Doctrine of Liberation in Indian Religion

Author(s): Shivkumarmuni
Publisher: Munshiram Manoharlal Publisher's Pvt Ltd New Delhi
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006522/1

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The Doctrine of Liberation
in Indian Religion
With Special Reference to Jainism
DR. MUNI SHIVKUMAR
2010_03

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Man's incessant efforts to apprehend the enigma of the final goal-Salvation (mokša)-have tempted him to explore new vistas. This is yet another attempt to explore that incomprehensible truth. In his endeavour to understand and elucidate the various theories and philosphies of liberation, Muni Shivkumar has drawn on the philosphies of four important religions of the world Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. His unbiased approach towards the different theories and their logical analysis makes the present work indispensable for the seekers of truth.
Rs 80.00
2010

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erary

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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGION
With Special Reference to Jainism
by
MUNI SHIVKUMAR, M.A., Ph.D.
with a foreword by Prof. L. M. JOSHI
Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
2010_03

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First Published 1984
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Shivkumar, Muni
Published by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 54 Rani Jhansi Road, New Delhi-110055 for Shri Jainendra Gurukula, Panchakula, Distt. Ambala, and printed by Royson Printers, Phulkian Marg, Patiala, Punjab.

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FOREWORD
Happiness is the immediate and ultimate aim of human life and exertion. Perfect freedom is another name of happiness. Man seeks freedom of every kind, political, social, economical, intellectual and personal-emotional freedom. All these forms of freedom have one end in view and that end is the complete, perfect and lasting state of happiness. This is the one ultimate goal of the whole of human culture in its broad sense which subsumes all areas of human activity from agriculture, industry, food, clothing, music, and love making to selfsacrificing religious piety, stern monastic asceticism, ecstatic devotion to God or gods, subtle philosophical speculation and intense meditation; from education, poetry, painting, book writing to engineering, warlike activities, and suicidal techniques. We do not know of any human being in the long history of man's restlessness who refused to seek freedom and bappiness. This indeed, is the one indisputable and self-evident fact which declares the fundamental equality of all human and non-human beings : they all desire and seek to procure the freedom that knows no suffering. All beings, human and sub-human, in all ages and places have been seeking happiness; this perhaps is one of the universal and continuously uniform truths known to the whole history of human race from the age of prehistoric barbarism to that of supersonic jets and interplanetary communications of our own age. The quest of freedom in happiness runs through the entire course of human cultures and civilizations like the golden string running across the multi-faceted gems of diverse kinds and colours forming a single garland of humanity. In the classical religious terminology of India the supreme form of freedom in happiness has been called nirvāņa, mokşa, kaivalya and visuddhi. To refer to it in English by the term Liberation or Release is a good workable device of linguistic communication.
The doctrine of Ultimate Release or Supreme Liberation may be said to represent the climax of the development of Indian religiousness and spiritual awareness. All religious systems of Indian origin have unanimously upheld the supremacy and ultimacy of Liberation. Often the same figures of thought and speech have been employed in some
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of their texts and documents of different dates and provenance. The ideal of Liberation is thus one outstanding element of Indian cultural heritage towards which Brahmanism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism seek to lead their followers. This is, however, quite different from saying that all these religious faiths of Indian origin expound an indentical doctrine of Liberation. To say that may perhaps not be quite true. The more closely one studies the fundamental sources of Brahmanism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, and Punjabi languages, the greater insight one gets into the differing perspectives of the nature of Liberation figured out in the framework of different ideologies and postulations of these four traditions.
Many terms and concepts are common to all of them, and at times several crucial statements scattered in the Pali Sutras, the Prakrit Angas, early Upanişads, the Bhagavadgitā and the Gurugrantha might seem to refer to one and same idea or situation or experience. A great deal of moral teaching and technical tools of cultivating virtuous life and methods of self-conquest are also undoubtedly common to these faiths and their texts. These parallels and points of convergence have never been scientifically studied in great detail by any scholar. The contrasts and points of disagreement in their doctrines, however, are also impressive and in some cases irreconcilable.
Though both systems are off-shoots of a very ancient non-Aryan Śramanic tradition of non-theistic spirituality and ascetic morality, Jainism and Buddhism have, nevertheless, bequeathed to us two quite distinct Perspectives of Nirvana or Moksa. The common fund of ideas and practices documented by Jinist and Buddhist sacred literature does not obscure our perception of the differences between Jinist pluralism and Buddhist absolutism. Vaişņavism and Sikhism, on the other hand, share in common a large body of ideas and practices, and whatever differences there exist between Vedāntika Vajsņavism and Sikhism of the Gurugrantha, they are not as stark as those between Jainism and Buddhism.
The distinguishing features of each of the four forms of religious life developed on Indian soil by Indian sages and teachers as well as their common principles and practices have been studied by Muni Shiv Kumar in some detail in the present work. The Doctrine of Liberation in Indian Religions with Special Reference to Jainism is a significant book of its kind which makes an important contribution to our knowledge of the ideal of Liberation.
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This work is not so much a study in the comparison of theories of Liberation as a study in inter-religious understanding. It adopts a genuinely historical method of studying the faith of other men and seeks to elucidate the points of convergence as well as divergence among the four traditions of Indian origin. Each religious tradition is sought to be studied on the basis of its own authentic sources; no value judgements are passed and no disparaging comparisons attempted. The reader is given full freedom to formulate his own opinion about the best in each tradition. The author makes an earnest effort to understand and elucidate different theories of Liberation and methods of achieving it on the basis of a selected body of texts drawn from different religious traditions. His merit lies in the freedom from prejudice and narrow outlook which he displays in his treatment of the theories emerging from faiths other than his own. This is no mean achievement.
Muni Shiv Kumar is perhaps the first Jaina monk to write a readable and reliable book on a subject of such paramount cultural value as the doctrine of Liberation. Special notice is to be taken of the fact that he has devoted a full chapter to Sikh doctrine of Liberation; the earlier works on Indian religious history had a tendency of either making only a passing reference to the teaching of Guru Nanaka or ignoring it altogether. Another point worthy of mention here is his attitude to Buddhism, a system of faith and thought so akin to Jainism and yet so different from Jainism. In ancient and early medieval times Jaina Munis and Acāryas studied some Buddhist texts and theories with the avowed purpose of criticising them in so far as they were opposed to their own. It is the distinction of Muni Shiv Kumar, and a delightful event in the history of Jaina sangha, that he has studied some aspects of the Buddhist doctrine with a view to offering a constructive picture of the Buddhist view of Nirvāņa. In his study of Buddhism and Sikhism. he has set a new and entirely wholesome example for future students of the religious history of India. I have no doubt in my mind that this very interesting and valuable book will be welcomed by all the enlightened followers of Brahmanical Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism alike.
Guru Gobind Singh Bhavan Punjabi University, Patiala
30 June, 1981
2010_03
L.M. JOSHI
Professor of Religious Studies Head of the Guru Gobind Singh Department of Religious Studies, and Dean of the Faculty of Religious Studies and Humanities
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PREFACE
Much has been written in modern times by several Indian and European scholars about the doctrines and practices of Jaina religion and philosophy. Nevertheless, it will be too much to maintain that there are no difficulties in our way of understanding and interpreting the soteriological concepts and ascetic techniques of self-mastery developed by the ancient Śramanas and Munis of the Jaina tradition. The doctrine of liberation (mokṣa) and the way to it, for example, are still two areas which seemed to the present author to be in need of a thorough study both in depth and breadth. Since mokşa is a keyconcept and a fundamental term found in all the religious traditions of Indian origin, it appeared to us that an investigation into its nature in the Brahmanical-Hindu, Buddhist and Sikhist traditions will illuminate and facilitate our understanding of the Jinist conception of mokṣa. This is the reason that the present book while concentrating on an historical study of the theory and practice of liberation in Jainism, also undertakes a comprehensive, though by no means exhaustive, review of the parallel theories and practices in Brahmanical, Buddhist and Sikh religions. Accordingly, the present volume on "The Doctrine of Liberation in Indian Religions with Special Reference to Jainism" is divided into the following seven main chapters. The first chapter, entitled 'The Jaina Tradition: An Historical Review', surveys the origin and development of the Jaina tradition. The second chapter, 'The Doctrine of the Self", studies the notion of atman in Brahmanism and of anatman in Buddhism and then discusses in detail the Jaina doctrine of the plurality of selves. The third chapter is devoted to a study of 'The Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration'. The fourth chapter seeks to discuss and describe "The Jaina Doctrine of Liberation' in great detail. The fifth chapter reviews the leading tendencies in 'The Brahmanical Doctrine of Liberation.' In the sixth chapter, 'The Buddhist Doctrine of Liberation', we have described the Buddhist view of Nirvana and the way to it. In the seventh chapter 'The Sikh Doctrine of Liberation' has been studied. The concluding remarks raise some of the problems connected with the
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study of the doctrine of liberation, and point out a few points of agreement and disagreement among the four religions.
My thanks are due to the authorities of the Punjabi University, Patiala, for permitting me to carry on research studies under the supervision of Dr L.M. Joshi for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities and Religious Studies. As a Jaina monk it was not possible for me to stay on the campus of the University for a period of two years prescribed by the University. I appreciate the helpful gesture of the Punjabi University authorities in permitting me to observe the monastic rules of my peripatetic life while preparing this doctoral dissertation.
I am grateful to the Venerable Sri Gian Muniji Maharaj, my religious preceptor, who initiated me into the mysteries and and monastic niceties of Jainism. Several other eminent Jaina monks of Panjab, including Muni Phul Chandji śramaņa, Muni Hem Chandji Maharaj, Muni Padma Chandraji Bhandari, Kaviratna Chandan Muniji, Sri Vimala Muniji, and Sri Ratna Muniji have been a source of inspiration in my religious and academic life. I am grateful to them all.
In the course of preparation of this thesis I received help and encouragement from Dr A.N. Sinha, Lecturer in Jainism, Department of Religious Studies, Punjabi University, Patiala. I record my gratitude to him, Prof. Nathmal Tatia, formerly Director, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda, very kindly went through a large portion of the second draft of this thesis and made valuable suggestions for its improvement. I thank him also.
It needs no mention that I am indebted to numerous Indian and European scholars whose works on Indian religions and philosophies I have freely consulted during the course of writing this book. A list of names of these scholars along with their works will be found in the bibliography given at the end of this volume.
I would like to gratefully remember the names of Sri Padam Chander Shastri and Acharya Krishna Chanderji of Panchakula for helping me in my study of several original Jaina texts. Sri Ravinder Kumar Jain of Malerkotla deserves my thanks for his services rendered with zeal and devotion. Finally I have to express my appreciation and sincere thanks to Sri Roshan Lalji who, in spite of his old age, has attended to me and helped me in my work with remarkable unselfishness. My sincere thanks are due also to a number of devout men and women who took good care of my requirements
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as a monk-student wherever I happened to stay during the last five years.
My deepest debt of gratitude, however, goes to Dr L.M. Joshi, M. A., Ph. D., Professor of Religious Studies, and Head of the Guru Gobind Singh Department of Religious Studies, Punjabi University, Patiala, who supervised the present work and guided me all along. It was my good fortune and a rare privilege to carry out my reseach work under his careful supervision and guidance. It is because of his illuminating guidance, thought-provoking discussions, constructive criticisms and painstaking corrections that I have been able to present this work in its present form. In fact, words fail to express my gratefulness to him for his personal interest in my academic training. During the last five years he has given to me some of his most valuable time always explaining threadbare, the subtle and complex doctrines and concepts not only of Buddhism which is his speciality, but also and with equal thoroughness, those of Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism. He facilitated my studies and researches considerably by placing at my disposal his personal library consisting of rare and valuable book on world religions.
This book emodies substantilly the thesis of the same title approved by the Punjabi University, Patiala, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Religious Studies.
The publication of this work has been possible through Professor Joshi's keen interest in it. At my request he has very kindly edited and carefully revised the entire work, and added a Foreword to it. While I record my profound and grateful thanks to him for his intellectual labours and manifold courtesies. I hold myself responsible for the shortcomings that might still be found in the pages of this book.
Thanks are due to the authorities, of Sri Jainendra Gurukula Panchakula for defraying cost of printing this book. The helpful attitude and enthusiasm displayed in its printing by the Royson Printers of Patiala is also deeply appreciated.
I hope and believe that this book will prove useful to the students of Jainism in particular and to those of Indian religions in general.
Jaina Sthanak, Patiala May 15, 1981
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MUNI SHIV KUMAR

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PUBLISHER'S NOTE
Sri Jainendra Gurukula, Panchakula has great pleasure in publishing the book The Doctrine of Liberation in Indian Religions with Special Reference to Jainism by Ven. Muni Shivkumarji. This book not only sets forth the essentials of the Jaina theory of moksa, it also elucidates the doctrine of liberation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. The book will be found useful by students of Jainism as well as comparative religion. We congratulate Ven. Muni Shivkumarji for producing such a learned treatise. The Royson Printers of Patiala have printed it nicely. It is hoped that a Hindi version of this book will be published in near future.
Sri Jainendra Gurukula, Panchakula Distt. Ambala
2010_03
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CONTENTS
Foreword Preface Publisher's Note
CHAPTER I
1-26
The Jaina Tradition : An Historical Review
Prolegomena - The origins of Jainism - The theory of Vedic origin ---- The Pre-Vedic Background: The Munis - The Impact of Prehistoric Munis - The Antiquity of the Jaina Tradition - The Age of Mahavira - Life of Mahāvīra - The Basic Features of Jainism - The Development of Jainism - Makkhali Gosāla and Ājīvikism - The Schisms - Formation of the Jaina Canon and the Councils - Growth of the Jaina Literature - Jaina Art
and Architecture - Résumé. CHAPTER II
27-53
54-84
The Doctrine of the Self
The Doctrine of Self in Brahmanism - the Upanişads - the Bhagavadgita -- the Samkhya-Yoga -- the Buddhist doctrine of Not-self - the doctrine of Self in Jainism - Not-self (ajiva) - existence of the self (ātman) -- classification of the selves - Self
consciousness and mind - the nature of the supreme self. CHAPTER III The Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration
Meaning of karma - development of the idea of karma - Doctrine of karma in Buddhism - rebirth in Buddhism -- pure and impure karma - Makkhali Gosāla on karma - how the karmic particles attract the self-classification of karmas - the technology of karma -- causes of karma -- Jaina theory of trans. migration - meaning of samsāra – process of transmigration -
four states of existence - Jaina way of transmigration. CHAPTER IV Jaina Doctrine of Liberation
- Causes of bondage (bandha) - Osrava and bandha - punya and păpa - way to liberation - right faith - kinds of samyagadarśana - right knowledge - kevalajñana - four types of
85-130
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intuitions -- right conduct - samvara and nirjarā - dhyāna - stages of spiritual path (gunasthānas - stages of spiritual progress of a householder (pratimus) - Haribhadra's contribution to yoga - Yogadrdrştisamuccaya - Yogašataka - meaning and nature of liberation — nature of liberation -- types of liberated
beings - Arhat - Tirthampkara - Siddha. CHAPTER V The Brahmanical Doctrine of Liberation
- 131-160 Worship of many gods -- fta-dharman – Vedic sacrifices (y ajña)
- Vedic eschatology - Early Upanişadic ideas - karma and transmigration - the notion of brahman - the Upanişadic path to liberation -- the Bhagavadgita - roads to liberation according to the Gita - the path of knowledge - the path of action- the path of devotion - Liberation according to Advaita-Vedānta
- liberation according to the Vis iştādvaita. CHAPTER VI The Buddhist Doctrine of Liberation
- 161-183 Buddhism as a soteriology - the problem of suffering - the meaning of Nirvā ņa - traditional descriptions of Nirvana -- the negative aspect of Nirvāņa - the positive aspect of Nirvāņa - types of Nirvana - conception of Nirvana in Abhidharma Schools - Mahāyāna interpretation of Nirvāņa - Buddhist conception of the Buddha - epithets and attributes of the Buddha
- the Way to Nirvāņa - Faith the Bodhisattva's way. CHAPTER VII The Sikh Doctrine of Liberation
184-204 Preliminary remarks - doctrine of one God - Bondage accor ding to Sikhism -- Sikh way to liberation - nāmsimran - integration of karma, bhakti and jnana - the ideal of a gurmukhdimensions of religious practice --- five khands - the nature of
liberation in Sikhism - types of liberation. CHAPTER VIII: Concluding Remarks
--- 205-208 Incomprehensibility of liberation - the ideal of mukti against the forces of scientific spirit, scepticism, materialism and intellectualism - the persistence of ancient traditions of ascetic ideal and realization of self - lessons from the comparative study of
religion - points of a greement and disagreement. BIBLIOGRAPHY
- 209-223
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CHAPTER I
THE JAINA TRADITION: AN HISTORICAL REVIEW
PROLEGOMENA
Renunciation has been the hallmark of classical Indian tradition of śramanisrn. The Jaina religion represents an important branch of the Sramaņa tradition of ancient India. It is one of the most ancient living faiths in the world; it has held aloft the banner of ascetic ideal of renunciation for more than twenty-five centuries now; nearly two and a half million modern Indians still profess the Jaina faith.
Unlike Buddhism, Jainism has remained confined to India; unlike Buddhism too it has had, however, a continuous history in its homeland. Orthodoxy and resilience have characterized the history of the Jaina faith; the remarkable degree of tolerance and capacity of assimilation shown by the Jaina monastic samgha as well as the laity right through the ages are also marked features of Jinist history. These characteristics seem to reveal the secret of the continued vitality of the Jaina community in India.
The ideas and practices expounded by the Victorious Ones (jinas) were continuously preached and developed by the munis or śramaņas of the Jaina tradition. The highest ideal of the Jaina religious striving has been that of Liberation (mokșa) from conditioned existence (samsāra). This ultimate concern, the quest of Liberation from the realm of karma and rebirth, has inspired a considerably complex system of moral and religious culture which we call the Jaina culture. The metaphysical presuppositions underlying the moral and religious principles and practices of Jainism are, for the most part, peculiar to it. This is realized and appreciated when one compares the Jaina theoretical framework of the goal and the technique of eradicating defilements and bonds with those of the other religious systems of India. In the following pages an attempt will be made to study and elucidate the doctrine of Liberation as envisaged in the major religious traditions of India, with concentration on the Jaina tradition. We begin with an overview of the Jaina tradition which has developed around the doctrine of Liberation.
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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
THE ORIGINS OF JAINISM
In the nineteenth century, when the Jinist studies were in their infancy, scholars had expressed conflicting views about origin of Jainism. Wilson, Lassen and Weber had believed that Jainism represented one of the many sects of Buddhism. This erroneous view was founded on the striking similarities existing between some of the doctrines and practices of the Buddhists and the Jainas. On the other hand, Colebrooke, Prinsep and Stevenson had rightly believed that Jainism is older than Buddhism, though this belief was based on the wrong supposition of the identity of Indrabhuti Gautama, a disciple of Mahāvīra, with Siddhartha Gautama. It was the merit of Bühler, Jacobi and Hoernle that they established the historical contemporaneity of Vardhamana Mahāvīra and Sakyamuni Buddha after making a comparative study of the Jaina and Buddhist canonical texts. Hermann Jacobi had the particular distinction of pointing out that Mahāvīra had some predecessors and that the Jaina church was older than the Buddha.
THE THEORY OF VEDIC ORIGIN
The older generation of Indologists taught the theory of the VedicBrahmanic origin of Jainism and Buddhism. They maintained that these religious ideologies came into existence as a result of "the revolts against the Brahman doctrines." The ascetic doctrines and practices of Jainism and Buddhism were believed to have had Vedic origin'. In other words, Jainism originated as a protestant movement within Vedic-Bramanic tradition.
The theory of the Vedic origin of Jainism has been widely propagated for a long time, and it has become customary to refer to Jainism as a "heterodox system.2" A number of assumptions are at the basis of this theory. The first assumption is that the ascetic stream of culture, the Śramana thought, developed within the Vedic-Brahmanic tradition as a reaction to sacrificial ritualism of the Vedic Aryans. Another assumption is that the Vedic culture is the earliest culture of India; the third assumption is that the earliest Upanisads are older than Jainism and Buddhism. Not only the earliest Upanisads but also some of the Vedic sutra texts are believed to be pre-Buddhist and
1. See, for example, Jarl Charpentier in The Cambridge History of India, vol. I, pp. 134-135.
2. See, for example, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, 1957.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
pre-Jinist. The institution of the forth stage, samn yāsa-āśrama, is also supposed to have been established first in the Brahmanical circles. Let us briefly examine the validity of these assumptions.
THE PRE-VEDIC BACKGROUND : THE MUNIS
The theory of the Vedic-Brahmanic origin of ascetic culture or Sramaņa thought was propounded at a time wheh practically nothing was known about non-Aryan and pre-Vedic cultures of India. After the discovery of the Harappan Culture or the Indus Valley Civilization this theory had to be modified. The ruined cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro revealed that before the Indo-Aryans arrived in India, a highly advanced and mature culture had been flourishing in the NorthWest of India. Compared to this culture, the Vedic-Aryan culture appeared to be primitive. The historians of Indian culture began to revise their notion of the antiquity of Vedic culture. The coming of Aryans into India is now generally dated in about 1500 B.C. The Vedic literature and culture began to develop after this date. The Harappan culture, however, has been placed between 2500 and 1500 B.C. Thus the pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan Harappan culture is much more ancient than the Vedic Aryan culture.
The legacy of the Harappans has been acknowledged by several modern archaeologists. It is now generally accepted that several elements of our ancient thought and culture are of non-Aryan and pre-Aryan origin. The ascetic strand in Indian culture has been traced to non-Vedic Harappan culture complex. The reaction to Vedic sacrificial ritualism found in the later Vedic texts, such as the oid Upanişads, is now known to have been due to non-Aryan ascetic influences. Many years ago Dr G.C. Pande had expressed this view in the following words:
"It has been held by many older writers that Buddhism and Jainism arose out of this anti-ritualistic tendency within the religion of the Brāhmaṇas. We have, however, tried to show that the anti-ritualistic tendency within the Vedic fold is itself due to the impact of an asceticism which antedates the Vedas. Jainism represents a continuation of this pre-Vedic stream, from which Buddhism also springs, though deeply influenced by Vedic thought. The fashionable view of regarding Buddhism as a Protestant Vedicism and its birth as a Reformation appears to us to be based on a misreading of the later Vedic history caused by the fascination of a historical analogy and the ignorance, or neglect of pre-Vedic
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civilization."'3
In his epoch-making researches into the genesis of Buddhism, Dr Pande for the first time brought to light the facts of ultimate origin of śramana thought. Earlier, John Marshall had demonstrated in detail the Harappan origins of the practice of yoga (asceticism) and dhyāna (meditation). The views of Marshall have been generally accepted because they are based on concrete archaeological evidence. The figures of men seated in ascetic posture of meditation or standing in yogic pose have been discovered among the antiquities of the Indus Valley Civilization.5 Dr L.M. Joshi has pointed out that the ascetic sculptures of Harappan origin depict the figures of munis and śramaņas of pre-historic India. What Marshall and others describe as the prototype of Śiva, he describes as the proto-type of yogin or muni. Referring to the famous steatite seal from Mohenjo-daro, discovered by E. Macay and described by John Marshall as "the proto-type of historic Śiva," Dr Joshi makes the following observation :
"Long before the ideas of Śiva, Mahadeva, Trimurti and Pasupati had come into existence in historic Brahmanism and Hinduism, there had been in pre-historic India and in Buddhism and Jainism what are called Munis, Yatis and Śramaņas. The Indus seal therefore should be looked upon as the figure of an ascetic of pre-Vedic Indian culture."7
The existence of yoga and dhyana practices in Harappan culture proves beyond doubt that the śramana thought is of non-Aryan and non-Vedic origin. The appearance of ascetic ideas in Vedic Upanisads must therefore be treated as a non-Aryan influence. As a matter of fact, old Vedic ideas and ideals were not ascetic; they were opposed to ascetic culture. The beliefs and practices of Vedic brāhmaṇas ran counter to those of munis and śramaņas. The contrast between Vedic Brahmanism and early Śramanism has been elaborately discussed by Dr G.C. Pande and Dr L.M. Joshi.8
3. G.C. Pande, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, p. 317.
4. Sir John Marshall et al, Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization, vol. I, pp. 48 ff.
5. Ibid., vol. I, plates XIII, 17a, XVI, 29; CXVII. 11.
6. L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, pp. 62-63.
7. Ibid., p. 62.
8. G.C. Pande, op. cit., chapter on the Vedic Background; L. M. Joshi, op. cit., pp. 31-45; ibid., Aspects of Buddhism in Indian History, pp. 14-26.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
THE IMPACT OF PRE-HISTORIC MUNIS
The Vedic Aryan conquerers were soon conquered by the culture of the autochthonous people. Non-Aryan influences have been seen in Vedic literature and religion. The Vedic god Rudra, for example, is now believed to have been originally a god of non-Aryan people. The Vedic literature occasionally refers to the non-Aryan ascetics. The Ṛgveda describes a "silent sage" (muni) who practised austerity and meditation. He is called "long-haired" (kesin) and probably lived naked (vatarasana). Other Vedic texts show that the munis either lived naked or wore tawny-coloured or 'soiled' (mala) garments. Keith and Macdonell have rightly pointed out that a muni
"was probably not approved by the priests who followed the ritual and whose views were essentially different from the ideals of a Muni, which were superior to earthly considerations, such as the desire for children and dakṣiņā.”10
That the munis and śramaṇas were known to the Vedic teachers is proved by the Brahmaņa texts also. These texts, however, leave no room for doubt that the beliefs and practices of munis and śramaņas were against the central philosophy of Vedic brahmanas. This is made clear in the following passage of the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa:
kim nu malam kim ajinam kimu śmaśrūņi kim tapah putram brahmāņa icchadhvam sa vai loko vadāvadaḥ||
"What is the use of wearing dirty or kāṣāya garments, what use of antelope's skin, what use of (growing) a beard, what use of austerity? Desire a son, O brāhmaṇa, that is the only praiseworthy thing in the world."11
5
This passage shows that there were some ascetics who wore tawnycoloured clothes, kept beard and moustachios, wrapped their bodies with antelope's hide and did not live a married household life. The disapproval of ascetic mode of life was in accordance with the Brahmanical emphasis on leading a householder's life. But the munis and śramaņas seemed to have continued their ascetic tradition outside the pale of Vedic society throughout the Vedic period. In the course of time their ideas and practices deeply influenced the sages and seers of
11.
9. Rgveda, X. 136. 2-4.
10.
A.A. Macdonell and A.B. Keith, Vedic Index of Names and Subjects, vol. II, pp. 167-68.
Aitareya Brahmana, VII. 13. 7; cf. Śāmkhāyana Śrautasutra, XV. 17; L.M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, p. 35.
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Vedic tradition.
It has been pointed out by several scholars that the Yoga, Samkhya, Jainism and Buddhism were originally derived from the religious tradition of pre-historic munis and śramanas. Some characteristic ideas of these systems begin to appear in old Upanisads, obviously due to the impact of munis and śramañas. Referring to the great antiquity of Samkhya-Yoga ideas, Heinrich Zimmer has made the following remarkable observation :
"These ideas do not belong to the original stock of the Vedic Brahmanic tradition. Nor, on the other hand, do we find among the basic teachings of Samkhya and Yoga any hint of such a pantheon of divine Olympians, beyond the vicissitudes of earthly bondage, as that of the Vedic gods. The two ideologies are of different origin, Samkhya and Yoga being related to the mechanical system of the Jainas, which . . . . can be traced, in a partly historical, partly legendary way, through the long series of the Tirthankaras, to a remote, aboriginal, non-Vedic, Indian antiquity. The fundamental ideas of Samkhya and Yoga, therefore, must be immensely old. And yet they do not appear in any of the orthodox Indian texts until comparatively late-specifically, in the younger stratifications of the Upanisads and in the Bhagavadgītā, where they are already blended and harmonized with the fundamental ideas of the Vedic philosophy. Following a long history of rigid resistance, the exclusive and esoteric brahmana mind of the Aryan invaders opened up, at last, and received suggestions and influences from the native civilization. The result was a coalescence of the two traditions. And this is what produced, in time, the majestic harmonizing systems of medieval and contemporary Indian thought. "12
This shows that the traditional theory of the Vedic Aryan origin of Jaina ideas and śramana thought is untenable. Jainism, Buddhism, Yoga, Samkhya and ascetic ideas of old Upanisads were inspired by the ideas of munis and śramaņas who continued a very old tradition of non-Brahmanical Harappan antiquity. These ideas included the doctrines of samsāra, karma, yoga, dhyāna and mokṣa or nirvāņa. The legacy of the munis and śramaņas formed the dominant ideas in the formation of Indian culture.
12. Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of In.lia, p. 281.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
In view of the above argument it is no longer possible to trace the origins of the institution of samnyåsa to Vedic Brahmanism. It has been already pointed out by distinguished scholars that the Brahmanical theory of the fourth aśrama is post-Buddhist in origin.13 Dr Sukumar Dutt has also stated that "the theory of the Brahmanical ascetic being the original or proto-type of the Buddhist or Jaina religious mendicant seems scarcely tenable."14 In the old Upanişads the idea of the ascetic stage or samnyāsa was not recognised.
Dr L.M. Joshi states that the word śramana occurs for the first time in Brhadāran yaku Upanişad and it never became a word of respect in Brahmanical literature. According to him, ""no Upanisad text can be proved to be pre-Buddhist in date.” He has pointed out that even the two of the oldest Upanisads, namely, the Brhadāran yaka and the Chandogya, are not older than Buddha and Mahāvīra. He places these two Upanisads in the fifth century B.C. and the remaining of the oldest Upanisads between 400 and 200 B.C. He draws attention to the fact that king Ajātaśatru of Magadha is mentioned in BỊhadaranyaka Upanişad (II. 1.1) and the Kaușitaki Upanişad (IV. 1). This king was a contemporary of Buddha and Mahāvīra.15 A.B. Keith had also said that :
"It is wholly impossible to make out any case for dating the oldest even of the extant Upanishads beyond the sixth century B.C., and the acceptance of an earlier date must rest merely on individual fancy.''16
The Brahmanical Dharma-sūtras which mention the fourth āśrama are post-Buddhist in date. The contention of Bühler, Jacobi and Charpentier, that the Jaina and the Buddhist ascetics borrowed the rules of Brahmanical samnyāsins, is therefore not correct. The institution of samnyasa was accepted by the brāhmana law-givers after the Jaina and the Buddhist institution of the monastics.
THE ANTIQUITY OF THE JAINA TRADITION
In the study of the history of Jaina ideas, we must take due note
13. G.C. Pande, op. cit., pp. 251 ff; L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism,
p. 48. 14. Sukumar Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism, p. 39. 15. L.M. Joshi, Aspects of Buddhism in Indian History, pp. 15-16. See also L.M.
Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India, p. XVIII. 16. A.B. Keith, Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, vol. II,
pp. 498-502.
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8
of the Jaina myths and legends. According to the belief of the Jainas, their religion is immensely old. They have preserved a list of as many as twenty-three Tirthankaras or Spiritual Teachers who preceded Mahavira. According to this view, Mahavira was not the originator of the Jaina faith, he was a discoverer of a docrine which had been existing from times immemorial. The list of the predecessors of Mahavira includes the following names:
4:
Abhinandana,
7. Supārśvanatha, 10. Śītalanatha, 13. Vimalanatha,
1. Rṣabhadeva or Adinatha, 2. Ajitanatha, 3. Sambhavanatha, 5. Sumatinatha, 8. Candraprabhu, 11. Śreyamśanatha, 14. Anantanatha, 17. Kunthunatha, 20. Muni Suvrata, 23. Pārsvanatha. 17
6. Padmaprabhu, 9. Suvidhinatha, 12. Väsupujya, 15. Dharmanatha, 18. Arahanatha, 21. Neminatha,
16. Śantinātha,
19. Mallinatha,
22. Ariṣṭaneminātha,
The twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara was Mahāvīra, the celebrated contemporary of Sakyamuni Buddha.
It is not possible to establish the historical existence of most of these Teachers. But the belief in the existence of so many predecessors of Mahavira shows that the tradition claimed a great antiquity. Here one recalls the Buddhist belief in the existence of twenty-four Buddhas before Śakyamuni Buddha.18
THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
Some scholars believe that Rṣabhadeva, the first in the list of Tīrthankaras, is mentioned in the Vedic texts. 19 Rṣabha is mentioned also in the Vişņu Purana and Bhagavata Purana.20 It is not certain
17.
18.
19.
For an account of 24 Jinas and other great men of Jaina tradition, see the Triş aş fisalaka-puruş acarita. See also Hermann Jacobi, "Jainism" in Encyclopeadia. of Religion and Ethics, vol. vii, pp. 466 ff. and the Kalpasütra of Bhadrabahu.
For details of 25 Buddhas in Theravada Buddhism, sec Buddha- Vamsa, in the Khuddakanikāya, vol. VII, pp. 319-380.
The names of these 25 Buddhas are as follows:
1. Dipankara, 2. Kondañña,
5. Revala,
Sobhita,
9. Nārada,
6. 10. 14. Atthadassi,
13. Piyadassi,
17. Tissa,
21.
Vessabhu,
25.
Gotama.
See Hira Lal Jain, Bharatiya Sanskriti mein Jaina Dharma kā Yogadāna, pp.
3. Mangala,
4. Sumana,
7. Anomadassi, 8. Paduma,
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Padumuttara, 11. Sumedha, 12. Sujāta,
15. Dhammadassi, 16. Sidhattha, 18. Pussa, 19. Vipassi, 20. Sikhi, 22. Kakusandha, 23. Konagamana, 24. Kassapa,
342-343; A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 250.
20. Višņu Purana, Eng. tr. by H.H. Wilson, p. 133; Bhagavata Purāṇa, v. 3-6.

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THE JAINA TRADITION
whether these references refer to a historical person. But the Jaina tradition unanimously regards him as the originator of the Jaina path to Liberation.
Among the successors of Rşabha, the Brahmanical Purāņas mention Sumatinātha. The twenty-second Tīrthankara, Aristaneminātha, is related to Krsna in legends.21
Parsyanātha : About the historicity of twenty-third Tirthankara, Pārsvanātha, however, there is some evidence. The Jaina tradition holds that he flourished 250 years before Vardhamana Mahāvīra. This would suggest eighth century B.C. as the date of Pārsvanātha.
Traditional biographies of Pārsvanātha tell us that he was born as the son of King Aśvasena and his queen Vämā in Banaras (Vārāṇasi). He lived the life of a householder for thirty years after which he became an ascetic. Through a course of ascetic austerity he attained omniscience (kevalajñana). Having preached his religion for about seventy years he attained nirvana at the age of 100 years at a place called Sammeta Sikhara in Bihar22
The teaching of Pārsvanātha is called Cāujjāma-dhamma (Cāturyama-dharma) or the doctrine of four-fold restraint. The four rules included in this category are the following : (1) ahimsä (non-killing), (2) satya (truthful speech), (3) asteya (non-stealing) and (4) aparigraha (non-possession of worldly goods).
The existence of the followers of Pārsvanātha in the sixth century B.C. is proved by several passages in the Pali canonical texts. Hermann Jacobi has already drawn attention to these passages.23 The Pali texts refer to the doctrines of Nirgranthas. Mahāvīra is referred to as Nātaputta (Jõātņputra) becausc he belonged to Nāta (jñātr) clan,24 and his parents were the followers of Pārsvanātha's ethical tradition.25
We come across many references in the early Buddhist canonical literature to Nirgrantha Nātaputta (Mahāvīra). In the Anguttaranīkaya: it is stated :
“The Nigantha Nātaputta ... knows and sees all things, claims perfect knowledge and faith ... teaches the annihilation by austerities of the old karman, and the prevention by inactivity.
21 See S.B. Deo, History of Jaina Monachism, p. 59. 22. Kalpasūtra, SBE, vol. XXII. pp. 271-75. 23. See Jaina Śūtras, SBE, vol. XLV, Introduction, p. xv ff. 24. Cf. Acārāmgasutra, ed. by Sri Ātmārāmaji Mahārāja, Ludhiana, 1964, p. 1373. 25. Cf. Ācārāmgasūtra, p. 1370.
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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
of new karmian. When karman ceases, misery ceases. "26
In the Mahāvagga, Sība, a lay followers of Mahāvīra and the General of Licchavis, is said to have visited the Buddha against the wishes of his master. He rejected the Jaina doctrine of kriyāyāda and adopted the Buddhist doctrine of akriyavādā.27 The Nirgrantha doctrine of kriyāvādā inculcates the belief in the soul, in the world, and in the action whereas akriyāvādā doctrine does not include these things.
The principles of the lay followers of the Nirgrantha are also discussed in the Anguttaranikāya. The vow of the Jaina Śrāvaka is thus stated : "I shall go orly in certain fixed directions today."28 The other passage of the Anguttaranikāya states the vow of uposatha which means to observe the fast for twenty-four hours during which time the layman is supposed to be like a monk in thought, word and deed.
The Sāmaññaphala-sutta of the Dighanikāya mentions the phrase cātuyāma-samvara-samvuto.29 This reference occurs in the course of a dialogue between Lord Buddha and king Ajätaśatru where the king relates his visit to Nirgrantha Nātaputta. According to Jacobi the Pali Cātu yāma is equivalent to the Prakrit Cāujjāma, a well-known Jaina term which denotes the four vowes taught by Pārsvanātha. As E.W. Hopkins states: "The Nigganthas are never referred to by the Buddhists as being a new sect, nor is their reputed founder Nāta putta spoken of as their founder whence Jacobi plausibly argues that their real founder was older than Mahāvīra and that this sect preceded that of Buddhism."'30
This shows that there were followers of Pārsvanátha even before Mahāvīra started his career as a teacher.
The preceding discussion leads us to conclude that the Jaina tradition claims a non-Vedic and pre-Vedic origin. Jainism, like Buddhism, does not accept the authority of the Vedic revelation. The predecessors of Mahāvīra were the sages of Sramanic tradition. Mahāvīra inherited their spiritual legacy and systematised it. The Sramanic tradition, as noted above, seems to have been connected with the yoga practices of Harappan age. Several scholars have expressed the opinion that some elements of Jainism can be traced to Indus-Valley
26. Anguttaranikāya, vol. 1V, p. 67. 27. Mahāvagga, pp. 249 f. 28. Anguftaran ikāya, vol. I, pp. 190-191. 29. Dīghanikāya, vol. I, p. 50. 30. E.W. Hopkins, The Religions of India, p. 283 foot note.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
Civilization. Thus Jyoti Prasad Jain approvingly quotes following words of Prof. S. Srikantha Sastri :
11
"The Indus Civilization of c. 3000-2500 B.C., with its nudity and yoga, the worship of the bull and other symbols, has resemb⚫ lance to Jainism, and, therefore, the Indus Civilization is supposed to be non-Aryan or of non-Vedic origin."31
Dr Hira Lal Jain has also traced the origins of Jainism to Harappan culture. Among other things, he notes the striking resemblance between a Harappan piece of stone sculpture representing a nude male with the torso of a nude male found from Lohānīpur.32 THE AGE OF MAHAVIRA
It seems that the community of the followers of Pārsvanatha was flourishing in east India, especially in Magadha in the age of Mahāvīra. It was an age of considerable changes in the cultural history of India. Politically there were two main forms of government, one monarchical and the other republican. Magadha and Kośala represented strong monarchies which believed in expansionism and imperialism. On the other hand, the Licchavis of Vaiśālī, Šākyas of Kapilavastu, the Mallas of Kuśīnagara etc., represented republican tradition. They loved their freedom and democratic institutions. There were frequent wars between the kingdoms and republics. King Ajataśatru of Magadha, for example, is reported to have been the enemy of the Licchavis of Vaiśālī. Likewise, King Viḍudabha of Kośala is known to have attacked and harmed the Sakyas of Kapilavastu. Another important political event of the age was the Persian invasion of Panjab. This, however, had practically no impact on the history of Magadha and Kosala.35
The century in which Vardhamana Mahāvīra flourished was a time of religious upheaval also. Old Vedic religion was declining. The sacrificial ritualism of the Vedic brāhmaṇas had to face a strong challenge posed by the religion and philosophy taught by munis and śramanas. The ideological conflict between the brāhmaṇas of the Vedic tradition on one hand, and śramaņas of the non-Vedic tradition on the other hand, is reflected in the earliest literature of the Buddhists
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31. J.P. Jain, Jainism the Oldest Living Religion, p. 51, quoting Jaina Antiquary, XV, 2, p. 58.
32. Hira Lal Jain, Bharatiya Sanskriti mein Jaina Dharma kā Yogadāna, pp. 342-343. 33. See H.C. Raychaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 1953, pp. 187 ff. 239 ff.

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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
and the Jainas. These texts also refer to the existence of numerous sects and schools of religious teachers. Thus the Brahmajälasutta of the Dighanikaya refers to sixty-two philosophical opinions.34
The Sutrak ṛtānga mentions three hundred and sixty-three sects and sub-sects prevalent in the age of Mahavira.35 Most of these sects and schools seem to have been led by ascetics called śramaņas, and parivrājakas. Atheism, materialism, determinism, theism, scepticism and agnosticism and other forms of metaphysical theories were prevalent among these teachers. According to Dr. G. C. Pande, the dominant ideas of śramanas and munis were ascetic, pessimistic, atheistic and pluralistic. All these four features are found in early Jainism. Among the teachers of śramana lineage there were the followers of Pārsvanatha. It was during this age of religious ferment and ascetic revival that Vardhamana Mahāvīra appeared on the scene. LIFE OF MAHAVIRA
The word Mahāvīra means "Great Hero." It is an epithet signifying the moral and spiritual achievements, rather than the personal name of the last Tirthankara. Vardhamana was possibly his proper name. He was born possibly in 599 B.C. at Kundapura or Kundalagrāma near Vaiśālī, in modern Basarh, in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar. The name of his father was Siddhartha who belonged to the tribe of Jñatṛ kṣatriyas. The name of his mother was Triśalā. She was the sister of Cetaka, the Licchavi chief of Vaiśālī. There are many texts dealing with the biography of Mahavira and they are well known.36
According to the Svetambara tradition, Vardhamana was married to Yasoda and had one daughter named Priyadarśana. This tradition, however, is rejected by the Digambaras. At the age of thirty, he renounced home life and became an ascetic.
During the next twelve and a half years, Vardhamana practised very severe austerities and rigorous bodily mortifications and attained omniscience (kevalajñāna).
Next thirty years he spent in teaching the duty of renunciation and the joy of mercy; he stressed the ascetic mode of life and the vow
34. Dighanikaya, vol. I, Brahmajälasutta.
35.
Suyagalanga with the commentary of Śilanka, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1917, pp. 208 ff, SBE, XLV, p. 315; S.B. Deo, op. cit., p. 64.
See Kalpasūtra, SBE, vol. XXII, p. 217-270; Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruş acaritra, Eng. tr. published in GOS, Nos. 51, 77; Hira Lal Jain, op. cit., Chapter I.
36.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
of chastity or celibacy. To the cãturyama of Pärśvanatha he added a fifth precept, that of chastity (brahmacarya). He organised his earnest followers into a body of disciplined renouncers. This is called the Jaina samgha. It included four classes of members: monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. It seems that the old samgha consisting of the followers of Parsvanatha got merged into the new samgha founded by Mahavira. A chapter in the Uttaradhyayanasutra describes the meeting between Keśī, a disciple of Parśvanatha, and Gautama, a staunch disciple of Mahavira. The two leaders discussed the differences existing in their sects and brought about the union between the old and the new samghas.37
BASIC FEATURES OF JAINISM
13
Our discussion of the origin and antiquity of Jainism has shown that its basic ideas are radically different from those of the so-called "traditional" and "orthodox" Brahmanism. Jainism does not acknowledge the authority of the Vedic śruti, its doctrines are revealed by the Jinas or Tirthankaras. These Jinas are believed to be completely liberated from all passions and desires and possessed of all knowledge. Jainism means the doctrines taught by the Jinas.
Another distinguishing feature of Jainism is that it is a non-theistic religion. Like Buddhism, Jainism also demonstrates the fact that the Ultimate Reality cannot be conceived in theistic terms alone. The idea of God as the creator and governor of universe is not accepted in Jaina tradition. As in the case of Buddhist religion, the definition of religion cannot be reduced to mere belief in God-Creator. The Jaina religion therefore is an atheistic religion.
Metaphysically, Jainism is a pluralistic system of thought. In this respect it differs strikingly from Buddhism and Vedanta. In contrast to Buddhism, Jainism teaches an elaborate doctrine of ātman. The plurality of selves (atman) is a fundamental docrine of Jainism, whereas Buddhism denies the reality of atman altogether. The Jaina ätmavāda differs from Vedantic atmavāda. In the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgită, the ultimate unity of atman is taught, whereas in Jainism infinite number of ātmans is taken for granted.
A most important feature of Jainism is what may be described
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37. Uttaradhyayanasutra, Chapter XXIII (ed. by R. D. Vedekar & N. V. Vaidya, Poona, 1959), p. 64. This chapter deals with the 'dialogue between Kesi and Gautama and with the unity of the followers of Parsvanatha and Mahāvira.

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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
yoga. The word yoga implies two things: meditation or dhyāna, and rununciation or ascetic mode of life. Jaina yoga is non-theistic.37a Jainism has consistently stressed asceticism. Examples of extreme form of austerity are described in numerous Jaina texts. Lord Mahāvīra is known to have attained liberation through extreme forms of ascetic practices. The tradition of strict ascetic discpline (vinaya) has been maintained by Jain monastic community throughout the ages.
One of the cardinal tenets of Jaina thought and culture is the idea of ahimsa. This word has often been translated as nonviolence. But it is not merely negative in meaning; it also connotes the notion of compassion, harmlessness, and respect for the sanctity of life in all forms. The Jaina teachers of antiquity analyzed this notion in great detail and formulated an elaborate system of restrictions. Although the doctrine of ahimsa is taught in Buddhism and Hinduism also, Jainism has laid the greatest stress on its observance.
Philosophically, the most important doctrine of Jainism is that of anekāntavāda. The doctrine teaches that the different standpoints about truth represent only partial perspectives. Some scholars have referred to this doctrine as the principle of relativity. It is a nonabsolutist theory which may be said to have promoted the freedom of speculative views. The doctrine was especially elaborated by the later Jaina logicians, although its author is believed to be Mahāvīra himself.
The ultimate goal of religious striving envisaged in the Jaina tradition is called liberation (mokşa, mukti, nirvāṇa, kaivalya). It will be our endeavour to study and describe the nature of liberation in the following chapters of this work. The authentic ancient texts describe it as the state of absolute freedom, bliss, knowledge and peace. Often it is described negatively; it is said to be beyond speech and thought. It is, however, a state of being endowed with positive qualities.
Along with the highest goal of liberation, Jainism has also taught a lower goal of good rebirth (sugati) or heavenly life. Vast majority of the followers of Jainism aspire to be reborn in a happy state. In accordance with this two-fold goal there is a two-fold dharma: the śramaṇa-dharma or religious practices of monks and nuns, and the śrāvaka-dharma or religious practices of the laity. The monastic
37.a See L. M. Joshi, Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light, Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1981
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community and the laity have always lived in harmony and interdependence. The monks and nuns have preserved the sacred tradition of religious life and learning, while the faithful laity has consistently extended liberality and hospitality towards monks and nuns. As in Theravada Buddhism, so in Jainism, monastic community has always enjoyed a superior and respectful position in Jaina society.
THE JAINA TRADITION
Finally, it should be mentioned that the doctrine of samsara is one of the basic doctrines of Jainism. It implies a pessimistic and ascetic outlook towards this worldly life and its concerns. The existence in samsara is subject to the law of karma. The doctrine of karma is a moral law of retribution. It implies rebirth in this or some other world. Each and every action bears its consequence according as it is good or bad. The doer has to reap the consequences of his deeds in this or next life. This involvement in the chain of moral causation inherent in the law of karma is conceived as bondage (bandhana). There is no end to the series of rebirths so long as karmas continue to bear their consequences. Since rebirth in every form is evil or suffering, existence in samsāra is considered undesirable. The sovereign antedote to this disease of suffering is to uproot the very foundation of tree of conditioned existence in samsara. In other words, he who seeks liberation from the round of transmigration must cut off the chain of karma. The Jaina culture has evolved a detailed system of religious discipline leading to the eradication of karmas and their consequences. THE DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM
Lord Mahāvīra had eleven Ganadharas or chief disciples who were great and holy men. Their names are as follows: Indrabhuti, Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Vyakta, Sudharma, Mandika, Maurya, Akampita, Acalabhrātā, Metarya and Prabhasa.
38.
39.
15
All these eleven Gaṇadharas were very learned scholars. They knew the twelve Angas, the fourteen Purvas and the whole siddhänta of the Jainas.99 The two Gaṇadharas named Indrabhuti and Sudharmā survived the parinirvana of Mahāvīra but others had attained liberation after twelve years of Mahavira's parinirvana. After him Sudharma became the head of Mahavira's faith and he narrated all the
38
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Ganadharavada, p. 8; Samavayanga, comy of Abhayadeva, Ahmedabad, 1938, pp. 69-b, 83-a, 84b-100.b.
Kalpasūtra, SBE, vol. XXII, p. 287.

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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
Jaina doctrines to his disciple Jambusvāmī,40 which he had heard from his master, Lord Mahāvīra.
According to the Jaina tradition, Jambusvāmī was the last omniscient sage and he attained liberation after sixty-four years of parinirvāna of Mahāvīra. After Jambusvāmī, the most remarkable among ancient Jaina religious leaders was Bhadrabāhu. Jaina tradition states that he was the guru of Emperor Candragupta Maurya. He was recog. nised as one of the carliest teachers and as a most prominent author among the Jainas. According to the Svetāmbara tradition, Bhadrabāhu had gone to Nepal for certain specific yogic practices, whereas the Digambara tradition states that he went to South India with a large number of Jaina monks for the propagation of Jaina ideals.
Like Buddhism, Jainism was espoused and patronized by great kings and queens, royal ministers and rich merchants. Many great kings such as Bimbisāra and Ajataśatru of Magadha, Cetaka of Vaiśāli. Pradyota of Avanti, Udayana of Vatsa, Dadhivāhana and Candragupta Maurya etc., contributed to the growth and development of Jaina order.41 Queens like Prabhāvati of Udayana, Mrgāvati and Jayanti of Kausambi, and queens of kings Srenika and Pradvota were also true followers of Lord Mahāvīra and they had joined the order (samgha) of Mahāvīra.42 Princes like Atimukta, Padma, Megha and Abhaya43 etc., became Jaina monks and promoted the growth of Jainism. It is also claimed that Candragupta Maurya became a Jaina monk and propagated Jainism as he himself joined Bhadrabāhu's march to the South as his follower.
King Samprati had contributed to the development of Jainism by erecting Jaina temples throughout India and by sending Jaina monks, preachers and missionaries to South India and Afghanistan. In the second century B.C., king Khāravela of Kalinga adopted Jainism and promoted it by setting up Jaina images and constructing rockdwellings.44
MAKKHALI GOSĀLA AND ĀJIVIKISM
Makkhali Gosāla also belonged to the Śramanic tradition; he was
40. As it appears from several Jaina canonical texts, Sud harmă says to Jambu
"suyam me ausar tena bhagavayā evam
akkhāyam etc. ...upto...evam khalu Jambu." 41. S.B. Dco, History of Jaina Monachism, p. 70. 42. Ibid., p. 70. 43. Ibid., p. 71. 44. M.L. Mehta, Jaina Culture, p. 17.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
17
a staunch follower of asceticism, practised nudity and was a great advocate of fatalism. In the Jaina scriptural texts Makkhali Gosāla is occasionally found confronting Lord Mahāvīra. In the Bhagavatisútra, he is seen claiming himself to be the twenty-fourth Tīrthankara of the current avasarpiņi age. 45
Both in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts, Makkhali Gosāla is mentioned as a promulgator of the theory of niyati or fatalism. From the Buddhist sources we learn of the existence of an independent Ajivika sect founded by Gosāla.46 His philosophy of strict determinism (niyativāda) taught that:
“There is neither cause nor basis for the sins of living beings; they become sinful without cause or basis. Neither is there cause or basis for the purity of living beings; they become pure without cause or basis. There is no deed performed either by oneself or by others (which can affect one's future births), no human action, no strength, no courage, no human endurance or human powers (which can affect one's destiny in this life). All beings, all that have breath, all that are born, all that have life, are without power, strength, or virtue, but are developed by destiny, chance, and nature, and experience joy and sorrow in the six classes (of existence).47
According to the fundamental philosophy of Gosāla, the sinful or pious acts are not caused by any wilful deeds. Man does not perform any deed either good or bad, but his actions are subject to destiny and chance. It means that according to the doctrine of Gosāla every event in this world is predetermined and hence, man's free will or volition has no place in the entire gamut of his worldly existence.
