Glimpse into Sanskrit and Other Forms of Drama in Medieval Gujarat

Author(s): Govardhan Panchal
Publisher: Z_Nirgrantha_1_022701.pdf and Nirgrantha_2_022702.pdf and Nirgrantha_3_022703.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269007/1

Page #1
A GLIMPSE INTO THE SANSKRIT AND OTHER FORMS OF DRAMA IN MEDIEVAL GUJARAT Govardhan Panchal The region known as Gujarat received this designation during the rule of its first Caulukya monarch, Mularaja I. Their capital was then known as Anahillapataka, Pattana, or Anahillapura, and now as Patana in North Gujarat. Anahillapura was, for nearly 250 years, a prosperous city and a seat of learning, culture, and trade. Caulukya was the golden period of the history of Gujarat. Siddharaja Jayasimha (A.D. 1095 -1144), the greatest of the Caulukya monarchs of Gujarat, expanded the kingdom's frontiers by his conquests of Malava in Madhya Pradesh and Mevad in west Rajasthan, the Lata territory had been already incorporated in south Gujarat. In Dhara, when he noticed the great bhandaras of manuscripts and an atmosphere of learning, he felt its dearth in Gujarat. He took steps to encourage men of different sects, brahmanas as well as Jainas, to write on the various aspects and in different categories of Sanskrit literature. In his kingdom flourished Jaina scholars and brahmana pandits. Among them had prominently stood a great Jaina pontiff, Acarya Hemacandra. Siddharaja Jayasim ha was an enlightened king and during his time many temples were built which were enriched by figural sculptures showing postures which accorded with the karanas of Bharata's Natyasastra. He built a great reservoir in the environs of the capital and aptly called it 'Sahasralinga', because a thousand Sivalinga shrines encircled its banks. He also built vidyapithas for the students and the teachers, both of whom lived there free. Any learned man wanting to pursue his studies could stay there as long as he wished, and free of sustenance worries. The king was in the habit of touring in the city, often in cognito for finding out as to how the people fared and what they said. Once, disguised as a lay man, he entered one of the temples, named Karnameru. There, a Sanskrit play was being staged. He took his seat by the side of an ordinary man who was engrossed in watching the play. After a while, to his surprise, that man rested his hand on his shoulder. He did this again and again, offered betel nuts and camphor to his neighbour, the king, who responded by accepting these. After the play, the king asked his attendents to find out all about the man. The next day, to his court, he summoned the man and told hiin : "My neck is aching from the weight of the hand that you rested on it last night." But the man, with quick wit as he was, replied: "If Your Majesty does not feel the weight of the whole earth, reaching the verge

Page #2
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha of ocean, what pain can it feel from the weight of my arm, that of a mere lifeless man of straw, who subsists by trade?" The king was delighted by his answer and gave him gifts!. In this instance we notice the great king watching a performance in the company of the common people, in cognito, and his keen interest in the play. Sanskrit Drama During Siddharaja's times and those of his sliccessors, several plays were composed in Sanskrit and Prakrit by Jaina munis and brahmana pandits, some of whom were residing in Anahillapura, the capital. Hemacandracarya, the doyen of scholars, had a learned sisya-mandala (group of disciples). His chief disciple Ramacandra composed about 11 Sanskrit plays. The first play written in Gujarat was in A. D. 868 by a Jaina writer silacarya. The play in Sanskrit, named the Vibudhananda, is included within the poet's larger work, the Caupannamahapurisacariya (the life-stories of 54 great men), in Prakrit prose and verse. This one-act Sanskrit play resembles an Utsrstikanka type of the ten Rupakas mentioned by Bharata, which ends with the death of the hero. Its peculiarity is that its prastavana begins with a character called Nandi who recites the Nandi-sloka and, after his exit, enters the Sutradhara with the usual stage-direction "nandyante". In Sanskrit plays, the Nandi is sung from behind the curtain. The Vibudhananda deals with the story of a minister namned Vimalamati, who hopes to bring his king Mahabala, who is engrossed in worldly pleasures, to the path of righteousness. Knowing that the king was fond of witnessing plays, he arranges to stage a play in which the king Rajasekhara gets his daughter Bandhumati married to a Rastrakuta prince named Laksmidhara. But, as ordained by fate, Laksmidhara dies of snake bite soon after marriage. And Bandhumati immoluates herself as a sati after her husband. The King Rajasekhara, greatly distressed by this untoward happening, renounces the world and embraces prayrajya (renunciation). The enactment of this play had the desired effect on King Mahabala, who, after seeing it, renounces the world, thus fulfilling the intention of the minister. The play emphasises the fact that the fate is blind, cruel, and to defy it is fruitless : and there is no escape from death?. In Gujarat, several types out of the ten Rupakas, had been written. The next play that we come across is by the Kashmiri poet Bilhana who visited Patana and was patronized by King Karnadeva's minister Sampatkara (Santu mantri). Bilhana wrote a natika entitled Karnasundari. It depicts the marriage of Karnasundari, a vidyadhari in the play, who, however, was the guise for the princess of Karnataka, named Mayanalladevi (Mailaladevi), to whom was born the great Siddharaja Jayasimha. The natika might have been inspired by Harsa's Ratnavali. This natika was staged in the temple of Adinatha in Patana at the time of the yatra-mahotsava during Santyutsava, as mentioned in its

