5.5.1. Some scholars have suggested that Srivijaya, the

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author of Kavirājamārga, and Srivijaya, a feudatory of Ganga Mārasimha-I and Govinda-III of the Rāstrakūţa mentioned in the Maņņe plates, are one and the same. Srivijaya, the latter, had built an Arhadāyatana, a Jaina chapel at Maņņe (Sk. Mānyapura). This proposal needs further consideration.
5.5.2. Kavirājamārga is not a poem. It is a work on poetics, a poetic treatise dealing with the art of poesy, in Kannada. The work is mainly based on Dandin's Kāvyādarśa, and in part on Bhāmaha's Kāvyālankāra. There are three cantos in the work : döşānuvarṇana-nirņaya, śabdālankāra and arthālankāra. After explaining the distinctive characteristic of the works of prose and verse, as a paradigm Srivijaya mentions the names of some Sanskrit and Kannada authors. Of the Sanskrit authors Bāņa (Kādambari and Harşacarita), Guņasūri, Nārāyana, Bhāravi, Kālidāsa and Măgha figure. Of the Kannada litterateurs Vimala + Udaya, Nāgārjuna, Jayabandhu, Durvinita (who wrote prose works), the supreme Srivijaya, Kaviśvara, + Pandita + Candra, Lõkapāla (authors of poems) - are mentioned. Unfortunately only the names are preserved and nothing is known abovt their works and the theme.
5.5.2.1. Scholars have discussed at length regarding the identity of the above Kannada authors. There are several problems in the issue. It is hard to say whether Vimalõdaya is one unit or a compound of two names or an adjective qualifying Nāgārjuna. Similarly, the word Kaviśvara may the another appeallation of Srivijaya, like parama 'the supreme', meaning 'lord of poets'. Therefore, I prefer to keep away from the controversies involved in the discussion, which is quite unnecessary in this monograh.
5.5.2.2. The identity of Durvinita with Ganga king of that name, has justification. It is known that Kaviparamésthi had the aliases of Kaviśvara and Kaviparamēśvara, who was even earlier to Jinasēna-II (C. E. 825). It is possible to equate

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Kaviśvara with Kaviparamēsthi. Srivijaya has composed his other two works, Candraprabhapurāņam and Raghuvamsapurāņam, based on the material from Kaviparamēşthi's Vāgarthasamgraha (C. late 8th cent.). After perusal of these two early poems of Srivijaya, Amoghavarşa commissioned him to author Kavirājamārga.
5.5.2.3. While illustrating the rules of poetry, Srivijaya has cited examples from the works of his period. There are some stanzas which belong to Rāmāyaṇa of Jaina tradition. His quotations are from old-Kannada poems. Srivijaya has composed totally three works : Kavirājamārga, Candraprabhapurāņam on the life of Candraprabha, the eight Tirthankara, and Raghuvamsapurāṇam, a Jaina version of Rāmāyaṇa. The stanzas on the theme of Rāmāyaṇa, quoted in the Kavirājamārga, are evidently from Raghuvamsapurāņa, his own work on Rāmāyaṇa. As a laukika kāvya in Raghuvamsa-purāṇam, Srivijaya, has identified Amoghavarşa with Rāma and the Rāştrakūta dynasty with Raghu-vamsa. Candraprabhapurāṇam, a āgamika-kāvya, deals with the illustrious life of Candraprabha, the Tirthankara, exalted teacher propagator of Jaina faith and maker of River Crossing. Kavirājamārga is neither a laukika work nor an āgamika purāņa, since it is a sāstra-krti, It has so much in common with Tolkāppiyam, a Tamil work authored by a Jaina litterateur, Tolakkāppiyar.
5.5.3. Srivijaya was a trend setter. He inaugurated the tradition of authoring a poem of laukika, profane theme and another work agamika, religious theme. This model was advanced by Guņavarma-I, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, but it found its acme in Pampa. The honor of composing Rāmāyaṇa and Candraprabha-purāņa for the first time in Kannada goes to Srivijaya. He has so many 'firsts' to his name. His work is also the first grammar and first treatise on the poetics. Thus he is a premier and paramount author

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who heralded a new era by opening a flood-gate for a rich harvest in all genre. Under the prevailing circumstances, where the beginnings of Kannada literature are enveloped in dusk, Kavirājamārga proclaims that a considerable volume of prose and poetry existed before C. E. 850. It is astonishing that he has not mentioned the names of Virasēna and Jinasēna-II, his senior contemporaries or the name of Asaga and Guņabhadra, his contemporaries. Chronology of his composition could easily be traced in the sequel of Candraprabha-purāņa, Raghuvamsa-purāņa and Kavirājamārga. Amõghavarşa, after a careful perusal of the early two works, commissioned Srivijaya to author the third work. Srivijaya was the first Jaina author to depart from the traditional tract of composing commentaries. Instead, he preferred to write creative poems.
5.5.3.1. Srivijaya's interests cover a wide spectrum, from religion to literature and socio-culture, from politics to ancient history. An all-embracing quintessence of the anthology of Kannada people over centuries has been brilliantly recorded in the frame of just a few stanzas, poetlaureate commends the heriosm of Karnātaka and Răstrakūta warriors who were more virulent but never cruel, ferocious but generous, daredevil but compassionate. This vivid description of the Karņāțaka fighters largely and neatly agrees with the statement of Rajasekhara, a north Indian Sanskrit litterateur, complimenting the Karņāțas as born veterans in the craft of fighting in the theatres of war, and dexterous in military strategy.
5.5.3.2. Kavirājamārga is compendium of encyclopaedic nature, dealing on prosody, poetics, grammar, linguistics, dialects, stylistics, folk-lore, socio-culture, philosophy, religion, the people, important cities and rivers, geography, politics et cetera, on varied subjects of human interest.
5.5.3.2. Kavirājamārga, a Tolkāppiyam of Kannada literature, is widely quoted more for its stanzas speaking of

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Kannada and Karņāțaka, the language, the land and its people. Srivijaya has defined 1150 years ago, the range and principal seats of Karņāțaka, where Kannada was the lanugage of the Rāstrakūța empire. The vast area in between two rivers of the Kāvēri in the extreme south and the Gödāvari in the north, was the firtile Kannada country. In this vast area were the famous cities of Kisvoļal (Pattadakal) near Aihole, the well-known great Kopañanagara (koppa!), Puligere (Lakşmēsvar), the highly praised Onkunda (Okkunda) near Palasige (Halsi), a residence of Banavāsi Kadambas, and the area in the midst of these towns and cities was the kernel of Kannada country. It is rightly said that these were the boundaries of the well of pure Kannada undefied. Srivijaya's statements are corroborated by linguistic data and cultural vestiges. The shrinking of the political and cultural border of Kannada speaking area took place only in the post-medieval period.
5.5.3.4. Eventually, the above mentioned places were the nerve centres of Jainism and its culture for over a millenium. Jaina men of letters, patriarchs and the lay votaries of this region, had nurtured and developed Kannada language, along with Sanskrit and Prakrit, into a full bloomed literary and classical vehicle, during the period of Rāstrakūta imperialism. Under the circumstances, it is to be noted that Srivijaya was the earliest author in Kannada literature to speak about stylistics. He was aware of the various dialetcs, different styles of language, such as Northern style and Southern style.
5.5.3.4.1. As a result of successful military expeditions, Rāstrakūtas stretched their political supremacy upto the river Narmadă in the north and beyond Kāvēri in the south. One may wonder, how Srivijaya, brilliant author, restricted the northern and southern boundaries of Karņāțaka only to the banks of river Godāvari from Kāvēri basin. Srivijaya meant mainly the principal Kannada speaking area.

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5.5.3.4.2. 'What is gold?', poet Śrivijaya, advancing this million pound question, defines it with his matured consideration. According to his balanced judgement, 'gold is not just the yellow metal that glitters. On the other hand, it is the virtue to be accomplished that is more valuable. If one can forbear the philosophy and tenor of argument, and endure the religious observance and line of thinking of others, geniunly that is precious gold'. Śrivijaya has crystellized the gist of anekantavāda and syādvāda, i.e., respectfully appreciating other's point of view.
5.5.3.4.3. As pointed out earlier, the work is not a direct adoption of Sanskrit works on poetics, Śrīvijaya could conveniently envelope different aspects. In addition to the marga and vastuka elements of Sanskrit classical literature, Kavirājamārga has imbided and embedded the Desi and varņaka local indigenous features.
5.5.3.5. The impact of Śrīvijaya and Śakaṭāyana on later grammarians is explicit in the works of Nagavarma-I (C. 1011th cent.), Nagavarma-II (C. 11th cent.), Kēśirāja (C. E. 1235) and Bhatta-Akalanka (C. 16th cent.). Nagavarma-I has specifically stated:
Sanskṛtam-Prākṛtam Apabhramśakam Paiśācikamemba mūrvare bhāsēgalol
puttuvavellam Draviḍāndhra Karnaṭādi ṣaṭpañcāśat sarva viṣaya bhāṣā-jātigalakkum
[Chandōmbhudhi, chapt. 1., prose after verse No. 46]. It is considerable that Nagavarma-I has referred to three different Prakrit languages of Apabhramsa, Paiśācika and Ardha-Magadhi. He has used the nomen of Paiśācika in the sense of Saurasēni language.
5.5.3.6. A new school of Jaina grammar began in Karnataka very early, as far back as in mid-ninth cent. which flourished in the Raṣṭrakūṭa period. Sākaṭāyana was the

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doyen of grammar school in the south for all the languages. Sākaṭāyana, prima donna of grammar school in the Rāṣṭrakūṭa court of Amōghavarṣa-I, authored Sabdanusāsana of four chapters in Sanskrit. Interessingly he also composed a self-commentary. He has named his autocommentary after his patron as Amōghavṛtti.
5.5.3.7. Amoghavarṣa-I, himself a distinguished pandit, emulating the legendary Vikramaditya of Ujjain who had 'nine gems' of authors adoring his court, encouraged and gathered brilliant men of letters. In this constellation Śākaṭāyana, Śrīvijaya, Mahāvīrācārya, Viresēna, Jinasēna and Gunabhadra stood out very prominently. Ugrāditya had also visited his court. They were great writers in their own field. Works of every one of them have survived to this day. Never has the royal court or the reign of any other monarch, either before or after, has seen a literary galaxy of this calibre in Karṇāṭaka.
5.5.3.8. Among these gems, who produced belles-letters, fine literature and a star of the first magnitude in the literary firmament, was Jinasēna ācārya, a polymath. Savant Jinasena adorned everything he touched. His celebrated epic Adipurāņa one of the best of Jinapurāņas in Sanskrit sings the glory of Rṣabhadēva. His other works are also meritorious. Virasēna composed the commentary DhavaläTikā of greater magnitude. To the above list of contemporary luminiferous persona grata can be added Vira Bankesa, the trustworthy Duke and general, and his son Lōkaṭe (Lōkāditya) of Callaketana house, who made the reign of Amōghavarṣa look very much Jaina oriented and a minute replica of samavarsaraṇa, assembly hall of Jaina audience.
5.5.4. Gunavarma-I (C. 900 C. E.), an author of note, completed two maha-kavyas, epics of praise worthy significance, during the reign of Kṛṣṇa-II. These two epics, the Sudraka and the Harivamsa, both in campū style, of

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soaring ambition, though not extant in full length, have survived in patches. In particular, many verses from these two epics are included in schematic anthologies of Mallikārjuna's Sūktisudhārņava (C. E. 1240 A. D) and Abhinava Vādi-Vidyānanda's Kävyasāra (C. 1533 A.D). Some citations are also found in Sabdamani-darpana, a jewel-mirror-of Kannada grammar, of Kēsiraja (C. E. 1275 A. D).
5.5.4.1. Quite a good number of stanzas, quoted in the later anthologies, clearely betray the remarkable creative ability of Guņavarma. He is the second poet, in temporal terms, to compose two classics/epics, on the set pattern of some Jaina litterateurs who wrote two classics, with the theme of the earth (laukika) and heaven (āgamika) respectively. Srivijaya was the first author to conceive such an idea of making a sharp and transperant distinction of a laukika-kāvya, poem of worldly theme, and āgamika-kāvya, poem with the theme of world above or the world of Jaina religion.
5.5.4.2. Since there are two poets in Kannada literature of the name of Gunavarma, the earlier Guņavarma is referred as Adi-Guņavarma or Guņavarma-I, and the author of Puspadantapurāņa (1215) as Guņavarma-II. Based on the subject and quality of fragments of quoted verses now extant, a broad assessment of the poet's accomplishment is possible. Harivamsa, in campu style, is evidently a Kannada rendering of the Sanskrit epic of the some title, Harivamsa of Jinasena-I of Punnāța samgha, completed in C. E. 784.
5.5.4.3. Digambara Jaina tradition has recognised five kşatriyas, (the second of the four castes/the warrior dynasties): Puru, Nātha, Ugra, Hari and Kuru. In the Harivamsa Kāvya, the story of the last two dynasties, of Hari and Kuru, are fused together, and the theme of Bhārata finds a prominent place. The legend of Krşņa is merged with

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Harivamsa, and the story of Bhārata and Nēminātha run parallel to each other. Jinasena-I had popularised this topic in Sanskrit. Adi-Guņavarma made it acceptable and famous in the context of Kannada literature. All the later works of Karņapārya (C. 1145), Bandhuvarma (C. 1165), Nēmicandra (C. 1185) and others are indebted directly to Guņavarma-I, and indirectly to Jinasēna-I.
5.5.4.4. Decidedly Śūdraka was a mahā-kā vya of greater merit. So far about 75 verses are traced of the non-extant Sūdraka epic. It has the distinction of being the first in the series of quasi-historical works in Kannada. The Ganga monarch Ereyappa, (887-919) who had the cognomen of Mahēndrāntaka and Pratirüpa Südraka, the important character in the poem, has been identified with Sūdraka, legendary king of surpassing excellence. Some of the synchronous epigraphical evidences substantiate the remarkable achievements of Ereyappa who had squeezed Mahendra of Noļamba Pallava dynasty in C. E. 897-98. Therefore, it is evident that the poem of historical note was composed in C. E. 900. Gunavarma-I was the earliest known poet-laureate of the Gangas. King Ereyappa (literally meaning the lord') had another title of Bhuvanaikavira, an epithet which adorned Krsna-III and Sankaraganda, incourse of time that prompted Ponna to author a poem of the same biruda. As far as the source of Guñanandi's poem is concerned, it remains to be blurred because there many Sanskrit and Prakrit references to Sūdraka.
5.5.5. Gunanandi (C. 900), a celebrated preceptor of the period of the Rāstrakūtas, was a scholar, grammarian, chief of 300 friars. Dēvēndramuni, prominent among his pupil, was the preceptor of Adikavi Pampa (941), the spanking of all Kannada men of letters. Nañjunda (1525), while listing the early Kannada authors, has prominently included the name of Guņandi. According to him Guñanandi

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was famous for his poem full of melody, echoing with the waves of nine rasas, accepted poetic sentiments. Mallikārjuna and Mallakavi, anthologists, have quoted his stanzas. Kēsirāja (1275), reputed grammarian, quotes a protion of a stanza from an unknown campū kāvya of Guņanandi, in his sabda-mani-darpaņa. Gunanandi has authored Sabdārņava or Prakriyāvatāra, a gloss on Pūjyapāda Dēvanandi's (late 6th cent.) Jainendra vyākaraṇa. Gunanandi, a prominent patriarch, figures in inscriptions with the important cognomen of căritacakrēśvara ('emperor of right conduct'), tarka-vyākaraņasastra-nipuņa (dexterous in logic, grammar, (and) sciences”), sāhitya-vidyāpati (ʻLord of literary equipment').
5.5.6. Indranandi (C. E. 930), illustrious preceptor of poet Ponna (C. E. 960), states in his Sanskrit work Jvālinikalpa, composed in C. E. 939 at Maļkhēd, that Kandarpa and Gunanandi were the preceptors who taught him the cult of Jvālini-kalpa, the attendent deity of Candraprabha, the eighth Tirthankara. This clearely establishes that both the Jaina authors, Kandarpa (Manasija) and Gunanandi who are mentioned by other poets of Kannada, lived and wrote in circa 900 C. E. during the epoch of Kșşņa-II, son of Amõghavarşa-I. Kēsirāja's expression of Gunanandiya Manasijana...' is perfectly in chronological order. Manasija is an alias of Kandarpa.
5.5.6.1. The Răstrakūtas followed the pattern of the Gangas in patronising Jaina men of letters. From the early fifth cent. onwards upto late tenth cent. Jaina genius had dominated the royal courts. Almost all the works of this time were authored by Jaina talents. Circumstantial evidences substantiate the statement that most of the not extant, but the names of either the work or the author are known, works were also Jaina. They were the real trend setters. Thanks to the consistent cultivation by the Jaina men of letters,

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Kannada language could flourish as the court language of the Rāstrakūtas. Jaina competence moulded and explored the possibilities of Kannada language so that it could communite the highest spiritual experience. BhattaAkalanka, a Kannada grammarian of post-medieval age, has rightly put it that this language is capable of expressing even spiritual experience.
5.5.7. Asaga (circa 9th cent.), a principal author of the period of Amõghavarşa, has authored eight Jaina works in Sanskrit, mostly based on the subject of mythology. The nomen Asaga is probably a variant of Asanga. He has recorded a brief biodata of his genealogy and family setup. Patumati and Vaireti alias Vēratti, his parents possessed samyaktva, right faith. Nāganandyācārya, sabdasamayārņava-pāraga, dexterous in grammar and scripture, was his instructor, His spotless fame was spreading far and wide. Nāganandācārya of Simhavūrgana, a cohort of Jaina friars, belonging to the period of Amoghavarşa-I, figures in Rāņebennur charter of C. E. 860. Monk Āryanandi, his another preceptor, also cheered Asaga to author Sanmaticarita.
5.5.7.1. Asaga had one more teacher in Acārya Bhāvakīrti, a noble monk of high rank, at Maudgalya parvata, a Mount in Srinātharājya, kingdom of Srinātha, from where Asaga proceeded to Varalā olim Viralā, a town in Cõda country. Asaga there stayed to compose totally eight poems, incorporating the instructions of Jina, with a view to enlighten the pious householders.
5.5.7.2. Jināpa, bosom friend of Asaga, a devout Jaina, brave and virtuous, stimulated the poet to compose Sanmaticarita, i.e., Vardhamānapurāņa. Asaga completed this poem in 18 cantos for the benifit of Sampat, the theist śrāvikā. Asaga, though in his exuberance of lowliness, admits that he is quite aware of his limitations of his poetic competency,

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his poems are rich in poetic embellishments and variety of metrical patterns. Two of his extant purāņa-kāvyas are replete with grace and elegance of language met within classical authors like Bāņa, Bhāravi and Kālidāsa, which establishes the fact that Karņāțaka had its own signal contributions to make in the field of pure literary forms.
5.5.7.3. In his Harivamsapurāņa in Apabhramsa language, poet Dhavala (C. 10th cent.) has the following encomium on Asaga's accomplishment: Asaga is an epic poet who has composed his lovely and attractive Virajinendracarita in which pretty verses have been woven, the merits of which are beyond expression. Ponna (C. E. 965), celebrated Kannada author and poet-laureate of Kșsna-III, claims his superiority over Asaga stating that he is far greater in manifold to Asaga in the field of Kannada poetry. On the contrary, Ponna has deliberately adopted hundreds of stanzas from Asaga's Sāntipurāņam by freely rendering into Kannada. In truth, Ponna is highly indebted to Asaga.
5.5.7.4. Asaga had non-pareil commånd and proficiency in Sanskrit and Kannada. As an accepted ubhayabhāṣānipuņa-kavi, he is credited with cultivation of Dēsi, indigenous, style as against Mārga, classical, Sanskrit style. His works are endowed with the common nine poetic flavours. A galaxy of Kannada litterateurs have expressed their appreciation of Asaga's creative faculty. Ponna (C. E. 965), Durgasimha (1031), Nāgavarma (1042) Nayasēna (1112), Brahmasiva (1175), Acaņņa (1190) and Kēsirāja (1235) have cited the poetic aptitude of Asaga.
5.5.7.5. Inspite of the glowing tributes in galore of Asaga by men of letters, so far none of his work in Kannada language has come to light. Albeit, Jayakirti (C. 935), a skilled prosodist, indicates in his Candõnusasana, an earliest work on prosody in Sanskrit, while illustrating Kannada poems affirms that Asaga has authored a Karņaţa Kumāra

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sambhava - kavya, birth of Kumāra (son of siva), may be a Jaina version of the birth of Bharata, eldest son of Ādinātha. There are some Kannada stanzas quoted from an anonymous Kumara-sambhava poem in Kāvyāvalōkana of Nagavarma (1040) and Sabdamanidarpaņa of Kēśirāja (1275). A possiblity of that incognito author being Asaga himself is yet to be corroborated. It is said that out of eight of Asaga's works, only three are in Sanskrit and the other five in Kannada.
PAMPA-apogee of Kannada literature
5.6. Pampa (902-945) is a legend of Kannada literature. His two works have acquired epic status by any difinition which can be applied to a literary work. A great epoch in the annals of Kannada literature was helraded by Pampa, a great celebrity among poets and the earliest campū-kāvyas extant from Karnāṭaka are the works of Pampa. In an epigraph dated C. E. 950, his verses are quoted which shows that Pampa had attained great fame by that time.
5.6.1. Pampa, while succintly narrating the genealogy and the life deeds of the Vemulavāḍa line of Calukyas in the prolegomenon verses, also concises his own biography mainly in the last canto. Pampa says that he composed the prabandam olim the campū kāvya, at the behest of the courtpoets and out of gratitude for the great cordiality shown to him by the ruler Arikesarin. The greatness of the poet is that even the verses containing historical elements, are easy and flowing. Any study of Kannada literature is incomplete without reading the two epic's of Pampa. VikramārjunaVijayam is an unsurpassed gem. The work is in some ways unique in the whole range of Kannada literature for the vivid protraiture of its scenes, skilful metrical effects, graphic description of the battlefield-practically unknown to any other work.
5.6.1.1.
Madhava Sōmayāji caste Brahmin of

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vatsagotra, chief of Vasanta, Kottūru, Nidagundi and Vikramapura agrahāras assigned to Brāhmins for their mainteinance, belonging to Vengipaļu in Vengimaņdala division, now in Andra Pradesh. His son was Abhimānacandra and his son Komarayya who was the father of Bhimapayya. That was the period when proselytism was common. Bhimapayya, who had the title of Abhirāma devarāya, contemplated that 'of the castes, the best in Brahminism and of the religion the best in Jainism'. After matured consideration, Bhimapayya proselytized on his own accord from Viprakula, Brāhmanism, to Jinadharama, Jainism. Bhimapayya married Abbanabbe, a grand-daughter of Joyisasingha, also a proselyte Jaina from Saivism, who was a resident of Annigere, a famous Jaina settlement and capital of Beļvala-300. Bhimapayya and Abbaņabbe had two sons, Pampa, the elder and Jinavallabha, the younger. Jinavallabha, also a litterateure and proficient in three languages, has authored the renowned Gangādharam inscription composed in Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu languages, which provides fresh information on the life of Pampa. Gangādharam is also associated with Somadevasūri, a mahā-kavi. Jinavallabha caused a Tribhuvanatilaka basadi, Kavitaguņārņava tank, Madana vilāsa garden, Jina bimbas, Cakreshvari sculpture etc.
5.6.1.2. The days of his childhood, spent on the banks of river Varadā, the bounty nature in all its splendour of the Banavāsi region, is kept alive in the poet's memory which finds expression in Pampa-Bhārata, the greatest epic in Kannada language and a work of great aspiration. Thus when he describes Hastināpura, the poets eye captures the grandeur of Banavāsi. Pampa does not forget to make Arjuna alias Arikesari include Banavāsi in his itinerary. When the hero Arjuna was finally was crowned on the throne, the poet does not forget to sprinkle the holy water of Varadā, the river

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where the author bathed in his balya. Similarly few authentic details of Pampa's life are forthcoming in the kavya.
5.6.1.3. Though Pampa, with all his humility states that he follows in the wake of the great sage Vyasa, still his work is no direct translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit original, even though Vyasa-Bharātam is the main source. Pampa admits that he is not equal to Vyasa. With the touch of his magic wand, Pampa imports into his narration the color and tone of his time and region.
5.6.1.4. Arikesari-II (930-55) of Vemulavāḍa branch of Calukya dynasty, a feudatory of Rāṣṭrakūta king Kriṣṇa-III (935-65), had the honor of two of the contemporary luminaries being the court poets. The illustrious Kannada poet Pampa as the senior writer adorned the court of Arikesari-II alias Ariga, and the celebrated Somadevasūri (950-83), author of Yasastilaka and Nītiväkyāmṛta, a junior of Pampa, adorned the court of Arikesari-III, the grand son of Arikesari-II. A moving, though out spoken, portrayal of the pleasures and adventures of love, of travel, of penance, of struggle and the great war of Arjuna are properly attributed to the patron Arikesari. Pampa depicts a number of episodes pertaining to his patron and the story of Bharata by skilful analogy with Vikrama-Arjuna, the hero of the epic, the exploits of Arikēsari.
5.6.1.4.1. Referring to the happening of Venisamhāra, Pampa's supremacy is seen in dramatizing the situation and focussing Bhima :
The vengeance Draupadi wreaks for the indescribable humiliation she has suffered evokes from Bhima this tribute, 'Earth-shaking is the impact of your hair unbound. An empire extending to the ten quarters of the sky and shielded with the whole umbrellas of countless vassal kings has had its most violent shake-up. The entire line of the Kurus had sunk without a trace in it. It had added fresh vigour to my valour.

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The whole of Mahabharat has its true origin here, in the unbinding of your hair [Narasimha murthi, K. - in 'The image of Woman in Indian literature' ed. Yasoda Bhat; 1993 : 68].
5.6.1.4.2. In the entire history of Kannada literature, whether it is ancient or modern, much better known and of greater literary merit is Pampa's Vikramārjuna-Vijayam olim Pampa-Bhāratam, a mahākāvya, epic in fourteen cantos. It recounts in epic style the story of Mahā-Bhārata of Vyāsa, at the same time eulogizes the Călukya king and patron of the poet. The genealogical account of the Calukyas of Vēmulavāda, recorded by Pampa is found helpful in chronicling the history and achievements of that house.
5.6.1.4.3. The classic conflict between the god Śiva in the form of a Kirāta, a chief of hunter class, and Arjuna, the valient man, hero of the epic, being witnessed by the goddess Pārvati herself present, and finnaly ending in the latter's attainment of the invaluable weapon the Pāśupatāstra, is described in such a way that the reader gets an impression of the poet engrossed.
5.6.1.5. Adipurāņam is another work of Pampa, which he could compose within three months, where as he took six months to complete the other Kāvya. The fact that he could author two major compositions within the stipulated span of nine months, speaks of his accomplishment as a gifted writer. When Pampa achieved the feat of completing two mahā-kāvyas in the year C. E. 941, he was in his early age of 39 years old. He further confirms that he was born in a Dundubhi-samvastara, the fifty-sixth year in the cycle of sixty, analogous to C. E.902, and that his voice was so distinct and dignified as the sound of dundubhi, a large kettle drum.
5.6.1.6. Dēvandramuni, a famous Jaina ācārya of the period, was the preceptor of Pampa. Indra-III (914-29), the Rāștrakūța emperor, was also a laic votary of the adept Dēvēndramuni. Pampa and his younger brother

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Jinavallabha were also lay followers of JayanandiBhaṭṭarāka of Pandarapalli (Pandarapura). Of the two compositions in the märga-style, of the poet Pampa, Vikramarjuna-Vijayam is easily the best, an account of its copious action, the rich melody and fine imagery of its verse; the description of the war camps and the reactions of the soldiers is par excellence. It depicts the pomp and inevitable circumstances of war, the gruesome details of the battlefield. Pampa had the first hand knowledge of the field of battle. War is a common theme but none could match the quality of Pampa. Adipurāņa was completed on plava kārtika śuddha Pañcami, Sunday, Mula-Nakṣatra Nandiśvara festival day, equivalent to C. E. 941.
5.6.1.7. Adipurāṇam is a work of artistic perfection admittedly distinguished in the field of religious literature. In fact the bhava-valis (successive births) have substituted the concept of avatāras, a main theme of Viṣṇu-purāņas. Mahāpurāṇa of Jinasēna and Gunabhadradeva had standardised the narration of trasnmigration or the cycle of the former and the future existence. Adipurāṇa, a campū in sixteen cantos handles the Jaina legendary theme of Rṣbhadeva, his sons and daughters, with considerable force and power and excells its source of Jinasena's Sanskrit Ādipuranam (C. 850 A. D.), the first part of Mahāpurāṇa. Kannada Adipurāṇam became a model for the later Jinapurāņas, but all of them must take a rank well below their model.
5.6.1.8. The first few cantos are devoted to the successive previous births of Adinatha, the first of 24 Tirthankaras; Jayavarma, Mahābala, Lalitāngadēva, Vajrajangha, Arya, Śridharadēva, Suvidhi, Acyutēndra-I, Vajranābhi, Acyutēndra-II are the ten reptition of births and the next birth to follow was the penultimate in the transmigration. Purudeva, born to Marudevi and Nabhirāja, happily married

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Yaśasvati and Sunanda. Bharata, the first of the twelve cakravartis and Bāhubali, the first of the 24 Kāmadēvas, were his eldest and elder sons. Brāhmi and Sundari were his daughters. He made his children proficient in various arts and science, himself taught the art of writing to Brāhmi, and from her originated the Brāhmi-script; to Sundari, his second daughter, he taught the science of arithmetics.
5.6.1.9. Thus, the first Jina set a model of an ideal father in giving good education to the daughters also. Ādideva, the hero leading a life of pleasure in the company of his consorts, had spent his ten previous births and in the eleventh birth as the monarch of a splendid kingdom, while merrily viewing an exhibition of dancing performance of the celestial dancer Nilānjanā, all of a sudden the dancer disappeared as it was the end of her life. Albeit Indra, who had designed the performance to evoke the feelings of detachment from the terrestrial interests in Purudēva, immediately created another Nilānjanā to continue the performance uninterrupted. None in the audience could make out the difference except the intended Purunātha who got the clue and decided to relinquish the profane life on the realisation of the essential ephemerality, disillusionment overtook him. He was shaken from his complacency by this incident, pregnant with deep significance. He saw in a moment's flash the hollowness of worldy life and the wisdom of seeking release from its bonds. Purudēva wasted no time and immediately swung into action, installed his sons on the respective throne, sought the peace of forest and penance and attained the eternal salvation in the end.
5.6.2. Pampa has handled a Jaina purāņic theme in a very dignified manner. He was gifted with the required literary capacity and the basic knowledge in the field of religious literature. Thus Adipurāņam is marked by all the distinguished qualities of great poetry and furnished the

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model for the Jainapurāņa. The traditional five auspicious events, pañca-kalyāṇas in the career of a Tirthankara (the conception, the birth, the exit, attaining omniscience and the final release from bondage by mākşa) and the celebration of these events. The last quarter of the Adipurāņa is devoted to the celebrated story of Bharata and Bāhubali, that reminds and partly resembles the episode of Duryodhana and Pāņdavas. Bharata and Bāhubali respectively symbolising the lust for power and the eternal delight in renunciation.
5.6.2.1. Pampa is highly indebted Jinasēna's Adipurāna, but he soars to greater heights of poetic excellence. Jinasena is primarily a religious preceptor, an unparalleled Nirgrantha patriarch of the age, and secondarily a poet of eminence. But, Pampa is primarily an eminent poet and secondarily a Jaina śāstrakāra. Pampa has produced poetry from the tip of his quill, just as Śiva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot. Kannada language and the campū style reached its perfection in his hands. He has employed the standard dialect spoken around Puligere. The poet is convinced that the excellence of his diction has enhanced the power of speech of goddess Sarasvati!
5.6.2.2. Pampa is not an escapist, he does not denounce the profane life outrightly. He positively advocates a life of pleasure in the company of women, who are a moving creeper of ananga, the cupid. In one of the final benedictory verses of his epic, while enunciating the benefits or reading his kávya, he wishes the reader to derive the satisfaction of spending happy time in the company of the desired woman; but that is not the end of everything. He has greater things to say. Thus his poem is the greatest epic in Kannada literature. Pleased by his achievement and contribution, Arikesari-II, sent words, seated him by his side on the throne, granted maid servants, villages, ornaments of pañca-ratna for daily use, excellent dressess, cattle-all in plenty. Crowning all this,

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the king alloted to Pampa, Dharmavura, the best of agrahāras which was glittering like the treasury of the king. The village Dharmuvura in Bacce-sasira division with which Pampa was endowed with has been identified with Gangadharam or a nearby place which is extinct.
:
5.6.2.3. Pampa belonged to the lineage of Kondakunda anvaya, desiga-gaṇa, pustaka (Sarsvati) gaccha (bali). He introduces himself as a parrot sitting pretty in the serene garden of Kondakunda anvaya. He had the following titles: Kavita-guṇārṇava, Purāṇa-kavi, sukavi jana-manomānasōttamsa-hamsa, Sarasvati-maṇihāra and samsarasarodaya. He was savya-saci, equally at home both in the art of war and to drive quill. A host of later literati, irrespective of their religion, have paid glorious tributes to the literarum doctor Pampa. His sweet and flowing style is valued highly by critics. Pampa, as a self critic, has assessed his works and has remarked that his poem is always new and dignified as a sea; there can be no better evaluation.
5.6.2.4. Pampa vibrates with zest for life. He explored new vistas and made enormous cultural excavations, in the process, exploiting the creative possibilities of Kannada language, and exploding the uni-dimensional quality of Kannada literary tradition. He has employed the standard Kannada dialect of his time, spoken around the northKarṇāṭaka region; it was then called as the Puligere Kannada, the place considered as the cream centre of cultural and socio-political activities.
5.6.2.4.1. Pampa had some advantages and a solid infrastructure; the literary stage was all set for the arrival of a greater author. Śrīvijaya, Guṇanandi, Gunavarma-I, had deviated from the scholastic tradition of writing only the glosses or commentaries on primordial Prakrit āgāma texts, and had evolved a new trend of taking theme from calssics and writing long poems in campu style. In addition to this

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conducive atmosphere, Pampa had an added advantage of the family background where two religions, of Brahmanism and Jainism, had fused into one main stream.
5.6.2.4.2. Pampa, while rendering Mahā-Bhārata into Kannada has ably attempted to give a re-orientation to the theme by culturally localising the immortal saga, wherever appropriate. He experimented with the theme, the language, the form and metre, with a sense of native consciousness. Pampa has occasionally given vent to his heart felt emotions; at one stage he expresses vociferously - what is it that others can give us or others can achieve for us? worship, fame, profane profit-that is all; albeit, all this and much more can easily be a achieved by complete dedication toJinendra; this is perhaps the quintessence of the author's message. Pampa Bhārata is creme de la creme, the cream of the cream, the very best of Kannada literature. Pampa does not slavishly follow the original Bhārata in his treatment of either the theme as such or the characters. Pampa has created highly romantic and ingenious innovations of his own by localizing certain descriptions and concepts. Arjuna is made the hero of the epic who is assigned the significant role of saving the grace of his family by his extraordinary prowess and skill charged with the grace of gods. In the depiction of the stainless bosom friendship of Duryodhana and Karna, the poet has smartly suggested and recorded the itimate comradeship between the king Arikēsari-II and the author himself, the patron and protege. The character of Karņa is so portrayed charged with intensity that Karņa stands singular as a symbol of Fidus Achates.
5.6.2.5. Kirti Nārāyaṇa, Vikrānta Nārāyaṇa, and Vira Nārāyaṇa were included among the nearely twenty five titles of the Răstrakūta monarchs. Therefore, Pampa has meaningfully appropriated the epithet of udātta Nārāyaṇa for his partron in the very first verse of the epic Vikramārjuna

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Vijaya. This equation is pregnant with meaning in the historical context. Arikēsari was a grandee of a province (Vēmulavāda) under Krşņa-III who was cakravartti. According to Jaina Purāņa, Nārāyaṇa (Vāsudēva) category comes below cakravarttin, in the hierarchy of 63 great men, who is supposed to destroy his opponent in the battle. Nārāyana was a frequently used cognomen in the Jaina contest. Būtuga had the biruda of Ganga Nārāyaṇa. One of the epithets of a Jaina temple was Rūpa-Nārāyaṇa.
5.6.2.6. Adipurāņa is an amalgamation of poetry and spiritual experience. Thus, the epic is simultaneously acceptable to the pious and the admirer's of great poem. Pampa, dexterous in the art of dramatization of serious situations was pragmatic too. To cite an example, readers can recall the incident of discourse between the theist and atheist. A theory of the pleasure seekers, a school of thought, classified under the rubric of hedonism, originated around 6th-5th cent. B. C., putting an end to the universal reign of the gods. According to Cārvāka, a sceptic in the royal court of Mahābala Khēcara : what is arrived at by direct perception is truth which alone exists. What is not perceivable is nonexistent, for the simple reason, that it is not perceived. Hence, everything begins and ends with perceivable matter in the form of four elements of earth, water, fire and air. Who has seen the soul existing in a state seperate from the body? Does not life result from the ultimate configuration of matter?'. The free thinkers rhythmic voice pondered to preach 'while life is yours, live joyously'.
5.6.2.7. Cārvāka, the atheist, continued to argue emphatically: "There is no life after death. Heaven, Hell, God and the Devil are nonsense terms. We should live happily in the happening present, ignoring the fear that future holds, submitting completely to the pursuit of pleasure. Happiness is the chief good, and chief end of man. Do not get terrorised