“There is no question of bringing unripe karma to fruition, nor of exhausting karma already ripened, by virtuous conduct, by vows, by penance or by charity. That cannot be done. Samsāra is measured as with a bushel, with its joy neither lessened nor increased, nor is there any excess or deficiency of it. Just as a ball of thread will, when thrown, unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alike will take their course, and make an end of sorrow."48
45. Bhagavatīsūtra, XV, Sutra 554, also quoted by A.L. Basham, History and
Doctrines of the Ajivikas, p. 27. 46. Dīghanikāya, vol. I, samaññaphalasutta, pp. 4. ff. 47. A.L. Basham, op. cit., pp. 13-14. 48. Ibid., p. 14.
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From the Jaina sources also we learn that Makkhali Gosāla believed in fatalism and held that every human action is controlled by niyati or destiny.49 From the above it appears that man is a helpless creature in the hands of destiny. All human actions and endeavours are ultimately controlled by the predetermining factors of the destiny or fate. The philosophy of strict determinism of Makkhali Gosāla is thus quite opposed to the concepts like morality, karma and free will.
According to Jaina tradition Makkhali Gosala was in the beginning a follower of Lord Mahavira but later on he left his master due to certain ethico-philosophical differences. Once Lord Mahāvīra and Makkhali Gosala happened to be at Śrāvasti. There Lord Mahāvīra denounced the claim of Gosala being a Tirthankara. In opposing Mahāvīra, Makkhali Gosāla became very violent and tried to burn Mahavira by his magical powers. But Lord Mahavira declared that Gosäla would die in a week as he had experimented his magical powers on him. Really it happened and at the time of his end Makkhali Gosāla confessed his fault before his followers and admitted that Lord Mahāvīra was the real Jina.50
THE SCHISM
It is said that there was dissension in the Jaina order (samgha) during the life time of Vardhamana Mahāvīra. Even before the rise of two major sects, that is, Digambara and Svetambara, it is believed
that there had been seven schisms.51
These schisms, however, could not flourish and ultimately merged into the original order (samgha). But the eighth schism finally divided Jainism into two main divisions, that is, Digambara or the sect of naked monks, and Śvetambara, the sect of the white-robed monks. These two sects by and large are united so far as Jaina philosophical thought is concerned but they differ with regard to the observance of certain monastic rules and regulations.
49. Bhagavatisutra, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1921. pp. 369 ff.; Thananga, Agamodaya Samiti, V.S., 1975, p. 233b, Aupapātikasūtra, 41 etc.
50. Bhagavatīsūtra, pp. 659 ff.
51.
See S.B. Deo, History of Jaina Monachism, pp. 79-80. The names of these sects are as follows:
(4) Samuccheiya,
(1) Bahuraya,
(2) Jīvapaesiya, (6) Nojiva,
(5) Dokiriya,
See K.K. Dixit, Jaina Ontology, pp. 129-30;
Kamal Chand Sogani, Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, pp. 7-8.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
19
The Digambaras believe in going about naked. According to them liberation cannot be achieved without practising nudity; therefore they do not wear any clothes. The Svetāmbaras on the other hand wear white clothes and think that nudity is not essential for the attainment of liberation.
According to the Digambaras, women cannot attain liberation as they cannot practise nudity. The Svetāmbaras hold that women can attain liberation. They point out the example of Mallinātha, the nineteenth Tîrthankara, who was a female Jina..
The Digambaras hold that the original Agamic collections containing the actual words of Lord Mahāvīra have been lost. They do not accept as authentic the extant Āgamic collections of the Śvetāmbaras. The Svetāmbaras, however, believe that they have preserved a large portion of the urkanon.
These two major Jaina sects are further divided into a number of sub-sects. There are three important sub-sects of Digambara ; Bisapanthi, Terāpanthi and Taraṇapanthi. The Svetāmbara sect too has three sub-sects : Murtipujaka, Sthānakavāsī and Terāpanthi. The Mūrtipūjakas are in favour of worshipping images of Tîrthankaras, whereas Sthānakavāsīs and Teräpanthis do not worship the images of Tīrthankaras; Sthānakavāsīs and Terāpanthis both have differences regarding the observance of certain monastic rules. The Bisapanthis believe in image worship and worship by using fruits, flowers, incense etc., whereas the Terāpanthis make use of lifeless things. The Taranapan this worship scriptures instead of images. All these sub-sects have their own history and religious background in addition to common points.
FORMATION OF THE JAINA CANON AND THE COUNCILS
The meaning and content (artha) of the Āgamas are of prime importance for the Jainas and not the words (sabda) which are only the media of communication of thought. According to the Jaina tradition the meaning of Āgamas was told by Lord Mahāvīra, whereas the verbal expositions of the meaning and content were given by the gañadharas, the principal disciples of Lord Mahāvīra, which, later on, got the shape of the sūtras.62 As the contents of the sūtras are in
52.
Cf. att ham bhāsai araha suttam ganthanti ganaharā niunam/
sāsanassa hiyatthaye tao suttam pavattai Avašyak aniryukti, 192.
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20 THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS conformity with the fundamental preachings of Lord Mahāvīra, the sutras are regarded as the words of Lord Mahāvīra.
It is believed that the essence of the preachings of Lord Mahāvīra was preserved in the fourteen pūrvas which were handed down to the eleven ganadharas by Lord Mahāvīra. In course of time the knowledge of the fourteen pūrvas was lost, and it is said that by the time of Candragupta Maurya Bhadrabāhu was the only śrutakevali who knew the fourteen pūrvas. During the reign of Candragupta Maurya there was a great famine. It is believed that Candragupta Maurya, a follower of Jaina faith, left the throne and went to south India with Bhadrabähu and a number of Jaina mendicants. Some of the monks who stayed at Pāțaliputra, were kept under the guardianship of Sthūlabhadra. Due to the famine which lasted for twelve years, the Jaina monastic life suffered a great set back, and the Jaina church was disrupted. When the famine was over, a council was convened by Sthulabhadra at Pataliputra to collect the portions of the canon which were disappearing, as the monks could not preserve them in their memory during the period of famine. As Bhadrabāhu was the only person at that time who knew all the fourteen pūrvas, Sthulabhadra was authorised by the council to learn them from him. But he was not allowed to preach the last four pūrvas by Bhadrabāhu, hence only the ten pūrvas were compiled in the council of Påtaliputra.
In the ninth century after the Nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra, a second council of Jaina monks was held at Mathură under the leadership of Acārya Skandila and they collected the available knowledge of the canon. Another similar council was held at Valabhi under the leadership of Nagarjuna sūri. The credit of holding this third council goes to the leader Devardhigani Ksamāśramana who took initiation for writing down all the canonical texts. Whatever canonical literature we have at the present time the credit for that goes to the perceptor Devardhigani Ksamāśramaņa.
The Svetāmbara canon is divided into six groups of texts, known as (1) Angas, (2) Upāngas, (3) Mülasūtras (4) Chedasūtras, (5) Culikasutras and (6) Prakirnakas. All these works are written in Ardhamāgadhi Prakrit language. The Angas are twelve :
1. Āyāranga ( Ācārānga) 2. Sūyagadanga (Sūtrakstānga). 3. Thānanga (Sthanānga). 4. Samavāyanga.
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5. Bhagavati Viyahapaṇṇatti (Vyakhyā-prajñapti). 6. Nayadhammakahão (Jñātādharmakathā).
7. Uväsagadasão (Upäsakadaśā).
8. Amtagadadasão (Antakṛddaśā).
9. Anuttaraupapātikadaśā)
10. Panhāvāgaraṇāim (Praśnavyākaraṇāni). 11. Vivagasiyam (Vipākasūtram). 12. Ditthivaya (Dṛṣṭivada) (not extant).
THE JAINA TRADITION
The Upangas are also twelve :
1. Uvavaiya( Aupapātika). 2. Rayapaseniya (Rajapraśniya).
3. Jivabhigama (Jivājīvābhigama)
4. Pannavaṇā (Prajñāpanā).
5. Suriyapanṇatti (Suryaprajñapți)
6. Jambuddīvapaṇṇatti (Jambūdvīpa-prajñapti).
7. Candapannatti (Candraprajñapti).
8. Nirayavalio (Nirayāvalī).
9. Kappävadamsião (Kalpavatamsikāḥ).
10. Pupphião (Puṣpikāḥ).
11. Pupphaculião (Puspacûlikāḥ).
12. Vanhidasão (Vṛṣṇidaśāḥ).
Four Mulasütras are;
1. Uttarajjhayaṇa (Uttaradhyayana). 2. Dasaveyaliya (Daśavaikälika). 3. Avassaya (Āvaśyaka).
4. Pimda-nijjutti (Pinda-niryukti).
Six Chedasutras are:
1. Nisiha (Niśītha).
2. Mahānisīha (Maha-niśītha).
3. Vavahara (Vyavahāra).
4. Ayäradasão (Acaradaśaḥ or Daśâśrutaskandha).
5. Kappa (also called Bṛhat-Kalpa).
6. Pamca-kappa or Jiyakappa (Pañca-kalpa or Jita-kalpa).
Ten Prakirnakas are:
1. Causarana (Catuḥśarana).
2. Aurapaccakkhāṇa (Aturapratyakhyāna).
3. Bhattapariņņā (Bhakta-parijñā).
4. Samthara (Samstāra).
5. Tamdulaveyäliya (Tandulavaicārika).
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6. Camdāvijjhaya (Candravedhyaka).
7. Devindatthaya (Devendrastava). 8. Gaṇivijjā (Gaṇividyā).
9. Mahāpaccakkhāņa (Mahā-pratyäkhyāna). 10. Vīratthaya (Virastava).
THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
Two Culika-sutras are:
1. Nandisutta (Nandisutra)
2. Aņuogadārāim (Anuyogad vāra)
The Digambaras who do not accept the above mentioned Agamic literature of the Svetambaras as authentic, give a separate list of their canonical literature which is classified under four headings viz.,
1.
Prathamānuyoga, consisting of mythological legends such as Padmapurāṇa, Harivamsapurāṇa, Mahāpurāņa and Uttarapurāņa.
Triṣaṣṭilakṣaṇapurāṇa,
Karaṇānuyoga, consisting of the works on cosmology such as Suryaprajñapti, Candraprajñapti and Jayadhavalā.
3. Dravyanuyoga, consisting of the philosophical works of Acarya Kundakunda, the Tattvärtha-sūtra of Umāsvāti and the Aptamimāmsā of Samantabhadra.
Caraṇänuyoga, consisting of the works on rites and rituals of monks and laymen, such as the Mūlācāra and the Trivarṇācāra of Vaṭṭakera, and Ratnakaraṇḍaśrāvak ācāra.
The canonical literature of the Svetambaras is written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, whereas the Digambara Agamic literature is in Śauraseni Prakrit. Besides these two Prakrit languages, the Jainas also used Mahārāṣṭri-Prakrit, Apabhramśa and Sanskrit languages.
Besides these canonical works, the vast Jaina literature also includes four other categories, viz., the Niryuktis, the Bhāṣyas, the Curņis, and the Ţikās.
GROWTH OF JAINA LITERATURE
The contribution of Jainism to the growth of Indian languages and literature is immense. The Jaina canonical texts reveal the growth of different Indian languages as they were interpreted by different teachers in different languages through a series of commentaries known as Niryuktis, Curnis, Bhāṣyas and Tikās. The Jaina authors have written on various subjects in different languages like Prakrit, Apabharamsa, Sanskrit, Tamil, Kannada, Hindi and Gujarati, etc. In this way they made significant contributions to the development of many languages. Modern Jaina authors have enriched the wealth of
2.
4.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
23
Hindi, Gujarati, Tamil, Kannada, and Marathi.
The Jainas possess both sacred as well as secular and scientific literature of their own. Some of the most important works are Umāsvāmi's Tattvārthādhigamasutra, Višeşāvas yakabhāșya of Jinabhadra, Sanmatitarka and Nyāyāvatāra of Siddhasena Divākara, the Ratnakaranda Śrāvakācāra of Samantabhadra, the Trişaşțišalākāpuruşacarita by Hemacandra, Syād vādamañjarî by Mallişeņa, etc. The taxts like Sür yaprajñapti and Candraprajñapti deal with astronomy, and the Jambüdvīpaprajñapti is a work on cosmology. It is clear that Jaina teachers have written on all the subjects like philosophy, poetry grammar, logic, mathematics, astrology and astronomy, etc. Thus they made marvellous contributions to the whole range of Indian literature. Speaking of the importance of Jaina literature Georg Bühler says:
"In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles-lettres the achievements of Jainas have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their works are of importance for European Science even today. In the South where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil and Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jaina monks. Though this activity has led them far away from their own particular aims, yet it has secured for them an important place in the history of Indian literature and civilization”. 53
The Jainas have taken meticulous care for the preservation of their old and secred specimens of art and literature in places like Jaisalmer, Jaipur, Pattan and Moodbidri etc. According to Louis Renou, the Jaina canon is more systematic than the Theravada Buddhist canon. He remarks:
“Jaina canon gives an impression of greater antiquity than the Buddhist canon. The work as a whole, which is also called the Pitaka or 'Basket' is arranged less systematically, it contains some independent texts, the interpolations are more easily recognizable as such. Its philosophical portion and Pali Abhidamma cover no common ground. Finally there is only one single tradition, nothing of the diversity of the Buddhist schools. On the other hand, we note that the Jainas being more concerned with technology than the Buddhists, have included treatises on
53.
After A. N. Upadhye, Mahāvīra and His Philosophy of Life, p. 7.
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cosmography, mathematics and other semi-secular matters, after the fashion of the Bramanical Vedāngas.”54
JAINA ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Jainism has made important contributions also to art and architecture in India. The marvellous temples embedded with precious stones, remarkable sculptures with fine artistic touch, wonderful carved pillars, fine gateways and beautiful statues are among the greatest artistic achievements of India. Like Buddhists, Jainas too erected stupas and statues in honour of their great heroes, sacred saints, spiritual prophets, worthy seers and blessed ones. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Jaina images were made in abundance in Bundelkhanda region. At Sravanabelgola in Mysorc, as is well known, a monolithic figure of Jaina saint Bāhubalin, sixty feet in height, is a feat of architectural and sculptural engineering.
Already in the second century B.C. Jainas had started building rock-cut temples. The Hāthīgumphā and Rānīgumphā belonging to the Sunga period, look like natural caves. In Jaina canonical texts there are many references to caityas (shrines) which were consecreted to yaksas. There are references to arhat-caitya in the Bhagavatīsūtra, Upāsakadaśasutra and the Iñātādharmakathā. There is also description of eternal images (śāśvatapratimās) in the Rājapraśn'ya, Sthānānga and Jīvābhigama-sūtra.55
Generally, the Jaina icons depict the Jinas in the posture of meditation. There is no ornamentation and the figures symbolize austere and sublime mood.
In the sacred memory of the Tīrthankaras, the Jainas erected stūpas over their relics. Remains of one of the earliest Jaina stūpas were discovered at Mathura. This stūpa was dedicated to Pārsvanātha, and another similar stūpa found at Vaiśāli (Basāșh) is dedicated to Munisuvrata.56 Apart from the worship of the images of Tīrthankaras, Jainas also worshipped caitya-tree, the dharma-cakra, āyāgapatas, dhyaja-pillars and auspicious symbols like svastika, the śrivat sa mark. the lotus, a pair of fish etc.57
54. Louis Renou, Religions of Ancient India, p. 120. 55. Mohan Lal Mehta, Jaina Culture, p. 125; see also L.M. Joshi in Jainism,
pp. 96-114. 56. Umakant P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, p. 9; quoting Avašyakacürni of
Jinadāsa, pp. 223-227, 567. 57. Umakant P. Shah, op. cit., pp. 10-11.
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THE JAINA TRADITION
The numerous Jaina temples are remarkable in artistic expression such as the temple of Parsvanatha at Khajuraho, the temple of Lord Rṣabha at Dilwara on Mount Abu, the temple cities of Śatrunjaya (near Palitana), Girnar (near Junagarh), Rājgir and Pāvāpuri in Bihar.
The earliest Jaina paintings are attractive and fascinating as they beautifully depict devout men, women, elephants, buffaloes, lotus flowers, fishes, etc. Examples of earliest Jaina paintings are found at Hathigumphā in Orissa of the time of King Khāravela, and examples of seventh century paintings have been found at Sittannavasal near Tanjore. The artistic activity inspired by Jainism also developed miniature paintings and adornment of scriptures. The decorative palm-leaf manuscripts of the Nīśīthacūrṇi, Jñātādharmakathā and other Anga texts are well known. This school of miniature paintings was developed during medieval centuries mainly in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The Kalpasūtra, the Kalakācāryakathā and the Uttaradhyayanasūtra were mainly chosen for adornment.58 In this way, the tradition of Jaina art has continued to our own times.59
RÉSUMÉ
It is evident from the foregoing survey of the development of Jainism that the Jaina tradition had a non-Vedic Śramanic origin. It cannot be regarded as an off-shoot of any other non-Jaina religious tradition. In the course of its long and continuous history, Jainism produced a lofty system of philosophy, a great moral culture, an extensive literature, rich art and architecture and a sizable community of the faithful.
58.
59.
Unlike the Brahmanical tradition, the Jaina tradition developed a non-absolutistic approach to reality; it also denied the existence of a creator God; instead it taught the doctrine of the plurality of selves. Jainism does not accept the Vedic scriptures as a source of religious authority. It has its own scriptural collection dating from a venerable antiquity. The literature and the art of Jainism may be studied as manifestations of Jaina ideals and practices.
The ultimate aim of religious striving according to Jainism is
25
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Mohan Lal Mehta, op. cit., pp. 132-133.
See L.M. Joshi on 'Jaina Literature and Art' in Jainism, Patiala, Punjabi University, 1975; many valuable articles on Jaina sculpture, architecture and painting by Moti Chandra, U.P. Shah, M.A. Dhackay, H.K. Prasad, RC. Sharma and M.L. Nigam are published in Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, pt. I, Bombay, 1968.

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perfect peace and spiritual freedom (mokşa). This state of being is essentially the real nature of the self (atman) endowed with supreme wisdom and supreme vision. Among all the living species, man is considered to be the most developed creature. He has the capacity and potentiality for realizing the perfect state of the self. The religious and moral culture taught by the Jinas forms the practical pathway to the perfection of the self.
It goes without saying that Indian religions have stressed the urgency of attaining liberation. What distinguishes the Jaina attitude is its stress on renunciation and ascetic culture. Suffering is recognised as the hallmark of existence in the samsära. In addition to suffering there are the elements of impermanence and chances of prolonging bondage through the deeds inspired by ignorance and passions. The awareness of these facts of phenomenal existence has been specially propogated by the two branches of Śramana Culture, Jainism and Buddhism. As in Jainism so in Buddhism, existence in the world is invariably associated with manifold sufferings. The quest of liberation springs out of this awareness of suffering.60
In the following pages we have undertaken a detailed historical and descriptive study of the Jaina concepts of bondage and liberation. A review of similar concepts in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism has been attempted mainly for two reasons. In the first place a study of other religious ideologies helps us in figuring out in clearer terms the basic categories of Jaina religious thought. In the second place, such a study brings out the points of agreement and disagreement among different religious ideologies. On the other hand, it may be said that our studies in the doctrine of liberation in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism have greatly broadened our outlook toward the problem of religious plurality. Indeed, the Jaina doctrine of non-absolutismanekantavada-has always welcomed a just appreciation of the points of view of the votaries of different faiths and philosophies. In our study of the religions of India we have been able to identify not only those areas which are shared by more than one religion but also those areas which are peculiar to each.
The Jaina theory of liberation can be understood only in relation to the Jaina theory of the self (ätman). The Jaina theory of the self is a complex one. In the following chapter we shall study this theory in detail.
60. See L.M. Joshi, Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light, Ahemdabad: L.D. Institute of Indology, 1981, pp. 1-37.
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CHAPTER II
THE DOCTRINE OF THE SELF
Most of the systems of Indian thought accept the existence of an eternal spiritual entity called ātman, puruṣa, brahman or jīva. Buddhism, however, is exceptional in not acknowledging the reality of a permanent ātman. In this chapter we will make an attempt to study the notion of ātman or self in Jainism. The Jaina conception of ātman can be understood better in the light of the Brahmanical and Buddhist attitudes toward the idea of the self. We will, therefore, first make a brief survey of the different strands in the evolution of the Brahm anical docrine of the self.
THE DOCTRINE OF SELF IN BRAHMANISM
The Indian word for self is ātman. It is difficult to find a precise English translation of Sanskrit word ātman. In modern English writings the terms self, spirit, being, and soul are often used for it. As a matter of fact the connotation of the word ātman includes the meanings of self, soul, the breath, the living principle, the faculty of thought, and reason. For our purpose here we will use the word self as a synonym of Sanskrit ātman. The different forms of this word in Indian literature and other terms of cognate significance are, however, noteworthy. Thus the word ātman occurs already in the Vedic literature. The Pali form attā the Prakrit form appă, and the Sauraseni Prakrit form adă are well known. In the Brahmanical literature we find, besides ātman, that prāna, jīva and brahman are somtimes used as synonyms. The word prāņa stands for the vital breath. The term jīva signifies living principle. The word ätman refers to the self, to one's own nature or existence. The word brahman has acquired a special metaphysical sense in Hinduism, referring to the Ultimate Reality. In this case, when ātman is identified with brahman, the self is another name for Ultimate Reality.
In the old Vedic texts the word ātman is understood to mean the vital breath. In some places in the Rgveda the word manas is considered as the seat of thought, dwelling in the heart, as it were. In the Upanişads both terms, ātman as well as brahman are found used
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rather in an irregular fashion. It has been suggested that the word brahman originally meant 'sacred knowledge', 'prayer' or 'magical formula’; the compounds such as brahmavat ‘possessed of magic formula' and brahmavarcase 'superiority in sacred knowledge' suggest that the word brahman meant not only magical or religious knowledge but also the power inherent in sacred hymns, prayers, mantras and in their knowledge. 1
THE UPANISADS
The most famous doctrine of the Upanişads is the doctrine of the self conceived as the Ultimate Reality. In the old Upanişads ātman is declared to be one, eternal, conscious, of the nature of bliss and present everywhere ; the ātman is the source of all that is; it is the ground of the universe. In some passages of the Upanişads this atman is identified with brahman. Brahman is the cosmic principle of the universe, the reality which is both immanent in the universe and transcendent to it. In other words brahman or God and ātman or self are in essence one. This idea of the unity of ultimate Truth was elaborated and systematized in the Advaita school of Vedānta. But the old Upanişads contain conflicting opinions about the nature of the
self.
The Taittiriya Upanişad describes five forms of atman: namely annamaya, prānamaya, manomaya, vijñānamaya and anandamaya?. In the same Upanişad, it is stated that brahman is food, breath, mind, understanding and bliss, since out of each of those, things are born, live and die. This means that ātman or brahman is identifiable as food, breath, mind, understanding and bliss.
In several passages of the Upanisads ātman or brahman is the source of creation. Thus the Taittirīya Upanişad says that 'having created it, He cntered into it’.In the Chàndogya Upanişad, brahman is described as life, joy and void. This Upanişadic doctrine of ātman is thus pantheistic. Ātman is everywhere, in every thing. In the
1.
R. E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanis ad's, pp. 14-15. S.N. Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 211, has made the following observation: "The word Brahman originally meant in the earliest Vedic literature, mantra, duly performed sacrifice, and also the power of sacrifice which could bring about the desired result". Taittirīya Upanis ad, II, 1-5. Ibid., II. 6. Chandog ya Upanis ad, IV.10.5.
3.
4.
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29
Mundaka Upanişad we read the following passage :
Brahman, indeed, is this immortal, Brahman before, Brahman behind, to right and to left Stretched forth below and above Brahman, indeed, is this whole world, this widest extent.5
The reality of the universe is dependent on brahman. Although active and creator of the universe, He is most passive and unmoved. In some passages ātman is described negatively, but in a large number of passages we find positive description. Thus ātman is the inner-self, guide, knower and enjoyer of the fruit of actions. It is described as allpervasive and omnipresent.
In the Taittirīya Upanişad the brahman is described as Truth, Knowledge and Infinite (satyam jñānam anantam brahman). This brahman dwells in the cavity or heart of each being. The Upanișadic doctrine of ātman contains seeds of theistic as well as absolutistic ideas. Unlike Jainism, several Upanişadic passages teach the ultimate unity of all forms of life. We may say that in contradistinction to the Jaina theory of plurality of ātmans, the Upanișadic Vedānta teaches the unity of the ātman,
THE BHAGAVADGITĀ
After the old Upanisads the most representative and authoritative text of Brahmanical theology is the Bhagavadgitā. It presents a remarkable synthesis of the diverse doctrines of Vedic and non-Vedic origin. The unity of the soul and God or ātman and brahman is taught in this text also. The Bhagavadgitā makes a clear distinction between the self or spirit and matter or the material world, although both these are traced to God. The words brahman, puruşa, īśvara, and the names Viņsu, Krsna and Väsudeva are used for God. On the other hand, the ātman is described as eternal, unborn, all-pervasive, ancient, unmanifest and unthinkable. It is immortal; it is neither born, nor does it die. This immortal self is declared identical with the Supreme Lord.? The tenet of the immortality of self is clearly stated in the following verse of the Bhagavadgītā:
5. Mun laka Upanişad. II.2, 11, Eng. tr. by R. E. Hume. 6. Katha Upanişad, V.10, 12;
Isa Upanişad, IV. 5;
Taittiriya Upanişad, 11. 1. 7. Bhagavadgita, II. 18, 20. 22.
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Swords cut him not, fire burns him not, Water wets him not, wind dries him not... Eternal, omnipresent, fixed, immovable, everlasting is he (the human soul). 8
Like the Samkhya system, the Bhagavadgitā also makes a distinction between the soul and the body. The relationship between these two is compared to that between a person and his garments. The doctrine of rebirth is taken for granted. The embodied self undergoes the process of birth, death and rebirth. It is only in its embodied form that it is seen as a doer of deeds. Thus the Upanisadic doctrine of ātman is taught in the Bhagavadgitā also. But the impact of Sāmkhya thought on the Bhagavadgită has resulted in a new synthesis of the Upanisadic doctrine of brahman, the Samkhya doctrine of prakrti and purușa and Vaişņava theology. The growth of theistic ideas and of bhakti perhaps inspired the doctrine of mukti through divine pleasure (prasāda). In the earlier parts of the text karmayoga is expounded as the highest way to liberation of the self. It is in this context that the Bhagavadgitā teaches meditation and renunciation of attachment. As we will see below this aspect of its teaching has considerable affinity with the Buddhist and Jaina pathways to liberation.
The early Brahmanical doctrine of ātman as found in the old Upanişads and the Bhagavadgitā gave rise to different interpretations during the age of the systems. Thus the Advaita Vedānta represented by Šamkara taught the absolutistic notion of atman, whereas the Visiştādvaita Vedānta represented by Rāmānuja taught the theistic notion of atman. In Advaita Vedānta the ātman or brahman is accepted as the only ultimate reality ; the phenomenal world is described as māyā. In this system ignorance (avidyā) is assumed as the cause of bondage. Liberation (mokşa) consists in knowing the identity of ātman and brahman. In his commentary on the Brahmasūtra Śamkara seeks to establish the view that the real self (atman) is identical with the supreme self or Lord (parameśvara). The real and transcendental self, according to him, does not transmigrate. The embodied being (jiva) who appears as the doer of deeds and enjoyer of fruits is not identical with the Lord. BA In his commentary on the Bhagavadgita, Šamkara interprets this text in accordance with the Advaita doctrine. The
8. Ibid, II, 23-24. Eng. tr. by Franklin Edgerton. 8a. Brahmas ütra-Samkarabhūş ya, 1. i. 17.
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Bhagavadgitā itself, however, teaches theistic Vedānta. In many verses a clear distinction is made between individual self and the Univeral self or God. The path leading to liberation does not consist exclusively of knowledge (jñāna). Actions (karma) dedicated to God and performed without any attachment to their fruits as well as loving
evotion (bhakti) to God are equally valid paths to the ultimate goal according to the Bhagavadgitā.
THE SAMKHYA YOGA
Although originally of non-Vedic śramanic origin, the Sāņkhya and Yoga systems of thought in the course of time came to be included within the 'six stand-points' (şaņdarśana) of the Brahmanical philosophy. Both these philosophies are non-theistic. Although God (I śvara) is mentioned in the Yogasūtra, He is not central to the Yoga system of thought. The doctrinal framework of the the Yoga system does not differ to any great extent from that of the Sāmkhya. On the other hand, the technique of liberation envisaged in the Samkhya is identical with that of the Yoga. Hence the two systems are often treated together.
The Sāmkhya system is not only non-theistic but also dualistic. It teaches a clear dualism between puruşa and prakrti. It does not recognize the existence of God. It acknowledges the existence of numerous ‘persons' or 'selves' (puruşas). Prakrti and puruşa are eternal realities. Purușa is understood as the self or the conscious principle. It is different from body, mind, senses and other elements. It is of the nature of consciousness, the knower and the pure subject. The real puruşa is timeless, changeless, and the self-luminous. This is true of all the different purusas. Like Buddhism, Jainism and the Yoga, the point of departure in the Sāņkhya is the suffering of the earthly existence. It seeks to expound a way leading to freedom from suffering. The cause of bondage is the contact between prakrti and puruşa. It must be mentioned that according to the Sāmkhya it is the Ego, the product of prakrti, which is in bondage. The real puruşa is beyond bondage. The knowledge of the discrimination between praksti and puruşa is essential for achieving liberation. According to Isvarakrsna bondage and liberation belong to prakrti in its different forms. The purusa or self in its essential nature is transcendental and indescribable.
The Yoga concept of the self is also pluralistic. The purușa according to the Yoga system, is eternal and self-luminous. He is
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not dependent on God. Bondage of the self is due to ignorance; liberation is achieved by the discriminative knowledge of the essential nature of praksti and puruşa. In the Bhagavadgitā Sāņkhya and Yoga doctrine are woven around a theistic Vedānta. The characteristically Yoga conception of the self is to be found in the Yogasūtra of Patañjali.
THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINE OF NOT-SELF
Buddhism differs from all other systems of Indian thought in its attitude to the notion of self or soul. One of its cardinal teachings is the doctrine of not-self (antāmavāda). Buddhism has taught that there exists no permanent entity which can be identified with what is called the self. The belief in the existence of an eternal and substantial self is regarded as a 'false view (mithyādęsti) by the Buddhists.
The three great characteristics which characterise all the phenomena are, impermanence (anitya), suffering (duḥkha) and not-self (anātma). We read in the Dhammapada :
“All conditioned things are impermanent, all conditioned things are suffering; and all phenomenal things are not-self.”9
The word "conditioned' here means dependent on causes (hetu) and conditions (pratyaya). The doctrine of conditioned co-production (pratit yasamutpāda) is a universal law of causation which, according to Buddhism, relentlessly operates in the whole universe. All the 'things' (dharmas) are governed by this law. This interdependence or conditionedness of things and created objects makes it impossible for anything to have its own-nature' (svabhāva) or ‘self-existence' (ätmabhāva). The Buddhist dictum teaches that 'whatsoever is a rising thing, that is a ceasing thing'. In other words, all those things that are produced by causes or originate dependently, they are lacking in self-nature or self-hood. To seek for an eternal self in this realm of causally related and changing phenomena is a missearch or wrong effort.
The Buddha analysed the human personality and taught that it is an aggregate of five groups. These groups are called skandhas, literally 'groups', 'heaps', or 'aggregates'. They are :
1. rūpa, material form or body; 2. vedanā, feeling;
9.
The Dhammapada verses 277-279. Eng. tr. by L.M. Joshi.
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3. samjñā, perception; 4. samskāra, volitional forces; and 5. vijñāna, consciousness.
Of these, the first, rūpa-skandha, stands for the physical and the remaining four skandhas are the psychical components of the personality (pudgala). The Buddha pointed out that one could not find an ātman or one's 'self' in any of these skandhas. He further pointed out that all these skandhas or constituents of human personality are impermanent because they are conditioned. They are also of the nature of suffering, because they are impermanent and conditioned. That which is impermanent, conditioned and of the nature of suffering cannot be my 'self' or anything ‘mine' or 'belonging to me.' The belief in the reality of an endurable ātman has been consistently criticised by the Buddhist philosophers from the time of the Buddha to that of śāntarakṣita (eighth century A.D.). It may be mentioned in passing that a sect of Buddhism, that of the Vätsiputriyas or Pudgalavādins, is known to have believed in the existence of pudgala, perhaps a kind of 'self', which according to them was neither identical with nor different from the skandhas.10 Most schools of Buddhism, however, have treated this sect as heretical, because the tenet of an indescribable pudgala or 'person' ran counter to the central current of Buddhist thought.
Some modern scholars including Swami Vivekananda, Mrs. C.A.F. Rhys Davids, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Radhakrishnan and others have asserted that the Buddha did not deny the reality of an ultimate Self. His disciples, however, have denied the existence of self altogether and insisted upon the anātman theory. Scholars who seek to harmonize the teachings of the Buddha and those of early Upanişads, have resorted to this view that original Buddhism believed in the exitence of ātman.
But several other scholars including E. Conze and T.R.V. Murti, have rightly pointed out that such a doctrine requires the rejection of the early Buddhist doctrine as known to us from the Pali Canon for which there is neither evidence nor justification. The central Buddhist tradition has consistently taught the doctrine of notself and the Buddhist philosophers eulogized this doctrine as an outstanding characteristic of the Buddha's teachings. Anātmavāda, however radical and startling it might appear to us, has remained a
10.
See Tattvasamgraha of śāntarakṣita, verses 336-449.
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fundamental theoretical basis of the Buddhist technique of liberation.
In conclusion to this brief discussion of the Buddhist attitude to the idea of atman we may refer to the views of Nāgārjuna and Candrakirti, two of the greatest masters of Mahāyāna thought. juna has said in one of the crucial verses of his Madhyamakaśāstrall that the Buddha has taught self (ātman) as well as not-self (anätmun); but he has also taught neither self (atman) nor not-self (anātman) whatsoever. Candrakīrti in his commentary on this verse points out that Lord Buddha, out of great compassion, taught the existence of ātman to those men of perverted views who did not believe in the existence of this world, the other world, the law of karma, and were thus given to nihilism. In order to save them from going to perdition, he expounded the existence of self. For the benefit of such beings as are devoted to virtuous deeds and find it difficult to get out of the round of birth and death because of the satkāyadrsti or the view that the personality is real and the self is durable, he taught the doctrine of not-self so that desire for nirvāņa could be developed in their hearts. Finally he taught neither the existence of self nor the existence of not-self whatever to those excellent disciples in whom self-love had died down and who were sufficiently advanced in the spiritual path and were capable of penetrating into the Buddha's profound teachings. This means that from the ultimate standpoint there is neither self nor not-self in nirvāņa.
THE DOCTRINE OF SELF IN JAINISM
The word jīva or ātman is commonly used for self or soul in Jainism, though several other words, like prāņi, bhūta, sattva, vijña, veda, ceta, jeta, etc.,12 occassionally occur expressing the same meaning. Jainism recognizes jīva or self as an eternal entity. The defining characteristic of self is sentiency, and hence it is different from the material objects. Self is regarded as beginningless and as having unending continuous existence. It has neither a beginning nor an end; it is an entity which lived in the past and which continues to live in the present, and which will certainly live in future too. Though it cannot be percieved, yet it has some
11. Madhyamakaśāstra with commentary of Candrakīrti, XVIII. 6
ātmetyapi prajñapitamanāimetyapi desi tam
buddhairnātmā na cānātmā kas cidityapi desitam// 12. See Bhagavati sūtra, Eng. tr. by Lalwani, vol. II, p. 179.
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manifest features in this mundane existence. The manifest and essential features are its life-essentials (such as indriya or senses, bala or the channels of activities, ayu or life-duration and svā socchväsa or respiration) which are the signs of its presence in an embodied condition. 13
To understand the concept of self, it is necessary to know first what is not-self, because the ontological analysis of reals, according to Jaina philosophy, undertakes both self (jiva) and not-self (ajīva) into consideration which cover up the entire psychical and physical phenomena of the universe.
NOT-SELF (AJIVA)
Ajiva or not-self has been explained by Jaina scholars as nonpsychical entity, different from jiva or self whose essential characteristic is sentiency.14 By calling ajīva as not-self, non-self, non-psychical or non-sentient, it does not mean that it stands only for matter or physical body having some form, because its classification includes those substances also which have no forms. The substances that come under this category are (i) pudgala, (ii) dharma, (iii) adharma (iv)ākāśa and (v) kāla
(i) The term pudgala refers to the substance which has some form. Literally it stands for the material substance which undergoes modifications, combinations and dissociations. Due to combination the extent of pudgala is some times increased, while due to dissociation its extent is sometimes decreased. As it has a peculiar process of combination (pud) and dissociation (gala), it is called pudgala.15 It has been defined as having the characteristics of touch (sparsa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha) and colour (varna), 16 which are also accepted by other systems of Indian thought as inherent attributes of matter. But Jaina philosophers do not maintain that sound
13. 14.
Pravacanasāra, 11. 55; Pañcastikāya, 30. Sarvärthasiddhi 1.4; tad vipar yāya laksaņo ajivaḥ. Pravacanasāra, II. 35; Dravyasamgraha, jikā on 15. Tattvärthasūtra, V. 5, rūpinah pulgalal. Tatīvārtharājavärtrika, IV. 1, Dravyasamgraha-tika on 15, 26; Niyamasāra-vrtti on 9; Tattvārthasāra, III. 55. T'attavārthasūtra V. 23 Vyākhyāprajslapti, XII. 5. 450.
16.
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(dhvani) is also a characteristic of matter. They accept it as a mode of matter.1
-17
The forms of pudgala or matter are chiefly two viz; indivisible elementary particles which are known as anus or paramāņus or atoms, and the aggregates of these particles which are known as skandhas or aggregates or combinations. 18 Anus or paramāņus are subtle and imperceptible, as these are the smallest indivisible material particles, though the contactual relation between sense-organs and atoms is always possible as touch, taste, smell and colour, the physical attributes, are always associated with the atoms. But the properties of hardness or softness and heaviness or lightness are not associated with atoms. These are the properties of the combinations or aggregates of atoms which are known as skandhas. The skandhas have gross forms and are subject to the process of association and dissociation.19 Skandhas having gross forms do not mean that these are always perceptible. Sometimes some skandhas are imperceptiple, 20 but become perceptible by the combined process of association and dissociation. For example, the skandhas of hydrogen and chlorine gases are imperceptible, but when each of them breaks and then combines the result becomes perceptible.21
The skandha is, however, an all round complete gross form (sayalasamattham)22 of the aggregate of atoms and has the material qualities of touch, taste, smell and colour being explicitly manifested. It is said to be capable of existing in any of the six forms, viz; (a) sthula-sthula (solid form like earth, stone etc.) (b) sthula (liquid form like ghee, water, oil etc.) (c) sthula-sükṣma (small particle, capable of being perceived, (d) sūkṣma-sthula (substance, appearing as solid), (e) sükşma (particle so small as to be imperceptible) and (f) sükṣma-sükṣma or ati-şükşma (an extremely small particle).23 The first four, of course, have gross forms and are perceptible, while the last two are not at all perceptible. The karma-pudgalas or karmic particles, in the condition of being bound up with self are sükṣma.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
H. S. Bhattacharya, Reals in the Jaina Metaphysics, p. 119. Tattvärthasutra, V. 25
Tattvarthasutra, V. 26
Ibid., V. 28
See M. L. Mehta, Jaina Philosophy, p. 121
Gommatasära, Jivakanda, 604
Niyamasara. 21-24; Gommaṭasāra, Jivakanta, 603.
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Regarding the nature of accommodation of pudgalas or material substances; it is said that these occupy one unit of space onwards to the infinite space-points according to their forms,24 Only an elementary indivisible particle (anu or paramāņu) occupies one unit of space. Similarly skandhas or aggregates of atoms occupy space-points according to their combination of atoms, that means they occupy countable or countless space-points of the universe-space (lokākāśa) which is filled with infinite forms of matter of subtle and gross nature.25
Now a question arises as to how a material substance which is a combination of atoms takes its form. Really the atomic particles cannot unite in a random way. There is a system and that is based on the properties of smoothness (snigdha) and roughness (ruksa) which are associated with those atomic particles, 26 In the process of their combination the degrees of the properties of atomic particles work. The combination between the lowest degrees of these two properties is not possible.27 Moreover, the atomic particles with equal degrees of smoothness or roughness and of the same kind also do not unite with an atom of their own kind.28 But the combination between degrees different by two units is possible.29 In this process the higher degrees transform the lower ones,30 and hence material substance takes its shape.
(ii-iii) Dharma and adharma are the conditions or media of motion and rest, which assist motion and rest, respectively.31 These two are non-active (niskriya) or passive conditions (upagrāhaka) because these help to create conditions of movement and rest. It cannot be said that dharma originates motion and adharma stops it. Though dharma does not generate motion, yet its presence is an essential condition for the movement (gamanasahayāri) of jīvas and pudgalas; it helps their movement just as water helps the movement of fish by its mere presence, 32 Likewise adharma also does not persuade jīvas and pudgalas to rest, but helps them to rest (thāṇasahayārī), being a passive condi
24. Tattvārthasūtra, V. 14. 25. Sarvărthasiddhi, V. 14. 26. Tattvārthasūtra, V. 33. 27. Ibid., V. 34. 28. Ibid,, V. 35. 29. Ibid., V. 36. . 30. Ibid., V. 37. 31. Ibid., V. 17. 32. Dravyasamgraha, 17.
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tion for a traveller's rest under it.33 It does not mean that some agencies outside the substances are causing their motion and rest. Motion and rest constitute sans doute the inherent nature of substances, but some auxiliary conditions do work in their movement and rest, and these are dharma and adharma. As a fish has the capacity to move, but water helps in its movement.
Regarding the existence of these two substances, it is maintained that these two pervade the entire universe-space (lokākāśa)84 without leaving any inter-space as oil in the sesamum seeds.35 They thus occupy innumerable space-points. 36 They are eternally existent (nitya) in the universe-space and are fixed as the sole constituents of the universe (avasthita). The dharma and adharma are cosmic realities, having no form (arūpi).
(iv) Akāśa or space is understood to make room for things and to be the receptacle for all substances. 37 That which gives a space or avagaha to all things is known as ākāśa. It accommodates selves, matter, the conditions or media of motion and rest, and time.38 It is the base or support to accommodate all the things, but at the same time it is also its base or support. It is an eternal real, but its nature is formless,39 and its extension is infinite.40 It is infinite because its pradeśas or subtle parts are infinite in number. Each pradeśa can accommodate at least one indivisible atomic particle (anu) of dharma, adharma, jīva and kāla.
Akāśa is divided under two heads, viz., lokākāśa and alokākāśa.41 Lokākāśa, accommodates all the five substances mentioned above,42 but the specific properties of those substances are not lost. Alokākāśa means empty space where none of the five substances resides.
(v) Kala or time is also a real because it helps in perceiving change
33. Dravyasamgraha, 18. 34. Tattvarthasutra. V. 13.
35. Sarvärthasiddhi, V. 13. 36. Tattvarthasutra, V. 8;
Sthanamgasutra, IV. 3.334. Tattvärthasutra, V. 18.
37.
38. Pancastikaya, 90; Dravyasamgraha, 19.
39.
41.
42.
Tattvärthasūtra, V. 4-6,
40. Ibid., V. 9.
Dravyasamgraha, 19. Tattvärthasutra, V. 12.
Uttaradhyayanasutra, XXVIII. 7; Vyakhyāprajñapti, II. 10. 121-22.
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and motion. It is divided into real time (niscayakāla) and relative time (vyavahārakāla). The real time is a substance according to Jaina philosophy, the characteristic of which is vartanā,43 meaning the gradual change that occurs in substances due to the auxiliary cause of real time. The functions of time are to assist substances in their continuity, in their modifications, in their movements and in their priority and non-priority in time.44 The relative time is not regarded as a substance, because it is simply a measure of duration, as one second, one minute, one hour, etc.
Thus the above mentioned five categories of the ajīvatattva are non-psychical substances. Only jīva, according to Jaina philosophy, is psychical, to which we now turn our attention,
EXISTENCE OF THE SELF (ÄTMAN)
Regarding the existence of the self, it is often argued that the self is non-existent like a flower in the sky because it is not directly perceived as is the case with a ghata or pitcher. In reply to this it is said that the self can indeed be directly perceived by one, because one's knowledge about it which consists of doubts etc., is itself the self. And what is directly experienced needs no other proof, such as pleasure and pain of the body.45
The doubt about the existence of self presupposes its existence. Even if we doubt every item of our experience, the act of doubt cannot be denied. It reminds us of the famous dictum of Descartes, cogito ergo sum, i.e., “I think therefore I am", which is based on this principle of doubt because thought exists, therefore the self exists. It is a proposition which emphasizes the relation between a substance and its qualities. Descartes asserts that a thinking self is an absolute certainty whose reality cannot be doubted at all, because self is a substance whose essential attribute is thought.
A substance is known through its qualities. A substance and its qualities are co-existent. If the qualities are experienced, it means that the substance exists. Jiva or self is also a substance, and its qualities like perception, intuition etc., are objects of our experience. Therefore jīva or self exists.
The existence of the self is justifiable also on the ground that the
43. Uttarādhyayanasūtra, XXVIII. 10, vattană lakhano kālo. 44. Tartvārthasūtra, V. 22, varianăparināmakriyāḥ paratvāparatve ca kālasya. 45. Ganadharavāda, verse 6.
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self is endowed with qualities (guņin). The guņas of the self are remembrance (smști), desire for knowledge (jijñā sā), desire for activity (cikirşā), desire for movements (jigamişā) and doubt (samsaya) etc. These are self-evident, for they are realized by oneself. Hence the self, a gunin, is also self-evident. 46
Furthermore, the existence of self can be proved on the ground that the (jiva) in itself is pure (śuddha) like the sky.47 This self is independent, super-sensual, devoid of mind, body and speech; if one concentrates upon it by oneself then one can attain liberation.48
THE NATURE OF SELF
Every self is a conscious, doer, dynamic agent of actions and direct enjoyer. It is the living principle which corresponds to the life element or elan vital of Bergson's thought. Each self is a separate entity. It is eternai, uncreated, immaterial, incorporeal and beyond the range of physical vision. It is a simple unit, capable of fully realising in and for itself full freedom and perfection.
The existence of the self is tacitly assumed in Jainism. It is believed to be beginningless and endless. In other words it is indestructible and eternal. The jīva in samsára is not different from the body. This embodied being is, however, quite different from the real self. In other words, self is different from the body. From the standpoint of time the self is viewed as existing in all the three periods of time, past, present and future. Like time (kāla), the self (ātman) is also believed to be without beginning and without end. The self is sometimes compared to the sky. Like the sky it is formless. The self is the foundation of knowledge and other virtues.
The Jaina view of self is substantial. It can assume different forms and names in different states of existence (gati) but its substantial nature remains unchanged just as gold remains gold in different ornaments made of gold. It has been stated in the Samayasāra that:
“Whatever is produced from a substance, has the same attributes as those of the substance. Know ye, certainly they cannot be different, just as bangles, etc. made of gold cannot be other than gold”. 49
46. 47.
Ganadharavada, verse 10. Yogasāra of Yogindra, verse 58; see Sital Prasad, A Comparasive Study of Buddhism and Jainism, p. 87. Yogasăra, verse 85. Samayasara, verse 308.
48. 49.
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The self is a dynamic entity in the sense that it is the doer of deeds and enjoyer of their fruits. Another feature of self is its luminosity. It illuminates the body in which it dwells. A most important characteristic of the self is knowledge (jñāna). The Ācārāņgasūtra teaches as follows:
"The self is the knower (or experiencer), and the knower is the self. That through which one knows is the self. With regard to this (to know) it (the self) is established. Such is he who maintains the right doctrine of self.”50
Kundakunda in his Pravacanasāra expounds the view that the self is subject to pariņāma, 'change' or 'transformation'. This reminds us of the Sāmkhya doctrine of transformation. According to the Samkhya theory the physical as well as the mental world is a transformation (pariņāma) of prakrti, the primordial matter. In Vijñānavāda also a kind of parināmavāda or theory of transformation, which is radically different from the above, is found. Thus Vasubandhu in his Trimśikā describes this whole world as a triple process of transformation of consciousness (vijñānaparināma) into āla yavijñāna, manovijñāna and prav ttivijñāna.51 Acording to Kundakunda the self is subject to transformation with regard to knowledge, action and fruit; therefore the self should be understood as consisting of knowledge (jñāna), action (karma) and fruit (phala).52 In the next verse the author says that a śramaņa realizes the pure self when he knows that the self alone is the agent, the instrument, the deed and the fruit; such an ascetic becomes free from passions.53 According to Kundakunda the self is without material forms and colour but it perceives and knows material forms and colours and their qualities also.54 This does not however mean that the essential nature of the self is involved in actions like perception etc. Kundakunda says that it is the states of consciousness which are influenced by passions and therefore are involved in actions :
"The self effects the transformation of its consciousness and is directly responsible for the transformation; it is not the agent of all those conditions that constitute the material substances and their transformations. In reality the self is never an agent of
50. Ācārāmgasūtra, 1.5.5; SBE, vol. XXII, p. 50. 51. Vijñaptimātratāsiddhi, verse 17. 52. Pravacanasāra, II. 33. 53. Ibid., II. 34. 54. Ibid., II. 82.
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material karmas, it neither accepts nor rejects them, although it is
always present in the midst of matter”.55 This and such other statements of Kundakunda, however, are to be understood in the light of his exposition of vyavahāra-naya and niscaya-naya.
It would not be incorrect to say that the freedom of the will of an individual self is tacitly accepted in Jaina philosophy. The self is, therefore, the maker of its own destiny. It has been declared in the Uttarādhyayanasūtra :
"My own self is the river Vaitarani, my own self the Salamāli tree; my own self is the miraculous cow Kamaduh, my own self the park Nandana. My own self is the doer and undoer of misery and happiness, my own self, friend and foe, according as I act well or badly."56
This notion of moral responsibility of an individual self for each of its actions belongs to the common heritage of Indian religious thought. A remarkable parallel is found in the following verse of the Pali Dhammapada :
"Self is the master of self, who else would be the master ? With self well subdued, one finds a master, difficult to find."57
In yet another verse we find the doctrine of self-reliance expounded in no uncertain words :
"Rouse thyself by thyself, examine thyself by thyself; thus self-guarded and mindful, wilt thou, O monk, live happily.''58
A similar teaching is found in the Bhagavadgita :
“Raise yourself by yourself; do not allow yourself to fall. For self alone is the friend of self, self alone is the foe of self”,53
That the ultimate release is obtained by the self through its own efforts, is taught in the Jaina Canon at several places.
"The body is the boat, the self is the boatman, and the realm of transmigration (samsāra) is the ocean which is crossed by the great sages”, 60
s
55. Pravacanasāra, II. 92-93. 56. Utrarādhyayanasūtra, XX, 36-37; SBE, vol. XLV, p. 104. 57. Dhammapada, verse 160. 58. Ibid., verse 379. 59. Bhagavadgitā, VI. 5. 60. Uttarădhyayanasūtra, XXIII. 73.
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Two other verses in the Uttarādhya yanasūtra stress the same teaching :
"Subdue yourself, for the self is difficult to subdue, if yourself is subdued, you will be happy in this world and in the next. Better it is that I should subdue myself by self-control and penance, than be subdued by others with fetters and corporal punishment”.61
Nearly similar thoughts are found in the Buddhist texts. It is said in the Dhammapada that :
"Irrigators guide the water (wherever they like); fletchers bend the arrow; carpenters bend a log of wood; the sages subdue themselves".62
In yet another verse the supreme importance of self-conquest is declared thus :
“If one man conquers in battle a thousand times a thousand men, and if another conquers himself, he is the greatest of conquerors”.63
The Jaina teaching is in perfect agreement with this ideal. We read the following in the Uttarādhyayanasūtra :
"Though a man should conquer thousands and thousands of valiant (foes), greater will be his victory if he conquers nobody but himself”.64
The stress on the protection and purification of consciousness (citta) found in the Buddhist texts, is comparable to the stress on the protection and purification of the self in Jaina texts. Compare, for example, the following two verses :
“Whatever a hater may do to a hater, or an enemy to an enemy, a wrongly-directed mind will do us greater mischief”.65
“A cut-throat enemy will not do him such harm as his own perversity will do him; the man without pity will feel repentance in the hour, of death"66
The Jaina scriptures dwell at length over the nature of the self. Describing the immateriality and eternality of the self the
61. Ibid., I. 15-16; SBE, vol. XLV, p. 3. 62. Dhammapada, verse 80. 63. Ibid., verse 103. 64. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, IX, 34; SBE, vol. XLV, p. 38. 65. Dhammapada, verse 42. 66. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XX. 48; SBE, vol. XLV, p. 106.