Page #3
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... prastavana. It was composed in c. A. D. 1070. Ramacandra (A. D. 1089-1173), the accomplished literti and disciple of Acarya Hemacandra, wrote the following eleven plays : the Nalavilasa, the Raghuvilasa, the Yaduvilasa, the Satya-Hariscandra, the Nirbhayabhima-vyayoga, the MallikaMakaranda-prakarana, the Raghavabhyudaya, the Rohinimrganka-prakarana, the Vanamala-natika, the Kaumudimitrananda, and the Yadavabhyudaya, Among these, we find that he has tried his hand on the different types of Rupakas, such as the Nataka, the Prakarana, the Natika, and the Vyayoga. (He considers 12 Rupakas with Natika derived from Nataka and Prakarani from Prakarana, two more than Bharata's). He chooses his themes from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the puranas, and also from the life of common people. Although he was a Jaina muni, he has chosen to depict a sentiment like smgara. Some critics apparently criticised him for writing plays depicting erotic sentiments, for a Jaina muni was expected not to indulge in that class of writings. But he was a man of independent thinking, who loved his freedom of expression. In his Nalavilasa-nataka, he prayed to Lord Jinesvara: svataMtro deva ! bhUyAsaM sArameyo pi varmani / mA sma bhUvaM parAyattastrilokasyApi nAyakaH / / "I would any day prefer the free life of a street dog to the sovereignty of the three worlds that is dependent on others. Indeed, he had preferred to die a tragic death by biting his tongue than to succum to the punishment inflicted by the then ruling cruel king Ajayapala, who is said to have ordered him to sit on a hot tin-plate for opposing his enthronement. Out of the 11 plays of Ramacandra', the seven-act Nalavilasa stands out in deviating from the usual story of Nala-Damayanti and making it stage-worthy. It is noteworthy for its garbhanka (a play within a play) which depicts Karuna-rasa at its best. This garbhanka is in the sixth Act. In the beginning of the sixth Act, there is a svagatokti (soliloquy) of Nala which gives the information that, after his abandonment of Damayanti in the forest, his father appearing in the form of a serpent, transforms him (Nala) into an ugly man and that he is serving as a cook at the palace of Dadhiparna, the king of Ayodhya. The King, who came to know about his mastery in some special arts, invites him to witness a play to be staged by some actors from Vidarbha. Nala comes, hoping to get some news of Damayanti, whom he earlier had abandoned in the forest but now very much regrets his deed. The garbhanka begins with the entry of the sutradhara who anounces the title of the play to be performed as Nalanvesana-prabandha (the prabandha of the search of Nala). As he hears the voice of Damayanti from the nepatliya, he makes his exit after reciting the

Page #4
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha sloka that my namaskaras to that fortunate man who has never suffered the pangs of separation from his beloved. Then enters Damayanti and two servants named Gandhara and Pingalaka of a sarthavaha (roving merchant) named Dhanapati. Seeing Damayanti alone in the forest, they ask her to go with Dhanapati, the sarthavaha. But Damayanti, unable to bear the separation, reaches a cakravaka bird, a female elephant, a bear, and a peacock and inquires each one of them the whereabouts of Nala, her husband. She shouts in the forest, "o, come my dear" ! and, on hearing the echo, she thinks Nala has replied. She runs after her own shadow taking it to be Nala. Her delicate feet are pierced by thorns and to take shelter from the burning sun, she goes to an amrakunja (mango-grove) where she sees a lion, and she rushes towards it to be devoured, but Gandhara, one of the servants, prevents her. She tries to strangle herself by a creeper, unable to bear her pain but Pingalaka saves her. Exhausted, Damayanti swoons and falls. The two men decide to hand her over to the sarthavaha, and the garbhanka ends. The play-act had been staged so effectively that the king Dadhiparna rushes to the ranga to touch the feet of Damayanti taking her to be the real one. And he and others censure Nala in very strong terms. Nala himself, in the form of Bahuka, is so much touched by the sufferings of Damayanti caused by his abandonment, that he wishes he were dead so that the unbearble wailings of his beloved would not be heard; he wishes that he were blind so that he would not have to see the pitiable plight for which he was responsible, and wishes to be engulfed in the earth. His mental state becomes so unbearable that he, too, rushes to the stage, forgetting that it was only a play. The poet has so effectively depicted Karuna rasa by this garbhanka that it touches the hearts of the spectators and makes them forget that they are witnessing only a play. The garbhanka appears in a very few Sanskrit plays, among which this is less known though in no way less important or of lesser merit than others. It is enough to show how touching the whole play is. In the earlier acts of this seven-act play, the Nalavilasa, the katha (taken from the Mahabharata) begins with Nala seeing a portrait of Damayanti. He falls deeply in love with her, and feels an intense desire to meet her. Then comes the episode of Damayantisvayamvara. She garlands Nala signifying her choosing him as her husband. Ramacandra's another notable play is the Raghuvilasa in which the "Rama-katha" is depicted according to the Jaina version and not the Valmiki Ramayana. Even in following the Jaina tradition, he has made some changes to suit his dramatic vision. Raghu in the play is not to be taken as an ancestral individual name but as a Paitrka cognomen. In the Natyadarpana, several examples are quoted from the Raghuvilasa which is noteworthy. This play seems to have been popular at the time, because its abridgement, the Raghuvilasa-natakoddhara, was also made; in it most of the prose dialogues are substituted by verses.

Page #5
Vol. 1--1995 A Glimpse into the... Some plays had been written on certain historically significant events. Among these may be mentioned the Mudrita-Kumudacandra-prakarana (c. 2nd quarter of the 12th century), dealing with the doctrinal debate between the supporters of the two Jaina sects, the Svetambara and the Digambara. In the court of Siddharaja Jayasimha, the Digambara dialection Kumudacandra and the Svetambara Devasuri held the religious debate on whether "a woman can attain salvation or not" and whether "a clothed one" can attain release or not. This 16 day long debate on doctrinal divergencies of the sects was woven into a five-act play by Yasascandra, a protege of the king of Sapadalaksa. Importance of this play lies in its depiction of the religious and social conditions of Gujarat at that time. From the prastavana of the play, it is clear that the poet wrote four more plays, but nothing is at present known about them. The Moharajaparajaya is an allegorical play, written some time between A. D. 1173 and 1176. It was staged during the yatra-mahotsava in the Kumara-vihara in the town of Tharapadra (Tharad) in North Gujarat. Its author, Yasahpala, was a minister of king Ajayapala who was not favourably disposed to Jainism. The theme of the play is to depict the marriage of Kumarapala (who preceded Ajayapala) to Krpasundari, the daughter of the allegorical King Vivekacandra of the Purusamanonagara, which had been attacked by Moharaja (the King of Delusion) as a spy (cara) named Jnanadarpana announces, and that the king had fled his kingdom and taken refuge in the tapovana (hermitage) of Hemacandra. All characters have allegorical appelations except King Kumarapala of Pattana, Hemacandra, and the Vidusaka. All other characters are symbolic of the good or bad qualities in the human beings. The purpose of the play was to extend the sway of Jainism in the kingdom by making the king embrace that religion under the influence of which he would banish some of the vices in the State, such as gambling, meat eating, suna (butcher), theft, drinking, vyabhicara (prostitution), etc. These abstract qualities appear as characters and they lament that the former kings had permitted them to stay, but now this monarch wants them to leave except at the mansions of the ganikas (courtesans). In the end, Moharaja is conquered with the help of the armour in the forin of the Yogasastra and the "Vitaragastuti" (prayer to Jina), the unseen Vidya (knowledge), and returns the kingdom of the Manonagara to its king Vivekacandra. The play provides a fine example of the social and religious conditions of Gujarat of that time. In the 13th century, Gujarat had been attacked from the south by the Yadava king Sinhana and from the north by the Muslim army at the same time. But Vastupala, the illustrious prime-minister of King Viradhavala of Dhavalakakka (Dholka), defeated both the invaders. To commemorate this famous victory, Jayasimha Suri of Bhrgukaccha wrote a play nained the Hammiramadamardana some time between A. D. 1221 and 1229. Since the play was penned by a contemporary writer, it contains useful historical material. It has five acts, the first two of which depict how Vastupala succeeds in breaking up the alliance between the Yadava King and the Lata prince Sangramsimha