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with the fear of hell, or lured with the promise of heaven". Repudiating the seducing argument of the sceptic, the theist stood up to eloquently advance his tenor of approach in defence of theism. Finally he convincingly established that "Compassion, restraint, generosity, austerity of prayer and meditation, and sterling character are the core virtues leading to ultimate liberation. All the pomp and glory of the profane world are but temporal affairs". Pampa has set the whole sequence most felicitously, pregnant with theatrical qualities.
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5.6.2.8. One of the epigraphs of C. E. 946, now preserved in the Museum of Karimnagara in Andhra Pradesh, contains five verses of Pampa, quoted from his Vikramārjuna-vijaya. Gamunda Caṭṭayya and his younger brother Makayya installed this pillar of eminence for the glory of their overlord Arikesari and to commemorate the happy occasion of his coronation at Paudana olim Bōdana, king's metropolis. An opinion was floated that this inscription was authored by Pampa, equating the scribe's name of Śrīmamna with the name of Pampa. It is rather difficult to concur with the suggestion.
5.6.2.9. A Telugu poem called Jainendra-Purāņa has been composed by Padmakavi. But the work is not extant. Scholars have made a futile attempt to equate Padmakavi with Pampakavi. Just because Pampa was born in the family of śrivatsa gōtra Brāhmaṇas of Vangiparra village in Vengideśa, it does necessarily warrant that he should have authored Telugu poem also. But it is a fact that Pampa was conversant in Telugu.
5.6.3. Ponna (C. 960), poet laureate of Kṛṣṇa-III, ushered in Kannada literature in full panoply. He was the first of Kannada poets to get the greatest biruda of Kavicakravarti and the only author with that title in the long reign of the Raṣṭrakūtas. He was honoured with the title of

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ubhaya-bhaṣā kavicakravartti by Kṛṣṇa-III, after composing the epic Bhuvanaika - Rāmābhydayam in chaste Kannada in campū, which was the only popular poetic style of his time.
5.6.3.1. Bhuvanaika - Rāmābhyudayam, 'prosperity of the only Rāma in the universe', an epic of vaulting ambition of poet Ponna, is extant only in bits, like Śūdraka and Harivamsa of Adi-Guṇavarma (C. 900). There is no doubt abovt the reverence that this poem enjoyed, because very many later references of deference approve the fact. The poem had fourteen cantos. Citations in later works of Kāvyāvalōkana (Nāgavarma : 1042), Sūktisudhārṇava (Mallikarjuna : 1240) and Sabdamaṇidarpaņa (Kēśirāja : 1270) provide an insight to the visage of this poem.
5.6.3.2. A controversy followed on the identification of the katha-nayaka, the hero of this epic. Main reason for the debate was that Śankaragaṇḍa, a feudatory of the Rāṣṭrakūtas and a staunch promoter of Nirgrantha faith, also had an appellation of Bhuvanaikarāma. Added to that, he had fashioned Jayadhira-Jinālaya at Koppala and more shrines at other places. Considering these and similar achievements of Śankaragaṇḍa, literary critics held the view, that the main character of the aobve poem could be the same person. Some pandits still maintain the same view.
5.6.3.2.1. But, corroborative eipigraphical and literary sources from Prakrit and Sanskrit works place heavy waitage in favour of Kṛṣṇa-III being the paragon main character. Illustrious Puspadanta (C. E. 959) has referred to the emperor as 'bhvaṇekkarāmu-rāyā', which confirms that it was popular cognomen of Kṛṣṇa. More over, Pampa, Ponna, Sōmadēvasūri, Puspadanta were his proteges whereas there is no other evidence to substantiate that
Sankaraganda had supported Ponna. If Ponna had authored Bhuvanaika-Rāmābhyudaya, with Sankaraganda as the important victor of the poem, it becomes all the more difficult

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to justify that the emperor honored the author for glorifying his subordinate! However, the matter is not a closed chapter.
5.6.3.2.2. Continuing the Jaina etiquette of authoring a laukikakāvya, like Srivijaya, Guņavarma-I and Pampa, his predecessors, Ponna had composed BhuvanaikaRāmābhyudaya olim Rāma-kātha in circa 955 C. E. Perhaps, as discussed above, Ponna had identified his patron, a historical person, with Rāma, a legendary hero. While the theme is the popular story of Rāmāyaṇa, it has adopted the Jaina version of Rāmāyaṇa. Rāma legend in Jaina belief has a long unbroken history, starting from Vimalasūri (C. E. 473), and Ravişeņa (C. E. 676), who wrote in Prakrit and Sanskrit languages respectively.
5.6.3.3. In the time of the Rāstrakūtas, the story of Rāma finds a place of prominence in Uttarapurāṇam of Guņabhadradēva (C. E. 877), preceptor of Krsna-II. In the context of Kannada literature, Srivijaya, court poet of Amoghavarşa was the prime author to compose Raghuvamsapurāņam (C. 845 C. E.), and a few of his stanzas are also cited to illustrate the rules of poetics, in his Kavirājamārga. After him Ponna was the second author to deal with the same subject. Whether he has followed the path of Vimalasūri or Guņabhadra or Srivijaya is uncertain. What is certain is that the poem was a quasi-historical work.
5.6.3.3.1. Based on the merit of the verses of the above poem, quoted in some later works, mentioned earlier, it can safely be said that Bhuvanaika Rāmābhyudaya kăvya was a work of superior quality worth the royal benevolence it received. After Ponna, Nāgacandra (1044-1100), Kumudēnudu (1275) and other poets have also composed long poems on the same theme of Jaina Rāmāyana. But, how far the later poets are influenced by Ponna is not known.
5.6.3.4. Ponna, a junior contemporary of Pampa, has composed an āgama-kāvya also. Sāntipurāṇam, a poem of

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soaring aspiration, deals with the biography of Sāntinātha, the sixteenth Tirthankara. It contains twelve cantos in campūstyle. It is the earliest and also the best of the purāņas on the life of Sāntinātha in Kannada literature, and is by no means dull. For its choice diction, sustained harmony between metres employed, the work has been a splendid masterpiece. The incidents of Anantavirya and Aparājita, Barbara Kirātas, Kapila the out cast who was brilliant in grasping knowledge - are portrayed in a unique way.
5.6.3.4.1. The main objective of Ponna, in this classic, is the propogation of Jaina tenets and ethics which has been successfully achieved. When trouble was simmering in the Rāstrakūta administration, towards the last years of Krsna-III, Ponna was patronised by Mallapa and Punnamayya, brothers from a prestigeous Jaina marshal family. The pious brothers requested Ponna to compose Sāntipurāṇam in Kannada for the merit of Jinacandra, ascetic of Krānūr-gaņa, and preceptor of their house. Jinacandra was held in high regard by the monarchs of the period in Vāņiyavādi (was it Tardavādi where Tailapa-II was the governor of high rank?). Ponna has exclusively devoted thirty stanzas to panegyrize the austere life of seer Jinacandra. The composer has also set apart twenty six verses to eulogize the historical accomplishments of Mallapa and Punnamayya, brothers of idealism personified, like the legendary figures of Bhimārjuna and Nakula-Sahadēva.
5.6.3.5. In the prologue to śāntipurāṇam, Ponna has given a list of Kānūrgana a band of Jaina preceptors. This list verily agrees with inscriptional and literary evidences. As noted above, a full blown hagiography of the pontiff Jinacandra reflects the glory and superiority of the friar who had the members of the family of Nāgamayya and his two sons, Mallapa and Punnamayya as his fore most lay followers. Ponna has recroded the life time achievements of

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this family, and equated these two brothers with Anantavirya and Aparäjita, characters of Sāntipurāņa. Both the protege and patrons belong to Vēngi-Visaya, a province in Andradēša. Attimabbe, the most celebrated lady of late tenth century, was the sprout of the same family tree and a daughter of Mallapa. It so happened that later, after a lapse of two decades, Attimabbe caused to be made a thousand palm leaf copies of Sāntipurāņa to freely distribute to the laics. This re-copying amounts to the reprint of the text in the modern terminology. Thus, Attimabbe is the earliest in the annals of Indian literature to bring out the second edition of a poem!
5.6.3.5.1. Ponna has borrowed the theme of śāntipurāņa from Uttarapurāņa of Guṇabhadradēva and from Sāntipurāņam of Asaga. Kannada poem is highly indebted to the Sanskrit source, the latter in particular. Ponna has either tanslated or adopted many stanzas of Asaga's work. Inspite of such plagiarization, Ponna has the adacity to boast himself that he is manifold greater to Asaga. His obligation does not end with Asaga. He has appropriated certain stanzas from Raghuvamsa of Kālidāsa. Ponna's delineation of the svayamvara, marriage of Jyotihprabhā and digvijaya, the subjugation of various countries in all directions of śāntiśa, are enmass imitation of the immortal Kālidāsa's Raghuvamsa, that too copying the scenes of Indumatisvayamvara and digvijaya of Raghu-mahārāja. Here again, Ponna proclaims that he is four times above par to Kālidāsa! Albeit, Ponna has assimilated the best from early masters and made his poem a superb work in Kannada literature. He is the best translator, if it comes to the question of adoptation. To sum up, excellent diction, rich vocabulory, varieties of metrical composition, equal command over Sanskrit and Kannada languages are the special traits of śāntipurāņa of Ponna. The condemnation of the fault

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finders, admiration of the impartial critics, and the process of versification - are some of the salient lineament incorporated in Sāntipurāņa.
5.6.3.6. A small poem called Jinākşaramäle, an acrostic poem in homage of the Jinas, is attributed to Ponna. He is also believed to have authored a Gata-Pratyāgata kāvya, probably in Sanskrit, of which nothing is known. [Nagarajaiah, Hampa (ed): Sāntipuranam : 1981].
5.6.3.7. Ponna had the other aliases of Ponniga, Ponnamayya, Savana ('a Jaina monk”) and Kurulgaļa savana ("a frair with frizzy hair'). He had many surname too : kavicakravarti, ubhaya kavicakravartti, saujanya kandānkura and sarvadēva kavindra. Of these epithets, the last cognomen of Sarvadēva is consequential in the context of Telugu literature. Certain stanzas of Telugu Adipurāņa are extant. It has come to light, that the author of Telugu poem Adipurāṇa was Sarvadēva who completed his work in circa 950 C. E. Therefore, Sarvadēva is none other than Ponna, who had the title of Sarvadēva. Alongside, Ponna hails from Punganūr, a place in Kammeņād of Vengivişaya in Andhradēša (Gunţūr Dt.). Since the nomen of the poet, place of origin, and year of composition coincide, it is believed that Ponna was also a major and the earliest Telugu poet. Further, he is said to have translated Virāțaparva of Bhārata. However, some scholars, not completely convinced with this conjecture feel that we should wait for further clinching evidences.
5.6.3.7.1. Ponna has described himself as a curly haired Jaina friar (Kuruļgala savana). It may be presumed that he had renunciated material life and taken to austerity by the time he authored poems. He has stated that Indranandi (C. E. 930) was his preceptor, and epigraphical proof also approves it. Likewise, Indranandi was one of the leading authors of the period of Amõghavarşa-II and Govinda-IV.

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5.6.3.8. Ponna's place in Kannada literature, both in temporal terms and from the point of poetic excellence, is decidedly next to Pampa. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna have been befittingly admired with the title of ratna-trayas ('threegems') and Jina-samaya-dipakas, illuminators of Jaina faith. Pampa and Ponna were protegee of the Raṣṭrakūṭas and Ranna started his lifework under Gangas, the Raṭṭas of Sundatti, who were the Raṣṭrakūṭa vassals. That apart, Ranna continued ward of the same Attimabbe family which patronised Ponna. Infact, Ranna has continued to record the genealogy of his parton's family from where Ponna had stopped.
5.6.3.8.1. Ranna (993), Nagavarma (1042), Santinātha (1062), Nayasena (1112), Karṇapārya (1145), Brahmasiva (1175), Rudrabhaṭṭa (1185), Kēśirāja (1270) Madhura (1385) and a host of other poets have extoled the poetic excellence of Ponna, which shows that he was held in highest regard.
5.6.3.9. Among the popular Jinaśāsanadēvis, goddess Ambika has a prominent place [Nagarajaiah, hampa : YakṣaYakṣi 1976]. Ponna is the earliest of Kannada poets to mention and record the legend of Ambika in one of his verses of Santipuraṇa.
5.6.4. Manasija-Kandarpa (C. 900 C. E.), an author of note composed a Kannada poem, outstanding for its novel dēsi, oozing nine sentiments of poetic composition, and for its path of radiance. Recognising such merits, Durgasimha (1031), earliest Kannada poet to mention the name of Manasija, has equated the work(s) of Manasija with that of better poets like Asaga (C. 9th cent.) and Candrabhaṭṭa. In the chronological sequence, Durgasimha has appropriately placed Manasija after Asaga.
5.6.4.1. Kēśirāja (1270), best grammarian of Kannada language, has acknowledged that the excellent convention

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of poets like Gajaga, Gunanandi, Manasija et cetera has served him as illustrations for his grammar. Sridharācārya (1049), Rudrabhatta (1185) Madhura (1385), Kavi-Malla (1400), poets of eminence, have all their appreciation for Manasija and his propriety.
5.6.4.2. Jaina pontiff Indranandi (930) has unequivocally stated that Gunanandi and Kandarpa, the two confrere, were his senior preceptors who coached him to author Jvālāmālini-kalpa. This sequential statement of Indranandi deserves serious consideration. Giving more weight and credibility to Indranandi's record, supplemented by corroborative circumstantial evidences, the names of Kandarpa and Manasija could be treated as indentical. Similar instances are not lacking. Kamalabhava (born in a lotus) of Sāntisvarapurāņa is also known as Dēvakavi (1235) when he authored Kusumāvaļikāvya.
5.6.4.3. Kandarpa, mentioned in an inscription of the village Kallihāla (Hāvēri Dt) of C.E. 1019, is a later author with a gap of 120 years. Hence, he can be considered as Kandarpa-II, Whereas Kandarpa-1, tutor of Indranandi was a Jaina monk-author of circa 900C.E. As a co-existant of monk-litteratures Guņanandi and Ādi-Gunavarma, Kandarpa alias Manasija represents and joins the band of prominent Jaina men of letters of the Rāstrakūța age. To be more specific, Kandarpa (Manasija) composed his (title unknown) work(s) in the reign of Krsna-II.
5.6.4.4. Details of life and work of Gajānkuśa (Gajaga), (c.970) another Jaina author of this period to be recognised also remain mostly obscure. A host of men of letters including Durgasimha (1031), Sridharācārya (1049), Nayasēna (1112), Rudrabhatta (1185), Acanna (1185), Andayya (1235), Mallikārjuna (1240), Nāgaraja, Kēsiraja, Madhura, Kumudendu, Bāhubali Pandita, Bhāskara and Nanjunda have noted the poetic excellence of Gajānikusa alias Gajaga.

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Stanzas from his works are quoted in anthologies and grammars. In particular, Durgasimha has paid glowing tributes to the merits and achievements of Gajānkusa. According to the former, the latter was hundred fold far famed in cleverness of speech.
5.6.4.4.1. Gajānkuśa was a daņdanāyaka, a general in the Rāstrakūta army. He was equally at his best in the art of poesy. Like Cāmundarāya, Gajānkūsa was far fammed with pen and sword. Scholars have attempted in vain to fix him up with proper identification. Efforts of equating him with Nārayana Gajārkusa, minister of Krsna-iii, mentioned in an epigraph of Sālõțagi have failed. Similarly to put him on par with a Telugu writer has not met with success. The problem of identification remains enigmatical. Gajānkusa alias Gajaga lived to lead the army and to author bellesletteres during the later Rāştrakūta period.
5.6.5. Cāmundarāya (978) alias Rāya or Anna, undaunted champion of momentous battles, was one of the stalwarts of the second half of tenth century. After serving Būtuga-II and Mārāsimha-II, as a general, he was made minister of the Ganga king Rājamalla Satyavākya alias Rācamalla (974-84). He erected the colossal image of Gommata olim Gõmatēśvara in 981-82, on the summit of the large hill. Before the consecration of the monolith on the crest of the hill, he has composed in saka 900 Isvara Phālguna śuddha 8 Rohiņi Monday, equivalent to 18th Feb 978 C.E. Mahāpurāņam olim Cāmundarāya purāņam. It occupied a conspicuous place in the development of Kannada prose.
5.6.5.1. As a simple and easy flowing narrative work of its time, Cāmuṇdarāyapurāņam has exceptional merits. It is based primarily on Mahāpurāņa of Jinasēna and Gunabhadra in Sanskrit. Kannada version of Rāya provides a brief account of the legends or lives of the 63 mahā-purașas Salāka-puruşas they are 24 Tirthankaras, 12 cakravarttis,

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a Balabhadras (Baladēvas), 9 Vasudēvas (Nārāyanas) and a prati-Vasudēvas (Prati-Nārāyanas)-Sixty-three in all. Rāya's prose style is not poetic like the prose of Bhrājișnu of Arādhanā-Karnāta-Tikā or Vaddārādhane (C. 800C.E). Rāya's prose definitely serves the intended purpose. The grandeur of the narrative style is often marred by the author's desire to show off his scholastic weight by straining after alliteration, or being too bald and insipid.
5.6.5.2. Cāmmundarāya was considered Trişaști Lakşaņa-Mahāpurāņa's ostensible author, and that it was actually composed by Ranna (993). Such an opinion was formed because of the similarities found with Ajitapurāņam (1978) of Ranna. But the authorship of C'Rāya need not be doubted. He as an erudite in Jaina scriptures and was a gifted author. He has composed other works too, including a commentary on Gommațasāra of his preceptor Nēmicandra sidhānta cakravartti. A Sanskrit work Cāritrasāra is attributed to him. It is to be noted that the work of Rāya was completed in C.E. 978, whereas Ranna wrote in C.E. 993, A gap of 15 years goes in favour of Rāya, in which case the suggestion of ostensible authorship boomrangs!
5.6.5.3. Most celebrated personality of medieval India, C'Rāya had a number of honorific surnames which reflect his nobility and status in the Rāstrtakūța empire: Samara dhurandhara, Vira mārtanda, raņa-ranga singha, vairikula Kāladanda, Bhuja Vikrama, Samara Parasurāma, Samyaktva Ratanākara, Saucābharaṇa, Satya Yudhiştira, subhața Cūdāmaņi, Guņa-ratna-bhūşaņa, Kavijanasekhara. These titles suggest that he was a valiant warrior, a devout Jaina, and a virtuous gentleman. Available literary and inscriptional references attest and establish the truth of the above appellations. after his complete withdrawal from political and profane life, he preferred to stay in the monastery at Sravanabeļago!a.

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5.6.5.4. C'Rayapuraṇam of the illustrious Raya is one of the early prose compositions in Kannada language, only next to Ārādhanā Karṇāṭa Tikā (Vaḍdārādhane) of Bhrājṣṇu (C. 800). Raya, famous general and minister in the service of the final Ganga rulers, furnishes real historical details of the exploits of war in which he himself participated and lead the troops to victory. C'Raya, hero of many decisive battles has recorded valuable information about the penultimate Ganga rulers as feudal tenents of the Rāṣṭrakūtas, their over lords.
5.6.5.5. He thwarted many fearless warrior. Conspicnous among the enemies that he foiled wereRājāditya, Räca, Govindarasa, Rācaya, Vajvala in the Khēḍaga battle, Nolamba near Gōnür, Rājāyita in Ucchangi, Tribhuvanavira in Bāgeyur, Nṛkāma and Mudurācaya. Since he fought single-handed with Rājāyita at Ucchangi, he got the title of Ranaranga-simha.
5.6.5.6. C' Raya had a sound knowledge of Jaina canonical and pontiffical chronicler. He was a pupil of Ajitasēna, the greatest of the coeval Jaina patriarchs of his period. It is only after the year 978 that the became the disciple of Nemicandra siddhanti who composed Gommaṭasāra for the benifit of Raya, in 982 C.E, in Prakrit.
5.6.5.7. He has referred to some eminent ascetics and authors, quotes profusely sevaral gathas and slokas from various sources, from early Jaina texts. His quotations from Kaviparameṣṭhi and Jaṭāsimhanandi has helped to inentify their works. Some verses of Vägartha samgraha/gadya-kathā are found only in this work. It is through Raya's work that the identify of Jaṭasimhanandi and Varängacarita was rightly established, and Jaṭārya, Jatācārya Jaṭāsimhanandi being the names of one and the same monk was finalised. 5.6.5.8. One of the five works authored by Ranna, who

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started his brilliant career as a protege of the Gangas, is dedicated to C'Rāya. Paraśurāmacarite is a quasi-historical poem, based on the life and achievements of Raya who had the biruda of Samara Parasurama.
5.6.5.9. C'Raya has also commissioned a magnificent Jaina temple on Candragiri hills at Sravanabelagola. On the top of that temple Jinadēvaṇa, son of Raya, has built a small shrine dedicated to Jina Pārsva.
Kumudēndu and Siribhuvalaya
5.7. Undoubtedly Siribhuvalaya is a remarkable work attributed to Kumudēndu. Ever since the work was discovered in 1950 by Yellappa Sastry an eminent scholar, Siribhuvalaya took the literary world by storm. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the then President of India was, like many other scholars, fascinated by the very conception of the work. Yellappa Sastry was invited to the Rastrapati-Bhavan and considering the work to be a veritable compendium of Indian culture the whole text was micro-filmed.
5.7.1. It is worthwhile examining the nature of Siribhuvalaya, 'the resplendent earth'. It is conceived in mathematical tables, assigning the numbers 1 to 64, each corresponding to the letters of the alphabet. This ankākṣara mathematical table method claims that the work can be read in 718 languages. Further it is said that, siribhūvalaya includes 363 philosophical systems, 64 kalās, i.e., all arts and science. Further it states that the work contains six lakh (6,00,000) verses, in which case, it is six times bigger than the size of Mahabharata and Mahāpurāṇa.
5.7.2. Kumudēndu, author of the Siribhuvalaya is identified with Kumudēndu, a disciple of Virasēna (C. E. 816), a confrere of Jinasēna and a contemporary of Amōghavarṣa-I, the Raṣṭrakūṭa monarch. To substantiate the above surmise, scholars quote that Siribhuvalaya

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mentions the five Dhavalā texts - the Jayadhavală the
Vijayadhavalā, the Atiśayadhavalā, the the Mahādhavalā and Dhavalā. A list of some preceptors of Sēnagana, Puspa gaccha, Angas, Angabāhiras, the works of Koņdakunda, Bhūtabali, Umāsvāti, Samantrabhadra, Pūjyapāda and Cūdāmaņi. Kumudēndu also gives the story of the Rāmāyaṇa, the Mahābhārata and the Bhagavad Gītā, the last one in five languages including Prakrit and Sanskrit and, Kumudēndu translated the Gītā into Kannada language, for the benefit of Amoghavarşa, in the săngatya metre.
5.7.3. Some scholars have believed the work as geniune and also appealed that, before passing any final judgement, the entire work has to be closely scrutinized' [Kagwal, S. P. and Dharmapal, M. Y., Tirthankara Nēmi and The Bhagavad-Gītā, Jinamañjari, 20-2 (octo 1999), pp. 1-5; Srikanta sastry, S., The voice of Ahinsā, Jan-Feb. 1955, (ed) Kamta Prasad Jain).
5.8. Jinavallabha (C. 950 C. E.), younger brother of the illustrious poet Pampa, was also an author of note. Though none of his independent poems have come to light as yet, a famous epigraph composed in three languages by Jinavallabha has survived to speak of his poetic skill.
5.8.1. Abhimānacandra of Nidungonde belonged to the kamme Brāhmaṇa genealogy of Srivatsagotra, lineage. Originally his ancestors formed a part of Vangiparra village in Vengi country. Bhimapayye grand son of Abhimānacandra, after matured consideration changed his faith from Brāhmanism to Jainism. He was convinced that for a Brahmin, the best of religions to follow was Jainism. Bhimapayya’s consort, Abbaņabbe was a grand daughter of Jõyisa simgha, of Anộigese in Belvola, also a new convert to Jainism.
5.8.2. Bhimapayya and Abbaņabbe, devout Jaina laics,

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were proud parents of two brilliant and talented sons, Pampa, the greatest of Kannada poets, being elder and Jinavallabha, a genius in three languages was younger. Monk Dēvēndra was the preceoptor of Pampa. A suggestion of the scholars that Dēvēndramunindra, a celebrity among the ascetics mentioned in the Sravanabelagola epigraph and the guru of Pampa, are identical, needs further substantial proof. But, his identity with Dēvēndramuni mentioned in another charter (EA. vol. II. p. 31) is valid. Subhanandi, Gandavimukti Bhatāra, and Candraprabhayati were monk students of Dēvēndramunindra, who was a big name when Krsna-II was on the throne. Jayanandi Siddhanti Bhatāra, co-existant Jaina seer heading the Pandarangapalli cloister, was also a guru of Pampa and Jinavallabha. Jayanandi Bhațāra flourished in the life span of Indrarāja-III. Jayanandi, an adept in Jaina philosophy, belonged to the great Kondakunda ecclesiastical cohort of school called Dēsiga gana potthage vamsa. He was the chief of the Jaina diocese with its monastery at Pandarangapalli. Pampa was also, in the beginning, a student who studied under Jayanandi at the Pandarangapalli convent.
5.8.4. For his invaluable accomplishment in the field of creative literature, Pampa was endowed with Dharmavura village and other rare gifts by his patron king Arikēsari-II. To the north of Dharmavura existed a huge hill called Vrşabhagiri, named after Rşabha, the first ford maker. On the front face of Siddhasile, to the south of the Vrşabhagiri, Jinavallabha, ardent follower of śramaņa faith commissioned, with great devotion, a Jina shrine called Tribvhuvana-tilaka, and many images of Jinas, the victors. He constructed a tank called kavitā-guņārņava, after the title of Pampa, his eminent brother. He also caused to be made a garden called Madana-vilāsa.
5.8.5. Pampāryyānujam=atra Bhima tanujam

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samyaktva ratnākaram, a sentence from the above Kurikyala or Gangādharam inscription composed by Jinavallabha, approves the fact that he had the biruda of samyaktva-ratnākarai.e., an ocean of Right-faith, a requisite of a Jaina householder. He was a 'tribhāsākavi', poet of three languages - Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada. Jinavallabha was the first Telugu Jaina poet who has composed three stanzas of poetic merit in Telugu language. He has also assisted Malliya Rēcana to author Kavijanāsrayamu', a Telugu work on prosody. Jinavallabha had the epithets of Vācakābharaṇa and Vāgvadhūvallabha.
5.8.6. Bhāgiyabbe, consort of Jinavallabha had set up a metal Caturvimsatipatta image of a Jina and founded a Jinālaya named after her. Two of the bronze images of Jina, caused to be made by Bhagiyabbe in C. E. 950, are now in Nahar Museum, Calcutta and Government Museum, Madras. Bhagiyabbe, born in a Kannada speaking family of Paithaņa (now in Maharāștra), was a devotee of Mahāvira. Both the bronze images of Mahāvira contain inscriptions in Kannada characters [Nahar, Purnachandra, and Ghosh, eds : 1917; Murthy, A. V. Narasimha : 1990 : 219-21). Paithana was nearer to Bõdhana and Lembulapāțaka, metropolis of the state, where Pampa and Jinavallabha were housed. Similarly, Pandarangavalli, where Jinavallabha had his early education under his preceptor Jayanandi Bhatāra, was nearer to Lembulapāțaka and Bödhana. Those places were recognised cultural centres of the greater Karņātaka of the Rāstrakūta period.

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CHAPTER - 6
PRAKRIT LITERATURE
6.1. The Rāstrakūta eon is a lustrious epoch in the history of Jaina church and Jaina literature in particular. Literary achievements of this age are substantial, endowed with imperishable merits transcending the barriers of time, space and environment. The languages widely prevalent during this epoch were mainly Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada. Even the epigraphs of this time subscribe to this finding, though the Prakrit charters are totally absent. The Gangas and the Rāstrakūtas did not stimulate the bards and the laureates to compose inscriptions in Prakrit, like the early Kadambas of Banavāsi. However, the Rāstrakūta empire, at its peak of glory, particularly during the reign of Amõghavarşa-I and Krsna-III, produced Prakrit literature also. The glorious Rāstrakūta age witnessed flowering of Prakrit literary activity.
6.1.2. Bulk of Prakrit literature, highly creditable in quality and in quantity, was produced under the patronage of the Rāstrakūtas. Since the lingua franca of the country where Mahāvira lived was Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit, he adopted it as his media to teach. Because Mahāvira chose to preach in that language, Ardha-Māgadhi became the language of Jaina scripture. Buddhists monopolized Pāli and Jains cornered Prakrit.
6.1.2.1. Gifted Jaina authors appropriated Apabramsa,

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Ardha-Māgadhi, Mahārāstri and Saurasēni, inaugurating an Augustan age in those languages. But, Jaina men of letters never attached a slavish or sentimental sanctity to any particular speech. They gave a home to various languages. They fostered different languages and styles according to the regions and spirit of the age. Prakrit literature in general and Apabhramsa language in particular reached its efflorascense during the epoch making era of Krsna-III. His subordinates and general, Bharata and Nanna, helped Puspadanta to stay and compose his two classics and one Epic in Karņāțaka.
6.1.2.2. "... the linguistic influence of Pushpadanta can be easily seen on the later poets of Marăthi, Gujarāti, Hindi etc. In his kāvyas many words of Dravidian origin along with many Deśya words are found. Dr. Ratna Shriyan has critically studied these words in her thesis. Thus, the contribution of Pushpadanta in the study of linguistic field is enoromous (Prem Suman Jain : in Jainism and Karnatak Culture : 1977 : 157].
6.1.2.3. Vallabha, meaning lord, is one of the titles, with which the Rāstrakūța monarchs were often referred to. This appellation was an abbreviation of the fuller expression of Sri-Prithvi-Vallabha, a characteristic Sanskrit cognomen owned by the early Cālukyas of Bādāmi. Evidently, their worthy successors, the Rāstrakūtas rightly inherited the biruda and abridged it to vallabha. The word Balhaha in Prakrit language is borrowed from vallabha. Ancient Arab travellers have used the word Balhara, connotating the Rāșțrakūta monarch, apparently a contraction of Ballaharāya, Prakritised from Vallabharāja. Rāya was also a Prakritised form of Sanskrit rājan. Prakrit influence on some of the cognomen and nomen needs further analysis. Rāya, Gojjigadēva, Baddegadeva, Vaddigadeva are Prakatised and Kannadised nomens of Sanskrit Rājan,

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Govinda, Bhadradeva (Budhräja) Vādyega, (Vāgarāja). Except for a few birudas of Prakrit or Kannada influence, most of the epithets are of Sanskrit origin.
6.1.2.4. Similarly some nomen of emperors like Kannara, Govindara, Karkara exhibit the influence of Kannada language. Word final morpheme-ara/-ra is a shortened form of arasa(n), which means 'a king'. Of the three semantically equal words, rājan is Sanskrit, rāya is Prakrit and arasa(n) is Kannada. Again, arasan is also a borrowing from Sanskrit rajan, but it is typical Dravidianised way of assimilating Sanskrit borrowings; Tamil arasan is a cognate. Prakrit literature: A retrospect
6.2. A Prakrit adage samaņō amōgha vayanō has its resonance in the Sankrit epigram of śramaṇaha amōgha vacanaha, and its vibration in the Kannada maxim puttum battaleyum baridilla, neither an anthill nor a naked monk will be empty. Jaina monk possess nothing of worldly belonging. On the other hand, the naked ascetics were a fund of knowledge. Many of them were a mobile encyclopaedia. They were satā vadhānis, a hundred fold attentive, concentration personified.
6.2.1. Jaina literature is termed as śramanic or parivrājaka ('a wondering recluse') or ascetic literature. This śramanic literature, though authored by the wondering recluse, is meant for the whole mankind. Jainalore disregards the system of castes, and varṇāśramas, i.e., the order of the four castes the Brahmin, the Ksatriya, the Vaisya, and the Śūdra. Heroes of ascetic literature are not gods and goddess, but kings, traders and sūdras.
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6.2.2. Thanks to the Jaina pontiffs of Mathura who launched 'Sarasvati movement' in 2nd and 1st cent. B. C., when the knowledge of the Angas (limbs) and Purvas (old texts) began to suffer losses and dwindle in volume. Jaina

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patriarchate at last overcame their conservation to take recourse to pen and paper. But it was so late that sufficient portions of the cononical literature was extinct. But, whatever Nigantha - pāvayāṇa, 'sermons of the Nirgrantha', gani-pidaga, 'basket of the gaṇadharas', suya-ñāṇa, 'scriptural knowledge' survived was first handed down in Ardha-Magadhi, and later in Saurasēni. Bhutabali, Puspadanta and Gunadhara adopted Saurasēni Prakrit for Satkhaṇḍāgama and kaṣāyaprābṛta.
6.2.3. From the early centuries of current era up to the early decades of 9th cent. C. E., the media of Jaina siddhanta was Prakrit dialects. Jaina patriarchy of this period preferred and cultivated Ardha-Magadhi, Śaurasēnī and Mahārāṣtri alike. From 7th cent. onwards Apabhramsa was employed. It does not mean that these languages were used only for religious and philosophical exposition and for voluminous commentaries. Various works on scientific subjects and many excellent pieces of belles-letters were composed in Prakrit languages, by versatile and prodigious authors. During the age of the Raṣṭrakūṭas also, Jaina luminaries like Virasena, Jinasena-II, Svayambhu, Puspadanta and Nemicandra have enriched Prakrit language and literature in various ways. Similarly, Jaina men of letters reached perfection in Sanskrit language and in other provincial languages. Thus, the Jaina authors never addressed exclusively the learned classes, but they appealed to other strata of the people also.
6.2.4. Mahāvira preached his doctrines in Ardhamāgadhi language: bhagavam ca nam Addha-magahie bhāsāe dhammam āikkhai [Samavāyānga. 98]. Lord Buddha, Mahavira's contemporary, preached his doctrines in the then spoken language Pāli or Magadhi. Ardhamagadhi was old or ancient Māgādhi language which was spoken in half of Magadhadeśa. Bhutabali, Puspadanta and

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Gunadhara, the ācārya-trayas, laid a substantial Jaina canonical foundation in Prakrit language.
6.2.5. Kondakundaācārya (C. 1st - 2nd cent. C. E.), Vattakēra (C. 2nd cent. C. E.) of Mūlācāra, Sivārya alias Sivakoti (Pk. Sivajja C. 2nd cent.) of Arădhanā, Yativrşabha (C. E. 478) of Tilõyapaņņatti, Sarvanandi (C. E. 458) of Likavibhāga, Virasēna, Nemicandra siddhānta Cakravartti are some of the momentous Saurasēni authors who lived and wrote in Karņātaka. Their works are so crucial that can not be overlooked, either in quality or in quantity. Dhavalā - Jayadhavalā commentary, in the co-authorship of the teacher and taught, of Virasēna and Jinasēna-II, containing 72,000 verses is a stupendous work worthy of notice.
6.2.6. Thus, the Jaina monks and scholars that imigrated into Karņātaka, at the beginning composed their works in their own language, viz., the Jaina Sauraseni, brought the native language to the literary level by cultivating it and finally merged their literary genius, together with themselves, into the general culture of the land of their adoption which they loved as their own, which fact is lucidly reflected in the famous Kuppatūr inscription" [Kadabadi, B. K. : 185).
6.2.7. Prakrit literature and dialects played an important role in the development of Kannada language and literature. A historical lingusitic analysis establishes the depth and dimension of this influence. As a result of close contact of Kannada with Prakrit for over a millennia, certain phonetic, morphological and semantic changes have taken place in Kannada language.
6.2.8. Early Kannada authors were persuaded by the Prakrit men of letters. Belles-lettres of Apabhramsa, Ardhamāgadhi, Saurasēni had swayed Kannada poetry. Campū form and style, so desirable and chosen by many major poets in Kannada, owes its origin evidently to Prakrit

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poems like Kuvalayamālā of Udyõtanasūri. Preponderance of Prakrit over Kannada is found in its metres of ragale, kanda, and sāngatya which bear the stamp of Prakrit metres like paddaạia (pajjhaờika), khandaa (Sk. skandaka) and sanghatta. The very conception ofādiprāsa and antyaprāsa, beginning-rhyme and end-rhyme, owes its source to Prakrit, that too kadavaka style attracted Kannada genius. Every house holder of Jaina community respectfully recites cattārimangalam and pañca-ņamākara, Jaina litany, not knowing it is in Prakrit language.
6.2.9. Jaina men of letters in Karņāțaka were under the grip and command Sanskrit and Prakrit mostly in the time of Rāstrakūtas. They wrote in Sanskrit and Prakrit and also adopted the works of their choice. We have no access to the buried wealth of great Jaina works not extant. But, the available bulk of literary works exhibit the intensity of Prakrit domination.
Following pages survey the contribution of Jaina authors to Prakrit literature under the aegis of Rāstrakūtas.
6.3. Svayambhū (C. 750 C. E.) was another author of note who was held in high deference. He has composed altogether three works namely Paumacariu, Rittaņemicariu and Svayambhu-chandas. He has given an account of himself. He was lean, unshapely with sparse teeth and flat nose. All that exteranl appearence had nothing to do with his poetic gift
6.3.1. Svayambhū seems to have composed his works in the border area of Mahārāştra and Karņāțaka in the reign of Dantidurga (735-56) who had the royal epithets of Sāhasatunga and Khadgā valūka. Svayambhū was a follower of Yāpaniya samgha. Poet Puşpadanta, while introducing Svayambhū, composer of Paddhaời metre, categorically states that he belonged to Apuli samgha a variant of Yāpaniya sect : Svayambhuhu paddhaờibandhakartā Āpuli Samghiyaha.