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Uttarādhya yana declares :
"(The soul) cannot be apprehended by the senses, because it possesses no corporeal form, and since it possesses no corporeal form it is eternal. The fetter of the soul has been ascertained to be caused by its bad qualities, and this fetter is called the cause of worldly existence."87
The doctrine of transmigration of selves is one of the basic strands of the Jaina ideology. Along with the idea of transmigration we find that the moral law of rewards and punishments is also a basic element in the system. In a passage of the Acārāmgasūtra the believer in the self is described as believer in the world, a beliver in the karma and a believer in the activity.68
CLASSIFICATION OF SELVES
It is well known that Jainism is a pluralistic system and teaches the reality of an infinite number of selves. This view is radically different from the monistic Vedanta doctrine of the reality of one absolute self. Jainism rejects the notion of one absolute self and believes in the plurality of selves. The life principle or jiva is recognized even in earth, water and plants etc. In short the entire cosmos is filled with selves.
Some texts divide the multitude of selves into two classes, paryāpta and aparyāpta, completely developed and incompletely developed. The Jivakānda section of the Gommatasara69 states that these two classes of beings can be further subdivided according to their physical and mental faculties so as to make fourteen classes in all. The selves which have the capacity of completely developing instantly the characteristics of the body which they are going to assume in the course of rebirth are called paryāpta. The bodily characteristics include mental and physical organs of the senses. The selves which do not have the aforesaid capacity are called apar yāpta.
According to Jainism, the jivas are infinite in number and each jīva is different from other. One never becomes another or absorbs another. Every self is proportionate with the body it occupies. The mundane self is capable of adjusting its size according to its body as light illuminates a large or small space of room. The self exists in the
67. Ibid., XIV. 19. 68. Ācārāmgasūtra, I. 1. 5-6. 69. Gommatasara, Jivakan la, verse 72.
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body due to its material vitalities (dravyaprāņas). They are of five senses namely, smell, sight, hearing, taste and touch; three powers of body, mind, speech and body; age and breathing. They are ten in number and are found in different degrees according to the kinds of selves.70 This is the phenomenal aspect of self.
The Tattvārthasāra enumerates a tenfold classification of beings in the following manner :
The jīva is of one kind from the standpoint of its common essence which is the life principle. It is of two kinds according as it is liberated or in bondage. It can be of three kinds : imperfect, nearly perfect, and perfect. With respect to its state of existence the jiva is divided into four classes namely, hellish-existence, sub-human-existence, humanexistence and divine-existence. The jīva is of five kinds according to its five conditions namely, mitigation, annihilation, partial annihilation and partial mitigation, modification and genesis or rising. The six modes of cognition divide the jiva ino six classes. A sevenfold hypothetical classification of beings based on the principle of saptabhamginaya yields seven classes of jīva. The eight modes of karma yield eight classes of jīva. The nine categories make the jīva of nine kinds. Finally ten classes of jīva are mentioned; this tenfold classification is based on ten faculties mentioned above. 71
Here attention may be invited to the Buddhist list of states of existence where the following six gatis are recognised :
1. hellish (naraka); 2. animal (tiryak); 3. ghost (preta); .. .4. demon (asura); 5. human (manuşya); 6. divine (deva).72 Besides the sixfold classification of existence, the Buddhist texts mention several classes of beings. According to Buddhism the Supremely Enlightened Ones (samyak sambuddhas) are the highest beings. Then follow the following classes of beings in descending order : Pretvekabuddhas, Arhats, Devas, Brahmās, Gandharvas Garuļas, Nāgas, Yakşas, Kumbhāņdas, Asuras, Rākṣasás, Pretas and beings in hell.3
The Tattvārthasūtra in its second chapter gives a different kind of classification of jīvas. It says that three fundamental characteristics
70. Pañcāstikāyasāra, verse 30. 71. Tattvārthasāra, 234-237. For detailed discussion of the classification of ten
kinds of jīva, see H.S. Bhattacharya, Reals in Jaina Metaphysics, pp. 290-362. 72. Dhar masamgraha, section 57. 73. See H. Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, 59-60.
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are found only in jiva; they are not found in other substances. These three are the principle of life (jivatva), capacity for liberation (bhavyatva) and the absence of capacity for liberation (abhavyatva). These essentials are peculiar to ātman. This text describes consciousness as the characteristic of self (upayogo lakşanam). The word upayoga is defined as that which is co-existent with the principle of awareness or consiousness (cetanā) and is caused by both internal and external conditions. It is the distinction of self and differentiates the latter from the body. The upayoga or conciousness is of two kinds. Of these two kinds the first is subdivided into eight forms while the latter is sub-divided into four forms.74 According to the commentary of Pujya pada the sub-divisions are as follows:
The first division of consiousness is into knowledge and perception ((jñāna and darśana). Knowledge is of following eight kinds : sensory knowledge, scriptural knowledge, clairvoyance, telepathy, omniscience, wrong sensory knowledge, wrong scriptural knowledge and wrong clairvoyance. Perception is of the following four kinds : perception through the eyes, perception by the senses other than the eyes, clairvoyant perception and omniscient perception.25
This classification shows that knowledge is an essential attribute of the self. Consciousness manifests itself through knowledge and vision. Knowledge comprehends the reality the nature of which is both universal and particular. Vision or darśana comprehends the reality of the self. It should be observed that jñāna reveals the external reality whereas darśana reveals the internal reality. From the ultimate standpoint both knowledge and vision or jñāna and darśana are identical with the self. When the self knows external reality we have jñāna; when the self has a vision of itself we have darśana. In this way jñāna and darśana both are attributes of the ātman just as heat and illumination both are attributes of the fire.76
An obvious classification of living beings into two classes distinguishes the liberated beings from those in the course of transmigration; the former are called mukta while the latter samsärin. The beings in the course of transmigration are of two kinds, mobile (trasa)
74. Tattvärthasūtra, II, 7-9; Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXVIII. 10. 75. Sarvärthasiddhi, II. 9; S. A. Jain, Reality, pp, 55-56. 76. Dravyasamgraha with vrtti on verse 44, (pp. 171.72 of Agas edna). 77. Tattvārthasūtru, II, 10;
Sthānāmgasūtra. II, 1,57.
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and immobile (sthavara). The mobile beings are further classified into four types, those with two sense-organs, those with three sense-organs those with four sense-organs and those with five sense-organs. The immobile are endowed only with one sense-organ; they are divided into five groups namely, the earth-bodied, the water-bodied, the fire-bodied, the air-bodied and the plants. The beings of this group have only one sense organ, that of contact. According to the Jaina view even this sense-organ is covered by a thick veil of ignorance.78
In the jivakaṇḍa section of the Gommaṭasara we have a list of fourteen maggaṇās or 'soul-quests'. The word maggaṇā, Sanskrit märgaṇā, means investigation, quest or search. The selves are investigated in their various aspects which are fourteen in number. They are as follows:
1. state of existence (gati)
3. body (kāyā)
5. sex-inclination (veda)
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78.
7. knowledge (jñāna),
9. perceptual vision (darśana)
11. capacity for liberation (bhavyatva),
12. right belief (samyaktva) 14. assimilation (āhāra)79
13. rationality (samjñitva)
In several Jaina texts three forms of the self are distinguished :
1. The external self (bahirätman),
2. Internal self (antaratman) and
3. Highest self (paramātman),80
The external self, out of ignorance and attachment, takes the body for the self. It says "I am the body and the physical objects are mine". This identification of the self with the gross physical body and external objects is a positive hindrance to spiritual enlightenment and liberation.
79.
80.
The internal self, that is, mind, is aware of the difference between the self and not-self. It knows that the self is the supreme reality, free from objectivity and untouched by sense-enjoyments. In this form the self as a spiritual entity is free from lust and attachment and is
47
Pañcastikayasara, 109-10; Tattvarthasutra, II. 12-14; Sthanamgasutra, V. 1.394. Gommaṇasāra-jīvakāṇļa, verse 142. Paramatmaprakasa, I. 12-14:
Samayasara, verse 25; Samadhitantra, 7.11-13.
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2. sense (indriya)
4. vibratory activity (yoga) 6. passion (kaṣāya)
8. control (samyama)
10. colouration (lesya)

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on the way to liberation.81
This internal self becomes the supreme self when it knows its real nature, full of knowledge and devoid of all karmas.82 We read in the Samayasāra the following description of the one who has the knowledge of paramātman :
"I am unique inasmuch as I am of the nature of upayoga; hence no delusion whatsoever is related to me. He who thinks like this, the knowers of the true self call him free from delusion."83
The word paramātman denotes the real and ultimate form of the supreme self which is pure, perfect and luminous. Such a self is called siddha or perfected. He is the knower of all and conqueror of passions.84 In the Tattvārthasāra he is described as perfect, pure, eternal, free form karmas and of the nature of knowledge. This concept of self as siddha represents the climax of Jaina ideology. To
the state of paramātman is the highest goal according to Jainism. This same state is known as liberation (mokşa).
Kundakunda has briefly discussed the doctrine of two standpoints : practical standpoint and the pure standpoint. The practical standpoint is called vyavahāranaya while the pure standpoint is called śuddhanaya. Reality is known through the pure standpoint; the practical standpoint does not reveal the real ; the self which takes refuge in the real standpoint has the right vision. Those who are satisfied with the lower status of existence adopt the practical standpoint; but the seers of the supreme self adopt the pure standpoint which reveals the supreme existence.85
The doctrine of two truths that is found in Buddhism 86 appears to have influenced the Jaina theory of two standpoints as explained by Kundakunda. Nāgārjuna flourished earlier than Kundakunda. Kundakunda makes use of the theory of two standpoints with a view to illuminating the Jaina doctrine that the knowledge of the supreme self alone constitutes the pure standpoint. He says :
"He who perceives the self as not bound, untouched, and not
81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86.
Samadhitantra, verses 15,27,30,37. Paramātmaprakaśa I, 15; Moks apāhula, verse 5. Samayasāra, verse 36. Moks apāhuda, verse 35. Samayasăra, I. 11-12. For the Buddhist theory of samyrttisatya and paramarthasatya see MadhyamakaŠāstra, XXIV. 8-10.
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other than itself; fixed or steady, undifferentiated and unattached,
know him as possessed of pure standpoint”.87 SELF, CONSCIOUSNESS AND MIND
The Jaina philosophers have described consciousness as the fundamental characteristic of life (jiva or ātman). The Jaina texts have used two words, upayoga and cetanā, in the sense of consciousness. The Tattvārthasūtra (II.8) describes the self as characterized by upayoga. This word means that which is functional, that which can serve a function. This function according to Gommațasāra-Jivakāņda (verse 672) is to grasp the knowledge of objects. In other words, the main function of consciousness is knowledge. Upayoga is of two kinds : with form and without form. The formless upa yoga is understood as darśana or vision whereas the upa yoga with form is the cognition of the objects; it is called jñāna. Thus jñāna and darśana are the two aspects of consciousness.
The Jaina view of consiousness suggests some remarkable
ies of modern psychology. Consciousness (cetanā), according to Jainism stands for (1) the passive experience of agreeable or disagreeable phenomena, (2) the consciousness of purposive activity and (3) the more complicated psychical state, associated with o leading to pure knowledge. 88 Sometimes a distinction is made between cetanā and upayoga. The former is understood as conciousness while the latter serves the function of consciousness.89
The Upanisads have used the word vijñāna or consciousness as an essential characteristic of brahman or ātman. The Taittiriya Upanişad refers to the ātman as both conscious (vijñāna) and unconscious (avijñāna). The Chāndog ya Upanişad characterizes brahman as consciousness (vijñāna) and knowledge (jñāna).91 The Praśna Upanişad refers to the ultimate Self as the con ioussself (vijñānātmā.)92
The Buddhist texts dwell at length on the concepts of vijñāna, consciousness, vedanā, feeling and samskāra, volitional forces. These words roughly correspond to knowledge, feeling and will.93 In the
87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93.
Samayasāra, 1.14. See H.S, Bhattacharya, Reals in Jaina Metaphysics, D. 293. Pañcăstikāyasära, verse 16, Taittirīya Upaniş ad, II. 6. Chăn dogya Upaniỹ ad, VII. 8,2, Prašna Upanişad, IV. 9-10 S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 400.
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Theravada texts vijñāna or consciousness is one of the constituent factors called skandhas of personality (pudgala). It appears that the element of consciousness connects one existence with the other. This is how rebirth takes place.
A grand doctrine of consciousness as the only ultimate reality was elaborated by the Vijñānavāda school of Buddhist philosophy. In this system vijñana or consciousness is conceived as luminous, selfconscious and self-cognizable. It is manifold, changing every moment and is pure and bright and manifests itself in all beings.94
In most systems of Indian thought the levels of conscious and unconscious mind are recognised. The idea of unconscious is perhaps found in the Upanisads also. The Mandukya Upanisad refers to the waking and dream states of the conscious principle: it also refers to the dreamless state and the fourth and the highest state of the self which is beyond description.
In early Buddhist texts we find the word bhavamga which is understood to mean 'subconscious individual life' or 'subconscious life-continuum'. Thus bhavamgacitta is a functional state of subconsciousness.95
T.G. Kalghatgi has pointed out that the Jaina thinkers were aware of unconscious state. He cites an instance from the mallakaḍṛṣtānta section of Nandisutra where the following illustration is given :
A new earthen pot does not get wet by two or three drops of water but when it is moistened again and again it gets wet because the water is absorbed by the pot. But after repeated pouring down of the drops of water a stage comes when the water becomes visible. According to T.G. Kalghatgi, "This example gives a clear picture of the vast depth of the unconscious which absorbs all our wishes and ideas, although the example was meant to explain the process of avagraha" 96
It will not be out of place to consider here briefly the concept of mind in Jainism. The Tattvärthasutra (II. 21) considers mind (manas) as a sense-organ (indriya). In some texts two forms of mind are distinguished, dravya-manas and bhava-manas, material mind and the mental states. In the Gommaṭasara, we have reference to dravyamanas or material mind which is figuratively described as of the form
94. L.M. Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India, pp. 254-55. 95. T.W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede, Pali-English Dictionary, p. 499. T.G. Kalghatgi, Some Problems in Jaina Psychology, pp. 42-43.
96.
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of eight-petalled lotus.97 It is interesting to note that the Jaina philosophers acknowledge the existence of selves without mind besides the existence of selves with mind.98 Mind is considered as a special sense-organ which is unmanifest; therefore it is called no-indriya. THE NATURE OF THE SUPREME SELF
In a series of verses Kundakunda describes the ultimate nature of the real self. We quote below two such verses :
"I am unique in so far as I am of the nature of consciousness. Therefore dharma and other things are not related to me. Therefore, he who thinks like this is called 'unrelated to dharma and other things' by the knowers of true self. I am indeed unique, absolutely pure, always non-corporeal, and full of perceptual vision and knowledge. Therefore not even an atom of alien thing whatsoever belongs to me".99
Those who identify the self with the not-self are perverse minded.
The Samadhitantra declares that the root cause of the sufferings of samsara is the false notion of taking the body as the self; therefore one should abandon this notion and controlling the outward tendencies of the senses enter into the innermost core, i.e. the self.100
51
In some Jaina texts a distinction between the self with limitations or attributes and self without limitations or attributes is tacitly assumed. Thus the self (jiva, ātman) is said to be endowed with the following limitations and attributes. It has life principle, consciousness, cognition; it is doer, it is active, it is enjoyer, it is of the same extent as body, it is formless and it is attached to karma, 101 These attributes belong to the jiva with limitations or upadhis. There are also the corresponding attributes belonging to the self without limitations or upādhis, which are as follows.
The liberated self is of pure and perfect existence; it has infinite consciousness; it is endowed with supreme knowledge (kevala-jñana) and supreme vision (kevala-darśana), it is the Lord by virtue of freedom from karmas; it is the real doer in the sense of being independent; it is the enjoyer of the eternal bliss born of the realisation of the true
97. Gommaṭasāra: Jivakāṇḍa, verse 443.
98.
Tattvarthasutra, II. 11.
99. Samayasara, I. 37-38.
100.
Samadhitantra, verse 15. See also verses 16-17, 54-55.
101. Pañcastikāyasara, verse 27.
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self; its size is two-third of the size of the body possessed by him last; it is without any physical form being wholly spiritual and it is absolutely free from the bondage of karmas. 102
The attributes and limitations of the self listed in the Dravyasamgraha are as follows:
The jiva is possessed of cognition, it is formless, it is doer, it is of the same extent as its body, it is an enjoyer, it transmigrates in the samsara, it is perfect in its essence and it is of the nature of going upward.103
It is clear from the foregoing discussion that the different forms, functions and characteristics of the self are described only from the vyavahāra point of view. The real self that is the goal of Jaina culture is quite distinct and unconnected with any of these things. We read in the Samayasara that the Supreme Self is devoid of taste, colour, smell and sound; it cannot be known through inferential knowledge; its distinction is consciousness (cetana). This description is often repeated in the text in several verses. Thus the pure self is described as free from attachment and hatred; illusion does not exist in it; karmic conditions, karmic particles and non-karmic particles have no trace in it. There is no atomic potency nor any aggregate of molecules in the pure self. It is completely free from egoism and transcends the pair of pleasure and pain. The real jīva in its essence does not function either through mind or through speech or through the body because the manifestations of karma have disappeared from it. The released self is free from emotions and feelings; it has neither to work for purification nor for self-control. Such is the nature of the Supreme Self. 104
In the Paramatmaprakāśa we have a detailed picture of Supreme Self (paramātman). Here we are told that this self is not known by reading the Vedas and Sastras, nor it is perceived by the senses; it can be known only through pure meditation. The Supreme Self is endowed with supreme energy. It is this self characterized by these excellent characteristics which is worshipped by the three worlds; this self is called the highest Divinity who dwells in the supreme abode at
102. Pañcastikayasara, ed. and tr. by A.N. Upadhye, p. 20. 103. Dravyasamgraha, verse 2;
Tattvärthasutra, X. 4-5: Jñatadharmakathamga, VI. 62.
104. Samayasāra, verses 49-54.
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the top of the universe.105 The fundamental position of Jain philosophy is that the self remains the self; it can never become a non-self. Likewise what is non-self or matter remains matter. It can never become the self.108
105. Paramatmaprakāśa, I. 23-25. 106. Ibid., I. 67.
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CHAPTER III
THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA AND TRANSMIGRATION
One of the most fundamental doctrines of Indian religious thought is the doctrine of karma. It is found in all the Indian systems of religion and philosophy, and is one of those features of Indian culture which are known to every Indian. It is also one of those most ancient doctrines that are common to Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. It is closely related to the notion of transmigration or metempsychosis. In fact the theory of karma presents us with the Indian endeavour to explain the problem of suffering and happiness in the world of living beings. It is a moral law of causality which explains the causes and effects of actions. It is connected also with the doctrine of liberation, for liberation consists in the complete freedom from karma and its consequences.
The idea of transmigration of soul was known to some ancient Greeks and Egyptians. According to some scholars, the Greek philosophers like Pythagoras and Empedocles may have been influenced by the Indian theory. But the detailed philosophical and moral analysis of the law of karma is found especially in Indian systems. In this chapter we will set out the doctrine of karma in detail.
MEANING OF KARMA
The word karma is derived from the root kr and means to act, to make, to do, a deed or action. Any action, either physical or mental is called karma. The word includes both the cause and the effect. It may be mentioned that the Sanskrit word karma includes both sacred as well as secular deeds. Thus the word includes the performance of religious rites, official duties, business, moral actions, and so on. The word is also sometimes understood as fate referring to certain consequences of acts in a previous existence.
The general conception of karma is that good deeds bear good fruits, and evil deeds bear evil results. The law of karma conditions the course of transmigration and influences the state of life in each existence. Theoretically there is no escape from the results of karma. The inexorability of the law extends to all kinds of actions mental as
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well moral. It has to be admitted that the law of causality of karma cannot be verified on the basis of observed facts. It has to be believed in as a spiritual principle. The necessity of this doctrine assumes special importance in Jainism and Buddhism which do not postulate any creator and ordainer of the world. The principle of karma is immanent in the world, and beings are governed by it. The doctrine of karma presupposes transmigration or rebirth. The results of a person's deeds may not appear in his present life. In order to reap the results of his deeds he has to be born again. Thus karma regulates not only the present but also the future also; the chain of moral causation links the three points of time in a being's existence, viz., past, present and future.
THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA IN BRAHMANISM
In the first chapter we have referred to the views of Dr. G.C. Pande and Dr L.M. Joshi that the concepts of samsāra, karma, yoga and dhyāna originated among the munis and śramanas who harked back to pre-Vedic times. In the earliest stratum of Vedic literature, we do not find any trace of the doctrine of karma and transmigration. Dr P.V. Kane has observed :
"A clear statement about the doctrine of karma and punarjanma is absent from the whole of Ķgveda.'1 The word karma occurs, however, in the Ķgveda several times; in some passages it means 'exploits'; in some other passages it means religious works, such as sacrifice. The Atharvaveda (XVIII. 3. 71) refers to good works, suk rtam. The Satapatha Brāhmana (XII.9.1.1) seems to refer to the idea of retribution. It also refers to the belief in renewed death (punarmrtyu). In the two of the earliest Upanisads, the Brhadaran yaka and the Chandog ya, the doctrine of karma is taught in clear terms. The belief in transmigration is illustrated in the following words :
"Just as the caterpillar, having reached the tip of one blade of grass, makes an approach to another blade, draws itself towards it and establishes itself thereon, so this individual) self, casting down this body in death, dispelling avidyā (ignorance) and making approach to another body draws itself to another body and establishes (or identifies itself) therein".2 During the course of a discussion Artabhāga asks Yajňavalkya as
1. 2.
P.V. Kane, History of Dharmaśāstra, vol. V, part II, p. 1536. Brhadaranyaka Upaniş ad, IV. 4.3,
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to what happens to a man when he dies, the latter states that a man becomes good or bad only through his karma. It is only the karma that survives after death. It has been further stated in the Chandogya Upanisad that the persons having good karma will get good birth, healthier and comfortable life and those possessing bad actions must get evil birth, non-healtheir and dis-comfortable life. In a passage the text sums up the belief in different states of transmigration of soul according to its deeds.5
THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
According to his deeds the embodied one successively assumes forms in various conditions, coarse and fine, many in number. The embodied one chooses forms according to his own qualities.
The idea of birth in different forms according to deeds and knowledge is taught by Yama to Naciketas in the Katha Upanisad. Further, the Upanisad states that a person who has no understanding, who has not controlled his mind, who is always impure, does not attain the highest state, i.e. mokşa and undergoea the cycle of birth and death." The Muktika Upanisad describes mind as the root of the tree of samsāra. 8
The doctrine of karma and rebirth is known to the Bhagavadgītā and the Mahabharata. The Gità refers to two paths called bright (śukla) and dark (kṛṣṇa); by following one, the yogin does not return to this world, and by following other he returns to this world. The Gitä also stresses that the acts of exertion are not lost. If a man's efforts on the path of yoga do. not yield quick results in this life he is born among the righteous and in the family of yogins. By making fresh efforts and through the force of efforts made in the previous existence he attains perfection at long last. At one place Lord Kṛṣṇa tells Arjuna ;
"Many are my lives that are past and thine also. All of them I know but thou knowest them not",10
The doctrine of transmigration is referred to in this text
Ibid., IV. 4.5.7.
Ibid., III. 3.13.
3.
4.
5.
6. Katha Upanisad, V. 6-7.
7.
Ibid., III. 7.
Chandogya Upanisad, V. 10. 7-8.
8.
Muktika Upanisad, II. 37. Bhagavadgita, VI. 37-47. 10, Ibid., IV. 5.
9.
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repeatedly. It may be noted in passing that in this text performance of deeds (karma) dedicated to God is eulogized.
An action done without any attachment to its consequences is called (nişkāmakarma). The text recommends renunciation of motive or attachment to the result of deeds rather than of deeds themselves. This practice is also called 'disciplined activity' (karmayoga). Karmayoga is also defined as equanimity of the mind under all circumstances such as suffering and happiness, loss and gain, victory and defeat. This is called the discipline of equanimity (samatva-yoga),12 The Gitā also insists on the performance of one's own duty (svadharma). This is understood in terms of Brahmanical system of fourfold classification of society (caturvarnya) which is said to be based on deeds and qualities of each class. Although the Gita teaches in so many verses the doctrine of karma and although it recognizes the complex nature of the dynamics of karma, it lays great stress on bhakti or loving devotion to Lord Kṛṣṇa. The grace (prasāda) of God has the power to annul the functioning of the law of karma, for it is declared in this text that even the most sinful attain salvation and are saved through God's grace. Towards the end of the Bhagavadgitä Kṛṣṇa asks Arjuna to take refuge in Him, leaving all dharmas; and promises to liberate him from all his sins. Indeed the idea that God's grace saves the sinners received widespread currency during the medieval period especially among the saint-poets of the bhakti movement. In theistic religions one of the attributes of God is forgiveness; God's grace and forgiveness are largely sought by His devotees; so in Hinduism, in Christianity, in Islam and in Sikhism. In Jainism and Buddhism, however, the law of karma or rewards and punishments, is allowed full play. The power of good is stronger than the power of evil, and the forces of good deeds can overpower the force of sinful deeds. The doer has, however, to undergo the cosequences of his deed irrespective of divine intervention.
Commenting upon the doctrine of karma, one of the most learned modern Hindu scholars, Dr P.V. Kane has made the following observation:
11.
12.
57
"There are several features of our present life that can be more satisfactorily explained on the theory of transmigration than on any other. Why do two people who have seen but little of one
Ibid., II, 12-13 & 22-27; IV. 1-9; VII. 19; VIII.6, 15-16; IX.21
Ibid., II.48.
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another feel friendship or hatred? The surmise that in past existences they were friends or had obliged each other or harmed each other offers an explanation. The doctrine of karma and transmigration accounts for the apparently unmerited misery and suffering of many people, while some enjoy undeserved happiness or a good life. Our sense of fairness and justice would be shocked by the inequalities in the world, if such] a doctrine were not there. The hypothesis and belief that all human volition and conduct will suitably be rewarded and punished in subsequent existences has an important bearing on present conduct, would act as an urge to continual effort for goodness in this life and is likely to deter men from vice and cruelty. This doctrine of karma not only offers an explanation about the varying degrees of happiness and unhappiness among human beings, but also accounts for differences in material well-being and unhealthy bodily conditions".13 THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA IN BUDDHISM
The doctrine of karma was advocated by a number of śramana teachers in the 6th and 5th centuries B.C. The main problem before these śramana philosophers was concerning the origin of suffering or dukkha. The theory of karma was advanced to explain the origin of suffering. The theory was common to the teachings of Mahavira and Buddha. The Pali texts often show us the Buddha's teachings of the doctrine of karma on various occasions. The beings are described as inheritors of their karma; karma makes their destiny, karma is their friend and karma is there shelter.14 At one place it is declared that the beings are tied to their karma, just as the wheel of a chariot is tied to axil. The differences among men and their experiences are said to be due to their karma. The consequences of each karma have to be gone through positively. All actions, past and present, have an effective reaction. In some passages of the Pali canon karma is not regarded as the only cause of all the sufferings of man. Those who regarded karma as the sole cause are criticized.15
The Buddhist texts classify karma into four classes: dark, white, dark and white, and neither dark nor white. This fourfold classification is found, as mentioned above, in the Yogasütra also. In many
13.
14.
15.
P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol. V, part II, pp. 1572-73. Majjhimanikaya (PTS edition), vol. III. p. 203.
Anguttaranikaya (PTS edition), vol. V, p. 292; Samyuttanikaya (PTS edition), vol. IV, pp. 132-133.
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Buddhist texts karma is divided in three classes only : good (kušala,), bad (akusala) and indeterminate (avyāk rta). The word karma in Buddhist texts means will or voluntary mental activity. A volitional act or willing when associated with physical action and speech becomes karma. The heart of karma is, therefore, will (cetana)16. According to the Atthasālini which is a commentatory on the Dhammasamgaņi, there are three types of karma :
1. bodily action (kāya-kamma), 2. vocal action (vaci-kamma),
mental action (mano-kamma).17 All these actions originate in will. As has already been pointed out by Dr G.C. Pande, the Buddhist view of karma as functional has to be distinguished from the Jinist view in which karma is regarded as substantial. The Buddhist view of karma is impersonal in so far as only the deed is acknowledged without a doer. The orthodox view is that there is no unchanging self which remains identical in all stages. The continuity of karma process through a series of inter-dependent factors is explained through the doctrine of pratītyasamutpāda or conditioned origination. In addition to the philosophical theory of karma as striving through transmigration, Buddhism also knows popular theory of karma according to which the principle of reward and punishment operates beyond this life and determines the destiny of a being. 18
REBIRTH IN BUDDHISM
Karma is a kind of energy which must produce its result, as it is pointed out that man's action in the past determines the nature of his present existence and the actions of the present as well as the result of the past actions will determine his future outlook. So the result of karma whether good or bad cannot be escaped either in this life or beyond this life. This is in short the doctrine of rebirth.
According to Buddhism, there are three important factors for the rebirth of a human being, viz the male sperm, the female oyum and the karma energy (kamma vega). When a being dies and a new being is born, then this karma energy is set forth at the time of his death. Father and mother provide only the necessary physical material for
16. Samyuttanikaya (PTS edition), vol. II, p. 39-40. 17. Arthasalini, p. 88. 18. See Ch. Humphreys, Krama and Rebirth.
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the formation of the embryonic body, but the characteristic features, the tendencies and faculties are inherent in the embryo. When a being dies and is reborn, what transmigrates is not a person, but his karma.19
In Buddhist philosophy there is no permanent entity like self, soul or ego but the doctrine of karma plays an important part in the functioning of the individual's qualities, his career, the events of his life and fate not only in this world but beyond also. Karma is nothing but a 'series', a combination of sensation, thought, feeling, volition and material elements. As De La Vallée Poussin states:
19.
20.
"This 'series' never had a beginning. It has to 'eat' the fruits of a certain number of acts under certain conditions, and the experience of these acts constitutes an existence. When this existence comes to an end, there are still some acts to be 'eaten' both new and old. The 'series' therefore passes into another existence, and lives a new section of life, under new conditions. It is the series as a whole with all its moral and material elements, that is incarnated...... In fact there is no agent (kartā), there is nothing but the act and its fruit; organs, thoughts and external things are all the fruit of acts, in the same way as pleasant and unpleasant sensations."'20
The law of rebirth in Buddhism will be understood if we will be able to know the concept of subconscious 'life-stream' which is known in the Buddhist texts as bhavamgasota. The term. bhavamga does not mean an eternal, immortal and absolute self but it is a continuous everchanging subconscious process. It is the residue of all our former deeds, sensations and experiences, whatever we have seen, heard, felt, thought and perceived internally or externally. So the karma of any living being constitutes subconscious life-stream which is a continual process of becoming. As it is said in the Milindapanha, "na ca so, na ca añño", "neither it is he, nor it is another one (that is reborn)". Heraclitus too had a similar view, "we never enter the same stream. We are identical with it, and we are not". All life whether it may be conscious or subconscious, is in flux, a continual process of becoming, change and transformation. Hence, there is no permanent self, ego or personality, to be found but merely these changing phenomena.
Abhidharmak ośa-bhāṣ ya, iii. 11-24.
De La Vallée Poussin, 'Karma' in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. VIII, p. 674.
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The term rebirth or transmigration means, in Buddhism, only the psycho-physical process, which is cut off at death and continues immediately somewhere else like the image in the mirror or the echo of one's voice. It is the arising of rebirth consciousness, just as the image is produced through the contact of face and mirror. It is the passing away of the present consciousness only that conditions a fresh one in another life.
It means that the coming into being of the linking consciousness (pațisandhiviññāņa) is dependent upon the passing away of another consciousness in a past birth, and that the process of coming into being and passing away is the result of the powerful force known as kamma (karma). Thus, in the real sense, there is no permanent being or self that wanders through the round of rebirths, but merely everchanging twofold process of karma activities i.e. kammanantara and vipākānantara. It is through karma that one is afflicted with pain and suffering. As it is stated in the Visuddhimag ga,
"A mere phenomenon it is, a thing conditioned that rises in the following existence.
But not from previous life does it transmigrate there, and yet it cannot rise without a previous cause."21
PURE AND IMPURE KARMA
The karmas are divided, according to their effects, into four classes, viz :
1. Bad acts leading to impurity, 2. Good acts leading to purity, 3. Both partly good and partly bad acts and thus productive of
both purity and impurity, 4. Those acts which are neither good nor bad and do not result
in purity or impurity but which contribute to the destruction
of karmas.22 Generally there are two kinds of karma viz. 1. Karmas free from asravas or pure karmas. 2. Karmas attached to asravas or impure karmas.
Here åsravas include ignorance, desires and passions, and free from asravas means free from any kind of desire, ignorance or passion which make way to Nirvāņa. Karma, by itself without any desire
21. 22.
Visuddhimagga, XVII. 161 Aţthasālini, 3.117.
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(taṇhā), cannot produce any good or bad result. One attains liberation when the desire or craving (taṇhā) has completely ceased. So it is through desire that karma produces fruits. When the desire has ceased, then there is nothing like ignorance and passion, and ultimately there is nothing which can go the round of transmigration.
The roots of karma can only be nullified when a being is totally opposed to desire (taṇhā), hatred (dveşa) and delusion (moha). In order to cut the root, a man must have right vision.
MAKKHALI GOSĀLA ON KARMA
Makkhali Gosāla regarded niyati as the most powerful factor in human life as he was the propounder of rigorous fatalism. All is done by luck, destiny or fate. It is the only essential characteristic of every being and nothing could happen without it. Human efforts have very little effect or none against the destiny of man. The essence of his doctrine was "human effort is ineffective" (natthi purisakāra) and the touch-stone of his philosophy can be summarized in one word, niyati "fatality" or "destiny".
According to Makkhali Gosāla, liberation does not require penance, right vision, right action and deep meditation but comes spontaneously to every human being without efforts after through 8,400,000 mahākalpas. It means there is no need to destroy all karmas as they are ineffective according Makkhali Gosāla. He believed that it is their destiny that all men have taken birth in this world and experience happiness and suffering.
Though the doctrine of niyati is an antithesis to the Jaina theory of karma, yet it holds an original position in the current of Indian sepeculation. According to Mircea Eliade,
"It is true that Makkhali Gosāla holds an original position in the horizen of Indian thought. His deterministic conception led him to study natural phenomena and the laws of life; he proposed a classification of living beings in accordance with the number of their senses, and outlined a doctrine of the transformations in nature (parināmavāda), based on accurate observations of the periodicity of vegetable life.'23
JAINA THEORY OF KARMA
Almost all systems of Indian thought except the Cārvāka accept
23. Mircea Eliade, Yoga, Immortality and Freedom, pp. 190-91.
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the theory of karma. In Jaina thought the karma theory is the pivotal point. The Jainas maintain that karma is the cause of bondage and its cessation leads to liberation. The Tattvārtha-Rājavörttika mentions that from the phenomenal point of view karma is the transformation of the material objects. Caused by the self and also at the same time it is the transformation of the self caused by the material objects. But from the noumenal point of view karma is the transformation of the self through the self which is caused by the subsidence-cum-destruction of its energy and knowledge-obscuring nature, and karma is the transformation of the material objects through the matertal objects.24 The commentator of the Aptaparikṣā explains karma as that which makes the self dependent on others (paratantra), or in other words the performance of the self caused by perverted knowledge, perverted faith, etc. is known as karma.25
Thus according to Jainism, karma does not stand for deed, work and fate as understood by other systems of Indian thought, but it is an aggregate of the finest and minutest particles of matter which are not at all cognizable by our senses. Karma attracts the self and envelops it, which in turn produces plearsure and pain. It is a substantive force which binds the self to the consequences of its good and bad actions. It is also the cause of every change in the self like feelings of pleasure and pain, of birth and death and of bondage. The author of the Rājavārttika points out that that which is performed out of the result of the vibrations of the self is called karma. It makes the self dependent. 26
Hence karma overpowers the essential and innate qualities of the self which are knowledge, faith, energy and bliss, leaving the self in bondage. In short, karma is a complexus of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses which enters into the soul and causes great changes in it. The karman, then, is something material (karmapaudgalam) which produces in the soul certain conditions, even as a pill which, when introduced into the body, produces therein manifold medical effects."27
The law of karma is based upon the moral principle of causality. It is based on the series of acts and effects in which each act
24. 25. 26.
Tattvärtharajavarttika, 6.1.7, p. 504, lines 26-28. Aptapariksa-tika, 113. 296. Rõjavärttika, 5.24.9, p. 488, line 20, armapariņāmena yogabhāva lakşanena kriyata it karma. H.V. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, p. 3.
27.
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is followed by its effect. This effect which is called the result of its antecedent act becomes the cause of its succeeding act in return. Thus an act is an effect from one point of view and the same effect is the cause of another act from another point of view. So every new effect produces another effect for which it serves as a cause. This is called the law of karma :
"The law which regulates the action of karmas is based upon the principle of cause and effect, so that the saying 'as one sows so must he reap', presents the whole doctrine in a nutshell. Every action, whether mental or physical, is a sowing of the 'seed', or in the technical language of the Hindu philosophy, an engendering of karma. In the act of sowing the seed, or engendering the karma, the soul has the choice of acting or refraining from action, but when once the seed is sown or karma engendered, its freedom is replaced by an inevitable liability to bear its consequences. The harvest which is sown must be reaped, gathered, and assimilated in its unabated fullness. This is what constitutes the bondage of the soul. Karma, therefore, is a kind of force which compels the soul to bear the consequences of its right or wrong actions, and this force originates in the very action itself which is performed by the soul and at the very moment of its performance."28
HOW THE KARMIC PARTICLES ATTRACT THE SELF
There is an objection, how the immaterial nature of self can attract material particles of karma ? The answer to the above objection is that just as the power of consciousness although immaterial is obscured by taking intoxicating drugs and drinking alcohol, so the immaterial self can be attracted or obscured by material karma. Moreover wordly selves are always associated with material karmas, since they are not perfectly immaterial.
What is the basis of the belief in the material nature of karma ? Karma produces pleasure, pain and sorrow etc, and that is why it is material in nature. It is possessed of material form and the effect of karma is material in nature, i.e. body, etc. Moreover karma is only an instrumental cause while the principal cause of all our actions is the self. Karma cannot produce any effect if it is not associated with self. Truly speaking, karma is nothing if it is not associated with self. Hence
28.
C.R. Jain, The Key of Knowledge, pp. 876-77.
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karma is material in nature.
A question may be asked how the most minute infinite number of indivisible atoms (paramāņu) unite with self? Karma is that finest matter which an individual being attracts to itself by reason of certain implellent forces which are in the individual. It not only atracts but assimilates and changes the core of individuality. The self has the magnetic power to attract the karmic particles. Just as a magnet attracts the pieces of iron fillings, and the carth, due to its gravitational force, attracts the upward moving things, and a piece of cloth, when put into water, sucks the water, so an individual being (self) attracts the karmic particles. Therefore there is a kind of magnetism in the self which attracts and assimilates the karmic particles. The self produces various kinds of effects when the particles of karma have once entered into it.
Jaina thinkers hold that the association of karma with the self is from time immemorial. They hold that both avidya and karma are beginningless. Though the self is pure, completely free and potentially divine, yet it becomes subject to limitation by the power of karma. So long as the self is not liberated, it is gathering new karma at every moment. It is said in the Karmagrantha:
"As heat can unite with iron and water with milk, so karma unites with the self.29
In the Tattvärthasara it is also stated that the mundane self is obscured by karmic matter from the beginningless time, and on account of its bondage with the karmas, the self is united like the gold and silver when melted together, to become one mixture.30 According to Glasenapp, "through the vibration of the particles.. the pudgalas are attracted and are drawn to unite themselves to it, they become karman and enter into union with a Jiva more intimate than that between milk and water, than between fire and iron ball" 31
65
But it is more appropriate when we say karmic matter veils the omniscience of the self as a dense veil of clouds obstructs the light of the sun. The self has indivisible pradeśas known as atmapradesas, so the karma does not mix with the self as milk mixes with water or fire with an iron-ball due to their divisible parts. The karma covers the essential qualities of the self as the cloud covers the light of the sun.
29. Karmagrantha, vol. I, p. 2.
30.
31.
Amṛtacandra's Tattvärthasara, 16-18.
H.V. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, p. 3.
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CLASSIFICATION OF KARMAS
Broadly speaking, there are two types of karma, physical karma (dravya-karma) and psychical karma (bhāya-karma). Jaina thinkers differentiate between the two. Physical karma is nothing but the particles of karmic matter. It is material in nature and enters into the self. The psychical karma is mostly the thought activity of mind. The psychical effects and states produced by the association of physical karma are known as psychical. The physical and psychical karmas are mutually related to each other as cause and effect.32
According to the nature of fruition (prakṛti), duration of fruitition (sthiti), intensity of fruition (anubhaga or rasa) and number of space-points (pradeśas), the karmas are classified into eight major types and one hundred and forty-eight sub-types.33
A. NATURE OF KARMA (PRAKṚTI)
The eight chief types of karma are:
I. Knowledge-obscuring karma (jñānävaraṇīya-karma) II. Perception-obscuring karma (darśanavaraṇīya-karma) III. Feeling producing karma (vedaniya-karma)
IV. Deluding karma (mohaniya-karma)
V. Age determining karma (ayuş-karma)
VI. Physique making karma (năma-karma) VII. Status determining karma (gotra-karma) VIII. Power obscuring karma (antaraya-karma)
Of the above mentioned eight chief types of karma the four viz, jñānāvaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, mohaniya and antaraya, are the obstructive karmas (ghati-karma) as they create hindrance to the power of knowledge and intuition, take the self into wrong directions and obstruct its inherent energy. Some of them are completely obscuring (sarvaghatin) and others are partially obscuring (deśaghatin). The other four namely, vedaniya-karma, nama-karma, gotra-karma and ayuşkarma are called aghati-karma, as they do not obscure the essential nature of the self. The results or effects of ghati-karma can only be destroyed with hard labour, whereas the results or effects of aghatikarma can be destroyed easily. After the four ghati-karmas are destroyed, one can attain the stage of kevalin, but cannot attain the
32. Astasāhasri, p. 51 (Com. on Aptamimamsa). Karmagrantha, 1.2.
33.
34. Ibid., 1.3; Tattvärthasūtra, VIII. 4.
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stage of final disembodied liberation unless the four aghati-karma are destroyed. It means that when all the karmas are destroyed the self is freed and becomes a siddha.35
The self does not lose all its essential characteristics even if it is infected by sarvaghati-karma. The analogy of the sun and cloud is useful here. As there is always some light, though the sun is covered with the dense veil of clouds so the self retains some fragment of pure or right knowledge, though it is covered with the dirt of karma.36
Each of the eight main types of karma (mula-prakṛtis) can be divided further into a number of sub-types (uttaraprakṛtis). There can be further sub-divisions on the basis of sub-types, so there would be exceedingly large number of karmas. But for the present we have to consider eight main types which are as follows:
I. Jñānāvaraṇīya-karma: it is divided into five sub-types, viz.
1. matijñānāvaraṇīya which veils the knowledge attained through senses plus something else.
2. śrutajñānāvaraṇīya which obstructs the knowledge acquired through reading scriptures, studying, symbols and signs. 3. avadhijñānāvaraṇīya which hinders transcendental knowledge of material things.
4. manaḥparyāyajñānāvaraṇīya which conceals the mind knowing knowledge of others.
5. kevalajñānāvaraṇīya which obscures the omniscience which has no limitation of space, time or subject.
II. Darśanavaraṇīya-karma: it is divided into nine types corresponding to the four types of perception and five kinds of sleep, viz. 1. cakṣudarśanavaraṇīya which covers the eye perception. 2. acak şudarśanāvaraṇīya which veils non-eye intuition.
3. avadhidarśanavaraṇīya which produces the hindrance of transcendental undifferentiated cognition of material things.
4. kevaladarśanavaraṇīya which covers the pure and perfect
intuition.
5. nidra produces light and easy sleep.
6. nidra-nidrā creates deep slumber with difficult rising.
7. pracală causes a sound sleep while sitting or standing.
8. pracala-pracală gives intensive sleep while walking.
9. styānaṛddhi induces deep sleep while walking and doing some
superhuman deeds.
35.
Sarvärthasiddhi, X. 2. 36. Nandisutra, 42.
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III. Vedaniyakarma : it is of two kinds creating pleasant and sorrowful
feelings, viz. 1. sātāvedanīya which produces healthy, glorious and pleasant
feelings, 2. asātāvedaniya which creates unhealthy sensations like pain
and sufferings (dukkha). IV. Mohanīya karma : it overpowers right faith and conduct. It has
two main divisions : a. darśana mohaniya (faith obscuring) and b. cāritra mohanīya (conduct deluding). a. Darśanamohanīya is further sub-divided into : 1. mithyātva-mohaniya (wrong belief) 2. samyaktva-mohanīya (right belief) 3. miśra-mohanīya (mixed belief) b. Căritramohanīya is further divided into sixteen passions
(kaşāya), six quasi-passions (no-kaṣāya) and three sexes
(veda), totalling the number to twenty-five which are : 1. Intense anger 2. Less intense anger 3. Mild anger 4. Still milder anger 5. Intense pride 6. Less intense pride 7. Mild pride 8. Still milder pride 9. Intense deceit 10. Less intense deceit 11. Mild deceit 12. Still milder deceit 13. Intense greed 14. Less intense greed 15. Mild greed 16. Still milder greed 17. Laughing and joking 18. Prejudicial liking 19. Prejudicial disliking 20. Sorrow (śoka) 21. Fear (bhaya) 22. Disgust (jugupsā) 23. The male sex desire (puruşu-veda)
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24. The female sex desire (stri-veda)
25. The neuter sex desire (napumsaka-veda)37 V. Ayuşkarma: Jainism recognizes four kinds of existence according to the age determining karmas. They are as follows:
1. the celestial age
2. the age of human beings
3. the age of plants and animals
4. the age of hellish beings38
VI. Nāma-karma: it is divided into four groups comprising ninetythree sub-types. It is responsible for the diversity of worldly beings and the theory of rebirth. The number of division into four groups is as follows:
1. Collective types
2. Individual types 3. Self-movable bodies 4. Immovable bodies39
Sixty-five Collective Types
According to Jainism, all the wordly beings can be divided into four states of existence, they are:
1. The existence of gods (devagati)
2. The existence of human beings (manuşyagati)
3. The destiny of animals and plants (tiryaggati)
4. The state of infernal beings (narakagati)
Five Classes of Beings
1. The beings with one sense like earth, water etc.
2. The beings with two senses like shell etc.
3. The beings with three senses like ants etc.
4. The beings with four senses like mosquitos, flies etc.
5. The beings with five senses like plants, animals and human
69
beings
Five Types of Bodies
1. Physical body attributed to human and animal beings.
2. Transformed body possessed by superhuman power, gods, infernal beings etc.
3. Translocation body. It is created only by the highly spiritual ascetic in order to get information from the omniscient being,
Karmagrantha, I. 14-22.
37.
38. Ibid., I. 23.
39.
Ibid., 1.23, 51; Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa, vol. II, p. 582.
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while his physical body remains there. 4. Fiery body. It is also used by the ascetics in order to burn
some one and this body digests food in the stomach. 5. Karma body. This body always possesses karmic matter, is
mixed with the self, and is always changeable.
The human beings always possess three types of body, namely physical, fiery and kārmaņa body.
Three parts of bodies
Three parts concerning physical, transformable and translocation bodies are mentioned; fiery and karmic bodies have no sub-parts.
Five types of bindings
The five types of bindings are categorized according to the five types of bodies.
Five types of unification
These are also divided according to the five types of bodies as mentioned above.
Six types of stature determining bodies
They are perfectly symmetrical, round, of animal frame, with hunch back, dwarf and hundaka (entire body unsymmetrical).
Six types of firmness of joints
They are like adamant, like stone, unbreakable, semi-unbreakable, riveted, and crystal like.
Five colours Black, green, yellow, red and white. Two odours Pleasant and unpleasant. Five tastes Pungent, bitter, saline, sour and sweet, Eight touches Light, heavy, soft, hard, rough, smooth, cold and hot. Four migratory forms
The hour of death, when the self goes to another state of existence, is called the state of ānupūrvi. According to the four states of existence, there are four ānupūrvis or forms, namely celestial, human, animal and infernal beings.
Two movements
To move in a pleasant manner as oxen, elephant, etc. and to move in an ugly manner as camels and asses etc.
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Individual types
They are of eight kinds, namely superiority over others, capability of breathing, hot body, cold body, a body which is neither heavy nor light, the body of a Tirthankara, the normal formation of the body, and the abnormal formation of the body.
Ten Self-movable bodies
A body having more than one sense, gross body, completely developed body, individual body, firm parts of the body, beautiful parts of the body, worthy of praise without any obligation, lovely voice, sweet and suggestive speech, a body with honour and glory.
Ten Immovable bodies
These sub-types are opposite to the self-movable bodies, and include immovable bodies having only one sense, subtle body imperceptible to the sense, undeveloped body, a body common with others of their species, flexible body, ugly parts of the body, unsympathetic, ill-sounding voice, unsuggestive speech, creating dishonour and shame. VII. Gotra-karma : it is of two types :
1. the karma that bestows the individual with superior family
surroundings; 2. the karma that determines the individual of low family
surroundings. 40 VIII. Antarāya-karma : the power of the self is obscured in the
following five manners by this karma : 1. It hinders the power of giving charity, alms etc. 2. It is an obstacle to gain or profit.. 3. It obstructs the enjoyment of things which can be taken once
like eating and drinking food and water etc. 4. It prevents the enjoyment which can be effected more than
once like pictures, clothing etc. 5. It is a hindrance to will power.41
The above classifications of the main eight types of karma are further sub-divided into one hundred and forty-eight sub-types. 42
B. DURATION OF KARMA
The duration of each type of karma differs according to its nature and fruition. The Jaina texts distinguish three lengths of the period of duration : of minimum duration, of intermediate duration and of the
40. Karmagrantha, I. 52. 41. Ibid, 42. See H. V. Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, pp. 5-19.
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maximum duration. The duration of intermediate category of each action varies according to its intensity and gravity. The minimum and maximum duration of the eight main types of deeds may be formulated in the following table. Type of karma Minimum duration
Maximum duration 1. jñānāvarani ya one antarmuhûrta
thirty koți-koți
sāgaropamas. 2. darśanāvarani ya -do
-do3. vedaniya twelve muhurta
-do4. mohaniya one antarmuhūrta
seventy koți-koți
sägaropamas. 5. āyus -do
thirty-three
sā garopamas 6. nāma eight muhurtas
twenty koți-koți
sāgaropamas 7. gotra --do
-do8. antarāya one antarmuhûrta
thirty koți-koți
sägaropamas The word antarmuhúrta denotes a period of time from one to in between forty-eight minutes. A muhurta means a period of forty-eight minutes; koți-koți means one crore multiplied by one crore. The word sägaropama stands for an immeasurable period of time.43
C. INTENSITY OF KARMA
Duration and intensity of karma are determined by passions attracted by the self. The stronger the passions the greater the intensity and duration of sinful deeds; similarly the intensity of fruition and duration of good karmas correspond, to the strength of passions in the reverse order. In other words the duration of the actions of an evil being is longer; the strong effect of the evil tendencies weakens the effect of the good ones. On the other hand, greater purity of character and conduct in a being lessens the duration and intensity of evil karmas and promotes the wholesome tendencies.44
According to the Gommațasāra intensity of fruition of auspicious types of sātāvedani yakarma etc. is the highest due to pure feelings whereas the intensity of the fruition of inauspicious types of asātāvedanīyakarma etc. is the highest due to impure feelings.45
43. Karmagrantha, II. 43 b. 44. See the Karmaprakrti. 45. Gommatasāra, karmakānda, 163.
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D. THE QUANTITY OF KARMIC PARTICLES
This universe is filled with karmic particles and every self attracts those particles which are within its range, like the fire that catches only those inflammable particles which are within its reach. The quantity of the karmic particles varies according to the passionate activity of the self. If the vibrations are strong more molecules of karmic matter are attached to the self, while low vibrations attract less karmic matter. Thus every part of the self attracts karmic particles through the vibrations of yoga and kaṣāya. This process leads to the generation of eight types of karma. The āyuşkarma gets the smallest quantity of karmic particles while nāma-and gotra-karmas will have more quantity than āyuşkarma. The jñānāvaran ya, darśanāvaraṇīya and antarāya-karmas catch more karmic particles than namaand gotra-karmas. The mohanīya-karmas receive more than the above three mentioned karmas. The greatest number of molecules will go to vedaniya karma.146
FOUR STATES OF KARMA
There are four states of karma which are as follows: 1. Bondage (bandha) 2. Rise (udaya) 3. Process of premature realisation (udiraņā) 4. Existence (sattā)47
On account of perversity (mithyātva), the karmic particles like jñānāyaraniya etc. mix up with the self like the mixing of milk and water. This is called bondage (bandha).