Page #6
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha with the help of his secret agents. This gives some idea of the secret service of the times as in the Arthasastra. In some ways, the play betrays some resemblance to the Mudraraksasa, but it also differs from it in several ways. The play ends with a note of adbhuta, since in the end Siva himself appears to bless Vastupala. It was performed during the yatramahotsava of Bhimesvaradeva by the order of Jayantasimha, son of Vastupala. Another notable play is the Prabuddha-Rauhineya by Ramabhadra Surio. This six-act play was performed during the yatra-mahotsava in the temple of Adinatha, built by two Jaina brothers named Yasovira and Ajayapala at Jhalor. The vastu or theme of the play is taken from some contemporary incident of the time of the Buddha and Mahavira. It depicts the story of a clever thief named Rau vineya who evades capture inspite of vigorous efforts made. But finally he is caught. A clever trick is used by the minister for making him confess his crimes. A hall was transformed to look like Indrabhavana and the ganikas dressed like apsarases stood there to serve and question Rauhineya, who is brought there in a heavily drunken condition. When he was somewhat sober, he found himself surrounded by beautiful damsels who tell him that they are so happy to have him among them and they dance and sing in joy. He felt he was really in heaven! Now, Rauhineya had been earlier advised by his father never to listen to the words of lord Mahavira. Once, while passing through a place near which Mahavira was delivering a sermon, he closed his ears. But a thorn pricked his foot and he was forced to hear a few words of the sermon- "that gods never perspire, they do not tire, never wink, and their feet do not touch the ground." And Rauhineya in his present situation realizes that what he sees is merely a trick of the minister to make him confess his crimes. When asked what punyas (merits) he accrued that brought him there, he says he has done nothing but good and noble deeds all his life! The trick of the minister having failed, he informs the king to release Rauhineya as nothing could be proven. The king orders that he should be brought before him. When the king tells him that he is set free, he is unable to believe. He realized that, if a few words of Mahavira could save his life, then, by surrendering himself to the Jina, he could be free from this wretched cycle of life and death for ever. He surrendered all the wealth he had amassed by stealing. Thus, he took to the path to Enlightenment?. Apart from the Nataka, the Natika, and the Prakarana, the other Rupaka type that had been employed in Gujarat is the Vyayoga which is a one-act play. Three vyayogas so far have been found. The Nirbhaya-Bhima-vyayoga of Ramacandra, the Parthaparakrama of Prahaladanadeva, and the Sankhaparabhava of Harihara. In these vyayogas, of Gujarat and elsewhere, usually Bhima or Arjuna are the heroes. But in Sarkhaparabhava of Harihara, the hero is the famous minister Vastupala, a contemporary, who has been chosen as the main character. The Nirbhaya-Bhima deals with the story of how Bhima kills Bakasura, who wants one

Page #7
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... 75 person from each family every day for his meal. The episode took place while the Pandavas were in exile. They heard the wailing of the mother and wife of a brahmana who was to be the victim of the demon. Bhima consoled them, saying that he will substitute himself for the brahmana, In the end, after the demon had been killed, the play ends with the Bharatavakya of the brahmana blessing Bhima. The Parthaparakrama was composed by Prahaladandeva, the younger brother of the Paramara King Dharavarsa of Abu, in V. S. 1226 (A. D. 1170) while he was still an heirapparent. The play was performed during the Pavitrakaropana festival in the Acalesvara temple on Mt. Abu by the order of the king. Its kathavastu (plor) is taken from the "Virata-parva" of the Mahabharata when the Pandavas were to remain in cognito in the last year of their exile and had sought employment with king of Virata. The Kauravas attempted to drive away the cows of Virata and Arjuna defeated them, and brought the * animals back. This vyayoga is noteworthy from the viewpoint of the Natyasastra conventions. After the nandi sloka, usually it is the sthapaka who first enters and recites two slokas, and then enters a nata who addresses him as sutradhara. Here, however, it is the sthapaka who enters first. But in the Natyasastra of Bharata, the first entry after the nandi is made by the sutradhara, who performs the jarjara puja, etc. as a part of the purvaranga, alongwith pariparsvika and the vidusaka, and after their exit enters the sthapaka who resembles the sutradhara in every way and performs the sthapana8. The author claims to depict Dipta rasa in the play. The play ends with the Bharatavakya sung by Indra instead of the nayaka (hero) as was the convention in the earlier Sanskrit plays. Kavi Harihara was a bralmana from Gauda-desa. He was on a pilgrimage to Somanatha in Gujarat, and on his way had stopped at Stambhatirtha where governed the great Vastupala, the minister of King Viradhavala. Harihara was so impressed by Vastupala's many fine qualities that he wrote the Sankhaparabhava-vyayoga commemorating an important event in Vastupala's life. The nayaka of the play depicts how Vastupala defeated Sankha (the chief of Lata). The peculiarity of the play is that, like the Parthaparakrama, the sthapaka and the sutradhara are shown as unified and like the earlier-mentioned vyayoga, the Bharatavakya sloka is sung by the sresthi (Vastupala ?) with puja of Bhagavati who blesses all through the Akasabhasita. Among the natakas, Somesvaradeva's Ullagha-Raghava is also a notable example, written by the hereditary rajapurohita (chief priest) of the Caulukya kings of Anahillpura - pattana'. Besides this play, he has several other Sanskrit works to his credit, among which is the Kirtikaumudi, a kavya praising his friend and patron Vastupala. Somesvaradeva praised Vastupala not just because of his friendship and patronage but also because he was a great warrior and an equally great patron of the learned, the builder of the temples at Satrunjaya, Girnara, and several other places, and a well known literti in his own right. In the cultural and political history of Gujarat in the 13th century,