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6.3.2. Svayambhu had the model of Raviṣeṇācārya's Padmacarita (C. E. 676) in composing Paumacariu. Since he could compose upto canto 82, his son Tribhuvana Svayambhu continued from canto number 83 till the last canto number 90. His second Apabramsa work Ritthanemicariu olim Harivamśapurāņa was a voluminous poem. Here again Svayambhu could author only 99 cantos and the rest was composed by his son Tribhuvana Svayambhu. Both the poems are works of greater merit. Svayambhu respectfully remembers Bharata, Pingala, Bhamaha, Dandin and Bāņa. Svayambhuchandas deals with meters.
6.3.3. H. C. Bhayani has epitomized the contribution and place of Svayambhu : "Swayambhu should be counted among those fortunate writers who achieved during their lifetime recognition and literary fame that was amplified by subsequent generations. He was well known as kaviraja (king of poets) during his life time. ..His name was spoken along with Caturmukha and Bhadra, celebrated names in the field of Apabhramsa letters. He is even said to have excelled them. Whether you talk of the beauty of ideas or of expressions, whether you weigh knowledge of rhetorics, proficiency in Apabhramśa grammar or skill in handling varied metres, Swayambhu is recognised as an allround master" [Bhayani, H. C. (ed): "Intro" Paumacariyu, part. I. p. 29].
6.4. Puspadanta (C. 925-74) has the rare distinction of being the sui generis of Apabhramsa poetry. Puspadanta's parents. Kesava and Mugdhādēvi, śaiva Brāhmaṇas of Kāśyapa gōtra, proselytized to Jainism, like the parents of poet Pampa. Puspadanta a contemporary of Ponna and Sōmadēvasūri, had dark complexion and a lean frame. He started as a court-poet of king Virarāja alias Bhairava and composed a poem to glorify his patron. Because he was offended, Puspadanta abandoned Viraraja's support and left

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northern region in search of a better shelter. He faced bad days. For him it was a hand-to-mouth existence. At last he reached the suburbs of Malkhēd, royal seat of the Rāstrakūtas.
6.4.1. When Puspadanta was relaxing in a grove of trees in the environs of the statehouse, he was approached by Indrarāja and Annayya, two Jaina citizens, who persuaded the poet to meet Bharata, cabinet officer of the Rāstrakūta emperor (Krsna-III). Happiness had smiled on him. Bharata, a devout Jaina householder son of Ayyana and Dēvi became the esteemed supporter of Puspadanta. Bharata, a minister and general of the vast kingdom and a benevolent patron, solicited him to author an epic of his faith. Bharata's house was a coterie of the learned.
6.4.2. Puspadanta began composing TisatthiMahāpurisa-Guņālarkāra in C. E. 959. After completing the portion of Adipurāna, some how he could not progress. By the benediction of goddess of learning and by the animation of Bharata, his patron, Puspadanta resumed his composition.
6.4.3. When he completed the epic in C. E. 965, he himself was much delighted with his poetic accomplishment. He, in his ecstacy, proudly declared that 'what is not here can not be found elesewhere in the same vein of the illustraious Vyāsa.
Later, the Rāstrakūta empire suffered a set back and fell into very bad days. Puşpandanta's poetic pixy was nurtured, amidst adversity by Nanna, son of Bharata, who stepped into his father's office. At the petition of Nanna, an ardent Jaina votary, Puşpadanta authored two more resplendent classics, Jasahara-cariu (Sk. Yasõdhara-carita) and Nāyakumāra-cariu (Sk. Nāgakumāra-carita). For the simple reason, that after completing a mahākāvya, a fullfledged epic, Puspadanta supplemented it with two Khandakāvyas, epic fragments, the poet was nicknamed as Khanda!

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There was nothing of derision in attributing this diminutive appellation.
6.4.4. Tisatthi-Mahāpurisa-Guņālankāru(Sk. Trişasthi Mahāpuruşa Guņālankāraha) is approximately an Apabhramśa rendering of Sanskrit Mahāpurāņa of Jinasēna, and Guṇabhadra, an epic of Rāstrakūta period. In theme and style, in depth and dimension prakrti work has closely followed the Sanskrit model. Like the latter, the former has also two parts of Ādipurāņa and Uttarapurāņa, dealing with the same topics. Prakrit poem has a unifrom style since it was authored by a single poet. The whole work comprises (80+42) 122 cantos and embodies 20,000 (Kadavakas) verses. Thus, even in the bulk of the poem, Prakrit work resembles Sanskrit original.
6.4.5. The plot of Jasaharacariu and Nāyakumāracariu, two classics belong to the type of popular belles lettres. These two poems with nine and four cantos respectively, were composed and completed at Nanna's mansion. Naturally both the works are dedicated to Nanna, a Good Samaritan. To put it in a nutshell, Ņāyakumāracariu richly illustrates the fruit of observing a fast on the occassion of śrípañcami ritual. Jasaharacariu deals with the life of Yasodhara, and Amộtamati, his spouse, and their subsequent births.
6.4.6. The didactic and religious stories of the heros of these two classics are made popular by poets like Puşpadanta, who has spread his influence of Kannada narrative literature. Puşpadanta, a prince among Apabhramsa, authors had many titles : sarasvatinilaya, kavikulatilaka, abhimāna-mēru, kāvya-ratnākara, kāvyapiśāca; ‘abode of goddess of learning', 'poet par excellence', "highly self-respecting', 'ocean of poetry', 'bon-vivant of poetry'. Outwardly he was a householder, at heart a monk. He has respectfully remembered Caturmukha, Svayambhū and Tribhuvana Svayambhu, who were the early authors

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Apabhramśa literature. In his prolegamena to his three poems, Puşpadanta, without any embarassment, has narrated interesting details of autobiographical note, about himself, his patrons, the circumstances which made him to migrate to Maļkhēd etc.
6.4.7. Unquestionably Puspadanta is a born poet and occupies a high place in the galaxy of poets. In the introductory verses he declares that he does not possess the necessary qualifications to undertake the great purāņa. But that only shows his humility, characteristic of a really cultured and rich mind. That he was endowed with the divine gift called pratibhā and that he had acquired proficiency in various sciences (Vyutpatti) would be evident to even a casual reader of this Rāmāyaṇa portion. His command of language is simply marvellous. Words come to him as easily and naturally as leaves to a tree. His vocabulary is almost unlimited. He embellishes his work with a variety of Alankaras that possess strinkingness and originality, Utpreksa is his forte. His epic abounds in ‘rasas'such as the erotic, the heroic, the marvellous and 'karuņā”. His style is, on the whole, marked by ‘ojas' (vigour) but not rarely does he write in the graceful and elegant vaidarbhi style. His poetry reveals the excellence of 'Artha-gauravatva' - profoundity of meaning. He employs variety of metres (such as Duvai, Hela, Āvali, Ārņālam, Racita etc.) and thus his work is free from the fault of monotony, and his poem possesses the charming quality called 'geyata'. He uses a large number of Desi words and extends its attractiveness to the ‘masses'. He possesses a delightful sense of humour and at times entertains us at his own cost. He is indeed a Mahā-kavi although according to the strict rules of Alankārikas his Mahā-purāņa cannot be called a Mahākāvya' (Kulkarni, V. M. : The story of Rāma in Jain literature : 1990 : 170].

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| 6.5. Yasodhara, Nagakumāra, Jivandhara, Bahubali, Cārudatta, Dhanyakumāra, Pradyumna, Sanatkumāra, Vasudēva - are some of the distinguished, popular, and ideal heros in Jaina story literature. Naturally uttarapurāņa and a number of other kāvyas have narrated the story of these heros. Nāgakumāra, Phaņikumāra, Vikramandhara are all nomens of the same hero. Based on the Nāyakumāra-cariu, a Prkarit poem of Puşpadanta, Kannada authors have composed four works on the same theme. Poets have cultivated a fascination for the above characters, because they were equally distinguished in the art of war and peace. These heros who end their lives as perfect saints. After a stormy youth, marked by many adventures, Nāgakumāra finds himself, in the prime of life, the monarch of a splendid kingdom, leads a worldly life of pleasure in the company of many queens. It is established that the Jain authors were admittedly distinguished in the domain of ascetic poetry, but they could also make noteworthy contribution to the literature of love (erotic poem) the smara-tantra.
6.5.1. An account of each of Vasudēva's adventrures culminating in a happy marriage, the poem turns out to be a book of marriages. So is the case with other similar stories. Finally, these heros are shaken from their complacency by an incident, trivial in itself, like the sudden disappearence of the cloud or the beautiful spectrum of rainbow, the fall of a star, the sight of an uprooted tree or the appearence of the grey hair, but it will be full of significance to the hero at the right moment of matured consideration. The more he contemplates, more he sees in a moment's flash the hallowness of human life and the wisdom of seeking release from its bonds. Thus he looses all terrestrial interests, installs his son on the throne, seeks the peace of the forest and attains salvation in the end. This is the quintesence of not only the above stories of the romantic heros but also almost all the Jaina narative literature.

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6.5.2. Like Ponna, a contemporary Kannada poet, Puspadanta also wrote at a cristical transitory period of political turmoil. Puşpadanta witnessed the wax and wane of the Rāştrakūța empire. He authored his epic poem Mahāpurāņa in the reign of Kęsņa and he composed the other two narrative poems during the rule of Khottiga. Prakrit was cultivated with great vigor.
Puspadanta, greatest doyen of Prakrit literature, spent most of his creative period in Karnāṭaka. He fulfilled the desire and dream of his parents in dedicating his life to the propogation of Jainism through literature.
6.5.3. Kanakamara is another major Prakrit litterateur who is supposed to be an author of this age. Hiralal Jain has assigned C. 1050 C. E. as the probable date of composition of his classic Karakandacariu. But, recent researchers have found Kanakāmara to be an author who was a junior contemporary of Puşpadanta. Karakandacariu is a narrative poem full of epigrams charged with varied human and spiritual experience. It believed that the poet Kanakāmara has equated the hero of the poem with Krşņa-III.
6.6. Nēmicandra Siddhanta Cakravartti (Circa 982 C. E.), a name to conjure with, is known for his abundant Prakrit works. Puşpadanta, his senior contemporary poet had amply enriched Apabhramsa language and literature. Nēmicandra, without entering the realms of poetry, has mainly concentrated on the field of philosophy. He had the privilege of intimacy with Aryasēna, Viranandi, Indranandi, Kanakanandi, Ajitasena and other monachs. He was also contemporameous to Ponna, Ranna, Cāmundarāya, Rājamalla, Mārasimha, Sõmadēvasūri and Puspadanta.
6.6.1. C'Rāya had two celebrated teachers who shaped him to become a stalwart in enhancing the glory of Jaina

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fiath in the early second half of tenth cent., Particularly during the transition period of the Raṣṭrakūṭas and Calukyas. Of his two eminent teachers, one was the illustrioius Ajitasēnācārya, royal preceptor of the Ganga dynasty. He had initiated Mārasimha to the act of sallekhanā. Ajitasena, first spiritual guru of C'Raya, figures prominently in a number of epigraphs.
6.6.2. Later, C'Raya shifted, once for all to Śravanabelagola where he settled till his death. Nemicandra siddhanti, who had migrated from Tamilnāḍu, became the eminent cleric who tutored C'Raya and imported the quintessence of syādvāda philosophy. At the request of C'Raya, Nēmicandra composed the illustrious Gommaṭasāra.
6.6.3. Nēmicandra, an opulent author in Prakrit, was proficient in Jaina āgamas. He had an access to the source and had throughbred with the redaction and exegetical literature. Nēmicandra, ponderous and generative author of many Prakrit works, refers to Kukkuta-Jina-Gommața founded by his noted pupil Camuṇḍarāya, on the summit of larger hill at Śravanabelagola in C. E. 982. The works of Nēmicandra include Gommaṭasara in two books, i.e., Jivakhāṇḍa and Karmakhāṇḍa, Dravyasamgraha, Trilokasāra, Labdhisara are authentic philosophical treatises in Prakrit.
6.6.4. Dravyasamgraha, is an abstract of the six substances which constitute the cosmos. It is a digest of the answers given by the learned author to the valid questions put to him by C'Raya, his prudent student. Nemicandra had thorough knowledge of mathematics which is very well reflected in his works. Nemicandra Siddhanti reiterates that by polluting the inherent characteristics of the soul are lost and as a consequence of it human beings are prone to suffer miseries. Therefore, Nēmicandra stresses the observance of

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right belief, Roknowledge, and Ro conduct, the three jewels leading to liberation.
6.6.5. Nēmicandra Siddhānta cakravartti was perhaps the earliest to read and prepare a useful digest of Dhavalā and Jayadhavalā commentaries. Dealing with the Jaina dogma on Jiva, soul (sentient), and karma, action (a form of matter), Gommațasāra has analysed methodically. The schematic way in which Nēmcandra has condensed the gamut ot Satkhandāgama reflects his ascendency in Jaina philosophy. During his times, and in the modern times, Gommațasāra has been considered as the most sacred of available digambara texts and as a popular version of the vast Jaina spiritual-lore. It has facilitated the novice being initiated into the Jaina monkhood and nunhood as a reliable source book.
6.6.5.1. Labdhisāra deals with Paścima-skandha, 15th chapter of Jayadhavalā-Tikā.
6.6.6. Nēmicandrācārya lived during the ulitmate years of the Rāștrakūtas and the beginning of the later Cālukyas. He witnessed the fall of a famous dynasty and the rise of yet another glorious empire. It is not certain whether Nēmicandra, chief of the Sravanabelagola diocese, was present at the time of Indra-IV taking the vow of sallekhanā.
6.6.7. Virasēna's originality and level of erudition are especially evident in Dhavalā gloss. His disciple Jinasēna has the distinction of being one of the few scholars to write a commentary on Kaşāyaprābhrta, thereby assuring an unbroken tradition of canonical scholarship. Gommațasāra by philosopher monk Nēmicandra exhibit the level of Jaina scholarship in effectively employing Prakrit language remained high.
6.6.8. Pūjyapāda Dëvanandi of late sixth cent. C. E., noteworthy grammarian, produced sarvārthasiddhi, an

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encyclopedic work, the earliest extant Digambara commentary on the Tattvärthasūtra of Umāsvāti. The other two commentaries that followed were Akalanka's Rājavārttika and the Slokavārttika of Vidyānanda (C. E. 950). In all the Jaina monasteries of Digambara sect, these three commentaries, along with Dhavala and Gommaṭasāra, comprised the basic textual material used by advanced students. For the beginners, Nemicandra's Dravyasamgraha continues to be a basic text till to-day, because, many stanzas and sūtras are pregnant with sum and substance of life.
6.7. Jaina contribution to the development of literary theories in India is voluminous. Ācārya Jinasēna-II (C. E. 825) is one of the earliest of Jaina men of letters, to speak of alankara-sāstra, science of poetics, including topics like alankāras, two margas and ten guņas (Ādipurāṇa, XVI. 115). Jinasēna interprets the terms Vāñmaya as a collective form of the three disciplines, viz., grammar, prosody and poetics (ibid. XVI-III). By that time, Anuyogadvārasūtra, Jaina canonical text (C. 5th cent. C. E.) had clearely enumerated nine kavya-rasas, poetic-sentiments, including praśānta, tranquility, substituting vṛidanaka for bhāvanaka. Thus the Jaina tradition considers prasanta as the highest value of life.
6.7.1. Ranna (C. E. 993), a Kannada author of greater merit, has alluded to thirty-six lakṣaṇas as against sixteen samskāras, keeping alive the doctrine of lakṣaṇas in tone with Bharatamuni, the legendary guru of arts.
6.7.2. In Pārsvābhyudaya kāvya, a Sanskrit poem, Acārya Jinasēna-II had employed his poetic genius in restructuring Mēghadūta of Kālidāsa. Lines of Kālidāsa breathing the spirit of vipralambha-sṛngāra, one of the nine sentiments of poetry, are transformed to yield the (pra)śānta significance. Jinasēna takes the first line of each stanza, and sometimes only the first two lines, and adding two or three

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newlines of his own composition, transforms the each verse into metaphysical poem. Adroit Jinasēna does not hesitate to state that kukavis, the bad poets, employing kavi-samaya/ kāvya-dharma have considered srngära as satya, but in truth it is the reverse of it, asatya, upholding ethical instruction.
6.7.3. Jains are credited with authorship of first work on poetics in Kannada language. Kavirājamārga of Srivijaya (C. E. 850) is a free adaptation of Kāvyālankāra (Bhāmaha) and Kävyādarśa (Dandin), two early Sanskrit works on the art of poetry. It opens with Jinastuti, invocatory verse of Jina. Kavirājamārga has unique indigenous ideas independent of Bhāmaha and Dandin. In particular, Srivijaya's dekinition of great poetry takes the reader beyond the scope of Kāvyādarśa or Kāvyālarkara, source texts, to the bhāva of the author on the one hand and to the višeşa of sabdas as well as alankaras relating to arthavyakti.
6.7.4. Treatment of mārgas and their guņas in relation to particular rasas in Kavirājamārga are innovatives of Srivijaya, which has not parallel in either Bhāmaha or Dandin. His nomenclature of Karuņārasa pathetic sentiment, in place of Karuņarasa, reflects his view that mārgas are dependent on rasa. That there are instances to show Srivijaya's progressive idea. His awareness of dhvani as a poetic concept, which he considers as an alankāra, earlier to Anandavardhana, is remarkable.
6.7.5. "... Jaina monks and scholars that imigrated into Karņāțaka, at the beginning composed their works in their own language, viz., the Jaina Sauraseni, brought the native language to the literary level by cultivating it and finally merged their literary genius, together with themselves, into the general culture of the land of their adoption which they loved as their own, which fact is lucidly reflected in the famous Kuppatūr inscription" (Kadabadi, B. K. : 185).
6.7.6. Scholar-Monks once again established the vigour

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of Jaina literature. Jaina genius of the Rāştrakūța times found expression in texts that strove to refute rival philosophies. Their highly developed sense of missionary zeal caused them to focus attention on the spiritual needs of their laity. They also produced grand popular narratives which competed successfully with the non-Jaina epics and Purāņas.
6.8. Early cultivators of Kannada language were not conservative in accepting loanwords. Because, the beginners were unorthodox in their linguistic approach, borrowing from Sanskrit, Prakrit, and some Austro-Asiatic languages was possible. Particularly from Sanskrti and Prakrit languages Kannada had wholesale borrowing. This extensive adoption took place during the Rāștrakūta lifetime.
6.8.1. Jaina culitvators of Kannada language considered that a facile fusing of Sanskrit and Kannada, Prakrit and Kannada will sound pleasing. Hence they coined, to denote such a happy blending of the foreign and native words, a new, term called maņi-pravāla-saili, 'crystal (and) coral style'. This was to designate such a style of combining Sanskrit words including idioms and phrases with both free and bound morphemes of the local/indigenous language. Adept svāmi Virasēna (C. E. 816), of Pañcastūpa anvaya, coined the phrase of maņi-pravāla as a term of stylistics in his magnum-opus Jaya-dhavalā, ‘victoriously-luminous', commentary on şațkahņda-āgama :
prāyah Prākrta-bhăratya kvacit Samsksta-bhāșasyā maņi-pravāļa-nyāyēna
prótktyom grantha-vistārah 6.8.2. Jaina authors freely and profusely made use of Prakrit and Sanskrit languages and literature as though they are their own ancesteral property and hence their birth right to borrow largely. Cūrņi texts in the north had employed

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a mixture of Sanskrit and Prakrit. In Karnataka also Tumbahirācārya, Śrīvardhadēva and Śāmakunda had attempted a mixture of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada.
An admixture of Sanskrit with deśabhāṣās, advocated and approved by felicitous litterateurs of the Virasēna and Jinasēna's stature, promoted in the times of Amōghavarṣa, became popular in the south.
6.8.3. Abhinavagupta-ācārya (C. 11th cent.) of Kaśmir, famous sastrakāra and lākṣaṇika, erudite in Indian poetics, recognised maņipravāla style pioneered by Virasena. Abhinavagupta states in Abhinava-bhārati, commentary on Natya-śästra :
padamadhye Samskṛtam madhye deśabhāṣādi-yuktam tadēva
karyam dakṣina-pathē manipravāļamiti prasiddham
[Natya-sastra, vol. IV. (Baroda edition): 1964: 379].
If the compound is uncongenial and not pleasing to the ear, the writers would denounce it as a bad mixture of ghee and oil or pearl and pepper - was the opinion of Śrīvijaya (C. E. 850) of Kavirajamarga. Thus Jaina author's first preference was to enrich the local medium. True, they were more eager to borrow, but not at the cost of the local language.
6.8.4. Though, Sanskrit and Prakrit were inflexional languages and Kannada an agglutinative language, the genealogical difference did not deteriorate or mar the classical taste and appreciation of academic excellence. Lingusitic distance was well-bridged with cultural affinity of spaning the north and south together goes to Jaina genius. It is due to the constant husbandry of the Jaina authors of aptitude and gift that Kannada could become a highly polished and powerful media of expression. At the same time, it is the same Jaina pixy that preserved Kannada amidst

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the frequent inroads of Sasnkrit and Prakrit languages from north. They were on guard to keep afloat and to succour Kannada in the hour of crisis.
6.8.5. It is paradoxical to note that those who championed the cause of Kannada by advocating free borrowing from Sanskrit and Prakrit went to an extent of openly opposing the dominence of the latter. Jaina authors were keen on Kannada being given its due place, without relegating it to the second or third place in the hierarchy of language preference. Somehow, it did coincide that the royal houses and the gurukulas, monasteries, went out and out favouring the alien Sanskrit more and more, even at the cost of the local language, Kannada in Karnataka. For every form of expression, in idiom and phrase, in language, literature, sästra (science), and in rāja-śāsana order of the government, the scribe took the lead from Sanskrit. In the Rāṣṭrakūṭa regime it had reached a stage when Sanskrit was holier than anything in the language of the region. The wise and the learned of the period sensed that the very existence of Kannada was at stake, and the danger of regional languages loosing its lustre, vigor and vitality was lurking round.
6.8.6. When the question was one of its survival, authors like Śrīvijaya spared no time to declare openly that they are for the language of the mass. They were so firm and uncompromising in their courage of conviction that criticised the attitude of eroding the identity of the living / local language by floating the myth of Sanskrit. While making their point crystal clear they did not mince matters. Not that they hated Sanskrit or Prakrit, but that they loved their language more. They had no objection if somebody were to write the entire text in Sanskrit or Prakrit. Their main grouse was that even while composing a Kannada work, Sanskrit was preferred to the existing Kannada phrases in vogue. This, they said, would harm the interest of Kannada

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in the long run. Since their approach was reasonable and objective, they won their point and subsequently Kannada survived with longevity.
6.8.7. Sanskrit had perforated into the very structure and culture of Karņāțaka. It had changed the phonology, syntax and semantics of Kannada with the domination of aspirates. It had replaced Kannada as the language of mantras and prayers in the temples of all religion. The elite professed an ego of Sanskrit as their prestige which created a class difference in the social structure. Prakrit also did not lag behind which was very much on the heels of Sanskrit, although it struck a note of via media, the language of the common folk.
6.8.8. All this and much more, naturally dissatisfied the staunch supporters of Kannada, and resulted in a popular movement of restoring the originality of local language at any cost. Srivijaya did not hesitate to lead the cause of giving prominence to Kannada. He awakened the authors to ward off and restrain from mixing Sanskrit and Prakrit expressions in the texture of native Kannada. After Srivijaya's model, Nayasēna and Andayya, two other Jaina poets of eminence took up the issue and the legitamate struggle sustained.
6.9. Equally prominent is the fact that the works of Jaina authors are embedded with historical facts and sociocultural items. Srivijaya's Kavirājamārga is a good example. Pampa, an epic poet and a court-poet of Arikesari-II, king of Vemulavāda Cālukyas, has recorded in his poem, Vikramārjuna vijayam olim Pampabhārata, and account of the genealogy of his patron. It is astonishing to note that the information about the family of Arikesari mostly corroborates with details found in all the three important charters of the Cālukyas of Vēmulavāda, viz., the Kollipāra plates of Arikēsari-I, the Vēmulavāda inscription of

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Arikēsari-II, and the Parabhaņi plates of the Arikesari-III [JAHR, VI, pp. 169-92; JBISM. XIII]. The works of Guņavarma-I, Jinasēna-I and II, Guņabhadra, Mahāvirācārya, Pālyakirti Sākațāyana, Ugrāditya, Pampa, Ponna, Cāmundarāya and Ranna, the eminent authors of this age, are embedded with facts of historical note.
6.9.1. While summing up the achievement of Jaina authors of the Rāstrakūta span of life, a few salient points may need additional explanation. One of the difficulties faced initally by the non-Jaina readers is regarding the technical terminology. It is like a coconut, hard on the outside, but soft and sensitive, mellifluous and meaningful, once the shell is broken. If one withstands initial storm in the form of religious terminology, the doors of treasure trove are wide open. Drawing on the wisdom of the body, heavily steeped in the language of symbol and allusion, needing good background knowledge of the Jaina context to decipher their mysteries, even a serious commentary like Dhavalā, lead us loopingly in to the riches of spiritual world.
6.9.2. Second point would be about bhavāvali or punarjanma-kathana, narration of successive births of the same soul. In Mahāpurāņa of Jinasena Gunabhadra, Puşpadanta and Cāmundarāya, Jasaharacariu of Puspadanta, Yasastilaka of Somadēvasūri and in all the Purāṇas of various poets, this cycle of previous births figures very prominently. Since Jaina philosophy is enjoined to this concept of birth and rebirth, it needs an in extenso coverage.
6.9.3. Jaina Purāņa-kāvyas, legendary narrative poems, deal with punar-janma, reincarnation, which relfects the effect of karma (action) in successive births. Invariably Jaina authors embellish this motif of bhavāvali, series of successive births, skilled and gifted men of letters of poetic excellence, adopt this technique to powerfully portray the effects of karma, which haunt the soul in all its births till it is washed off.

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6.9.3.1. Karma can obstruct the qualities of the soul and prevent their full manifestation, in the way that dust may obscure the reflective power of a mirror. However, a soul has an extraordinary quality of bhavyatva, capability to become free : 'It is a sort of inert catalyst, awaiting the time when it will be activated and thus trigger an irrevocable redirection of the soul's energy; away from delusion and bondage, towards insight and freedom' (Jaini, P.S.: 139]. A cloth can be folded into various shapes without any alteration of its mass. Soul also adapts to a particular body's dimensions, 'and exists within the physical limits of its current corporeal shape, just as a lamp illuminates only the room in which it stands' [ibid: 102].
6.9.3.2. In this series of successive births, the power and nature of action depends on the realm of action. Heavenly and hell beings are born spontaneously (aupapādika) with no need for parents, and are endowed with super knowledges (avadhi jñāna) such as clairvoyance, memory of prior incarnations and ability to see objects at great distances.
6.9.3.3. The pūrva-bhavas, former births of the mahāpuruşas, great persons, are Jaina Jātaka-kathās. Cycle of previous births record and reflect gradual spiritual evolution of the soul and of the heroes. Salākā purusas, persons as tall as a pole, are eminent persons. They are the Uttama olim mahā-puruşas according to Jaina traditional knowledge, and are the mythological historical heroes.
6.9.3.4. Thus, the motif of punar-janmabhavāvali is used to impress upon the readers about the good and bad results of karma. "Though the pūrvabhavas deal with the same kind of subject as the Buddhist Jātakas do, yet there are several points in which the former differ from the latter. In a Jātaka, the soul of the future Buddha is alwasy represented as a benevolent character, while in a pūrvabhava the life of a would be Jina is often depicted in its dark aspects.

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The purvabhavas of a Jina hero form a continuous chain of births and deaths from one life into the next while the scenes of Buddhist Jātakas may be seperated by long periods. The series of purvabhavas generally begins from the life where the soul of the hero first acquires faith in the Jaina doctrine. Several of the Jātaka tales have been found sculptured on stone, during as far back as the second or third century B. C., while no such sculptures have as yet been discovered for the purvabhavas' [Banarsidas Jain: Jaina Jātakas: 1925: "Intro", ii-iii.]. Keepinbg this in mind, the wise reader will appreciate and react favourably to the poem.
6.9.4. Singularity of the Jaina literature of the Rāṣṭrakūta eon:
Innovative features while rendering the well established Sanskrit epics/classics in to the regional languages. Jaina philosophy shuns the very idea of linguistic ego. Jina Mahavira and his worthy apostles striked at the very root of linguistic discrimination by asserting that all lanugages are vehicle of thought and equally competent to apprehend the highest spiritual experience. To say that a particular language is superior/inferior has no relevance. For, Jains had the only language policy of sarvabhāṣāmayi sarasvati.
-
6.9.4.1. Poets of eminence, of the calibre of Pampa, chose to author in the language of the mass, and preferred to give the popular theme a new look with a touch of local color to improve the source material wherever possible. The portion of history, in Vikramārjuna vijaya, is penned by Pampa, who actually witnessed the incidents of war and peace. He was a poet-laureate. The assembly of scholars in the royal court advanced an earnest request to Pampa to compose a mahaprabandha olim mahā-kāvya narrating complete story of Maha-Bhārata.

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Prakrit Literature / 189
6.9.4.2. Prabandha, a synonym for kavya, meaning a well-knit poetic-composition. In Kannada, Telugu and Tamil languages, the word prabandha is used in place of kavya. In such prabhandhas, usually campūkāvyas, aṣṭādaśa-varņas, the traditional 18 descriptions, nine (9) rasas, poetic sentiments, a happy amalgam of märga and desi elements, Vastuka-kavya and varṇaka-kavya elements find a place. Amalgamating the patron with the hero of Purāṇa-kāvya, a speciality of Kannada authors of the Räṣṭraküṭa age. The idea of this new concept was to immortalise and perpetuate the memory of the benefactor making him kriti-pati.
6.9.5. Poems of this period had a set pattern of its own. A comprehensive description of poet's dynastic lineage is followed by a concise bio-data of the author. Pampa had imbibed the quintesence of two religions, Brahminism and Jainism. Bhimapayya, father of Pampa was a proselyte. Considering the virtues of the Arhatamata, had relinquished viprakula and accepted Jaina dharma. Pampa composed his two epics in campu genere, an admixture of more verses and less prose/sporadic prose pieces. Hence, campū classics are miśrakāvyas, called tonmai in Tamil.
6.9.5.1. The genere of campu form originated with Jaina authors who took the model from Prakrit works. Jaina campū poets inspired Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil genius to opt to campuū form of poetry. Campū kāvyas are a normal feature in Kannada language, all authored by Jaina poets, during the period under consideration.
6.9.5.2. Śrīvijaya, poet-laureate and a close associate of Nṛpatunga, was a prolific author, who composed his works at the prescription of his overlord. Though, Kavirājamārga is composed only in verses, his other two poems, not extant, were in campû style. Śrīvijaya inaugurated a new method of composing a laukika kāvya, a non-religious secular poem, and a agama/matiya kāvya, a Jaina theme based poem. This

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design of composing two poems in campū style initiated in this period, served as a proto type pattern for Guņavarma-I, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna.
6.9.6. Campū poems begin with Vastunirdēśa, invocation to deities. Adipurāņa, Vikramărjunavijaya, Šāntipurāņa are full-scale creative works. In the invocatory stanzas, Pampa, for example, touches upon udāttaNārāyaṇa, udāra-Mahēśvara, Pracaņda-Mārtanda alias Aditya ('the sum'), sahaja-Manāja, Sarasvati, Durgā dēvi and Vināyaka, a sort of pañcāyatana dēvatā-stuti, a psalm, as a mark of appreciation of his benevolent ruler. Jaina purāņas open with stanzas in praise of the five holy beings in tone with the Jaina litany - Arahanta, Siddha, Acārya, Upadhyāya and Sädhus who are known as pañcaparamēşthis. Then follows the verses in praise of yakşayasksi and an invocation to Sarvasvati, according to Jaina tradition.
6.9.6.1. Jaina authors also invoke the category of venerable gurus, the patriarchate of Jaina samgha. A select pūrvācāryas who efficiently practiced and preached the teachings of the Tirthankaras. This pattern of paying obeissance to ancient preceptors is again typical of Jaina literary tradition standardised during the Rāştrakūța age.
6.9.6.2. Pampa invoking Manmatha, the god cupid, is an unique feature. Trivikrama Bhatta, court poet of Indrarāja-III (C. E. 915), has invoked Manmatha, immediately after paying obeisance to god Siva, in his Nalacampū poem with which Pampa was familar. Jaina hagiology has recorded 24 Manmathas who are different from Manmatha, spouse of Ratidevi.
6.9.6.3. Thus, the portion of prologue in Kannada poems of this imperial dynasty, has a special significance in the context of history, religion, mythology and Indian literature.

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Prakrit Literature / 191
6.9.7. Deprecation of duskavis, poetasters and the pseudo-authors is another feature of Kannada poems. Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, the famous trio/group of three and jinasamayadipakas, 'illuminators of Jaina church', 10th century have chosen to deprecate bad litterateurs who misused the poetic gift that they were endowed with. And, in the same breath Pampa and others have lauded worthy authors. Kannada poets, in all these matters, were evidently indebted to Jinasēna-II, who had set a poetic path, a paradigm that Kannada men of letters obediently followed.
6.9.8. Jaina preceptors were trained in various sciences including grammar. Many monks are eulogised in inscriptions as versatile grammarians mastering CandraKatantra-Jainendra Śākaṭāyana school of grammar. Jaina pontiffs and authors, in whichever language they preached and wrote, advocated peace, non-violence, primordial policy of jivo jivasya jivitam, 'live and let live', and parasparō pagrahō jīvānām, ‘mutual assistance of all beings'. It is pregnant with meaning and so befitting that this has been Jaina pratika, the symbol of Jaina faith, the palm of the hand that bears the word 'ahimsa' in the centre.
6.9.9. Obviously, the age of Raṣṭrakūṭas was marked by the wide spread practice and patronage of Jaina talents in all fields.

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CHAPTER - 7
JAINA SANGHA
7.1. Clear and proven historical associations of the Deccan with Jainism explicity manifest from the last centuries of B.C., as is evident from the inscriptions of Tamilnādu. In Karņāțaka, leaving aside the historical legend, the earliest Jaina epigraph comes from Sõsale (Mysore Dt) dated Circa 5th cent. C. E. Anisidhi of that place speaks of Jaina-tirtha being a prominent creed.
7.1.1. It is believed that the Mauryas inherited Karnāta from the Nandas, great patrons of śramaņa cult, who were in possession of Nāgarakhanda. The Sātavāhanas, successors of the Mauryas to rule Kuntaladēsa, extended liberal support of Jainism. Ārya Kālakācārya changed the date of pajjõşaņa olim paryuşaņa-parva (samvatsari), from the fifth to the fouth day so as to suit the convenience of Sālivahana, the king of Sātavāhanas, who ruled from Paitthāņa.
7.2. Long before the Rāstrakūtas succeeded to rule Karņāțaka, Jainism had come to be recognised as an integral part of Karņāțaka. One of the inscriptions from Kuppatūr has recorded the following graphic picture of Karņāțaka :
By its roaring waves and dashing spray proclaiming that it has mountains and pearls was the ocean surrounding Jambūdvipa in the middle of which was mount Mēru, south of which was the land of dharma, morality and righteousness,

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Bharata-Khanda. Among the many beautiful countries it contained, an abode of the Jina-dharma, a mine of good discipline, like the dwelling of Padmāsana (Brahmā), having acquired great fame, the birth place of learning and wealth, the home of unequalled splendid earnestness, thus distinguished in many ways the lovely Karṇāṭa country.
Jaina Sangha / 193
[Epigraphia Carnatika, vol. VIII (1902) Sorab. 261. C. E. 1408, Kuppaṭur (Shimoga Dt, Sorab Tk) p. 107].
7.2.1. This is rightly so, because the term at once enlivens up the image of distinct stream of a rich and ancient culture which has contributed immensely to the enrichment of Karnataka's heritage in various branches of knowledge.
7.2.2. The land of Kannada- speaking people, now represented by Karṇāṭaka state, was known from the beginning of this current Era as Kuntala-deśa and Karṇāṭa. The geographical boundaries of this ancient Karṇāta was far larger than the present Karnāṭaka state. In brief, the early Kadambas (Banavāsi/vanavāsi/vaijayanti) ruled the north western region between fourth and sixth century. The early Gangas ruled the southeastern part of Karṇāṭa between fourth and mid eigth century independently and upto the end of tenth century as subordinates. The Gangas had, cordial or otherwise, relationship with the Toṇḍaināḍu (Pallavas) to the south east, and the Kongunādu Adaigamāns to the south west of Karṇātadēśa.
7.2.3. "The real builders of Karṇāta as an eminent and effectual power, its culture unified, potent, and distinctive, were the Calukyas who launched their political career some time late in the fifth century from a small territory in the present Bijapur District. This early Calukya nucleus lay north of Banavāsi, and was a region that gave no evidence of high cultural development until the advent of the Calukyas as rulers. Around the twin cities of this nucleus, Aihole (Ahivalli; Ahivolal/Aryapura) and Badāmi or Bādāmi

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(Vātāpi), spun the power of the Calukyas, which augmented with fantastic rapidity to form a notable kingdom and eventually an empire" [Dhaky, M. A. (ed): 1986 : 3).
7.2.4. Jainism found its second homeland in Karnātaka. Several main Jaina settlements possessing a mass of invaluable works of art testify the above fact. Besides, these are numerous inscriptions to establish it. Jainism had struck deep roots in Karņāțaka creating many strong holds at every nook and corner of the land. Ample relics, found scattered in different parts of the state, afford a convincing proof of its past history.
7.2.5. 'Jainism was the state-creed in the time of the Gangas, of some of the Kadambas rulers, of the Rāştrakūtas and Kaļacuryas, and of the Hoysaļas, as also of the rulers of the minor states of Punnāta, the Sāntaras, the early Cangālvas, the Kongālvas and Alupas, as testified by their inscriptions' [Ghosh, ed : vol. III. : 1975 : 454]. In the long reign of the Rāștrakūtas Jaina samgha, was vox populi, the voice of the people.
7.3. Jaina samgha is a four - pillard structure; monk, nun, male and female lay votaries - being the four - pillars. Without using religion for generating division or conflict, Jainism has achieved consummate concurrance and has lit the lamp of peace, unison and truth. During the Rāstrakūta eon, Jainism had a firmer hold contending with the dying embers of Buddhism, which had already been relegated comparatively to a subordinate position during the Ganga and Bādāmi Cālukya regime.
7.3.1. The nature and contribution of the Jaina monasteries in Karņãtaka, functioning for over a millenium, has remained largely unexamined. Such an investigation would require a book in itself, and lies mainly beyond the purview of this monograph. Therefore, only a certain sociohistorical and socio-religious issues which are too significant

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Jaina Sangha / 195
and revolve round the basic question of how Nirgrantha faith has been able to survive and prosper are discussed here.
7.3.2. Mathas, as they are popularly referred, were the main centres of learning. Such major śramaņa seats had developed at a number of places in all directions of the vast empire. A number of very eminent Jaina mendicants flourished during this epoch.
7.3.3. The śramaņa movement opened its ranks to members of any age group or caste, even to women. This uncurbed line of thinking took the form of greater popularity among the common people. It reaped the fruits of material benefits, and gained easy access to the machinery of political power. The relationship of the palace and monastery was so cordial that the endowments to the Jaina cloisters and mendicant community were free from king's annual customs and duties. Hundreds of epigraphs repeatedly speak of such taxfree allotments to Jaina sanctuaries and priories.
7.3.4. The Rāstrakūţa epoch was characterised by expansion in educational activities and large scale increase in such institutions in all parts of the imperial dynasty. Jainism made use of this royal patronage for the pursuit of higher studies which resulted in the upsurge of educational institutions.
7.3.4.1. Philonthropic and resourceful individuals joined hands with monasteries in furthering this noble task, Prakrit, Sanskrit and Kannada were taught and cultivated. Sanskrit scored over the other two. Kannada was taking big strides, thanks to the Jaina friars and authors who were keen in developing it a competent vehicle of expression of religious as well as secular themes and compositions. Since munificent donations were flowing without let, education at all stages was free. Female education was also on par with male. Nuns instructed girls.