When the result of a particular past deed, good or bad, comes into existence, it is known as rise (udaya). • The special kind of effort and condition responsible for premature realisation is called udiraņā. It is that process through which karma makes its past effect manifest.
The karmic particles attached to the self without producing the result, constitute existence or sattā.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF KARMA
There exists an intimate relationship between the self and the
46. See Karmapraksti. 47. Karmagrantha, vol. II gātha 1.
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karma. This relationship has to be destroyed before liberation is achieved. The different states of the self are related to the functions of its vibration and passions. The influx of bondage creating activities is due to the energy of the self. The activity (yoga) of the self is an expression of the energy of the self. The word (yoga) is used here in a technical sense. According to Pañcasamgraha, yoga is energy influenced by passions (salesyam-vīryam). The freedom of the self from yoga or activity results in complete cessation of all association between it and the karma,
· The different processes through which karmic matter passes are conditioned by numerous kinds of activities (yoga). These numerous activities are caused by numerous processes of energy; these processes of energy are technically called karaņas or "techniques of energy'. In some texts thcse karanas are classified into the following eight types ;
1. bandhana, the condition of energy which causes bondage; 2. samkramaņa, the condition of energy which causes transfor
mation; 3. udvartanā, the condition of energy which leads to increased
realization; 4. apavartanā, the condition which leads to decreased realization; 5. udiraņā, the condition responsible for premature realization; 6. upaśamanā, the condition which causes quiescence; 7. nidhatti, the condition which makes the karmas incapable of
all processes or techiques except the third and the fourth; 8. nikācanā, the condition which makes karmas incapable of
all karanas. These processes of energy produce corresponding karmic processes which are known by the same terms. Every change in the self leads to a corresponding change in the 'karma; likewise every change in the karma leads to a corresponding change in the self. These processes and techniques of karma together with the states of kar ma discussed earlier are important aspects of Jaina doctrine of karma.48 CAUSES OF KARMA
Although karma means simply action, here we are concerned
48.
For a detailed treatment of the technology of karma see Karmapraksti with commentaries, Bhavanagar (Seth Devchand Lal Bhai Jain Pustakoddhar Fund Series, No. 17); Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, pp. 252-263; Jainendra Siddhanta Koša, vol. II, pp. 24ff.
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with karma as a relgious-moral concept. From this standpoint karma is either good (punya) or bad (pāpa). All those actions which promote spiritual welfare and advance man's approach towards liberation are good actions. Contrariwise all those actions which defile the self, increase the burden of samsāra and prolong transmigration are bad. Although in liberation all karmas good as well as bad are destroyed, eradication of bad tendency which leads to sinful deeds and cultivation of good tendencies and purification of the heart are essential prerequisites for the progress on the path of liberation.
There are two types of karmas, viz. good (śubha) and bad (aśubha). The karma leading to wrong conduct is bad and that leading to right conduct is good. The bad karma brings suffering in the world while the good karma results in happiness. In other words good actions produce punya and the bad ones create pāna, Where there is action either good or bad, the presence of karmas is there. Those who are the seekers of liberation are totally detached from both types of karmas. The good karmas lead to heaven which is also a part of the world, and the bad karmas lead to hell that is also a part of the world. ,
The author of Samayasāra also states that both kinds of karmas are to be avoided as they lead to chain of samsāra. Good karma is compared with gold-fetters and the bad karma with iron-fetters. For binding a man both the fetters are equally powerful. So the karmas whether good or bad equally bind the self.49 The distinction between the good and bad karmas is meaningless from the liberation point-of view. The author of the Paramātma-prakāśa also holds the view that liberation consists in getting release from both types of karmas, i.e. good (śubha) as well as bad (aśubha)50
The root cause of binding karma is desire. Desire is the source of human happiness as well as misery. It can be said that the bondage of karma is really the bondage of desire. The desire for possession, acquisition and enjoyment knows no end. It can be ended only by achieving its opposite, a state of complete desirelessness in which there is no trace of attachment to anything whatsoever (vītarāga). The moment the self thinks of enjoyment, its action-body (kārmanaśarīra) attracts minute and subtle particles according to the nature of enjoyment. No outside agencies are involved in this process, the self by its own force receives and retains those karmic particles. This
49. 50.
Samayasara, 146, pp. 109-109-10. Paramātma prakaśa, 11. 63, ed. by A.N. Upadhye, p. 36.
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process results in transmigration. S. N. Das Gupta is right when he says: “Karma only comes as a connecting link between desire and rebirth."'81 The assimilation of karmic matter by the self is due to its activities. The processes are described in the P. ñcāstikāya in the following words :
"Penetration by matter is due to activity (yoga) and activity arises from mind, body and speech; bondage of the soul is due to thought activity, and that thought is accompanied by desire, passion, inflammation, and infatuation (or intoxication)". 52
The rise of karma, its causes and consequences are discussed in detail in many Jaina texts. According to the Tattvārthasütra the self, because of its association with passions attracts karmic particles which are fit to turn into karmas. This is bondage.53 A commentator of the Tattvārthasütra has illustrated the association of the self with karmic matter in the following manner :
"Even as a lamp by its temperature draws up the oil with its wick and, after drawing up, converts the oil into its body (viz. glow) exactly so does a soul-lamp, with the attributes of attachment and the material aggregates by the wick of its activities and, after attracting, transforms them into karman.'»84
In the Dravyasamgraha five basic causes of assimilation of the karmic matter by the self are enumerated in the following order :
I. mithyātva, false belief; II. avirati, laxity in thought, word and deed; II. pramäda, spititual inertia or carelessness; VI. yoga, vibrations in activities; V. kaşāya, passions and defilements.55
I. Mith yātva. Each of these factors has several varieties. Thus mithyātva or false belief has five varieties, namely 1. one sided false belief (abhigraha-mithyārva), 2. belief in the opposite of what is right (anabhigraha-mithyātva), 3. sticking to belief even when one knows it to be false (abhiniveśa-mithyātva), 4. doubt or unsettled belief (samśaya-mithyātva), and 5. indifference to right belief (anābhoga mithyātva).
II. Avirati or laxity in thought, word and deed is said to consist
51. 52. 53. 54. 55.
S.N. Das Gupta, A History of In.lian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 56. Pañcāstikāya, 148; J.L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, p. 93 Tattvārthasūtra, VIII. 2. Cf. Tatia, op. cit., p. 232. Dravyasamgraha, 29.31.
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in 1. killing or injury to living beings (himsā), 2. falsehood (asteya), 3. stealing (caurya), 4. sensuality or unchastity (abrahmacurya), 5. attachment to worldly concerns (parigraha).
III. Pramāda or carelessness has fifteen sub-types. Four vikathas viz. a. talking about women, b. idle talk about food, c. talking about politics, and d. useless talk about kings. At the root of pramāda are the four passions which are anger (krodha), pride (mana), illusion or deception (māyā) and greed (lobha). These are the resultants of the five senses- the sense of taste, touch, smell, sight, hearing; sleep and attachment.
VI. Yoga consists of the vibrations in activities of mind (manas), speech (vacana) and body (kāya). .
V. Kaşāyas or passions are four in number : anger, pride, deceit and greed. They are of different quality from the four appearing under pramäda. Each of these has four different varieties, according to various degrees, i.e. intense, great, moderate and mild. Thus we get sixteen types of passions. In some texts we get nine no-kaşāyas along with sixteen varieties of passions. They are laughter, pleasure, pain, grief, fear, hatred, desire of the feminine, desire of the masculine, and desire of the eunuch.
One of the important concepts of Jaina doctrine of karma is that of leśyā. It is difficult to transiate this word into English, though it is generally translated as 'tint' and 'colouration' The mental, vocal, or bodily tendency of a being saturated by passions is called leśyā. In the scriptures six types of leśyās are discussed in such a fashion as to give the impression of their being six colours. Three of these are holy (śubha) and three are unholy (aśubha). The black, blue and grey are the unholy leśyās, whereas the red, yellow and white are the holy leśyās. The unholy leśyās produce miserable course of life of a jīva and the holy leśyās bring happy course of life of a jīva. 56
According to H. Jacobi, the word leśyā is derived from klesa which affects the self like the alteration on a crystal by putting coloured things on it.57 Those activities by which the self is associated with karma are called leśyā. The relation between karma and self is called leśya,58
It is said that the self is tainted or identified with merit (punya)
56. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXXIV, 56-57. 57. Ibid., XXXIV; SBE, vol. XLV, part II, p. 196fn. 58. See Jainendra Siddhāntakośa, vol. III. p. 436.
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There are two types of leśyā, dravya-leśyā and bhāva leśyā.61 That which is produced by the body (nāma-karma) is called dravyaleśyā.62 The colour of the body through which it is produced by nāmakarma is known as dravya-leśyā.63 The six leśyās having different colours are stated as dravya-leśyā. The activity of mind, body and speech mixed with passion is called bhāva-leśyā.64 The feeling of the self on account of the rise, suppression, mixed suppression and annihilation of mohani ya-karma is called bhāva-les yā.65
The nature of leśyā is explained in a parable famous in Jainism. Six men went to a forest. They saw a mango tree full of fruits. Every one wanted to eat the mangoes. The first man proposed to cut down the tree at the roots; the second recommended cutting the trunk, the third advised to cut off only big branches, the fourth wis
d to cut off small branches of the mango-laden tree, the fifth wanted to pluck mangoes from the tree and the sixth wanted not to give any injury to the tree but desired eating the mangoes fallen on the ground. Here the first man has a black, the second a blue, the third a grey, the fourth a red, the fifth a yellow and the sixth a white leśyā
In Buddhism too the doctrine of karma is associated with the types of colour. There are four colours 1. black, 2. white, 3 and white, 4. not-black and not-white. 66 J.L. Jaini rightly states :
“The six leśyās are the colours of the aura of the human body in occult Jainism. The theosophical view of the colours of the aura may be compared : the aura of the saint is ethereal-bluish, like the shimmering blue of pure white ice; that of the angry man is red, that of the wicked and sinful man black and so on". 67 The doctrine of karma is logically related with the concept of
59. Gommatasāra, Jivakānda, 488. 60. Ibid., 489.
Sarvārthasiddhi, II. 6. 62. Rajavarttika, 9, 7, 11, 604, 13. 63. Gommatasära, Jivakānda, 536, 64. Ibid., 490, 895; Kurmagrantha, IV. 13, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, XXXIV, 21-32. 65. See Juinendra Siddhantakośa, vol. II, p. 436. 66. Dighanikāya, III, 20. 67. J.L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, p. 47.
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lesyās and they have a moral bearing, Dr. Radhakrishnan observes :
“Connected with the karma theory is the doctrine of leśyās of which they are six. The totality of karmas taken up by a soul induces in it a transcendental colour or complexion which cannot be perceived by the naked eye. These have a moral bearing. The state of a soul is produced by its inborn nature and the karma with which it is associated. Each kind of karma has its predestined limits within which it must be purged off.”68
The psychical condition of the self undergoes different processes due to its vibrations and attachment with leśyā and karmic particles. They are of five types. 1. Subsidence (aupaśamika) : the karmic matter does not
produce its result but still it is there, just like fire covered by
ashes. 2. Annihilation (kṣāyika): when the effects of all karmas are
destroyed as the complete removal of the mud from dirty
water. 3. Mixed subsidence and annihilation (kṣāyopaśamika): in this
state many karmas are destroyed, many are neutralized and
others still there. 4. Rise (audayika) : in the common course of things, karmic
particles attached to the self produce their proper effects. 5. Developmental (pāriņāmika): it is the essential nature of
self with the destruction of all karmas.69 JAINA THEORY OF TRANSMIGRATION (SAMSĀRA)
As has been discussed above, the theory of karma is inseparably connected with that of transmigration. The ātman in bondage is born again and again. Its course in samsāra is determined by the karmic particles attracted by it in every state of its existence. The theory of rebirth or transmigration of the self explains its continuous indentity through a series of existences in three points of time, past, present and furture.
MEANING OF SAMSĀRA
In the Sarvārthasiddhi, samsāra (world) has been explained thus :
68. 69.
S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 320fn. Sarvārthasiddhi, II.
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samsaranam samsäraḥ parivartanam ityarthaḥ."0
The word samsaranam means transmigration, cycle of wandering, metem psychosis. The word parivartana means change. The beings go round and round in samsāra due to their attachment with the karmic particles. They are called transmigrating beings, beings going from birth to birth.
The text further states that the attainment of different states of existence of the self as a result of fruition of deeds is called samsāra."
The word samsarana is derived from the root sam-sri which means 'to follow together with'; 'going about', 'walking or wandering, through'; 'passing through a succssion of states'; 'birth and rebirth of living beings'. Thus the word samsāra means going or wandering undergoing transmigration; course, passage, passing through a sucession of states, circuit of mundane existence, transmigration, metempsychosis, the world, wordly illusion.22
The Kärttikeyānuprekșă states that the being or the self (jira) leaves one body and assumes another body, and afterwards leaves that body also. In this way the self takes and leaves body repeatedly. Thus the travelling of the self tied to false notions and impurities across numerous bodies is called samsära. 73
The existence in samsāra is the extence in bondage, the very opposite of liberation. The concept of samsāra, therefore, forms an essential strand in the theory of rebirth and karma.
The jiva in samsāra is engulfed by desire and a version; it is because of these desires and a version that karma clings to jīva and leads him through different states of existence (gatis). Entering into any state of existence, jīva assumes a physical body and gets the senses. Through the senses arise desire and aversion, and on account of desire the cycle of existence continues. Thus desire produces karma and karma leads to four states of existence.
According to the Dhavalā, samsāra is the bundle of such deeds as overwhelm the real nature of the self ; the beings travel in the four states of existence because of diverse kinds of of evil deeds.75
70. 71.
72. 73. 74. 75.
Sarvärthasiddhi, 11.10.275 Ibid., IX.7.801; Rajavarttika, 11.10.1.124.15. Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 119 Kärttikeyònupreksa, 32-32. Pañcāstikāya-samayasära, 135-37. Dhavalā, 13.5.4: 17.44.10
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Jiva is in the cycle of existence so long as he associates himself with the activities of mind, body and speech. activities leads to mokşa.
Freedom from these
Samsara is thus a designation of the process of birth and death. Samsara is also sometimes described as five-fold change because of the change of matter (dravya), sphere (kşetra), time (kāla), thought (bhava) and destiny (bhava). The soul has been in samsara from the beginningless time; in the course of its journeying through samsara it has accepted and given up innumerable times one by one all the atoms of the universe, all the space-points or spheres, all the molecules of time, all the passions and all the destinies including the hells.
At the root of samsära is mithyatva or perversity of outlook which causes the rise of karmic particles and their attraction by the self (jiva). Mithyatva is the root of samsara or the worldly existence."" This principle is acceptable to the Buddhists also. Avidya or ignorance which is another name of mithyatva, is regarded as the main cause of the cycle of birth and death in Buddhism. The Buddhist doctrine of karma and rebirth is somewhat different from that of Jainism. Human personality is a whole of the five aggregates, viz,, rūpa, vedanā, samjñā, samskāra and vijñāna, which is formed according to the karmas or actions, either virtues or vices of the past life. The action of the present life will form the base for the future one. This process of transmigration is caused by avidya according to the Buddhists. PROCESS OF TRANSMIGRATION
Regarding the transition of the self or soul from one body to another in the process of transmigration, the Hindu view is that as a goldsmith from the gold of an ornament prepares another ornament by melting the same gold, so the soul creates a new body in the new birth.78 The soul shapes its new body out of its existing element like the potter who makes his pots from the existing clay.79 The soul changes the old body into a new body in the next birth as one changes the old garment by putting on a new one.80 The Jaina view asserts that at death the self is associated with taijasa and karmana body (śarīra) and before transmigration to new body it
76. 77.
78.
Samadhitantra, 62
samsaramula-biam micchattam-, Bhattaparinnaya, IV. 591.
Bṛhadaranyaka-Upanisad, 4.4.3.
Yajnavalkyasmṛti III. 146.
79.
80. Bhagavadgita, II.22
81
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82 THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS remains in the form which it had in the last existence for a few minutes and then it takes the shape of a new body. The Buddhists assert that the five aggregates which form the human personality in an organic unity, are destroyed at death. Only vijñāna or consciousness with resultant karmas remains and takes new birth.
Four states of existence (gati) Jainism recognizes four states of existence ; 1. Celestial state of existence (devagati), 2. Human state of existence (manuş yagati), 3. Animal state of existence (tir yag gati), 4. Infernal state of existence (narakagati).
Jaina thinkers firmly believed that every individual has to bear the consequences of his own karmas in this life or another life. The good deeds have good results and take the jiva to celestial and human states of existence. The bad deeds have their evil effects and take the jīva to animal and infernal states of existence.
According to Jainism, every state of existence has four causes. The karma leading to the enjoyment of divine life has the following four causes :
1. Leading ascestic life with affection, 2. Leading ascetic life with pure mind, 3. Practising penance without knowing its consequences, 4. Practising austerities without any aim. The karma leading to human life has four causes : 1. Simplicity of behaviour, 2. Humble character, 3. Compassion, 4. Want of envy. Four causes of going to animal life are :
1. To deceive others. 2. To deceive others vigorously, 3. Speaking falsehood, 4. Practising fraud. Four causes of going to infernal life are :
1. Possessing immense wealth, 2. Indulging in violent deeds, 3. Killing the living beings possessed of five sense-organs, 4. Eating flesh, etc.81
81.
Sthānāmgasūtra, IV. 4.39.
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83 The fruition of the deeds depends upon the length, duration and intensity of different types of karmas. Sometimes the jīva receives the result of his deeds in this life, if not in this life, then in the next life or next to next and thereafter. The Sthānāmgasūtra82 states the following eight ways the fruition of karmas :
1. The bad deeds done in this life have their bad effects in this
life as the thief bears the consequence of his theft in this life. 2. The bad deeds done in this life have their bad effects in an
other world, as an individual takes the birth in the hell after • doing most sinful deeds. 3. The bad deeds done in the past life have their bad results in
this life as one experiences sorrow and suffering in this life. 4. The bad deeds done in the past life have their bad results in
this life and afterwards too, just like an individual due to his past bad deeds coming to animal life and then again
going to hell etc. 5. The good deeds done in this life have good fruits in this life. 6. The good deeds done in the past life have good fruits in the
coming life. 7. The good deeds done in the past life have good fruits in this
life. 8. The good deeds done in the past life have good results in
this life and afterwards also. Similar views are also found in the Upanişads as it stated in the Chando gya Upanişad :
"Those whose conduct has been good, will quickly attain some good birth, the birth of a brāhmaṇa or a ksatriya or a vaisya. But those whose conduct has been evil, will quickly attain an evil
birth, the birth of a dog or a hog or a candāla.83 Some persons according to their karma and intention of mind take another birth. Some others again are degenerated into the states of trees.84
JAINA VIEW OF TRANSMIGRATION
Jainism accepts five kinds of bodies (śarīras), namely audārika, vaikriya, āhāraka, taijasa and kārmaņaśarīra.85
1. audārika : the physical body of all men and animals.
83.
82. 84. 85.
Ibid., IV, 2.7. Chandogya-Upanişad, V. 10.7. Katha-Upanişad, II. 2.7. Tattvārthasūtra, II. 36.
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2. vaikriya: this kind of body is attained only by the gods and infernal creatures which they can change into various forms according to their will. It is imperceptible to common man. 3. aharaka: it is acquired only by the great ascetics. It is projected by the advanced munis in order to get clarification of the doubt or for solving questions by a visit to their Teachers. 4. taijasa it is constituted by fine molecules. It works for the
consummation and digestion of food etc.
5. kärmaṇa: it is made of fine molecules of karmic particles which engulf the essential nature of the self.
Jaina process of transmigration can be understood only with reference to the above five bodies. The last two i.e. taijsa and kārmaṇa, are always attached to the self which requires the two bodies, namely taijasa and kārmaṇa in order to get new birth. It is in these two bodies that the elements of future birth are preserved in the form of seeds. The force which leads the self to rebirth is technically known in Jainism as the kärmaṇaśarira i.e. the body of karmas. It is nothing but the mixture of self and matter. As C.R. Jain states:
"This karmanaśarīra is the vehicle of transmigration and passes from life to life... There are periodic changes taking place mechanically in the constitution of this inner body or vestment of the soul and the form and conditions of next incarnation of life are determined by the new set of energies which arise in consequence of these changes. they adjust themselves, most accurately, mechanically. The karmanasarīra as modified by action itself determines the type and conditions of the next incarnation".86
This kārmaṇaśarīra i.e. the body of karmas which plays an important role in the process of transmigration, is nothing but the compound of spirit and matter. It is the very seed of rebirth and has the major power to regulate our destiny. According to Buddhism, the psychophysical components of the individual are destroyed and only vijñāna remains. It is projected with the previous karmas and produces rebirth. In Vedanta, there are three bodies namely the karaṇa, the sükṣma and the sthula-sariras, whereas in Jainism there are five bodies.
The doctrine of karma and transmigration is the noble fruit of the highest wisdom. There is no logical proof or scientific evidence for this mystic concept. But the law of karma and transmigration is the real solution to the wordly sufferings.
86. C.R. Jain, What is Jainism (Essays and Addresses), p. 179.
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THE JAINA DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION
Jainism believes in nine fundamental categories, called tattvas, viz. jīva (self or living being), ajīva (non-living), punya (good), pāpa (evil), asraya (iniow of karmic matter), bandha (bondage), samvara (control of the inflow of karmic matter), nirjarā (eradication of karmic matter), and mokşa (ultimate release). Sometimes only seven are enumerated, punya and pāpa being included in äsrava. Several modern scholars have discussed in detail the metaphysics underlying these elements and we do not intend to dwell upon this subject here. Of these nine categories, bandha and mokșa are especially important in the present context. Therefore in this chapter we will concentrate on the study of the Jaina theories of bandha and mokşa as worked out by the masters of the Jaina faith.
Man is a "conditioned being' subject to the law of causation and the cycle of birth and death. Man's condition or his temporality is caused by his own evil desires (vāsanās) and predispositions (samskāras). Man becomes a "conditioned being' due to his attachment with worldly concerns. It is his sense of egoism and 'mineness' that causes his bondage. This bondage consists in false identification of the self with not-self. The consequence of bondage is suffering in samsāra.
In order to emancipate oneself from samsaric sufferings one has to understand the nature of bondage. As the Sūtrakstāmga states :
"One should know what causes the bondage of soul, and knowing it one should remove it”.? The self (jīva) is in bondage from time immemorial and one must know the causes of bonda ge and discover the goal of liberation.
CAUSES OF BONDAGE (BANDHA)
A study of the doctrine of karma and transmigration reveals that
1.
The classical discussion of nine tattvas of Jaina philosophy will be found in the Tattvarthasūtra and its commentaries, Sarvārthasiddhi and Tattvarthavarttika For modern discussion see H.S. Bhattacharya, Reals in Jaina Metaphysics and J.L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, pp. 36-53. Sūtrakrtāmga, I. 1. 1; SBE, vol. 45, p. 235.
2.
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karma is at the root of the cycle of birth and death or samsāra. It is karma which envelops the real nature of the self and causes great changes in it. Karma clings to the self due to two impellent forces of love (rāga) and hatred (dveşa). Ignorance (avidyā) is at the root of rāga and dveșa. The Jaina texts3 enumerate the following five causes of bondage (bandhana) :
(i) mithyādarśana, perversity of vision or wrong faith; (ii) avirati, lack of renunciation; (iii) pramāda, spiritual inertia or carelessness; (iv) kaşāya, passions, and (v) yoga, activities of mind, body and speech causing vibrations
in the self. In Jainism the notion of mith yātva is, generally speaking, similar to the notion of avid ya in other systems of Indian thought. The terms, mithyātva, mithyādarśana, mithyādssti, darśanamoha and moha are used synonymously in the Jaina texts. All these terms mean false belief, perversity of vision or wrong notion.
As to the nature of mithyātva, under its influence one accepts the evil (adharma) as the good (dharma), wrong path (amagga) as the right path (magga), non-self (ajīva) as the self (jīva), the sinner (asāhu) as saint (sāhu), the unemancipated (amutta) as emancipated (mutta), and vice versa. Doubt, desire, repulsion and admiration of other creeds are the basis of mith yātva. Mithyātva is the root cause of all evils in worldly life; the self under the influence of mithyātva always thinks 'I am this', 'it is mine'; this kind of thinking leads to bondage.
In a similar context Buddhism also understands the notion of perversity (viparyāsa), and classifies it into four wrong attitudes, viz. the wrong notions of accepting miserable as pleasurable, inauspicious as auspicious, impermanent as permanent and non-existent as existent.4
'I am this' and 'this is mine'-these two thought categories bring forth passions like anger etc. The self affected by these passions through activities of the mind, body and speech is chained in the world.
According to Pujyapāda, mithyātva is of five types: (i) ekānta mithyātva, absolutely false opinion accepted
uncritically. (ii) viparita-mith yātva, that state of delusion in which one thinks
that perverted conviction is true.
3. 4. 5.
Tattvārthasūtra, VIII. 1; Samavāyāmga, 5. Visuddhimagga, XXII. 53. Sarvārthasiddhi, VIII, 1.
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87
(iii) vaina yika-mithyātva, to believe a thing to be true even when
one knows it to be false. (iv) samsaya-mithyātva, to have doubt whether the course is
wrong, when one has no definite knowledge about the
reality. (v) aiñāna-mith yātra. total ignorance of the right faith. In th
state one cannot discriminate between good and evil. The Karmagranthac enumerates five varieties of mithyatva : (i) abhigrāhika, intensive attachment to false view; (ii) anabhigrāhika, the opposite of the first, i.e. indiscriminate
faith in every notion regardless of right or wrong; (iii) abhinivesika, attachment to wrong notion in spite of the
knowledge that it is wrong; (iv) samśayika, doubt ful notion; and (v) anābhoga, the highest state of infatuation when one is
unable to analyse what is wrong and right. Mithyātva acts as a barricade to the attainment of liberation. It is the seed of a being's continuation in samsāra. It has no beginning. It vitiates the real nature of the self. One cannot realize the reality so long as mithyātva operates in one's life. The opposite of mith yātva is sam yaktva (right vision) which is sine qua non for liberation.
We have seen that the bondage of jīva in samsāra is caused by mith yātva, avirati, pramāda, kaşāya and yoga. The self attracts karmic particles through fivefold mithhyātva as mentioned above, through fivefold avirati, i.e., killing, falsehood, stealing, unchastity and desire to possess worldly goods; through fifteen types of pramāda, i.e. four reprehensible talks about kings, state, women and food; four passions like anger, pride, greed and illusion; five senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, and sleep and attachment; through fourfold kaşāyas, i.e. anger, pride, illusion and greed; and through yoga, i.e. the activities of mind, body and speech. ĀSRAVA AND BANDHA
The āstava signifies the inflow of karmic particles into the self through the activities (yoga).? The karmic matter flows into the self like the flowing of water into the boat when there is a hole in it. It is the channel for karmic particles that flow into the self. The psychical
6, Fourth Karmagrantha, 51. 7. Tattvārthasūtra, VI. 1-2,
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condition that makes possible the inflow of karmic particles into the self is known as bhāvāsrava (subjective inflow of karma), and the actual karmic particles which enter into the self constitute the dravyāsrava (objective influx of karma).
Kunda kunda points out that desire, hate and delusion constitute the main cause of asrava, the inflow of karmas. The impure self attracts the karmic particles on account of yoga, desire, hate and delusion just as a magnet attracts iron-fillings to itself. So the psychic states associated with desire etc. constitute the first type of asrava which leads to bandha.
Bandha or bondage is due to the association of karmic particles with the self. It is the union of karmic particles and the self owing to passions and yoga. The union does not mean complete annihilation of the self's qualities but only a partial suspension of their function. Like asrava, bandha is also of two types. The physical conditions which are responsible for the mixing of karmas with the self are called bhāva-bandha and the actual karmic matter as attached to the self is termed as dravya-bandha 9
Asrava and bandha are correlated as cause and effect, and it is the äsrava that creates the ground for bandha. So the creation of bandha depends upon asraya which is the cause. If äsrava is checked, the bandha will automatically be denied its existence. It is necessary to understand the nature and consequences of asrava in order to be able to get rid of bandha and attain liberation.
It has already been stated that asrava is due to yoga and kaşāyas. In other words, yoga is the prime cause of asrava and yoga with kaşāyas is the cause of asraya and bandha both.
In Jainism yoga means the functional activities of mind, body and speech, and kaşāyas mean fourfold passions, i.e. anger, pride, deceit and lust. Each of the passions and each of the activities determines a particulars nature of bondage. The wordly self is always associated with the inflow of karma so long as it is involved in the activity of mind, body and speech through its inclination of attachment and aversion.
We have seen above that the term yoga is used in the sense of activity in Jainism. Bodily, mental and vocal activities constitute
8. 9.
Samayasāra, verse, 167; Dravyasamgraha, 32; Pravacanasāra, II. 83-84.
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yoga. This threefold activity is called influx (āsrava). The influx is of two kinds, that of passionate persons and that of passion-free persons; the former prolongs transmigration while the latter shortens it. The causes of influx of persons with passions are divided into the five senses, the four passions, the negligence of five vows and twenty-five activities. 10 The first fourteen--five senses (touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing), four passions (anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed) and the five types of vowlessness (killing, false speech, stealing, unchastity and attachment)-are the causes of asrava. The twenty-five activities are the consequences of asrava. Pujyapāda has described these twenty-five activities in the following words :11
1. Samyaktvakriyā, the activity which strengthens right faith,
such as adoration of shrines, the teacher, the scripture, and
so on. 2. Mithyātvakriyā, the activity which tends to perverted belief
and adoration of other gods. 3. Prayogakriyā, the activities of the body. 4. Samādānakriyā, the tendency to neglect the vows or violate
them after having taken them. 5. Iryāpathakriyā, walking or strolling on the ground. 6. Pradosikikriyâ, activity which proceeds from anger (cp.
manasā ce pudutthena of Dhammapada, verse 1). 7. Kāyikikriyā, the evil actions of a wicked person. 8. Adhikarāņikikriyā, use of weapons of violent actions. 9. Paritāpikikriyā, use of means of causing 'misery to other
beings. 10. Prānātipātikikriyā, actions harming the life-span, the sense
organs, energy and respiration. 11. Darśanakriyā, seeing beautiful forms out of infatuation and
craving.
Sparśanakriyā, the desire to touch pleasurable things. 13. Pratyayikikriyā, the invention of new sources of violence
and pleasure. 14. Samantānupātakriyā, leaving excrements in places frequented
by men, women and animals. 15. Anābhogakriyā, laying down the body, things etc. on the
ground without examining and cleaning it.
10. 11.
Tattvärthasūtra, V1. 4-5. Sarvārthasiddhi, VI. 5. I have followed S.A. Jain's English translation, Reality, pp. 170-171 with slight changes.
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16. Svahastakriyā, doing with one's own hand what should be
done by others. 17. Nisargakriyā, approving unrighteous actions. 18. Vidāranakriyā, proclaiming other's faults and hidden sins. 19. Ājñāvyāpādikikriyā, misinterpreting injuctions laid down in
the scriptures which one is unable to carry out due to the
rise of karmas which delude good conduct. 20. Anákāmkşakriyā, indifference to observe injuctions laid
down in the scriptures due to wickedness or laziness. 21. Prārambhakriyā, indulgence in actions of cutting, piercing,
hewing etc. or expressing happiness when these acts are being
done by others. 22. Parigrāhikikriya, actions which do not destroy attachment to
wordly possesions. 23. Māyākriyā, deceitful practices concerning knowledge, vision
and conduct. 24. Mithyādarśanakriyā, strengthening false faith of others by
praising their deeds based on mith yādarśana. 25. Apratyākhyānakriyā, not renouncing what should be renoun
ced because of the rise of karmas opposing restraint. The influx of karma is differentiated on the basis of intensity or feebleness of thought-activity, intentional or unintentional nature of action, the substratum and its peculiar potency.12 The influx increases or decreases according to its position in relation to the above categories. The difference in cause leads to difference in effect of asrava.
The two kinds of influx noted above, viz. that of passionate persons which prolongs transmigration (called samparāyikāsrava), and that of passion-free persons which shortens it (called iryāpathäsrava) are related to the stages of holy life. The samparāyikāsraya operates from the first to the tenth stage (gunasthāna) on account of activities (yoga) and passions (kaşāya); the ir yāpathäsrava operates during the course of eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth stages. There is no influx in the fourteenth stage.
PUNYA AND PAPA
The inflow of auspicious activity (śubha-yoga) is the cause of good (punya), and that of the inauspicious activity (aśubha-yoga) is the cause of evil (pāpa). Activities are considered as auspicious (śubha) or
12.
Tattvärthasūtra, VI. 6 and Sarvārthasii!dhi thereupon,
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inauspicious (asubha) on the basis of the intention underlying them. An activity performed with good intention is auspicious, and that which is performed with bad intention is inauspicious. According to Pujyapada, that which purifies the self or by which the self is purified is good, namely that which produces happy feeling etc., and that which protects or keeps the self away from good is evil. 14 But the Jainas maintain that both, punya and papa, lead to embodied condition and obstruct the way to liberation.
ness.
According to Jainism, the self whose nature is subject to transformation or modification is auspicious, inauspicious or pure as it is transformed into auspicious, inauspicious or pure states of consciousBondage of the self is caused by attachment (rāga), aversion (dveşa) and infatuation (moha). Infatuation and aversion are inauspicious, whereas attachment is either auspicious or inauspicious. Auspicious and inauspicious attitudes towards external things lead to punya and papa respectively; an attitude which is neither auspicious nor inauspicious is the cause of the annihilation of misery, 15 For the attainment of liberation both should be avoided as their combinanation leads to human birth.16 Punya is compared with golden fetters and papa with iron fetters, but both are equally redundant for seeker of freedom from the shackles of samsara, as these bind man with the fetters of life and death. He who wants to get liberation does not wish even for punya, as he does not find any distinction between the two. And this is all from the real view-point. From the empirical view-point however, punya and papa are different; the first results in pleasure, while the latter in pain. Punya leads to heaven and papa to hell. Though punya provides comfort and enjoyment, yet it ultimately leads to sufferings.
91
A fundamental Jaina view is that karma, whether good or bad. is ultimately undesirable because it leads to rebirth. Release (mokşa) requires utter eradication of karmas, good as well as bad.
WAY TO LIBERATION (MOKṢA-MĀRGA)
As already stated, the self is in bondage due to its attraction towards karmic matter. If the self is in bondage with karmic matter
13. Tattvärthasütta, VI. 4 with Tattvärthavarttik a.
14. Tattvarthasutra, VI. 3 with Pujyapada's commentary. 15. Pravacanasara, I. 9; II. 64, 88, 89.
16.
Paramätmaprakāśa, II. 63.
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or if the self has any connection with the non-self, it is imperfect and deluded. The imperfect and deluded self is subject to transmigration and experiences pleasure and pain. In order to attain liberation the self must cut off all connection with karmic matter or nonself. But to sever this connection with karmic matter or non-self is not an easy job. The pathway leading to liberation is difficult. The cultivation of spiritual discipline with sustained effort is indispensable for achieving mokşa. .. The Jainas prescribe that right belief (samyag-darśana), right knowledge (samyag-jñāna) and right conduct (samyag-căritra) togerher constitute the way to liberation.17 These three are called the three jewels in Jainism. These are not three different paths, but constitute one coordinated path. It means that for the attainment of liberation all the three must be practised simultaneously. In the following pages we will discuss in detail these three aspects of the Jaina way. RIGHT FAITH (SAMYAGDARSANA)
Right faith means firm and final conviction in the reality of seven fundamental principles or tattvas of Jainism. Here faith does not mean blind faith; one must follow the path with correct understanding, reason and wisdom. Umāsvāti defines rightt faith as the belief in the substances ascertained as they are.18 Further he states that this right faith is attained by intuition, or acquisition of knowledge.19 This acquisition of knowledge includes grasping of all the objects of sense-organs and of the mind. Umāsvāti considers samyagdarśana as a kind of knowledge. N. Tatia states that samyagdarśana is that purified state of consciousness which enables it to know the truth as it is. It is the state of freedom from wrong intuition of truth. It is the ground of right knowledge (samyagjñāna).”20
A person who has right faith should be free from three types of superstitious belief and eight types of pride but he should completely follow the eight requirements or limbs (amgas).21
17.
18.
Tattvārthasütra, I. 1; Samayasära, verse 410; the Sthānāmga (!II. 4. 194) and the Uttarādhyayana (XXVIII. 1-3) include austerities and penances (tapa) also in the mokşa-mārga. Tattvārthasūtra. I. 2; Pañcāstikāya 164 (ed. A.N. Upadhye); Pravacanasāra, 137; Uttara Shyayanasūtra, XXVIII. 15. Tuttvārthasūtra, I. 3. N. Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, p. 149. Ratnakaran laśrāvakācāra of Samantabhadra, tr. by CR. Jain, pp. 6-12.
19. 20. 21.
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The three types of superstitious belief refer to belief in worldly things (loka-mūdha), belief in gods and goddesses (deva-mūdha) and belief in the teachings of false ascetics (pāşandi-mūdha).
The eight kinds of pride refer to pride of 1. caste (jāti), 2. family (kula), 3. power (bala), 4. personality (vapu), 5. penance (tapa), 6. accomplishments (riddhi), 7. learning (jñāna) and 8. worship (pūja).22
The eight requirements or limbs (amgas) which hold the right being are 1. freedom from doubt (niņśankita), 2. freedom from worldly concerns (niḥkänkṣita), 3. freedom from the care of body (nirvicikitsatā), 4. following of the right path (amüdhadrsti), 5. reinstatement of right belief (upaguhana), 6. attaining to right conviction (sthitikaraņa), 7. love and affection for good people (vätsalya), 8. respect for religious teachings (prabhāvanā).23
As we have already stated, he who has discovered and is convinced of the truth in the teaching of Jinas and developed faith in the reality is known as a samyagd rşti-jīva. There are ten sources from which a jīva attains right faith. They are as follows: 1. one's own nature (nisarga), 2. teachings (upadeśa), 3. command (ājñā), 4. study of the holy texts (sūtras),5. suggestion (bīja), 6. understanding the meaning of the sacred lore (abhigama), 7. detailed exposition (vistāra) 8. observance (kriyā), 9. brief exposition (samk sepa) and 10. Law (dharma).
Acārya Kundakunda describes the nature of samyagdarśana as the possession of firm conviction in six types of dravyas, the nine padārthas, the five astikäyas and the seven tattvas.25 The Mokşapāhuda states that belief in the teachings of Jinas, the right religion and avoidance of eighteen kinds of faults are the very product of samyagdarśana.26 The Niyamasāra describes samyagdarśana as belief in Tīrthamkaras, the Āgamas and in the six dravyas,27 The Uttarādliyayanasūtra envisages samyagdarśana as the firm conviction in nine padārthas.28 Many great Jaina ācāryas like Amitagati, 29 Vasunandi, 30
22. Ibid., verse 25. 23. Ibid., pp. 11-18, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, XXVIII, 31. 24. Ibid., XXVIII, 16. 25. Darśanapāhu !a, 19 26. Mokşapāhu la, 90.
Niyamasāra, 5. 28. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXVIII. 14-15. 29. Śrāvakācāra (Amitagati), 3. 30. Śravakācāra (Vasunandin) 1-17.
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Nemicandra 31 and Amrtacandra32 commence their treatises by saying that faith in the seven tattras or padārthas is the basic nature of samyagdarśana. KINDS OF SAMYAGDARSANA
It is of two kinds, right faith with attachment (sarägasamyagdarsana) and right faith without attachment (vītarāgasamyagdarśana). The first is recognized by kind heartedness, compassion, devotion, longing for liberation and fear from wordly sufferings etc., and the second kind is concerned with the purity of the self without any other interest.3: Here the first is the cause of the second.
Briefly speaking right faith is of one type, i.e. knowledge of the reality as it is. It is of two types from the point of view of its origin through intuition and through acquisition of scriptural knowledge. It is of three types according to the notions of subsidence, destruction and subsidence-cum-destruction of darśanamohaniya-karma. It is of numerous types from the stand-point of verbal nomenclature. It is of infinite types from the view-point of the objects which have to be believed in or which produce right faith.34
The real nature of samyagdarśana consists in believing in the existence of transcendental self. In general samyagdarśana means real, right, good, firm conviction in the fundamental principles called tattvas of Jainism. Samyagjñāna is the real, correct and proper knowledge of tattvas in accordance with the teachings of the Jinas or Tīrthamkaras. The knowledge about real nature of mundane and supramudane facts or things is called right knowledge. And acting in accordance with samyagdurśana and sam yagjñāna is known as saniyogcāritra or right conduct.
Really speaking right faith, right knowledge and right conduct consist in seeking, knowing and pursuing oneself by onself.35 Generally these three are to be considered as constituting the path of mokşa; but actually one's own real self is the cause of real path. Whatever one perceives with one's own real self, knows and discriminates its subjective and objective outlook, and experiences its own true
31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
Dravyasamgraha, 41. Purus arthasiddhyupāya, 22. Sarvārthasiddhi, I. 2. Ibid. Pañcāstikāya, 162,
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existence, is to be understood and measured with right faith, knowledge and conduct.
From the practical point of view, right faith consists in firm belief in the true nature of self, resulting from the knowledge of various substances as they are in the universe.36 That state of the self which understands the substances exactly as they are is known as knowledge. 37 And finally acting in accordance with the result of right faith and knowledge without any hatred or attachment is called right conduct. These three jewels are to be realized in one's self by oneself, which results in the attainment of liberation.38
The three jewels--faith, knowledge and conduct--should be distinguished from the ordinary (vyayahāra) point of view only; from the transcendental (niscaya) point of view, these three are the self. From the transcendental point of view, to attain liberation means to attain purity of the self. He who perceives the self as not bound, not touched, not other than the self, steady and without any difference, understands the whole Jaina doctrine which is the kernel of Jaina scripture.39
Right faith is the cause of right knowledge and right conduct. It acts as a pilot in guiding the self in right direction. It is the very seed of acquiring right path towards liberation. The Uttarādhyayanasütra states that there is no right knowledge without right faith, and without right knowledge there is no right conduct and without right conduct there is no perfection.40 The wrong notions which are the causes of wordly existence can only be eradicated by the possession of right faith. With right faith and right knowledge one purifies one's self. The Sūtrak stāmga states in a similar way that right faith is like an island to those persons who are carried away by the current of mith yātva and suffer its consequences. Right faith is the way to attain liberation. 41
Right faith leads to all kinds of prosperity and ultimately to supreme perfection and final beatitude. Acārya Samantabhadra observes that those whose mind is illumined with right faith, become the lords of splendour, energy, wisdom, power, fame, wealth, victory and greatness; they are born in high families and possess the ability to
36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.
Paramātmaprakāśa, II. 15. Ibid., II. 29. Ibid., II. 31. Samayasara, verses 15-16. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXVIII-30. Sūtrakstāmga, 1. 11.23.
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realise the highest ideals i.e. dharma, artha, kama and mokşa. After attaining all sorts of prosperity, they who take refuge in right faith must attain liberation, which is the freedom from old age, disease, destruction, grief, fear, doubt and from all kinds of karmas.42
RIGHT KNOWLEDGE (SAMYAGJÑÄNA)
With the attainment of right faith, knowledge is also attained, because right faith and right knowledge arise simultaneously like the appearance of a lamp and its light. The knowledge which reveals the nature of things as they really are, neither insufficient nor with exaggeration, neither long nor short, but with exactness and certainly, is called right knowledge.43
Right knowledge embraces four types of yoga, viz. prathamānuyoga, karaṇānuyoga, caraṇānuyoga and dravyānuyoga. The first viz. prathamānuyoga deals with the doctrine of dharma, religion, artha, wealth, kama enjoyment and mokşa, liberation of the self; the second viz. karaṇānuyoga deals with space and time and four conditions of life. The third viz. caraṇānuyoga describes the ways and means of conduct both for ascetics as well as laymen. The fourth, dravyānuyoga, deals with the fundamental principles called tattvas.
The Uttaradhyayanasūtra enumerates five types of knowledge: 1. śruta or knowledge obtained through reading and hearing of scriptures; 2. mati or abhinibodhika or knowledge obtained by means of senses and mind; 3. avadhi or supernatural knowledge; it is a direct knowledge of distant time or place without the help of sense perception and without spatial limitation; 4. manaḥparyaya, knowledge of the thought of other people; 5. kevala, the highest and unlimited knowledge.45
The first two types of knowledge, i. e. mati and śruta are indirect (parokşa) acquired through senses and mind. The remaining three, avadhi, manaḥparyaya and kevala, constitute direct knowledge (pratyakşa) dependent on the self alone.46
Like right belief, right knowledge should have eight pillars (amgas); 1. correct use of words (grantha), 2. complete understanding of their meanings (artha), 3. combination of the above both (ubhaya),
42.
43.
45.
45.
Fatnakaraṇḍaśrākācāra, verses 36, 40.
Ibid., verse 42.
Uttaradhyayanasūtra; XXVIII, 4.
Tattvarthasutra, I. 11-12; Sthānāmgasūtra, II. 1-71,
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4. regularity of time (kala), 5. humble attitude (vinaya), 6. propriety of behaviour (sopadhāna), 7. zeal (bahumāna), 8. without concealment of knowledge (aninhava). 47 KEVALAJNĀNA
Kevalajñāna is the knowledge par excellence. It completely illumines all the substances with all their aspects.98 Umāsvāti states that omniscience extends to all entities with all their modifications simultaneously (sarvadravyaparyāyeșu kevalasya).18 It is described as perfect (paripūrņa), complete (samagra), unique (asādhāraṇa), absolute (nirapeksa), pure (viśuddha), all comprehensive (sarvabhāva-jñāpaka), enlightening the physical world and the world beyond (lokālokavişaya), and unlimited or infinite.50 It is self-dependent, without any limitation of time and space. It is not even conditioned by the objects of knowledge and there is no diversity for him who has acquired this knowledge
The attainment of kevalajñāna is possible only to the highest spiritual jīvas who have completely annihilated four destructive karmas namely jñānāvaraṇīya, darśanāvaraṇīya, mohanīya and antarāya.51 The self illumines like the sun and nothing remains hidden or unknown to him. Thus the destruction of four ghāti ya karmas is the cause of perfect knowledge. M.L. Mehta states :
"Just as heat is subject to varying degrees and consequently reaches the highest limit, so also congnition which is subject to progressive development owing to the varying degrees of destruction of the obscuring veil, reaches the highest limit, i.e. omniscience when the hindrance of the obscuring karma is totally annihilated.”52
The Acārāmgasūtra states that he who knows one, knows all, and he who knows all, knows one.53 It means kevalajñana of one object is the kevalajñāna of all other objects. All the oniniscient beings
47.
48. 49. 50. 51.
Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, 36; Dravyasamgraha, 42. Bhagavatisūtra, tr. by Lalwani (5. 49), p. 159 Tattvārthasutra, I. 29. Ibid., 1. 29, bhāşya. Tattvārthasütra, X.1; Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXIX.71; Sthanamgasūtra, III. 4.226 M.L. Mehta, Outlines of Jaina Philosophy, p. 100. Acārāmgasūtra, I. 3-4
52, 53.
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attain equal perfection. Nothing is beyond the comprehension of an omniscient.
When kevalajñāna dawns, all the other four types of knowledge, viz, mati, śruta, avadhi and manaḥparyāya become extinct just as at the rise of sun in the sky all the luminous objects lose their luminosity. All the five types of knowledge cannot remain together. Only first four types of knowledge can be possessed simultaneously by one being, because kevalajñāna is complete in itself. It stands alone without any assistance. The self becomes omniscient and all-perceiving through its own efforts, obtains the infinite bliss which transcends sense experience and which is spiritual and self-determined.54
Kevalajñāna is the light of all knowledge. It is perfect in itself without any cause, effort or source. H.R. Kapadia states :
“Kevalajñāna which is perfectly perfect, is a priceless attainment of the soul in its thoroughly pure and undefiled condition. In this all embracing knowledge, all the objects of knowledge of the past, present and future scintillate like stars in the infinite firmament” 55
The author of the Niyamasāra also asserts that the pure knowledge which knows the material and immaterial, the conscious, the self and all other substances, is direct and beyond the comprehension of the senses. 58
FOUR TYPES OF INTUITIONS (DARŠANAS)
The term darśana represents undifferentiated cognition which means ‘seeing' and 'intuition'. It is of four types, namely eye-intuition (cakşurdarśana), intuition other than the eye-intuition which is through mind and other sense-organs (acak şurdarśana), the remaining two intuitions being miraculous powers (avadhidarśana and kevaladarśana).
Pujyapāda asserts that jñāna and darśana occur in succession in ordinary mortals but simultaneously in the kevalins.57 Some thinkers advanced objections to the theory that jñāna and darśana of a kevalin occur simultaneously, because these two conscious activities cannot occur simultaneously according to the Agamic principle. The
54. 55. 56. 57.
Pañcāstikāya, 29, H. R. Kapadia, The Jaina Religion and Literature, vol. I, p. 104. Niyamasāra, 166. Sarvärthasiddhi, JI. 9.
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Āvaśyakanir yukti does not hold that jñāna and darśana occur simultaneously to the kevalins.58
Acarya Kundakunda clearly states that jñāna and darśana of a kevalin occur simultaneously just as heat and light exist simultaneously in the sun.59 The great logician Siddhasena Divākara also agrees with Kundakunda and states that we can discriminate between jñāna and darśana upto manahparyā yajñana, but jñāna and darśana are identical in kevalajñäna as kevalin knows as well intuits objects at a time. Akalanka, Vidyānandi and Nemicandra too support the position of Pujyapāda, Kundakunda and Siddhasena Divākara.60 It is clear from the above that jñāna and darśana come in succession to worldly beings, whereas in the omniscient they occur simultaneously because the omniscients know all substances and modifications clearly at a time. RIGHT CONDUCT (SAMYAGCĀRITRA)
Right conduct means doing whatever is right, good and proper. It represents the rules of moral discipline which controls good behaviour and constitutes the right activities of mind, body and speech. It presupposes the attainment of right knowledge, and right krowledge requires the presence of right faith. Hence right knowledge and right faith when coupled together make the guidelines for right conduct. The self can follow right conduct only when it is equipped with right faith and right knowledge. So, along with right faith and right knowledge, right conduct is a fundamental factor in the attainment of mokșa. There is a close relation between knowledge and action. The Uttarādhyayanasūtra states that right faith, knowledge and conduct are interrelated. Through right knowledge one knows the nature of things, through faith one believes in them, through conduct and austerities he attains purity. By means of purity, one achieves emancipation. There is a close relation between knowledge and conduct. Conduct is the final fulfilment of knowledge.61
Right conduct is of two categories according to the standpoints of the absolute and the practical. From the absolute standpoint, the
58. See Țikā on Tattvārthasūtrabhāsya, 1-31. 59. Niyamasăra, 159. 60. Sanmati-tarka-prakarana, II. 3, 22; Aptamīmamsă of Samantabhadra, 101;
Dravyasamgraha, 44; N, Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, pp. 77-78. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXVIII. 30, 35-36; Sūtrakrtāmga, I. 12. 11; Višeşāvaśyakabhaş ya, 3, 1126, 1158,
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self absorbed in its true nature is absolute right conduct while the performance of austerities etc. with the aim of attaining real right conduct is from the practical point of view.62 For practical purposes. right conduct comprises the ethical rules of discipline followed by Jaina householder (śrāvaka) and Jaina ascetic (muni). We can say, right conduct is of two types, one is perfect or unqualified (sakala) and the other is imperfect or qualified (vikala). Of these the unqualified is observed by ascetics who have renounced all things, and the qualified by householders who observe partial asceticism.63
An ideal Jaina ascetic renounces worldly life and pleasures, adopts strict vows and makes real efforts for stoppage of the influx of karmas and for shedding of accumulated karmas. He follows higher course of asceticim, for the practical right conduct consists in complete observance of five vows (pañca mahāvrata) viz., vow of noninjury, vow of truth, vow of non-stealing, vow of chastity, vow of detachment from worldy concerns, with fivefold cautiousness (samitt).
atchfulness in walking, watchfulness in speaking, watchfulness in eating, watchfulness in taking up and setting down, watchfulness in excreting, and with three forms of self-control (gupti) i.e. control of mind, body and speech.64
Mrs Stevenson has summed up some of the qualities of an ideal Jaina ascetic in the following words:
“The true ascetic should possess twenty-seven qualities, for he must keep the five vows, never eat at night, protect all living things, control his five senses, renounce greed, practise forgiveness, possess high ideals and inspect everything he uses to make sure that no insect life is injured. He must also be self-denying and carefully keep the three guptis, he must endure hardships in the twenty-two ways and bear suffering till death.”85
In order to achieve the final goal, an ideal Jaina ascetic must remain indifferent to pain and pleasure, enemies and friends, praise and blame, clay and gold and above all, he should have same feeling towards life and death.66 This state of equanimity is possible only when an ascetic concentrates on right faith, knowledge and
62. Niyamasāra, 55. 63. Ratnakarandafrāvakācāra, 150; Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, 40, 64. Niyamasāra, 70; Pravacanasāra, III. 40. 65. Mrs. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, p. 238. 66. Pravacanasāra, 1II. 42.