Page #8
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha he had played an invaluable role alongwith his brother Tejapala. The Ullagha-Raghava has a verse at the end of each of its nine acts in praise of Vastupala's many noble qualities, particularly his generosity. The story of Rama is presented in the form of nataka, which was performed in the Jaganmandira of Dvarika on the sacred day of the Prabodhini-ekadasi. It was performed before an assembly of learned brahmana pandits. The sthapaka enters after the nandi slokas in praise of Sri Kssna, and tells the nati that the play Ullagha-Raghava is to be performed before the august assembly of the brahmana pandits who have gathered there from many places on the occasion of the sacred parva (festival). The play begins with the departure of Sita from her home in Janakapuri after her wedding with Rama, a scene somewhat resembling the fourth act of the Sakuntala, in which Sakuntala takes leave of the asrama-inmates, of course under different conditions and situation. The play is based on the natyasastric rules and must have been popular among the people because of its theme. The play was written at the request of Somesvara's son. (He seems to have written one other play also, which, however, is not available). Another peculiarity of the Ullagha-Raghava is that its foruth Act ends with the words .......3A 1 474127o Agents and in the 7th Act?, two characters, Vakramukha and Karpatika, are describing among themselves the Lanka war between Rama-Ravana forces : sakhe ! kiyadapyantargataM mayA rAmalakSmaNayoH svarUpaM svAmino manovinodAya patrapaTTe .. vinyastamasti / tad avalokayatu / iti paTTamarpayati, kAryATikaH gRhItvA vilokya ca / sAdhu mahAmate ! sAdhu / chAyAnATyAnusAreNa manoharamidamAlikhitaM bhavatA / / iti vAcayati Here, the words 314177 and 91911 are used. Another chayanataka, named the Dutangada by Subhata (A.D.1242-1244), is also known. This is said to be the first chayanataka proper in the Sanskrit literature. It was staged in Patana during the dolotsava in the Siva temple by the order of the then king, Tribhuvanapala. Subhata was also a protege of Vastupala". The Dharmabhyudaya of Meghaprabhacarya (A. D. 1217) seems to have been written for the puppet theatre as it is mentioned in one of its stagedirections. It has been called a chayanataka!2.

Page #9
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... Muslim Period Plays continued to be written and staged during the Muslim Period also. Noteworthy among them was the Gangadasapratapavilasa of Rajakavi Gangadhara (A. D. 1449). It depicts the theme of the defeat of Sultan Muhammad of Ahmedabad and his ally, the chief of Idar, by Raja Gangadasa of Champaner. The play is a landmark in the cultural history of Gujarat, because the actors who staged this play came from far off Vijayanagara. It was staged in the sabhagrha of the Mahakali temple in Champaner at the foot of Pavagadha. The play ends with the appearance of Mahakali who gives a flower to the king as a token of her blessings. In this brief survey of the Sanskrit Drama Tradition in Medieval Gujarat, the attempt has been made to deinonstrate the variety of the Rupakas that were composed and also staged. It is not possible to give a detailed account of the 35 odd plays in this brief ** survey. Geya Rupakas At this time, two different streanis of dramatic literature are clearly noticeable. One more or less followed Bharata's Margi Dasarupaka tradition : The other was the popular tradition of the second generation of plays for which, during the Caulukya period, c. 11th to 13th century, no definite name was given. For, we find Hemacandra calling these second generation plays the "Geya-ritpakas" or rupakas which were music-based. Ramacandra-Gunacandra enumerated these plays and called them "Anyani-rupakani" 'other forms of drama which were different from those described by them in their Natyadarpana. The Natyadarpana is among the very few works on dramaturgy and is invaluable for the study of the subject from the viewpoint of its time. Like all the later works, its main source of reference is the Natyasastra of Bharata. But it also shows the influence of the Dasarupaka of Dhananjaya (10th century), though he differs from both these works in some ways, which shows the change in the presentation style of the play at this time and also in the theoretical aspects of drama. For example, he believed that an actor cannot play a character fully unless he hinself feels the emotions through which the character passes. He gives an example : "A prostitute, while giving pleasure to others, herself also gets enjoyment." Earlier writers believed that an actor need not feel the character's emotions. He also differed from others who believed that rasa should give ananda (joy) like the Brahmananda (eternal bliss). The Natyadarpana says that rasa was sukhatmaka joyful) as well as dulkhatmaka (painful) "3. The purpose of the rasa was not only to give joy by seeing the play but was also to hold a mirror to the tragedies in life.

Page #10
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha His plays falling under the Prakarana type refelect his keen observation of the life around him among the people. Further, he adds two more types in the ten Rasasrya Rupakas, making the total number 12, as noted earlier, the two being the Natika and the Prakaranika. Significantly, the Natyadarpana does not include Sattaka (written in Prakrit) as it is concerned only with the Sanskrit Natya tradition. Hemacandracarya also mentions 12 types of Geya Rupakas!or Geya Kavyas and defines them as padarthabhinayatmaka which broadly expressed the bhava of a pada and were music-oriented. Besides these Geya Rupakas, he has mentioned 12 rupakas proper which were rasasrya (based on rasa). He also called these latter Pathya Rupakas, which were recitational. Hemacandra as well as Ramacandra call the Bhavasrya Rupakas as anyani rupakani, other forms of Rupakas's. The author of the Bhavaprakasa (13th century) called them natyabhidhah plays based on dance. It was Visvanatha from Bengal (14th century) who, in the Sahitya-darpana, called them Uparupakas (minor forms of drama), the denomination which later became popular and was widely used. Thus, we see that there were two parallel traditions of drama : One Marga, as Bharata's tradition came to be called, which was rasasrya (based on rasa) and it was vakyarthabhinayatmaka (depicting detailed abhinaya of each sentence). The other tradition came to be called Desi which was bhavasraya, broadly depicting the sense of a pada through bhava (emotions), and was called padarthabhinayatmaka. There are also clear indications that even the Marga tradition of Bharata, on which the later authors like Dhananjaya, Hemacandra, and Ramacandra-Gunacandra had based their works, had undergone some changes as the plays written during their times indicate. They include long narrative passages which would appear rather uninteresting when read. But, in a stage-production, in the style prevalent during those times, they could be very engrossing and entertaining. Long soliloquies or descriptive passages, instead of being spoken in merely Vacika abhinaya, if acted with Argika abhinaya with appropriate dance, movements, hand-gestures, anga-bhangis (body-bends), facial expressions with netrabhinaya, and accompanied by appropriate music, they could be highly interesting, entertaining, and absorbing. And hence, the criticism of some scholars that the Sanskrit drama was declining in quality during the medieval times hardly has any substance. Such criticism merely shows the lack of historical perspective in which the latter Sanskrit plays must be viewed. I would cite the example of Kerala's surviving Sanskrit dramatic tradition, called Kutiyattam. The term seemingly is of later origin, because in some of the old manuals wirtten for the actors and the stage presentation, called the Attaprakara-s, and the Kramadipika-s, the term used is kuthu, which in Sanskrit could be translated as natya, used for the prayoga of the actor's Art with its technique of four-dimensional abhinaya - Angika, Vacika, aharya, and Satrvika. We see