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7.3.5. It is interesting, also worth pondering, the subjects taught in the Jaina monastry. Bhrājisņu, a protege of the Răstrakūtas has recorded the curriculum of advanced studies which included subjects like grammar, poetics, prosody, epistomology, astronomy, Drama, literature, lexicon, Veterinary science, medicine, vēda-purāņa-smrti and dharmaśāstra. Specialists and professors were competent to teach more subjects. Aspirants for higher education, both secular and spiritual, used to select a near by monastery of their choice.
7.3.6. De factor, realistically, advancement of Jainism was from the beginning tied to the fortunes of various ruling houses. Jainas, both the partiarchs and their adherents, had remarkable ability of repeatedly being the amicus curiae, friend of the court, and actively cultivating local monarchs. Drawing upon the literary and epigraphical evidence of specific periods and locations, Jaina community appears to have sailed safe in this epoch.
7.3.7. The period of Jaina ascendancy was fast drawing to its zenith when the throne was occupied by Amoghavarşa-I, Jaina Ašāka of the south, and an ardent follower - benefactor of Jainism. He was educated in the Jaina convent, and had grown in the bon vivant, good companion of the eminent Jaina monks de novo, from the beginning, as was the desire of his father, Govinda-III, who was himself a frequent visitor to Jaina centres. Amõghavarsa had the benefit of being tutored by Virasēna, Jinasēna, Mahāvīrācārya and Sākațāyana, where as his son KrsnaIII studied and trained under the guidance of Gunabhadra. This cordial and reciprocative relationship continued up to Indra-IV, the last sprout of the dynasty.
7.3.8. Institutions of Jaina ascetics were synonym of library where reading, writing and copying was constantly going on. Not surprisingly, the illustrious Attimabbe got 1001

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Jaina Sangha / 197
copies of a long poem śāntipurāņa of poet Ponna (C. E. 960), commissioned earlier by her father, recopied by the regular skilled copyists. There were seasoned specialists in copying the Jaina sacred texts, in composing Jaina inscriptions, and in moulding/carving Jaina statues under the supervision of Jaina ascetics. Jaina anchorets and anchoresses were highly honoured by royal personages. Jaina mendicant had impressed members of the Rāstrakūta house by their piety, erudition and sterling character.
7.3.9. The season of rain-retreat witnessed extraordinary religious fervour and cultural activity in the Jaina society revolving round the pivot, Jaina shrine. Jaina houses of prayer, called basadis (froın Sk. vasati), were of the people, by the people and for the people. These sanctuaries were not mere places of prayer. Instead, basadis were great cultural centres. Jaina temples were attached to the monasteries and the chief Bhattāraka would act as a remote controller and a laison between the recluse and house holder.
7.4. These factors enabled the śramaņa religion to succeed and sustain, keeping the flame of faith burning unextinguished in perilous times, when the typhoon and tornedo of adversary was virulent. Thanks to the monachs, Jaina society, while passing through varied vicissitude of night and day, has been able to preserve its identity and maintain its significance against heavy odds.
7.4.1. The Rāstrakūta period was the Golden age which saw the effloresence of syādvāda philosphy. Jainism was animated to establish its cloisters of monks at several towns and cities in the kingdom. Jaina monasteries at Sravanabelagola, Hombuja, Maļkhed, Sēdam, Koppaļa, Bankāpura, Mulgunda, Saudatti, Annigere, Puligere and many other towns were re-assured of political ward. Manuals of syādvāda doctrine like the celebrated Dhavalā ushered in

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a new era in thinking and living. Some of the greatest masters and disciples started a new tradition of anēkāntamata that was nourished in this age.
7.4.2. Academic excellence of Jaina monks and nuns was axiom. They were masters of three Rs-reading, (W)riting, and (a)rithmetic. They would read, recite and sing from holy texts of Jaina canon and stötras, composed by rșis and vulnerable ācāryas like svāmi Samantabhadra and Mānatungācārya. It is believed that there were many boxes of Manuscripts at the sāstrabhandaras of Malkhēd and Sēdam monasteries which were looted and burnt.
7.4.3. Palmleaf books were neatly bound by wood pieces on both sides, compactly tied by strong thread and packed in beautifully designed cloth. While reading/reciting the text, whether it is Mahāpurāņa or Jina kathā, the palmleaf manuscript would be placed on the three-legged stool. Slowly and with devotion, the reciter would unfurl and untie the manuscript, carefully take out each palm-leaf from the bunch, and recite to the thrill of the interested assembly hall, listening with rapt attention. Such was the system prevailing in the monastery, basadi and even in the houses.
7.4.4. Drawing its adherents from all races, castes and classes of the kingdom, Jaina population had swelled. According to A. S. Altekar, one third of the total population of the Rāstrakūta kingdom were Jains. Jaina authors, monks and nuns had developed their non-violent activities under them. Jaina works composed during this era have been regarded as basic and reliable source for the cultural, political and socio-economical history of the tract.
7.4.5. Of the two major/principal Jaina sects, the Digambara, ‘sky-clad', is more puritanical, austre and unitary, being subject to the directions of only the ācārya, 'chief pontiff". The Svētāmbara, 'white-clad', is rather not so rigid. It is lax and accomodative in worship and in ascetic

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order. When certain dogmatic tussle teared the Digambara and Śvētāmbara apart, the Yapaniya, chosing the middle path, oozed brotherly love for the poor and the downtrodden. The very fact that it admitted that
a. woman can attain mōkṣa, 'salvation', in the very liberation is possibel even with the cloth on,
b.
those who come from other sects/schisms are also eligible for the summum bonum of the religion
C.
Jaina Sangha / 199
- made the Yapaniya samgha more acceptable to one and all.
birth
7.4.6. Against the backdrop of patriarchical society and the kind of societal pressures, women getting their major share was a welcome kind gesture. Thumbing its noses at superstition-filled convention and ploughing lonely furrows, the Yapaniya samgha was able to achieve good results and reach greater heights in the age of the Rāṣṭrakūṭas [Nagarajaiah, Hampa: Yāpaniya samgha : 1999].
7.4.7. Jaina monachism had conceived the terminology of Jangama, the movable/animate, and sthāvara, immovable/ inanimate, tirtha holy pilgirm, during the age of the Rāṣṭrakūtas. Chief of the ascetics was often referred to as a jagadguru, preceptor of the (human) world. A good number of Jaina charters of 10th cent. mention jañgama and sthavara, and the epithet jagadguru. In due course, these terms were completely given up by the Jaina tradition and assimilated by the Viraśaiva saints and philosophers.

7.4.8. Commissioning basadis was only one of the many activities that the Jaina community had indulged. Places of worship persist to flourish for a longer period, because religion was the main plank. Causing tanks to be made for providing water for irrigation, digging wells, constructing shelters and free residential houses was their other priorities. Travelling was made easy and comfortable by their provisions.

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7.4.9. Jains never encouraged fanaticism, did not pick up quarrel. They extended helping hand to other faiths and showed equal respect to all sects. Women enjoyed more freedom of speech, worship and education. They were not barred from entering the life of recluse. They were not tonsured, in their widowed life. Intercaste marriage was not infrequent, though not encouraged. Sati was never encouraged. Women votaries taking to veil was a step preferable to functional widowhood. Jains were the earliest to approve of mendicacy for women and to open their ranks in the monkhood to the female relatives of iniates. There were many Jaina nuns during the Rāṣṭrakūṭa period. Jaina Women
7.5. Jaina women had occupied prominent and key position during this eon. Marriage alliances between the Rāṣṭrakūṭa royal family and the Gangas was common. Candrōbalabbe, daughter of Amōghavarṣa-I was married to Būtuga-I. Rēvakanimmaḍi alias Cāgaveḍangi daughter of Baddega Amōghavarṣa-III, was a consort of Būtuga-II. Marula, eldest son of Bütuga-II, had married the daughter of Kṛṣṇa-III. A daughter of Marula, son of Būtuga-II was the spouse of the son of Kṛṣṇna-III, and Indra-IV was born out of this union.
7.5.1. Like the personal names of the monarchs (Govindarasa, Kannara) and princes, personal names of the queens and princesses also clearely betray the features of Kannada language. Rēvakanimmadi was a popular nomen of the Rāṣṭrakūta princesses. One of the daughters Baddega Amōghavarsa, of Indra-III, (who had married Arikēsari-II and who also had an alias of Lōkāmbikā) had the name of Revakanimmadi. The suffix-immadi is a Kannada word, a free morpheme, meaning 'the scond'.
7.5.2. Similar feminine personal names existed in the Rāṣṭrakūṭa dynasty even earlier. One of the queens of

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Amõghavarşa-I had the name of Lõketinimmadi (who was the third consort, Asagavve and Sankhā being the other two). Śrīpuruşa, the Ganga king, had a wife whose name was Vinettinimmadi.
7.5.2.1. Rēvakanimmadi, queen consort of Būtuga-II, was in charge of Kuņingal sub-division. She died at Koppaļa, accepting the vow of sallēkhanā. She had patromised and popularised Jainism on such a large scale that she has been compared with Būtuga, Sankaraganda, Mārasimhadēva, Maruladēva Cāmundarāya, Rājamalla and Attimabbe.
7.5.2.2. Kañcibbe, spouse of Duggamāra, son of Sripuruṣa, was administering the region of Agali.
7.5.2.3. Ankabbarasi, wife of Mārasimha-II, was governing Pullungūr (Hulugūr) territory in C. E. 972, in the reign of Khoţtiga. She had Gangamahādēvi as her second name.
7.5.2.4. Jakkiyabbe, consort of Nāgārjunayya, county sheriff, had efficiently adminsitered Nāgarakhanda-70. She in turn, entrusted the administration work to her daughter. This proves that women succeeded to rule and enjoy equal status on part with men in Jaina community.
7.4.2.5. Kundaņasāmidēvi, crown-jewel and eldest daughter of Būtuga-II was the earliest poetess known in Kannada literature. She had the other two aliases of Kundaņasāmi and Kundanarasi. Kundanarasi, charming lady of beauty and benevolence, daughter of Būtuga, younger sister of Maruladeva, elder sister of Mārasimhadeva-II was crown queen of Rājāditya alias Rāya, a Cāļukya scion. Kukknūr copper plates of C. E. 968-69, has five verses and a long prose passage devoted to her eulogy. Her accomphishements were many. She had mastered fine-arts, patronised the erudite and deserving. She had profound scholarship in Jaina philosophy, she was the moon in the ocean of the Ganga family.

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7.5. A beautiful bronze image of Māņikya Jina, with an inscription on its back, of about 970 C. E. gifted by Kundaņasāmi to some basadi was discovered in a coffee estate and is now in the Jaina lamasery at Sravanabeļagola. It is one of the rare and early.metal images of Karņāțadēša. She died on the sepulchral hill at Koppaļa [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : 1999-c: 35-36).
7.5.1. Rājāditya, king and spouse of Kundaņasõmidevi, had another consort called Cangāmbe. Maladhāridēva was her preceptor, Mācaņa was her son, and the best religion of the lord Jia, the victor, was the religion conciously chosen by Gangāmbe, daughter of Krsna-III. Considering that there are no takers in heaven, she had the refined taste of charitable disposistion. By folding her lotus-like hands, accepting the vow of sallēkhanā, she went to the higher world.
With the passing away of virtuous women like Kundaņasāmidēvi and Cangalāmba, who were even famous with the aerial nymphs dwelling in the sky, the very words of charity and righteousness also disappeared from the face of earth.
7.5.2. Bāsabhūpati, son of Būtuga-II, had the impeccable fame equal to that of Kupaņācala. His wife was Kāvanabbarasi. Rambaladēvi alias Rambhā, gem of a woman, a beautiful nymph had the charm of a plantain tree. She was a goddess of learning and her benovalence new no bounds. Her mate, Biraladēva, a prince of the illustrious Cālukyavamsa, was a submarine in the sea of enemies. Realising the vanity and transitoriness of human life, entered nun hood, observed the vow of fasting unto death. While meditating the holy feet of spiritual victor, like the fragrance of the flower, she departed from this mundane world to reach the abode of the blessed.
7.5.3. Ereyabbe, disciple of the learned Mauniyõgi

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munindra vallabhācārya, vulnarable and appreciated by persons capable of attaining liberation, was deceased. She wanted to retaliate the sickness by taking refuge in deep meditation. Enduring with resignation, the privations imposed by austerities for five years, which only she could afford, Ereyabbe achieved remarkabel forme. She travelled to the world of gods, by observing fasting unto death, on 11-10-976.
7.5.4. Candabbarasi, elder daughter of the reputed father, head of Iksvāku family, shining bright like the moonlight, had the cognomen of sahaja makaradhvajam and dussaha sauryam. There was no subject which she did not know.
7.5.4.1. All of a sudden distress beseached the renowned Candabbarasi which made her to act swiftly. She immediately relinquished everything, accepted the vow of willing submission to death, and attained the most respected and coveted pandita-paņdita-maraṇa on 27-11-972 at Koppaļa, the highest and best of the 17 varieties of death as prescribed in the Arādhana text of Śivakõți Ācārya.
7.6. Pariyabbarasi, Asagabbarasi and Revakayye consorts of the accomplished Pallavarāma Mahipāla, a scion of royal stock, were embellished with the three jewels of right insight, Ro knowledge and Ro conduct, and were ruby of amiable disposition among the virtuous women folk. They had commissioned Jaina temples, arranged festivals to worship Jina, consecrated and anointed the images of Jina, and equal devotion to Jaina anchorite.
7.6.1. These three spouses of king Pallavarāma's seraglio joined the ascetic order at Koppaļa, renouncing the mahişipada, the first properly consecrated queenship of mandalēśvara, and preferred the mahēndrapada.
7.6.2. Revakayye listened to the three ritualised

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confessions, sitting on thighs, one leg being on the other, a heroic posture practiced by ascetics of higher hierarchy, breathed her lost. Even the gods celebrated Revakayye's holy death by singing and dancing, repeatedly uttering Jayajaya Nandavardha, 'victorious auspicious'. Drums and other rare instruments of paradise made the sacred sound to the rythm of the mellifluous music of Tumbura, the Gandharva and Nārada, the dēvarsi, to the tune of which the apsaras danced. Thus the kingdom of God above rejoiced the festival of the arrival of Revakayye, an āryikā, ecclesiastic, from the earth below.
7.6.3. Padmabbarasi, a celebrity of the Rāştrakūța period and wife of Ganga Gāngěya Permādi Būtuga-II (93861), Duke of Gangavādi, an ideal lady votary of Jaina order, reached Kopaņa, and amidst the applause and appreciation of all around, accepted the rite of sallēkhanā. Her preceptor Maladhāridēva, a monk of many virtues and conqueror of desires, administered the ritual. Padmabbarasi while in deep meditation died on Wednesday 3-12-973, at Koppaļa. She had founded a magnificent Jinālaya at Narēgal and endowed it with several gifts.
7.6.4. Kañcabbarasi, consort of Rājamalladēva, the Ganga king, an ornament to the glorious royal family, upheld her magnificence and lost interests in everyday worldly life, after the death of her husband. She sought relief from the burden and sorrow of existence and the cycle of births. Kañcabbarasi approached the stainless Ajitasēnamunīśvara, the patriarch of the Gangakula, listened to his religious sermon on the rewards of the virtuous life. She, on her own accord, took to penance, achieved the most coveted three jewels and easliy walked into the eternal world in the year saka 945, at Koppaļa.
7.7. Gõnambe, daughter of Ereganga of the Ganga dynasty, spouse of valiant Ajavarma and mother of Ksatriya

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Rāma, relinquished the profane life and took to the rigid life of a nun and died at Koppala on 14-10-992.
7.7.1. Bijjāmbikā alias Bijjāmbarasi, daughter of Būtuga Permäḍi-II and Padmavati alias Padmabbarasi, elder sister of Marasimha-II, wife of Hariga Mallapa, was known for her charities. Bijjāmbika was pupil of pontiff Śridharadeva. After freely distributing her entire property, she accepted the vow of sallekhanā, achieved ratnatraya, the three jewels, died in the manner prescribed in Arādhanā text, bid adieu to worldly life on 5-10-1003 at Koppala.
7.7.2. Women of the Ganga seraglio a fotiori, all the more, were au fait, felicitous. They were proverbially known for their erudition, virtue, charities and chivalrous life. Epigraphical and literary premises validate the varied assiduousness of the Jaina women of the Raṣṭrakūța period. Women were ahead of men in liberally favouring Jaina church in all its aspects. Since their schooling and cultural background was excellent, they were dexterous in art and literature. There were other women too, who had far greater distinction than any of their contemporary princesses.
7.8. Bhagiyabbe, spouse of Jinavallabha, and sister-inlaw of poet Pampa (C. E. 941), hailed from Paiṭhaṇa olim Pratisṭhānapura, reputed as kāśi of the south, was a famous city during 7th and 12th centuries. Udyotanāsūri of Kuvalayamāla (C. 7th cent.) refers to Paithana as a seat of Karṇāţa culture. Bhagiyabbe belonged to one of the Jaina families there.
7.8.1. Bhagiyabbe had founded Jaina shrines, like her husband Jinavallabha, a litterateur. Two of the bronze images installed in those temples have come to light. Kannada inscriptions on the metal images furnish very interesting information about Bhagiyabbe, her spouse and of the place that she belonged.

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7.8.2. Details of the two bronze images commissioned by Bhagiyabbe : A. Mahāvīra seated on a lion pedestal with cauri bearers
on either side and a triple umbrella above. The image is 15" in height, with Pārsva and Bāhubali in the parikara. Three lined inscription on the circular pedestal states that the image was caused to be made by Bhagiyabbe,
consort of Jinavallabha. B. Mahāvīra in Kāyātsarga, 12" tall. This bronze image,
found in the Jinālaya at Kõgaļi (Bellary Dt), now in Madras Museum. One line Kannada inscription on the metal image states that a basadi was founded by Bhagiyabbe of Paittaņi (Paithana).
7.8.3. Both the bronze images are in the characters of tenth century and can be easily assigned to C. E. 950.
7.8.4. Jinavallabha, husband of Bhagiyabbe and a connoisseur in Sanskrit, Telugu and Kannada had commissioned superb Tribhuvanatilaka Jinālaya to the south of Vrşabhagiri near Kurikyal village (Ap. Karimnagar Dt) in C. E. 950, with the images of 24 Tirthankaras, from Rşabha to Mahāvira, and Cakrēśvari yakşi. His family deity was Ādinātha Jina and the family deity of Bhagiyabbe was Mahāvira Jina.
7.9. Pāliyakka, a crest-jewel and a devout Jaina lady householder was the favourite consrot of king Vikrama Sāntara (895-935), a Duchy of Sāntalige-Thousand (Shimoga Dt). Vikrama was a vassal of Krsna-II, Indra-III, Amoghavarşa-II and Amoghavarşa-III, and had served four of the Rāstrakūta monarchs. Pāliyakka, daughter of the Sāntara Palace cook, had affaire d'amour, love affair with the potentate, had become a Dona, sweet-heart of Vikrama Sāntara.
7.9.1. Pāļiyakka constructed two excellent Jaina

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temples of stone in C. E. 897-98 at Hombuja, which continue to exist even now. Her liberal gifts to the sustenance of the Jaina places of worship that she founded at Hombuja, the metropolis of the Sāntaras, are true expressions of impeccable and deeprooted devotion. Her mother becoming a Jaina nun was a turning point in her life. After contemplating beyond the veil, Pāliyakka, having the head purified by the sacred and fragrant water of Jina, took the veil.
7.9.2. An epigraph on a boulder infront of a natural cave from Vēdal (TN : North Arcot Dt, Wandiwash Tk), dated C. E. 885, illustrates that a palli, place of Jaina recluse, existed exclusively for the Jaina nuns. A unique feature of this Vidal monastery in Singapuranādu is that there were 900 Jaina nuns and they had a seperate University of their own. The inscription (SII. vol. III. No. 92.C.E. 885. Vēdal] also records that a dispute between the two mother superior, Kanakavira kurattiyār (Sk. guru-stri), chief of 500 lady pupils, and another group of 400 nuns, which was amicably settled [Ekambaranathan : 1987 : 287].
7.9.2.1. Nun Kanakavira kurattiyār alias Mādēvi Arandimangalam was a female disciple of Gunakirti Bhatāra. The very fact that a cloister solely for nuns and lady students, to the fantastic number of almost a thousand, existed in the late ninth century speaks volumes of the amount of freedom of monachism and education that the women folk enjoyed and encouraged in the Jaina sangha.
7.9.2. Building temples, donating grant of land, garden, oil mills and other items to their perpetual maintenance etc was not the only thing that the devouts caused. It was just one of the aspects of the royal patronage. Favour and support to the growth and sustenance of scholarship, literature, art, architecture, and culture was extended. Even the act of building shrines was job potential and involved employment

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of skilled laborers ; "... Jaina monasteries continued to be public schools and Universities for the greater part of India" [Havel : 156).
7.9.2.1. These shrines and monasteries formed the heart of Jaina samgha and accelerated socio-religious activities to a greater extent. The monachs during their brief stay on their entourage, or comparatively a long stay during rain-retreat would deliver sermons on the virtue of nonharming. Every basadi would become a miniature samavasaraņa, holy assembly and a place of resort for the laity. Laymen and lay women would listen to the religious discourse, worship the images of Jina by pouring milk during anointing ceremony. This practice of Kșirābhiseka pouring milk, and the use of alabaster in making Jina idols, suggests the Jaina traditional belief that evn the blood which flowed through the veins of Tirthankaras would become transparent/milky in color.
7.9.2.2. Major share of the richess of the Jaina community has traditionally been directed to temple building activity. But it is not the whole truth. The fact is for over two millenium Jains have spent caring the needy lot and socially viable ways. Their concern for all living beings including the animal, bird, flora, fauna, the diseased and disabled. Jains are proverbially known for giving their wealth and accumulation back to just and greater causes of harmony between all living beings.
7.9.2.3. Jaina ascetics and authors have attached so much consideration to enviornmental protection that they have incorporated it in their primordial canonical texts of two thousand years old, which are more relevant to modern society. Any transgression in the protection of flora and fauna is strictly prohibited for both mendicant and the householder. Men of letters have rendered significant contribution to the cause of human life and literature through their cherished

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works, embodying the core teachings of Mahāvira and his dedicated disciples of yore.
7.9.2.4. It was during the early tenth century that the schisms in the Jaina fold were spelled out. An attempt was reinforced in all earnestness to assimilate, the disintegrated minor schisms, under one umbrella. Indranandi (C. E. 930), a major poet in the Rāstrakūța court, had defined the five pseudo Jaina sects
gopucchakah svetavāsā drāvido yāpaniyakah nihpicchakaśceti pañcaite Jinābhāsāh prakirtitäh [Indranandi: Nitisāra, verse No. 10).
Indranandi, prolific writer, authored several works in Sanskrit, including Padmāvatikalpa, Jvālāmālini kalpa, which served as a model for Mallişeņasūri of Mulgunda monastery to compose one more Jvālinikalpa (C. E. 1056).
7.9.2.5. The above verse, listing the five 'false' Jaina sects has been later quoted by Srtasāgara (16th cent.), a Digambara Bhattāraka in his Satprābhịtādisamgrah, in the way conservative clerics responding to other schisms. Of the five 'Jainābhāsa' sects, as Indranandi puts it, Yāpaniya was liked and praised by the Rāştrakūtas. Many followers chose to accept Yāpaniya samgha. With the support of the public and the ruling class. Yāpaniya accomplished to become famous and well-populated.
7.9.3. Some places of Jaina monasteries in the eon of the Rāştrakūtas : (in alphabetical order)
Abbalūr: Hāvēri Dt, Hirēkerür Tk Ādaki : Gulbarga Dt, Sēdam Tk Ādūr: Hāvēri Dt, Hāngal Tk Aihole : Bijapur Dt Aạnigere : Dharwar Dt, Navalgund Tk Angadi (Sosevūr): Cikka-Maga!ūr Dt

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Arasibidi (Vikramapura) : Bijapur Dt Asuņdi : Hāvēri Dt, Rāņibennür Tk Balligāve: Shimoga Dt Banavāsi : N. K. Dt, Sirsi Tk Bandalike(Bāndhavapura) : Shimoga Dt Barkāpura : Dharwar Dt, Shiggav Tk Bankūr: Gulbarga Dt Candragutti : Shimoga Dt, Sorab Tk Cikka-Hanasoge : Mysore Dt Gaļi-Kēśvār: Gulbarga Dt Halsi (Palāsikā): Belgaum Dt, Khānāpur Tk Hombuja (Pombulca): Shimoga Dt, Hosanagar Tk Henjeru (Penjēru): AP, Anantapur Dt, Madakasirā Tk Hosūr (Ele-Posavūr): Gadag Dt/Tk Hungunda (Ponnugunda) : Bijapur Dt Jamakhandi (Jambukhandi) : Bijapur Dt Kalyāņa : Bidar Dt Kambadahalli : Mandya Dt Kellengere : Hassan Dt, Bēlūr Tk Kittūr (Kirtipura) : Mysore Dt, HDkote Tk Kõgaļi : Bellary Dt Kondakunde : AP: Anantapur Dt Konnura (Kolanūr) : Gadag Dt Koppaļa : Dt Head quarters Kulagāņa : Cāmarājanagara Dt Lakkundi : Gadag Dt Mandali : Shimoga Dt/Tk Maļkhēd (Mānyakhēta): Gulbarga Dt Maleyūru : Cāmarājanagara Dt

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Mulgunda Gadag Dt/Tk Mullur Coorg (Maḍakēri) Dt
Nanded (Nandiņi): Mahārāsṭra
Nandi Hills: Kōlār Dt, Cikkaballapur Tk
Naregal: Gadag Dt
Navilūru: Dharwar Dt
Jaina Sangha / 211
Nonamangala (Jayamanigala): Kolar Dt NR Pura: Cikkamagalur Dt Nyamati (Nelavatti): Shimoga Dt Pandurangapalli : Mahārāṣṭra
Paithana Mahārāṣṭra
Rāmagiri : AP: Vishakapatnam Dt Saudatti Belgaum Dt
Sēdam: Gulbarga Dt
Sivagange Bangalore Dt Śravanabelagola: Hassan Dt, CR Patņa Tk Talakāḍu (Talavanapura): Mysore Dt
Tippuru (Are-Tippuru): Mandya Dt Vadner (Vāṭanagara): Maharastra, Nasik Dt

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CHAPTER - 8
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
8.1. Is there a seperate Jaina architecture, like the Islam, Sikh or Christian architecture, is a question that needs serious consideration. This author is of the opinion that there is a distinct and isolate architecture which can be termed as Jaina architecture. Jaina shrines of Karņāțaka betray a seperate local character and aesthetic idiom developed out of long span of crystallized experience and skill on the basis of Jaina tradition.
8.1.1. "The art of Jainism... is comparatively uncomplicated and consititutes in the history of Indian imagery a separate chapter. It follows to some extent the general evolution of India's sculptural styles; nevertheless, when rendering its own most characteristic and prominent subjects the rigid forms of its perfected saviors - it adheres conscientiously to a stiff archaic ideal. .... Jaina art, then, clings tenaciously to its own archaic tradition, so that whether rendering the gods, who are the lords of the world, or the Tirthankaras who have gained release from the domain of the gods, its remains always rigid and some what massive and bulky... The origins of this art reach back, like the origins of Jainism itself, to the remotest depths of the unrecorded Indian past' [Henric zimmer: 1955:15, and 134].
8.1.2. Revival of Jaina art, architecture and literature was vibrant with the state support of the Rāstrakūtas, which

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furthered the Nirgrantha activities of commissioning temples, and deities of Jaina Pantheon, appeared in every nook and corner of the kingdom. Dhavalā-Țika states that the places where the rșis attained liberation, the days and dates of their greater achievements like the completion of Dhavalā and Mahāpurāņa, are holier and auspicious for the zealot to celebrate. The Rāstrakūtas made rapid strides in commissioning Jaina edifices and sculptures. Jaina monuments of this age vividly express diversity of temple plans to meet the taste of the patrons and to suit the local availability of stone and artists.
8.1.3. Ruling houses of Karnātaka patronised from the beginning Jaina art and architecture : "From at least the fifth century, the followers of this religion began to use works of art for the propogation of their cult. This is known from a number of copper-plate charters issued by the early Kadamba kings registering grants to Jaina institutions like temples. A copper plate charter dated in the eigth regnal year of Kadamba Mrgeśavarman (circa fifth century) records the construction of Jain temple by the king in memory of his father (IA. VI. pp. 1 ff.). The credit of having created a beautiful and an early example of temple in the Dravidian style goes to the Jainas of this state; this is the Meguți temple of Aihole [EI. VI. pp. 1 ff]. In this temple there is an inscription of the Cālukya king Pulakesin-II dated 634-35. The author of the record was Ravikirti, who arranged for the construction of the temple. During the period of Rāştrakūtas, several Jaina monuments were erected, although only a few them contain inscriptions" (Ghosh, (ed): vol. III : p. 454].
8.1.3.1. The bequest of Karņāțaka's Jaina dynasties includes some of India's most magnificent basadis, aweinspiring monolithic colossi, Mānastambhas, Jinabimbas in both kāyātsarga khadgāsana and paryankāsanalpadmāsana

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posture, Yakşa-Yakşi sculptures, dvārapālas, wealth of icons and metal images monuments of over a millenium are located largely in the Jaina centres, and also found scattered to every nook and corner of the state. Wherever they are, these relics represent the aesthetic quality, cultural glory and invaluable heritage of a living faith.
8.1.3.2. Jaina tradition has had a long and distinguished inheritance. Recognising the great strength of the past wisdom and beauty, as portrayed in its art, architecture, sculpture and cultural history, rich legacy of Jainism had become world heritage. Major share of the architectural products belongs to the golden epoch of the Rāstrakūta period. It marks a great era of the beginning and development to its meridian of temple architecture and allied arts.
8.1.4. The priorities of Jaina laity were - Jināgama, Jaina scripture, Jinabhavana, Jaina house of worship, Jinabimba, image of Jina, Jinasasana, teaching of Jina, and Jayamāla, which found its best expression and realisation in basadi, Jaina shrine.
8.1.4.1. Jaina sanctuaries were a temporary place of residence for monks and nuns, who would not stay at a particular place for a longer period, except the season of rain retreat. Jaina places of worship were both seats of worship and the centres of learning. The friars and nuns, during their short stay, would teach the house holders. Members of the royal house, ministers, generals, officials of administrative ranking, laymen and women would visit the temple for worship and to listen to the sermons.
8.1.4.2. Each and every Jaina shrine invariably had srtabhaņdāra, library of scriptures. Therewere fourteen boxfull of Jaina āgama texts in the śratabhaņdāra of Maļkhēd. Texts of palmleaf Manuscripts on Jaina and non-jaina philosophies, and on secular and non-secular subjects were included in the collection of the library. Immediate

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arrangements were made to procure the non-availabe text or get it copied. Well trained experts in the art of copying and preserving the Manuscripts, who could read and recite with proper commentary were maintained by the cloisters attached to the concerned sanctuaries.
8.1.5. Jainas have, throughout the course of the Rāstrakūta years, installed innumerable images and erected excellent shrines : 'They have verily enriched Indian Art and patronised Indian craftsmen and artisits to an extent which is so great and varied that we have not yet been able to do proper justice to this Jaina contribution by our study and research' (Shah, U.P. : 1975 : 50]. Jaina basadis, edifices, and monuments have added their distinct contributions to the development of temple architecture in southern India.
Inscriptions, which open with Jaina invocatory, reveal that the Rāştrakūța munificence flowed to the sacred Jinālayas and to Jaina holymen. This chapter is exclusively devoted to an overall survey and analysis of the Jaina edifices and monuments of this period, commissioned either directly by the Rāstrakūta monarchs or by their feudatories.
8.1.6. Most of the Jaina material from the earlier period of the (Gangas, the Kadambas, the Bādāmi Calukyas) Rāştrakūtas has been either devoured by time or raged to the grounds and reduced into debris or buried several layers beneath the ground. But epigraphical notices do occasionally refer to Jaina monuments which are largely lost. The severe calamity and destruction of these temples should not always be attributed to the atrocities of alien religion or culture. Jains also neglected and forgot to maintain and survive these holy places.
8.1.6.1. Cāla invasions caused extensive destruction of Jaina edifices and shook the Kuntaladēša. In a number of temples, after the disappearence/damage of the original images, the statue of some other Tirthankara/ a similar

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figure, has been installed as a substitute. In such cases, unless it is so mentioned, it is difficult to identify correctly to which deity the shrine was originally dedicated.
8.1.7. In Lakkundi (Gadag Dt), near by the Brahma Jinālaya caused by Attimabbe, the illustrious lady (C. E.9501016), exists a small chapel where an image of Pārsva in paryankāsana/padmāsana, the lotus posture, the 23rd Tirthankara, with a serpent hood spread over his head, was installed. But, now the image of Jina Pārsva had disappeared, leaving behing only the hood and pedestal in situ and making good of the hood, Saiva devotees have placed a Sivalinga beneath it.
8.1.7.1. In the main Brahma Jinālaya itself, the figure of mulanāyaka in the sanctum has been replaced by keeping the original idol outside, behind the garbhagriha vimāna, in the compound.
8.1.7.2. Therefore, it becomes a problem to know the original dedication of the temple when the main deities within the sanctums are destroyed or replaced. In the absence of epigraphical evidences, the mangala phalaka olim lalāța bimba provides a clue. It is usually connected with the main deity enshrined in the sanctum. If the sanctuary is a Jinālaya, usually a seated/standing Jina with/without cauri bearers on either side, appears on the lintel. Instead, sometimes, Gajalakşmi seated in padmāsana, lotus posture, with elephants, one each on either side, appears on the lintel of a Jaina house of worship. However, mostly Jina figure on the lintel is a common feature of Jaina shrines. In other words, wherever the lintel has Jina as its lalāta bimba, it is compulsorily a Jaina temple. Whereas, wherever Gajalakşmi is found on the linetel as mangalaphalaka, it need not necessarily be a Jaina temple.
8.1.8. Basement of a defunct Jaina shrine are to be found in a number of places. There are many places in Karņātaka,

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also in AP and TN, where the Jaina temples built during the pre and post Rāştrakūta period, do not exist now. However, even in such places, broken or intact images of Jina, Yaksas, makara toraņa, arch spewed from the mouths of opposed makaras, etc are reported. Sometimes, except for the statement made in an inscription, none of the Jaina vestiges are found, either in the proper village or in the nearby vicinity. It is not unusal that the slabs containing epigraphs being misplaced/destroyed/misused.
8.1.9. Some Jaina shrines and stray sculptures of this period have been discovered by me in Gulbarga Dt and other places. For want of sufficient knowledge, of the temples and monuments, by way of inscriptional evidence or literary source, any claims of these edifices are largely based on the existing architectural features. Lack of availability of historical written documents has made the task of chroniclers difficult in furnishing the nature of imperial connection with these places and sanctuaries. Albeit, there is no reason to doubt that it rests upon definite architectural basis.
8.2. A detailed and exhaustive research would reveal that during the eon of the Rāstrakūta dynasty Jaina and other temples were founded throughout their vast territory and temple building activity had become a regular phenomenon. Apart from commissioning new Jaina shrines, it is noteworthy, that the old Jaina sanctuaries and cloisters that were in subsistence from the time of the Calukyas of Bādāmi (Vātāpi) continued to be nursed and restored. Aihole, Barkāpura, Mulgunda Hallūr, Hombuja, Koppaļa, Pattadakal, Ponnugunda (Hungund), Puligere, Sravanabelagoļa - were some of the early Jaina settlements that persisted to glow and bloom.
8.2.1. "That the early Chalukya architecture had considerable impact on the Rashtrakuta architecture cannot

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be disputed. But at the same time the early Chalukya traditions were modified to suit their changed aesthetic sense and purpose. Thus we find the Rashtrakuta architect indulging in the creation of dvikutas and trikutas in large numbers often necessitated by religious considerations" [Rajasekhara, S:1991 : 13].
8.2.1.1. For over a long period, a detailed and methodical survey and analysis of inumerable Jaina edifices and vestiges scattered all over the state, was a desideratum. This chapter is a modest attempt in that direction.
8.2.2. Jaina patriarchs and their lay followers have preferred to enshrine the small hills with excellent basadis, and the bigger hills for consecrating the tall monolith colossi of Bāhubali (Gommața). It is the Rāstrakūtas who augured this bifurcation of hills, wherever it was convenient. They initiated it at Hombuja and Are-Tippūru tirtha in the last decades of ninth century. But, it reached its zenith of perfection and excellence on the summit of Vindhyagiri at Sravanabelagola, the Pompei of Jainism in India.
8.2.2.1. Sravanabelagoļa stands wedged between the two Hills with ancient history and invaluable monuments. Legends, that smack something of ancient history and something of sweet fancy, associate these two Hills with the Mauryan emperor Candragupta, who renounced his kingdom, became a disciple, and followed śrutakēvali, apostle, Bhadrabāhu. The small hill, Candragiri, and a basadi as Candragupta basadi, both named after the Mauryan sovereign. Candragiri (Kaļvappu (Sk. kațavapra) 'sepulchral mound') basically a sepulchral hill, has aged Jaina monuments of architectural and historical importance, that reflect the ethos of the peirod.
8.2.2.2. Sravanabelagola, a famous settlement of Jaina tradition, is a legend. For the faithful, the place, the two hills,

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and its history has venerable importance. Lush, sylvan spot where a pool of shimmering water lay between twin hills, has lent the name of Belgola (Sk. Dhavalasaras) to this place. It is so meaningful that the place has the aliases of rşigiri, 'the hill of sages', and Sravaṇabelagola, 'Jaina friars of the white pond'.
8.2.2.3. Sravanabelagola, invaluable treasure trove of art and architecture, has preserved over 550 inscriptions of momentous historical events. Images of Navaratna, nine precious stones, including bronze and other metals, a sştabhaņdāra, library of palm leaf manuscripts - have made the place more significant. With its history of over two millenia, Sravanabelagola is the oldest and foremost of the Jaina pilgrimage seats in India, after Sammēta sikharji, Pāvā and Rājgir (Rājagļha) in Bihar and Girnār in Rajasthan.
8.2.3. In the series of storeyed Jaina shrines of this period, three-shrined Settavva basadi at Aihole, facing east, elaborate on plan and execution, comprises of three wombhouses, three halls articulated with vimāna, and a common sabhāmaņdapa. Settavva basadi is dedicated to Arhat Pārsva and other Jinas. The crowning cupola above the central sanctum houses the upper shrine which has a porch adjoining it. "The upper shrine, small in size, measures about 4' 6" x 46". The porch is smaller than the shrine. One need not be surprised if this trikūta basadi inspired the later trikūtas of the Jains" (Rajasekhara : 25). This Jinālaya has reosettees, scrolls with Yakşa, sugarcane like pilasters, designed rope with oblong blocks at intervals and the petal moulding. Another rare feature of the basadi is that Gajalakṣmi sculpture, instead of the usual Jinabimba, adorns as its lalāțabimba, tutelary image over the door frame. Gajalakşmi at the lalāta is found in the Jaina temples at Bankūr, Harijanvāda etc.