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conduct simultaneously. In other words, he who is intent on this trinity together in a state of mental concentration, his śramaņahood is complete.
Like that of a true Jaina ascetic, the main aim of a true Jaina householder is also to get liberation. There is a close relationship between the two orders. The former follows a strict course of asceticism while the latter follows a partial asceticism due to his multifarious responsibilities, personal as well as social. The stage of the householder is preparatory to the stage of an ascetic because the courses of conduct prescribed for both do not differ in kind but in degree. The difference lies only in that the householder adopts and practices those rules partially while the ascetic follows and executes them completely. So the conduct of the Jaina householder is a step to the higher goal of monkhood.
The Jaina householder should observe twelve vows, viz. five aņuvratas, three gunavratas and four śikṣāvratas.67 The word vrata indicates virati which means cancelling the evils. It is the powerful medium to attain samvara and nirjară. The householder cannot observe these yratas completely, owing to his other duties and engagements. According to the Ratnakarandaśravakācāra, the Jaina householder must follow eight essentials, i.e. five asuvratas and total avoidance of the use of liquor, flesh and honey. 68
The five aṇuvratas consist of partial observance of non-injury, truth, non-stealing, chastity and limitation of wordly possessions to the extent of being sufficient for the maintenance of life oply
These five vows are supplemented by three gunavratas which restrain bodily movements and four śikṣāvratas which promote purification of the self. The three gunayratas consist in the limitation of daily activities in all directions, limitation of regional activities and abstaining from purposeless sin. The four śikṣāvratas relate to daily concentration, keeping fast on certain days, limiting enjoyment of consumable and non-consumable things, and partaking of food after feeding an ascetic, or giving gifts (dāna) in the form of comfort, food, medicine and cloth etc. to the beings. These four śikṣāyratas emphasize inner purity of the self.
67. Upăsakadaśamgasūtra, 1. 11; Ratnakaran laßrāvakācāra, 51;
Tativărthasūtra, VII, 21. 68. See R. Williams, Jaina Yoga.
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According to Samantabhadra the merit of five anuvratas increases with the help of gunavratas. These guņavratas preduce purity and greater determination in observing five vows.69 In fact, with the practice of guņavratas and anuvratas, the householder attains the status of five mahāvratas of asceticism in point of merit for a limited period. In other words, digvrata elevates the householder to the position of an ascetic in respect of regions of space lying beyond those limits.70 The śikṣāyratas pave the way towards higher life of complete renunciation.
The Jaina texts describe various ways and means for the proper practice of these vows.71 The Jaina ascetics as well as the householders must remain aware of the evil effects of violence, falsehood, stealing, unchastity and possession of wealth. It should be noted that everything which helps to increase evil tendencies is ultimately a condition of worldly sufferings.72 So, great attention should be given to the preservation of mental equanimity, impartiality towards friend and foe, and constant awareness of evil tendencies. For the practice of impartiality towards friend and foe one should cultivate friendship with all, joy at the sight of the virtuouss, compassion and sympathy for the injured and indifference towards the haughty or arrogant.73 Contemplation on the evil nature of world and body generates awe (samvega) and renunciation (vairāgya) for worldly existence.74 In brief, these are the main features of Jaina practical code of conduct and one must follow them diligently.
The three jewels of Jainism, viz right faith, right knowledge and right conduct, do not exist in any other substance except the self. One should know that these make the real self and the self is the cause of liberation.75 From the absolute point of view, conduct is only in self-realization or self-absorption. The Pravacanasāra states that conduct is dharma; dharma lies in equanimity and equanimity means that state of the self which is devoid of attachment and aversion.76
SAMVARA AND NIRJARĀ
Right conduct comprises the entire code of moral and ascetic
69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76.
Ratnakaran daśravakācāra, 66. Ibid., 67. Ibid., 70 Tattvārthasūtra, VII. 3-5 with commentaries. Ibid., VII. 10. Ibid., VII. 11.12. Samayasāra, 16; Dravyasamgraha, 40. Pravacanasāra, 1. 7.
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conduct expounded in Jainism. The aim of right conduct is twofold, viz., to arrest the growth of karmas by effecting the control (samvara) of inflow (āsrava) of karmic stuff, and by eradicating the already accumulated karmic particles through the process of nirjară. Thus samvara and nirjarā are the means of achieving the final goal.
The word samvara ('control or ‘restraint) means stoppage of karmas. It is opposed to āsrava or inflow. In other words, samvara is nothing but controlling or arresting the course of karmas. It is twofold i subjective stoppage (bhāvu-samvara), and objective stoppage (dravya-samvarh). The psychical conditions which make the mind free from attachment and aversion with the result that there is no yoga and the influx of karmas is controlled, are known as bhāva-samvara; that which actually controls or stops the influx of karmas is called dravya-samvara.?
Samvara is to be practised through the observance of five-fold religious cautiousness (samiti), viz. carefulness in walking, carefulness in speaking, carefulness in eating, carefulness in taking up and setting down, carefulness in excreting, and by the observance of three-fold self-control (gupti), i.e. control of activities of the mind, body and speech. It also includes the practice of ten virtues (dharma), viz. forgiveness, humility, simplicity, absence of greed, austerity, selfcontrol, simplicity, truthfulness, purity, renunciation and charity: twelve objects of contemplation (anuprekşā) and forbearance of twenty-two hardships or sufferings (parīşaha), and the observance of five-fold conduct (cāritra).78
The twelve objects of meditation are as follows: 1. Everything in the world is impermanent (anitya). 2. There is no real refuge in this world (asarana). 3. The evil nature of transmigration (samsāra). 4. A being has to transmigrate alone (ekatva). 5. The self is different from the body (anyatva). 6. The impurity of the body (aśucitva). 7. The inflow of karmic matter (āsrava). 8. The task of arresting the inflow of karmic matter (samvara). 9. Means of eradicating the karmic matter (nirjarā). 10. The nature of the material world (loka).
77. Dravyasamgraha, 34. 78. Ibid., 35; Tattvarthasūtra, IX. 5-9;
Purus ārthasiddhyupāya, 202-209.
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11. Difficulties of attaining enlightenment (bodhidurlabha.) 12. The ideal of holy life (dharma).
The path of holy life is full of hardships. The seeker of liberation has to patiently endure these hardships. The Jaina scriptures enumerate only twenty-two important hardships called parişaha. The word parişaha means to sustain, to bear up against. It follows that one must bear all those difficulties that arise in the practice of asceticism. An ascetic should bear with patience all those natural hardships or sufferings while following the practice of ascetic conduct. These include hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect-bite, nudity, women, journeying, begging food, diseases etc.79 A Jaina monk whose thought is fixed on ultimate release has to overcome these and other difficulties that naturally beset his extraordinary course of life.
The five-fold moral conduct consists of the following practices, viz, equanimity towards all friends and foes alike (sāmāyikacāritra), suitable amendments with a view to regaining equanimity after accidental transgression (chedopasthāpanacāritra), purification of heart control of through inoffensive conduct (parihāraviśuddhicāritra), passions in subtle forms (sūkṣmasamprāyacāritra) and the sublime conduct characterised by the utter cessation of passions (yathakhyatacăritra). Thus samvara is the complete control of all karmas resulting in the freedom of the self.
79. 80.
The word nirjara is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root jri which means to wear down, to rub to pieces, to crush etc. It shows the gradual destruction of all actions. Thus falling away of all karmas attached to the self is called nirjara. It is of two types: the first is known as what is due to ripening (vipäkaja), and the second due to process other than rlpening (avipäkaja). The timely destruction of karmas and the destruction which is effected by ascetic practices (tapas) are called vipäkanirjarā and avipākanirjarā respectively. A seed grows into a fruit. If it ripes by itself, it is called vipäka; but if it is plucked unripe and then ripened by an artificial device it is known as avipaka.80 The processes and activities of the self whereby the effect of karmic coating on the texture of the self is neutralized reulting in their falling away from the self, are called nirjarā.
The main technique of nirjară consists of the observance of aus
For enumeration see Tattvärthasutra, IX. 9. Tattvärthasara, VII, 2-4.
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terities (tapas), both external and internal, physical and mental, which are an effective means of samvara as well as nirjarā. The term tapas includes any form of self-discipline which purifies the self and thereby leads to liberation. Tapas or austerity is twofold viz. external austerity and internal austerity. Each of these types of austerity has six sub-types. Thus fasting (anaśana), taking less meal than one's appetite (avaman), selecting the type of diet according to the range of choice or according to time, place or posture (vrttiparisamkhāna), renouncing strong and delicious food etc. (rasaparityāga), living lonely, not sharing bed and seat with women and men (viviktaśayanâsana), and observing physical postures (kāyakleśa) are the six types of external austerity.81 When one duly follows these external austerities, one obtains detachment, lightness of body, control of the senses, protection of asceticism and the shedding of karma.82
Expiation (prāyaścitta), humility (vinaya), respectful service (vaiyavrttya), scriptural study (svādhyāya), abadopment of not-self i.e. mind, body, sense-organs, passions etc. (vyutsarga) and meditation (dhyāna) constitute the six internal austerities. 83 The first prāyaścitta includes self-criticism, self-repentance and both, to accept due punishment, and not to repeat the fault again etc. Vinaya is of four types viz. paying due respect to right faith, knowledge, conduct and to the holy persons possessed of this trinity. Vaiyāvșttya includes due service of ācārya, upādhyāya, tapasvī, diseased and old ascetics, community of monks, an elder monk, a distinguished monk etc. Svādhyāya represepts five-fold study of sacred books, i.e. receiving instruction, asking questions with a desire to know, contemplating on the lines of scripture, reciting or revising scripture and preaching or giving religious sermons. Vyutsarga means renunciation of external and internal attachment 4 Here external attachment is the attachment to wealth, property etc. and internal attachment means emotions and passions etc. In general vyutsarga also means complete abdication of everything for certain time and detachment from what is not-self. DHYĀNA
The sixth category of internal austerity is called dhyāna or con
81. 82. 83.
Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 19; Puruşarthasiddhyupāya, 98. Tattvārthasūtra-bhāş ya, IX. 19. Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 20; Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, 199; 25.7.802. Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 21-26; Vyakhyāprajñapti, 25.7.802.
Vyākhyāprajñapti,
84.
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centration of mind which is of the utmost importance for the cessation of karmus; dhyāna means meditation or concentration on the self, inner discipline, and calmnesss of mind. Dhyānā when rightly practised annihilates all karmas and leads to the realization of the true nature of the self. It has been said in the Yogaśästra by Hemacandra: "dhyāna leads to the knowledge of the self and knowledge of the self leads to the destruction of the karmas which is nothing but moksa."'85 The Tattvärthasülra states that concentration of thought on one particular object is called dhyāna and it extends upto one muhurta i.e. forty-eight minutes with the best physical constitution.86
A fundamental means to nirjară is meditation or dhyāna; when one meditates upon the pure nature of the self with controlled senses, one washes off the karmic stuff completely by the flood of dhyāna. Meditation or dhyāna is a means to self-realization. The Pañcāstikäya relates the origin, nature and effect of meditation and says that “in a person who has neither desire nor aversion, and who is free from ignorant attachment to sense pleasures and from the activity of thought, speech and body, there flames forth the fire of meditation that burns out all karmas, beneficial as well as baneful.''87 The effect of dhyāna is like a fire that burns the heap of karmas, provided one is indifferent, detached and disinterested towards sense pleasures and yogic activities. This means that self-absorption is the very essence of Jinist dhyāna.
In order to achieve self-absorption or concentration of mind, one must remove all obstacles, hindrances and impediments which divert the mind. Certain conditions are necessary for practising dhyāna as Akalańka points out, such as good atmosphere, accord with posture of the body, breathing slowly and steadily, avoidance of lethargic nature, sleep, sex-love, fear, doubt, sorrow etc.88 The practice of dhyāna further requires faith, energy, heedfulness, insight into the nature of things, etc.
The Jaina thinkers broadly classify dhyāna into two types : inauspicious (apraśasta) and auspicious (prašasta). The first type is again sub-divided into painful (ärta) and harmful (raudra) which come out from hatred, illusion, greed, attachment and hence these two should
85. 86. 87. 88.
Yogaśāstra, IV. 113. Tattvarthasūtra, IX. 27; Vyakhyāprajñapti, 25.6.770; Sthānāmgavrtti, 4.1.247. Pañcāstikaya, 146 (ed. by A.N. Upadhye). . Tattvārtha-Rajavārtika, IX. 44; Sthanamgasūtra, IX. 2. 283,
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be discarded. The second type consists of the the righteous (dharmya) and the pure (śukla) meditations.89
Dharmya-dhyāna consists of meditation on the fundamental tattvas as described in the scriptures after the command of Jina (ajñāvicaya), knowledge of ignorance (avidya) and the ways and means to remove suffering (apayavicaya), nature of the fruition of karmic stuff (vipakavicaya) and discerning the structure of the universe (samsthānavicaya),90 The last, samsthanavicaya-dharmyadhyāna, has four sub-types known as pindastha, padastha, rūpastha and rūpātīta.91 Pindastḥadhyāna follows meditation based on the body, padastha assumes continuous meditation on the nature of siddhahood with the help of mantric syllables, rūpastha represents meditation on the glory and extraordinary qualities of arhat or tirthankara and rūpātīta implies concentration on liberated souls, siddhas, who are formless, pure, supreme, infallible and full of bliss. The practice of dharmyadhyana is possible only for those persons who are in between the fourth and sixth spiritual stages called guṇasthāna. Dharmyadhyāna when duly practised leads directly to heavenly abodes and indirectly to mokşa.92
The dawn of sukladhyāna is possible only when an aspirant reaches the seventh spiritual stage after duly concentrating on dharmya-dhyāna. It has four types: concentration on diversity (pṛthaktvavitarka), concentration on unity (ekatvavitarka), perseverance of subtle activity (sükṣma-kriya-pratipäti), complete annihilation of all activities (vyuparata-kriyā-nivarti).93
(i) (Pṛthaktvavitarka): Here the aspirant shifts from one activity to another and all the threefold activities of mind, body and speech continue." He goes from one substance to another and from one modification to another.95 It depends upon scriptural knowledge.96
107
(ii) Ekatvavitarka: In this stage there is no shifting from one activity to another and from one object to another. This stage is also associated with scriptural knowledge but not with shifting. The first
89.
90.
91.
Tattvartha-Rajavärrttika IX. 28.
Ibid., IX. 36; Jnanarnava, 33.5; Vyakhyāprajñapti, 25.7.803.
JЯanārṇava, 37.1.
92.
Ibid., 41.16-27.
93. Pujyapāda on Tattvärthasutra, IX. 39.
94. Ibid., IX. 40.
95.
Ibid., 1X. 43.
96. Ibid., IX. 43.
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two types of sukla-dhyana are attained during the course of seventh to the twelfth spiritual stages.97
(iii) Sūkṣma-kriya-pratirpāti: After passing through the first two types, the aspirant attains kevalajñāna and this is the third stage of śuh ladhyāna where the subtle activity of body remains and all other activities cease. The four obscuring karmas are annihilated but only four non-obscuring karmas continue. This type of dhyana is attained in the thirteenth spiritual stage.98.
(iv) Vyuparata-kriyā-nivarti: It is attained when the omniscient is on the fourteenth stage; no yogic activities are there, all the karmas having been annihilated, the self attains siddhahood.99. The essential conditions that facilitate sukladhyāna are forbearance, humility, straightforwardness and freedom from greed.100
STAGES OF SPIRITUAL PATH (GUŅASTHANAS)
The map of the pathway to liberation according to Jainism envisages fourteen stages. These stages are in ascending order called gunasthanas. Here the term guna stands for the nature of the self in possessson of right belief, knowledge and conduct, and guṇasthāna means the stage of the self on the way of purification and liberation. The Gommaṭasara states that the psychical condition of the self caused by the operation of karmic particles in rising, subsiding, annihilating, or partly subsiding and partly annihilating forms is called gunasthana.101 The self attains its innate nature and frees itself from the karmic encrustation through the stages of spiritual path and in the last stage it realizes its complete perfection.
The Jainas believe that the self has an inherent capacity to get rid of the wheel of worldly existence and to attain liberation. This capacity or tendency causes uneasiness with worldly sufferings and tries to elevate the self. This tendency, force or urge which comes out from within the self is technically known as yathāpravṛttakaraṇa.102 It lasts only for less than forty-eight minutes (antarmuhurta). The
97.
98.
99. 100.
101.
102.
Ibid. IX. 41-42. Ibid., IX. 44
Ibid,
Dhyanasataka, 69; N. Tatia, op. cit., p. 291.
Gommaṭasara, (jivakāņļa), 8,
Vises avasyakabhaṣya, 1204-1217; see T.G. Kalghatgi, Some Problems in Jaina Psychology p, 152.
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109
Višeşāvaśyakabhāşya tells us the function and operation of this energy called yathāpravrttakaraṇa towards self-realization. The struggle for self-realization consists of two ways namely apūrvakaraṇa and aniyrttikaraņa. Here the word karaņa means an urge to push up the self toward ultimate goal. The process of apūrvakaraṇa enables the self to steer clear all the impediments of karmagranthi while anivșttikarana leads to the dawn of perfection. The process of apūrvakaraṇa lessens the duration and intensity of karmas in the following four processess : destruction of the duration (sthitighāta), destruction of the intensity (rasaghāta), conversion of longer duration of karmas into very short duration of not more than even a muhurta (gunaśreni), and the conversion of intensive degrees of karmas into milder degrees (gunasamkramana).103 In the anivrttikarana, the most intensive type of passions and vision-deluding karmas are destroyed and one gets the fourth stage of guņasthāna.194
The Labdhisāra describes the operation of the process of yathāpravșttikaraña as manifesting into two forms, i. e. apūrvakarana and anivettikaraṇa. By these processes the self paves the way towards selfperfection in four ways :
(i) annihilation and subsidenc of karmic matter : (ii) purification of the self by these processes;
the possibility of getting instruction from the sages; (vi) reduction in the duration of all types of karmas except the
age-determining karmas.106 However, this effort for selfpurification is possible only to bhavyajīvas, those who are capable of attaining liberation. With this background, let us study the doctrine of gunasthānas through which an aspirant passess in the course of spiritual development toward mokşa.
1. PERVERSITY OF ATTITUDE (MITHYĀDRSȚI)
This is the lowest stage of wrong notion of the self obsessed with gross ignorance which is caused by the absence of the effects of right attitude.106 Here the self accepts wrong belief as right belief under false impression. Every self exists in this stage at least to a minimum
103. 104. 105. 106.
Virasena on Şaškhan lāgama, vol. VI, p. 222. See D. N, Bhargava, Jaina Ethics, p. 210. Labdhisära, 3-7 : Kalghatgi, Some Problems in Jaina Psychology, p. 153. Cf, Vites āvašyakabhas ya, 521.
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extent, that is why it is called mithyādīştiguņasthāna. All the unawakened jīvas remain in this stage without beginning and without end, but with those who have experienced right vision and again fall back to this stage do not sink deep but they get over it sooner or later. This state can be compared to a blind man who is unable to say what is ugly and what is beautiful. A man engrossed in mithyadrsti cannot discriminate between reality and unreality. From this stage, the self passes to the fourth stage. 2. TASTING OF RIGHT BELIEF (SĀSVĀDANA-SAMYAGDRSTI)
It is the state of a short duration because the self passes through the second stage while falling down from the fourth or higher stage. Here the self has only the taste of true faith and goes between wrong and right notion. 3. MIXED ATTITUDE (MIŚRA)
It is the mixture of right and wrong faith due to the rise of samyagmithyātva-kar man. The faculty of right faith is partly pure and partly impure. It is also a transitional stage which lasts only for an antarmuhürta, then it may either go to higher stage or may fall back to second or first stage. 4. RIGHT BELIEF WITHOUT ABSTINENCE (AVIRATASAMYAGDRSTI)
On account of subsidence of four intense types of passions (anantānubandhikaṣāyas), the self gets right vision on the spiritual path
ds emancipation but cannot perform the rules of conduct necessary for the elevation of it. The right vision of this stage is of three kinds viz. right vision attained due to subsidence of vision-deluding karmic matter (aupaśamikasamyaktva), right vision-attained due to annihilation of four life-long passions, and three sub-classes of right vision-deluding karmas (kṣāyika-samyagdrsti) and the attainment of right vision through subsidence-cum-annihilation of the relevant karmas (kṣāyopaśamika).107 5. PARTIAL RENUNCIATION (DEŠAVIRATA)
In this stage the self feels the importance of self-discipline and right conduct, he cannot adopt full ascetic code of conduct but adopts partial renunciation, i.e. the practice of twelve anuvratas and eleven stages (pratimās).
107. Gommațasara : Jivakānda, 25-26.
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6. SELF-CONTROL WITH SPIRITUAL INERTIA (PRAMATTASAMYATA)
In this stage the ascetic is only partly under the influence of passions due to pramáda or spiritual inertia. This pramāda causes impurity and obstructs observance of complete vows. 7. SELF-CONTROL FREE FROM ALL NEGLIGENCE (APRAMATTA
SAMYATA)
Here the self attains purification due to proximity with śukladhyāna. In this stage gross passions are destroyed, anger is absent but milder passions remain. There are two ways of elevating the self : through subsidence in which conduct-infatuating karma is being subsided, and second through annihilation of karma. The second way is sure to lead to mokşa. 8. INITIATION TO THE HIGHER LIFE (APURVAKARAŅA)
Through the performance of right conduct, the self enjoys spiritual experience and practices sukladhyāna. Here pride completely disappears but deceit and greed can rise. It remains at least for one instant and at the most for an antarmuhúrta. 9. INCESSANT PURSUIT OF HIGHER LIFE (ANIVĘTTIKARANA)
The dawn of enlightenment begins in this stage due to pure meditation and greater purity. Here the deceit disappears and one becomes neutral to sex. The maximum duration of this stage is an antarmuhürta.
10. CONDITION ALMOST DEVOID OF DESIRES (SUKSAMASĀMPARĀYA)
All passions are annihilated except slight greed which troubles now and then. Dr. N. Tatia says that “this subtle greed can be interpreted as the subconscious attachment to the body even in the souls which have achieved great spiritual advancement."108 This stage lasts only for an antarmuhúrta. 11. CONDITION OF SUPPRESSED PASSIONS (UPAŚĀNTA-KASĀYA)
This is a very critical stage for the aspirant. If the psychic condition is controlled by the suppression of entire conduct disturbing actions (cäritramohaniya karmas), the aspirant rises to the twelfth stage, but in case he fails to control, he may fall back to the lowest
108.
N. Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, p. 278.
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stage. It also lasts for an antarmuhūra. 12. CONDITION OF DESTRUCTION OF PASSIONS (KȘIŅAKASAYA)
This is the highest stage when annihilation of karmas, including ghātiyakarmas, is achieved. The aspirant remains for an antarmuhurta in this stage and then attains kaivalya (omniscience). 13. OMNISCIENCE IN THE EMBODIED CONDITION (SAYOGA-KEVALI)
This is the stage of an arhat or tirthamkara. Here the self is possessed of body and yoga. Of the five conditions of bondage, the first four are completely destroyed but the yogic activities remain. The self attains omniscience and it remains in this stage for at least one antarmuhurta and not more than a pūrvakoti. This stage can be compared to the stage of jīvanmukti of other systems of Indian thought. 14. THE STATE OF SIDDHAHOOD (AYOGA-KEVALI)
This is the last and the highest stage where all the passions, activities and karmas are annihilated by means of third and fourth types of sukladhyāna. It lasts only for such a short time as is taken by uttering five letters a, i, u, r, Ip and then leads to complete liberation. 109
STAGES OF SPIRITUAL PROGRESS OF A HOUSEHOLDER (PRATIMĀS)
A true Jaina householder has to pass through eleven stages of spiritual progress, technically called pratima, in order to elevate his self and reach the highest stage of liberation. The word pratimā means a statue but Jaina thinkers conceived it as forming a regular progressing series. It is as Williams states "a sopānamārga, a ladder on each rung of which the aspirant layman is to rest for a number of months proportionate to its place on the list before he is fit to supplement and reinforce his achievement by the practice of the succeeding stage.”:}10 Thus pratimās are the ascending steps towards the ascetic conduct which itself is right conduct. There are eleven pratimas which are as follows:
1. The stage of right vision (darśana-pratima). 2. The stage of observing vows (vrata-pratimā). A Jaina house
holder should observe twelve vows consisting of five minor vows (aņuvrata), three gunavratas and four śikṣāyratas.
109. Gommatasāra, Jivakānia, 9-10. 110. R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, pp. 172-73.
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3. The stage of practising equanimity (sāmāyika-pratima). The
householder has to observe equanimity and practice concentration on self (sāmāyika) for forty-eight minutes three times
daily. 4. To observe weekly fast (poșadha-pratimā). 5. Avoiding the use of animate articles (sccittatyāgopratimā). One
must not use or eat uncooked roots, fruits, seeds, vegetables
etc. without getting them boiled. 6. Abstinence from eating at night (rātri-bhukta-tyāga-pratimā). 8. Complete celibacy abrahmavarjana-pratimā). 8. Renunciation of all wordly occupations and engagements
(ārambha-tyāga-pratimā). 9. Renunciation of all worldly concerns (parigrahatyāga
pratimā). 10-11. The stages of renunciation of the world and of becoming an
ascetic (uddişța-tyāga-pratimā and śramaņa-bhūta-pratimā).111 In the last pratimā the aspirant becomes pure-hearted, leads the life just like a muni or saint and aspires for the final emancipation. In Jainism the principle of non-injury to any living being (ahimsā) underlies every rule of right conduct. "Just as I do not like pain, so nobody else in the world likes pain” is the central rule of Jaina ethics. HARIBHADRA’S CONTRIBUTION TO YOGA
In the field of comparative study of yoga, Haribhadra's position is of great importance. He has contributed a great deal towards the development of yoga. He has written a number of books on the subject of yoga such as the Yogabindu, Yogad rştisamuccaya, Yogaviņśikā, and Yogaśataka. All these works occupy important position in the Jaina doctrine of yoga. I am indebted to my mentor, Professor L.M. Joshi, for explaining to me the significance of these works of Haribhadra from the stand-point of the comparative study of religion.
According to Haribhadra, all religious, ethical and spiritual tendencies that lead to elimination of worldly sufferings and are conducive to mokşa are called yoga. This yoga is of five types. I. cultivation of proper posture (sthāna), 2. correct pronunciation (ürņa), 3. right understanding of the meaning (artha), 4. concentration on the image of a tirthamkara or deity (ālambana) and 5. con
111.
Ratnakarandašrāvakācāra, 137-147; Caritra-pähuda, 22; Vasunandi$rāvakacāra, 4; Uvasag adasão, 70.
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centration on abstract and internal attributes of a tirthamkara or deity (anālambana). Of these five types, the first two-sthāna and urna- are known as bodily activities while the last three, artha, alambana and anālambana constitute internal activities performed by knowledge. 112
There is a further sub-division of each of these five types of yoga into iccha, pravstri, sthira and siddhiyoga. Here ichhāyoga means a will or interest in practising these activities; pravrtti consists in actual practice; where one achieves stability that is sthira yoga. Finally when one has perfect control and mastery over these activities it is called siddhiyo ga.113 Each of these activities is mastered in right manner in order to attain full course of yogic practice. In the beginning, one has to develop right posture, right utterance of the meaning, right concentration upon the image of tirthamkara and in the last concentration on the subtle attributes of the released saint.
For the proper practice of yogic activities, four ways are to be followed by different persons with different notions. One can practice either out of love or through devotion, either through the notion of scriptural duty or with disinterested actions.114 The first two ways lead to worldly prosperity while the last two aim at ultimate goal i.e. liberation.
The teachers and prophets of different religious systems declare that suffering is universal. No one can deny that worldly beings are in the possession of the cycle of worldly existence from time immemorial due to deep rooted darkness of delusion. Fredom from delusion or ignorance is the main aim of every spiritual system. Haribhadra points out that different systems express the same thing though in different forms. The self is given the name of puruṣa in Jainism and Vedānta; the name kşetravit is given in the Sāmkhya system and jñāna in Buddhism. The cause of bondage is avidyā according to the Vedānta and Buddhism, prakrti according to the Sāmkhya system and karma according to the Jaina faith Similarly the relation between self and non-self is described as bhrānti in the Vedānta and Buddhism, prakriti in the Samkhya system and bandha
112. Yogavimśikā, 1-2. In the Abhidhānacintamani (1.77) the term yoga has been
explained as the means of attaining moksa, it includes jñana, daišana and
căritra. 113. Ibid., 4. 114. Ibid., 18.
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in the Jaina system.115 This shows that there is no diversity among different systems but there is an underlying unity prevailing every where. A yogi must see unity in difference in order to attain selfrealization.
Haribhadra clearly states that a being experiences worldly existence due to its connection with what is other than being, and when this connection 'is cut off, the being experiences mokșa which is its very nature. 116 It is through yoga that a being dissociates itself from the non-being and shines in its real nature. Hence yoga is the factor that joins one to mokṣa and is a means to attaining it. So yoga is the effort, the technique, the way, the means, which connects the self with the transcendental being.
About the greatness of yoga Haribhadra says that yoga is like a 'desire-yielding tree' (kalpataru), and a 'wish-yielding jewel' (cintāmaņi), the chief among spiritual performances and it is conducive to mokşa. Yoga acts like a fire to destroy the seed of rebirth.112 As the impure gold is purified by fire, so impurity of self is purified by the fire of
yoga.118
Haribhadra describes five kinds of yoga viz. adhyātma, bhāvanā, samatā and vrttisamkşaya.110 By adhyātma he means understanding the nature of things with moral conduct and scriptural authority. It destroys evil tendencies and leads to the concentration of mind. The daily practice of bhāvanā with concentrated mind removes inauspicious acts and promotes noble mental state. The concentration of mind is called dhyāna which produces aversion to worldly existence. The fourth stage of yoga is called samatā or equanimity which destroys subtle types of karmas and effects a break in the continual existence. The last stage is known as vrttisamkşaya or the destruction of all types of karmas, cessation of all types of activities and attainment of mokșa, the permanent seat of bliss. 120
Adhyatma is the fundamental means to attain yoga. It enables one to realize true nature of things by following the right path without any negligence. It destroys evil deeds and produces concentration of mind with enlightenment. A person who is experiencing the latter
115. 116, 117. 118. 119. 120.
Yogabindu, 17-18. Ibid., 6. Ibid., 37-38. Ibid. 41. Ibid.. 31. lbid., 359-367.
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half of the last pudgalavarta and who is bhinnagranthi as well as a caritrin can acquire adhyatma.121 Those who maintain adhyatma have the feelings of friendliness, compassion, joy, neutrality in relation to all living beings. Adhyatma is the means to concentrate upon reality through the practice of five vows and cultivation of universal friendship, liking for goodness, kindness towards suffering people and neutrality to the wicked ones.
YOGADṚSTISAMUCCAYA
THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS
Let us understand man's ethical perfection by means of different types of yoga as described in Haribhadra's another work, the Yogadrştisamuccaya. The author distinguishes three type of yoga viz. yoga by intention (ichhāyoga), yoga by scripture (śāstrayoga) and yoga by self-exertion (samarthyayoga). The last is the highest type of yoga which is conducive to liberation.122 He further sub-divides the last type of yoga into two ways. The first is characterized by renunciation of all kṣāyopasāmika dharmas and the second is marked by a renunciation of all types of yoga (i.e. of all bodily, mental and vocal activities). Of these two types the former is practised at the time of second apūrvakaraṇa, i.e. in the ninth stage of spiritual development while the second occurs in the last stage of spiritual development which immediately results in the attainment of mokşa. The last one is treated as the highest yoga on account of its joining with mokşa i.e. attainment of final emancipation.123
The eight yoga view-points (yoga-dṛstis) which may be briefly discussed here are only the elaboration of the above three type of yoga.124 The eight yoga view-points are enumerated as mitrā, tārā, bală, dipra, sthira, käntä, prabha and para. These eight yoga viewpoints are to be compared with the type of light as is produced by the particles of straw-fire, cow-dung fire, wood-fire, the light of a lamp, the light of a jewel, the light of the star, the light of the sun and the moon.125 The first four yoga view-points are liable to degenerate as these are not attended by truthful knowledge but the last four are accompanied by the knowledge of truth and they are
11. Ibid., 72.
Yoga lrs tisamuccaya, 3-5.
Ibid.. 9-11.
122.
123,
124.
Ibid., 12.
125. Ibid., 13-15,
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superior to the first four and lead to the final goal.128
These eight dịştis can be compared to the eight-fold yoga of Patañjali's system, viz yama, niyama, āsana, prāņāyāma, pratyāhāra, dhāraņā, dhyāna and samādhi. Yet another set of eight stages is that of Bhagavaddatta who has enumerated eight desirable characteristics of mind, viz. adveșa, jijñāsā, suśrüşā, śravaņa, bodha, mīmāmsā, pratipatti and pravstti; a third set is that of Bhadanta Bhāskara who has described freedom from eight undesirable traits of mind viz. kheda, udvega, kşepa, utthāna, bhrānti, anyamud, ruk and āsamga.127 Haribhadra finds a parallelism among these three sets of eight spiritual stages, by showing that these exactly correspond to his eight drstis in his own proposed treatment.
In the first yoga view-point or drșți called mitrā, the self attains very little real understanding but it accumulates such seeds of yoga (yogabija) which are helpful to the cause of mokşa. The self develops high regard for the tirthamkaras and offers prayer to them. It also pays respect to the preceptors and genuine yogins. It has natural sympathy for the suffering people, absence of enmity towards great ones and fair dealing with all without any difference. 128
In the second dr sti called tārā, the understanding is somewhat clear and there is observance of certain rules as well. The self has intense liking for the discussions on yoga and develops respectful attitude towards pure yogins. The self now does not indulge in violent activities, aspires for greater progress and develops relation with superior personages. One reflects worldly existence in the form of misery and one tries earnestly to get rid of it.129
The third drsti known as balā reflects firm understanding attained with right posture. There is no intense curiosity to know the doctrinal truth. The evil thoughts vanish automatically and comfortable sitting postures are gained easily. i30
In the fourth stage of diprā, one gets control over breath and one listens to doctrinal discourses but cannot possess subtle type of understanding. Religion is considered dearer than life and the yogi is always eager to sacrifice his life for the sake of religion.181
126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131.
Ibid., 19-20. Ibid., 16. Ibid., 21-32. Ibid., 41-48. Ibid,, 49-50. Ibid., 57-58.
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The above four yoga view-points are developed by those persons who still lack in truthful knowledge (avedyasamvedyapada) 13? It is only the last four yoga view-points that are possessed with the knowledge of truth (vedyasamvedyapada). The truthful knowledge is attained with the help of noble persons and with the study of scriptural texts. 133 One must utilize one's understanding in a threefold way, viz. on the basis of scriptures, on the basis of his own logical understanding and on the basis of constant practice of yoga in order to realize ultimate truth.131
The fifth stage is called sthīrā; here the self is in constant touch with truth, its every action is accompanied by subtle type of understanding and it looks at the external world like a dream, a mirage, a juggler's trick and a fata morgana. The world appears as worthless and the self is now capable of subtle thinking and good conduct.135
In the stage of käntä the self is always attentive to religious truths derived from scriptures and wordly enjoyments have no attraction. This stage is always characterized by meaningful consequences resulting from a penetration into the nature of things.1
At the seventh stage known as prabha, the self develops the capacity of meditative concentration and enjoys the bliss born of meditation. Haribhadra asserts that this yoga view-point is differently stated by different systems as praśāntavähitä in the Samkhya system, visabhāga-parikşaya by the Buddhist School, sivavartman by the Saivas and dhruvadhvan by the Mahāvratikas.137
The last and the final stage is called para; here the self is totally free from all sorts of worldly attachments. It receives supreme type of meditative concentration (samādhi),138 The self now is free from all spiritual defilements, attains omniscience, seeks to bestow supreme benefits on others and reaches the highest point of yoga. Then the self is freed from all bodily, mental and vocal activities attains pure and perfect position called mokṣa,139
Haribhadra harmonizes all controversial points regarding omni
132. Ibid., 67.
133. Ibid., 85.
136
134.
Ibid., 101.
135.
Ibid., 154-156.
136. Ibid., 164-169. 137. Ibid., 171, 175-77.
138. Ibid., 178. 139. Ibid, 185-86.
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sciene (sarvajñatva) and final emancipation (mokşa), keeping in mind divergent views of different systems. He emphatically declares that ultimate truth is one. It cannot be many since the numerous omniscient persons cannot hold essentially different view-points. It is only one's own deluded view which discriminates between them in order to hold one in special reverence. He further says whosoever is an omniscient, he must be essentially one everywhere It is most essential that those who believe in omniscience must have due reverence for all omniscient persons. 140
The nature of liberation cannot by known to ordinary mortal due to its being supersensuous in character (atīndriya). But is can be realized through supreme power of yogic practices. There is no controversy when the truth has dawned. The difference is merely in terminology and not in point of essence. The realization of ultimate truth transcending all worldly sufferings is called nirvāņa. It is essentially one even if it may be designated by different names.141 Haribhadra holds that the ultimate truth is known as Sadāśiva, Parabrahman, Siddhātman, Tathatā etc. in different systems; though different in words yet the essence of all is the same. 142 This clearly shows that different synonyms for nirväna mean the same thing, even etymologically if critically studied. According to him all the different systems believe that the ultimate state of soul's existence is totally free from all desires, sufferings, diseases, activities and rebirth.143
Haribhadra suggests the reasons why there is difference of opinion among different systems though the experience of ultimate truth is one. The enlightened persons may have revealed the truth in accordance with the requirements of spiritual disciples. Their teachings exhibit diversity of types in relation to the level of understanding possessed by the disciples concerned. In other words we can say that their teaching is essentially one and the same though it appears different to different persons owing to good deeds performed by them in their previous births.144 The diversity in teaching of sages is due to the diversity in standpoints or to the diversity in periods of time or
140. 141. 142. 143. 144.
Yogadrstisam ucraya, 101-104. Ibid., 129. Ibid., 130. Ibid., 131. Ibid., 134-36.
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some other diversity of a kindred type. 145 So the teachings of enlightened souls must be understood in their proper context, meaning and intention. Even mere logical argument fails to produce right meanings of subtle revelations without thoroughly knowing their intentions. One must cultivate faith in spiritual assertions.
Haribhadra mentions four types of yogins viz. gotrayogin, kulayagin, pravrttackarayogin and siddyayogin. The yogins of the first type are born in the families of yogins; they are just for the sake of name, while kulayogin and pravsttacakrayogin possess meritorious qualities, and are entitled to perform yogic exercises and can attain liberation. The siddhayogins are those who have realzed the ultimate truth. 146
YOGAŚATAKA
For Haribhadra, the chief aim and object of yoga is to realize the ultimate truth. For this he distinguishes yoga from two standpoints i.e. real and practical. From the real standpoint, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct coming together in one soul constitute real yoga. (niscaya-yoga) because it unites the self to mokşa.147 Those things which lead to the final development of these three attributes. viz. right faith etc. form the practical yoga (vyavahāra-yoga) which includes respectful attitude towards yogins, desire for scriptural knowledge and the practices of good conduct etc.148 Here right knowledge means right understanding of the nature of things; right faith means true and final belief in the same, and right conduct stands for the right action accompanied by right knowledge and right faith. These three constitute the real and final path known as yoga.149
Each sādhaka in order to attain perfection must adopt spiritual discipline on the basis of purity of mind, body and speech which satisfies the criterion of yoga. He should live in the company of those who are superior in spiritual development and must remove his inner weaknesses like anger, hatred and attachment through penances, study of scriptures and devotion to the preceptor etc. These are the means of yoga to attain liberation.
145. Ibid., 138. 146. Ibid., 210-13. 147. Yogašataka, 20 148. Ibid., 4-5. 149, Ibid., 2-3.
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MEANING AND NATURE OF LIBERATION
The word mokşa is derived from the Sanskrit verbal root muc which literally means 'to release', 'to set free', 'to liberate' or 'to loosen'. The term mokşa means release, freedom, liberation and emancipation.150 It is a religious concept which means ultimate release or spiritual liberation from conditioned existence or samsāra. It is also a metaphysical concept which denotes the ultimate state of supreme peace and final beatitude. In the sacred literature of India a number of synonyms of mokşa are found e.g. mukti, siddhi, nirvāņa, amṛtattva, bodhi, vimukti, viśuddhi, kaivalya, etc. Mokşa is a name of spiritual perfection, of the final goal and of the end of sufferings. He who attains mokṣa does not come again to this world and he is above good and evil and always enjoys peace that passeth understanding.
It is well known that the word nirvana is a synonym of mokşa. Nirvana means eradication of all the passions (klesas) and craving (tṛṣṇā); it also means the attainment of immortality and ultimate freedom. Monier Monier-Williams explains the word nirväṇa as 'blown or put out, extinguished, calmed, quieted, tamed, lost, disappeared, blowing out, extinction of the flame of life, final emancipation from matter and reunion with the supreme spirit, absolute extinction or annihilation of individual existence or of all desires and passions, highest bliss or beatitude'. 151
In Buddhism the word nirvaṇa is employed often in connection with a burning fire or in connection with a burning lamp, and it is understood to mean extinction. According to Jainism nirvāņa denotes the final liberation (mokşa) of the self from all snares of karmas. It is not the annihilation of the self, but its rea lization in final beatitude or the blessedness. Nirvāņa implies complete separation from all those impurities which curtail and hinder the natural qualities of the self.
121
In the metaphysical sense Nirvana or mokṣa is the state of the essence of pure consciousness. It is the realization of the self by the self, making the self free from all types of karmas. It is the cessation of whole mass of suffering, where there is neither birth nor death, nor decay, nor disease, nor contact, nor separation, nor agreeable, nor disagreeable. It is the waning out of all evils in man, the end of
150. Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, pp. 834-35. 151. Ibid., p. 557.
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craving, the removal of greed, the separation of anger, the tearing out of all weakness in man. It is the end of the whole worldly process. It is the highest, eternal, pure, everlasting, blissful state.
Although we can to some extent state the nature of liberation in positive terms, yet it is very difficult to express the nature of liberation, since the words fail to describe it in any any way. As the Ācārāmgasūtra says:
"All sounds recoil thence, where speculation has no room, nor does the mind penetrate there. The liberated is not long, nor small, nor round, nor triangular, nor quadrangular, nor circular; he is not black, nor blue, nor red, nor green, nor white; neither of good nor bad smell; neither bitter nor pungent, nor astringent nor sweet; neither rough nor soft; neither heavy nor light; neither cold nor hot; neither harsh nor smooth; he is without body, without resurrection, without contact (of matter); he is not feminine nor masculine nor neuter; he perceives, he knows, but there is no analogy (whereby to know the nature of liberated soul); its essence is without form; there is no condition of the unconditioned. There is no sound, no colour, no smell, no taste, no touch -nothing of that kind.”’152
Thus the explanation of mokşa or nirvāņa is beyond our verbal expression. That is why wherever the term occurs in the scriptural texts of any cne of the systems of Indian religious tradition generally the negative expressions of the concept. The Jaina scriptural texts are also replete with such negative expressions. However, at certain places we may also trace out the positive expression of mokşa where it is defined as unobstructed, peaceful, auspcious and blissful, and which can only be attained by great sages. 153
The Yogasāra-prābhrta describes the nature of a siddha and states that self of a liberated being is devoid of any contact with the objective world, firm in its innate nature, free from all types of
kertions (passions) and is like a motionless sea. It is free from all types of defilements, is perfect and spotless, hence it is unobstructed and always rests in blissful state. 154 It is the complete deliverance
m the four destructive (ghāti) and four non-destructive (aghāti) coverings of karmas; karmas cannot be attached to the state of
152. A carāmgasutra, I. 5.6; Eng. tr, by Jacobi in SBE, vol. XXII, p. 52, 153. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXIII.83. 154. Yogasära-prabhta, VII, 28-29.
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perfect autonomy, purity, peace and bliss. The Tattvārthasütra tells us that liberation is freedom from all karmic matter, owing to the nonexitence of the cause of bondage and the shedding of all karmas.155
There are two kinds of mokşa, viz. bhāva-mokşa and dravya-moksa. The evolution or modification of the self which is the cause of the eradication of all karmas is called bhāva-moksa; the actual freedom from all kinds of karmas is known as dravya-moksa 156 By bhāva-mokşa is understood the liberation attained through the eradication of four kinds of ghātiya-karmas, namely imånāvaranīya, darśanāvaraniya, niya and antarāya. By dravya-moksa is meant the liberation attained through the destruction of last four kinds of aghāti-karmas viz, vedaniya, āyus, nāma, and gotra. So the perfect liberation is achieved when both kinds of karmas, namely ghāti and aghāti, are destroyed.
In accordance with dravya-mokşa and bhāva-mokșa, we have two points-of-view also, practical and real. From the practical point-ofview, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are attributed to the self, but from the real point of view, there is no difference in right faith, knowledge and conduct in the liberated self.157 NATURE OF LIBERATION
The nature of liberation can be realized only when the cause of bondage has been uprooted. Dissociation of karmas from the self and complete destruction of all karmas is liberation.
The author of the Gommațasāra states that the self which is free from eight types of karmas, has attained purity, bliss, and an everlasting state, is possessed of the eight qualities, viz. perfect knowlege, (kevalajñāna,), perfect perception (kevaladarśana), infinite power (anantavirya), perfect right belief (samyakrva), undisturbability (avyāvādha)), extreme fineness (sükşmatva), interpenetrability (ava gāhanatva), and neither of low nor of high family (agurulaghu). With the attainment of all that was to be attained, residing at the top of the universe, the self is called liberated self (siddha).158
Pujyapāda states about the nature of mokṣa in the introduction to his Sarvārthasiddhi that liberation is the extremely pure condition, when the self is free from body and all karmic matter, and
155. Tattvarthasūtra, X, 2 156. Dravyasamgraha, 37. 157. Samayasara, verse 7. 158. Gommatasära : jiyakanda, verse 68.
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attains unthinkable innate attributes of knowledge and unlimited bliss; this extremely pure state of the self is called liberation.159 It is further stated in the Samadhisataka that the liberated one is pure, independent, perfect, free, lord, indestructible, in the highest position, the greatest soul, the highest soul, glorified and conqueror.160 According to the Puruşarthasiddhyupaya the liberated being is always dirtless, rightly fixed in one's own nature, withont any hindrance, quite pure like the sky, the greatest self, enlightening itself in that highest position. He has done all that was to be done, knowing all the substances, being the greatest self, full of knowledge and bliss.101
A perfectly liberated being is totally free from all sorts of impediments and shines with his innate qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power. He dwells in complete quiescence. In reality, the existence of the self in its pure form for ever is mokṣa. It is a state of complete development of the self. The liberated jiva always remains in siddhaśila and never returns to samsära. As the seeds consumed by fire do not grow further, so when their seeds in the form of karmas are burnt up, the liberated beings do not return to the universe.162 They live unexcelled for all eternity endowed with unending and unsurpassed bliss.
The glory of siddhātman is unsurpassed in the three worlds. Those who attain nirvana possess the lustre of pure gold; they shine with effulgence which is the crest-jewel of three worlds.163 The Uttaradhyayanasutra speaking about eternity, immortality and perfection of nirvana or deliverence says that:
"It is safe, happy, eternal and quiet place in veiw of all, but difficult of approach, where there is no old age nor death, no pain nor disease. It is what is called nirvana or freedom from pain, or perfection which the great sages reach. Those sages who reach it are free from sorrows, they have put an end to the stream of existence.164
The perfected and liberated beings with perfect knowledge, bliss, peace, purity and harmony reside in siddhaśila, the abode of perfected souls.
159. Sarvärthasiddhi, Introduction, p. 1
160. Samadhisataka 6 (ed. by Brahmachari Sital Prasad, p. 28)
161. Puruşarthasiddhyupaya, 223-224.
162. Dasasrutask andha, 5-12.
163.
164.
Ratnakaran lasrāvakāṇāra, 134. Uttaradhyayanas utra, XXIII, 81-84.
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The nature of emancipated self is absolutely pure knowledge. The Samayas āra says:
“As the characteristic of the soul is to be always knowing, therefore the soul is certainly the subject of knowledge, the knower par excellence. It should be understood that knowledge
and the knower cannot be differentiated from each other."285 TYPES OF LIBERATED BEINGS
The Jaina tradition acknowledges different categories of enlightened beings. Thus the words arhat, tirthamkara, jina and siddha are referred to in the Jaina texts, standing for different types of beings who have attained enlightenment and liberation.
ARHAT
The word arhat is used commonly to mean a worthy one, a holy one, a sacred one, a seer, a sage, an illustrious one. According to one definition he who has destroyed the enemies (ari) or passions is called an arhat. In the texts of Sramanic systems he who has qualified himself for the attainment of nirvāna is described as an arhat. The word is common to both Buddhism and Jainism, and Buddha as well as Mahāvīra are called arhats. The Jainas and the Buddhists pay homage to all arhats.
An arhat is free from four destructive karmas (ghātikarmas). Although he is free from four destructive karmas, he still retains the body because of the persistence of four non-destructive karmas (aghāti karmas). With the annihilation of four destructive karmas, an arhat attains infinite knowledge,infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power. The Paramātmaprakaśa states that a self which has broken all kinds of hindering thoughts, dwells on the way to the status of the supreme self and whose four destructive karmas are eradicated, is called an arhat.166 An arhat is also possessed of thirty-four kinds of extraordinary glories called atiśayas, such as extraordinary powers of body, of knowledge, of vision, of energy etc. peculiar to an arhat. He is devoid of eighteen kinds of defects such as hunger, thirst, fear, aversion, attachment, illusion, anxiety, old age, disease, death, sorrow, pride, etc. 107
165. 166. 167.
Samayasāra, verse 403 (ed. by A. Chakravarti, p. 232). Paramātmaprakasa by Yogindudeva, II. 195; Dravyasamgraha, 50. Niyamasāra, verses 5-7.
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According to Jainism, an arhat is an ideal saint, a supreme teacher and an omniscient self. Those who are fully devoted to him get emancipation. His presence is supremely enlightening. He is an embodiment of perfect knowledge, bliss, power and peace. By virtue of his self-realization, sublime concentration and formulation of the triple path of right faith, knowledge and conduct, he is equal towards friends and foes, pain and pleasure, blame and fame, life and death, sand and gold. He is beyond attachment and aversion and he is totally disinterested and dispassionate.168
The arhats are sometimes considered as making two categories of tirthamkara and non-tīrthamkara or ordinary kevalin. The difference between ordinary kayalin and a tirthamkara is that the tirthamkara preaches and propagates the dharma, the law, and forms a community (samgha) of monks,nuns, laymen and laywornen in order to show the right path, the path to attain mokşa, whereas the ordinary kevalin cannot be the propounder of a religious faith. It is due to the attain ment of super-divine powers that a tirthamkara becomes the founder or reviver of a religious faith for a considerable period for the suffering humanity. The ordinary omniscient one lacks all those superdivine powers but enjoys the sublimity of perfect knowledge.