Page #11
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... in Kutiyattam a clear departure in the prayoga--performance-technique of the Sanskrit plays as the emphasis is basically on the Kaisiki vrtti and Angika abhinaya accompanied by Nytta or pure dance, Vacika-pathya (recitational or sung speech), Gira, (singing), and Vadya (instrumental music). Kutiyatrain is a living tradition, indeed of more than a thousand years standing. Now, how were the plays written during the Caulukya tiine performed ? This can be discerned from a long description of the staging of a Sanskrit play, given by Acarya Hemacandra in his Trisastisalakapurusacarita (TISSPC), Parva 5, Sarga 2 (Santinatha parva)". Two brothers, Anantavirya and Aparajita, of whom the latter was the king of Subhanagara in the Jambudvipa, possessed two highly skilled actresses named Barbarika and Kirati wlio were like jewels on earth. Narada muni visits their court, but feels slighted as he is not properly received, because the brothers were engrossed in the play that was being enacted by Barbarika and Kirati. Enraged, Narada goes to the court of the gandharva-chief Damitari. He praises the actresses he saw at the court of the earthly king. Damitari immediately orders his messangers to bring those actresses to him. The brothers decide to go themselves to the court of Damitari, disguising themselves as actresses Barbarika and Kirati, and present themselves. Damitari, impatient to see the play acted by them, ordered them to start the performance at once. "Damitari looked at the slave-girls cetyavapasyat , with a gentle glance. Merit that has been heard of, even through popular report, causes devotion on the part of connoisseurs. Damitari instructed them to perform a playi'. Verily, the desire to see something new cannot endure delay. Then the two, in the roles of actresses, went on the stage immediately and delivered the preliminaries of their parts, bearing of the drum, etc. The stage director (rangacarya) made the stage-puja with handful of flowers and the troupe of female singers and other sat down in the proper directions. An actor recited the invocation (Nandi) with a musical accompaniment suited to the invocation. At the end of the invocation, he portrayed the prologue with its parts. The singers, wearing various costumes, behind the scenes, sang the introductory verse with Jati-ragas, etc, introducing the characters : vicitranepathyadharo nepathye gAyanIjanaH / jagau ca jAtirAgAdyAM pAtraprAvezikAM dhruvAm / / Then they began to act a drama, an ocean of the sentiments, charming from the combination of the elements of plot, situations, component parts of the divisions of the play), and the divisions (Sandhi) : prakRtyavasthAsaMdhyaMgasaMdhisaMbaMdhabandhuram / pracakrame'thAbhinetuM nATakaM rasasAgaram // At times, there took place the representation of peace and war in Smara's empire with lovers' meetings, rivers of nectar of pure bliss, and with separations (of lovers), sources

Page #12
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha of various painful situations, with various devices for the union of lovers by atonement for improper acts : saMprayogerathekAntasukhapIyUSasindhubhiH / viprayogerapi tattaduHkhAvasthA nibandhanaiH / / tattatatsaMghaTTanopAyairapAya parihArataH / kvApyabhUt smara sAmrAjyasaMdhivigraha kalpanam // Sometimes even the sophisticated townsmen were made to laugh, like the villagers, by fat men, men with projecting teeth, lame men, hunchbacks, flat-nosed men, inen with disheveled hair, bald men, one-eyed men, and other deformed men; by ash-coloured men; by men with buttock-bells, by musicians using arm-pit and the nose as instruments, by dancers of the ear and brow, by mimicary masters, by deceitful people, and at the same time simple-minded, such as the buffoons and the boon-companions : vidUSakaviTaprAyaiH sadyaH kapaTamugdhakaiH / grAmINavadahAsyaMtacchekAH paurA api kvacit // Even wicked men, softened by speeches off-stage, by reproaches to fate, by shedding tears, by unsuitable requests, by rolling on the ground, by lamentations, by leaps from precipices, by hanging from trees, by entering into fire and water, by swallowing poison, etc., by blows with weapons, by frequently beating on the heart caused by the destruction of wealth and murder of beloved, shed tears at times. Sometimes men, though quite self-possessed, were made to tremble (with anger) by biting the lips with the teeth, by redness of the eyes, by frowns, by palpitations of the cheeks, by rubbing together the fingers, by tearing up the ground, by drawing weapons, by drawing blood, by quick attacks, by fights, by blows, by trembling of the limbs, by shedding tears caused by kidnapping of women, the abuse of slave-girls, etc. Men, timid by nature, had courage produced at once by dignity, resoluteness, courage, skill, and by various other most excellent virtues, liberality, etc., originating from valour toward the enemy and in exertion in good conduct, etc. The people in the audience were sometimes reduced instantly to a state of terror by dryness of the palate, throat, and lips, by glances from rolling eyes, by trembling hands, hoarseness, change in colour and shedding tears, caused by seeing mainfestations of ghosts, etc., and by hearing sounds from them, etc. Sometimes the audience was exceedingly disgusted, instantly by contractions of the body, palpitations of the heart, screwing up of the nose and mouth, spitting, crushing of the lips and fingers etc., caused by seeing, hearing, etc. of bad smells, vomiting, and worms from wounds. Sometimes the audience was astonished suddenly by the wide-opening of the eyes, by glances without winking, by the appearance of perspiration, tears, horripilation, by exclamations of "well done," etc., caused by the sight of the supernatural, attainment of desires, exhibitions of magic etc. :