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Bāhubali alias Gommața
8.2.4. The word Bāhubali alias Gommața has a magic effect on Karnataka and the artists. Gommața, Karņātaka and Jainism have become synonyms. In the Jaina tradition Bāhubali, second son of Rşabhadēva the first Ford Maker, and younger brother of Bharata, the first of 12 cakravarttins, is considered as the first of the 24 Kāmadēvas.
8.2.4.1. Earliest of the Bāhubali statues/sculptures was perhaps the image inside the Kāmajinālaya at Guddatatāka, a tank near the knoll, a suburb of Banavāsi, founded by Ravivarma (C. E. 458-519), to the left of his residence. Another Kāmajinālaya, along with a shrine of goddess Padmāvati yakṣī, was built by the same king at Hākinipalli, and were endowed with grants.
8.2.4.2. Second phase was the Bāhubali sculpture in the cave temples of Bādāmi and Aihole, both in Bijapur Dt, and of Early Cālukya age. A bas-relief sculpture of Bāhubali in the Bädāmi cave temple of last quarter of seventh century C.E., is 71/,' in height. The relief of Bāhubali in the Bādāmi cave represents him standing on a lotus in kāyātsarga posture with long hair combed back falling on shoulders and armpit. Snakes rising hoods from ant-hills, mādhavi-creeper entwinning Bahubali's hands. Two ladies, one each on either side, are paying their homage.
8.2.4.3. A big panel in the Aihoļe cave, of the same period, depicts Bāhubali in kāyātsarga khadgāsana, with a ovaloid sturdy face and most of other details being similar to Bādāmi cave relief, except that the two ladies look like deities wearing crowns and ornaments, and the upper relief panel contains trees and flying figures of Gandharvas paying homage to the omniscient Bāhubali (Nagarajaiah, Hampa : Jina Pārśva temples in Karņāțaka : 1999-d).
8.2.4.4. Next in temporal terms is a pretty metal image

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from Śravanabelagola, now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, standing on a circular disk of 20 inches. Mādhavi creeper, done in high relief entwines Bahubali's legs, thighs and arms, and the hair is combed back in parallel rows with the curled locks placed on the back and across shoulders. The image of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa period is assignable to early ninth cent. C. E., i.e., the reign of Amoghavarṣa.
8.2.4.5. There are three other colossi/sculpture of Bahubali dated earlier to Gommata of Śravanabelagola. On the big hill at Are-Tippur (Mandya Dt, Maddur Tk) stands a Bahubali statue of 10' high, assignable to late ninth century. This is the earliest in India to be executed on the top of a hill with etheral firmament and space as its canopy, background and vestment. Are-Tippur was an ancient Jaina-tirtha with more than seven Jinālayas. It flourished as a Jaina settlement in the age of the Gangas and Rāṣṭrakūṭas. The Sagara-Manaleras developed it into a prominent pilgrim center [Sharma, I. K. 1992; Nagarajaiah, Hampa: 1995].
8.2.4.6. The Hombuja-kṣētra (Shimoga Dt, Hosanagara Tk), unique Jaina vital seat for 1250 years, was a residence of the Santras. Guddadabasadi 'shrine on the hillock', contains monolith colossus of 54 inches Bahubali consecretated in C. E. 898 by Vikrama Santara. On one of the pillars inside Bōgārabasadi, founded in the late 9th cent. a miniature bas- relief of Bahubali, beautifully executed within the frame of one foot, is something to be marvelled at.
8.2.4.7. Camunṇḍaraya, the illustrious minister and general of the last Ganga kings, installed magnificent Gommața colossus of 58 ft on the peak of the larger hill Vindhyagiri in C. E. 982-83. The serene and awe-inspiring colossal of Bahubali, which has been regarded as one of the wonders of the world, heralded a new trend in Jaina art. The colossal of Bahubali wrought of a block of gneiss in situ

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got the alias of Gommața, 'the hand some one'. The dominating monolith figure of Gommata standing nude exposed to sun, rain, cold and abrasive dust for over a thousand years, the colossus is as fresh and well polished as the devout Nirgrantha sculptor gave it shape. In the words of James Fergusson, 'Nothing grander or more imposing exists anywhere out of Egypt, and, even there, no known statue surpasses it in height'.
8.3. Padmabbarasi Jinālaya olim Narēgal basadi (Gadag Dt, Ron Tk), commissioned in C. E. 950, has the distinction of being one of the largest Raṣṭrakūta shrines. Originally conceived as a triple temple, Narēgal Jinālaya, facing north, consists of a sanctum, an half-hall articulated with Dravida shrine, and a sabhāmaṇḍapa, with six inches raised platform, opening into a large entry hall, its sides are adjoined by three sanctums. But the main sanctum alone shares the navaranga. On eitherside of the hall are large, deep and empty niches in the wall.
8.3.1. The other two womb-houses, to the east and west, are built outside the range of the navaranga to share the open front-hall. Twelve star shaped pillars with taranga potika exhibit different varieties of square in the bottom with octagonal multifluted design. "A very unique feature of this basadi is that the main garbhagriha is meant to house one of the Jinas, and as such it is square on plan. The other two garbhagrihas, facing each other, are rectangular in shape. They have rectangular pitha which extends from wall to wall. The garbhagrihas were meant to consecrate the caturvimsati Tirthankaras. The pithas in both the sanctums have 24 holes indicating the installation of 24 Jina images. This itself is again a unique feature" [Rajasekhara : 27].
8.3.2. The singularity of Naregal basadi needs no exaggeration. "It is the earliest extent basadi, built in the middle of the 10th century to house not one but two seperate

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sets of 24 images of the Jinas. When the basadi fell into disuse, it was converted into two shrines under the names of Somesvara which includes the main garbhagriha, ardhamantapa and the navaranga, and Narayanadeva which includes the two rectangular garbhagrihas and the large mukhamantapa" [ibid: 27-28]. Tutelary Jina image has been recently covered with cement. Opposite to the 18 feet long pedestal, in the south corner is a cave of 6'x6' dimension, four feet deep below the ground level, devised for the meditation of Jaina monachs. A similar cave also exists in the other sanctum, exactly in the south corner. Both the caves consist of jāla-vātāyanas, grill-windows, to facilitate fresh air and light. Such a cave is also found inside the Jaina tripel-shrine at Mulgunda, dated C. E. 902 of the period of Kṛṣṇa-II.
8.3.3. Long streteched 18 feet pedestal with 24 sockets, 12" diameter each, and 31/2 feet in height is vacant. Unfortunately the 24 images of 24 Jinas, in dissmissing the body posture, of this basadi are missing. Narēgal Jinālaya inspired Hullaraja (C. E. 1159) and Haḍuvalli (Sk. Sangitapura) chiefs (post-medieval period) to consecrate 24 seperate slabs of 24 Jinas. Consecrating single slabs containing sculptures of 24 figures of Jinas in rows, was not uncommon. In Karṇāṭaka such slabs of Caturvimśati Tirthankara sculpture are found commencing from Aihole (c. C.E. 7th cent.). Such a slab of Rāṣṭrakūṭa times in the Savadatti Jaina temple has been shifted to Kannada Research Institute of Karnatak university, Dharwar.
8.9.4. This Padmabbarasi Jinālaya was commissioned by Padmabbarasi (Padmabbe/Padmavati), queen consort of Ganga Gangēya Būtuga, Duke of Gangavaḍi and other divisions. Dānasāle, charity house, attached to the basadi, was endowed with a tank and other tax free gifts of income by Marasingayya alias Mārasimha, second son of Būtuga.

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After laving the feet of Guņacandra Pandita he entrusted the donation to the pontiff.
8.4. Pattadakal Jaina temple of sāndhāra, ambulatory, order has a womb-house with circumambulatory path, an half-hall articulated with Drāvida vimāna, pillard sabhāmaņdapa and a porch with kakşāsana, stone-bench. pradaksinā-wall of the lower storey has decayed and the jālās, grille, on the subhadras, central offset of bhadra, are now lost. The porch seems added an after thought. The moulded base shows bhadra, pratibhadra and corner divisions. The out standing edifice three-storeyed [Uparitala shrine above the sanctum, built into the sikhara, crowning cupola, is reached through a stone ladder in the navaranga).
8.4.1. "The recesses between bays contain narrow pañjara-kõșthas with beautifully carved lalāțanāsis in the gādhas of which are stationed seated Jina images, yakşis, etc. The gudhamandapa walls are crowned by hāra. Praņālas to drain the roof are provided in the salilāntaras. Just below the roof-level, elephant - figures jut out above the extremities of the bhadra... This Jaina temple is one of the finest of later Rāstrakūta buildings, and was probably founded early in the reign of Kșşņa-II" [Soundara Rajan, K. V.: EITA : 149-50].
8.4.1.1. Elephant rider in the back walls of the gūdha maņdapa are supposed to be Indra himself. Triple - shrine Jinālaya, at Mulgunda, also of Krşņa-II's period dated C. E. 902, had superb sculpture of highly decorated elephant with rider on three sides of the vimāna, perhaps modelled on the Pattadakal Jinālaya, built two decades earlier, in circa 880 C. E.
8.4.2. The Rāstrakūtas had developed a sentimental attachment to Elāpura (Ellōrā) ever since Govindarāja-I was enjoying that area as his fief, granted by Pulakēsin-II (60842). The apellation of Govinda (Govindarasa, Govindara, Govindarāja, Goggiga - are the aliases) is repeated in the

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Rāstrakūta house and also in their feudatory families, particularly in the Gangas. Therefore, the Rāstrakūtas preferred to establish greatest and remarkable monuments at Elāpura, the place from where Govinda, their progenitor heralded their dynasty.
8.4.3. A group of Jaina rock-cut caves and sanctuaries in the northern horn of the Ellārā ridge olim Cāraṇādri (hill of levitation saints') are the superb treasure trove of the Rāstrakūta art. Chõţa Kailāsa (flittle Kailāsa) a quarter the size of the great Kailasa, a befitting nomenclature, chiselled to perfection from a rock-mass, in a 130x80 ft. pit cut, into west-facing tritala structure is a feast for eye. Beautiful figures of Jina, Yakşa, yaksi, highly decorated pillars et cetera adorn the abode of worship, dedicated to Rşabha, the first Tirthankara. It many be recalled that Rşabha attained final nirvāṇa on Kailāsa.
8.4.3.1. 'One other monolithic shrine at Ēllorā is the sarvatõbhadra (Caturmukha; Samavasaraņa) shrine in the court of cave no. 32 (the group of Jaina caves that includes the so called Indrasabhā cave). The Sarvatõbhadra shrine faces the gõpura, but with its stairway applied on the northern side. The adhisthāna has tall jagati, padma, tripatta kumuda, kantha with floral diamonds, and kapota with nāsis. The shrine's bhitti has openings in the four directions, with a short pillared prāggriva in front of each... In the shrine interior is a samavasaraṇa bearing four images of the Jina, with short antechambers disposed in the four directions; the southern one has a beautiful padma on its ceiling' (Soundara Rajan, K. V.: EITA : 127-28].
8.4.3.2. Indrasabha, stylistically appears to be slightly posterior to the Chotā Kailāsa. Monolithic column in the courtyard of Indrasabhā cave, is the oldest Mānastambha of the Rāstrakūta period, of the Kumbha-mandi-kalaśa type, with a ribbed lasuna, vas shaped pillar-part at the upper

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part of the shaft, and ghața, pot (cushion-shaped pillar-part above laśuna, and on the phalaka, top-abacus a fourfold image of Brahma - Yakṣa seated back to back, facing four cardinals.
8.4.3.3. The so-called Indra-sabha and the Jagannathasabha are the most noteworthy and elaborate excavations in the Jaina series. The Indra-sabha, the earliest of the group, is a double storeyed south-facing excavation and is the largest and the most important piece of rock-architecture forming a group rather than a single cave-temple.... The lateral walls of the entrenched open court have two smaller excavations of the type of a pillard mandapa on one side and an unfinished gallery on the other. They contain sculptures of Pārsvanatha, Gommata, Kubera, Ambika, Sumatinatha and other Tirthankaras, Yakṣas, etc." [Srinivasan, K. R.: The Deccan, chapter 18 in Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. 1: p. 18].
8.4.3.4. "The walls, ceilings, and the shrine-interior are covered with exquisite paintings, fairly well-preserved. Besides the flying Gandharvas or Vidyadhara couples, the most interesting painting is that of an eight-armed deity on the ceiling of the antarala in the catura-mode of dance. The absence of marks or attributes of Siva in the painting would distinguish it as obviously one of a deity of the Jaina pantheon, perhaps Indra" [Srinivasan, K. R.: 190].
8.4.3.5. The Jaina excavasions on the soft trap-ridge of Ellōra excel the rest of the caves at Ellōrā, particularly in the perfection of their architectural members. Since beauties of ornamentation, drapery, graces, poses and stances could be introduced only in the sculptures of the attendant deities, their depiction were exploited with skill. The Tirthankara forms, which are to be in the prescribed and conventionalized poses and styles, could not all be so well-executed. The Jaina monuments were on the whole excel in their richly-carved details, perfected finish, particularly in the variety of pillars,

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and indicate a greater precision and accuracy in the cutting, though the plan, in spite of the beauty of embellishment, lacks pre-determination and appears haphazard or improvised in nature. Yet, with their extant paintings of a classical nature they form an important group in the artistic heritage of India' [Srinivasan, K. R.: 191-92].
8.4.3.6. James Furgusson and James Burgess, pioneers to discuss about the Jaina cave temples at Bādāmi, Aihole, Patna, Chamar Lena, Bhamer, Bamcandra, Elura, Dhārāśiva, Aņkāi Tankai, Gwalior, in their concluding remarks have opined that "the Jains never were cave excavators" [Furgusson and Burgess : 510]. They felt that the Jains took to caves only after the Buddhists and Brahmins initiation. But, it is an established fact that Jains were the fore runners even to Buddhists in making caves as their abode of penance. Further, it is clear that they have not taken notice of the Jaina caves of Udaigiri, Khandagiri in Orissa, ancient caves in Tamilnadu, and Rāmagiri in Andhradeśa. Jainism localised at Śravaṇabelagola, Koppala, Nandagiri etc., in natural caves and caverns suitable for friars, and spread far and wide from 3rd cent. B.C., and carved out for itself very many significant seats in the premedieval milieu and paved avenue for magnificent edifices. The Santara monuments
8.4.4. The Santaras, who ruled a compact principality of Santalige-1000, were more congenial for the growth of Jainism, which is attested by a number of epigraphs and magnificent monuments. Vikrama Sāntara (895-935) augmented the glory of the dynasty, with fantastic rapidity, to form a notable dominion bearing an authentic stamp of the art and architecture. The sanctuaries and monasteries raised during the hegemony of the Raṣṭrakūṭas, in and around their territory show the influence and architectural generalities of their overlords with a tinge of local elements, bearing a stamp of the Gangas.

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8.4.4.1. The Sāntaligenād and the Mandalinād were two different administrative units serving as vassals under the same sovereigns like the Rāştrakūtas and Cālukyas of Kalyāņa. Ruling concurrently, these two neighbour states were related by matrimonial alliances. They are marked by striking similarities in their architecture [Nagarajaiah, Hampa : The Later Gangas - Mandali Thousand : 1999-B : 48-51). But, none of the architectural edifices, monuments or vestiges of the Rāştrakūţa period of Mandali Thousand has survived.
8.4.4.2. Of the numerous Sāntara structures located in Hombuja, their ancient metropolis, four temples and some loose displaced art pieces scattered inside the little township, belong to the times under consideration and exhibit affiliation to early and late Rāştrakūta type : i. Pārsvanātha basadi ii. Sūļe basadi iii. Makkaļa basadi iv. Bõgāra basadi
8.4.4.3. The Sāntara temples are the store house of a combination of the Ganga, the Cālukya (Bādāmi) and the Rāştrakūta styles. Prof. M. A. Dhaky has preferred to name it as Malnād style. Guddada basadi 'temple of the hill' olim Kāmajinālaya on the hillock, behind the modern temple complex, at Hombuja a forest-clad town, was founded in C. E. 897-98 by Vikrama Sāntara. It was built with Kapõtabandha adhisthāna in the typical Dravidian style of temple art. The dilapidated structure was dismantled recently, in the year 1958-60, because it was about to collapse. Albeit, Bahubali statue and other images and pillars of Guddada basadi are intact on the hill, and below, inside the temple and within the compound. An historically significant Bāhubali image, now in the newly built building, is dated

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C. E. 898, almost 84 years earlier to Gommața image of Śravanabelagola. Bāhubali image is definitely one of the priced, monuments of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa times. It had pañcaśākhā - door frame and was subsequently restructured in 11th century. "The Miśraka pillars that once were in the maṇḍapa show a plain cubial base, the shaft immediately above being decorated with a pattern consisting of elongted overlapping petals with frilled edges.... All in all, this seems to be a rather rare type of decorated pillar, among the most beautiful in Karṇātaka' [Dhaky : 223].
8.4.4.4. The ornate figural ceilings of authentic Rāṣṭrakūṭa specification in the Bōgara basadi and Pārsvanatha basadi of Paliyakka, look very chaste and dignified. Some of the earlier pillar forms of considerable beauty and effectiveness are still vibrant in these two shrines. The typically Raṣṭrakūṭa columns with equisite decorative details, inside Bōgāra basadi, though modelled after the Ellōra Jaina cave pillars, are moderately ornamented.
8.4.4.5. Pārśvanatha basadi, to the left in the Pañcakūta-vasati complex, facing south is a pretty doublestoreyed compostion, has all the distinctive traits of the Santara school of art. It is a living example for the adage, small is beautiful. This shrine with 7'.9" width southern of Vimāna, 14'.8" mandapa, and pãdabandha moulded base, largely agress with style of Bōgāra and Sule basadis, but differs in minor details. The four taranga - potikā pillars in the hall and the four stepped stairway - banister and a śukanasi to the front of the tower at the roof level are simple. The Aṣṭa-Dikpāla ceiling, eight guardians of the quarters in eight squares, and a founr armed yakṣa in the central quadrant, is excellent and decorative. The whole frame is embellished with a beading of miniature sculpture. A small but handsome Jina Pārśva image in the sanctum also belongs

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to the period of late 9th and early 10th cent., delegated to the period of Krsna-II. An inscription of C. E. 898 on the slab fixed to the outside wall, to the right side of the door frame has recorded details of the illustrious lady Pāliyakka who commissioned the temple.
8.4.4.6. Sūle-basadi, on the scopes of the hill, was founded in C. E. 898 by Pāliyakka, Dona, a ladylove of Vikrama Sāntara (895-935). Built in stone, with a width of about 17', has completely lost its mandapa, hall, and the super structure over the vimāna. Kapõta-bandha class of adhisthāna, moulded base, and pañjara koşthas, niches with fronton of vaulted apsidal shrine, disclose the typical tendencies of Sāntara style of architecture. An image of JinaPārsva, seated in lotus-posture on lion-pedestal, in the sanctum, is defaced and mutilated. All the seven hoods are broken, but, the triple umbrella, the bhāmandala radiating lustre behind the head, and the fly whisk bearers look nebulous. Because of the growth of banian tree, this temple is disintegrating and crumbling.
8.4.4.7. Makkala basadi, ‘children shrine', one of the aged temples at Hombuja township has not attracted scholars. This tiny temple has been saddled with newly built school building around and above. As a result of repeated renovations except for the main sanctum with its three walls in situ, everything has changed to appear like a modern structure. Since the first floor covered by tiled roof has become the hostel for makkaļu ‘children’, this temple has come to be nick-named as Makkaļa basadi. It is a moderate dvitala temple, with garbhasha, gūdhamaņdapa and an open hall. It can be assigned to early decades, of tenth century. Dedicated to Arhat Pārsva, neither the sanctum nor the hall contain any structure of decorative motif. Vimāna on all the three sides has retained its older fabric of kudyastambas, engaged columns, and Pādabandha adhisthāna.

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Brahmakānta pilasters resemble similar ones of Sūļe basti, Bögarabasti, and Pārsvanātha basadi.
8.4.4.8. Bögāra-basadi olim Asokavana Basadi, of early tenth cent., has preserved its older frame work except for some additions on the first floor. Founded by the traders (brazier - section) of the Jaina community during the period of Govindara-IV, Bögara basadi is one of the finest specimen of the Sāntara temple architecture: 'Judging from the elegant proportions as well as the high quality of workmanship, it must rank among the most beautiful temples of this period in Karnatadēśa (Dhaky: 1986 : 222].
8.4.4.8.1. Sitting pretty like a child on the lap of nature, Bögāra basadi, without any doorway guardian figures below, has the Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi carved above the jamb. Three figures of yaksas near the temple are noteworthy, out of which two are of Ambikā alias Kūşmāņdidēvī, and the third one is of Mātanga yaksa. Balipisha infront of the temple substitutes the Mānastambha. The four Brahmakānta pillars in the navaranga, enriched with superior ornamental details, are modelled on the Ellora Jaina cave temples of the imperial Rāstrakūta architecture.
8.4.4.8.2. A vertical scroll-band, a broad belt emitting jewelled ropes, a crisply carved undulating vine, floral motif bearing a seated Jina, figures of Pārsva and Bāhubali - on the shafts of pillars show the sculptor's mastery in brilliant chiselling and indecorative art : "The rich exuberance and the crisp carving of the applied ornament is in keeping with the high standard of decorative work maintained throughout the best examples in Karņāța... The lion - throne inside the garbhagrha is as old as the temple, but the image seems a recent replacement. Altogether, the temple has the sense of a royal foundation, not so much in its size, which is very modest, but in its excellence' [Dhaky: 222-23).
8.4.4.9. Of the other Jaina vestiges of this epoch, some

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makara-toraņas, flywhisk bearers, a votive offering plank depicting king Vikrama Sāntara distributing charities, are of considerable importance. But greatest of all are the two splendid Jina Pārsva stelas of late ninth century or early tenth century, kept inside the main hall of the larger Parśvanātha temple, are of immense value. The sculptor sought to glorify the meditation of Pārsva, deeply immersed in thinking about the nature of soul and the path of liberation. Displaced three large sized door-guardian images are to be noted, and can be compared with very few surviving dvārapalas, of this size and execution of the Rāștrakūta age.
8.4.4.9.1. There are about three pairs of flywhisk bearers that divulge the traits of antiquity. These cāmaradharas once stood in attendance to Jina images in the places of worship and may be dated to late 9th cent., and early 10 century.
8.4.4.9.2. A ceiling - piece bearing the figure of septacephalous in the centre, symbolising Dharanendra, flanked by four squares, with a full bloomed lotuses inside. Looking at its style of Gangas and Pallavas, it can be assigned to early 9th cent. This remarkable ceiling sculpture may have been in the original Lokkiyabbe (Nokkiyabbe/Padmāvāti) house of worship.
8.4.4.9.3. The Sāntara architects had preference to dvitala, two-storeyed, type of shrines is revealed from the existing structures, Pārsva basadi, Bõgara basadi, Kamatha Pārsvanātha basadi and the Makkaļa basadi - are dvitala dēvālayas, reminding the storeyed Jinālayas at Aihole, Hallūr and Pattadakal.
8.4.4.9.4. Achievements of the Sāntaras in the field of (Jaina) architecture may be summed up in the words of Prof. M. A. Dhaky : 'Northern Malnād or Sāntaļige style is fresh in expression and reveals clarity, delicacy, and a chasteness of detail not obtained in the slightly later work of Kuntala proper, such as the Rāştrakūţa temples at Kukkanūr, Aihole,

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or the pillars now surviving at KaŅūr of the late Rāstrakūta period. Such a sense of balance or feeling for form in architectural conception is also wanting in the contemporary Rāstrakūta idiom. Only Gangavādi's architecture at the close of the tenth century approaches that of Sāntalige in its concern for elegance of proportion and shape. Even so, the śāntalige feeling for finesse is unmatched, not only in Gangavādi, but in all upper Drāvida dēśa with the possible exception of early Rāştrakūta work at Ellorā, where taste and craftsmanship of a comparable level, if not kind, can be found [EITA : 1986 : 224].
8.4.5. Vira Bankēya Jinālaya, on the right bank of the river Malaprabhā at Konnūr/Kolanūr(Gadag Dt, Naragund Tk), commissioned in C. E. 860, by the distinguished Bankēśa, general and governor of Banavāsi - 12,000, was the most prestigious basadi in the Rāstrakūta monarchy. It is built on the star shaped basement of 27x11 meter width, with sanctum, covered vestibule set between vimāna and gūdha mandapa, closed hall, sabhāmaņdapa and mukhamaņdapa, front - hall. The stellate plan of the circular type of the garbhagļha of 3.90x4 meter width has engaged columns in the four corners. The doorframe has a seated Jina as its tutelary figure. The three oblong dēvakoșthas, niches for a divinity, to the left, right and backside walls, ninety centimeter in width, are taller going upto the ceiling.
8.4.5.1. Antarāla has a width of 2.65 meter, east to west, and 4.05 meter north to south, with two pillars in the front and two corner engaged columns. The extensive squarish navaranga has a width of 8.42x7.92 meters with 12 pillars, 10 dwarf columns and four corner columns, and a padmašilā ceiling. The 1.10x1.30 meter sized steps of the disintegrated entry-hall suggest an hasti-hasta banister. Walls of the Bankeya basadi are not embellished. Whether the temple had originally a Sikara is not clear from the present state of its existence.

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8.4.5.2. This Jaina temple had once enjoyed the rare honor of being endowed with cakravartti datti from Amõghavarşa-I, who residing at his capitol Maļkhēd granted the village of Taleyūru and lands in other villages to the Jaina sage Dēvēndra, pupil of Trikālayõgi, of Mūlasangha Dēsiyagaņa Pustakagaccha, on Thursday 3-10-860. A slab containing this charter is set up in the basadi. Another stone built into the ceiling of the front gate way in the basadi of the period of Bhuvanaikamalladēva (1068-76), containing an incomplete inscription, seems to have recorded new grants to the sustenance of the basadi, by his subordinates.
8.4.5.3. This architecturally unique Bankēśa basadi was appropriated by non-Jainas and has been converted into a Paramēśvara temple, perhaps during 14th century.
8.4.6. The only existing Jaina house of prayer at Maļkhed is Nēminātha basadi, assignable to early 10th cent. It contains some sculptures of more or less of the same period, which clearly validate the existence of more Jaina shrines of both earlier and later periods. The surviving Nēminātha basadi was also renovated in the medieval period. In the process of restoring the temple, architectural remains, particularly the pillars, of saiva/Vaisnava temples have been used in the mukhamandapa.
8.4.6.1. Epigraphical data demonstrates that a Jaina shrine called Ēkacattuga Jinālaya existed at Małkhēd in the first quarter of ninth century and the shrine sanctuary was named after the illustrious pontiff Ēkacattuga Bhațāra of Kundakunda anvaya, accomplished his death in C. E. 881 on the sepulchral at Koppaļa. Sādhusēna Pandita, honoured by the Rāştrakūta monarchs died in the Ēkacattugavasadi at Mannekhēta on 15-2-975. It is interesting to note that his pupil Siddhasēna Bhattāraka consecrated post-obitum epitaph at Koppaļa for the merit of his preceptor Sādhusēna Pandita who departed at Malkhēd. Such instances of erecting

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post-mortem columns to a demised person at a different place are not wanting. Kūge Brahmmadēva pillar was erected at Sravanabelagoa for the merit of Mārasimha who deceased at Bankāpura.
8.4.6.2. Malkhēd with its satellite places such as Sēdam, has many places of Jaina association within the radius of 50 km. Contribution of Malkhēd towards the development of Rāstrakūta's cultural heritage and historiography is quite rich and thought-provoking, though a sizable portion of it has been lost because of the ravages of time, man and nature. Puşpadanta, Epic poet of Apabhramśa literature, has narrated at length the total destruction of the city which was burnt and looted for several days.
8.4.7.3. A Jaina monastery and the temples at Maļkhēd were affiliated to Hombuja diocese. But, Małkhed was also the main head-quarters of the northern region, where as Hombuja was a main settlement in the southern division. It is believed that an underground cell from the palace to the Jaina shrine existed. Local elders explain that two Jina images made of Nila, the sapphire, of the Rāstrakūta age, found at Malkhēd and Bankūr, were taken away by a British officer in the early decades of 20th century, the where abouts of which are not known.
8.5. Harsūr (Gulbarga Dt) trikūta-basadi is one of the exceedingly graceful Jaina shrines. Though the present edifice is of the first phase of later Cālukya times, threesancta of Harasūr has preserved some matchless art treasure stylistically dating the period of Rāstrakūtas. The best and the earliest in the ensemblage are the sublime image of a Jina, now in the Museum of Gulbarga, and the two figures of two-armed yakşa-yakşi, reflecting dignity, charm and poise.
8.5.1. Adoring the dēvakõsthas in the gūdhamandapa are the figures of Jinaśāsana deities : 'The bronze - like,

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corpulent, and seated-at-ease Sarvänubhuti's ornaments are some what schematic, going well with relaxed vigour of the body at rest' [Dhaky: 1998: 41]. The pretty Kuṣmaṇḍi figure reposed in ardhapadmāsana, with neck ornaments, ringshaped larger earrings. The dhammilla-circlets of the hairdo, pushed at the back of her head, is not stout when compared to the similar Kuṣmaṇḍī sculpture at Āland, Bankür, and Malkhed, all from the same Gulbarga Dt. Harsur yakṣi has a slender body than the yakṣis of the places mentioned above. The bonny figures of Karandamakuta Sarvahna and Kuṣmaṇḍi can be assigned to the early quarter of tenth century. These two sculptures resemble Sarvāhṇa and Ambika of Indrasabha cave in west side of court, lower level, north corner, to left of shrine and to right of shrine at Ellōrā, illustrating both the stylistic continuity and the tendency toward schematization, in the development of yakṣa-yaksi art. The artist had sculptural prototypes.
8.5.1.1. The most charming image of Tirthankara, assiged to the later period of Amoghavarṣa-I, now in Gulbarga Museum, is singular for its composition: "The central Jina figure, impassively sits in faintly contemplated expression reflecting total control on body and self, the head in this instance is graced by a bhāmaṇḍala halo behind and the triple unbrella above. The simhasana is lost but in the original setting it could have been there. The somewhat smaller figures of the Camara - bearers are a little slantingly shown in relief but on the whole succeed in balancing the composition. An andola class of torana which, as a type and to all seeming was invented in the Rāṣṭrakūṭa times, defines the upper periphery of the throne-back. The throne possesses the pillarettes flanked at each side by a vyāla figure and topped by a makara". [Dhaky: 1998: 43].
8.5.2. A striking Jaina sanctuary, situated on gently rising ground to the north of the village Hallur, about 12KM

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to the north of Bāgalkõte, and not far off from Bādāmi, facing south, locally called Mēguļi, 'temple on elevation', is in its peculiarities and nomenclature, analogus to the Mēgudi Jaina shrine at Aihole, both being storeyed structures. It is fairly a huge structure of 69'x41', with flat roof, open vestibule, elongated hall, kapõta bandha moulded base, and notable for the way the walls are treated. Its tower-like super-structure of first-storey shrine-chamber has crumbled. But, rest of the handsome temple is better preserved. Its walls are decorated with narrow pilasters and large sized sculptures. Standing and somewhat mutilated figures of Jina Pārsva and Kāmadēva-Bāhubali at the karņas, cornerdivision, and bhadras, central offset, and the plain pañcaśākha door frame belong to the early period of Amoghavarşa-I, though the shrine may be dated to still earlier period.
8.5.2.1. Regarding the upper shrine, now not extant, ‘the Jains seem to have picked up this idea first introduced in the Meguti, though this upper shrine was added at a later date. In the basadis at Pattadakal and Hallur the upper shrine was included in the original plan itself. The other Jaina basadi of this period found at Aihole namely Settavva temple is also storeyed. These storeyed structures of the Jains were popularised during this period. The Gangas seem to have taken their cue from these structures when they decided to build the Chavundaraya Basadi at Sravanabelgola" (Rajasekhara, S: 17-18].
8.5.3. Bankūr(Gulbarg Dt, Citāpur Tk) has remarkable archaeological remains confirming that the place was a seat of Jaina prominence from the days of the Rāştrakūtas. Existing pañcakūța basadi was originally a trikūța, threeshrined, Jinālaya. A part of the temple, to the right of the gūdha mandapa, is being used as the residence of the priest. A small compact shrine to the left, with four plain pillars,

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consists of an image of seated Jina (5’x40') on the lion throne (17" in height) a nisidhi slab, and a cavvisi slab.
8.5.3.1. Magnificent main door frame of the triple-shrine is highly decorative with makara-torana, dvārapālas with attendents and musicians. Artistically exected four 611, tall identical pillars in the central hall are different from the other four pillars, two each on either side of the güdhamandapa. Inside the triple temple are three wombhouses. In the central sanctum is the image of mūlanāyaka śāntinātha in khadgāsana (75"x25") on the simhapitha (16"x31"). The spacious sanctum has six pillars, three each on either side in a row, with sculptural details. Right side sanctum has Gajalakṣmi as its tutelary figure, where as the left side sanctum has the seated Jina in the center of the door frame. Jina Pārsva image (63"x28") canopied with septacephalous Dharana, capped above with triple umbrella, two cauris on either side, and frizzy hair dropping upto the shoulders, is scintillating. Special feature of the body of serpent Dharaṇa behind Jina is that it has 17 coils.
8.5.3.2. Albeit, stylistically, this basadi belongs to the late Rāstrakūta and early Cālukya period. But, the figure of yakși Kuşmāņdini/Ambikā is the lone stone sculpture in the shrine, of the Rāstrakūţa period, which can be relegated to the reign of Amõghavarşa or Krsna-II.
8.5.3.3. The kabari, branded hair tied into a round knot, completely pushed upward to the back of her head, looks like a head-wear. Above it, is the tiny figure of a seated Jina, evidently Nēminātha to whom, Ambikā is the attendant deity. Going round the dhammilla are the branches of mango tree suggestive of her sitting under the mango grove as described in the Jaina pantheon. Frequent coating of pigment has blurred the details of lion, her vāhana, and two of her children on her sides.
8.5.3.4. The image of a seated dvibhuja yakşa, kept

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outside the shrine, but within the complex, near the dwarf entrance, with Yajñopavita, ceremonial thread on the burly but youthful body, and yogapattika, belt for contemplation also belongs more or less to the same age. It is difficult to say whether a śikhara, crowning cupola exited or not.
8.5.3.5. Corroborative evidence suggests that a Jaina monastery existed attached to the basadi, and that there were few more Jaina edifices than those now seen scattered around the little township. At a distance from the temple are seen Jaina images of Pārśva and yakşas which are definitely of the Rāstrakūța times : "A beautiful early sculpture of Pārsva seated in the ardhapadmāsana against a back seat made of a horizontal bar supported by two dwarf pillars with lions standing on hind legs is found in a ruined basadi at Bankūr, Citāpur Tk. Between the back rest and the body of the Jina are the coils of the seven-hooded Dharaņēndra at the back of the Jina. From two ends of the back-rest spring two cāmaradhara yakşas. There is a triple umbrella over the snake-hoods. The sculpture dates in C. gth cent. A. D." (Shah, U.P. : Jaina Rūpamaņdana : 1987 : 185).
8.5.3.6. On the outskirts of the village is another large Jaina dvitala storeyed edifice, larger than the one referred above, which is now converted into Rāmalingēśvara guļi. It consists of garbhagļha, open antarāļa, navaranga with two vacant dēvakoșthas, an open mukhamaņdapa, front-hall. A Mānastambha before the entry hall indicates that the temple had an entrance from there, which is closed now. A small shrine, within the compound, to left corner of the entry-hall has a seated caturbhuja Padmāvatidēvi yakși. Doorframe of the main sanctum has three doorjambs and a seated Jina as its tutelary figure and two more Jinas above it, aslo seated in paryankäsana. A stone ladder from left side of the gūdhamaņdapa leads to the vacant shrine above the garbhagpha.