The state of a jīvanmukta can be compared to that of an arhat or tirthamkara or jina who is an embodied paramātman, whereas the siddha state is the state of disembodied liberation. 169
TIRTHAMKARA
This is a compound word made of tirtha, ford, bridge or the religious path, and kara, maker or builder. In other words, tirthamkara, (tirthakara, titthagara) means a saint who makes a bridge to cross over the ocean of transmigratory existences. The Jaina tradition affirms the existence of twenty-four tirthamkaras from Ķsabha to Mahāvīra. This word seems to be peculiar to Jainism and it is understood to mean a Teacher or revealer of the truths of the Jaina faith. The word tirtha is also understood to mean a holy community or place. The Jaina tirtha or samgha comprises four categories of members : monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. They follow the teachings of the tirthamkara, pray to him, worship him and praise him, considering him a paragon of religious perfection.
168. Pravacanasara, I. 13 and the comments of Amstacandra. 169. Karttikeyānuprekşa, 198.
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A tirthamkara is considered to be a spiritual leader, a reviver, an inspirer, and a founder of the Jaina religious faith. He is a symbol of all that is good and great, noble and pure, moral and virtuous. He does not, in any way, share the responsibility of creating, preserving, supporting and destroying the world. He does not bestow any favour or grace on any individual. He is the embodiment of right knowledge, and he imparts that knowledge to all persons. He is the best of all, and those who know him overcome grief and sorrow.
In the Jaina texts the words jina, arhat and tirthamkara are used as synonyms. They denote a fully enlightened being who has achieved perfect knowledge of supreme truth and is liberated from all passions; he reveals to others the path to liberation.
A tirthamkara or an arhat has one thousand and eight synonyms, e.g. vitaräga, sarvajña, jina, kevalin, buddha, mukta etc. There is a text called Jinasahasranama170 composed by Aśādhara, which mentions 1008 names of Jina. Several of the names listed in this text are already found in the list of Buddha's names in the Mahāvyutpatti. According to a Jaina tradition,11 gods and goddesses perform five great ceremonies when a being (a tirthamkara) is conceived, when he is born, when he takes initiation (diksā), when he attains perfect knowledge, and at the last stage of attaining liberation (nirvāņa). These five great ceremonies are technically known in Jainism as pañca-mahākalyānaka.
In fact arhat, kevali, tirthamkara, buddha and siddha do not differ in their spiritual experience, but in certain outward appearances and circumstances. They all are possessed of supreme knowledge and have attained ultimate goal.172 As Haribhadra points out, since the liberated being is differently called as mukta, buddha or arhat, but ultimately he is the same as the Supreme Self or Lord possessed of supremacy, the difference is only that of terminology. 173
SIDDHA
When the self is completely free from all types of karmic particles, goes to the top of the universe, knows all, perceives all, and enjoys transcendental bliss forever, it is called perfect and liberated being (siddha).174 It possesses eight great attributes, such as perfect know
170. Edited by Hiralal Jain (jñānapitha, Varanasi). 171. Jainendrasiddhantakośa by Jinendra Varņi, Part II, p. 372. 172. See L.M. Joshi. Facets of Jaina Religiousness, pp. 54-58. 173. Yogabindu, 302. 174. Pañcastikāyasāra, 28.
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ledge, perfect perception, perfect right visioh, infinite power, undisturbability, extreme fineness, interpenetrability and is neither heavy nor light.175
The self that attains siddhahood rises up to the summit of the universe called siddhasilā. The abode of the siddha is that place where there is no birth, death, old age, fear, attachment, desire, sorrow and disease etc.178 The category of cause and effect does not apply to siddhahood because a siddha is neither the product of anyi hing nor produces anything. Negatively speaking, there is neither pain nor pleasure, neither old age nor death, neither good nor bad karmas, nor antyhing which causees obstruction, calamity, delusion, sorrow, desire and hunger, etc. Positively speaking, there is perfect knowledge, intuition, bliss, power, immaterial existence, potency and formlessness. 177
It is impossible to express the nature of siddha. The Acārāmgasūtra declares :
"All sounds recoil thence where speculation has no room, nor does the mind penetrate there. The liberated is without body, without resurrection, without contact of matter, he is not feminine nor masculine nor neuter, he perceives, he knows, but there is no analogy; its essence is without form; there is no condition of the
unconditioned."'178 The definition of a siddha is without any category; but he always enjoys an endless and an unbroken peace, knowledge, power and bliss. The attainment of siddhahood means the attainment of highest state of sanctification where there is total absence of the miseries of worldly existence. It is the state of perfect beatitude and final deliverance from the fetters of karmas, and total extinction of human passions and ignorance.
Every liberated being is equal in capacity of knowledge and all other attributes, but difference may be attributed in respect of their attainment of liberation considered from the standpoint of space, thought-activity, time, enumeration, community and gender etc. These differences are based on fifteen ways of accomplishing siddhahood. The are as follows:
1. Tirthasiddha, he who attains liberation as a member of the
175. Niyamasāra, 72; Gommatasära : Jivakanda, 68. . 176. Gommațasāra : Jivakanla, 152; Niyamasāra, 178.
152: Niyamasara, 178.
. 177. Niyamasara, 178-181. 178. Acaramgasūtra, 1. 5. 6 (abridged). See above fn. 152.
.
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four-fold community founded by a tīrthamkara is called a tirthasiddha.
2. Atirthasiddha, a liberated being outside the four-fold community is known as atirthasiddha.
3. Tirthamkarasiddha, he who has been a tirthamkara and has attained liberation is called a tirthamkarasiddha.
4. Atirthamkarasiddha, he who is not a tīrthamkara but an ordinary being attaining liberation is known as atirthamkarasiddha.
5. Svayambuddhasiddha, one who gets siddhahood by his own knowledge, intuition, and efforts is proclaimed as svayambuddhasiddha.
6. Pratyekabuddhasiddha, a being who attains liberation independently and without receiving instruction from any one else is called pratyekabuddhasiddha. The Buddhist tradition also recognises such a type of siddhahood or buddhahood. 7. Buddhabodhitasiddha, a being who gets enlightenment and becomes siddha through the teachings of an awakened teacher or a saint is known as buddhabodhitasiddha.
8. Strilimgasiddha, a woman who has become siddha.
9. Puruşalimgasiddha, a man who has become siddha.
10. Napumsakalimgasiddha, neuters who have become siddh1. 11. Svalimgasiddha, a being who adopts the usual path as described in the scriptures and becomes siddha is called svalimgasiddha.
12. Anyalimgasiddha, a being who attains liberation while following any other creed is called anyalimgasiddha.
13. Gṛhalimgasiddha, a being who attains liberation while leading the conduct of a householder.
14. Ekasiddha, a being who gets siddhahood in one samaya, kāla or time is called ekasiddha.
one
15. Anekasiddha, many beings may get siddhahood at samaya, kala or time, they are known as anekasiddha. In one samaya, at least two beings and at the most one hundred and eight beings can attain siddho hoad.
In Jainism highest achievement is attributed to the jiva or self. It has an inherent capacity to attain liberation. Self associated with ignorance is attached to karmic particles and thus makes the transmigratory existence; when it cuts the knot of ignorance and annihilates all karmic particles it becomes a siddha. The aspiring
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self does not receive any favour, privilege or immunity from an arhat or a siddha but attains perfection through its own efforts and knowledge. As A.N. Upadhye remarks :
“Neither arhat nor siddha has on him the responsibility of creating, supporting and destroying the world. The aspirants receive no boons, no favours and no cures from him by way of gifts from divinity. The aspiring souls pray to him, worship him and meditate on him as an example, as a model, as an ideal that they too might reach the same condition.”:179
In conclusion, we may sum up the distinguishing features of a siddha in the following lines :
1. The self on being liberated from the snares of karmas goes
to the top of the universe called siddhašilā where it reaches within one samaya. It cannot go beyond that siddhasilā due
to non-existence of dharmāstikāya, the condition of motion. 2. Like the flame of fire or the upward movement of castor
seed, the liberated self goes with the upward motion. It
never returns again to the transmigratory existence. 3. Every liberated self maintains its own individuality through
all eternity. It means that Jainism does not hold that self
is absorbed in the absolute brahman. 4. A liberated self occupies space which is two-thirds of its
last body. 5. Of the four states of existence, only human state (gati) can
attain liberation. 6. A being gets enlightenment and liberation only through pure
meditation (sukla-dhyana). He cannot be perceived by the
senses or known by scriptural study. 7. The liberated being is free from merit and demerit. He is an
embodiment of infinite knowledge, intuition, bliss and power.
179. AN. Upadhye, Paramātmaprakaba, Introduction p. 34. See L.M. Joshi's
comments on arhats and siddhas in Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light, pp. 53-60
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Brahmanism is one of the oldest living religions of the world. The literary tradition of this religion goes back to the Rgveda which is believed to be one of the oldest sacred books now extant in the world. Some modern scholars have referred to Brāhmanical religion as 'Hinduism'. Since we are dealing here with its ancient phase, we have preferred to call it Brāhmanism or the Brāhmanical religion. In this chapter we shall briefly trace the development of Brāhmanical soteriology.
WORSHIP OF MANY GODS
The Vedic people worshipped a large number of gods. Propitiation of gods was the main feature of their religion. The Vedic gods can be studied into three groups according to the regions in which they reside ::
The gods living in heaven (dyuloka) : they are Dyaus, Surya, Savits, Puşan, Vişņu, Varuņa, Mitra, Adityas, Aśvins and Uşas (Dawn). All these are the shining gods par excellence.
The gods dwelling in intermediary region (antarikşaloka) : Indra, Vāyu, Maruts, Rudra, Parjanya, etc., are the gods of intermediary space. The gods residing in terrestrial sphere (bhürloka): Agni, Bphaspati, Soma, the Sea and the Rivers, etc., are the earthly gods. Among them Agni is the most powerful god.
Apart from these three divisions, there are other minor gods like Prajāpati, Gandharvas, Viśvakarman and the deities of the trees, mountains, meadows, etc.
In each of the three different regions, there is one chief ruling god : Sürya is the ruling god of heavenly region, Indra is the ruling god of intermediary space, and Agni is the ruling god of earth. These three gods were multiplied into thirty-three gods, there being eleven gods in each sphere. Further, these thirty-three gods were augmented
1.
Taittiriya Samhita, 1. 4.10; Ķgveda, I. 139.11.
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again into three thousand three hundred and thirty-nine gods, as we are told in the Rgveda (III 9.9). 2
The sun god has been presented as the great bestower of long life, health, wealth, prosperity and energy. The Vedic brāhmanas prayed to this god in the following words : 'We meditate upon the glorious effulgence of that Savit;, may He direct our intellects towards Him.'3 A. B. Keith states that:
“The chief feat of Sarya is his shinning for the world, for gods, and men : he smites away the darkness and triumphs over the powers of darkness and witches, he prolongs the lives of men and drives away sickness, disease and evil dreams."
According to the Rgveda, Indra is the great aerial god having supreme valour, great size and strength. All the other gods of his region yield to his power and strength. He pervades the air, rain and thunder. He can assume many forms and He is the warrior-king among gods.
Varuņa represents the sky and is the god of the laws of nature. Several scholars have compared the nature of Varuņa with that of Uranos. He has fixed the laws of physical universe which no one can upset. The heaven and the earth are held apart by the order (rta) of Varuņa. Through his orders the sun and moon shine, the stars move regularly and the rivers flow into the ocean without over filling it. He is described as omniscient and is often associated with Mitra. Both of them send rains from sky. He is the maker of universal order and moral governor and gives good to the wise and punishment to the wicked. So the Vedic gods are friendly, to the good men and hostile to the wicked and evil minded people.
The god Agni is second only to Indra. He is the personification of the sacrificial fire. He is the priest of gods and the best bestower of gifts. The worship of Agni was a very important feature of the life of Vedic people as they always desired health, wealth, sons and even immortality through offerings of ghee, wood, etc., to Agni. It has been suggested that Agni has three forms : "terrestrial as fire, atmospheric as lightening, and celestial as the sun."
The Vedic gods are majestic, powerful and kind towards worshippers. The Vedic people offered sacrifices to all these gods to seek
2. 3. 4.
The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. I, p. 188. Rgveda, III. 62.10; The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. I, p. 190. A B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda, pp. 104-5.
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133 long life, wealth, prosperity happiness, freedom from diseases and all other benefits. They got their desires fulfilled by pleasing gods through yajña, prayers, by reciting hymns in praise of their favourite deities. The Vedic gods are more like human beings, but they have perfect limbs and beautiful bodies. They almost attentively listen to the prayers of and bestow favours and good luck upon their worshippers.
The fact that the early Vedic people worshipped a large number of gods has been referred to by modern scholars as a form of polytheism. In some passages of the Vedic texts, some scholars have seen the seed of monotheism or belief in one supreme divinity. The famous Rgvedic line, 'ek am sat viprā bahudhā vadanti', i.e., 'truth is one, the wise call it by different names' is often cited as an evidence for this view. Another hymn in the same text eulogises the concept of Viśvadevas. Towards the end of Vedic period especially in the early Upanişads, we find the idea of one ultimate reality emerging out of Vedic and non-Vedic speculations. This is known as the doctrine of brahman or ātman. RTA AND DHARMAN
The Vedic texts sefer to the concept of rta which is understood to mean 'cosmic order,' 'law' or 'truth'. According to R.C. Zaehner, “the term rtu is a designation of the cosmic order on which human order, cthics and social behaviour depend." He further points out that "it is the law that governs the universe, the law that operates in ritual and sacrifice and finally the moral law that with equal impartiality regulates the conduct of men." Ķia is the embodiment of truth, it symbolises righteous deeds and administrates positive actions. The sun, the moon, the stars, the rivers, etc., obey the commands of rta. All gods and men must obey the law of rta, that is why it is called the father of all. S. Radhakrishnan states, “Řta furnishes us with a standard of morality. It is the universal essence of things. It is the satya or the truth of things."
In the Rgveda, the word dharman means law. It is the principle of life, rituals, physical as well as psychical phenomena. Řta denotes the
5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Ķgveda, X. 146. Ibid., III, 55. R.C. Zaehner, Hinduism, p. 18. Ibid., p. 30. S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, pp. 109-110.
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law, unity and righteousness underlying the dharmans (laws) of the universe. The gods as well as the holy men obey the laws of sta. VEDIC SACRIFICES (YAJÑA)
The Vedic people worshipped gods through sacrifices. The gods accepted as gifts food, drinks, fruits, milk, butter, honey and grain etc., offered to them in sacrifices (yajña); soma, surā (wine) and honey were also offered to the deities. At the end of the sacrifices the fees (dakşiņā) consisting of gold, silver, cattle, horses, grains, etc., were given to the priests. As the gods were superior to human beings, so the sacrifices were performed by men to please them and to communicate and cultivate friendship with them.
In the beginning Vedic people offered simple prayers to the gods. They sang hymns in praise of gods. Gradually the cult of sacrifices seems to have developed. As Radhakrishnan states, “sacrifices represent the second stage of the Vedic religion. In the first it was simple prayer." He quotes the Parāśarasmrti in which the following “meditation in krtayuga, sacrifices in the tretā, worship in the dvāpara, praises and prayers in kali.” He further compares this view with that of the Vişnupurāņa which says that "the rules of sacrifices were formulated in the tretāyuga."'10
The Rgveda shows an advanced stage of the development of the sacrificial ritualism. The Vedic rituals were performed with the help of a priest. Hymns in praise of gods were recited and articles such as grain, milk, butter, etc., were offered. Animals such as goats, sheep, etc., were also offered in Vedic sacrifices. Besides gods, ancestors and dead fathers were also honoured through offerings. It has been suggested by several scholars that the sacrificial religion of the Vedic people was largely of materialistic character.
VEDIC ESCHATOLOGY
The early Vedic eschatological beliefs were of a primitive type. The doctrine of rebirth, which later on became central to all systems of Indian thought, was unknown to old Vedic people. The Satapatha Brāhmaṇa seems to refer to belief in life after death. The priests believed that immortality was attainable through progeny and sacrifices. There was as yet no idea of spirtual liberation or release. At one place in the ægveda the breath (prāna) of a dead man is called
10.
Ibid., pp. 107-108.
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upon to go to the wind and his eyes to the sun. It was believed that fire (agni) transported the life to the other world or heaven. The fathers, it was believed, enjoyed life with Yama in the highest heaven. Those who make liberal offerings in sacrifices, and those who practice tapas, go to heaven. The gods dwell in heaven. Heavenly life is full of joys. The Vedic conception of heaven was that of a glorified world of material joys; not only gods but the fathers (pitrs) also dwell in heaven. The Vedic people also believed that while the good men went to heaven, the evil doers went into the abyss of darkness. The idea of the sufferings of hell does not seem to have been known during the old Vedic period. The great doctrine of the immortality of the self appeared first in the early Upanişads.11 THE EARLY UPANIŞADIC IDEAS
With the emergence of Upanişads, we are confronted with a new ideology. Although the Upanişads continue the old Vedic tradition in some respects, they offer new interpretations of old concepts and myths, and introduce some of the great ideas which later on became the central doctrines of India's perennial philosophy. On the one hand, the Upanisads offer a symbolical interpretation of sacrifice, on the other hand several Upanisadic passages criticise and I sacrificial ritualism altogether. Thus the Mundaka-Upanişad refers to the sacrificial path as an insecure boat,
“But frail, in truth, are those boats, the sacrifices, the eighteen, in which this lower ceremonial has been told. Fools who praise this as the highest good, are subject again and again to old age and death."'12
At another place this text attacks the sacrificial theologians and compares them with blind people.
“Fools dwelling in darkness, wise in their own conceit, and puffed up with vain knowledge, go round and round staggering to and fro, like blind men led by the blind."'18
The Upanișadic thinkers were chiefly concerned with the supremacy of the knowledge of brahman and therefore they disapproved the way of ritualism leading to heavenly enjoyments. The same text states that :
11. Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, An Introduction to Indian Religions, pp. 37-39. 12. Mundaka Upaniş ad, I. ii. 7. Tr. by Max Müller, 13. Ibid., I. ii. 8. Tr. by Max Müller.
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"Considering sacrifice and good works as the best, these fools know no higher good, and having enjoyed (their reward) on the height of heaven gained by good works, they enter again this world or a lower one. Commenting on the Upanisadic ideas Dr. L.M. Joshi states:
14
"In the Upanisads, the polytheism of the Vedas was replaced by monotheism and nondualism. Sacrifices were replaced by ethical virtue and mere ritualism by quest for knowledge and mystical revelation."15
In the Katha Upanisad, the self (ätman) is considered to be the absolute reality. We are told that the objects are the roads, the body is the chariot, the senses are the horses, the intellect (buddhi) the charioteer, the mind the reins, the ego is the enjoyer and the atman is the Lord sitting in the chariot.10
Thus the Upanisadic thinkers concentrated on the inner self (atman) in order to attain peace, freedom and bliss. They reinterpreted Vedic rituals and sacrifices in an allegorical manner. They taught that all sacrifices are useful only if a man is true to his inner-self. The way of rituals and ceremonies leading to the joys of heavens was discarded by them. Life itself was viewed as a sacrifice. They insisted upon spiritual knowledge, meditation on the self and practice of moral conduct for the realization of the highest bliss.
This anti-sacrificial tendency displayed by some Upanisadic thinkers has been traced to the impact of the thoughts of munis and sramanas. The doctrine of karma and rebirth, the highest ideal of liberation and the practice of dhyana and yoga etc., were thus of non-Vedic and non-Brahmanical origin. These ideas and practices are not known to older Vedic texts. They appear rather suddenly in the Upanisads. The Upanisadic thinkers not only offered a new meaning of Vedic rituals and sacrifices, they also homologized Śramanic ideas. They emphasized spiritual knowledge and moral conduct for knowing the self but they remained within the framework of Vedic tradition. The doctrines of early Upanisads represent a fusion of Śramanic as well as Brahmanic traditions. Dr L.M. Joshi states:
"The Upanisadic teachers were influenced by non-Vedic ascetic teachers, munis and framanas, and they attempted to
Ibid., I. ii. 19. Tr. by Max Müller.
Harbans Singh and L.M. Joshi, op. cit., p. 49.
14. 15.
16. Katha Upanisad, I. iii. 3-4.
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harmonize the two ideologies from the stand-point of their own Vedic tradition, criticizing or reinterpreting several of their older concepts and practices.''17
KARMA AND TRANSMIGRATION
The Upanişads teach the moral doctrine of karma and the notion of rebirth or transmigration, the idea of unity of atman and brahmon, the conceptions of creation of the world and the ways to selfrealization through the practice of moral and spiritual virtues : dhyāna and yoga, jñāna and karma. The Upanişads also deal with the mystic experiences of the ancient sages and with the ideal of man's final beatitude and perfection of knowledge.
Regarding the fundamental question of what happens to the self when it leaves the body, whether it lives after death or does not live, the Katha Upanişad states that "Some enter the womb in order to have a body, as organic beings, others go into inorganic matter, according to their work and according to their knowledge.”:18 The theory of rebirth goes along with the moral law of karma which implies that chance, fate or the grace of God cannot change the destiny of mankind but that one has to reap the fruits-good or bad -according to the nature of one's deed; as you sow, so you must reap.
In the Brhadāranyaka Upanişad, it is stated that after death the different parts of a person return to different parts of nature from whence they came, that even his soul (atman) goes into space and that only his karma or effect of work remains over. It is only karma that survives death. Artabhāga and Yājñavalkya discussed together the mystery of karma. What they said was karma (action), what they praised was karma. Verily one becomes good by good action, bad by bad action. 19
There is considerable moral element in the Upanisadic doctrine of karma. The doer of good becomes good. The doer of evil becomes evil. One becomes virtuous by virtuous action, bad by bad action. Therefore it is said,
“Man here is formed entirely out of desire, and according to his desire is his resolve, and according to his resolve he performs
17. 18. 19.
L.M. Joshi, Aspects of Buddhism in Indian History, p. 18. Katha Upanişa:1, 11. 5. 7. Tr, by Max Müller. Brha.läranyaka Upaniş ad, 1I1. 2.13.
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the action, and according to the performance of the action is his
destiny."20 The idea of transmigration of self is illustrated in the following manner :
"As a goldsmith, taking a piece of gold, turns it into another, newer and more beautiful shape, so does this self, after having thrown off this body and dispelled all ignorance, make unto himself another, newer and more beautiful shape, whether it be like the Fathers, or like the Gandharvas, or like the Devas, or like Prajāpati, or like Brahman, or like other beings."21
Man is bound in the chain of birth and death by his own selfish actions. Every little thought or action has its effect on the destiny of man. The Upanişadic thinkers believed that the thoughts and deeds of one earthly life will have the fruition in the next life.
“Those whose conduct has been good, will quickly attain some good birth, the birth of a brāhmaṇa, or a kșatriya, or a vaiśya. But those whose conduct has been evil, will quickly attain an evil birth, the birth of a dog, or a hog, or a candāla."22
Those who know the reality of karma and rebirth, for them there is no return and they attain liberation. There are several passages in many Upanişads which emphasize the supremacy of knowledge. Thus for example :
"When that god is known, all fetters fall off, sufferings are destroyed, and birth and death cease. From meditating on him there arises, on the dissolution of the body, the third state, that of universal lordship; but he only who is alone, is satisfied.”23
The Mundaka-Upanisad states: "The fetter of the heart is broken. all doubts are solved, all his works (and their effects) perish when He has been beheld who is high and low (cause and effect).”24 Those who cultivate faith, knowledge and good conduct, they attain liberation. It is stated in the Praśna-Upanişad, “those who have sought the self by penance, abstinence, faith and knowledge .... they do not
20. Ibid., IV. 4. 5; see M. Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, vol. I,
p. 259. 21. Brhadāraṇyaka Upaniş ad, IV.4.4.
Chandogya Upanişad, V. 10. 7. 23. Svetāśvatara Upanişad, 1. 11. 24. Munlaka Upanisad, II. 2. 8.
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return.25 Radhakrishnan remarks:
"Karma is a blind unconscious principle governing the whole universe. It is not subject to the control even of God... It is an expression of the nature of reality. It renders impossible any arbitrary interference with moral evolution . . . . there is no doctrine that is so valuable in life and conduct as the karma theory. Whatever happens to us in this life we have to submit in meek resignation, for it is the result of our past doings. Yet the future is in our power, and we can work with hope and confidence, karma inspires hope for the future and resignation to the past."'28
THE NOTION OF BRAHMAN
The chief doctrine of the Upanisads centres round the conception of brahman. It is described as the ultimate reality, the essence of all that exists. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka-Upaniṣad, Yājñavalkya in the course of his dialogue with Śakalya reduces several thousand gods to one and that one is called brahman. And brahman is described as knowledge and bliss. 27 In the Chandogya-Upanisad, brahman is identified with breath, pleasure and ether.28 In the Taittiriya-Upaniṣad, we read the following:
"That from whence these beings are born, that by which, when born, they live, that into which they enter at their death, try to know that. That is brahman."29
139
Brahman is thus the source of creation. Brahman is frequently identified with atman. The Bṛhadaranyaka Upanisad illustrates the notion of creation out of atman in the following words:
"As a spider comes out with its thread, or as small sparks come forth from fire, thus do all senses, all worlds, all devas, all beings come forth from self.""30
The brahman or ātman is called the truth of truths, the light of lights, the reality of realities. Often it is described negatively as when Yajnavalkya points out that it is unknowable, unthinkable and
Praśna Upanisad, I. 10.
S. Radhakrishnan, op. cit., vol. I. pp. 248-9. Bṛhadaranyaka Upanisad, III. 9. 1.
25.
26.
27.
28. Chandogya Upaniṣad, IV 10. 5.
29.
Taittiriya Upanisad, III 1; Max Müller's translation. Bṛhadaranyaka Upanisad, II. 2. 20; Max Müller's translation.
30.
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unspeakable. The words neti neti indicate that the self is unlike anything. It is sui-generis. In some passages its transcendence is stressed while in others its immanence is taught. In the Chandogya Upanişad, Uddālaka Aruņi tells his son Svetaketu that all that exists has its self in That (tat). That is True; "That is the Self, and thou, O Śvetaketu, art That."'31
In the Brhadāraṇyaka Upanişad, Yājõavalkya tells Gārgi, that brahman is imperishable (ak şara).
"It is not coarse, not fine, not short, not long, not glowing (like fire), not adhesive (like water), without shadow and without darkness, without air and without space, without stickiness, without taste, without odour, without eye, without ear, without voice, without wind, without energy, without breath, without mouth, without measure, without inside and without outside. It
consumes nothingsoever, nonesoever consumes it."92 This conception is viewed as that of the attributeless reality (nirguņa brahman).
Several passages describe brahman in positive terms. The brahman is endowed with māyā. This word in the Upanişads means a special mysterious power of God. Here it does not mean illusion or false appearance. This latter meaning of māyā is to be found first in the Mahāyāna thought and then in the Sāmkara-Vedānta. But in the Vedic texts, māyā is an attribute or a property of brahman endowed with which He becomes the creator and sustainer of the world. Brahman as the creator is known as īśvara. The i śa-Upanişad declares that this whole world is engulfed by the Lord (iśa). Brahman as saguna is viewed as a Personal God. He is omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent. All beings issue forth from Him and return to Him. The Mundaka Upanişad states : :
"That heavenly person is without body, he is both without and within, not produced, without breath and without mind, pure, higher than the high, imperishable. From him (when entering on creation) is born breath, mind, and all organs of sense, ether, air, light, water, and the earth, the support of all. Fire (the sky) is his head, his eyes the sun and the moon, the quarters his ears, his speech the Vedas disclosed, the wind his breath, his heart the universe, from his feet came the earth, he is indeed the inner-self
31. 32.
Chandogya Upanişad, VI. 16, 2. Brhadaranyaka Upanişad, III. 8. 8. R. E. Hume's translation.
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of all things."33
The Upanisadic doctrine of brahman contains diverse ideas. Scholars have found seeds of theism, monism and pantheism in the Upanişads. Later commentators advanced conflicting interpretations of Upanişadic ideas and built different systems of Vedānta which ran counter to each other. Thus Šamkara's Advaita-Vedānta was sought to be based upon the Upanişads as much as the Visişta-Advaita of Rāmānuja. It has to be pointed out here that the doctrine of identity of brahman and ārman is taught only in some passages of the Upanisads. A large number of Upanisadic passages seem to expound a dualistic doctrine. Thus the Maitrāyanīya Upanişad says ;
"There are two forms of brahman, time and non-time. That which was before the (existence of the) sun is non-time and has no parts. That which had its beginning from the sun is time and
has parts."84 It has been pointed out by some scholars that the Upanişads made a distinction between brahman in itself and brahman in the universe, the transcendent beyond manifestation and the transcendent in manifestation, the self pure and essential and the self in the individual selves. 35 THE UPANISADIC PATH TO LIBERATION
The Upanişads have outlined not only the ultimate goal of human religiousness, they have also expounded pathways to its realization. As we have pointed out earlier, the early Upanişads contain diverse doctrines and practices. Accordingly we find that the ultimate goal can be realized by more than one path. It is obvious that they reject the sacrificial and ritualistic way of earlier Vedic texts. In some passages of the Upanişads knowledge of ātman or brahman is extolled, while in others knowledge of the unity of the ultimate ground of the universe is praised. Thus knowledge of the highest kind (jñāna) seenis to be the one standard pathway to the ultimate goal. But along with the importance of knowledge, the Upanişads also emphasized good and meritorious actions, purity, faith, and sense-control. These elements of yogic culture remind us of the path chosen by the śramaņas and munis. The importance of meditation in the Upanis adic scheme of liberation cannot be under-estimated. In one or two places
33. Mundaka Upaniş ad, II. I. 2-4. 34. Maitrāyanîya Upanis ad, VI. 15. Max Müller's translation. 35. S. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 38.
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in the early Upanisads we find that devotion (bhakti) to God and His grace (prasāda) are also considered essential for mukti. In the following pages we will elaborate these points.
The Upanisads make a clear distinction between knowledge (vidyā) and ignorance (avidyā). The people in general live in ignornce and do not know the real truth. The Katha Upanisad, for example, ridicules the ignorant worldlings in the following words:
"Those abiding in the midst of ignorance, self-wise, thinking themselves learned, running hither and thither, go around deluded, like blind men led by one who is himself blind."36
The doctrine of two types of knowledge is set forth in the Mundaka-Upanisad. The knowledge of the four Vedas and six Vedāngas is called the lower (apară) knowledge. The higher (para) knowledge is described as that whereby the Imperishable (akṣara) is known.37 This shows that all the other kinds of knowledge such as scientific, literary, ritualistic, etc., are inferior to the knowledge of the ultimate reality. The Upanisads therefore eulogise the knowledge of brahmun alone. He who knows the braman, declares a text, becomes identical with brahman.38
From the above statements it follows that knowledge is the chief means of liberation. Knowledge of brahman itself constitutes liberation. As has been observed by Paul Deussen, "Emancipation is not to be regarded as becoming something which previously had no existence."39 It is the recovery of lost identity of the individual self and Universal Self, the discovery of an already existing real fact. To quote Paul Deussen again :
"Deliverance is not effected by the knowledge of the ätman, but it consists in this knowledge; it is not a consequence of the knowledge of the atman, but this knowledge is itself already deliverance in all its fullness."'40
Liberation means the knowledge of the Absolute Reality. This Reality, say the Upanisadic philosophers, is within. He who has a vision of brahman, becomes liberated. The knot of his heart is cut
36. Katha Upanisad, II. 4-5; R. E. Hume's translation.
37.
Mun laka Upanisad, I. i. 4-5.
38. Ibid., III. 2-9.
39.
Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of Upanishads, Eng. translation by A.S. Geden, p. 344.
Ibid., p. 346.
40.
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143 off; all his deeds cease. He realizes the light of lights, that which the knowers of ātman know. This state is unlike any other state :
“The sun shines not there, nor the moon and stars; There lightenings shine not, much less this (earthly) fire; After Him, as He shines, doth everything shine.
This whole world is illumined with this light."41 The knower of the ātman has nothing to do or to acquire. He is not touched by what he has done and what he has left undone. His works are burnt away like the reed stalk in the fire. Future works do not cling to him just as water does not remain on the leaf of the lotus flower. He has extinguished his individuality and has become one with the great Self.
In addition to the knowledge of ātman-brahman, the Upanişads point out the importance of yogic practices. It is taught that yogic practices are essential for obtaining the higher knowledge. The Kat:aUpanişad for example has following remarkable lines :
“This soul (atman) is not to be obtained by instruction, Nor by intellect, nor by much learning. He is to be obtained only by the one whom He chooses; To such a one that soul (ātman) reveals His own person, Not he who has not ceased from the bad conduct, Not he who is not tranquil, not he who is not composed, Not he who is not of peaceful mind, Can obtain Him by intelligence (prajña).”:42
Thus the observance of moral rules and the practice of meditation are recommended along with wisdom. But an important point is the introduction of what may be called idea of grace (prasāda). We read in the same text : "when through the grace (prasāda) of the creator (dhātr) he beholds the greatness of soul (atman).”:43
This element of prasāda or Divine Pleasure is taught in the Sretāśvatara Upanişad also. This text teaches a theistic doctrine and recommends devotion to God. Thus we are told that those who practised dhyāna and yoga saw the self-power (atma-sakti) of God (deva) hidden in His three qualities (guņas).44 Here knowledge of God (deva) results in liberation from bondage. The Lord (iša) is described as both
41. Mundaka Upanis ad, 11.2.10. Translation by R.E. Hume. 42. Katha Upaniş ad, II. 23-24. Translation by R.E. Hume. 43. Ibid., II. 20; Translation by R.E. Hume. 44. Svetāśvatara, I. 3..
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The Svetāśvatara:Upanişad contains many elements of yogic culture and self-control. Thus it describes rudimentary techniques of yoga and dhyāna. The elements of yoga are described in Katha-Upanişad also. It is said that when the five senses are quietened together with the mind, and the intellect is also stilled, this is described as the highest course. "This they consider as yoga, this firm holding back of the senses, then one becomes undistracted.”:46
Mention may be made here of the important part played by the syllable Om. The Katha-Upanisad describes it as the essence of Vedas. Knowledge of Om is indeed the knowledge brahman. The text declares the following:
“That syllable, truly, indeed is brahman, That syllable indeed is the supreme, Knowing that syllable, truly indeed, Whatever one desires is his. That is the best support, That is the supreme support. Knowing that support, One becomes happy in the brahma-world.”:47
This unique significance of Om is set forth more powerfully in the Māņdük ya-Upanişad. “Om, this syllable is this whole world...the past, the present, the future-everything is just the word Om.” Towards the end of the text this Om is identified with the self (ātman). “He who knows this, with his self enters the Self, yea, he who knows this.” Thus the knowledge of the mystic word om is also an integral part of the Upanişadic path to liberataion. The MundakaUpanişad dwells on the importance of Om in the following beautiful figure :
“Taking as a bow the great weapon of the Upanişad, one should put upon it an arrow sharpened by meditation. Stretching it with a thought directed to the essence of that, penetrate that. Imperishable as the mark, my friend. The mystic syllable Om
45. 46. 47.
Ibid., IV. 9-10, Katha Upanişad, 11.6.11. R.E. Humc's translation. Ibid., II. 16-17. R.E. Hume's translation.
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(pranava) is the bow. The arrow is the soul (ātman.). Brahman is said to be the mark (lakṣya). By the undistracted man is it to be penetrated, one should come to be in it, as the arrow (in the mark)."48
The Upanisads also stress the necessity and importance of a spiritual teacher. He must be devoted to brahman and must have sound knowledge of Upanisadic lore. Faith in such a teacher is essential for a seeker. In addition to the service of the teacher, adequate moral preparation, practice of meditation, and possession of right knowldge are the other requirements of a student of brahma-vidya. The Mundaka-Upanisad states: "Let him, in order to understand this, take fuel in his hand and approach a guru who is learned and dwells entirely in brahman."49 The Svetasvatara-Upanisad states a similar view: "To a high-minded man, who feels the highest devotion for God and for his guru as for God, then they will shine forth, then they will shine forth indeed."50 To see the self (atman) one must become, "calm, controlled, quiet, patiently enduring, and contented."51
Thus the Upanisadic thinkers suggested three main pathways to the realization of brahman: Upanisadic knowledge, practise of yoga and true devotion. The Mundaka Upanisad teaches that:
"Having well ascertained the object of the knowledge of the Vedanta and having purified their nature by the yoga of renunciation, all anchorites, enjoying the highest immortality, become free at the time of the great end (death) in the world of Brahma."52
Mircea Eliade53 has pointed out that "the three highest roads of liberation-Upanisadic knowledge, yoga technique, and bhakti" found in the early Upanisads were intergated and synthesized in later period.
In conclusion it may be stated that the dominant notion of the Upanisads is that liberation consists in the consciousness of unity with the atman or brahman as the first principle. We have seen above that the destruction of all desires, impurities and limitations
52.
53.
48- Mundaka Upanisad, II.2,3-4. Tr. by R.E. Hume, p. 372.
49. Ibid., 1.2.12. Tr. by Max Müller.
50. Sveta vatra Upanisad, VI.23. Tr. by Max Müller.
51.
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, IV. 4.23. Tr. by Max Müller, See also Radhakrishnan and A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 38.
Mundaka Upanisad, 111.2.6. Tr. by Max Müller.
Mircea Eliade, Yoga, Immortality and Freedom, p. 120.
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of individuality is the first requirement. Another equally important requirement is the destruction of ignorance with which ceases plurality in the universe. The Upanişidic path to liberation therefore includes moral perfection as well as inner awakening.
THE BHAGAVADGITĀ
A most famous and popular textbook of developed Brähmanism is the Bhagavadgitā. In its colophon it is called a treatise on brahmavidyā and a yogaśāstra. It is a part of the Mahābhārata and its authorship is attributed to Vyāsa. The period of the composition and compilation of the Mahābhārata is spread over several centuries. Some scholars hold that the kernel or the nucleus of this great book may have originated in about the second century B. C. The present form of the Mahābhārata dates from the fourth century A.D. The Bhagavadgitā forms a part of the Bhismararvan of the Great Epic. D.D. Kosambi and many others have suggested that the Bhagavadgitā has been influenced considerably by Buddhist thought and ethics. He has placed it in the second century A.D. Although the Mahābhārata is not a text of the śruti class, the Bhagavadgita has acquired in the course of time the status of a śruti text, : The Gītā is a remarkable book which discusses in detail the nature of God, the soul, the universe and man's relation to God. It represents a synthesis of the pathways of karma (action), jñāna (knowledge) and bhakti (devotion). It derives its main inspiration from the Upanişads but incorporates different elements of thought and ethics often mutually contradictory : elements of Vedic cult of sacrifice, Upanişadic teaching of brahman as the ultimate reality, the Bhagavata theism centering round the worship of Vis Sāņkhya dualism of prakrti and purușa, the yoga technique of meditation and the principles of Buddhist and Jinist ethics. All these elements of Indian religions and philosophies have been woven into the texture of theistic Vedānta. Krsna, an avatāra of the supreme Divinity called Vişnu, Vāsudeva or Purusottama, is the traditional revealer of this form of Vedāntika religion.
The Upanişadic idea of brahman is accepted. The Vedic deity Vişņu is identified with brahman on the one hand, and with KrşņaVäsudeva on the other. The Gitā also teaches the worship of a personal God. Lord Krşņa is represented both as an absolute Reality as well as a personal God. He is the supreme, omnipotent and all pervasive Deity. We read in the Gita :
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Who sees Me in all and all in Me, for him I am not lost, and he is not lost for Me."54 “There is nothing else that is higher than I (beyond, outside of Me) ; on Me this all is strung
like necklace of pearls on a string."55 This doctrine of God has an important bearing on the scheme of liberation as envisaged in the Bhagavadgitä. Two other theological doctrines found in this text deserve mention; first there is the doctrine of avatāra or reincarnation, second the doctrine of māyā. God takes birth and lives on earth in human form for establishing dharma and destroying wickedness.56
A most important concept in the teachings of the Gitā is that of māyā. The word occurs already in the Rgveda where we are told that Indra assumes many forms through māyā. Here the word means magical power of god Indra. The same meaning is found in the Gità also. Māyā is a magical or mysterious energy or power of Lord Kșşņa. Thus although God is unborn, He appears to be born through His māyā, The text says:
“Though I am urborn, though My ātman is eternal, though I am the lord of beings, yet establishing Myself in My own nature (prakrti), I come into being by My own power (māyā). "57
In some passages māyā is treated as divine illusion composed of three strands (guņa), of goodness (sattva), passion (rajas) and darkness (tamas). In order to attain liberation, the seeker has to go beyond this cosmic illusion.
A word of frequent occurrence and considerable significance found in the Gītā is yoga. It has been used in a variety of meanings. It means not only meditation (dhyāna), but also 'discipline' and ‘union. This word is also used in the sense of path (märga) as in jñāna-yoga or the way of knowledge, karmayoga or the way of action, bhaktiyoga, or the way of devotion. A yogin is described as a man who subdues passions, who maintains equipoise or balance in cold and heat, in joy and sorrow, in honour and dishonour.58 A yogin is also called a man of 'fixed understanding' or of 'steady mind' (sthitaprajña). He is a kind of person liberated in this life (jīvanmukta).
54. 55. 56. 57. 58.
Bhagavadgita, VI. 30. Tr. by F.Edgerton. Ibid., VII. 7. Tr. F. Edgerton, Ibid., IV. 7-8 . Ibid,, IV. 6. Tr. by F, Edgerton. Ibil., VI. 7-8.
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THE DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION IN INDIAN RELIGIONS ROADS TO LIBERATION ACCORDING TO THE GITÄ
As has been pointed out above, the Bhagavadgitā expounds several pathways to liberation. Liberation is understood in terms of Godrealization. The three paths taught in the Upanişads are discussed in some detail and an attempt is made to harmonize them all. The author of the Bhagavadgitā is aware of the differences in the nature and equipment of the individual seekers. He does not dogmatically insist on one path only. He offers different paths and even makes a synthesis of all the paths. This shows that he was sensitive to individual preferences. At one place we read the following:
"Try to know Me. If you cannot contemplate Me, practice yoga. If you are not equal to this, try to serve Me by dedicating all your work to Me. If even this is found hard, do your duty regardless of consequences giving up all desire for
fruits."59 Elsewhere we are told the following:
“Some by concentration see the self in the self by the self; others by the samkhyayoga; and others still by the karmyoga, others yet, not knowing this, practise concentration, after hearing from others. They, too, being (thus) devoted on hearing
(instruction) cross beyond death.”80 We may now briefly discuss the three main paths described in the Gita. THE PATH OF KNOWLEDGE
Upanişads had broadcast the geat importance of knowledge. The Bhagavadgită continues the Upanişadic tradition and eulogizes knowledge as a valid path to the ultimate truth. Lord Kșşņa makes the following declaration to Arjuna : ;
"Even if thou shouldest be the worst of all sinners, merely by the boat of knowledge, thou shalt cross over all (thc 'sea' of)
evil."61 Thus the knowledge has the power of saving. It has the overriding power which supercedes all actions. “As a kindled fire burns firewood to ashes, so the fire of knowledge (jñānāgni) burns all deeds to
59. 60. 61.
Ibid., XII. 9-11. Ibid., XIII, 24-25. Tr. by K.T, Telang. Ibid., IV r. by F. Edgerton.
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ashes" (IV. 37). It would appear that even the law of karma is overruled by the might of knowledge. Doubt and ignorance cause sufferings. One should cut doubt with the sword of knowledge. Knowledge is much more powerful than rituals and sacrifices. The Gita says: "Better than material sacrifice is the sacrifice (that consists) of knowledge. All actions without remainder are completely ended in knowledge." Knowledge purifies; indeed there is nothing on earth equal in purity to knowledge: na hi jñānena sadṛśam pavitramiha vidyate.62
This saving knowledge consists in knowing the real nature of God. "He who knows me to be unborn, without beginning, the great lord of the world, being free from delusion, is released from all sins."63 Thus the true knowledge is the knowledge of God and about God. By knowing God one is liberated.
THE PATH OF ACTION
In addition to knowledge (jñāna), the Gita lays down the path of disciplined activity. This aspect of its teaching has been popularised in modern times by such great men as Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi. These leaders have emphasized what they called self-less action or action without attachment to its fruit (nişkamakarma).
149
It should be noted that the Gītā teaches renunciation of attachment rather than of actions. It is pointed out that it is not possible to renounce actions. The Lord says that although there is nothing for me to do, "still I do engage in action." Since men imitate God, He must act. "If I did not perform actions, these worlds would be destroyed, I should be the cause of caste-interminglings; and I should be ruining these people." The Gita asks its readers to dedicate all actions to God. The God of the Bhagavadgītā is an active God. He reincarnates Himself as a man and acts among men. Of course He is not defiled by actions. He declares :
"Actions defile me not. I have no attachment to the fruit of actions. He who knows me thus is not tied down by actions. Knowing this, the men of old who wished for final emancipation, performed actions. Therefore, do you too perform action as was done by men of old in olden times.''65
62.
63.
64.
65.
Ibid., IV. 33 and 38. See also IV 9-10; VII. 19; X.3.
Ibid., X.3. Tr. by K.T. Telang.
Ibid., III, 24. Tr. by. K.T. Telang.
Ibid., IV. 14-15, Tr. by K.T. Telang.
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Performance of desireless actions is thus a path to freedom from sin. Performance of actions with devotion to God is therefore repeatedly recommended. Knowledge of action and in action is desirable. He whose actions are free from desire and whose actions are burnt down by the fire of knowledge is called a learned one.
"Forsaking all attachment to the fruit of action, always contented, dependent on none, he does nothing at all, though he engages in action. Devoid of expectations, restraining the mind and the self, and casting off all belongings, he incurs so sin, performing actions merely for the sake of the body." 68
In the beginning of the fifth chapter of the Gită Arjuna asks Krşņa to tell him which one of the two is superior, renunciation of . action or pursuit of action. Krsna replies as follows:
"Renunciation and pursuit of action are both instruments of happiness. But of the two, pursuit of action is superior to the the renunciation of action. He should be understood to be always an ascetic, who has no a version and no desire. For, O you of mighty arms ! he who is free from the pairs of opposites is
easily released from (all) bonds.":67 Finally, we may refer to the oft-quoted verse in which Kệşņa admonished Arjuna to do his duty and fight the battle. "Your right is to work only but never to the fruit of it. Let not the fruits of action be your object, nor let your attachment be to inaction."88 This doctrine of disinterested and detached action is the heart of what is called karmayoga. One can attain liberation from bondage and union with God by following this doctrine :
“He who abandons all desires and acts free from longing, without any sense of egotism and self-interest, he attains peace. This is the divine state (brāhmi-sthiti). O, Arjuna, having attained it, he is not again confused. Abiding in it, even at the time of
death, he goes to brahman-nirvana."69 THE PATH OF DEVOTION
The Bhagavadgitā is pre-eminently a treatise on devotion to Lord
66. 67.
68.
Ibid., IV, 19, 20, 21, Tr. by K.T. Telang. Ibid., V, 2-3. Tr. by K.T. Telang. Ibid., II. 47. Tr. by K.T. Telang. Ibid., II, 71-72. Tr. by K.T. Telang; see L.M. Joshi in An Introduction to Indian Religions, p. 71.
69.
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Kṛṣṇa. When it comes to describe devotion, the virtues of knowledge and action seem to recede into the background. Loving devotion to God (bhakti) emerges as the best road to liberation.
"Of all the yogins, he who is full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him I hold to be the most perfectly disciplined."70
151
Thus God prefers a devotee to a yogin. In other words a bhakta is the best yogin. He who combines devotion with yoga is superior to all other seekers. Devotion to God is the surest way to reach God. The Lord says,
"By devotion one comes to know Me, what My measure is and what I am in very truth; then, knowing Me, in very truth, he straightway enters into Me."71
The devotional path is open to all, men as well as women, high born as well as low born. Compared to the paths of knowledge and action, path of devotion is easy and simple. Even sinful men and women can attain liberation through devotion. It has been said that no devotee of God is lost.
Perfect devotion to God demands full faith in God, intense love for Him and absolute surrender unto Him. In one of the crucial verses in its eighteenth chapter, Lord Kṛṣṇa asks Arjuna, to leave everything else and take refuge in Him only. He says, "I will deliver thee from all sins, do not grieve." >>72 Thus the doctrine of mukti through prapatti and bhakti may be said to be the culminating point of the Bhagavadgitä.
Commenting upon the fusion of different paths in this text, Franklin Edgerton has made the following observation:
"Gita's religion is a compromise between the speculation of intellectuals and the emotionalism of popular religion. So the notion of bhakti, devotion, enters into its scheme of salvation by a side door, without at first displacing the old intellectual theory of salvation by knowledge. At least it is rationalised in this way. It is represented that by devoted love of God one can attain knowledge (of God), and so indirectly the salvation which comes. through this knowledge."
9973
70.
Gītā, XII. 2. Tr. by Edgerton. 71. Ibid, XVIII. 55. Tr. by Edgerton.
72.
Ibid., XVIII, 66. Tr. by Edgerton.
73.
The Bhagavadgītā, Translated and Interpreted, p. 173.
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Gaudapāda (circa seventh century A.D.) in his Agamaśāstra or the Māndūkyakärikā, for the first time gave a systematic exposition of Vedānta on the lines of advaita. After him Samkarācārya perfected the non-dualistic system of the Vedānta in his commentaries on the old Upanişads, the Brahmasutra and the Bhagavadgita. Several medieval and modern scholars have suggested the influence of Mahāyāna Buddhist thought on Advaita Vedānta.74
According to Samkara, self, also called brahman, is the one and only ultimate reality. It is the being in itself, wholly conscious, luminous and of the nature of bliss. It is universal and infinite. The objective world is dependent; it is not self-existent, nor is it ultimately real. A distinction between the transcendental self (ātman) and empirical existence is basic to advaita system. Confusion about this distinction leads to ignorance. Brahman is said to be entirely different from the world of multiplicity. Atman is identical with brahman. This principle of unity is absolute. The world depends upon it. The Advaita Vedānta also makes room for the idea of God or īśvara. This is called saguna brahman is contradistinction to nirguna brahman. The distinction between God or fśvara, the world and the selves is said to be empirical and not ultimate. The individual self is a limited version, as it were, of the universal self. It is this individual self which is bound. Liberation means the realization of the real nature of the universal self.
Practice of moral virtue, devotion to God and the pursuit of knowledge lead to the attainment of release (mok şa). Relea se means direct apprehension of the highest truth which is eternal and infinite. According to Radhakrishnan “on the attainment of freedom nothing happens to the world; only our view of it changes. Mokşa is not the dissolution of the world but is the displacement of a false outlook (avidyā) by the right outlook, wisdom (vidya)”,76
The cycle of life and death or samsāra ceases when the unity of brahman is realized. The I sa-Upanişad makes the following statement :
74.
Vijñānabhikṣu has described Samkara as a "crypto-Buddhist while the Padmapurāņa refers to māyāvāda as a Buddhist system. For modern views on Vedānta's indebtedness to Buddhism see L.M. Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India, pp. 439-448. S. Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 507.
75.
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"One who sees all things in the self and the self in all things, is not repulsed by it because of the realization of truth. When to him, who knows, the self has become all things, how can any more there be delusion and sorrow for him who sees oneness ?""76
Regarding the existence of suffering in this phenomenal world Samkara points to māyā or avidyā as the root cause. The self (ātman) wrongly identified with māyā does not realise its true nature. Śamkara
observes:
"As long as the individual self does not free itself from ignorance in the form of duality-which ignorance may be compared to the mistake of him who in the twilight mistakes a post for a man-and does not rise to the knowledge of the Self, whose nature is unchangeable, eternal cognition-which expresses itself in the form 'I am brahman'-so long it remains the individual self.""""
Śamkara refers to ignorance (avidyā) or appearance (māyā) as 'causal potentiality' which is dependent on the highest Lord. According to him, māyā is called non-manifested since it cannot be defined either as that which is or that which is not.
The words ajñāna, vivarta, bhranti, bhrama, avyakta, nāma-rūpa, adhyasa, adhyaropa, anirvacaniya etc., are synonymous with mayā or avidya. It is apparently real from the phenomenal point of view but it is unreal for those who have realised brahman; for the awakened self "all this is brahman." For the ordinary persons this world is real as the dream is real in the dreaming state.