Page #13
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... divyAlokepsitaprAptIndrajAlaprekSaNAdijaiH / vismAyyate sma sahasA vavanApi sabhAsadaH // Sometimes the people, greedy for the enjoyment of sense-objects, were made tranquil by meditation on the mula- and uttara-gunas, by thinking of texts concerning the Supreme Spirit, by attendance on good gurus, by pujas to the gods and such other things arising from disgust with existence, fear of worldly existence, knowledge of the Principles, etc. : mUlottaraguNadhyAnairadhyAtmagraMdhacitanaiH / sadguramAsanairdevapUjAdyairitarairapi // Just as all kinds of sentiments were portrayed by the actors, so all the spectators became composed by them. The actors looked like characters (themselves) who had come, because of dramatic actions, conveyed by expressions, etc. to be properly portrayed: vairAgyasaMsArabhayatatvajJAnAdijanmAbhiH / zamamIyuH kacidapi viSayAsvAdagudhnadaH // When the king, chief of the prudent, had seen this dramatic art, he considered the two slave-girls to be the jewels in the ocean of existence. Then the king entursted his daughter, named Kanakasri, to the pretender slave-girls for instruction in acting": yathA yathAbhyanIyanta rasAH sarve kuzIlavaiH / sAmAjikajanaH sarvastanmayo 'bhUttathA tathA || vAcikAdyairabhinayairyathAvadupapAtitaiH / alakSyaMtAbhinetAye'pyabhineyA ivAgatAH // 81 taM nATakavidhi prekSya nRpaH prekSAvadagraNIH / saMsAraratnabhUtaM tu ceTIdvayamamanyata // atha nATakazikSAyai mAyAceyostayornRpaH / putra samarpayAmAsa nAmataH kanakazriyAm // This long description of the staging of a Sanskrit play is a rare example of such an information and is unique in some ways. It not only portrays a graphic picture of the performance but mentions several terms which permit an insight into the natyasastric tradition of the time of Hemcandra whose status in the world of learning is unequalled. He describes the Purvaranga mentioning pratyalara, etc. with which, enjoins the .

Page #14
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha Natyasastra, the preliminaries should begin before the staging of the play. The entry of the character is made with the appropriate Dhruvagana and Jatiragas, the Natyasastra terms for the musical modes prevalent during the time of Bharata. The play itself is described as depicting different rasas and is termed rasasagara--an ocean of rasas. Hemacandra clearly shows that he follows the natyasastric tradition according to which the plays must have been staged at least up to his time, i. e., 12th century. But the authors of the Natyadarpana, Ramacandra and Gunacandra, Hemacandra's own disciples, do not seem to consider Purvaranga except the Nandi to be essential in the staging of the plays. They regard Nandi important as it consists of benedictory verses in praise of gods and blessings for the audience. Ranga While speaking of Nandi, the Natyadarpana in its fourth viveka (chapter) mentions two types of theatres: the Tryasra (triangular) and the Caturasra (square). It says: "The length of the Nandi depends on the shape of the theatre. In a triangular theatre, the Nandi can consist of maximum 12 padas and minimum of three padas 21. In a square theatre, it consists of 16 padas (at the most) or minimally four padas. This is a very significant piece of information. For many of the Caulukya period plays were performed in the temples on the occasion of some religious festival. But they do not mention where exactly the plays were performed in the temple. The temple, whether Jaina or brahminical, had a mandapa called sabhamandapa or rangamandapa or natyamandapa. Here, the devadasis, the sons of ministers and tradesmen, or even the queens at times must have performed dances in the propitiatory ceremonies for the gods. But these were not suitable for the staging of the plays, though once in a while they may have done so. - The mention of the two types of theatres, Tryasra and the Caturasra, leaves no doubt now as to where the plays were staged in the temple complex. These two types of theatres might have been constructed with the Ranga (stage) facing the deity as in the Kuttampalam of Kerala. The square theatre might have been of the madliyama or middling size, measuring 64 hastas on all sides and the kaniyas measuring 32 hastas on all its three sides. The following illustrations show the theatres re-constructed by the present author on the basis of the Chapter II of the Natyasastra. (See Illustrations 1 and 2.) An example of vara para entry in the Prabuddharauhineya22 suggests that two doors must have been curtained for practical reasons of barring the view of the nepatliya activity to the audience. And its dramatic use was certainly made by the actors. The Tryasra stage could not have mattavarani-s the side-extensions and suppplimentary

Page #15
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... areas on the stage, as it was smaller in size. Also, it was not necessary to have the mattavarni-s because only one or iwo actors, as in Bhana or Vithi rupaka, must have participated. But there were mattavarani-s on the Caturasra stage as it was large enough and on which Prahasana and Prakarana types of Rupaka with larger cast and showing simultaneous scenes, it would be necessary. The nepathya might have been partitioned off to create rooms for the male and female performers. Their entries to the nepathya might have been as shown in the diagrams. The stage was backed by a wall separating it from the nepathya. In this wall, there must have been two doors for facilitating the entries and exits of the characters, In Tryasra, a single door in the wall backing the stage was enough due to smaller cast. The musicians on the Caturasra stage might have sat on the other side of the mattavarani-s or on the off-stage on the right side as they do even now. The three areas of the stage, rangapitha and the two mattavarani-s, each measured 16 hastas square according to Bharata's specifications as applied to the middle-sized Caturasra theatre. Bharata has described the Vikrsta-madliya theatre at length as it was neither too small not too large for staging the Nataka and the Prakarana type of Rupakas having large casts, but he has only briefly described the small-sized (kaniyas) Tryasra and Caturasra, each measuring 32 hastas on all sides. But later writers of the medieval times mention Caturasra type of theatre of madhya (middling) size measuring 64 hastas square. This was so because there was greater emphasis on dance and music during this time and group-dances as in the Hallisaka would require a larger stage and also more ample space for a large orchestra. Mattavarani-s on either side of the middle-sized (Caturasra-madhya) stage were necessary because the plays abounded in simultaneous scenes played in different locales --- kaksya-s --- as Bharata called them. This theatre differs from the Kuttampalam of Kerala, where also, even now, the Sanskrit plays are staged. Kuttampalam is a rectangular building having a square stage at one end with a roof of its own". (See Illustration 3.) In the Kuttampalam Sanskrit drama tradition, the emphasis is on the Angika abhinaya in Kaisiki vrtti with highly stylised recitational speech. It is Natyadharmi in style. The plays staged were classical plays based on the Ramayana or the Mahabharata. with divine or semi-divine characters and this stage was suitable for it. The Caulukya tradition of Gurjaradesa seems to lay emphasis on Bharati vitti in which the speech predominated. In other words, these were Pathya-rupakas in Lokadharmi style. The plays staged were Prakaranas, also the Natakas. They depicted contemporary kings with elements of adbhuta in them.