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8.5.3.7. A raised compound wall, evidently a later addition, has a side entrance since the temple is three feet below the ground level, a flight of steps facilitate the devotees to enter the compound. Outside the compound is a Dānasāle with four pillars, also a later structure. Doorframe of the side entrance has five decorative doorbands. Above the tutelary figure of Jina are two reliefs of Jinas standing in Kāyotsarga posture. Both inside the enclosure and outside are scattered vestiges of lion throne and other broken parts.
8.5.4. Jevargi (Gulbarga Dt) has two Jaina pagodas. The one situated inside the town belongs to the period of later Cālukyas. The other one, situated on the out skirts of the township, is one of the earliest extant buildings at Jevargi. This ancient Jaina shrine, now a Mārutimandira dedicated to god Hanuman, has typical early Rāstrakūta form, seemingly assignable to late 9th cent, to the period of Krsna-II. The edifice has undergone major changes, before and after being converted into a Hanumān temple. Its compound wall with its pañcasākhā doorframe belongs to the early phase of the Calukyas of Kalyāņa. It has a seated Jinas its tuterlary image and above it on the lintel are the figures of two Jinas standing in Khadgāsana.
8.5.4.1. Inside the shrine, the sabhāmaņdapa has six Brahmakānta pillars. On the walls of the gūdhamandapa are two vacant dēvakõsthas with two small niches one each on either side. Notable feature of the temple is that it is a sāndhāra, type of Jinālaya, with pradaksināpatha, circumambulatory path for the main womb-house. Garbhagļha, doorjambs and the pillars are thickly painted using deep colors which has obliterated the minor sculptural details.
8.5.4.2. The two simhapāda, lion-based columns, mounted with a splendid makaratorņa, are mementous, not only in the context of Jaina shrines but also of temple

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architecture of the Raṣṭrakūṭas in general. The admirabley chiselled makaratorana resemble the one at Paṭṭadakal of the Early Calukya age. The antarala of one of the temples of typically Raṣṭrakūṭa type of early 10th cent., at Sirvāļ (śrivolal) has two simhapāda - Rudrakanta columns. But here the columns used are of Brahmakānta - simhapada class of columns of late 9th cent. Similar pillars are found at Bhimarayanagudi and Ingalagi also. But there, the figures of dwarfs holding the front legs of the lion at their shoulders are absent. However, such simhapada columns are found in the Pallava pillars of Mamalla period. The possibility of Pallava or Tamil country's influence can not be vetoed. Elements of art and architecture must have gravitated to Rāṣṭrakūta empire from the lands that they conqured.
8.5.5. Harijanvāḍa, a hamlet just on the outskirts of Pēt-sirūra (Gul Dt, Citāpur Tk), has an ancient Nēminātha Jinālaya in decrepit state. Local people worship the god in the name of Lord Buddha. Built in the typical Räṣṭrakūṭa type, it consists of three components viz., a garbhagṛha, antarāla, mavaranga, and perhaps a mukha mandapa. Doorframe of the gūḍha mandapa has three doorjambs and Gajalaksmi in the lalaṭa. But, in the soffit is the figure of seated jina flanked by yakṣa-yakṣi. Four citrakhanda pillars in the square navaranga, are moderately ornamented but their formal components at once divulge Rāṣṭrakūṭa style.
8.5.5.1. Goddess Amibkādēvi alias Kūṣmāṇḍini in easy posture with one leg flexed and placed on the seat, and the other gracefully folded from the seat, seated-at-ease. Front portion of her right hand is broken and the left hand has covered the back of her son sitting on the lap. A portion of the child's neck is broken. Deity's Dhammilla hair style is of the Rāṣṭrakūta period. The image is placed to the right wall of the intermediate compartment between the shrine-cell and sabhāmaṇḍapa. The sanctum is adorned with the figure of

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Nēminātha Tirthankara seated on the lion-throne. Jina engrossed in meditation, has a round face, with a bhāmandala, halo, behind the head, chatratraya above the head, flanked by flywhisk bearers.
8.6. Muļgunda (Gadag Dt), a concentrated and celebrated center of Jaina settlement from 7th cent. was a smaller unit of administration of the Rāştrakūtas, ruled by Sindas, their subordinates. Replete with Jaina historical materials, the hoary antiquity of Mulgunda does not conflict with the existing temple edifices. The existing two Jaina shrines, on the low hillock to the south of the village, bear the stamp of antiquity.
8.6.1. The two notable basadis facing north, on the hillock, Trikūta basadi and tirthada basadi, are renovated and mostly survive in their original form. The excellent entrance with varieties of pillars over the dado is a later addition in the period of Trailokyamalladeva (1042-68). Three-shrined temple, far earlier structure than the tirthada basadito its left, has partly buried hasti-hasta balustrade of great beauty, preserved at the main stairway with a Gandharva figure, over the back of the vyāla, which resembles Tripurāntakēśvara rangamaņdapa east side hasti-hasta at Balligāmve (Shimoga Dt), and partly the hastihasta-banister at the Aạnigere Jaina temple, which is far superior in execution. The entry-hall, open on either side, has perforated grill-window flanking the doorway wallframe. A very large tutelary deity carved on the lalāța block shows Jina in glory. Both the garbagrha and the gūdhamandapa doorframes are decorated with five doorjambs.
8.6.2. The trikūta Jinālaya was commissioned in late ninth century by Cikārya, son of Candrārya, a burgher and tradesman. It was further endowed with land etc in C. E. 902-03. Much of the fabric of the ancient shrine has survived as it originally was, with the vimāna and srikāra,

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citrakhanda and vişnukānta columns, with all their details are intact in situ. Regarding the sculptural details of the vimāna a noted feature is the decorated majestic elephant on all the three sides.
8.6.5. Recently, on 14-01-99, I found in the same temple a graceful Arhat Pārśva sculpture , carved to perfection on a slab containing a dated (C. E. 902-03) Sankrit inscription on the backside. The epigraph was noticed earlier but not the lovely scuplture of eminence on the otherside, since the slab was fixed to the wall. The tablet has marvellous sculptures on both the sides. On one side, in the very beginning, before the commencement of the inscription, is the sculpture of a caityālaya motif. It has three compartments, framed inside the four pillars. On the right side is the relief of a cow and a calf. In the centre is the figure of Jina seated in padmāsana on a lion throne capped with tripple umbrella and the fly whisk bearers in flank. On the left side is Ambikā yakşi seated in lalitāsana (Sukhāsana) posture under the mangogrove, holding a bunch of mango fruits in her right hand, the left hand being a varada-hasta, and the lion being her vāhana. A male person standing to her left is her son. Because Ambikā alias Kuşmāņdi is an attendant deity of Nēminātha, the 22nd Tirthankara, the centre figure in the panel can be considered as Nēminātha Jina.
8.6.3.1. On the otherside of the tablet is the extreemly superb sculpture Jina Pārsva with kamathopa-sarga motif, depicting the episode of tormentation of Kamatha. Charged with vengeance, Kamatha lashed heavy rains, hurled huge boulders, created thunder storm and deputed evil spirits to shake Pārsva from his trance, but in vain. The sylvan deities appeared and yakși Padmãvati holding the staff of the diamond studded parasol stood to the right, symbolising the benefic aspect of the diety, and the malefic aspect of Kamatha is shown on the left side. Similar stelae are met at Hombuja

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and Ellorā Jaina cave temple. One more special architectural feature discovered recently in the triple-shrine is that there is a cave below the shrine in the left corner meant for the meditation of the monks.
8.6.4. Recent discovery of three ancient Jaina images, by the author of this monograph, at Mallasamudra (
Gadag Dt), has proved that the village was a famous Jaina establishment from early 8th century. Though the original shrines do not exist now, a compact hall, facing east, has enshrined three magnificent Jaina idols on a raised platform. Among them, two are of Pārsva in khadgāsana, and the other one seated in ardhapadmāsana is of Mahāvira.
8.6.4.1. Of the two Pārsva figures, the one with fivehooded canopy is the earliest of Jina-Pārsva images in Karnātaka, stylistically dating to C. 8th century. The absence of any accoutrements or even the two attendent deities or flywhisks, and a strong well built proportionate body, slightly oval shaped face with elongated ears, a clean shaven head divulge the aesthetic and commensurate composition. A puppet like rigidity and an almost premitive bareness, characteristic of Jaina sculpture is masterly executed in this figure. Even though the sculpture of Jina Pārśva in the forelobby of Jaina caves at Aihoļe and Bādāmi are dated late 6th cent., they are carved in bas-relief. But, so far, Mallasamudra image is the first known image wrought of a block of black stone.
8.6.4.2. An exquisite figure of Mahāvira seated in padmāsana on a lion throne, flanked by camaradharas, capped by chatra-traya triple parasol, one above the other, is assignable to early nith century, and definitely of Amõghavarşa-I period. Most charming sculpture has the figures of Matanga yakşa, sitting on the right side and Siddhāyikā yakși on the left. Matanga yakşa is holding the citron fruit in his left hand and the right hand in abhayahasta

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is in accordance with the description of Vasunandi, Nēmicandra and Asādhara. Siddhāyikā yakşi on the left is holding a book in her left hand and the right hand being in varadamudrā pose. An ornamented nimbus depicting coiled creeper, representing caitya tree, is emerging from the stretched snout of Vyāli on either side of the aureola. The third figure of Jina Pārsa belongs to the early decades of 11th century. Epigraphical evidence confirm the hoary antiquity of the place and its close relationship with both Mulgunda and Puligere (Laksmēśvar).
8.6.5. Niśidhis, with its variants showing difference in the use of sibilant and the ending of the form describe the deceased personality, the way in which a person willingly submitted to voluntary death, and the person by whom the commemoration was executed. A slab-stone or a boulder, as a post-mortem memorial, usually erected at the spot where the pious individual breathed his/her last or where his/her body was burnt. Depending on the status of the deceased, a square platform with/without corner pillars, is raised. This platform with corner pillars resembles a mandapa, without any side-walls. Such maņdapas and raised platforms can be found on the candragiri, the smaller hill at Sravanabelagola and elsewhere in the state. Though, primarily they are postobito eipitaphs, many of them furnish historical details, and most of them contain sculptures worth considering.
8.6.5.1. On par with basadis, the nisidhis of the period are noted for their historical and sculptural significance. Incidentally some of them are the earliest found in the state. Among them the most illustrative and distinct type is the sculptured and inscribed stele from Doddahuņdi (Mysore Dt, T. N. Pura Tk), showing Nitimārga Permānaţi-I (853-69), the Ganga king, on his death bed. This stele is now in the Museum of Bangalore. This nisidhi is also called a kalnadu, a type of hero-stone, which was raised by Satyavākya

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Permānadi Nitimarga's son. King Nitimārga was a bee at the pair of the lotus feet of the Arhad Bhattāraka Jinasēna, the author of the Sanskrit Adipurāņam and the preceptor of Amõghavarşa-I. Niśidhi inscriptions and their sculptures at Śravanabelagoļa and Koppaļa are discussed appropriately.
8.6.6. Muniyara Bommanahalli village (Gulbarga Dt), to the west of Sorāpur and on the way to Tāļikote from Kembhāvi, is replete with Jaina relics of the Rāştrakūta period. The hamlet at the entrance of a ravine consists of some adhiştānas of runied Jinālayas, and scattered Jaina vestiges of a black schist image of Jina Pārśva in kāyotsarga posture, (size 4’x3'), a resdtone image of Jina seated on a lion throne in paryankāsana capped with tripple umbrella, fly-whisk bearers standing on either side, and a dilapidated small basadi etc.
8.6.6.1. A Jina Pārsva dvitala, two storeyed Jaina shrine with a small uparitala, upper-storey, above the garbhagȚha, has been now converted into a Rāmēśvara dēvālaya. Muniyara Bommanahalli, at the approach to a mountain pass, commands a serene panoramic view suitable for austerity. Local legend reports that the toponymn Muniyara' meaning of the ascetics' is derived from the Jaina monachs who once inhabited the place in large numbers. Whatever be that, the place deserves further investigation and excavation. In brief, Koppala, like Sravanabelagola, persisted to be a nerve center of hecitc Jaina activities.
8.6.7. Thanks mainly to the patriarchs, Koppala turned out to be a major Jaina establishment and a regular pilgrim seat, for the householders, monarchs and their feudal lords. With its wooded slopes, huge boulders, deep ravines and dark caverns, Koppaļa provided a perfect place for penance and purification. It continued to be a nucleus for the Rāstrakūtas, the Gangas and the later Cālukyas. Considered as an Aditirtha and Mahā-tirtha from the early centuries of current

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era, Koppaļa flowered into a major settlement of Jaina order during this period.
8.6.7.1. Jaina friars and nuns administered the oath of death by gradual abstenation from food and water, to some of the official dignitories of this age, on the sepulchral hill. Local epigraphs speak of many prominent pontiffs, princes, princesses, and nuns who flourished during the reign of Amõghavarşa-I, -II, and -III, Krsna-II, Indra-III, Govinda-IV, Krsna-III and Khottiga. Famed Sankaraganda, feudatory of Krsna-III, had founded Jayadhira Jinālaya in C. 964 C. E. Many members of the Būtuga-II's family willingly submitted themselves to the rite of holy death as prescribed in the Jaina tradition.
8.6.7.2. Koppaļa had direct connection with Maļkhēd. Māmarasa, Rāstrakūta general, visited siddha Kupana (Koppala) in C. E. 883, as part of Tirthavandanā itinerary. Indrarāja-III acended the throne in C. E. 914-15 and ruled upto C. E. 926. Before that, as a prince, Indra was ruling as governor of southern region of the state, when Mámarasa was dandanāyaka under him.
8.7. Kēśvāra olim Gadi-Kēśvāra (Gulbarga Dt, Cincoli Tk), mentioned in the epigraphs as Kēšavapura, was one of the very ancient Jaina settlements in Karņāțaka. It has thrived well with its Jaina sanctuaries and cloisters, in the early epoch of Cālukyas of Bādāmi. It continued to prosper during the age of the Rāstrakūtas. Kēśvāra persisted to wield influence when the Cālukyas of Kalyāņa, the Kalacuris and the Sēuņas were ruling.
8.7.1. Of the three ancient Jaina chapels, the one that exists in the potterer's lane, to the south end of the village, is of greater significance. Local people recognise the temple as a basadi of kañcugăras, bell-metal smith. Evidently it was built by devotees of merchant class. An inscription on the right side door-lintel records that a Jina Pārsva temple was constructed by Masaņayya. Matisetti, a lay disciple of

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248/The Raṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
Mäghanandiyati, restored this temple in the medieval
period.
8.7.2. On the way to the existing Jaina shrine, many antiquated relics including pillar fragments are strewn on either side of the single track. Of the remains on a raised platform on the path is a headless torso of a seated dvibhuja yakṣa. It is one of the earliest of its idiom in Karṇāṭaka, and it belongs to the late seventh century C. E., of the Bādāmi Calukya times.
8.7.3. The crumbling Jina Parsva temple facing east, built in stone, consists of a womb-house, uncovered vestibule, navaranga, entry-hall with seat-back. Its adhiṣṭhāna is of the general kapōtabandha class. Four pillars in the navaranga are characteristically of early Raṣṭrakūta period. Even the fifth pillar, standing in between the two left side columns, and a piece of broken pillar placed above it to support the loose lintel- are in the style of ninth century. Crowning glory of the decayed temple are two images of Jina Pārśva.
8.7.4. The figure of Parsva seated in deep contemplation has bhāmaṇḍala, halo radiating lustre behind the head as an atisaya. Above the head is septacephalous Dharaṇa, capped by triple parasol. Chowrie-bearers in high relief and the caitya tree motif are depicted on the sides of the chatratraya. Parikara details of the beautiful sculpture emblematically represents the Bādāmi (Sk. Vātāpi) Calukya style which has a flavour at once delicate and distinctive. The sculptor's technical perfection, clubbed with superior aesthetic taste is illustrated in the components which are in perfect proportions. The figure can be delegated to last decade of 7th cent. or the first quarter of 8th century. Its lion throne is lost.
8.7.4.1. Another Arhat Pārśva image in käyōtsarga of about five feet tall, in blackish brown stone, kept in the gudhamandapa belongs to the late Rāṣṭrakūṭa period.

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Art and Architecture / 249
8.7.5. Pārsvanātha temple at Āland (Gulbarga Dt), newly restored, has dwarf sized pillars, an image of Ambikā, a seated Jina and another image of Jina standing in khadgāsana - all belonging to the period of early 10th century. The image of Dvibhuje Ambikā (Amrā, Kuşmāņdī are her other aliases) mounted on a lion in lalitāsana, is 30 inches tall and the pediment slab has a thickness of five inches. She is sitting under a full bloomed mango branch, holding a bunch of mangos in her right arm, and a fruit in her left palm. Her elder son, standing to the right side is holding a cluster of mango, and her younger son is sitting on the lion, along with his mother. This is one of the eye-filling Kuşmāņdi statues of the Rāstrakūța age. It resembles the image of Ambikā kept in anisle of Malkhed Jaina temple and the one inside Bankūr basadi, both of more or less the same period. De facto, Vēni, fillet of hair, of the Aland, Kuşmāņdī is identical with that of Harijanvāda, Maļkhed, and Bankūr.
8.7.6. A massive Jina Pārśva sanctuary of late 9th century, at the other end of the village Mangalagi (Gulbarga Dt, Citapur Tk) had completely disintegrated, leaving some ancient vestiges. A huge 11 feet image of Pārsva canopied by large septacephalous Dharaṇa, is mutilated. Two broken parts of pillars, padmašilā of ceiling, a vacant cushion slab (behind a seated Jina image - not found), a tablet containing Padmāvati et cetera, are scattered near the site where the shrine once existed.
8.7.6.1. A beautiful and rare ninth century image of seated caturbhuja Dharaņēndra yakşa, in the sanctum of a newly built small shrine at the very entrance of Mangalagi village, originally belonged to the crumbled Pārsva shrine.
8.8. My field work at Kaļasāpura (Gadag Dt) has yielded architectural and sculptural remains belonging to an early age. Founding of the sacred edifices are yet to be traced, but the vestiges have produced prestigeous

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250 / The Rāştrakūtas and Jainism.
monuments of the Rāştrakūta age. The 8 feet tall standing image of Jina, is difficult to date precisely, but it could be assigned to the late tenth century, on the basis of the characteristic features of the sculpture in question. To subscribe to the popular belief of the local people, and the devout Jaina laity, that the tall figure is of Bāhubali alias Gommata, it is stylistically an impossible reality. It could be Bharata, in which case a corresponding Bāhubali image is missing. There are some loose sculptures, including nisidhi and nāga-nagini, placed at the feet of the standing nude image.
8.8.1. But the image of seated Jina is can apparently be assigned to early ninth century. Jina is seated on viśvapadma, double lotus, which is in turn on the simhapitha, a lion-throne. Behind the seated Mahāvira Jina is an elaborately worked prabhāvali, aureola, enclosed within an excellent makara-tõraņa, supported on either side by columns with additional details. The image with cāmaradharas possesses features of serenity, divinity of power and beauty, preserved inspite of being exposed freely to the abrasive weather, which are reminiscent of a style of the Rāstrakūta period.
8.8.2. Of the other Jaina relics dispersed around the village Kaļasāpura are a broken image of a bust of Yakși, a seated Jina, a quadruple image - block et cetera are noticed. Regarding their exact plausible date, nothing can be said. The caumukha, about half a meter tall, a monolithic votive, chiselled out of local stone, has a base from which rises cylindrical body and a row of receding parasols. A square block with four images on its four faces, called caturmukha, auspicous from all cardinal directions, is a distinctive Jaina iconographic motif. It is also called caumuha and is more popular in the north. . 8.8.2.1. Generally Ķsabhanātha, śāntinātha, Pārsva

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Art and Architecture/251
and Mahāvira are the four Jinas found on the four faces of the votive. Such four faced votive objects are revered more as they can be approached from all directions and the object represents one of the Jaina iconographic specializations. The handsome quadruple image-block at Kaļasāpura seems to have been placed on the top of a Mānastambha, a characteristic Jaina pillar of eminence. On the basis of the disseminated traces, it can be surmised that at least three Jaina pagodas existed at Kaļasāpura.
8.8.3. Kõgaļi (Ballary Dt. Hadagali Tk), a famous Jaina settlement with more basadis and monastery, continued to thrive from the time of Druvinita (late sixth cent.), the Ganga king, who commissioned a sarvatõbhadra Jinālaya, the earliest of its kind in the south. Kõgali, a pañcamatha sthāna, had Jaina cleric as sthānādhipati the chief of the town. Jinālayas possessed many hindrance free allotments for their sustenenance. Political, religious and socio-cultural significance, in the Jaina context, of Kõgaļi had its status quo ante during this period. About half a dozen bronze Jaina images from Kõgaļi are now in Government Museum of Chennai, all of them being of the Rāştrakūta age. Kogaļi Jinālayas were rich with metal images.
8.8.4. Puligere (Lakşmēsvar-Gadag Dt), one of the most celebrated cities of ancient years, remained a centre of religious and commercial activities upto the end of medieval period. Jainism was in a flourishing state and the Gangas in particular founded prodigious edifices. Sankha basadi was the Patta-Jinālaya of the Early Calukyas. Anesejjebasadi, Ganga-Kandarpa-Jinālaya, Goggiya basadi, Tirthadavasati, Caturmukha caityālaya, Dhavala Jinālaya, Permmādi basadi, Marudēvi basadi, Mukkaravasadi, Rācamalla basadi, Sankhajinālaya, śāntinātha basadi, Srivijaya jinālaya etc, are the names of Jaina sanctuaries that thrived without let, with encumbrance free donations.

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252 / The Rāstrakūtas and Jainism
8.8.5. Ponnugunda/Hungund (Bijapur Dt) flowered as a famed Jaina settlement during the days of Rāstrakūta monarchy. A good number of Jinālayas flourished at this well-known center from the days of the early Cālukyas. Noted shrine among them, Mahāśrimanta basadi thrived in the reign of Krşņa-II. His subordinate chief Mahāśrīmanta/ Mahāsirivanta, Duchy of Beļvola-300 administrative division, constructed a basadi, in circa C. E. 900, named after him (or built for his merit?) as Mahāśrīmanta basadi. It was freshened and restored in C. E. 1060, by prince Bhuvanaikamalla Somēśvara-II (1068-76), before he succeeded his father Trailõkyamalla Ahavamalla Sõmēśvara-I (1042-68), when he was governing as a mahāmaņdalēśvara.
8.8.6. Pasundi/Asuņdi (Gadag Dt), was another nerve seat of Jaina church from the beginning of Cālukyas of Bādāmi rule. During the reign of Govinda-III, Nāgapuli gāvunda, a country sheriff was the chief of Pasundi. In C. E. 925, Nāgayya, a Jaina lay follower, caused to be made a Jinālaya attached to the Dhöra Jinālaya at Bankāpura. Candraprabha Bhațāra, chief of the Bankāpura Jaina diocese, was administering pasuņời basadi at that time.
8.8.7. Candiyabbe commissioned a basadi in C. E. 932 at nandavara in Sindavāļi - 1000 division, and donated land and gadyāṇas.
8.8.8. At Maravo!al Marõ! (Bijapur Dt, Hungund Tk) subsisted a basadi in this period. It went on prospering when Mahādēvi, daughter of Irivabedanga Satyāśraya (998-1008), son of Tailapa-II (973-98), and queen consort of Ițiva Noļambādhirāja Ghateyankakāra, grandee of Nolambavāļi and karividi - 30, was governing.
8.9. At Bellür (Mandya Dt) is a lovely sculpture in the round of Pārsva sitting in ardhapadmāsana with five snakehoods of Dharaṇa overhead and coils of the snake at his back.

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Art and Architecture/253
This handsome sculpture of the style under the Gangas, dating from early 10th cent., is brought from a ruined site in Nāgamangala, a nearby town and taluk headquarters.
8.9.1. "A beautiful sculpture of standing Parsva with a fine circular canophy of seven snake-hoods is found from Lakkundi. The sculpture of fine Chalukyan style dates from C. ninth century A. D. There are no other members of the parikara nor a back slab. This is a sculpture in the round unfortunately broken below the knees. It is now preserved in the local museum. Of about the same age is a similar sculpture in the round with part of the snake-hoods mutilated and broken from below the knees. It is found from the site of the ancient Jaina Tirtha Kulpak in the Nalgonda district. It is now preserved in the local site museum of Someśvara temple" [Shah, U.P.: 185].
8.9.2. Jaina sanctuaries and lamaseries existed at Annigere, Kambadahalli, Seḍam, Kālagi, Ingalagi, Dēgalamadi, Yaḍrāmi, Old and New Sulepet HunasiHaḍagali, (Basava) Kalyāṇa, and many more towns and villages, enjoying royal benevolence. A common style and patronage of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa and their vassals formed a web in which many Jaina chapels have been embedded. The Rāṣṭrakūta monarchs along with the Gangas, are responsibe for developing and expanding Jaina style of temple architecture. The smaller kingdoms, fiefs who thrived under the shadow of their overlords, adopted those models, incorporating local variations. This influence and interaction resulted in the effloresence of Deccano-Dravida mode of architecture which is reflected in the Jaina style also. YakṣaYakşi cult was so popular in this period that thousands of stone and metal images were consecrated in every nook and corner of the imperial dynasty.
8.9.3. Construction of these glorious edifices was not limited to a particular province or patron or potentate. The

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254/The Raṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
influence of Jainistic architectural expression is self-evident. Its variety with deep insight, richness with supreme quality, and ethos combined with unparalleled artistic grace has carved a niche in the hall of art gallery. These marvels would never have been accomplished had the Rāṣṭrakūta monarchs not taken keenest interest in them.
8.9.4. Practically under the hegemony of the Rāṣṭrakūtas and for that matter upto C. E. 1184, there were no challenges or threats, either from within or without, to the ascendancy of sramaņa dharma, the Nirgrantha faith. Jainism, as a state religion, marked a grand era of development to its meredian of temple architecture and related sculpture, painting and allied arts. Jaina images, temples, sanctuaries, monasteries and inscriptions, found in every nook and corner of the kingdom, attest to the flourishing condition of syādvādamata during the period.
8.9.4.1. The spread of sramaņa dharma and the dissemination of Jaina ideals received sufficient impetus, on the advent of very many brilliant anchorite who pioneered in almost all genealogies of southern Jaina culture.
8.9.5. A. D. Pusalkar has crystellized this epoch as the most flourishing history of Jainism in the Deccan : "That the fortunes of Jainism were unaffected by the revival of Hinduism has been ascribed to the state of patronage, and the influence of the pious Jaina saints.... As king makers they secured royal patronage for generations. By winning over generals, feudal lords and provincial governors, their success at provincial centres was assured under the aegis of these officials. By securing popular support, they had among their followers the most important section of the middle class, the Vira Banajigas, and the commercial class, whose financial help went a long way in the cause of Jainism. It enabled them to construct magnificent Jinālayas and images" [The History and Culture of Indian people, vol. IV, The age of imperial Kanauj, pp. 288-89].

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Art and Architecture / 255
8.9.6. This monograph is an attempt to assign Jainism to its proper place in the overall context of the Rāstrakūta history. It has left behind a rich treasure trove of valuable epigraphs and verifiable chronological details which form the base for reconstructing an authentic history of Jaina church in this age. The Rāstrakūtas were builders of magnificent temples and patronised all religion, art, architecture and literature alike.
8.9.7. Monolithic colossus of Gommata, on the crest of Vindhyagiri at Sravanabelagola, mark the culmination of not only the monolithic structures but also of commissioning shrines of the Rāstrakūta monarchs or their vassal chiefs. In a befitting synchrony, a glorious imperial dynasty disappeared into a state of political limbo, by erecting its greatest monument on earth.
8.9.8. True that most of their edifices are in ruins. But, these ruins are an epitome of Jaina church. The dumb relics, even in their devastated state, proclaim the immaculate grandeur that was Jaina. What is said of Rome may also hold good in the Jaina context too:
Even her ruin is glorious with renown, and swollen with glory, made even more honourable and memorable.

Page #317

Indra-II
| Dantidurga C. 735-56
Karkka-I
GENEALOGICAL TABLES

The Rāṣṭrakūtas
* Dantivarma
Indra-I
T
Govindaraja-I
T Karkka-I
Stambha (Kambayya)
Krsna-I C. 756-74
Govinda-II C. 774-80
Dhruva (Dhōra?) C. 780-93
Govinda-III C. 793-814
I Sarva Amoghavarṣa-I (Nṛpatunga) 814-78
Kṛṣṇa-II (878-914)
I

Indra-II

Page #318

Appendix / 257
Jagattunga-II
Indrarāja-III
915-26
Amõghavarsa
935-39
Amõghavarşa-II
927-30
Govinda-IV
930-35
Jagattunga-III
Nirupama
Krsna-III 939-67
Khottiga 967-72
Son (m. daughter of
Marula)
Kannara (Krsna-IV)
972
Indra-IV
(973-82 lived without
a throne)

Page #319

258 / The Răstrakūtas and Jainism
GENEALOGY OF THE GANGA DYNASTY
Kongaṇivarmman (C. 325-50 C. E.)
Mādhava-I (C. 350-75)
Harivarmman/Āryavarmman/Krşnavarmman
Mādhava-II (400-200)
(Simhavamman)
Vişnugopa (420-40)
Mādhava-III (440-69)
Avinita (469-529) alias Curcuvāyda-Ganganspa
Son (?)
Durvinīta alias Nirvinīta
(529-69)
Mokkara Muskara
(569-584)
Polavira (584-594)
Srivikrama (594-609)
Bhūvikrama (609/10-34/35)
Sistapriya Śivamāra-I
(635-75)
Son (?)
Śrīpuruşa-Kongaņi-Muttarasa
(725-88)

Page #320

Duggamara
Marasimha-I (796)
Narasimha (920-33)
1. Maruladeva alias Aramolideva
(961-63)
Śivamāra-II
(788-816)
Prithvipati-I
Nanniya-Ganga 1
Prithvipati-II
I Rācammala-II

alias Rājamalla (877-907)
Racamalla-II (933-36)
3. Bijjāmbarasi (m. Hariga)
Goyindaradeva-II Satyavakya-Rakkasaganga (999-1024)
2. Kumdaṇasāmidevi 4. Mārasimhadeva-II (m. Rajāsditya)
(963-74)
Caṭṭtaladevi Kañcaladevi (m. Kāduveṭṭi of (m. TrailokyamallaTondamandala) vira-Santara Biruga)
Appendix / 259
Vijayaditya
Racamalla-I
alias Rājamalla (816-43)
Ereganga-EreyappaNitimärga-II
(886-920)
Nitimarga Ereyanga-I
(843-70)
Būtuga-I
7. Vasava
5. Räjamalla-IV (m. Keñcabbarasi) (m. Kañcaladevi)
Būtuga-II (936-61)

6. Nitimärga Goyindara-I
Nitimarga Arumuļideva (m. Gāvabbarasi) (1020-36)
Rāja Vidyadhara alias Lokavidyadhara alias Rajaditya (1034-35)

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260 / The Rāstrakūtas and Jainism
The Callakētanas
Kāļkadēvayya (Karudēvayya)
Erakori
Dhora-I (Callakēta)
C. 800
Vira Bankēya (Callakētana)
C. E. 830-73
Dhora-II C. E. 915
Bankēya-II Dhõnda C. E. 917
KundayyaSetti/Kundaţte (Calladhvaja)
874-75
Lõkāditya (Lokațe, Lõkateyarasa, Lokayya)
(Callapatāka)
875-905
Dhora-III
Kalivitta (Kaliviţtarasa)
912-18
Bankeya-III
918-28
Kalivitta-II
928-46

Page #322

Narasimha-I (c. 800-825)
Arikēsari-I (c. C. E. 775-800)
Calukyas of Vēmulavāḍā
*
Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla-I (c. C. E. 750-75)
Yuddhamalla-II
(c. C. E. 825-50) 1 Baddega-I (Bhadradēva-I) (c. 850-95)
Yuddhamalla-III (c. C. E. 895-915)
Vägarāja (c. 955-65 C. E.)

Narasimha-II = Jākavve (Rāṣṭrakūta princess)
(c. 915-30 C. E.) T
Rēvakanirmaḍi = Arikēsari-II = Lōkāmbikä (Rāṣṭrakūṭa princess) (c. 930-41)
Viragṛha T Bhadradeva
Baddega-II (Bhadradĕva-II)
Appendix / 261
(C. E. 959)
I Arikēsari-III (c. 966-73 C. E.)