For Samkara, avidya has both aspects: negative as well as positive. In its negative aspect it is false (mithya) and illusory. There is utter absence of right knowledge in it. In its positive aspect, it is a mysterious power of God. This world is created by God through māyā. It is an inherent power (śakti) of brahman. It is the cosmic power belonging to God. The two elements, nāma (name) and rupa (form), also belong to God and are known as His māyā through which the world-process is going on. As Samkara says:
"Belonging to the nature, as it were, of the omniscient Lord, there are nama (name) and rupa (form), the figments of avidyā, indefinable either as identical with or as different from the Lord, the germs of the world-process, and known in the scripture (śruti) and the traditional literature (smrti) as maya, śakti
76. Isa Upanisad, 6-7. 77. Brahmasutra-Śamkarabhāṣya, I.iii,19.
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(energy) and praksti (the primordial nature) of the omniscient Lord.”78
With the attainment of right knowledge and realization of the brahman., the two elements nāma and rûpa disappear. The individual self while losing nāma and rūpa becomes united with brahman as the rivers losing the names and forms disappear in the sea. As has been stated in the Mundaka-Upanişad :
“As the flowing rivers disappear in the sea, losing their name and their form, thus a wise man, freed from name and form, goes to the divine person, who is greater than the great."979 For Samkara, it is the knowledge of brahman alone which is the means to attain mokșa. In other words, the highest knowledge of brahman itself is mokșa.
"Brahman is eternal, all knowing, absolutely self-sufficient, ever pure, intelligent and free, pure knowledge, absolute bliss. From the devout meditation on this brahman there results as its fruit, final release, which, although not to be discerned in the ordinary way, is discerned by means of the śāstra (treatise )... This mokşa, release, is eternal in the true sense, i.e., eternal without undergoing any changes... omnipresent as ether, free from all modifications, absolutely self-sufficient, not composed of parts, of self-luminous nature. That bodiless entity in fact to which merit and demerit with their consequences and threefold time do not apply is called release....... It...... is, therefore, the same as brahman in the enquiry into which we are at present engaged...... "80
Commenting on the state of liberation envisaged in the Advaita, Surendranath Bhattacharya has stated :
"To be brahman is not the extinction of the individual, rather it is the expansion of one's own individuality into the infinitude of brahman. The jīva is always brahman-during bondage the upadhis screen this truth; in the state of freedom it shines forth as brahman-as what it always is; nothing new happens."181
Šamkara emphatically maintains the conception of jīvanmukti. He who has attained the knowledge of brahman., become one with
78. Ibid., II.1.14. 79. Mun!aka Upanişad, 111.2.8. 80. Brahmasūtra-Šamkarabhāsya, 1.1.4. Tr. by George
Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore, op.cit., p. 512. 81. The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. III, p. 244.
Thibaut; see
S.
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155 brahman. Brahmanhood is nothing but the realization of the absolute identity of atman and brahman. The śruti passage, tattvamasi manifests this identity. According to Šamkara it is possible to realize brahman while living in this world, and that is jīvanmukti. There are several passages in the Upanişads which advocate this concept of jiranmukti. "The knower of brahman becomes brahman himself."
-Mundaka Upanişad, III.2.9. “In that all this has itself, it is true, it is the self, thou art that".
- Chāndog ya Upanişad, VI.8.7"He attains brahman here."
-Brhadāraṇyaka Upanișad. IV.4.7. In the Kena Upanişad (II.5) it is said that if brahman is not known here in this life, greatest is the loss.
In the last analysis the whole philosophy of Samkara can be summarized in half a verse which is as follows. Brahman is the only Reality; the world is ultimately false; and the individual self (ätman) is non-different from brahman.8a For Samkara, brahman is quite different from the existing world but ātman is the same as brahman. This world depends upon brahman, but brahman depends upon nothing. Māyā is negligible from the standpoint of common experience. It has been pointed out that Samkara fails to explain the logical relation between brahman and the existing world through māya. Mokșa is attained through the knowledge of brahman and it is identical with brahman. It is the direct apprehension of ultimate reality. LIBERATION ACCORDING TO THE VIŠIŞTĀDVAITA
Before we conclude this brief discussion of the Brahmanical views of mukti, we should take notice of Rāmānuja's attitude toward it. Rāmānuja (eleventh century) is a famous Brāhmanical philosopher. According to him, there are three ultimate realities-God, soul and the world. God is eternal, powerful and all-knowing. He is the material as well as the efficient cause of this universe. The world and souls are depedent upon God. God (īśvara) is the same as the supreme brahman of the Upanişads. God is the soul of nature as well as the soul of souls.
God or brahman of Rāmānuja's conception is the abode of all
82.
brahma satyam jaganmithya jivo brahmaivo nāparak,
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good qualities and devoid of all evil qualities. He is the Highest Person, the Real of reals, the Light of lights and higher than the highest. He is of the nature of pure knowledge, absolute bliss, infinite power, ever pure, full of freedom and absolutely self-sufficient. This brahman is the controller of the individual souls and the world. God is identitical with the absolute brahman. The whole universe and all the souls form His body. He creates, controls, sustains and destroys this world. He has a special divine body (aprāk rta dehavisişta).
Rāmānuja refutes Samkara's conception of nirguna brahman as "a pure unqualified existence." According to him there is no proof for such an unqualified substance. No sense organ can prove the existence-in-itself. The word (sabda) cannot be a means of knowledge for a substance devoid of all difference. Perception (pratyakşa) proves difference and cannot be a means of knowledge for a thing devoid of difference. It does not reveal mere being. 83 Thus these is n of scripture, logic and personal experience for Samkara's notion of nirguna brahman. Rāmānuja points out that the scriptural passage "one without a second” really teaches that the brahman is possessed of manifold qualities. "If it were meant absolutely to deny all duality, it would deny also the eternity and other attributes of brahman." He further quotes the passage, “He who knows the bliss of that brahman from whence all speech, together with the mind, turns away unable to reach it" does not prove a substance devoid of all differences but with the possession of infinite nature of brahman's auspicious qualities.84
Rāmānuja did not believe that this world is false (mithya) as Samkara held. For Samkara, brahman is the ground for the creation of this world through His māyā. This entire world with all its differences, is owing to a certain defect and that defect is beginningless māyā or avidyā or ignorance. This theory of māyā or avidyā cannot be proved either by being or non-being. It is altogether inconclusive. We cannot say either of brahman or the individual ātman as the substrate of avidyā. Rāmānuja holds that ātman or brahman whose essential nature is knowledge, cannot be the substrate of ignorance, hence the theory involves a flat contradiction.85
83.
84.
The Vedanta Sutras with the commentary of Rāmánuja, translated by George Thibaut, 1.1.1. See Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, pp. 543-545 Rāmānuja on The Vedantasūtra, 1.1.1; see also A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 548. ibid, p. 550.
85.
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According to Rāmānuja this world cannot be unreal as it is a part of brahman or God. Similarly individual selves (ātmans) are real and eternal like brahman and are part of brahman :
"the individual self is a part of the highest self; as the light issuing from a luminous thing such as fire or the sun is a part of that body."86 There are three kinds of souls according to Rāmānuja.
Eternally free (nitya-mukta): those souls which are ever free and they reside in Vaikuntha. They are totally free from karma and rebirth. They are full of bliss and enjoy perfect peace and freedom. Released or freed (mukta) : those souls that were previously bound, but have obtained freedom through the triple training of good action, right knowledge, and pure devotion.
Bound (baddha) : those who are encircled in the world and are suffering on account of ignorance, wrong thought, and evil deeds.
Further the bound (baddha) souls are subdivided into four classes :
(i) divine or super human beings, (ii) human beings, (iii) animal world, and (iv) immobile souls.**
The released (mukta) souls do not have any qualitative distinctions. All of them enjoy peace, knowledge and bliss with brahman. Rāmānuja advocates qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls. The relation between the individual souls and brahmun is that of body and soul. It is a peculiar non-dual relation which Rāmānuja calls visiştādvaita. It is the unique relation of inner connection and dependence of the souls on God. C.D. Sharma explains the meaning of viśişțădvaita as “identity-in-and-through-and-because-ofdifference or identity-as-qualified-by-difference."87 Rāmānuja did not believe in the conception of bhedābheda (identity-cum-difference) and advocated the view of visistadvaita.
According to Rāmānuja, the Upanişadic text tat tvam asi does not convey the idea of complete unity between brahman and ātman but the words tat and tvam denote the brahman distinguished by difference. He says that if the text “thou art that” were meant to express absolute
86. Rāmānuja on The Vedāntasūtra, 11. 11.45; see also A Source Book in Indian
Philosophy, p. 555. 87. C.D. Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, p. 355,
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oneness, it would conflict with a previous statement in the same section in which it is said: “It thought, may I be many;" and further if it meant oneness then by the knowledge of one thing all things are to be known could not be considered as fulfilled.88 So it is not possible that a brahman whose essential nature is knowledge, omniscience etc., should belong to the area of ignorance. It only fufils the demand according to Ramānuja that "brahman free from all imperfections and comprising within itself all auspicious qualities is the internal ruler of the individual selves and possesses lordly power."89 Thus the brahman is the ground of individual souls and not that souls are completely identical with brahman. C.D. Sharma observes :
“The individual soul is a mode of God Who is its inner self. God constitutes the “I” of the soul. "I live, yet not I, but God liveth in me." Tat tvam asi, therefore does not teach absolute identity (which is a mere abstraction) between soul and God as Šamkara imagines, but a qualified identity which means that God as the inner self of the soul and God as the cause of the universe are one and the same."#0
Rāmānuja refutes the theory of Šamkara that the bondage of the self is unreal (mithyä) and can be removed by mere knowledge of the brahman alone. Unlike Samkara, Rāmānuja holds that bondage of the self is real and it can be overcome not by the knowledge alone but with pure devotion and grace (k spā) of God. To quote Rāmānuja's words :
"That doctrine, again, that ignorance is put an end to by the cognition of brahman being the self of all can in no way be upheld, for as bondage is something real it cannot be put an end to by knowledge. How, we ask, can any one assert that bondage ... which consists in the experience of pleasure and pain caused by the connexion of selves with bodies of various kind, a connexion springing from good or evil actions--is something false, unreal?... the cessation of such bondage is to be obtained only through the grace of the highest self pleased by the devout meditation of the worshippers ..,"91 Rāmānuja thus holds that liberated soul only becomes similar to
88, Rāmānuja on The Vedāntasūtras, I.i.l. Tr. by Thibaut; Radhakrishnan and C.A.
Moore, A Source Book in Indian Philosophy, p. 551. 89. Ibid., p. 551-2. 90. C.D. Sharma, op. cit., p. 356. 91. Radhakrishnan and C.A. Moore, op.cit., p. 552.
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brahman but not identical with brahman as śamkara has held. Rāmānuja quotes the Upanișadic passages to prove that liberated soul only becomes similar to brahman and not identical with brahman. “He attains all the auspicious qualities with brahman.”
- Taittirīya Upanişad, II. 1. 1. "The knower of the Lord, having shaken off merits and demerits
and being absolutely pure, attains the highest degree of equality with brahman."
- Mundaka Upanişad, III. 1. 3. "The brahmavit moves singing säman in all the world, enjoys whatever things he likes, assumes whatever forms he likes."
---Taittiriya Upanişad, III. 10. 5-6. The Bhagavadgita also supports the view of Rāmānuja that those who have acquired the wisdom, become similar to brahman.9%
Unlike Šamkara, Rāmānuja believes that the liberated soul does not lose its individuality but anyhow retains it. It is only egoity and not the individuality that is annihilated in the state of liberation; even in the highest state the soul does not lose its individuality, According to S. Radhakrishnan, "what is annihilated in mokşa is only egoity and not individuality.” Further he says that “it is not the disappearance of the self, but its release from the limiting barriers."93
According to Rāmānuja, karma-yogi (self-purification), jñānayoga (self-realisation) and bhakti-yoga (knowing and seeing God everywhere) are three different stages in the process of a man's liberation. Karma-yoga leads to jñāna-yoga. Jñāna-yoga is the path of self-realization to know one's own real self. Rāmānuja believes in jñāna-karma-samuccaya. He recognises the importance of karma, jñāna and bhakti, as the Gita too has recognised. But Rāmānuja stresses bhakit or devotion as the chief means to attain liberation. Along with the three paths, karma, jñāna and bhakti, he adds the doctrinc of prapatti, the way of self-surrender to God. We may recall that it is said in the Katha Upanişad (1.2.23) that the self cannot be gained by the study of Veda (reflection), nor by thought (meditation) nor by much learning. It may be gained only by him whom God chooses. Thus the gift or prasāda or krpå of God plays an important role in the Rāmānuja scheme of liberation. God gives all that is necessary for liberation to one who surrenders oneself to God. Accord
92. Bhagavadgīta, XIV.2. 93. S. Radhakrishnan, In lian Phi.osopky, vol. II, pp. 709-710.
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ing to Rāmānuja there is no jīvanmukti so long as soul is possessed with body and karmas. So he rejects Samkara's theory of jivanmukti. According to Samkara the cause of bondage is avidyā and that can be annihilated by the knowledge of brahman even during this life. The jivanmukta appears to be like an embodied man but actually he is totally detached from the body. Liberation according to Rāmānuja presupposes utter destruction of karma and body. He argues that so long as the soul is in the body, it cannot attain innate purity. In the state of liberation, the soul realises its true nature and becomes similar to brahman. The karma being the root cause of bondage, liberation is possible when all the karmas attached to the soul are destroyed. As to the nature of the liberated soul Rāmānuja odserves :
“The released soul, freed from all that hides its nature, possesses the power of intuitively beholding the pure brahman, but does not possess the power of ruling and guiding the different froms of motion and rest belonging to animate and inanimate nature."94
Thus liberated being realises its eternal and essential nature, i.e., the being of its being, and the real of its real. P.N. Srinivasachari comments on the state of mukti it the following words :
“Mukti is on the whole freedom from the individualistic outlook and the attainment of divine vision and divine bliss. In that state the sense of separateness of the jīva alone is abolished and not the jīva itself, and the free and freed spirits form a community owing to the common nature of their deified attributive consciousness; and their freedom is expressed either in helping humanity to regain spiritual freedom or in the enjoyment of the bliss of divine communion."95
94. Rāmānuja on the Vedantasutra, 1.1.4. Tr. by Thibaut. 95. The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. II, p. 312,
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Buddhism is famous as a soteriological doctrine. Its main aim is to seek liberation from the manifold sufferings (dukkha). The Buddha is reported to have said:
"Just as the great ocean has one taste, the taste of salt, even so, monks, this doctrine (dharma) and method (vinaya) has one taste, the taste of liberation (vimuttirasa).”1
The word dharma (Pali dhamma) as employed in Buddhist texts has manifold meanings. As Dr L.M. Joshi points out it also means the Ultimate Reality or Transcendental Truth called nirvāṇadharma. The word dharma also refers to mental and material elements or entities. It also means moral law, virtue, duty, religious practice, piety, etc. Finally it means the eternal and immanent law of cosmic order. The two fundamental meanings with which we are here concerned are: nirvana and the way to it. "In short, dharma means both the end and the means: nirvāṇadharma and margadharma."""
It goes without saying that nirvāṇadharma is the summum bonum of Buddhism and that every human being must aspire to attain this Ultimate Reality. The word nirvana is also known as vimukti (Pali vimutti) which means freedom from all passions and desires. It is also called visuddhi which means purification. Similarly the märgadharma is known as vimukti-marga "the way of emancipation" and visuddhimarga "the way of purification."
THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING
Lord Buddha is reported to have said that he teaches only two things viz; suffering (dukkha) and cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodha). He taught that this world is full of suffering, ills, calamities, punishment, jealousy, hatred, deception, illusion, etc., and encouraged
2.
1.
L. M. Joshi, "Truth: A Buddhist Perspective", The Journal of Religious Studies, vol. IV, Punjabi University, Patiala, 1972, p. 71. See Cullavagga (Nalanda edition), p. 357, Udana (Nalanda edition), V. vii, p. 125. Anguttaranikaya (Nalanda edition), vol. I.p. 37.
L.M. Joshi, "Buddhist Meditation and Mysticism" in Buddhism, (1969), p.62.
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men to seek eternal peace, bliss and freedom from this transitory world. He urged men to get rid of the root of dukkha. The first noble truth concerns with suffering and the third noble truth with the emancipation from suffering. After attaining enlightenment the Buddha's first sermon at Sarnatha was about the universal suffering. There the Blessed One addressed the five monks thus:
"Now this, monks. is the noble truth of pain: birth is painful, old age is painful, sickness is painful, death is painful, sorrow, lamentation, dejection, and despair are painful. In short, the five groups of grasping (khandhas) are painful.
Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of pain, the cessation without a remainder of craving, the abandonment, forsaking, release, non-attachment."
This shows that the whole worldly process is based upon the frightful sequence of death and rebirth and unbroken chain of the five khandhas. This dukkha teaches to all beings that they are not living as they ought to live. Lord Buddha sought to show a way beyond the realm of dukkha. The enlightenment which Lord Buddha realized was indescribable and transcendental.
Soon after attaining enlightenment, Lord Buddha is reported to have uttered the following words: "This Truth (dharma) that I have realised is profound, difficult to see, difficult to comprehend, excellent, supreme, transcending discursive thought, subtle and to be known by the sages alone." That the Truth is subtle to comprehend is emphasised by the Buddha.
Now the question arises why the Buddha made dukkha the starting point for the realization of Ultimate Truth or the establishment of the concept of nirvāṇa? Here two points deserve mention. Everybody has the experience of pain and suffering in the world and from that very painful experience both the philosophical inquiry and religious aspiration arise. Secondly, man is more emotional than rational in character. It is his emotions, feelings, passions and desires which ultimately determine his character. Bhikshu Sangharakshita has pointed out that:
"By beginning with the fact of pain Buddhism involves the whole nature of man from the very outset. Recognition of the first noble truth comes not as a pleasant intellectual diversion but
3.
Samyuttanikaya, V. 420; Early Buddhist Scriptures, Tr. by E. J. Thomas, pp. 29-31; Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, p. 125.
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as a terrible emotional shock. The scriptures say that one feels then like a man who suddenly realizes that his turban is in flames. Only a shock of this kind is strong enough to galvanize the whole being into action. . . only when a man feels strongly will he act effectively. It is for this reason above all others that Buddhism starts not with a concept but with a feeling, not with intellectual postulation but with emotional experience."
Lord Buddha held the view that suffering is the central fact of every human existence. The fact of suffering and its awareness compel us to seek for its removal. By experiencing suffering we can adopt the right path towards enlightenment. Suffering is important because it gives warning to man that he is not living as he ought to live. A person who is the seeker of nirvāņa is not afraid of suffering but he accepts it joyfully. This world which is full of sufferings is nothing but the repeated process of birth and death. In order to be free from this cycle of birth and death, attachment and hatred, pleasure and pain, every gentle man must aspire for the attainment of Ultimate Truth. We come across such kind of feeling about Truth from the early Buddhist monks :
"I have lived the holy life, done all that I was to do, and am now free from all attachment. Completely destroyed is the cause of birth through cycle of existence, there is no longer the possibility of any rebirth."5
THE MEANING OF NIRVĀŅA
The literal meaning of the term nibbāna or nirvāņa is "extinction," "blowing out," "going out," "the total destruction or annihilation." The two terms nirvana and tathāgata mean complete spiritual release and total elimination of all sorts of craving, passions, attachments, ignorance, etc. In the Buddhist way, the word nirvāņa was employed either in connection with a burning fire or in connection with a burning lamp, and in both ways it meant extinction. "The word is formed from nirvy or ni-vṛ meaning tranquil, happy, ceased, and parinirvṛta in its technical sense is 'having attained nirvāṇa." The term "extinction" applies only to three flames of greed, hatred and infatuation. In short it signifies the extinction of craving.
4.
5.
6.
Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, p. 122; The Aryan Path, vol. XXIII, pp. 55-61 (February, 1952).
After The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. I, p. 553.
Edward J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought, p. 124.
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What is nirvana ? It is impossible to describe nirvana in words. No human language can describe the depth of Truth. Words are powerless to fathom the nature of nirvana. Lord Buddha remained silent when the question was asked 'what is nirvana'? His observance of silence proved the fact, as Lord Buddha taught and explained, that an answer was neither useful nor possible.
It is generally believed that the truth that can be comprehended is not truth; "the Tao (Way) that can be told of is not the eternal Tao;" and 'a God comprehended is no God."8
The Buddhist thought recognizes two standpoints: the one is phenomenological or worldly standpoint and the other is wholly transcendental or absolute standpoint. For the Buddhist, nirvāņa is the only truth which is real in the ultimate sense. From the standpoint of absolute Truth, nirvana is the ultimate holy truth. Phenomenal or conventional truth only relates to words, symbols, concepts and conventional things and not to Absolute Truth. From the standpoint of conventional truth we can know only something imperfectly about Absolute Truth or nirvana."
The Buddha declares nirvāņa to be the highest of all things. It is the greatest happiness (paramam sukham). It is stated in the Dhammapada :
"Health is the greatest of gifts, contentedness the best of riches, trust is the best of relationships, nirvana the highest happiness." 10
With the attainment of nirvāṇa everything which is sinful vanishes for ever. Nirvāņa is only attainable when one has perfected both knowledge and meditation. The Dhammapada clearly points out:
"Without knowledge, there is no meditation; without meditation there is no knowledge; he who has both knowledge and meditation is near unto nirvāṇa." 3
It is the blissful and the tranquil state.
Nirvana is the cessation of all sufferings. It is the extinction of five khandhas (constituent elements). It is the total destruction of
7. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, translated and compiled by Wing-tsit Chan, p. 139.
Quoted in Rudolf Otto, The Idea of the Holy. Translated by John W. Harvey, P. 25.
8.
9.
10.
11.
*
L.M. Joshi in The Journal of Religious Studies, vol. IV, p. 73.
Dhammapada, verse 204. Tr. by Max Müller.
Ibid., verse 372.
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craving, calming of all conditioned things, giving up of all defilements, extinction of thirst, detachment, and cessation. It is the extinction of desire, the extinction of hatred, and the extinction of illusion. It is excellent, transcendental, uncreated, bliss of emancipation, eternal, unassailable, noble and free from lust. Nothing is left to be achieved after attaining nirvana. It is the highest Truth. Nirvana is the highest vision, truthful experience, the best feeling that one can imagine, feel, think or speak of. This is the highest psychical state where consciousness appears to be face to face with Reality. TRADITIONAL DESCRIPTIONS OF NIRVĀŅA
In the Buddhist tradition nirvāņa has been described by different words, concepts, terms or epithets, which may be called synonyms. The commentary on the Nettipakarana describes nirvana in these terms: uncompounded (asamkkhata), infinite (ananta), stainless (anāsava), true (sacca), unimpaired (ajajjara), immutable (dhuva), not vanishing (apalokita), tranquil (santa), undying (amata), excellent (paṇītu), destruction of desire (tanhakk haya), unborn (ajāta), deep (gambhira) transcendental (uttara), matchless (appatisama); summum bonum (seṭṭha). supreme (jeṭṭha); unimpure (vimala), immeasureable (appamāna). Nirvana is also called ultimate refuge (sarana), detachment (virāga), immutable state (accutapada), liberation (mutti), purity (visuddhi), emancipation (vimutti), holiness (suddhi) and blessedness (nibbutti).12 Each of these words signifies either a negative or positive aspect of the ultimate goal from the Buddhist standpoint.
The Absolute Truth or nirvana is wholly indescribable and unthinkable. It is only through convention that we can describe it by certain names or epithets. Every conceivable name we may give to it is essentially false as it is beyond names and concepts. That is why nirvāṇa or tathāgata (Tathata, Sunyata, Bhutakoți, Dharma-dhātu, Dharmakaya, Prajñāpāramitā) is said to be like an illusion, dream or a mirage. As E. Conze states:
"Nirvana is unthinkable or inconceivable, if only because there is nothing general about it, and everyone must experience it personally for himself, because there is nothing in the world even remotely like it; and because reasoning (tarka) cannot get
12.
The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. I, p. 556.
13. As asahasrika prajñāpāramitā, pp. 20-22;
165
Bodhicaryavatarapaħjikā, p. 177;
L.M. Joshi in The Journal of Religious Studies, vol. IV, p. 75.
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anywhere near it. All conceptions of nirvana are misconceptions.14
THE NEGATIVE ASPECT OF NIRVĀŅA
The ancient Buddhist scholars have tried to describe nirvāṇa under its negative as well as positive aspects. Those words that suggest the negation of something such as nirodha, nirmokşa, nirvṛti amṛta, anitika and nirveda, etc. are different synonyms of negative aspect of nirvāņa. The summum bonum of Buddhism is spoken of in negative and transcendental synonyms for nirvana. In some of the later Pali Texts we find nirvana described as the uninterrupted (accanta), the uncreated (akata), the infinite (ananta), the inextinguishable (apalokita), the cessation of suffering (dukkha-kkhaya), the freedom from longing (anāsa), the uncompounded (asamkkhata), the farther shore, the beyond (pāra), the deliverance (mokkha), the extinction (nirodha), the indiscernible (anidassana), the unoppressed (avyāpajja), the absolute (kevala), the unendangered (anitika), the unattached (analaya), the deathless (accuta), the release (vimutti), the final deliverance (apavagga), the dispassionate (viraga), the stillness (sänti) the purity (visuddhi) and the allayment (nibbuta) 15.
In the Udana, nirvana is sought to be described, not in terms of what it is, but in terms of what it is not.
14.
15.
16.
"There is, monks, the stage where there is neither earth nor water nor fire nor wind nor the stage of the infinity of space nor the stage of the infinity of consciousness nor the stage of neither consciousness nor the stage of neither consciousness nor nonconsciousness; neither this world not the other world nor sun and moon. There, monks, I say, is neither coming nor going, nor staying nor passing away nor arising. Without support or going on or basis is it. This indeed is the end of suffering.
There is, monks, an unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an uncompounded; if monks, there were not here this unborn, unbecome, unmade, uncompounded, there would not here be an escape from the born, the become, the made, the compounded. But because there is an unborn, an unbecome, an unmade, an uncompounded, therefore, there is an escape from the born, the become, the made, the compounded."16
E. Conze, Buddhist Thought in India, p. 57.
Bhikshu Sangharakkshita, A Survey of Buddhism, p. 62.
Udana, VIII. 1 and 3. E.J. Thomas's translation in Early Buddhist Scriptures, pp. 110-111.
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.167
Some people raise the objection about the negative side of nirvāṇa; they think that its negative aspect expresses self-annihilation. But nirvana is certainly no annihilation of self because there is nothing like self to annihilate. It is the annihilation of illusion, of the wrong notion of self, "the extinction of passion, of aversion, of confusion, is called nirvāṇa."'17
A text describes the state of nirvana in the following words:
"Here the four elements of solidity, fluidity, heat and motion have no place; the notions of length and breadth, the subtle and the gross, good and evil, name and form are altogether destroyed, neither this world nor the other, nor coming, going or standing, neither death nor birth, nor sense objects are to be found."*18
It is not right to say that nirvana has negative or positive side. It is completely free from all concepts and terms of duality. Moreover, the negative word does not necessarily mean negative side. It is the way of expressing the truth. Just as the word freedom which is known in Pali as mutti and in Sanskrit mukti means absolute emancipation from all evils, craving, illusions and passions, etc. It is the freedom from all obstructions. Although no one will say that the word freedom has a negative side, yet it has something in a negative way. Similarly the words arogya (health), amṛta (immortal) do not state the negative side.
THE POSITIVE ASPECT OF NIRVĀŅA
The Buddhist scriptures contain a number of positive names of nirvana. This state is described with a wealth of epithets; for example, it is:
"The harbour of refuge, the cool cave, the island amidst the floods, the place of bliss, emancipation, liberation, safety, the supreme, the transcendental, the uncreated, the tranquil, the home of ease, the calm, the end of suffering, the medicine for all evil, the unshaken, the ambrosia, the immaterial, the imperishable, the abiding, the further shore, the unending, the bliss of effort, the supreme joy, the ineffable, the detachment, the holy city."19
Edward Conze has collected several words describing nirvāņa. He rightly points out that:
17. Samyuttanikaya, IV. 251. Horner's translation in A Survey of Buddhism, p. 61. 18. W. Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, p. 37; Dīghanikāya, vol. I, p. 190. 19. Rhys Davids, Early Buddhism, p. 172; Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, p. 74.
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"Nirvana is called supreme goal. (2) supreme, (3) supreme Good (parama-artha), (4) best (aggam), (5) excellent (seyyo), (6) exalted (praṇīta), (7) utmost (an-uttaram), (8) the one and only consummation, (9) final release (apavagga). The finality of nirvana lies in that "for a disciple rightly delivered, whose thought is calm, there is nothing to be added to what has been done, and naught more remains for him to do. Just as a rock of one solid mass remains unshaken by the wind, even so forms, sounds, smells, tastes and contacts of any kind, no desired or undesired dharmas, can agitate such a one (pavedhenti tädino). Steadfast is his thought, gained is deliverance."20
A man who has realised the Truth or nirvana is called the "seer of Supreme Reality." He is known as the highest being in the world. He is totally free from all calamities, troubles, complexes, passions and worries of this world and beyond. He is joyful, elevated, enjoying the pure life, his faculties pleased, free from anxiety, serene and peaceful."1 Commenting on the nature of a liberated saint W. Rahula
states:
"As he is free from selfish desire, hatred, ignorance, conceit, pride and all such defilements, he is pure and gentle, full of universal love, compassion, kindness, sympathy, understanding and tolerance. His service to others is of the purest, for he has no thought of self. He gains nothing, accumulates nothing, not even anything spiritual, because he is free from the illusion of self, and the thirst for becoming."22
Nirvāņa is a real entity, permanent, pleasant experience, a level of ethical achievement, an impersonal state, a state of self-realization, knowing the absolute and merging into the absolute, a dimension of existence, ultimate truth and universal, super-individual consciousness.23 S.N. Dasgupta rightly holds' the view that nirvana can be described as "a blissful state though there is no distinction here between the bliss and the enjoyer of bliss." He further states, "This state was rightfully called immortal and blissful because it was looked upon by the Buddhists as the end of all suffering, the goal of all spiritual striving and the culmination of spiritual perfection."24 Mrs. Rhys
20. E. Conze, Buddhist Thought in India, p. 76.
21. Majjhimanikāya, II (PTS), p. 121; W. Rahula, What The Buddha Taught, p. 43.
22.
Ibid.
R.E. Johansson, The Psychology of Nirvana, pp. 112-15,
23.
24. S.N. Dasgupta, Hindu Mysticism, p. 90.
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Davids points out that "nirvana is pictured, intellectually as light, insight, truth, higher 'saving' knowledge; emotionally, as happiness, calm, coolness, contentment, good, peace, safety; volitionally, as freedom, self-mastery, supreme opportunity, saintly companionship."" TYPES OF NIRVĀŅA
25
25.
26.
27.
28.
169
Some Buddhist texts refer to the following four types of nirvāṇa. 1. Anadikalika-prakṛti-suddha-Nirvaṇa
"It is pure in itself, provided with numberless and measureless excellent qualities, free from production and destruction, like space, equal (same) and common (sādhāraṇa) for all beings, neither identical nor different from the Dharma (being Dharma itself), free from nimitta and vikalpa, beyond vitarka-vicāra, beyond words, realised within. It is eternally quiescent (prakṛtisanta) Tathata."26
2. Sopadhiseșa-Nirvāṇa (Nirvāņa with residue)
In this state of nirvana, the scripture says:
"A monk is an arahant whose outflows are extinguished, who has lived the life, done what was to be done, laid down the burden, attained his own goal, the fetter of becoming utterly extinguished, released by perfect gnosis. In him the five senses still remain; and as they have not yet departed he experiences through them what is pleasing and displeasing and undergoes happiness and suffering. Whatever is his extinction of passion, of aversion, of confusion, this is called the Nirvaṇa-element with the groups of existence still remaining."27
3. Nirupadhiseṣa-Nirvāṇa (Nirvāņa without residue)
In this state of nirvana the five sense-organs are also pacified. Here all that has been felt, but not delighting him, will become cool. This is called the Nirvāņa element that is without the groups of existence still remaining.28
4. Apratisthita Nirvāņa
The word apratisthita means not-abiding anywhere. 'The Tathāgata is so called because he is not abiding anywhere, his mind has no abode neither in things created nor in things
Mrs Rhys Davids, Buddhism, p. 184; A.K. Lad, The Concept of Liberation in Indian Philosophy, p. 60.
G.C. Pande, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, p. 448.
E. Conze, I.B. Horner et. al., Buddhist Texts Through the Ages p. 96. Ibid.
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uncreated, and yet it is not away from them'. 29 It is the Tathatā assisted by mahākaruņā and mahāprajñā.
Lord Buddha, affirming the sole reality of the truth, says : "There is only one Supreme Truth, O monks, and this is nirvāņa, the infallible dharma."'30 It is beyond the horizon of causes and conditions. It is the Ultimate Good and end of all strains and strivings. All the schools of Buddhism agree with śānta and asamskyta nature of nirvāņa. It means it is eternal and ineffable peace and by nature uncreated. CONCEPTION OF NIRVĀŅA IN ABHIDHARMA SCHOOLS
In the Milindapañho, niryāna is described as something positive, non-temporal and supremely beatific. It can be experienced though not described. Nirvāṇa is infinite bliss, absolutely beyond pains and sufferings. The author maintains that as the water of an ocean cannot be measured, so also the richness of nirvāṇa cannot be described through language. It is the cessation of craving, and consequently, cessation of grasping, becoming, birth, old age, death, lamentation etc.31 For Anuruddhācariya, Nibbāna is eternal, transcendental, supreme, realisable and unique. It is the ārammaņa of the maggaphalas. 32 As G.C. Pande states “Theravāda, thus, throughout its long history, consistently held nibbāna to be positive, experienceable, indescribable and supreme-the most worthwhile."33
Let us see the conception of nirvāņa according to the two main schools of Hinayāna Buddhism-Vaibhāșika and Sautrântika.
Nirvāna is conceived here as of eternal nature (dharma-svabhāva). It is real, everlasting and a positive state of existence. It is impersonal, noumenal and asamskrta-dharma. Pratisamkhyā-nirodha and Apratisamkhyā-nirodha are thus resolved in the concept of nirvāņa or nirodha. Satkari Mookerjee states :
"Pratisamkhyā-nirodha by the removal of kleśas directly unfolds the state of nirvana and the apratisamkhya-nirodha is necessary to ensure the non-emergence of the kleśas by the perpetual removal of the causes and conditions of the same."34
29. 30.
31.
D.T. Suzuki, Studies in the Lankavatārasūtra (London, 1968 reprint), p. 96. After L.M, Joshi, 'Truth: A Buddhist Perspective' in The Journal of Religious Studies, vol. IV (1972), p. 68. Milindapraśna, III. 4-6. Abhidhammattha-sangaho (ed. Kosambi), pp. 124-125. G.C. Pande, op. cit., p. 445. Satkari Mookerjee, Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux, p. 246.
33. 34.
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171
When all the passions are removed from consciousness, it is known as pratisamkhyā-nirodha whereas when they may not arise again and are totally removed for ever it is called apratisamkhyā-nirodha. “It is the complete extinction of the causal efficiency of the elements, and nonproduction of their effects". 35
The Theravādins held nirväng to be negative in character, so it is often referred to by such negative terms as tanhakkhaya, extinction of thirst, asamkhata, uncompounded or unconditioned, virāga, absence of desire, nirodha, cessation, nibbāna, blowing out or extinction. It is that state where all the six elements : solidity, fluidity, heat, motion, space and consciousness disappear. All the sensations become pacified with the dissolution of the body, just as the flame of a lamp goes out when oil and wick give out.36
It is generally understood by many scholars that nirvāṇa is just like the extinguished flame of a lamp when the wick and oil are finished. It is totally wrong to compare nirvāṇa with a fire or a lamp gone out. W. Rahula states : “Here it should be clearly and distinctly understood without any confusion, that what is compared to a flame or a fire gone out is not nirvāņa, but the ‘being' composed of the five aggregates who realized nirvana.''37
These five aggregates are the real constituents for the arising as well as cessation of suffering (dukkha). Lord Buddha himself declares : "within this fathom-long sentient body itself, I postulate the world, the arising of the world, the cessation of the world, and the path leading to the cessation of the world.”:38 Here the word 'world' (loka) is used in place of dukkha.
For the Sautrāntikas also Nirvāna is not a real state. It is the end of passions and life without any positive character. It is the annihilation of momentary manifestations and nothing remains after this annihilation. Stcherbatsky states : “Nirvāņa means only the end of the process of life, without any lifeless substance as the residue or the substratum in which life has been extinguished.”39
Some later Sauträntikas believe that there is no possibility of complete annihilation but they hold in the "survival of subtle con
35.
36. 37. 38. 39.
J.N. Sinha, A History of Indian Philosophy, vol. II, p. 357; A.K. Lad, op. cit., p. 66. W. Rahula, What the Buddha Taught, p. 39. Ibid., pp. 41-42. W. Rahula, op. cit., p. 42. Stcherbatsky, Conception of Buddhist Nirvana, p. 29.
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sciousness merged in the plane of complete quiescence."40
According to the Abhidharmika thinkers, everybody must try for his own nirvana (mukti) as one's main aim is to attain liberation and one should not worry for others. This shows narrow outlook of the Hinayānists. Had this been the main aim of everybody to try for his own liberation, Lord Buddha would not have preached Dharma. Mahāyāna thinkers objected to this narrow outlook of Hinayāna schools. The Mahāyāna ideal is described thus in a verse of the Sikşāsamuccaya, “when fear and pain are hateful to me as to my fellow-beings, what distinguishes my own self that I protect it and not others?''41 The Bodhisattva ideal stresses the necessity of working for the liberation of all beings. A true Bodhisattva gives even his own merits (punya) for removing the pain of others and for the liberation of all living beings.
MAHĀYĀNA INTERPRETATION OF NIRVĀŅA
According to Mahāyāna Lord Buddha propounded two truths. One was conventional or empirical truth (samvștti) and the other absolute Truth (paramārthasatya). One should understand the distinction between the two, as conventional truth is ultimately unreal and false whereas the absolute Truth is the real and the ultimate.
To the question 'what is the use of conventional truth if it is unreal and false?' the Mahāyānist answer is that, that which is unreal is also conventional and it is a means to attain the absolute Truth. It is said that yyavahārasatya is the means, paramārthasat ya is the goal. According to Nāgārjuna, “the absolute truth is not apart from the conventional behaviour and without reaching the absolute Truth, one cannot obtain peace.”:42 According to the Mādhyamikas, it is impossible so speak about the absolute Truth. To say something about the Truth means to determine it, to make the absolute relational.
“The unconditioned" is ultimately not different from "the conditioncd world.” Both fall under the jurisdiction of "dependent origination” (pratitya-samutpāda) understood as Emptiness (śünyatā). 43 The term Emptiness has been used from two standpoints : “Empirically it means Relativity (pratītya-samutpāda) which is phenomena (samsāra),
40. G.C. Pande, op.cit., p. 447. 41. Sikşasamuccaya, verse 1. Tr. by L.M. Joshi, 42. Madhyamakaśāstra, XXIV. 10. 43. Frederick J. Streng, Emptiness --A Study in Religious Meaning, p. 69.
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173 absolutely it means Reality (tattva) which is release from plurality (nirvāṇa)."44
The word Emptiness does not mean void but it means devoid of self or of anything belonging to self (attanīya).45 In conventional usage the very word śünya (empty) shows that which is beyond the power of human expression and this term is meant for absolute Truth. For instance it is stated in the Madhyamaksāstra : "How would that be produced which is empty? How would that be destroyed which is empty ? It logically follows then, that which is empty is not originated and not destroyed."46
Nirvāņa for Nāgārjuna, is without any designation. It is only in conventional or relative terms that one may say something about it but in the ultimate sense, nirvāṇa has been said to be neither eliminated nor attained, neither annihilated nor eternal. Neither disappeared nor originated.
Nāgārjuna holds that there is no difference between nirvāṇa and samsāra from the absolute point of view, since both are empty (śünya). The difference lies only in conventional norms of Truth. The same thing when it is viewed through the glasses of casuality is samsāra, and when casuality is abstracted it is nirvāna. "The universe viewed as a whole, is the Absolute, viewed as a process, it is phenomenal world,"47
For E. Conze, the term Emptiness has its true connotations in the process of liberation. It is purely soteriological term. He further states:
"As a practical term 'emptiness' means the complete denial or negation of this world by the exercise of wisdom, leading to complete emancipation from it. Meditation on "emptiness' serves the purpose of helping us to get rid of this world by removing the ignorance which binds us to it."48
The 'emptiness' which denies any absolute, self-sufficient being, also establishes existence (that is, existence empty of any self-existent reality) through dependent co-origination, emptiness is neither an absolute monism nor nihilism."
44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49.
C.D, Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, p. 86. E. Conze- Bu tuhist Thought in India, p. 59, Visuddhimagga, XXII, 7-10. Frederick J. Streng, op.cit., p. 72, Madhyamakaśastra, XX. 11. Stcherbatsky, The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana, p. 48, E. Conze, op.cit., p. 61Frederick Streng, op.cit, p. 80.
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There are two kinds of emptiness--the first is the emptiness of consciousness that can be attained through concentration. It is also called emptiness of surface consciousness. The second is the emptiness of citta which consists of the constant freedom from the obsessions and includes also the stopping of viññāņa. The second type is nirvāņa or one aspect of it. 50
According to the Mādhyamika school, liberation is possible only through Emptiness (šūnyatā)--by giving up all views, standpoints and predicaments. A.K. Lad states :
“But along with these, the view that everything is sünya, should also be given up. The logic behind it is that Realty is indeterminate, and all attempts to bring it in the thought categories necessarily make it determinate, and to determine the Reality is to negate Reality.”51
Another important school of Mahāyāna is the Yogācāra also called Vijñānavāda. It stresses meditation or yoga. Hence it is called Yogācāra. It expounds the ultimate reality of consciousness only (vijñaptimātratā). Hence it is called Vijñānavāda. Maitreyanātha, Asamga and Vasubandhu were the great philosophers of this school. The basic ideals of Vijñānavāda are found in the Sandhinirmocanasūtra, the Lankavatārasūtra and in the two short treatises on Vijn optimātra1āsiddhi called Vimsatikā and Trimśikā of Vasubandhu.
According to the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda, the only ultimate reality is Consciousness (vijñāna), all else is unreal. The Buddhist texts have used citta or thought, mana or mind, vijñāna or consciousness, and vijñapti or cognition as synonyms. The Vijñāna vādin philosophers distinguish three forms of consciousness.
The first is imaginary consciousness (parikalpita); the second is dependent consciousness (paratantra) and the third is absolute consciousness (parinis panna). The last is identical with Nirvāņa. It is realized when the cosmic illusion is destroyed. In this school Nirvana is described in positive terms like goodness, calmness, holiness, perfect peace, supreme wisdom and freedom etc. It is identified with dharmadhātu and dharmakāya. The yogi who realizes parinispanna vijñāna is freed from the duality of subject and object. The parinispanna consciousness being pure and non-dual transcends all discrimination and thought construction. It is beyond the reach of speech and
50. 51.
Rune E.A. Johansson, The Psychology of Nirvana, p. 37. A,K, Lad, The Concept of Liberation in Indian Philosophy, p. 77.
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THE BUDDHIST DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION discursive reasoning. Thus we see the Vijñānavāda conception of Nirvāṇa is absolut istic and idealistic. It agrees with the Mādhyamika position in stating that the ultimate reality is devoid (śúnya) of all phenomenal attributes. THE NATURE OF NIRVĀŅA
The real nature of Nirvāṇa cannot be described. However, it can be realized. A thing can be described; but Nirvāṇa is neither a thing, nor a nothing. Lord Buddha has said :
"There is no measure to him who has gone to rest; he keeps nothing that could be named. When all dharmas are abolished,
all paths of speech are also abolished.”52 The indescribability of Nirvāṇa has been especially stressed by Nāgārjuna in the following words :
"What is neither released, nor is it ever reached, what neither is annihilation nor is it eternality. What never disappears, nor has
it been created. This is Nirvana."53 Although essentially indescribable, attempts have nevertheless been made to describe Nir vāna, in negative as well as positive terms. We have already reviewed some of negative and positive aspects of Nirvāņa. One of the synonyms of Nirvāṇa is bodhi or Enlightenment. He who realizes Nirvāņa or bodhi becomes a Buddha. With the attainment of Buddhahood, one attains moral perfection, supreme knowledge and the peace that passeth understanding. Dr. L.M. Joshi states :
“The realisation of Enlightenment implies a state of purity and peace. Hence Nirvana is called viśüddhi, bodhi and śänti. The Buddha is called a Buddha because he is a Buddha; Enlightened One, Awakened One. The sta te of Nirvāṇa refers to an ultimate and transcendental reality. This reality is an attributeless Absolute. To know this reality as it is, is to realize bodhi or
Enlightenment. This realization is mystical in character."'54 BUDDHIST CONCEPTION OF THE BUDDHA
The Buddhist word for a liberated being is Buddha. Buddhahood
52. Suttanipāta, verse 1076; E. Conze's rendering in Buddhist Thought in India,
p. 79. 53. Madhyamakaśastra, XXV. 3. Stcherbatsky's translation. 54. L.M. Joshi, "Buddhist Meditation and Mysticism' in Buddhism, Punjabi
University, Patiala, 1969, p. 73.
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includes omniscience. He who has attained Buddhahood knows all that is to be known. In the first place a Buddha acquires five kinds of superknowledges (abhijña). These are as follows:
1. Divine ear (divya-śrota)
2. Divine vision (divya-cakṣu).
3. Knowledge of the thoughts of others (paracitta-jñāna). 4. Memory of the former existences (pūrvanivāsānusmṛti).
5. Knowledge of the destruction of impurities (asravakşayajñāna).
The Buddhists revere the Buddha in the following words:
"He is indeed the Glorious One, the Holy One, Rightly Awakened One, Endowed with perfect wisdom and good conduct, the Well Gone, Knower of the world, Incomparable, Tamer of the men to be tamed; Teacher of gods and men, the Awakened, the Glorious."
These words sum up the moral and spiritual perfections of the Buddha. In many Buddhist texts are described the ten intellectual powers of the Buddha. These powers throw additional light on the attainments of the Buddha. They are as follows:
1. He knows what is possible as possible, and what is impossible as impossible.
2. He knows the ripening of karmas past, present and future.
3. He knows whither all paths (of conduct) lead.
4. He knows the many and various elements or factors of the world (existence).
5. He knows the varieties of individuals.
6. He knows the faculties of other beings, whether quick or
slow etc.
7. He knows the impurity, purity and growth of the trances, releases, concentrations and attainments.
8. He know numberless former existences.
9. With His divine eye, He sees beings passing away and beings reborn according to their karma.
10. With the destruction of the asavas He has of Himself attained and realised release of mind and knowledge in this life and abides in it.55
55. Edward J. Thomas, The History of Buldhist Thought, p. 149.
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.
177
EPITHETS AND ATTRIBUTES OF BUDDHA
The word Buddha means 'knower', 'wise', 'awakened' and 'enlightened'. We have already mentioned that omniscience is an essential content of Enlightenment. The Buddha is in fact called sarvajña or omniscient. Spiritual blindness or ignorance (avidyā) is the root cause of bondage and suffering; bondage and suffering can be eradicated and perfect freedom can be attained by destroying (avidya) through perfect wisdom (prajña). It goes without saying that the Buddhist way to liberation consists primarily of wisdom or knowledge. A Buddha is the embodiment of highest knowledge. Although the word Buddha simply means knower or wise, it has become more or less a peculiar epithet, almost a name, of the historical founder of Buddhism. The Buddha is the knower of Four Holy Truths and Teacher of the truth of Not-self.
The Buddha is called Tathāgata. This word literally means 'thus came' or 'thus gone. According to one tradition He had gone to or come at the same spot (pada) or Nirvāṇa which was reached by the former Buddhas who had preceded Him. In other words Tathāgata means he who has arrived at the ultimate Reality. Dr L.M. Joshi translates the word Tathāgata as the 'Transcendent One'. Another epithet, sugata, means the Well Gone. According to one Buddhist commentator it means the One who has gone in a praiseworthy manner or the One who has become praiseworthy. A most common epithet of Buddha is arhat. This word means a Worthy One, he who has qualified for Nirvāṇa and who is worthy of receiving praise, honour and gifts. Another meaning of the word stresses negative achievements; according to this interpretation one becomes an arhat by killing (han) the enemies (ari) in the form of passions, sins, and defilements (klešas).
In the Buddhist texts hundreds of epithets or attributes of the Buddha are found. Some of these are the Compassionate One (kāruņika), Teacher (śāstā), the Liberated One (mukta), the Glorious One (bhagavant), the Conqueror of death (mārajita), the Self-born (svayambhū), the Holiness embodied (brahmabhūta), Truth Embodied (dharmabhůta) etc. . A perfect Buddha is possessed of ten intellectual powers mentioned above, hence He is called Daśabala. He also possesses four grounds of fearlessness or self-confidence (vaišáradya) due to which no one in the whole universe can blame Him by saying "You claim to be perfectly
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enlightened, but here are things that you do not understand.” A Buddha is always serene, fully conscious and mindful, fearless and having self-confidence due to four vaiśā radyas. These are as follows:
1. He knows that He has attained perfect Enlightenment and
understands all principles and phehomena (dharmāḥ). 2. He knows that He has destroyed all the ā sravas (intoxicants). 3. He knows that the obstacles to the higher life which He has
described, really constitute serious hindrances. 4. He knows that the Way, which He teaches for cessation of
pain and evil (dukkha), really leads to that goal.56 In addition to the ten intellectual powers and four grounds of self-confidence, there are eighteen attributes peculiar to a perfect Buddha. They are called ävenikadharmas. The word āvenika means peculiar, special or extraordinary. These properties called dharmas are not shared by any other being. Hence they are called extraordinary
attributes of a perfect Buddha. A Buddha is distinguished from all • other beings due to these eighteen attributes. They are as follows:
1. He is free from errors and faults. 2. He is not noisy or loquacio us. 3. He never loses mindfulness. 4. His mind is always composed and collected. 5. He has no notion of multiplicity (i.e. He considers the
universe under its aspect of unity and not with reference to
the diversity of phenomena and objects). 6. His equanimity is not due to want of judgement. 7. His will and resolution never falter. 8. His energy is never diminished. 9. His mindfulness is never relaxed. 10. His concentration always remains the same. 11. His wisdom never fails. 12. His deliverance knows no change. 13. All His actions, performed with the body, are preceded by
knowledge and continue to be in accordance with knowledge. 14. All His words and utterances are preceded by knowledge and
continue to be in accordance with knowledge. 15. All His thoughts are preceded by knowledge and continue to
be in accordance with knowledge.
56.
Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, p. 21.
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179
16. He has absolute and infallible knowledge and insight with
regard to the past time. 17. He has absolute and infallible knowledge and insight with
regard to the future. 18. He has absolute and infallible knowledge and insight with
regard to the present (time).57 The greatness of Buddha is acknowledged by all other beings of the universe because of His deep love and great compassion (mahākarunā) for all beings. A Buddha is endowed with mahākarunā, He loves all creatures as His own children. In addition to mahākarunā a Buddha is thoroughly pure and gentle. There is not even the slightest impurity in His thought, word and speech. THE WAY TO NIRVĀŅA
Among the teachings of Buddha, the most important place is occupied by what are called Four Holy Truths. The first two truths, viz. suffering and the genesis of suffering, explain the fact of existence in the samsāra and its cause. The third and fourth Truths declare and outline the practical path of putting an end to the sufferings of the samsāra. The fourth Truth in particular prescribes the technique of attaining Nirvāņa. The Way to Nirvāṇa is called the Middle Way because it transcends the two extremes of indulgence in sense-pleasures and self mortifying austerity.
In the ancient Pali and Sanskrit Buddhist texts the way to Nirvāṇa is often described as Triple Way consisting of morality (śīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (prajñā). This Triple Way was later on worked out into an eightfold way (astāmgamārga). The eight limbs of the way are as follows:
1. Right view (samyak-drsti) 2. Right aspiration (samyak-samkalpa) 3. Right speech (samyak-vāca) 4. Right action (samyak-karman) 5. Right livelihood (samyak-ājīva) 6. Right effort (samyak-vyāyāma) 7. Right mindfulness (samyak-smrti) 8. Right concentration (samyak-samadhi)
It will be seen that the Way embodies intellectual, moral and mystical elements which constitute the essentials of the Buddhist road
57.