Page #16
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha Here, the Lokadharmi is definitely not to be mistaken for the straight realistic speech of every day. But some form of stylised speech might have been used, since the Sanskrit drama had nothing to do with the realism as understood today in west-oriented plays. The Caulukyan plays might have used some sort of poetic recitational form of speech. We have, unfortunately, no example to go by as in Kuriyarram, which is a living tradition, at least of a thousand year standing as earlier said. Some stage directions also provide an indication of the equipment used on the stage. We have already mentioned pata, also called pati of apali by earlier playwrights like Bhasa, and is mentioned by Bharata who has also indicated the circumstances under which it was to be used : a character entering in anger, deep sadness, or in great joy, was to enter with a fling of the curtain. We have already mentioned above an exaniple of pataksepaentry. Apart from this pata, there definitely was used another type of entry which indicated a different kind of curtain -- a flexible one which could be moved on any part of the stage as it was held by two persons holding the upper ends. I have called this curtain "citrayavanika" after Bhavabhuti, who has named it so in his play, the Malati-Madhava. It is a sinali, colourful curtain and due to its flexibility, could be of considerable dramatic effect : (3) It could suddenly reveal a character behind it by lowering it. It had the impact almost like that of a modern spot light. It could be trembled to show the fear in the character behind. The two persons holding it could manipulate it to suggest water, flying, etc. Behind it could be made an entry, such as "Enters as Indicated" e.g. (: fasil en farfet ) found in many a Sanskrit plays including those of the Caulukyan period, such as the Malavilas, the Mallika-Makaranda, the Ullagha-Raghava, and the Prabuddharauhineya. Thus, the two doors, with their apati-s, a citra-yavanika, some asanas or seats, a throne, swords, bow and arrow, etc. were the only props necessary for the staging of these plays on the Caturasra-madhiyama stage of that era. And the inagination of the audience did the rest. The Third Drama Tradition Apart from these two dramatically different traditions mentioned by the Natyadarpana, one also sees the existence of a third popular drama tradition, which was less sophisticated than the other two and was for the enjoyment of the people of lower social strata. We know this from a work called the Laghuprabandha-sangrala of the 15th century, whose author's name is not known. This work mentions :

Page #17
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... bhavAiyAtrAyAM rAjA nRtyati / Yeai aigufa 1121 This short but clear mention of the Bhavai, the popular traditional dramatic form, still prevalent in Gujarat, was a very clear indication of the existance of the Bhavai and its very naine is very significant : for Asaita Thakara, who flourished in the 14th century, is said to be traditionally the originator of Bhavai. He himself did not call it Bhavai and the word seems to have been used in the next century. He called it "IC". In the Desi drainatic forms, the uparupakas, dance, and music were the basic elements and even the dialogues were sung rather than spoken in straight speech. Asaita Thakara's contribution was limited, though very significant, to writing plays by adding prose dialogues alongwith the verse dialogues 2. Writes the Jaina poet Lavanyasamdaya (16th century) in his Vimalaprabandha2 : 14 GET it (where there is a chowk (cacara, Skt. catvara), there is a jatar) and further laments about the social conditions then prevaling: (The dramatic persona are considered sudras; p.30 : a : The lowly is the actor's art.) (p.31). He further says, 7 TOE T HE nArAU~ jovA jAi jAtra gharanA bAla: melhai vAri capala paNai hIrai saMsArI (The women do not bother about their husbands or children and flock to see the jatra.) Although the status of the actor (natakiya) was ranked low, the jatra clearly was very popular. It is also clear that this jatra was a fully developed form in the lete medival times as people flocked to see it. The (Bhavai) term was already in existence before Asaita's time in Gujarat as known from this late but dependable Solanki source. Conclusion The Dramatic traditions of Medieval Gujarat, the Sanskrit Rupakas, and the GeyaRupakas or the "other forms" (3741 774 ) were an all-India phenomenon. Both these forms with their regional emphasis were prevalent in many parts of the country as we know it from the writers of the medieval times, of the south as well as of the north. Southern writers like Sarngadeva, Saradatanaya, Jaya Senapati, and others wrote about these Marga and Desi dramatic traditions and so did the writers in the north such as Bhoja of Dhara, Hemacandra, Ramacandra-Gunacandra, Visvanatha of Bengal, and Rana Kunbha of Rajasthan the names given by them of the Desi forms are almost the same in the south and north, though sometimes the nunbers vary. Now nothing is known

Page #18
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha about the Rupakas or the Uparupakas. These became the entertainment for the court and the elite and vanished with feudalism. Perhaps the third generation of dramatic forms now prevalent all over India absorbed. The Rupaka-Margi Sanskrit tradition also vanished from many parts of the country except in Kerala where it still survives in the form of a regional variation and has acquired a strong local colour. Only decades ago, many classical Sanskrit plays were staged in full, each lasting for weeks. But now only single acts from a few plays are staged which take seven or 15 days depending on the act and the actor's capacity and knowledge. It must be noted that more than 35 plays were written and many of these were staged during the Caulukyan times. The Sanskrit plays must have been popular as indicated by the Prabandhacintamani mentioning the incident of Siddharaja Jayasimha watching the play with a gram-seller. The plays were staged during the yatra-mahotsavas, the gods, birthday celebrations, vasantotsava, and other occasions. These plays were sponsored by the kings as well as rich tradesmen who were either Jaina or Brahaminist, both of whom used the plays for their religious propaganda. And people flocked to see them. The Natyadarpana clearly mentions the Trysra and the Caturasra theatres in which the plays were staged in the temple complexes. But the plays also seem to have been staged in the rangamandapa-s of the temples. Geya-Rupakas also might have been staged in these theatres as they also had been patronized by the courts and were codified and become sophisticated and had moved away from the common people. I would like specifically to point out that Hemacandra, while speaking of the GeyaRupakas, ended the sentence with the word " s" (et cetera). This clearly shows that there were other Geya-Rupakas also besides those he mentioned. The Bhavai, as we have seen, was a full-fledged dramatic form by the 14th century as the words "7915ET4i "etc. clearly point out. This leads to the belief that the Bhavai also may have been one of the Geya-Rupakas in its early stage in Caulukya times. And it is from this Bhavai GeyaRupakas that Asaita Thakara, by adding pathya (prose) dialogues reformed it to suit the environment of his time. And he enriched it by writing 350 plays as the tradition goes. Among the third generation forms that are seen all over India which around the 15th century and after, Asaita Thakara seems to be the first among these to reform Bhavai in the 14th century.