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262 / The Rāştrakūtas and Jainism
The Rațțas of Saundatti
Mērada
Prithvirāma c. 878-903
Pittaga
c. 960
Sāntivarma
c. 980
Nannapayya
c. 1000
Kārtavirya-I (Kattabhūpa)
c. 1030-69
Dāvari (Dāyama)
Kannakaira-I
(Kanna)
Anka
Erega/Eraga Kāļa Sēna/Sēna-I
Kannakaira-II
(Kanna-II)
Kārtavīrya-II (Katta-II)
Kāļasēna-II/Sēna-II Kārtavirya-III (Kattama) Lakşmama/ Lakşmideva
Kārtavirya-IV
Mallikărjuna
Lakşmideva-II

Page #324

SOME JAINA EPIGRAPHS : A LIST
Record of Krsna-II
C.E. IA.XII p. 222 found at Aihole
911-12 2. Gōkāk Plates of Dejja
undated IA. XXI pp. 291 ff Mahārāja 3. Records of Ratta chiefs
940 JBBRAS.X. pp.194-ff Prithvirāma, Sāntivarma
980 ibid, X., pp. 204 ff 4. Koạnür epigraph of Amõghavarşa 860 EI. VI. No.4
pp. 25-38 5. Bentūr record of Amõghavarşa 864 BKI. l-i. No. 10.p.6 6. Mulguna record of Krsna-II 902-03 EI. XIII. p. 130 ff. 7. Venkatāpur record of Amoghavarşa 906 EI. XVI. No. 4. pp.
59-62 and BKI. l-i.
No. 28. p. 16 8. Asundi record of Indra - III 925 BKI. l-i. No. 34. p. 20 9. Kavajjageri record of Govinda-IV 933 BKI. l-i. No. 35. p.21 10. Suddi copper plates of Būtuga 938 EI. III, No. 25.
pp. 158 ff.
950 810 974
BKI. 1-1. No. 38. p. 23 EC. II (R) 140 (415) EC. II (R) 64 (59)
981-83
11. Naregal record of Krsna-III 12. SB record of Sivamāra 13. Kūge-Brahmmadeva Pillar
Inscription of Mārasimha, at SB 14. Epigraphs of Cāmundarāya
and his son Jinadevana 15. Vadanaguppe record of
Kambhadeva found at
Devanur (Nanjangūd Tk) 16. Hebbalaguppe record (Heggada-
devanakote Tk)
EC. II (R) 150-51 (121-22) and (175-76) MAR 1927, p. 117
808
895
MAR 1932 pp. 240-41

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264 / The Rāştrakūțas and Jainism
Św
17. Tayalūr record (Mandya Dt) 895 EC. III (old)
Maddur. 13 18. Kyātanahalli inscription
900
EC. III (old) Sr. 147 (Sriangapatņa Tk) 19. Rāmpura inscription
904 EC. III (old) Sr. 148 (Srirangapatņa Tk) 20. Kulagere inscription (Mandya Dt) 909 EC. III (old)
Malavalli 30 21. Būvanahalli Jaina record 950 MAR 1913 p. 31
on the pedestal of Candranātha
basadi (My Dt, Huņsūr Tk) 22. Cikka Hanasõge epigraphs 10th cent. MAR 1914 p. 38 23. Somasamudra record
993 MAR 1931. p. 139 (Mysore Dt, Tk) 24. Mararu inscription
900 EC. V (old) Ag. 24 (Arakalagūd Tk) 25. Bēlūr inscription of Būtuga 952 EC. V. (old) Bl. 123 26. Gubbi inscription in Hole
960
EC. V. (old) HN. 14 Narasipura Tk 27. Gandasi inscription in
970 EC. V. (old) AK. 164 Arasikere Tk · Manjarabad inscription on the 970 ibid. MJ. 67
pedestal of a Jaina image 29. Siddagānahalļi epigraph
961 EC. VI (old) Kd. 159 in Kadür Tk 30. Kadūr Pillar inscription
970 ibid. Kd. I 31. Angadi inscription
990 ibid. Mg. II (Cikka-Magalur Dt) 32. Guddada basadi inscription
898
EC. VIII (old) Nr. 60 of Hombuja (Shimoga Dt) 33. Bandaņike inscription
902 MAR 1911, p. 38 (Shimoga Dt, Sikāripura Tk) 34. Kumsi inscription (Shimoga Dt) 950 EC. VII (old) Sk. 114 35. Hombuja inscription (Shimoga Dt) 958 EC. VII (old) Nr. 45 36. Manne copper-plates (B'lore Dt) 797 EC. IX (old) NL. 60 37. Bērür inscription (B'lore Dt, 900 ibid, Cp. 69
Cannapatņa Tk) 38. Manne epigraph of Govinda-III 902 ibid. NL. 61 39. Narasapur copper-plates (Kolar Dt) 903 EC. X. KL. 90
Con

Page #326

Appendix / 265
40. Bēvinahalli inscription
968
EC. XI (old) Cd. 74 (Citaldroog Dt) 41. Kadaba copper-plates
812 EC. XII old) Gb. 61.
pp. 30-31 42. Bidare inscription
979 (ibid) Gb. 57. p. 27 (Tumkur Dt, Gubbi Tk) 43. Hemāvati inscription
982 ibid. Si. 27. p. 92 (Tumkur Dt. Sir. Tk) 44. Biliyūr inscription of
898 EC. I (R) Cg. 2 Rācamalla-II (Coorg Dt) 45. Peggūr inscription (Coorg Dt) 978 EC. I (R) Cg. 4 46. Uppina-Betagēri inscription
964
Nagarajaiah, of Sankaraganda, feudatory
-65 Hampa : Koppala of Krsna-III
Inscriptions, 1999: No. 71 Desai, P. B.:
1957 : 372-73 47. Kopbaļ inscription of the
c. 850 Desai, P. B. : 338-39 period of Amoghavarşa
C. E. and Nagarajaiah,
Hampa : 1999:
Koppaļa. No.72.p.169 48. Mulgunda inscription of the 902-03 Aravantige, vol. I. period of Krsna-III
No.2 1999, pp. 45-46, ed : Nagarajaiah,
Hampa. 49. Koppaļa inscription
990 Koppaļa No. 2, p. 23
23-5-990 50. Koppaļa inscription
977 Koppaļa No. 3.
(12-7-977) pp.25-26 51. Koppa!a inscription
10th cent. Koppala. No. 6. p. 36 Niśidhi of Būtuga's daughter 52. Koppaļa inscription
9-6-971 Koppaļa No. 10, p. 41 Mentions Mahendradeva, preceptor
of Somadevasūri 53. Koppaļa inscription
late Koppaļa No. 12. p. 43 Niśadhi of Rambaladēvi a
10th cent. Ganga princess 54. Dānavulapādu inscription undated SII. IX-i. p. 36 55. Dānavulapādu inscription of 10th cent. EI. X. pp. 147-53
of Srivijaya 56. Epitaph of Mārasimha
974-75 EC. II (R) 64

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57. DhöraJinālaya
925 SII. XI-i. No. 34
ASundi 58. Jakkiyabbe Nisadhi
918 EC. VII. Sk. 219 59. Koppaļa inscription
7-6-940 Koppala No. 13 60. Koppala inscription
late 10th cent. Koppala No. 16 p. 54 61. Koppaļa inscription
9-7-998 Koppala No. 17
p. 57-58 62. Koppala inscription
1-11-997 Koppala No. 21. Nisidhi of Trikālayõgi, preceptor of pp. 64-66 SII. IX-i. Sarvalokāśraya Vişnuvardhana, Bhima-III 403. 10th cent.
Rāmatirtha 63. Koppaļa inscription
11-10-976 Koppaļa No. 26.
pp. 76-77 64. Koppala inscription
4-10-1007 Koppaļa No. 27 p. 78 65. Koppaļa inscription
27-11-972 Koppaļa No. 28
p. 81-82 66. Koppaļa inscription
10th cent. Koppala No. 29 p. 84 67. Koppala inscription
6-6-971 Koppala No. 33
p. 91-92 68. Koppaļa inscription
a. 1010-11 Koppaļa No. 34 Nisidhi of Somadevasūri b.2-10-984 pp. 94-95 69. Koppaļa inscription
late Koppala No. 38 Mentions Gollācārya, Trikālayõgi 10th cent. p. 101 70. Koppaļa inscription
24-2-990 Koppala No. 39 Nisidhi of three spouses of
p. 103-05 Duke Nanni-Nolamba Pallava 71. Koppala inscription
3-12-973 Koppala No. 40 Nisidhi of Padmabbe, consort of
p. 108 Būtuga - II 72. Koppaļa inscription
10th cent. Koppaļa No. 41 Gollācārya
p. 110 73. Koppaļa inscription
7-5-1030 Koppaļa No. 44 Mentions Būtuga, Sankaraganda
pp. 117-18 Mārasimha & Revakanimmadi 74. Koppaļa inscriptions
15-1-1023 Koppaļa No. 47 Niśidhi of the wife of Rājamalla,
son of Ganga Būtuga-II 75. Koppaļa inscriptions
14-10-993 Koppala No. 53 Niśdhi of Gõnambe, queen of Ajavarma of Ganga dynasty
p. 123-24
p. 136-37

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Appendix / 267
5-10-1003 Koppala No. 60
p. 146-47
76. Koppala inscriptions
Niśadhi of Bijjāmbika do Bütuga
Permādi 77. Koppala inscriptions
Niśadhi of Anugabbarasi 78. Koppaļa inscriptions
Nisidhi of monk Sarvvanandi
79. Lõkate Jinālaya
at Lõkāpura (Bijapur Dt)
80. Kalivitta, governor 81. Kalivitta
6-3-977 Koppaļa No. 63
p. 153 C.E. Koppaļa No. 75 881-82 p. 172 Desai, P. B.:
339-42 C. E. 890 ARSIE 1942-43
No. 2 and 3; 904-05 SII. XX. 15.904-05 901-02 ARSIE 1933-34. App.
E. No. 17 C. E. 912 EC. VIII. Sorab. 88 931 EC. VIII (BLR)
Sorab. 83 916 EC. VIII (BLR)
SK. 219 928 SII, XVIII. Nos. 12,15
17, 20, 23 and 30;
EI. VI. pp. 25 ff. C. gth cent. Kl. I. 15. Shiggaon 920 EC. XII (old) Sirā. 39
82. Kalivittarasa
83. Kalivitta, Lõkate
84. Bankēya and Kundate 85. Jaina monastery at Penjērmu

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KONNUR INSCRIPTION OF AMOGHAVARŞ-I
The inscription divides itself into two parts. Lines 1 to (the word sarvvam in) 59 record a grant, professedly made by the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Amōghavarsha [I.] on a date which falls in A. D. 860. Lines 59 (from the word mithyābhāva) to 72, on the other hand, after praises of the Jaina creed and the two sages Mēghachandra-Traividya and his son Viranandin, inform us that, at the request of Huliyamarasa, the Mahaprabhu of Kolanūra, and others Viranandin had a copper charter, which they had seen, rewritten here as a stone charter. According to this statement, lines 1-59 of the inscription were copied from a copper-plate inscription; and from the dates which we possess for Viranandin and his father Meghachandra-Traividya, the time when this copy was made, and when the inscription, as we have it, was engraved, may approximately be determined to be the middle of the twelfth century A. D. From an inscription at ŚravaṇaBelgola (Roman text, p. 26, II. 3-6) we know that Mēghachandra-Traividya died on Thursday, the 2nd December A. D. 1115; and according to a notice published by Mr. Pathak, Viranandin finished the writing of his Acharasāra on a date which I find to correspond to Monday, the 25th May A. D. 1153.
The principal part of the inscription (line 1-59, the alleged copy of a copper-plate inscription) records, that - at a

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total eclipse of the moon on the full-moon tithi of the month Āśvayuja (or Āśvina) in the [Jovian) year Vikrama, SakaSamvat 782 expired or, as is expressly stated, 83 current (II. 43 and 44) - king Amõghavarsha [I.], the successor of Jagattunga (II. 15 and 16), residing at his capital of Mānyakhēța (1.34), at the request of his subordinate Bankēša (Bankēya) and in recognition of important services rendered by him granted the village of Taleyūra (I. 38) and some land in other villages (II. 45-48), for the benefit of a Jaina sanctuary founded by Bankēya at Koļanūra, to the age Dēvēndra, who had been appointed by Bankēya to the charge of the sanctuary, the disciple of Trikālayõgisa, of the Pustaka gachchha of the Dēsiya gana of the Mula samgha (II. 35-38). The introductory part of the inscription - after two versed of which one invokes the blessing, at the same time, of the god Vishņu (Jina) and the first Jaina prophet (Jinēndra), and the other the protection of both Vishņu (Nārāyana) and the king Amõghavarsha himself, as in verse 34, called ViraNārāyaṇa - in verses 3-11 gives the genealogy of Amõghavarsha. Verses 17-34 contain a eulogistic account of the services rendered by Bankēša (Bankēya). And the concluding lines 57-59 record the writer's name, Vatsarāja, and that of Bankëyarāja's chief adviser, the Mahattara Ganapati.
It may at once be stated here that the date given above undoubtedly is correct. The Jovian year Vikrama corresponds to Saka-Samvat 782 expired, by both luni-solar systems; and on the full-moon day of Aśvina of that year, corresponding to the 3rd October A. D. 860, there was a total eclipse of the moon, fully visible in India for more than three hours. But much as the correctness of a date, containing such particulars as are given here, would speak in favour of the genuineness of a record, there is at least one point in the preceding, which raises a doubt whether the stone inscription, even if it was

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based on a genuine copper-plate charter, is an authentic copy of it in every detail. Excepting the Kaḍaba grant of Prabhutavarsha (Govinda III.) the form of which is altogether peculiar, the earlier Sanskrit copper-plate inscriptions of the Raṣṭrakūṭas of the main line, from the Sāmāngad plates of Dantidurga to the Nausāri plates of Indrarāja III. of Saka-Samvat 836, all commence with the verse Sa võ=vyād=vidhasa dhama; and as that verse is found also in Amōghavarsha's own Śirur inscription, I should have expected the present inscription also to begin with it, and might well fancy that the Jaina copyists substituted for it a verse referring to their own creed.
The person with whom our inscription is chiefly concerned, is Bankēśa or, as the name also is written, Bankeya, or Bankēyarāja, by Amōghavarsha's favour in the enjoyment of, or governing, thirty-thousand villages the most important of which was Vanavāsi (verse 21). As reported by Dr. Fleet, an unpublished inscription at Nidagundi in the Dharwar district mentions, as a feudatory of Amōghavarsha I., Bankeyarasa, governor of the Banavasi twelve-thousand, the Belgali three-hundred, the Kundarage seventy, the Kundur five-hundred, and the Purigere three-hundred, who apparently is the same personage. According to our inscription, Bankeśa alias Sella-Kētana was the son of Adhōra (or Ādhōra), proprietor of Kolanūra, and his wife Vijayānkā, and grandson of Erakōri, of the Mukula family (kula; vv. 17-19). The name Bankeśa (or Bankeya) together with the biruda Sellakētana identify his with the Chellaketana, whose son Lōkāditya alias Chellapatāka (the younger brother of Chelladhvaja), of the Makula kula, in A. D. 897 was governing the Vanavāsa country at Bankapura, so named by his father after his own name (Bankēśa); and there can therefore be hardly any doubt that the date of our inscription (in A. D. 860) may give us a true date for the time

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of Bankēša. - The exploits of Bankēśa are told in verses 2231. As leader of the hereditary forces, he at the king's command invaded Gangavādis (the country of the Western Gangas), took the fort of Kēdala, put to flight the ruler of Talavanapura, and after crossing the river Kāvēri, conquered the enemy's country. Recalled then by Amõghavarsha on account of disturbances which had broken out at home, and in which, as appears from verse 31, the king's own son was concerned, he quickly returned, and succeeded in quelling the insurrection and restoring his master's fortune. - The Talavanapura here mentioned is the well-known capital of the Western Gangas, the modern Talakād on the left bank of the river Kāvēri; and Kēdaļa may perhaps be the modern ‘Kaidala' which, according to the map in Mr. Rice's Mysore Inscriptions, is to the north-east of Kadaba.
As regards the places mentioned in connection with the actual grant, Koļanūra has already been stated to be the village of Konnür, where the inscription is. The village granted, Taleyūra, which was in the Majjantiya-seventy bhukti, has not been identified; nor have its boundaries, Bendanūru, Sāsavevā[du], Padilagere, and Kilavāda. In addition to the main grant, twelve nivartanas of land were granted at Kolanūra itself, and at each of the thirty villates which are enumerated in lines 45-48. Eleven of these may be identified with modern villages at a reasonable distances from Konnūr, thus :
Avaravā[d]i='Owruddee', 'Aurwādi;' 6 miles west by north from Konnūr;
Bendanūru="Bennoor;' 11/2 miles north of Owruddee;'
Sulla='Soolah', 'Sula;' 5 miles east by south from Konnūr;
Māvinūru='Munnoor;' 8 miles east by south from the Konnūr;

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Mattikatte='Matteekuttee', 'Matikatti;' 12 miles north by east from Konnür;
Nila[gun]dage='Neelgoondee;' 51/2 miles north-east from Konnūr;
Tāļikhēda="Tullakodda;” “Tālakwād;' 21/2 miles northwest from Konnūr;
B[e]lleru='Belleeree;' 21/, miles west-north-west from Konnūr;
Muttalagere='Mootulgeeree', 'Mutalgeri;' 71%, miles east by north from Konnūr;
Kākeyanūru='Kakanoor', 'Kāknur;' 71/2 miles northwest from Konnūr;
Neri[la]ge=Neerlehgee', 'Niralgi;'9 miles north by west from Konnür.
The names of the other nineteen villages are Mudugundi, Kittaivole, Mus[a], Da[dh]ere, Samgama, Pirisingi, Behuru, Alūgu, [Pārva]nagere, Hosañ[ja]ļa[lu), I[n]dugalu, Haganūru, Unalāru, Indagere, Munivalli, Kotta[s]e, Oddiţtage, Si[kimabri?], and Girispi]dalu.
Stating distinctly what I have indicated above, I consider it possible that lines 1-59 of this inscription really were based on a copper-plate charter; at the same time, I feel certain that, if such was the case, the transcribers have taken so great liberties with the original as to deprive this 'copy' of the value of an authentic document. Translation
(Verse 1.) May the beloved of Fortune, with whom all forms are conjoined, who with his discus destroys the conceit of adversaries, the infinite being before whom bow down the lords of the immortals, the primeval lord Jina, grant to me supreme bliss!
(V. 2.) May the lord Vira-Nārāyaṇa protect you here, he

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who rests on the body of (the serpent) Ananta, (and) is the mountain from which (like luminaries) rise men of valorous conduct, the progenitor of the mighty race of the excellent Rashtrakutas!
(V. 3.) In the long Yadava lineage of the princes of that (race) there was in the course of time, like a collection of jewels in the ocean, king Govinda, who subdued the earth, the son Prichchhakarāja.
(V. 4.) The lord Karkara, the son of king Indra, it was by whom, mighty like Prithu, the earth was brought under subjection, (and) by whom, of great strength and full of valour, the enemies were scattered like darkness.
(V. 5.) From him sprang king Dantidurga, who defeated arrays of elephants from the Himalaya to the confines of (Rama's) mighty bridge, (and) who, a leader of his family, crushed the circle of arrogant princess on the earth.
(V. 6.) After him Subhatunga-vallabha, on the battlefield which became a svayamvara, fearlessly carried off by force the Chalukya family's fortune adorned with a garland of waving pälidhvaja flags.
(V. 7.) Grand with his victory, high throne and chowries, possessed of a white umbrella, a destroyer of opponent kings, called the mighty king Akālavarsha, he was a royal saint through his infinite religious merit.
(V. 8.) Then came Prabhutavarsha, the son of Dhārāvarsha, a king who on the field of battle acted with his arrows like a torrent of rain (dhārā-varsha).
His son
(V. 9 and 10.) At the time of whose birth the lords of the gods ordained that, as her master, he sould rule the oceangirded earth as far as the Himalaya and (Rama's) bridge, afterwards, being (called) Prabhutavarsha because he fulfilled desires of his own accord, as Jagattunga stood over (all) kings as the Sumeru does over the mountains.

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(V. 11.) After him, to guard both the world and the fame of his charming relatives of the ancestors in his righteous family who have become favourites inasmuch as they are good fame, filling the earth, incarnate-and to destroy the wickedness of the Kali age, the glorious Amōghavarsha, the anihilator of his enemies, is ruling this earth, seated on the throne.
(V. 12.) The command of this excellent (king) other sovereigns perpetually carry on their heads like a garland. The creeping plant of his fame grows up to the fillets on the foreheads of the array of the elephants of the quarters. The mighty valour that dwells in his hand is far away from no one. He being the very sun which with its heat scorches all mountains, who is the king above whom he does not rise?
(V. 13.) He with his own seal has stamped all (land) as far as the four oceans; the seals of all kings he has broken with his Garuda seal.
(V. 14.) Honour surely we must the great kings of the past whose acts of religion we are to preserve; destroyed are the wicked kings of the present; solicit we must those future rulers who share our sense of religion.
(V. 15.) What imports that fleeting royalty which some have enjoyed by their bravery, some bestowed on others, and others again resigned even? Great men, to secure fame, must cherish religion only.
(V. 16.) Having seen that this life, unstable like wind and lightning, is void of substance, he has devised this gift to the gods, most meritorious on account of a donation of land.
(Line 15.) He, the Paramabhaṭṭāraka, Mahārājādhirāja and Paramēśvara, the favourite of fortune and the earth, the glorious Amoghavarsha, the glorious Vallabhanarendra dēva, who meditates on the feet of the Paramabhaṭṭāraka,

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Mahārājādhirāja and Paramēśvara, the glorious Jagattungadēva, commands all Rashtrapatis, Vishayapatis, Grāmakūļas, Āyuktakas, Niyuktakas, Adhikdrikas, Mahattaras and others, as they may be concerned : Be it known to you: -
(V. 17.) In the Mukulā family there blossomed like a flower, with ancestors worthy of honour, Erakōri, a home of the play of bravery.
(V. 18.) From that flower grew, as it were its fruit, a masterful man named Adhōra, the stay of his family who himself was lord of Kolanura.
(V. 19.) His son from Vijayanka was Bankēśa (alias) Sella-kētana, honoured in the world, a fierce fever to districts.
(V. 20.) Like another flashing sharp sword of mine, as commander of the hereditary forces he has uprooted, like trees, my adversaries.
(V. 21.) By my favour he has received and rules the thirty-thousand villages of which Vanavāsi is the foremost, never ceasing to prosper.
(V. 22.) At my desire, in his great valour he has striven to extirpate that lofty forest of fig-trees-Gangavādi, difficult to be cut down.
(Vs. 23 and 24.) On that occasion, though abandoned by my jealously minded feudatories, by himself, solely aided by the daring which sprang from his anger, setting at nought the enemy's policy, displaying a bravery in war which had one aim only, he made the anger of my heart not barren.
He, by whom
(V. 25.) That fort named Kēdala, difficult to be scaled on account of its ramparts, bars etc., though held by hereditary forces was at once ascended and easily taken.
(V. 26.) Having occupied that country, having driven

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away the hostile lord of Talavanapura, having shown famous valour in war, defeating my enemies, for his master an object of praise, true to his promise, he at the time of battle did not let his bravery be baffled by the hosts of the enemy.
(V. 27.) With a lion's spring having crossed the Kāvēri, most difficult to be passed on account of its heavy floods, by the lines of the ever freshly flashing flames of fire of his valour having at once consumed the allied, extirpating the forest of adversaries, he shook the mighty dominion of him even who was able to shake the world.
(Vs. 28 and 29.) On that occasion, when through internal dissension a disturbance had arisen near me, then, a the mere word of me that he should return - having made a vow that if, before his arrival, I, the Vallabha lord, should defeat the enemies, he would as an ascetic completely resign the world, or if by chance the fortune of victory should fall to the enemies, he would enter into the flames of a roaring fire - he arrived near me after a few days.
(Vs. 30 and 31.) Having said that also he certainly would enter into fire if, within three months, by defeating the enemies he could not make his master drink milk - after my son, whose hosts were consumed by the flames of the blazing fire of his impetuous bravery, blackened by the smoke and thus hidden himself had escaped, perchance sent away by the rest - he completely defeated the princes who remained, and, victorious, made captive and slew the adversaries, and thus fulfilled his promise.
(V.32.) The fire of his prowess, with the flames of wrath which it emits, consumes the enemies on which it feeds, even without wind; though unlit, it blazes forth again and again.
(V. 33.) Soiled with blood, the Fortune of the enemies dives into the water of his sword; but that of his master emerges from it, anointed as it were with saffron.
(V. 34.) Like a Brāhmaṇ, having sacrificed the enemy

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at the sacrifice of battle, where the fire of his valour shone the brighter for the many oblations of streams of melted butter-the blood of his opponents, he has secured from me, Vira-Nārāyaṇa, this edict which to the world's end proclaims him a hero, resulting from his expiatory rite - the destruction of my foes, and acquired by the efficiency of his spell - the restoration of my fortune.
(Line 34.) At the request of this my dear servant Bankēya, I, residing at the capital of Manyakhēta, - seven hundred and eight-two years having passed since the time of the Saka king, on the auspicious occasion of a total eclipse of the moon on the full-moon tithi of Aśvayuja in the year Vikrama, the eight-third current year-have given the village of Taleyüra, in the bhukti of the seventy villages of Majjantiya, to him who has been appointed to take care of the Jina sanctuary founded by Bankēya at Kolanūra-viz. (vv. 35 and 36) to Dēvēndra, the chief of ascetics (muniśvara) to whom Bankēya has given the temple, the disciple of Trikālayõgisa, born from the Pustaka gachchha of the Dēsiya gana of the Mūla samgha - for any new work connected with the sanctuary, for future repairs, for the cleansing, plastering, maintaining of it, and for other acts of piety. The boundaries of the village are, on the east of the said Kolanūra, Bendanūru, on the south, Sāsavevā[du], on the west of it, Paạilagere, and on the north, Kilavāda.
(L. 45.) I also have given twelve nivartanas of land at Kolanūra itself, and at each of the following thirty villages within its bhukti, viz. Avaravā[d]i, Bendanūru, Mudugundi, Kittaivole, Sulla, Mus[a], Da[dh]ere, Māvinūru, Mattikatte, Nila[gun]dage, Tāļikhēda, B[e]lleru, Samgama, Pirisingi, Muttalagere, Kākeyanūru, Behuru, Alūgu, [Pārva]nagere, Hosan[ja]ļa[lu), I[n]dugalu, Neri[a]ge, Haganüru, Unalāņu, Indagere, Munivalli, Kotta[s]e, Oddittage, Si[kimabri?), and Giri[pi]dalu.
Lines 48-57 contain the usual admonition not to obstruct

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the grantee and to preserve the grant, and quote six benedictive and imprecatory verses (37-42), ascribed to Vyāsa.
(L. 57.) This has been written by the bhõgika Vatsarāja, an official in the court of justice, born in the clan ofthe Vaļabha Kāyasthas, the son of Sriharsha and servant of Nāgavarman Prithvirāma, keeper of village records and warelephant of writers.
(V. 43.) The chief (adviser) of Bankēyarāja, the wise Mahattara Ganapati, who is near the Rājā's person, has executed all this.
(V.44.) Ever victorious, like a royal edict, be this doctrine of the Jinas, which destroys the false doctrines of people who are filled with an excessive pride arising from ignorance; which brings about the true happiness of all who act in obedience to the commands of the wise; which is the place of glory of the excellent syādvāda by which things appear under manifold forms, and grants the quintessence of good conduct!
(V.45.) Victorious be the holy sage Mēghachandra, who is the moon to the ocean of the nectar of established truths, the sun to the lotus-reasoning, the one continuous stream of nectar to the garden - speech, the crest-jewel of the lords among contemplative saints; whose lofty second name of Traividya is truly appropriate; who has shaken off the god of love, and is a thunderbolt to the mountain - other creeds!
(V. 46.) Manifestly, the fame, pervading the world, of this Mēghachandra, the foremost of devotees, has shone forth and entered (here), glittering like the fibres of the waterily (and) lovely like the bulbous root of the plantain tree, saying (to itself), "Lo! the flock of female hamsas begin to think of drinking; the collection of female chakora birds approach to peck with their beaks; īsa gives orders for the decoration of his matted hair; (and) Krishṇa is eager to choose (an occupant) for his couch."

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(V. 47.) Viranandin, the chief of sages, owns on earth the glory (of being) rich in benevolence, he who is the husband of the young woman - renown of cleverness, the ornament of every kind of excellence, the offspring of Mēghachandra - Traividya, a stroke of lightning to split the mountain Madana, the crest-jewel of the crowd of those who know the established truths, and an unaivalled jewel to yield the desires of the creatures of this world.
(V. 48.) May he abide (hero), the holy sage Viranandin, who is the sun of the firmament - those who know the science of words, the crest-jewel of those conversant with poetry, the moon to the moon-light-the science of reasoning, a pool of the lotuses - the triad of music, song and dance; who is a Brihaspati for the quintessence of the investigation of established truths; who adorns the three jewels, and is a thunderbolt to the mountains - conceited disputants!
(V. 49.) Ever victorious be in the world the chief of sages Viranandin, the lord of the circle of those who know the established truths; he whose form is like a stream of camphor for the eyes of the creatures of the worlds, whose conduct like a jewel-ornament for the ears of the assemblage of the learned, and whose fame like the shoot of a jasmine creeper for the hairtresses of the fortune of the regions!
(Line 70.) The universal sovereign of those who know the established truths, the holy Viranandin, the sun in the sky of the glorious Kondakunda-line, the crest-jewel of the learned, the embodiment of the sport of the courtesans - the several branches of faultless learning, - when Huliyamarasa, the Mahāprabhu of the sacred great place of Kolanūra, and (the authorities of) the three towns and the five mathas, having seen a copper charter, bade him cause it to be written, - caused this stone charter to be written in accordance with what was in that (copper) charter.
Bliss! Great fortune, fortune, fortune! Adoration to....!

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BILIOGRAPHY
w
ww.
Altekar, A. S. : 1. The Rāshțrakūtas, the early history of the
Deccan, vol. 1, Part I-VI, Bombay, 1960. 2. The Rāshtrakūta Empire, The Age of Imperial Kanag, Bombay, 1995. 3. The Rashtrakūtas and their Times
Poona, (1934) 1967. Ayyengar, M.S.R., Seshagiri Rao, B: Studies in South Indian
Jainism, vol. I, II, 1922. Baji, A. R. : Ācārya Simhanandin, king-maker and pontiff :
Indian Historical Quarterly, XXX-2, 1954; 120-32. Barodia, U. D.: History and literature of Jainism : 1909 Battacharyya, A. K. : Iconography of some minor deities in
Jainism, IHQ, XXIX-4, 1953; 332-39. Bhagchandra Jain. Jaina commentaries on Sanskrit
Grammar, Jinamanjari, 12-2, octo 1995. Bhandarkar, R. G. : Early History of the Dekkan (1895) 1979. Bhattacarya, B. C. : the Jaina Iconography (1939), Delhi,
1974 Bhayani, H. C. (ed): Paumacariu, Part-I. Bhuvanendrakumar, S. A. : Ratta Dynasty: Feudatory kings
of Deccan India, 'Jinamanjari', 10-2 october 94, North America.

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Appendix / 281
Bhojarāja B. Patila: Nāgarakhaṇḍa - 70 - ondu Adhyana (Kannada): Anandapura: 1995.
Bhise, Usha R: The background of Karakaṇḍacariu, Jounal of the university of Bombay, 1982 pp. 94-97. Chatterji, A. K. A Comprohensive History of Jainism, Calcutta, 1978; chapt. X. Jainism in South India (600 A. D. to 1000 A. D.), pp. 177-226.
Cennakka Pavate: Rāṣṭrakūṭa Samanta Challketanaru (Kannada): Dharavāda: 1999.
Dasgupta, S. N., and De, S. K.: History of Sanskrit literature vol.I.
Deo, S. B. Jaina Monachism, 1956.
Desai, P. B. Jainism in South India and Some Epigraphs, Sholapur: 1957.
Desai, P. B., Shrinivas Ritti, B. R. Gopal (eds): A History of Karnataka, Dharwar : 1970.
Dhaky, M. A.: 1. Śäntara Architecture, Aspects of Jaina art and Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1975. 2. Santara sculpture, Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, IV (1971-72). 3. Ganga Jaina sculpture, AJAA, 1975.
4. Jain sculptures in Harasur temple, Journal of the Asiatic society of Bombay, volume 73 for 1998, Mumbai 1998.
Dhaky, M. A., and Michael W. Meister, (eds): Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, South India, vol. I. part 1 and 2, texts and plates, 1986, 1996.
Doris Chatam: Style and composition in the Indrasabha and Jagannatha Sabha caves at Ellora, Nirgrantha, vol. II 1996.
Ekambaranathan, A and Sivaprakasam, C. K. Jaina Inscriptions in Tamilnadu (A Topographical List): Madras 1987.

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Fleet, J. F. 1. (DKD) The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts, Bombay Gazetteer, vol. I, part ii, 1896.
2. S B Epitaph of Marasimha II, EI. V. 18. 3. Atakur inscription of Krishna III and Būtuga, EI. VI. 6.
4. Some records of the Rashtrakuta kings of Malkhed, EI. VI. pp. 160-98.
5. The Mukula or Chellaketana Family, IA, vol. XXXII. pp. 221-26.
6. Banners and crests of the Rashtrakutas of Malkhed and of the Raṭṭas of Saundatti, EI. VII. 28.
7. Mulgunda Inscriptions of the time of Krishna II, A. D. 902-03, EI. XIII. 15. pp. 190-94.
Furgusson, James and Burgess, James: The Cave temples of India (1880) 1988.
Ganesh Lalwani: Jainism in India, 1997.
Ghosh, A (ed): Jaina Art and Architecture, vol. I (1974) vol. II (1975) vol. III (1975).
Gupta, R. C.: Introduction to Jaina Mathematics, -in-Jinamanjari, 19-1, April 1999, pp. 7.
Gopalakrishna Murthy, S: Jain Vestiges in Andhra,
Hyderabad, 1963.
Gopal, B. R. (ed): The Rashtrakutas of Malkhed, Bangalore 1994.
Goswami, A: The Art of the Raṣṭrakūṭas.
Handiqui, K. K. Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture.
Henry Cousens: The Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts, Calcutta, 1926.
James Fergusson History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, London: 1910.

Page #344

Appendix / 283
James Burgess : Report on the Elura Cave Temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India, (reprint) New Delhi 1970.
:
Jain, Prem Suman Eminent Apabhramsa Writers-inJainism and Karnataka culture: 1977
Jain, Jyoti Prasad : Religion and culture of the Jains: Delhi, 1944.
Jaini, Padmanabh, S.: The Jaina Pathway of Purification, Berkeley: 1979.
Jawaharlal, G. 1. Jainism in Andhra, Jinamanjari,
vol. 10-2, october 94, North America. 2. Jainism in Andhra, as depicted in inscriptions, 1994.
3. Jainism in Andhra during the
Rastrakuta period, "The Rastrakutas of Malkhed', (ed) Gopal, B. R., Bangalore,
1994.
Jose Pereira: Monolithic Jinas, The Iconography of the Jain Temples of Ellora, Varanasi, 1977.
Kalghatgi, T. G. (ed): Jainism and Karnataka Culture (Anthology of Research Papers), Dharwar, 1977. Kamala Hampana: 1. Attimabbe and Chalukyas; Bangalore, 1966.

2. Status of Women in Jainism, Jain Journal, Vol. 33-3, January 1999.
Kamath, Suryanath U.: A Concise History of Karnataka, Bangalore 1997 (Revised ed).
Klaus Fishcer: Caves and temples of the Jains, Aliganj (Etah), 1956,
Kirti Mankodi : A Rashtrakuta temple of Hallur in Bijapur District - in - Aspects of Jaina art and architecture, (ed) Shah, U. P. and Dhaky, M.A, Ahmedabad, 1975.
-

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284/The Räṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
Kulkarni, V. M.: The Story of Rama in Jaina Literature, Ahmedabad, 1990.
Mitra, K. P. Historical references in Jaina Poems. IHQ, XVIII-2, 1942: 101-09.
Nahar, Purnachandra, and Ghosh, K. (eds): Epitome of Jainism Calcutta: 1917.
Nagarajaiah, Hampa :1. Prakrit influence on Kannada literature, Jinamanjari, 12-2, october 1995.
2. A History of the Early Ganga Monarchy and Jainism, Bangalore 1999 - A.
3. The later Gangas: Mandali thousand, Bangalore; 1999 - B. 4. Jaina corpus of Koppala inscriptions XRayed, Bangalore 1999 - C.

5. Apropos of Vikramaditya-VI and Jainism, Tumkur, 1999 - D. 6. Jina
Pārsva Temples in Karnataka, Hombuja, 1999 - E.
7. Yapaniya Sangha (Kannada) : Hampi, 1999 - F.
8. Koppala Śāsanagaļu (Kannada) : Mysore, 1999.
9. Influence of Prakrit on Kannada language and literature, Jain Journal, october 1991.
10.Vaḍḍārādhane (ed), Bangalore,
1993.
Narasimhachar, D. L.: The Jaina Rāmāyaṇa, IHQ, XV-4,
1939: 575-94

Page #346

Appendix /285
Narasimhamurti, A. V.: Two inscriptions of Pampa's sister
in-law Bhagiyabbe; Indian History and Epigraphy (eds) Ramesh, K. V., Tewari S. P., Sharma, M. J.: 1990 (pp.
219-21). Neginahala, M. B. : Nēginahāla Prabandagaļu : Hampi
University : 1999 (Kannada). Panduranga Bhatta, C. : Contribution of Karanataka to
Sanskrit : Chennai : 1997. Rajasekhara, S.: Rastrakuta Art in Karnataka, Dharawad,
1991. Ramachandran, T. N.:Jaina Momuments of India, Calcutta,
1944. Ramvallabh Somani : Jains under the Rāstrakūtas of
Deccan, - paper in - Jain Journal, vol. XXXI-3, January
1997. Reu, Pandit Bisheshwar Nath : History of the Rāştrakūtas,
Jaipur (reprint) 1997. Rea, A : Buried Jaina Remains at Danavulapad, Annual
Report of the Archaeological survey of India 1905-6,
1909, pp. 120-27. Rice, B.L. : Mysore and Coorg from the Inscriptions, London,
1909. Saletore, B. A. : 1. Mediaeval Jainism, Bombay, 1938. Sangave, Vilas : Jaina Community, A Social Survey. Sarkar, H : Glimpses of Jaina Vestiges in Andhradeśa
Nirgrantha, vol. II. 1998 (eds : Dhaky, M.A., and
Jitendra B. Shah). Sastry, K. A. N.: 1. A History of South India, Madras,
1958. 2. A comprohensive History of India, vol.
II, 1957. Sastry, S. S.: 1. Early Gangas of Talkad, 1952.
2. Sources of Karnataka History, 1940.

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286 / The Rāstrakūtas and Jainism
Sastry, T. V. G. : Ugraditya, Jinamanjari', North America,
volume, 10. No. 2, october 1994. Settar, S and Gunther D. Sontheimer (eds) Memorial stones,
Dharwad, 1982. Shah, C. J. : Jainism in North India. Shah, U.P.:1. Foreign elements in Jaina Literature. IHQ,
XXIX-3, 1953 : 260-65. Shah, U. P. and Dhaky, M. A. (eds): Aspects of Jaina Art
and Architecture, Ahmedabad : 1975. Sharma, H. B.: Jainism and Karnataka Culture. Sharma, I. K.: 1. Western Ganga Jaina vestiges at
Tippūru, paper in Rangavalli, Delhi,
1983. 2. Brick temples of western Ganga, paper
in 'Srinidhi', Delhi, 1983. 3. Temples of the Gangas of Karņāțaka,
Delhi, 1992. Shivarama Murti, C.: Panorama of Jaina Art, Delhi, 1983. Singh, Ram Bhushan Prasad : Jainism in Early Medieval
Karnataka, Delhi, 1975. Srinivasan, K. R., The Deccan - in - Jaina Art and
Architecture, vol. I, New Delhi, 1974. Soundara Rajan, K. V. : Chapters 23 to 27 and 29-30 on
Rāstrakūtas, Eastern Cālukyas, Telugu Codas, Gangas and Nolambas - in EITA: vol-1, Part 2. (eds) Michael W.
Meister and Dhaky, M. A. : New Delhi 1986. Sundara, A: 1. Some Jaina temples in North Karnataka -
their distinctive features;- in - Jainism and
Karnataka Culture, Dharwad, 1977. 2. Some aspects of Jaina art in Karnataka
architecture and sculpture; Arhadvachana, vol. 7-2, Indore, 1995.

Page #348

Appendix / 287
Takao Hayashi : Geometric formulas in the Dhavala of
Virasena : Jinamanjari, 14-2, october 1966. Upadhye, A. N. : Upadhye papers, Mysore, 1983. Upadhye, A. N.: 1. Prakrit literature (850-1150 C. E.)
Jinamanjari 14-2, octo. 997 (Eng. Tr.
Srimandhar kumar). 2. Materials for the interpretation of the
term Gommata, IHQ, XVI-4, 1940 :
919-926. Vasantakumari : Rashtrakutas and the Dawn of Jain culture
in Southern India, A.D. 783-988-article in - Jinamanjari,
vol. 1-1, october 1990. Venkataramanayya, N. : The Chalukyas of L(V)ēmulavāda
1953. The Chalukyas of Vengi, Madras
1950. Vaidya, P. L. (ed): 1. Mahāpurāņa of Puspadanta
2. Jasaharacariu of Puşpadanta Winternitz, M. : History of Indian Literature. Yazdani, Ghulam, (ed): The Early History of the Deccan,
parts, VII-XI (1960) 1982. Zimmer, H. : Philosophies of India, Kegan Paul, 1953.

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Page #355

Personal Names
Aryasēna 24 Asaga 7, 139 Asagabbarasi 203 Asöka 21 Attimabbe 31
A. D. Pusalkar 254 A. S. Altekar's 42 A. V. Narasimha Murthy 165 Abbañabbe 142 Abhimānacandra 142 Abhimanyu 2 Abhinava Vādi-Vidyānanda 136 Abhinavagupta-ācārya 183 Abhirama 142 Acanna 140, 158 Acārya Bhūtabali 74 Acārya Prabhācandra 88 Acārya Puspadanta 74 Adideva 146 Adikavi Pampa 26 Adityasēna Pandita 46 Āļuvarasa-I 54 Āņdayya 158 Ajitasēna 24 Ajitasinācārya 39 Akalanka 68 Akalankadēva 9 Akālavarsha 21 Altekar, A. S 13 Ambikā 157 Amibkādēvi 241 Amõghavarşa-I 3 Ankabbarasi 201 Aparājitasūri 123 Arasārya 24 Arhat Pārsva 26 Ariga 50 Arikēsari 51 Arikēsari-II 28 Arkakirti 16 Aryadēva 120 Aryanandi 2 Aryamumuksu 74 Aryanandi 79
B. A. Saletore 25 Baddega 28, 105 Bāhubali 88, 176 Bāhubali Pandita 158 Bāna 110 Bālacandradēva 121 Ballayya 24 Banarsidas Jain 188 Bandhuvarma 137 Bankēśa 5, 17 Bappadevaguru 75 Bâşabhūpati 202 Bhadra 172 Bhadrabāhu 99 Bhadradeva 50 Bhagchandra Jain 94 Bhagiyabbe 51, 205 Bhămaha 110 Bharata 40, 88 Bhāravi 110 Bhartshari 88 Bhāsa 110 Bhāskara 158 Bhattacharyya, N. N 91 Bhatta-Akalankadeva 67 Bhatta-Narayana 110 Bhavabhūti 110 Bhāvakirti 139 Bhima 50, 143 Bhimapayya 112, 142 Bhrājisnu 22, 123 Bhuvanaikamalladēva 234 Bhuvanaikarāma 30 Bijja 34

Page #356

Index / 295
Bijjāmbarasi 205 Bijjāmbikā 205 Bittayya 49 Brahma 64 Brahmagupta 96 Brahmaśiva 103 Buddha 169 Budharāja 1 Burgess 227 Būtuga-II 11, 28
Dēvandramuni 144 Dēvēndramuni 137 Dēvasēna Pandita 46 Devarāya 142 Dhaky 13 Dhaky, M. A. 51 Dhananjaya 77 Dhanyakumāra 176 Dharanēndra 249 Dharasēna 74 Dhärāvarsa Dhruva 13 Dharmapal, M. Y 163 Dhonda 48 Dhora-I 47 Dhruva 14 Divalāmba 35 Dinnāga 69 Doddayya 67 Dr. Rajendra Prasād 162 Draupadi 144 Duggamāra 201 Durgasimha 140 Durvinita 121 Duryodhana 149
Cākirāja 16 Cāmundarāya 31, 159 Candabbarasi 203 Candanabālā 23 Candiyabbe 24, 252 Candranātha 36 Candraprabha Bhatāra 26 Candrāya 24 Cangalāmba 202 Cárudatta 176 Caturmukha 172 Chatterji, A. K. 40 Cikārya 24 Cidānanda 103
Ekacattuga 79 Ēlācārya 73 Enjaladēvi 55 Ereyabbe 203 Ereyappa 33, 137
Furgusson 227
Dandin 110 Dānacintamani Attimabbe 112 Dānārņava 40 Dantidurga 1, 2, 3, 12 Darbarilal Kothiya 85 Daśaratha 77, 86, 89 Dasarathamuni 79 Dayāpāla 71 Dāyāpāla 78 Dēvacandra 71 Dējja 2 Dējja Mahārāja 1 Dēvakavi 158 Dēvanandi 68 Dēvēndra 21 Dēvēndra Munindra 26
Gajaga 158 Gajalaksmi 216 Gajānkusa 158 Gāmunda Cattayya 151 Gāmundabbe 18 Gandharva 204 Ganga Mahādēvi 40 Gangamahādēvi 41

Page #357

296 / The Răstrakūtas and Jainism
Indra-III 26 Indra-IV 38 Indrabhūti Gautama 13 Indrakirtisvāmin 53 Indranandi 2, 8, 73, 97 Indrasēna Panditācārya 28 Irivabedanga Satyāśraya 252
S
Gangas 56 Ghosh 165, 213 Goggiga 29 Gojja 28 Gojjiga 28 Gollācārya 7 Gommatēśvara 36 Gonambe 204 Gopal. B. R. 102 Govinda Pai 10 Govinda-III 5 Govindara 29 Govindarāja 1 Govindarāja-I 3 Govindarasa 161 Gowri 34 Gôyinda 18 Gunabahdra 86 Gunabhadra 7 Gunabhadradēva 153 Gunadhara 74 Gunaga Vijayāditya 5 Gunakīrti 25 Guñanandi 26, 137, 138 Guņandai 98 Guņasāgara Aļupēndra 54 Gunasūri 130 Guņavarma-I 22 Gūrjara Pratihara 14
J. F. Fleet 129 Jagattunga Govinda 13 Jagēśi 55 Jākaladevi 55 Jākavve 50, 51 Jakkiyabbe 46, 201 Jatāsimhanandi 161 Jawaharlal, G 43 Jayabandhu 130 Jayakēsi 55 Jayakirti 140 Jayanandi-Bhattarāka 145 Jayasēna 79, 80 Jimūtavāhana 47 Jivandhara 23, 176 Jina 65 Jinacandra 154 Jinadatta 54 Jinadevaņa 36 Jināpa 139 Jinasēna-II 79 Jinasênācārya 43 Jinavallabha 163 Joyisasingha 112
K
H. C. Bhayani 172 Handiqui 101 Haribhadrasūri 9 Harişeņa 6, 122 Harivamsa 135 Havel 208 Hēmacandra 103 Hēmasēna 78 Helācārya 99 Henric zimmer 212 Himasitala 69 Hulla dandādhipa 47
K. K. Handiqui 106 Kadabadi, B. K. 170 Kāli 33 Kagwal, S. P. 163 Kakkala 38 Kakkarāja-II 6 Kālidāsa 63, 83

Page #358

Index / 297
Kumbha 99 Kumudēndu 162 Kumudēnudu 153 Kundaņa Sãmidēvi 35 Kundanarasi 35, 201 Kundayya setti 48 Kuşmāņdi 236 Kūşmāndidēvi 231 Kūşmāņdini 241
Kalivisnuvardhana 22 Kalivitta-I 47 Kaliyammarasa 47 Kamalabhava 158 Kamalasri 99 Kamath, Suryanath 44 Kambarāja 12 Kammata 24 Kamta Prasad Jain 163 Kanakāmara 177 Kanakasena muni 24 Kanakavira kurattiyār 207 Kandarpa 98, 138, 158 Kannara 24 Kannaradēva 33 Kannaradeva 29 Kañcibbe 201 Karna 149 Karnapärya 137 Karka 22 Karkka-II 38 Kavanabbarasi 202 Kavi-Malla 158 Kavi-Paramēśvara 8 Kaviparamēsthi 12 Kaviparamēśvara 12, 67 Kēsirāja 134 Kirti-Narāyana 18 Kirtisēna 79 Kirtivarmā 11 Kirtivarmā-II 3 Khadgā valoka 171 Khõţika 38 Khottiga 38, 40 King Bharata 64 Kondakundaācārya 170 Kondakundācārya 73 Komarayya 142 Krşna-1 2 Krsna-I 3 Krishnamoorthy 102 Kubera 226 Kücibhattāraka 13, 64 Kulkarni, V. M. 175 Kumārasēna 24
L. C. Jain 97 Lakşmi 34 Lalitakirti 71 Leņdeyarasa 26 Lohācarya 123 Lõhācārya 99 Lohārya 123 Lokāditya 20 Lokāmbikā 51 Lõkasēna 79 Lokasēnamuni 89 Lokatrinetra Mārasima 16 Lõkate 20 Lõkateyarasa 23 Lõketinimmadi 201
M
M. Winternitz 106 Mācaņa 202 Mācayya 24 Madhava Sõmayāji 141 Madhura 157 Māgha 110 Māghanandiyati 248 Mahādēvi 252 Mahēndra-I 60 Mahendradēva 100 Mahēndrāntaka 137 Mahāśrimanta 252 Mahāvira 42 Mahāvīrā-cārya 19 Mahā virācārya 7, 95 Mahipāla 50

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298 / The Rästrakūtas and Jainism
Mañalera 32, 33 Mānikyajina 35 Majumdar, A. K. 19 Makayya 151 Mallakavi 138 Mallapa 112 Mallapayya 112 Malli 94 Mallikarjuna 136 Mallisēna 64 Māmarasa 247 Manasija 157 Mārakke 46 Mārasimha 11, 39 Mārekkeyarasa 46 Marudēvi 94 Marula 33 Maruladeva 31, 33 Masanayya 248 Matisāgara 78 Matisetti 248 Mauni Bhatāra 55 Mauniyõgi 202 Mēghanāda 71 Meister 13 Merada 25, 53 Mrgēśavarma 9 Monk Aryanandi 139 Mullabhattāraka 25, 53 Murthy 165
Nanjunda 158 Nanna 40 Nannarāja 2, 79 Nanni Santara 29 Nārada 204 Naraga 50 Narasimha murthi, K 144 Navsari 6 Nayasēna 140 Nēmadēva 100 Nēmicandra 137, 178 Nēmicandra Siddhānta 7 Nēmicandra Siddhānta
Cakravartti 177 Nemicandra 43 Nemicandra Siddānti 97 Neminātha 103 Nitimārga 5 Nilānjană 146 Niskalanka 68 Noļambadhiraja
Ghateyankakāra 252 Nokkiyabbe 56 Nrpatunga 9
O
Rşabha 56 Rsabha's 63
N
Nāgacandra 153 Năgakumāra 176 Nāgamayya 112 Nāganandācārya 139 Nāgapuli gāvunda 252 Nāgaraja 158 Nagarajaiah, Hampa 16, 40 Nāgārjuna 130 Nāgārjunayya 46 Nāgārya 24 Nagasărikā 6 Nāgavarma 46, 111 Nāgavarma-I 134 Nāgayya 26 Nahar 165
Padiyara Dhörapayya 32 Pādalipatācārya 9 Padmabbe 32 Padmakavi 151 Padmanabh S. Jaini 63 Padmanābhayya 27 Padmanandi-ācārya 24 Padmanidhi 231 Padmavatamma. Gupta, R.C 96 Padmavati 34 Pāliyakka 26, 206 Pālyakirti Sākatāyana 91 Pampa 22, 84, 141 Pancamukhi, R. S 98 Paramabbe 35 Paravādimalla 24 Pariyabbarasi 203

Page #360

Pārsvanatha 226
Pātrakēsari 80 Pātrasvāmi 71 Paṭumati 139 Peddaṇabhaṭṭa 52 Peterson 68
Ponna 22, 151 Ponnamayya 156 Prabhäcandra 80 Pradyumna 176
Prem Suman Jain 167 Prithvirama 53
Prithvivarma 25
Prof. M. A. Dhaky 86 Puneseya 33 Pujyapāda 67
Pulakesi 4
Pulakesin 15
Pulakesin-II 1 Pullabba 36
Punnamayya 112 Purnachandra 165
Purudeva 146 Purusottama 68 Puspadanta 7, 177
R
Rāca 161 Racamalla-I 5 Rācaya 161
Raṇañjaya 55
Raṇāvaloka Kambhadēva 16
Rājāditya 32, 161, 202
Rajamalla 85
Rājamalla-II 29
Rajasekhara 219
Rajasekhara 15, 132
Rāmacandra 78
Rambaladevi 202
Ranna 31, 180 Raṭṭas 52 Ravikirti 62 Raviṣeṇācārya 172 Raya 36
Rēvakanimmaḍi 201
Revakanimmadi 35 Revakayye 203 Rudrabhaṭṭa 157

S
S. R. Goyal 102 Saletore 40
Samantabhadradeva 67 Sampat 139
Samprati Candragupta 29 Sanatkumāra 176
Säntinātha Tirthankara 27 Sarvadeva 156
Sarvāhṇa 236 Sarvanandi 170
Sattara-Nagarjunayya 25 Satyasarya Irivabeḍanga 63 Saundatti 52
Sākaṭāyana 7 Sämakunda 116 Sankaracārya 13 Sankaragana 31 Sankaraganda 30 Sankhanidhi 231 Sāntinātha 154 Santivarma 53 Sarva 17
Index / 299
Shah, U.P. 239 Siyaka 10
Siyaka Harṣa 38 Siddhasēna 71
Siddhasena 80
Simhanāda 71 Simhanandin 43 Singh 91
Singh RBP 64, 99 Sila 22
Silacārya 22 Silanka 64 Śiva 226 Sivakōṭi 80, 99 Sivamāra 11 Śivayana 99
Sōmadēvasūri 43, 100
Sōmēśvara-I 27
Soundara Rajan 225
Soundara Rajan, K. V. 13, 45 Srikanta sastry, S 163
Srinivasan, K. R. 226 Śrēņika 13

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300/The Raṣṭrakūtas and Jainism
Śridharadeva 73, 205 Śrinandi 13, 64 Srinatha 139 Śrīpāla 80 Sripuruşa 201 Śrīvardhadēva 116 Śrīvijaya 5, 8, 22, 129 Srivijaya senādhipati 16 Sriviṣṇurāja 71 Śripuruşa 12
Sudattacārya 43 Sulēmän 19
Sumatinatha 226 Subhanandi 164 Subhatunga 68 Subhatunga Indra 4 Südraka 135 Svāmi Virasēna 72 Svayambhu 64, 171
T
T. V. G. Sastry 72 Tailakabbe 48
Tailapa_10
Telugu Adipurāņa 156 Tiruttakka-tēvar 65
Tolakkäppiyar 131 Trailokyamalladeva 242
Trikālayōgiśa 21
Trikalingaviṣaya 71
Tumbalurācārya 116 Tumbura 204
U
Uccaraṇācāya 119 Udyotanäsūri 205
Udyōtanasuri 171 Ugräditya 19, 66, 70 Umāsväti 85
V
Vaddiga-I 32
Vadighangala Bhaṭṭa 29 Vädirāja 78

Vädisimha 80 Vajvala 161 Valmiki 91
Vardhamanaguru 17 Vāsudēva 23
Vatsarāja 6, 14 Vaṭṭakēra 170 Vēratti 139
Venkataramanayya, N 107
Vira Janavaraha 6 Vira Santara 55 Vira-Nārāyaṇa 17 Virasēna 24
Vidyananda 84, 180 Vijayaditya-II 5
Vikrama Säntara 25, 55
Vikramaditya 25 Vikramaditya-VI 29 Vikramarjuna-Vijayam 145
Vimala 13
Vimaladitya 16
Vimalasuri 153
Vimalōdaya 130
Vinayapala 6 Vinayasēna 82 Vinettinimmadi 201
Viṣņsēna 99
Viṣṇu 64, 65
Viṣṇuvardhana-IV 71
Vujaya 52 Vyasa 91
W
Winternitz 108
Y
Yasoda Bhat 144 Yati-Vṛṣabha 74, 119
Yaśōbhadra 80
Yasodhara 176
Yaśovarma 16
Yasōvarma 16
Yellappa Sastry 162 Yuddhamalla 50

Page #362

A
Abbalür 209 Acalapura 8, 23 Adaki 209
Adür 209
Aland 249
Aihole 59, 62, 209
Annigere 253
Annigere 34, 209
Anantapur 48
Andhra Pradesh 5 Angadi 209
Arab 19
Arasibidi 210
Are-Tippür 221
Asundi 26, 210, 252
Asmaka 3
Atakur 33, 48 Aulika 83
B
Badagare 32
Bādāmi 1, 2, 3
Bādāmi 237
Balligave 25, 210 Bāgalkōṭe 237 Bāgiyür 32 Bahudhanyapura 51 Ballary Dt 251
Banaväsi 4, 5, 210
Bandalike 23, 210
Bāndhavanagara 23
Bangalore 58
Bankapura 20, 26, 87, 210
Bankür 210, 237
Bäsavura 47
Belatür 33
Bellur 252
Belgola 12 Belvola 4, 33
Place Names

Belgaum 58 Bengal 14
Bidar 124, 210 Biccavol 22
Biccavolu 22
Bijapur 23
Bijapur Dt 252 Bōdhana 51
Bommalaguṭṭa 51
с
Calcutta 51
Candanāpuripattana 27 Candragutti 210
Cēdi 23, 29
Ceylon 69
Chabbi 49 Chanda Dt 8
China 19
Cikka-Hanasoge 210
Cikka-Magaḍi 25
Cikka-Magalur 209 Cikkamagalur 58
Cilakūru 27
Cilûr 27
Cincoli 248
Citāpur Tk 237
Citrakūṭa 34
Cōlamandala 34
Constantenople 19
Coorg 211
Cuddapah 5
D
Dahala 34
Danavulapāḍu 26 Daustațikā 79, 122 Dēgalamadi 253 Dējja 1
Index/301

Page #363

302/The Raṣṭrakūṭas and Jainism
Dharmapuri 60 Dharmavûr 51 Doddahundi 245
E
Ēlāpura 1, 2
Ellōra 1
Ellōrā 59
G
Gadi-Kēśvār 210 Gaḍi-Kēśvāra 248 Gadag 26, 244 Gaṇupalli 52 Gangadharam 100
Gangavādi 4, 5
Gangavati 101
Gāvarivāḍa 34
Gāvirivāḍa 34
Gōkāk 1
Gulbarga Dt 209 Gummangola 34
H
Hāḍuvalli 223 Hadagali Tk 251 Hallikheḍa 124
Hāhala 15
Halasangi 49
Halsi 133, 210 Hangal 47 Harijanvāḍa 241
Harsur 235
Hassan 211
Hāvēri 209
Hāvēri Dt 17, 158 Heggada devanakōṭe 122
Hemagrāma 100
Hemagrāma 73
Hēmāvati 60
Henjēru 48
Henjeru 210
Himǎcala 5
Hombuja 26, 210

Hombuja-kṣētra 221
Hosur 210
Hulgür 40
Hungund 37, 252 Hungund Tk 252 Hungunda 210 Hunasi-Hadagli 253
I
Indranapalya 41 Ingalagi 253 Iṭṭage 34
J
Jabalpur 114 Jālamangalam 16 Jamakhandi 210 Jambukhandi 2 Jammalamadugu 26 Jevargi 240 Jinālaya 216
Jinasēnācārya 4
K
Kāḍiyur 33 Kaḍür 32
Kālagi 253 Kalalenāḍu 33
Kalanūra 21
Kalasapura 28, 249
Kallihāla 158
Kalvappu 4, 12
Kandy 69
Kālanjara 34
Kälapriya 50
Kalinga 15
Kalyāṇa 210, 253
Kalyana 25
Kamagondanahalli 60
Kāmarüpa 5
Kambadahalli 210, 253
Kanauj 4, 6, 15 Kānci 69
Kanchi 29

Page #364

Kanchi 12 Kandara 8 Kanyakumari 5
Kērala 83 Karṇātaka 83
Karimnagar 50 Kathaiwar 6
Kaṣmaṇḍi 2 Kaṣmaṇḍi-Visaya 2
Kēśvāra 247
Kellengere 210
Kembhāvi 246
Kheṭakāhāra 3
Kheṭakāhāra-Viṣaya 3 Kiranapura 23 Kirtipura 122
Kisuvolal 4
Kittur 6, 122, 210
Kittūru 122
Kolanür 48
Kōgali 210, 251 Kondakunde 210
Konṇür 20
Konnura 210
Kolar 58
Konkana 4 Kopana 4
Koppala 35, 210, 246
Kosala 15
Koṭṭūru 142 Küdlür 29
Kuhündi-mandala 4
Kukkanur 232
Kulagaṇa 210 Kulpak 253
Kumbeyanahalli 24 Kummadavāḍa 58
Kundarage 47
Kundür 47
Kupaṇācala 202 Kuppatur 170
Kuppaṭūr 193
Küragallu 35
Kurkiyala 51 Kuttumvṛtti 105

Kūṭastha 83 Kuśasthala 33
L
Lakkundi 210, 216 Lakṣmēśvara 4
Lalleya 29
Lanka 15
Lattalur 1
Lattanûr 1
Lätür 1
Läṭa 4, 23 Lembulaväṭaka 50 Lēmulavāḍa 50 Lōkāpura 23 Lõkasamudra 23
M
Maḍakēri 211 Madakasira 48
Maddur Tk 221
Madhya Pradesh 2
Madras 22, 51
Māļava 15
Malavalli 33
Malkhed 39, 210
Malkhed 1
Mahbubnagar 28 Mähiṣaka 83
Mandali 4, 210
Manne 16
Mālava 23
Mālavā 38
Malayakheda 8
Maleyadeśa 73
Maleyuru 210 Mallasamudra 244
Mälva 3, 10
Mānāka 3
Mandya 33, 58 Mangalagi 249
Mānpur 3
Mānyakhēṭa 8 Mānyapura 16

Index / 303

Page #365

304 / The Rāstrakūtas and Jainism
Marāthvāda 1 Markhandi 8 Marõl 252 Mauryas 3 Mayūrkhandi 16 Mēkura 83 Mēlpāți 100 Mõrkhand 8 Mūdagēri 34 Mudho! 23 Mulļūr 211 Mulgunda 23, 211 Muniyara Bommanahalli 246 Mysore 58
N
Pandarangapalli 164 Pandarapalli 145 Pandurangapalli 3, 211 Pāņdya 15, 29, 83 Paithaņa 205, 211 Palasige 133 Pallava 15 Pannāta 4 Pānungal 4 Parabhani 52 Pasundi 26, 252 Pattadakal 4, 59 Pattanāyakanahalli 60 Patti-Pombulcapura 55 Penjēru 48 Pergalvappu 12 Podhona 51 Pombuļca 26 Pomburca 26 Ponnugunda 252 Ponnür 73 Prātara 83 Pratihāra 29 Pratisthānapura 205 Pudumandala 34 Puligere 4, 251 Pullungūr 40 Pūnādu 32 Punnata 83 Punnāta 122
NR Pura 211 Nāgamangala 253 Nahar Museum 51 Nalgonda 253 Nānded 211 Nāndēd Dt 8 Nandi Hills 211 Narēgal 100 Naregal 211 Nasik Dt 4 Navalgund 37 Navilūru 211 New Sulepet 253 Nilgiri 99 Nidagundi 142 Nidugal 60 Nidugundage 48 Nizamabad Dt 27 Noņamangala 211 Nyāmati 211
O
Raicũr 101 Rāņebennür 17, 139 Räjagrha 219 Rajasthan 219 Rāmagiri 19, 71, 211 Rămakonda 71 Rāmēśvaram 29 Rattanür 1 Rāstra 1 Rāstrakūta 1-18 Rāstrakūtas 2, 3 Rēpāka 52, 105
Odraganga 15 Onkunda 4 Osmānābād 1
Pallikheda 124

Page #366

S
Saligrama 16 Samanagaḍa 2
Sammēta sikharji 219 Sangitapura 223 Sāntalige 4
Sañjan 81
Saudatti 211
Saunadatti 25
Saurāṣṭra 5 Sēdam 198, 211
Shiggaon 87 Shikaripura 25
Shimoga 26 Sindavāḍi 252 Sira 41
Sivagange 211 Sorab 193
Śravanabelagola 10, 211
T
Talaikkaḍu 17 Tālikote 246
Takkola 33
Talakāḍu 211
Talavanapura 5, 17 Taleyur 48
Taleyūra 21
Tamilnadu 5
Tañjāvür 29
Tardavādi 38, 39
Tippūru 211
Tivärkhed 2
Trikalinga 83 Tumkur 5, 41
U
Undikavāṭikā 2 Ujjili 28

Ujjivolal 28 Uppina-Beṭageri 31
V
Vadavaṭṭi 48
Vaḍnēr 211 Vādnēr 4
Vadanaguppe 16 Vādner 27
Vallimalai 58
Valabhi 3
Vanikaṭupulu 105 Varala 139
Vardhamanapura 6, 122
Vasanta 142
Vātanagara 4
Vātāpi Väṭagrāma 4
Vēmulaväḍa 23, 28, 50
Vēmulavāda 50
Vanavasi 4
Vēngi 15 Viraśaiva 199
Vidarbha 3
Vijaya-Vaijayanti 4 Vijayamangalam 36 Vikramapura 142 Viralā 139
Vishakapatnam 22 Viśakapatnam 71 Vṛṣabhadri 51, 100
W
Warangal 28
Wardhvan 6 Warrangal 5
Y
Yaḍrāmi 253
Index / 305

Page #367

Miscellaneous
Bhāmandala 248 Bhārangi 49 Bhavā-valis 145 Bhavāvali 187 Bhuvanaika - Rāmābhyudayam
152 Bögāra basadi 56, 228 Brhadāradhanā 123 Brhat-kathā-koś 6 Bșhat-kathākośa 122 Brhatkalpa sutra 75 Buddha 23
Ādi-tirtha 246 Adipurāņa 13, 51 Anduvamsa 46 Annal 27 Ajitapurāņa 31 Akalankastõtra 70 Aļupas 54 Anēkāntavāda 134 Anēkārtha-Nămamāla 77 Anesejjebasadi 251 Anevedanga 29 Anevinnani 29 Anuyogadvāra 75 Apabhramśa 90 Aptamimāmsā 69 Arabian 4 Arādhanā 113, 170 Arādhana-Karnāta-Tikā 128 Ardha-Magadhi 166 Ardhāmagadhi 128 Artha-śāstra 102 Arungalānvaya 56 Aryan 64 Asokavana Basadi 231 Aşta-Dikpāla 229 Astasahasri 85 Atiśaya 27 Atisaya-dhavala 17 Atmānusāsana 88 Avasyaka Niryukti 75
Cakravartins 23 Callakētanas 47 Cālukyas 1 Campū 190 Cāmundarāya-purāņa 116 Camundarāyapurāņa 12 Candraprabhapurāņam 131 Candrikāvāta 24 Cangāļvas 194 Căranādri 225 Cāritrasāra 160 Cãrvāka 150 Caturmukha caityālaya 251 Caūpannamahāpurisa-cariya 22 Cavvisi 238 Cēdi 28 Cēranādu 58 Celladhvaja 89 Cenna-Pārsvadēva 28 Chandombhudhi 134 Chatratraya 248 Chota Kailāsa 225 Christian 212 Civaka-Cintāmani 65 Cõlas 32, 33 Cūdāmaņi 116 Cuţus 59
В
Baddega Jinālaya 28 Bāgenādu 58 Baladēvas 23 Bauddha 31 Bayalnādu 57 Beddoregere 57 Bhagavati-Aradhana 123

Page #368

D
Dandanayaka 27 Dakṣiņā-pathēśvaras 3 Dakṣina-pratipatti 75 Dakṣiṇāpatha 3
Daśavaikälika 75
Deva-samgha 100 Deśiyagana 21
Dhavalā 9
Dhavala Jinalaya 251 Dhōra Jinālaya 26 Dhorajinālaya 47 Dināra 96
Digambara 65
Doddahole 34
Drakṣus 96
Dravidian 64
Dravyasamgraha 178
E
Egypt 222 Ēkacaṭṭuga Jinālaya 234
G
Gadya-katha 12
Ganitasara-samgraha 22, 95 Gandharvas 226
Gangă 4
Ganga-Gangeya 34
Ganga-Kandarpa-Jinālaya 251
Gangas 11
Gata-Pratyāgata kavya 156
Gāthā 126
Godavari 4, 5
Goggiya basadi 251
Golladēśa 7
Gommaṭasāra 160
Gommaṭsära 36
Gōsāsa 46
Guddada basadi 56 Gunaduttaranga 29 Gujarāt 6 Gujarāta 6

Gurjaras 38
H
Hara 23
Hari 23
Harivamsa-purāņa 4 Harivamsapurāņa 6 Harṣacarita 130 Hiranyagarbha-yajña 12 Hoysalas 46 Hūņas 38
I
Iḍagür-visaya 16 Indra-Jinalaya 26 Indrasabha 225 Islam 212
J
Jaina Rūpamanḍana 239 Jainendra-Purāņa 151 Jambūdīva paṇṇatti 22 Jasaharacariu 40
Jaya-Dhavala 9
Jaya-dhavala-Tikā 22 Jayadhira Jinālaya 247 Jayadhira-Jinālaya 31 Jayaduttaranga 29, 34 Jayamäla 214
Jina 23
Jinabhavana 214
Jinabimba 214
Jinadattacarita 88
Jinadharma 11
Jināgama 214 Jinākṣaramāle 156 Jinasasana 214 Jvālāmālini-kalpa 97 Jvälinikalpa 73
K
Index / 307
Kacara-vamsa 46 Kaccega 29

Page #369

308 / The Rāstrakūtas and Jainism
L
Labdhisāra 179 Laläta bimba 216 Likavibhāga 170 Lõkāyata 31
M
Kadamba 2 Kādambari 130 Kadambas 9 Kāgina 10 Kailäsa 56 Kalacuri 1 Kalingas 33 Kalyāṇakāraka 19, 66 Kāma-Jinalaya 55 Kāma-jinālaya 26 Kamme-nādu 111 Kāncikkonda 29 Kannada 22, 60 Karakandacariu 177 Käreyagaņa 53 Karnata Kumāra 140 Karņāțaka 6 Kasāya-pähuda 118 Kaşāya-Prābrta 72 Kāvēri 4, 5 Kavirajamärga 5, 130 Kāvyasāra 136 Kāvyāvalókana 141, 152 Kāyötsarga 206 Käyõtsarga 248 Kēvalibhukti 93 Kellas 47 khadgäsana 249 Khandagiri 227 Kisukādu 58 Kondakundānvaya 17 Kõneya-Ganga 34 Kongāļvas 194 Kongannādu 57 Konti Mahädevi 49 Konti Mahā devi basadi 49 Krānūr-gana 154 Kşatra-cüļāmaņi 105 Kūge Brahmmadēva 235 Kuhündi-mandala 53 Kuningal 16 Kurulgala savana 156 Kusumā valikāvya 158 Kuvalayamālā 171
Madanāvatāra 33 Magadhas 33 Mahā Ugravamsa 54 Mahā-Bhārata 23 Mahā-tirtha 247 Mahākarma-Prakrti 74 Mahāpurāņa 23 Mahāpuraņas 12 Mahāśrimanta basadi 252 Mahāvīra Jinālaya 49 Mandalinãd 56 Mani-pravāla-saili 182 Mailāpa-tirtha 53 Makkala basadi 56, 228 Male 57 Malnād 232 Mānastambha 36 Mangalaphalaka 216 Manmatha 190 Marandale 58 Marathi 60 Marudēvi basadi 251 Mayūra-dhvaja 89 Mēghaduta 83 Mēghasandēśa 82 Mukkaravasadi 251 Mülācāra 170 Mülārādhanā 123 Mülasangha 21
N
Nāgarakhanda 25 Nandagiri 227 Nandisangha 66 Nannarāja 31 Narēgal basadi 222

Page #370

Index / 309
Punnāta 6 Purudēvacarita 89 Pūrvapurāņa 80 Pustaka gaccha 21
Narmadā 5 Nāyakumăracariu 40 Nēminātha basadi 234 Nitisāra 97 Nitivākyāmộta 102 Nirgunda 57 Nisidhis 245 Nittasingi basadi 49 Noļamba Pallava 137 Nolamba-Kulāntakadeva 37 Nolambas 60
O
Rācamalla basadi 251 Raghuvamsapurāņam 131 Rājāvali-Kathāsära 116 Rājavārttika 68 Rāmacaritamanasa 91 Rāmāyana 23 Ratta 25 Rattara-mēru 31 Ritthaņemicariu 172 Ron 222 Rudrakānta 241
Orissa 227
P.
Padmabbarasi Jinālaya 222 Padmacarita 91, 172 Pandyas 33 Paisācika 134 Pāla-Vamsa 14 Pallava 69 Pallavas 11 Pampa-Bhārata 142 Panasõge vaļi 71 Pañca stūpānvaya 4 Pañca-matha 55 Parāśara gotra 31 Paraśurāmacarite 162 Parikara 248 Parmāra 10 Pārsva basadi 56 Pārsvābhyudaya 4, 22 Pārsvanātha basadi 24, 228 Paumacariu 172 Pejja-dosa-pähuda 118 Perdore 34 Perggade 49 Prakrit 9, 22 Pramāņa-samgraha 69 Praśnöttara-Ratnamālikā 9 Punar-janma 187 Punnādu 57 Punnāga-VỊkşamüla gana 66
Sāhasa-Bhima-vijayam 110 Sallekhana 14 Samavāyanga 169 Sambhava 141 Sankhya 31 Sanmati-carita 139 Sanskrit 4 Sāntara dynasty 25 Sarvāhna yaksa 60 Sarvārthasiddhi 68 Sarvatõbhadra 225 Sāstrabhandaras 198 Sātavāhanas 59 Sattara 46 Sauramandala 6 Saurāstra 6 Sabdamaņi-darpaņa 136 Sabdānuśāsana 116 Sabdārņava 26 Saivism 142 Sankha basadi 251 Sankhajinālaya 251 Sāntinātha basadi 251 Sāntipurāņam 154 Șatkhanda-āgama 9

Page #371

310
Tolkāppiyam 131 Trikūta basadi 242 Trikūta-Jinālaya 28 Trikūţa-basadi 235 Trişaşti-salākā-puruşa
-purāna 67
Udaigiri 227 Uparitala 224 Upāsakādhyana 102 Upāsakas 79 Uripattāyana basadi 49 Uttarapurāņa 23, 67
V
Satkhandāgama 4 Saurasēni 169 Sauraseni Prakrit 123 Sērinādu 57 Sēnagana 76 Sēnavāras 46 Sēnāvaya 24 Sēndrakas 46 Sēuņa dynasty 32 Sēunas 247 Settavva basadi 219 Siddhiviniscaya 69 Singapuranāļu 207 Sikh 212 Siribhūvalaya 162 Silāhāras 47 Slokavārttika 180 Srtabhandāra 214 Srtāvatāra 116 Srāvakācāra 126 Srivijaya jinālaya 251 Srutapañcami 97 Srutāvatara 73 Srutāvatāra 97 Strimukti - prakarana 93 Sūļe basadi 56, 228 Sūktisudhārnava 136, 152 Subhadhāma-Jinālaya 52, 105 Subhatunga-vasati 4 Svētāmbara 9 Svētapatas 9 Syādvāda 134 Syādvāda mata 15
V(B)aļagāra-gana 86 Vaddārādhane 127 Vāgartha-samgraha 12 Vairāgya-śataka 88 Vākātakas 3 Vásudēvas 23 Vēdānta 31 Vēngi Calukyas 14 Vengi-visaya 111 Vira Banajigas 254 Vira Bankēya Jinālaya 233 Viramārtandi 36 Vidyādhara 226 Vijaya-Jinālaya 16 Vijayavasati 17 Vikramarjunavijaya 51 Voddārādhane 124 Vrsabhagiri 164 Vyākhyā-prajñapti 75
Y
Tamil 60 Tattvārtha-sūtra 68 Tattvārthaílokavārttika 85 Tirthada basadi 242 Tirthadavasati 251 Tirthankaras 23 Tirthavandanā 247 Tiloyapannatti 170
Yāpaniya sangha 16, 53 Yaśastilaka 100 Yaśõdhara-carita 105 Yuddhamalla Jinālaya 52 Yuktyanuśasanālankära 85

Page #372

Index /311
Hearty congratulations on the substantial and distinctive contribution! With the publication of these five books, you have enriched the field of Jaina research, transmitting different aspects of religion, philosophy and Jaina culture of Karnataka. Infact you have unveiled many salient aspects of Jaina literature, history, art and architecture. Indeed, you have left a permanent stamp of your scholarship on the readers. In brief, you have joined the select band of interational scholars on Jainology.
22-10-99
Dr. Prem Suman Jain Professor of Jainology and Prakrit M. L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur
You are to-day the best historian of Jainism in Karnataka. Your knowledge on the Jaina epigraphs is phenomenal. I am certain your two Ganga books will prove a land mark for the Jaina history of Karnataka.
Prof. M. A. Dhaky
Director (Emeritus) American Institute of Indian Studies
About - "The Sāntaras : A Study” Practically nothing has escaped the attention of the learned author. Dr. Hampa. Nagarajaiah has projected himself as a competent and experienced historian in this work. Scholars and students, interested in Karnataka history and culture, should be grateful to the scholarly author for this excellent work. This will remain as a standard work on the subject for decades to come.
22-10-99
Prof. A. V. Narasimhamurthy
Prof. and Head (Rtd) Ancient History and Archaeology
University of Mysore

Page #373

312
Reviews on the Works of Dr. Nagarajaiah, Hampa Dr. Hampa. Nagarajaiah, Former Professor of Bangalore University is a well known scholar and teacher and specialised in the study of Jaina literature, Inscriptions and History of the Gargā dynasty of Karņāțaka. During the year 1999 itself he has authored five-important and basic source books on Karņāța-Jainism. It is clear that the year-1999 has been a rich and academically very productive year for Dr. Nagarajaiah, as the above five works stand witness. Apart from being a teacher in the University, he has mastered in Kannada and Sanskrit sources, through the various inscriptions of the Gangā, Rāshțrakūta and Chālukya dynasties, apart from the later records of the Kākatiya, Hoysala and later rulers. Prof. Nagarajaiah is a field archaeologist indeed and made arduous field studies and explored every nook and corner of Karņāțaka as the above five-illustrated works reveal. An interesting feature is all the illustrations in his works are printed before the text and quite handy for cross-reference while reading the text. They are of high order and details of each photograph is clearly numbered and described in detail. The printing and get up, to say the least, are excellent. Diacritical marks on Sanskrit and linguistic expressions have been meticulously placed.
12-1-2000 Hyderabad - 500 044
Dr. I. K. Sarma Former Director : Archaeological
Survey of India, and Director : Salar Jung Museum

Page #374
Prof. Nagarajaiah, Hampa provides answers to some quintessential questions of ancient Indian history. Drawing upon and synthesizing data from a wide variety of fields - archaeology, history religion, socio-culture epigraphy and literature the author presents the position of Jaina Church in the epoch making age of the Rastrakutas. This book, an ambitious work, seeks to resolve some paradoxes that have plagued the professional historian and archaeologist alike. The author asserts that during the reign of the mighty Rastrakuta dynasty Jainism boomed to possess the status of a state religion. Rs. 350 ISBN : 81-87321-37-7 08 Ankita Pustaka # 53, Shamsingh Complex, Gandhibazaar Main Road Basavanagudi, Bangalore-560 004, Karnataka, INDIA 699 2014 (0) 652 6134 (R) For Private & Persanal Use Only