Page #19
Vol. 1-1995 A Glimpse into the.... Notes and References : 1. Cf. the Prabandhacinta mani or The "Wishing Scone of Narratives, composed by Acarya Merutunga, translated by C. H. Tawny, Asiatic Society, Calcutta 1899, pp.106-107. 2. nIlAMjanA zAha, "calapatramahApurisacariyAntargata "vibudhAnanda nATaka' para eka naja2, phArbasa gujarAtI sabhA saimAsika, 145, MLZ 9682. Cf. Mallikamakarandanataka by Ramacandra, Ed. Muni Punyavijayaji and "Introduction", Notes, etc. by V. M. Kulkarni. L. D. Institute of Indology Series, (No.) 91, Ahmedabad 1983. p.25. Radha Vallabh Tripathi, translation in Hindi, Narya Sankrit Parishad Publication. Nilanjana S. Shah, A Note on ut of the play afect. (Personal Note * 1993). ve Gifgutan, Teuf, el 4 SLIHUE HOU, 6494212 So Hoteze. prabuddharauhiNeya and malikAmakaranda - hindI anuvAdaH rAdhA vallabha tripAThI, saMskRta pariSad, sAgara vizvavidyAlaya, sAgara (ma.pra.) 3863. Par Farha Rufa: Natyasastra, G.O.S. Vol. 2, Baroda, p. 248 Ullagha-Raghava Natakam by Somesvaradeva. Ed. Muni Punyavijayaji and B. J. Sandesara, Oriental Institute, Baroda 1961. Ibid., Act 7, p. 136. Carla (a$ 4, 2-1 : Slagllas 247 nits 216147, 248 25187, HELQLE 8868. p.52. There is some controversy regarding these Chayanatakas which need detailed discussion. See Carla lasu 42, "2142uulon10944141128 24091461124", uu , 244614E HC 2. reco, 4 EUR2-02. 46145:14 17:, in afat %. 231," 210 i sized 1429", Stela , (Gujarati); 4. 40-90, 431EURR! 9684. Y. 28, 30, 39. A. M. Upadhyaya, Kavyanusasana of Acarya Hemacandra-A Critical Study, Ahmedabad 1987. pp. 421-424. These rasas are : Dombika, Bhana, Prasthara, Singaka, Bhanika, Purana, Ramakrida, Hallisaka, Rasaka, Gosthi, sugadita, and Ragakavya, See Govardhan Panchal, Bhavai and Its Typical Aharya-Costumes, Make-up, props of the Popular Dramatic Form of Gujarat, Ahmedabad 1983. Usha Bhise, "The Technique of Medieval Sanskrit Drama," Journal of The National Centre for the Performing Arts, Bombay Vol. VIII, No. 4, December 1979. Trisastisalakapurusacarita of Acarya Hemacandra. Translated by Helen M. Johnson, Oriental Institute, Baroda 1949; also, feriferici r afa, fed 91214, 21HELLE (a.i. 2080 (S. Ho 964X); and that by Jainendra Prasaraka Sabha, Bhavnagar 19 ?. For the numerous technical dramatic terms in this passage, see the works on dramaturgy, the Natyasastra, the Bhavaprakasa, the Dasarupaka, and Keith's The Sanskrit Drama.

Page #20
Govardhan Panchal Nirgrantha Naryabhinayaya te. The Sanskrit phrase is from TSPC. Johnson, TSPC, Vol. 2, pp. 238-241. K. H. Trivedi, The Naryadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra-A Critical Study, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad 1966, Ch. IV, pp. 176-77, etc. vegaafuta, all Ho, Y. CH. See Goverdhan Panchal, Kuttampalam and Kutiyattam -A study of the Traditional Theatre of the Sanskrit Drama of Kerala, New Delhi 1984. gujarAtano rAjakIya ane sAMskRtika itihAsa graMtha 4,"solaMkIkALa" khaMDa 2, prakaraNa 10: "sAmAjika sthiti" pR 289, suis uu. mo 6o al3azt, "jxtui nizare ," slastal 11, yo EUR3, uelu. Alq446446f, Paneru Translated by D. D. Shah, Gujarat Sahitya Sabha, Ahmedabad 1965. Besides the sources figuring in the annotations, the author has used the following sources: (i) Nalavilasa of Ramacandra Suri, ed. G. K. Shrigondekar and Pt. L. B. Gandhi, Oriental Institute, Baroda 1926. (ii) Helixmt 1. Ale, "98Hi azert tesi, 245 Eud, R14, EG TE a fer 19974, Ahmedabad Mar. 1991. (iii) A. K. Majumdar, Caulukyas of Gujarat, "Prama," Bombay 1956, pp. 363-364.

Page #21
8 2 5 32H B 6 8 6 3 wing 5 32 H CATURSRA NATYA MANDAPA TRYASRA NATYA MANDAPA B 1 ENTRANCE TO NEPATHYA NEPATHYA 3 ENTRY EXIT DOOR TO & FROM RANGA (STAGE) 4 PATI - APATI C DOOR CURTAINS) 5 RANGA PITHA 6 MATTAVARANT 7 PREKSAKA - NIVESANA 8 PASSAGE 9 ENTRANCE FOR AUDIENCE 2 (DRG. BY NARENDRA PANCHAL) Po ENTRANCE TO NEPATHYA 2 NEPATHYA 3 4 5 RANGA- (STAGE) 6 7 ENTRY & EXIT DOOR PATI - APATI CDOOR CURTAIND PREKSAKA -(NIVESANA) ENTRANCE FOR PREKSAKA CDRG BY NARENDRA PANCHAL?

Page #22
1- STUPI 2 - STAGE 3 - PREKSAKA SECTION "KUTTAMPALAM" C VATAKKUNNATHAN TEMPLE AT- THRISSUR CRERALA)