Ibid., p. 23.
. 23.
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to spiritual perfection.
Right view means right philosophy of life. Buddhism considers false views and perverted opinions as positive hindrance to liberation. Knowledge of the Four Holy Truths constitutes right view. Right aspiration or resolution consists in the strong desire to attain liberation. It also includes sustained zeal for removing all fetters on the path of liberation. Right speech means truthful and meaningful speech. It also implies avoidance of falsehood, backbiting, malicious, useless and impolite speech. Right action means morally good actions of body, speech and mind. Right livelihood means earning one's living by just means. It prohibits unlawful and immoral means of livelihood such as killing animals, cheating and theft. Right effort is to work continuously for the purification of one's own heart, to stop evil tendencies and cultivate meritorious deeds. A verse in the Dhammapada states that to do no evil, to accomplish good, and to purify one's own heart; this is the teaching of the Buddhas. 58
A very important word in the entire range of Buddhist literature is “mindfulness' (Pali sati, Sanskrit smrti). In a famous discourse known as the Satipatthānasuita, recorded both in the Digha and the Majjhima-nikayas, the Buddha says:
"This, O monks, is the only way for the purification of beings, for overcoming suffering and lamentation, for the destruction of suffering and grief, for reaching the right path, for the attainment of nirvana, namely the four stations of mindfulness
(smrtyupasthāna)."59 The four stations of mindfulness are :
1. mindfulness concerning the activities of the body (kāya), 2. mindfulness with regard to feelings (vedanā), 3. mindfulness with regard to the activities of consciousness
(citta), and 4. mindfulness concerning objects, ideas, conceptions, percep
tions etc. (dharma). Without mindfulness concentration is impossible and without concentration the real nature of
things cannot be known. Dr L.M. Joshi remarks:
"Mindfulness is a power, a process which transforms human
58. Dhammapada, verse 183, 59. Dīghanikaya, vol. II, pp. 217f.
Majihimanikāyo, vol. I, pp. 76.
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181
personality and leads from ignorance to knowledge. It implies awareness, vigilance, recollection, remembrance, and promotes tranquillity of mind."60
The eighth and the last limb of the Middle Way is called right concentration (samādhi). Buddhism has laid special stress on mind control and cultivation of trances. The purpose of dhyāna or samādhi is not only to bring about one-pointedness of the mind but also to purify it of all impurities. Usually four stages of concentration are taught in the Buddhist sources. 62
1. In the first stage, the meditator feels joy and happiness by
avoiding evil desires, unlawful thoughts, false ideas, fear, doubt and worries etc. Here the meditator is devoid of
perverted thoughts, wrong notions and sensual desires. 2. In the second stage one-pointedness of mind is developed by
discarding intellectual activities, the feelings of joy and good thoughts are still there and intuition is more powerful in the
second stage. 3. In the third stage equanimity, mindfulness and bliss are
retained while the feelings of joy disappear. 4. In the fourth stage of dhyāna all states of happiness, joy,
sorrow, sensation are destroyed. It is devoid of inspiration, reflection, pain, pleasure and joy etc. Here the meditator
experiences only tranquillity and equanimity. FAITH
The Pali word saddhā, Sanskrit śraddhā is often translated into English as faith. Faith has been described by the Buddha as the 'seed' of religious life. Faith in the Buddha and in His teachings is the first step in the Buddhist way of life. It is important, however, to note that Buddha had condemned blind faith in any given dogma or customary practice. Faith is an intellectual as well as emotional virtue. A person will have to verify for himself the truthfulness of Buddha's teachings; one of the cardinal tenets of Buddhism is that each one must 'see' and “know the dharma by himself. But at the initial stage one has to accept the doctrinal formulas on faith. Religious faith relating as it does to the ultimate concern, influences all the other concerns of
60. L.M. Joshi, 'Buddhist Meditation and Mysticism' in Buddhism, Punjabi
University, Patiala, 1969, p. 68. Dharmasamgraha, Section 72; Lalitavistara (ed. BST-1), p. 90.
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human life. A passage in the Pali Canon states that :
"Faith is the best treasure of man; through it one crosses the flood. For those who had faith was the gateway to immortality open.
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In the Mahāyānasutras faith is eulogized to a still greater extent. A sutra quoted in the ślkṣāsamuccaya declares that faith is the supreme vehicle (śraddha hi paramam yānam). An influential sect of the Mahāyāna, still popular in the Far East and centred around the cult of Amitabha Buddha, is largely based on faith and devotion. Faith thus became an important strand in the Buddhist Way to Nirvāņa. THE BODHISATTVA'S WAY
In the Mahayana form of Buddhism the way to Nirvana has been universalized. The Mahayana thinkers have emphasized the great compassion of the Buddha. They have rightly pointed out that the Buddha propagated His teachings out of compassion for the world of living beings, for the benefit of all beings and for the happiness of all beings (bahujana hitāya bahujana sukhāya lokānukampāya). They sought to establish the equality of all beings on spiritual and metaphysical grounds. The fact that all beings seek happiness, fear death, and hate suffering shows that all beings are equal and they all deserve equal treatment. The doctrine of not-self further strengthened this argument. When all beings are without an enduring and substantial self, there can be no justification for seeking individual liberation; egoistical effort is, therefore, wrong and based on false views. A trully religious being must seek his liberation in and through the liberation of all beings. Such a being is called a bodhisattva; his will is fixed on Enlightenment; he is destined to become a Buddha. But he works for the safety and happiness of all other beings. He takes upon himself the task of universal liberation. He wants to attain Nirvana for the sake of deliverance of all the beings. In order to fulfil this task he practices certain moral and spiritual virtues to their perfection. These perfect virtues are called pāramitās. They are ten viz :
1. The perfection of liberality (dāna-pāramitā) 2. The perfection of morality (śīla-pāramitā) 3. The perfection of patience (kṣānti-pāramitā) 4. The perfection of energy (virya-pāramitā) 5. The perfection of meditation (dhyāna-pāramitā)
62. Samyuttanikaya, I. 214; G.C. Pande, op. cit., p. 522.
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6. The perfection of wisdom (prajñā-paramitā) The four supplementary pāramitās are as follows: 7. Skilfulness in means (upāya-kausalya) 8. Aspiration or resolution (pranidhana) 9. Strength or power (bala) and 10. Knowledge (jñāna).63
It will be an error to suppose that the Buddhists of later times discarded the practice of self-reliance and individual efforts in the direction of ultimate release. As a matter of fact the Bodhisattva's career stressed the doctrine of self-reliance but it universalized the meaning and perspective of self-reliance. It stressed the unity of life and the unity of Buddhahood. This concept of unity was given a concrete manifestation by the career of the Bodhisattvas who found their own liberation in the liberation of all other beings.
63. Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism, p. 465; Har Dayal, The
Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, p. 168.
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THE SIKH DOCTRINE OF LIBERATION
PRELIMINARY REMARKS
Although Sikhism shares many features in common with Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, in certain respects it differs from them significantly. Thus it does not accept the Vedic śruti as an authority. The worship of many gods and goddesses, so characteristic of Vedic and Puranic-Brahmanism, is also set aside. The classification of society into four orders and socio-religious distinctions among men and women based on this classification are also rejected. In these matters, Sikhism falls in line with religious ideologies of Śramanic origin. But as a monotheistic system Sikhism differs from Śramanic religions rather radically. As is well-known, the conception of one God is at the centre of the Sikh faith, whereas Śramanic religions are decidedly non-theistic.
While Sikhism inherited several features of the Hindu religious tradition, it also distinguished its doctrines and practices in the light of the teachings of Guru Nanak and his successors. Thus the monotheistic doctrine, the practice of bhakti, the importance of teacher (guru) and the general world-view are common to Sikhism and theistic Hinduism. Sikhism traces its origin to the teachings of Guru Nanak (1469-1538).
The Sikhs believe in the reality of God as revealed by Guru Nanak to his followers. He is, therefore, considered to be the first Teacher of Sikhism. The same doctrine was taught also by subsequent nine teachers. The office of the guru ended with Guru Gobind Singh who declared that the Adi Granth should hence on be considered as the teacher and the guide of the Sikhs. The religious poetry (gurbāni) collected in the Adi Granth constitutes the Sikh scripture. It is well-known that the Adi Granth contains the religious compositions not only of the Sikh Gurus but also of several other Hindu and Muslim saint-poets such as Namadeva, Ravidasa, Farīd and Kabir etc. The emergence of Sikhism in the 15th century may be viewed as an important event in the history of the bhakti movement and
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medieval Indian theology. In the following pages we will analyse the Sikh concept of ultimate release within the framework of the religious and theological beliefs of Sikhism.
DOCTRINE OF ONE GOD
In the beginning of the Ādi Granth, we are confronted with a mystical and wonderful description of God in what is called the mülamantra the text of which reads thus :
Ik onkār satināmu kartā purakhu nirbhau nirvairu
akāl mūrari ajüni saibhang gur prasadi. "God is one; His name is truth; He is the creator; without fear and without ill-will; timeless reality, the unborn, self-existent (to be realized through) the blessings of the Teacher.'
Sikhism, like Islam, stresses the absolute unity of Godhead. The word ik in the mülamantra signifies that God is one and rejects the plurality of gods. Thus, monotheism is a basic principle of Sikhism.
In one of his hymns, Guru Nanak describes God in his absolute aspect before the creation of the world. He says, in the beginning, incalculable aeons ago, there was complete darkness everywhere, when there was neither the earth nor the sky. His will (hukumu) prevailed infinitely; there was neither the day nor the moon, nor the sun; there was neither food nor speech, nor air nor water; there was neither origin nor decay, neither coming in nor going out, th neither Brahmā, nor Visnu, nor Mahesa; no one else could be seen
That One (ekosoi) in emptiness trance (sunn samadhi). The principle of unity of God is emphasised in the compositions of all Gurus. It is said that the One is manifest, the One is hidden, the One is mystery.2
The Sikh canon uses Rām, Hari, Gobind, Prabh, Brahm, Murari and Suāmi etc. for God. These words are well known to us in the earlier Brāhmanical literature where they are names of God or of his incarnations. In Sikhism these words are used for the one God who is called (ikonkär). In several places in the Granth, God is called pāra-brahma. This means the transcendental divinity, that is described as without any attributes (nirguna).
Guru Nānak stresses the unity of God when he says : . "Think upon the one who is contained in everything."
1. 2.
Adi Granth, vol. III, p. 1035. Adi Granth, vol. IV. p. 1215.
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The same unity is described as omnipresent by Guru Rāmdās :
"Thou, O God, art in everything and in all places”. 3 Bhai Gurdās uses the word ekankāru in the sense of one God and says that onkār form has issued from the sound of ekankār. According to Trilochan Singh, the word ekankār symbolises the Absolute God while the word onkār symbolises the creative force. In many places in the Sikh scripture, God is described as formless (nirankāra). God is eternally peaceful and formless (tū sadā salāmati nirankāra). This fits in well with the view that God assumes no form as is taught in the Brāhmanical Puräņas.
The other word in the mūlamantra which deserves a brief comment is satināmu. In the Pali canon, sacca-nāma? is used as an epithet of the Supreme Buddha. In this usage, the word Buddha does not refer to any human Buddha; sacca-nāma is a name of the Transcendental Truth (paramartha-satya) which is another name of Buddhahood. The Punjabi word satināmu is likewise used as an attribute of God, the ultimate reality. It does not admit of an easy translation into English; it may mean His name is true, or Truth is His name or Real is His name.
In the beginning of the Japu, Guru Nanak refers to God as Truth (sac) which exists in all ages and is eternal. One of the words for God is akāl (Sanskrit akāla) which means Timless. God is often called akāl purakhu, “the Timeless Person'. This means that He is beyond the three divisions of time, past, present, and future.
The epithet karatā purakhu, 'Creator-Person', signifies the creative aspect of God. Sikhism believes in the creation of the world and its beings by God. This implies the fatherhood of God as well as the brotherhood of mankind. All beings are His creatures. As we shall see below the creatorship of God implies His control over the world. The word hukamu which means decree, order, rule, command, or will, is suggestive of God's government. God is the governor of the whole world which is His creation. It is said in the Ādi Granth that God created the world through hukamu, He maintains it through hukamu
3. Cf. M.A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, vol. ), introduction p. LXUI. 4. Vārān Bhai Gurdas, XXXVI. 2.
Tirlochan Singh, 'Theological Concepts of Sikhism' in Sikhism, Punjabi
University, 1969, p. 53. 6. A di Granth, vol. I, p. 4. 7. Anguftaranikāya, vol. III, p. 61, saccanāmo anuttaro. For this reference, I am
indebted to Dr L.M. Joshi.
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TI
and watches it through hukamu.8
The destiny of the whole creation depends upon God's will or hukumu. All are subject to His will. The glory or power of God is thus visualized in His creation. The Guru describes the majestic power of God when he says :
Hukamai andar sabh koi, bāhar huk amu na koi. All are under the Divine will, none is out of Divine will. He further says:
Jo tis bhāvi soi hoi, whatever He wills, happens. The will of God is the divine law which controls the whole creation and is thus responsible for its preservation and regulation.
The words nirbhau and nirvairu describe God's power and glory. God is fearless, that is to say, He is almighty. He is devoid of ill-will, that is to say, He is friendly and merciful. Though God is sometimes. described as attributeless, in one of His aspects He certainly has attributes and good qualities in abundance. In other words, God is endowed with perfect attributes (saguna).
The word akāl-mūrati literally means 'Eternal Image'; but as the Sikhs believe that God is without any image or form, this epithet has to be understood in the sense of “Timeless Reality'. The term kāl (Sanskrit kāla) means time; it also means death. God is timeless and deathless. In this latter sense, God is immortal (amar), a perfection which follows from His being unborn.
The word ajūni (Sanskrit ayoni) means unborn; it represents the eternal nature of God. It is stated that God has no father or mother. He is born of none. He has no form or features, nor does He belong to any of the varņas. He feels no hunger or thirst. He is ever satisfied. Because He is unborn, so He is free from all conditions that govern those who are born.
The term saibhang glorifies God as self-existent. It is a Prakrit or Punjabi form of Sanskrit svayambhu and means 'He who is self-born' or 'who has come into existence by Himself'. In other words, God is causa sui, that is, self-caused. God is unborn and eternal. He is the First Cause from which everything proceeds; that which is uncaused and is eternally existent is saibhang or svayambhủ.9
He is the creator and cause of everything. All things emanate
8. 9.
Adi Granth, vol. IV, p. 1243. Dr L.M. Joshi points out that the word svayambhū as an epithet of Buddha occurs already in the Saddharmapundarikasūtra, I. 67.
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from Him. Nothing else is self-existent or self-caused. God alone possesses self-existenee. He who understands God's self-existence and His omnipresence is known as a giāni, knower.
The last term in the mülamantra suggests that God can be realized through the blessings of the Guru (gurprasādi). The word prasāda means graciousness, kindness, favour, aid, meditation, free gift, gratuity, the food presented to a deity or the remnants of food left by a spiritual teacher etc. In the mülamantra, it means God's graciousness, Divine pleasure, mercy or blessing. It is through the blessings of Guru that one attains liberation, peace and everlasting joy;10 one attains great pleasure through the sight of God.11
The Sikh writers translate the word prasáda as 'grace'. Dr L.M. Joshi suggests a distinction between grace in Christianity and prasāda in Sikhism. He suggests that in Christianity grace is an attribute of God, it is a theological concept in Christianity. God, according to the Christian belief, bestows grace unasked and even the sinners are saved. The concept of prasāda is related to bhakti or loving devotion to God who showers blessings on His devotees when pleased. The word prasāda means kirpā (krpä), daiā (dayā), karuņā or anugraha. This last word means 'to favour', 'to support', 'to uphold', 'to treat with kindness'. To give prasāda means to give favour and to receive with compassion. The devotees have to earn the merit which consists in pleasing God.
It is clear that God is saguna as well as nirguņa. He is the creator of the world and is immanent in it, but He is also transcendent to it.
BONDAGE ACCORDING TO SIKHISM
The fact that human beings are involved in the round of transmigration constitutes their bondage. They are not only fallen into the profound abyss of conditioned existence, the hallmark of which is suffering, they are also ignorant of their unconditioned existence which is characterized by Divine bliss. Furthermore, the beings in bondage do not know the way out of their conditioned existence and because of this ignorance they multiply their sufferings and prolong their journeying through the mire of repeated becoming, This, in short, is the meaning of bondage (bandhana). There are repeated references to bondage, its causes and consequences, in the
10. 11.
Adi Granth, vol. III, p. 841. Ibid., vol. I, p. 289.
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Sikh canon.
According to Sikhism, the basis of our conditioned existence is the notion of 'I-ness' or 'my-ness' (haumai) which is due to māyā and ignorance. If a man works in accordance with the will of God, fully ignoring his own personal ego, the notion of 'I-ness' ceases and the path opens towards realization of God. Suffering and bondage can be eliminated from one's life if one cuts the knot of ignorance and destroys haumai because it is the prime cause of human bondage
Impelled by egoism a man does sinful activities and these sinful activities lead to birth in samsára. According to Guru Nānak, it is haumai, egoism, self-centredness, the notion of I-ness, that causes separation of the individual being from the Supreme Being. The underlying concept of haumai epitomizes the condition of worldly existence. According to the Sikh Gurus, the man under the influence of haumai, 'comes and goes' that is, transmigrates. It is haumai that inspires a man in chain of birth and death, in giving and taking, in receiving and spending. A man speaks truth and tells lies, he pays regard to virtue and evil both, it is all due to haumai.12 The fetters of ego or false pride cause man to wander in the world again and again because the ultimate truth cannot be known by the practice of egoism. It has been said.
“As an iron rod is thrown into a furnace, melted and recast, so is he who fastens his affections on māyā incarnated again and again. Without understanding (the divine word), all he gathers is suffering upon suffering. (Through the influence of) haumai he transmigrates and wanders in doubt."13
The Guru further points out that desire increases day and night and the greedy persons are diseased by egoism.14
Allied to haumai in nature and function is avid yā or agian. The notion of avidyā or ignorance includes all worldly concerns and attachment to wealth, honour, comfort, power, women and sons etc. and draws a self-willed person (manmukh) into the region of fourfold passions known as lust, greed, anger and pride. Thus the man engulfed by avidyā forgets God and accepts unreal as real in which he transmigrates in the world continuously. W.H. McLeod points out the
13.
A di Granth, vol. II, p. 466. Adi Granth, vol. II, p. 752. Tr. by W.H, McLeod, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion, p. 181. A di Granth, vol. I, p. 20.
14.
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evil function of māyā in the following words :
“Blinded by ignorance (agiān, avidyā), led astray by doubt (bhram), and forgetfulness (bhulekha), he accepts the world at its own valuation. But it is māyā, it is fraud (kapat), a deceit (chhal) untruth (kür, jhuth), a snare (jāl) and the penalty for accepting it is inexorable. By accepting it man involves himself in dubidha, in 'duality'in all that stands in opposition to union, in that separation which must divide the self-willed manmukh from God."15
Those who are charmed by worldly attractions and supernatural powers, forget the true Lord and must inevitably entangle in the cycle of birth and death. The man deluded by māyā, dragged by untruth, ruined by passions and desires commits such evil actions as highlight his transmigratory process. The Guru states :
“The fool revelleth in māyā and knoweth not. 'I earn, I gather', sayeth he, and so passeth his whole life, he is deluded by false mind."16
It is further stated that without the love of God all involvements create bondage.
"Bondage binds the worshippers of māyā. One who is karmrat i.e. goes the way of works, carries a heavy load of ego. For he loveth not the Lord and his deeds turn into sins.":}?
The notion of egoity (haumai) is rooted in agian or avidyā which produces several major evils and passions such as sensuality (kām), wrath (krodh), avarice (lobh), infatuation (moh) and pride (man). These evil passions in addition to addiction to sense pleasures (bikhiasakat, vişayā.śakti) and sense of egoism build the ground for samsāra. All these passions, emotions and evil inclinations produce pain and misery. They are the enemies of spiritual life.
The aforesaid five passions viz, sensuality, anger, greed, infatuation and pride are called 'five thieves' by the Guru.18 One suffers in transmigration when one is entangled by these five theives. These evil passions are always present in worldly beings in one form or the other, and are difficult to control. All the beings of samsāra even gods, men and demons, have been robbed by these evils. As the Guru states these five (evils) are hidden in our mind.
15. 16. 17. 18.
W.H. McLeod, Gurū Nanak and the Sikh Religion, p. 186. Adi Granth, vol. 1, p. 233. Tr. by Gopal Singh, vol. I, p. 242.
Ibid, vol. I, p. 241 Tr. by Gopal Singh, p. 252. A Ji Granth, vol. IV, p. 1201.
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The notion of ownership (mamatā) with regard to worldly concerns such as father, mother, wife, sons and wealth etc. promotes bondage. The Guru has declared the following:
"Entanglements are mother, father and whole world ; Entanglements are sons, daughters and women ; Entanglements are religious ceremonies performed through
ostentation ; Entanglements are sons, wives and worldly love in the mind."19
Those who have forgotten the Almighty God, indulge in sensual pleasures and are impelled by egotistic attitude, are known as manmukh. The ego-centric idea in man is the main cause of his forgetting the Lord. The Guru remarks that a manmukh remains in the process of constant coming and going and is ruined (manmukhi binsai āvai jāi.)20 SIKH WAY TO LIBERATION : NĀMSIMRAN
The Sikh Gurus have also outlined the path to deliverance from bondage. This path seeks to eradicate avidyā, haumai and all the evils; it also seeks to effect the union of the individual soul with the Eternal Spirit (akāl purakh); this union is sought to be effected chiefly through the agency of loving devotion to God.
Sikhism is therefore predominantly devotional. God is the first and foremost object of devotion and adoration. The Sikh way to liberation is thus primarily a way of bhakti, loving devotion to God. The heart of this devotion is the practice of nāmsimran, constant mindfulness of God's name. Since God is formless and no image of His is permissible, to remember Him through His name is a convenient means of communicating with God.
The medieval sant-poets unanimously held that in the kali age repeating God's name alone can liberate one. Tulasidāsa believed that the fruit of nāma is similar to the fruits of desire-yielding tree (kalpataru) and said that nama is the abode of weal and the only succour of beings in the kali age. 21 This view is stressed by the Sikh Gurus also. Guru Tegh Bahādur says that in this kali age, liberation is possible only through remembrance of nām. Bhāi Gurdās upholds the same belife and says that there is no refuge or safety without devotion to God. Therefore, in this dark age, nām alone is praiseworthy22
19. M.A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, vol. I, p. 316. 20. Adi Granth, vol. II, p. 937. 21. Rāmcaritamanasa, pp. 11-14; A di Granth, vol. III, p. 831. 22. Vārān Bhai Gur..ās, 1.16.
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In Sikhism nāmsimran is the loving remembrance of God's true name (satnām) as instructed by the true Guru (satguru). The Guru states that nothing is eternal except the name of God. In the name of God is the eternal joy. It is the key to one's deliverance and the way. All types of knowledge, austerity and powers are included in the constant remembrance of God's name. The Ādi Granth declares that “Mercy, peace, riches, nine treasures, wisdom and all miraculous powers, knowledge, austerity and yoga are all in the remembrance of the Lord's name.”23
The extreme importance of nam is recognized with the blessing of guru and guru is called the ship to cross the ocean of samsāra. The true name (satnām) when given by a true guru and fully practised with spiritual discipline reveals the light of God.
"In the Name I reside, the Name resides in the mind; without the guru, darkness prevails, without His word there is no illumination; through the guru's Wisdom His Light is revealed.”24
Guru kā sabad and nāmjapnä are both fundamental factors of the pathway to liberation. Both are interconnected and paye the way for God-realization. A man may perform many types of rituals and ceremonies, read many sacred books, and practise noble virtues such as charity, piety and austerity, but all these are inferior to nāmjapnā, muttering God's name.
"All thy meditation, austerity, knowledge, meditations, The discourse on the six śästras and the smritis, The discipline of yoga, the way of works, Renunciation and wandring about in the woods, And the kinds of efforts done, And deeds of charity and piety and oblation to the sacred fire, And cutting up of the body and offering each bit as a sacrifice, And keeping of fasts and other deeds of merit. These all equal not meditation on God's name, Nānak, through the Guru, dwell thou then on the Lord's Name
for once."25 Guru Nanak believes that of all the religions, meditation on God's name is the noblest one, and through constant meditation on God's name one is able to purify one's heart. Of all the works or
23. Ā di Granth, p. 295 Tr. by Gopal Singh, p. 288. 24. Ibil., vol. I, p. 53. 25. Ibid., p. 265. Tr. by Gopal Singh, p. 256.
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deeds, it is the best one.26 In Sikhism greater importance is given to the contemplation of God's name than to all the other forms of devotion. The Guru remarks :
"Happiness cometh to him who meditateth on the word, perfect happiness to him who is imbued with God--were I to perform hundreds of thousands and millions of religious cere
monies, all would not be equal to Gods's name.”:27 And one is indeed saved through the name. Guru Nānak says that "they who forget not the nām, and who act according to the word shall be delivered."23
What is meant by the remembrance of nām or sabad ? Is it mere repetition of God's name or something else? The doctrine of nām
imran does not appear to mean merely repetition of God's name; it needs total commitment to God by feeling and realising His presence at every moment in one's life and at all places in the world. It also includes worship of and wholehearted devotion to God in such a way that the true devotee of nām always feels oneness with God. Nam is a symbol of God's mystery and majesty.
The practice of nāmsimran is like the aesthetic experience which can never be described; the practice of nāmsimran is possible through development of devotional outlook under the guidance of a teacher. In fact, the sacred sabad or nām is a kind of mantra which is usually imparted by the teacher. In Sikhism, Guru Nānak, is the first teacher who imparted this mantra. The subsequent nine gurus continued the same tradition.
The guru therefore plays an important role in the process of realisation of God and attainment of liberation. The Adi Granth states that the vision of the guru is the pathway to liberation.20 Guru is called the father, the mother, the master and the god of gods.30 To discriminate between real teacher and false teacher, the term sat guru is used in Sikhism. Satguru means the true guru commissioned by God to propagate the dharma in the world. The guru is the dispeller of darkness and revealer of light. He is the teacher of God's glory and righteous way of life.
26. 27. 28. 29. 30.
Ibid., p. 266. M.A. Macauliffe, op. cit., vol. I, p. 273. lbid., p. 275. Adi Granth, vel. II, p. 361. ibid., vol. I, p. 262.
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Thus the true guru knows the mysterious power of inner life and he can produce the light within man's heart. Without guru, one cannot get divine knowledge. All the evil passions such as anger, deceit, greed and sensuality are destroyed with the help of true guru and thus final peace is attained. The numberless sins of the past life are washed away with constant remembrance of guru's word.
“The Guru's word erases the blot of thousands of evil deeds of the past, and the greatest sinner can become the greatest saint."31
There is no difference between the word (sabad) and the guru. Both are one and the same. The image of the guru is reflected through word (sabad). Bhāi Gurdās states that :
"In the word is the guru and the guru is in the word”.
The light of the guru is seen and all evil passions depart when the devotee dives deep into the spiritual music of word called the ‘unstruck sound' (anahad-sabad). The concept of unstruck sound is found also in the writings of Buddhist siddhas and hathayogins.
The sabad stands for nām and often it is linked with guru's word called guru kā sabad. The anahad-sabad according to the Nāthapantha is a soundless sound (unstruck-music), a mystical voice, audible to those who have reached the climax of hathayoga technique. In the highest state of spiritual development, one realizes the anahad-sabad or anāhat-sabda.
The word (sabad) or nām is the total expression of all that is final Truth, satinām. The veil of darkness can be removed illumination of satinām.
“He who meditates on the true name by means of the guru's word is accepted in the true court (of God) as a true follower of the guru."32
Although, the concept of hukamu is basic to Sikh theology, the acceptance of the doctrine of karma by Sikh Gurus seems to make room for possibility of free will of an individual within the general framework of the Divine Will. In the Japu the Guru says that it is karma which results in high or low birth, but it is through blessing that liberation is attained :
"Karma determines the nature of our birth (lit. the cloth), but it is through blessing that the door of salvation is found.33"
31. 32. 33.
Ibid., vol. IV, p. 1165. A di Granth, vol. II, p. 355. Tr. by McLeod, op. cit., p. 196. A di Granth, vol. I, p. 24.
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But this God's blessing is possible only for those who work in accordance with the order of God. The Guru says that "the blessing of the Master is on those who have meditated on Him with single mind, and they have found favour in His heart" 34
Thus the Sikh theory of karma requires of a man complete submission to the hukamu of God. Liberation can be achieved by God's blessing which is expressed by the guru in the word, and by one's own effort to cleanse oneself from all evils; one can purify one's life through devotion to God.
INTEGRATION OF KARMA, BHAKTI AND JÑANA
In Sikhism we find an integration of the three modes of yoga well known to older religions. Already the Buddha had stressed knowledge (jñāna) and good karma. The Bhagavadgītā had sought to integrate and harmonize jñāna, karma and bhakti. The older Upanisads also contain seeds of these three paths. Some Upanisads stressed knowledge of the atman or brahman as sufficient for reaching the Brahmaloka. Śamkara also emphasized knowledge and held that one could attain release by knowing the Self. The Sikh Gurus, while laying special emphasis on bhakti, sought to effect an integrated approach (mārga) to ultimate release.
The Sikh conception of a yogin is found in the following words:
"Make contentment and modesty thine ear-rings, self-respect thy wallet, meditation the ashes to smear on thy body; make they body, which is only a morsel for death, thy beggar's coat, and faith thy note of life and thy staff".35
According to the Sikh Gurus, bhakti is the real pathway to God. It is a type of yoga which unites a true devotee with God. The sayings of the Guru are the source of divine inspiration and devotion. One who follows the Guru with full devotion, realises God. Devotion (bhakti) demands complete self-surrender unto the teacher and the will of God. A devotee does not question the Will of God. He is fully satisfied with the love of God.
True devotion needs complete faith in guru and God and Sikhism demands frofound faith in both God and guru. An eminent Sikh scholar says that "Absolute faith in the guru is the first requiste of Sikhism".36 The principle of love is closely associated with faith and
34. Ibid., vol. I, p. 20.
35. M.A. Macauliffe, op. cit., vol. I, p. 212.
36.
Bhai Jodh Singh, Lectures on Sri Guru Granth Sahib, p. 52.
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devotion. The following passage shows the tremendous importance of love in God-realization :
"He who worships the True One with adoring love, who thirsts for the supreme love, who beseeching cries out, he it is who finds peace for in his heart is love."37
Love is thus an essential element of devotional path. The Gurus attach great importance to true knowledge. True knowledge, they say, is nothing but the realization of God through the 'word' of guru. Knowledge is the sword of the seeker with which he fights all his inner enemies. The man who is a follower of the 'word' is compared to a lotus flower which grows in water. Guru Nānak states :
"As the lotus flower remains unattached to water though flourishing in it, like a duck swimming in the river, so we should cross the worldly ocean by keeping our attention fixed on the word,"38
The inner enemies are the evil passions and sinful desires which stand between God and man. These are destroyed by devotion. Sikhism is not an ascetic religion. There is no clear-cut division between home-life and home-less life of devotees. A Sikh devotee should live in society, usually as a householdar, and earn his living by good actions, fulfilling all his social responsibilities, he should take care of his physical and spiritual needs.
MORAL SIDE OF THE WAY TO LIBERATION
Morality is an essential factor in the spiritual life of man. Morality consists in pure and simple heart. Guru gives great importance to the moral character of a man, The importance and greatness of a man can be judged by how he acts in accordance with truth and moral character. One must speak the truth and realize truth within. The truth certainly lies in one's heart. The essence of virtues lies in realizing truth within the heart. The outstanding importance of truth in Sikhism may be seen in the following verse :
“Truth is the medicine for all, it removeth and washeth away sin. Nānak maketh supplication to those who are in possession of truth.”29 In Sikhism ascetic way of life is rejected but the value of ascetic
37. 38. 39.
A di Granth, p. 505; W.H, Mcleod, op. cit., 213. M. A. Macauliffe, op.cit., p. 171. Ibid., p. 232.
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virtues in social life is affirmed. Guru Nānak praised the life of a householder whereas he condemned bogus ascetics, those who depend upon others and become a burden to the householders.. The Guru taught that instead of renouncing the world, we should renounce worldliness, instead of begging alms and food, we should beg love from the Lord.
The seeker of God must cultivate virtues like mercy, forbearance, truth, contentment, love, faith, tolerance, etc. Addressing the priestly brāhmaṇas wearing sacrificial thread ( janeu), the Guru says :
"Make mercy thy cotton, contentment thy thread, continence its knot, truth its twist. That would make a janeu for the soul, if thou have it, o brâhmuna, then put it on me.”:40
The Sikh Guru have praised the virtues of renunciation and detachment. The seeker of God must be detached from worldliness while living in the world.
“The path of true yoga is found by dwelling in God while yet living in the midst of the world's temptations."41
Humility and forgiveness are also highly praised virtues in Sikhism. One attains liberation when one is fully equipped with humility, truth, love and devotion. Moderation is also often stressed. Everything in the world should be moderate. Guru Gobind Singh teaches that one should eat little, sleep little and must have love, compassion and forgiveness.
According to Guru Nanak, continence, understanding, divine knowledge, fear of God, austerity, love of God, repeating God's name, these are the virtues of a man on whom God looks with favour.
THE IDEAL OF A GURMUKH
The Guru and the Sikh are the two legs on which the superstructure of practical Sikhism stands. The Guru is the guide, friend and philosopher. His teaching is the foundation of religious practice. The Sikh is the disciple, the follower of the path laid down by the Guru. A true Sikh is called a gurmukh, he who is turned toward God, he who is turned toward the Teacher ; a pious, devout and religious Sikh is called a gurmukh.
In the Adi granth, a true Sikh is generally known as gurmukh, one who intentionally follows the will of the true Guru.
40. M. A Macauliffe, op. cit., vol I, p. 238. 41. Adi Granth, p. 730 ; W.H. McLeod, op. cit., p. 211
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A true Sikh or gurmukh is an ideal man who is an embodiment of truth, goodness and spiritual peace. The follower of gurmat is called a gurmukh; gurmat is the path of Guru, the ideal path for God-oriented Sikhs to follow. Every gurmukh must practise the following cardinal virtues for the realization of God: truth (sac), contenment (santokh), reflection (vicar), compassion (daya), righteousness (dharma), charity (dan), faith (sidak), tolerance (sabar), restraint (sañjam), forgiveness (khimā), humility (garibi), service (sevā), love, knowledge (giān) and work (krit).42
According to Guru Nānak, a gurmukh enjoys eternal peace and freedom i.e. mukti, but a manmukh, who is a self-centred and selfwilled man, is bound by lower passions. He has no regard for spiritual values but is mainly concerned with the enjoyment of bodily pleasures. The gurmukh is a divinely enlightened man having unflinching faith in the existence of God and the guru. A gurmukh enjoys freedom and bliss whereas a manmukh perishes in the cycle of birth and death.
A morally perfect gurmukh is viewed as a jīvanmukta, liberated in this very life; he radiates moral virtues like truth, purity, devotion and love. He is considered greater than a yogi who leads ascetic life without understanding the meaning of holy life. According to Guru Nānak, liberation can be attained while living the life of a householder by the practice of truth, moderation in all the activities and by meditation on God. The external symbols of a yogi like patched cloak, begging bowl, matted hair and a grass mat etc. are useless because one cannot control one's animal passions with these external symbols. One's mind must be trained and disciplined with a view to concentrating on guru's word and God's order.
DIMENSIONS OF RELIGIOUS PRACTICE
Guru Nānak in his Japu seems to analyse the course of religious practice into five parts. The term used by him is khand which has been understood differently by different writers. The word khand means part, fragment, section or chapter. The order in which the five parts or sections occur in the Japu is as follows :
1. dharam-khand 2. giān-khand
42.
Trilochan Singh, 'Guru Nanak's Religion in Guru Nanak, His Life, Time and Teachings, p. 97.
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3. saram-khand 4. karam-khand 5. sac-khand
The first section or chapter of religious life is called dharam-khand. This is an area of moral and religious culture. The Guru has described this earth as a dharamsāla, the place of virtuous life, and every man is judged by God according to his deeds done here. The Guru says:
“True is God, and true is His court. There the elect are accepted and honoured. The Merciful One marketh them according to their acts. The bad and the good shall there be distinguished. Nānak, on arrival there, this shall be seen. Such is the practice in the realm of righteousness."13
The necessity of knowledge is suggested by giān-khand. Here giān or knowledge refers to discriminating insight or wisdom. The knowledge of gurbāņi is implied, but the saving wisdom or gián is the knowledge of Divine providence.
The word saram seems to be connected with the Sanskrit śrama ‘extertion' rather than with the Arabic saram, 'shame'. Religious and spiritual practice is essentially an exercise or spiritual endeavour in the persuit of supramundane goal.
The compound karam-khand has been translated by some writers as 'plane of grace' without amplification, though; it seems to us that the word karam has its obvious meaning of action or deed. Guru Nának stresses the importance of pious and devotional acts. A person becomes powerful with the blessings of God only when he performs pure actions imbued with loving devotion to God.
The concluding chapter of religious life of the devotee is called sac-khand. Here the word sac stands for God or Ultimate Reality. This stage is comparable to the turiya-avastha of the Upanişads and sahajāvasthā of the Buddhist siddhas; it is called sunn-samădhi by Kabir and Guru Nānak. The seeker of liberation concludes his quest of perfection in sac-khand. Guru Nānak says that the Formless One dwells in the true realm, sac khandi vasai nirankār.44
THE NATURE OF LIBERATION IN SIKHISM
The Sikh literature uses several words for liberation; mukati, mokh, nirbān, nirbānpad, nirbhaipad are commonly used terms. Bhāi Gurdās
43. 44.
Japu, stanzas, 34-35 Tr. M.A. Macauliffe, op. cit., vol. I, p. 215. Japu, stanzas 35-37,1 A di Granth, vol. I, pp. 7-8
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refers to mukati as "the liberation-element' (mukati-padārath). It consists in getting out of the ocean of becoming (bhavajal) and in cutting off the system of birth, death and rebirth. In liberation, doubt and disease are completely destroyed.45
The Sikh canon distinguishes between liberation or release and heaven (surag, Sanskrit sraraga). The goal of Sikh bhakti is not the attainment of heaven but the realization of God. The state of liberation is often called sahaj and sunn. The word sahaj means Innate and in this sense it was first used by the Buddhist siddhas who expounded the system of Sahajayāna. The word sunn (Sanskrit sünya) means 'empty' or 'void'. The Buddhist philosophers of the Madhyamaka School had used the words sūnya in the sense of Ultimate Reality which is wholly free from all discriminations. Their system was called Sünyavāda by Samkarācārya and Kumārila. Reality is called śünya because it is devoid of duality and discrimination. We have seen above that Guru Nānak refers to God prior to creation as withdrawn into emptiness-trance (sunn-samadhi). Thus Emptiness and Innate are the two great words signifying the profound and mysterious nature of Ultimate Release.
The word śün ya is a negative symbol which serves to reject the application of linguistic structure and discursive thought to Ultimate Reality. The word sahaja, however, indicates somehow the nearness of this Reality and suggests that it is realizable within. The path of bhakti is said to be an easy (sahaja) path which makes the realization of Innate (sahaja) comparatively easy. But the Ultimate nature of liberation is as indescribable as the ultimate nature of God. We can. however, have an idea of what liberation means by analysing the positive and negative achievements of a being released while alive (jivanmukta).
The liberated being experiences peace (śānti), bliss (sukh, anand) and satiety (santokhu). He experiences a bewildering ecstasy which the Gurus call unmani state. Those who achieve Emptiness-trance through perfect devotion to God attain this state of bewildering ecstasy. It is, therefore, also called Emptiness-trance (sunn-samadhi nām ras mäte). It is an indescribable and wonderful bewilderment (kahanu na jāi acaraj bismād).46 The negative description of God is
45. Vārān Bhai Gurdās, I.1. 46. Adi Granth, pp. 91, 298, 780, 1034; see L.M. Joshi, "Conception of Jivanmukti
in Guru Tegh Bahādur's' Hymn's” in Guru Tegh Bahadur, Patiala, Punjabi University, 1976., pp. 146-156.
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suggested by the word sunn which implies no conception about God. God is devoid of descriptions and determinations. Bhai Gurdās speaks of God or Reality as supportless (nirādhār), formless (nirankär) and quiescence (nirban).47 It is the vision of such Reality which is referred to as sunn samādhi.
In Sikhism as in Vaisnavism also liberation is conceived in terms of the union of the individual soul (jivātmā) and the Supreme Soul (paramātmā). Kabir refers to this supreme moment as the meeting of void (sunn) with the void (sunn) while Guru Tegh Bahadur compares the union of a living being with Gobind or Lord with the mingling of water with water. 48 Macauliffe's comment is illustrative:
"The paramātmā is likened to an illimitable ocean, the jivātmā to a glass of water immersed in it. The glass is subtile body or covering of the soul. If the glass itself be broken or taken away, the water in it, which corresponds to the jivātmā, blends with the water of ocean. This is an examplification of Nirvaṇa."
5949
TYPES OF LIBERATION
In all the religious traditions of India, a distinction is made between liberation attained in this very life (jīvanmukti) and liberation attained after the dissolution of body (videhamukti). The terms such as buddha, arhat, siddha and suddha are synonyms of mukta or a liberated person. A person attains mukti while still retaining his bodily existence on this earth; this kind of attainment is called jīvanmukti. Such a person is freed from all defilements and passions. Although he lives in samsara, he is not attached to any thing samsaric. He is compared to a lotus which grows in water but remains undefiled by it. He performs his functions of mind, speech and body without incurring any ill.
The idea of jīvanmukti was first expounded by the śramana teachers belonging to the Jaina and the Buddhist traditions. Thus Šakyamuni and Mahāvīra lived and taught for many years after attaining ultimate release. These two sages were the earliest historical examples of a jivanmukta. Numerous arhats of Buddhist and Jaina traditions are known to have attained jivanmukti before discarding their physical frames. Two verses in Pali Dhammapada describe those perfected beings
47.
Varan Bhai Gurdas, p. 231.
48. Kabira-granthavali, p. 206;
49.
Guru Tegh Bahadur, in sorathi, stanza 11.
M. A. Macauliffe, op. cit. vol. I, Introduction, p. LXVIII.
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who attained liberation while living on this earth. In one verse, they are described thus :
“Those whose impurities have been eradicated, who are luminous and who are released in this very world.”50
The behaviour of a jivanmukta is described in the following verse :
"His mind is quiescent, quies cent are his speech and deed; he has thus become a quiescent one when he has obtained liberation by right knowledge."51
The Bhagavadgitā seems to refer to a muni or an ascetic sage who has subdued his faculties, mind and intellect and who has destroyed desires, fears and anger, as always released (sadănrukta).52 The career of a bodhisattva detailed in Buddhist sūtras and śāstras also presents us with a grand picture of the theory and practice of jivanmukti. We have already seen above that the Buddhist sources describe Nirvāṇa as of two types : that with skandhas or aggregates of personality and that without the aggregate of personality. Jaina faith also distinguishes two types of liberated beings, the omniscients with yoga (sayoga-kevalī) who are called arhats or tirthamkaras, and those without yoga (a yoga-kevali), who are known as siddhas, the perfectly liberated beings. A late medieval Upanişad is called Muktikā-Upanişad. It declares that one can attain jivanmukti by studying and understanding the meaning of one hundred and eight Upanişads. It also distinguishes between jīvanmukti and videhamukti.
Here it is necessary to bear in mind the difference between the conception of mukti in Šramanic and theistic systems. The Śramanic concenption of mukti is frankly non-theistic. This has been discussed above in the chapters dealing with Jainism and Buddhism. In theistic systems, the conception of mukti has to be understood in the context of the doctrine of God. It is from the theistic standpoint that the Pārānandasūtra says that jīvanmukti consists in having a vision of the Deity worshipped (syopāsyadarśanam jivanmukti). Another theistic definition is found in the Sabdakalpadruma which describes a jīvanmukta as liberated from all bonds and established
50. 51.
Dhammupada, verse, 89. Ibid, verse 96. For this section on jivanmukti I am indebted to my teacher Dr L.M. Joshi. I have derived help from his article Conception of jivanmukti in in Guru Tegh Buhādur's Hymns.' Bhagavadgita V. 28
52.
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in God (akhilabandha rahito brahmanişthah). It may be mentioned in passing that the Jivanmuktiviveka describes three ways of attaining jivanmukti ; knowledge of the truth (tattvajñāna), cessation of activities of the mind (manonāśa) and destruction of instinctive desires (vāsanākşaya).
An illuminating portrait of jīvanmukta is found in the religious compositions of the ninth Sikh Guru, Tegh Bahadur.
“He who is always released from lust, anger and the company of bad persons, who considers joy and grief, fame and defame as equal; he who is detached from happiness and sorrow and knows the reality of the world; he who has renounced praise and slander, discovers the path of nirban.°53
Such kind of person is to be acknowledged as liberated. He who has renounced pride, delusion and attachment and fixed his mind on the name of God is released. According to Guru Tegh Bahädur he is liberated in whose heart dwells God. A man who is indifferent towards joy and grief is really an image of God. He considers heaven and hell, nectar and poison, gold and copper, regard and disregard as equal (sam). He who is devoid of greed and delusion and is unmoved by sorrows and happiness is known as an awakened one and is also acknowledged as a liberated person.51
Guru Tegh Bahādur says that God dwells in his heart whose mind is clean like a glass and is untouched with joy and grief.
"Such a person neither indulges in despising nor in praising others and he considers gold and iron both alike, He is called a sage ( jogi), who is above joy and grief and has fixed his fleeting mind which goes in ten directions. Such a man is acknowledged as a liberated being."55
The ideal of a jīvanmukta is similar to that of a bodhisattva, who works for the welfare of humanity. A bodhisattva is one who has destroyed all desires, uprooted all passions and who has taken the vow of liberating all the beings. He transcends the pairs of opposites like joy and grief, honour and dishonour, gain and loss etc. He is totally indifferent towards both friends and foes, considers gold and dust alike and knows the unreality of the phenomenal world. He is really an embodiment of truth, goodness and universal kindness. He
53. Adi Granth, vol. I, p. 219. 54. Ibid., p. 220. 55. Ibid., vol. II, p. 684.
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is released from the mundane world and he preaches for the release of others (āpan tarai avuran let udhār). The same thought is expressed in the following verses :
“That person is an image of God who is not defiled by joy, grief, greed, infatuation and pride. He who cares neither for praise nor for insult and considers gold and iron as equal, says Nának, know that person to be liberated. He who is away from pleasure and pain and considers friend and foe alike, says Nānak, know that person to be released. He who does not frighten anyone and is not frightened by others, says Nanak, know that person to be wise. He who has completely abandoned sensuality and adopted the path of renunciation, says Nanak, know that person to be really fortunate one. He who has destroyed illusion (mãiā) and the sense of ownership (mamatā) and is totally detached, says Nānak, God dwells in his heart. He who has eradicated egoism (haumai) and acknowledged God as the creator, says Nänak, that person is finālly liberated.”?56
It is clear from these remarkable verses of Guru Tegh Bahādur that the Sikh concept of ultimate release envisages a type of holy person who is wholly freed from all impurities and who has found peace in God.
56.
Ibid., vol. IV, pp. 1426-27.
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CHAPTER VIII
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Our studies into the doctrine of liberation in Indian religious history have to be closed at this stage for the time being, though. In the course of preceding chapters we sought to understand and elucidate the ideology of ultimate release and the methods of achieving it in each of the four religious traditions of Indian origin viz. Brahmanical-Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It is not claimed that our studies are exhaustive. The nature of the subject and the variety and extent of the source materials are such as would require the labours of several competent scholars for several years. Even then there will remain scope for further study and research in this subject. It is of course needless to say that the ideal of liberation is not an intellectual or conceptual category; it is a spiritual and transcendental ideal, practical and realizable. Ancient Indian sages and masters who had expounded this ideal had experienced and realized wholly or partially, the state of realease. A modern student, however, only endeavour to study and understand this ideal. INCOMPREHENSIBILITY OF LIBERATION
Liberation is the vision of ultimate reality which satisfies one's whole being. It is the immediate awareness of being in itself; it is experienced by participation in this being. It is that state where there is no coming, no going, no standing, no suffering, no death. We cannot describe its real nature. Its real nature can only be known when one enters into nirvāņa. The nature of liberation, according to the Upanişads, cannot be expressed in words, symbols or logical categories. It is the knowledge of brahman, the pure absolute, nirguna as well as saguna; but still the nature of brahman is incomprehensible and unthinkable. According to Samkara liberation is the realization of the atman, of its true nature, and it is identical with brahman. No description can state the nature of ātman because all descriptions are relative, and the pure ātman is beyond all descriptions.
The ultimate reality according to Buddhism, is profound, difficult to see, difficult to comprehend, supreme, subtle, transcending all
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limitations and can only be known when one enters into it. Since the highest reality is inconceivable, all descriptions of nirvana are partial descriptions. Even Lord Buddha cannot describe completely whatever He sees' and 'knows'. No one can formulate an accurate idea of what nirvāṇa is. It is unthinkable and incomprehensible.
According to Jainism liberation is the freedom of the self from all karmas; it is full of unthinkable attributes. The liberated self realizes eternal bliss, infinite knowledge, and power; its perfection cannot be described. It is that state where mind and speech cannot reach. The Sikh teachers have also stressed the indescribability and incomprehensibility of mukti or liberation.
THE IDEAL OF MUKTI AGAINST THE FORCES OF SCIENTIFIC SPIRIT, SCEPTICISM, MATERIALISM AND INTELLECTUALISM
The fundamental ideal which runs through all the systems of Indian religions is opposed to materialist thought and natural sciences. Its mystical nature is opposed to purely scientific spirit. The sceptics and materialists may not find this ideal acceptable.
For a modern man it is difficult to accept the existence of such type of mystic reality because of his changed outlook. With the advancement of science modern man has changed his outlook from idealism to scepticism and he is heading towards materialism and intellectualism.
There is no doubt that modern man has achieved great prosperity through scientific advancement and his materialistic attitude towards life has been strengthened. The question still remains that although science has made all this tremendous progress but it has not emancipated man from sufferings, worries and troubles. Science can give us physical comfort but it cannot give us satisfaction, inner peace and tranquillity. Our material achievements, our control of physical forces, our intellectual inquiries, have not added to the peace of mind. Instead of removing sufferings, scientific achievements have snatched away from us the calm of mind and peaceful nature of our soul. As long as we are with these forces, we cannot hear the "still, small voice within us." Equipped with scientific knowledge, modern man is going away from the world of spiritual truth, beauty and goodness. THE PERSISTENCE OF ANCIENT TRADITIONS OF ASCETIC IDEAL AND REALIZATION OF SELF.
It is the declared view of all our ancient Indian traditions that
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CONCLUDING REMARKS
207
one should realize the ultimate release through the practices of ascetic ideals. All our Indian systems agree that the summum bonum of life is attained when all the impurities are removed from the self. All the great sages proclaim that release is the highest goal. The ātmavāda traditions affirm that the real self is above the plane of joy and sorrow of the world. The real self is beautiful, blissful, eternal and immortal. It is the centre of all knowledge, glory and bliss. No knowledge is greater than the knowledge of self; no glory is brighter than the glory of innerself; no bliss is deeper than the bliss of innerself. So the highest ideal of man is to get ultimate release from this mundane existence and to realize the innermost nature of self through ascetic ideals. Our ancient traditions fully acknowledge that ultimate purpose of man is to gain right knowledge and realize truth for attaining liberation.
LESSONS FROM COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELIGIONS
All the systems of Indian religions discussed in this book bear points of agreement as well as disagreement. For instance, the theory of karma and rebirth is common to all the four religions, Brahmanical-Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. All the worldly beings will continue in the cycle of birth and death due to their own karmas. This cycle of birth and death can be broken by the complete eradication of all accumulated karmas. All the systems agree that ignorance or avidyā is the real cause of bondage and sufferings in the world. It exists from beginningless time but it has somewhere its end. The common aim of all the systems of Indian thought is to attain ultimate release by the destruction of avidyā. And for the cessation of avidyā, all religions say that the spiritual and moral virtues like love, goodwill towards all, self-control, patience, wisdom, perseverance and purity etc. are essential. The basic virtues to be cultivated are non-violence, truth, non-stealing, chastity, humility, sincerity, detachment, forgiveness, restraint and purity. These are common to all the Indian religions. There is also unity with regard to good and disinterested actions, right knowledge and complete devotion.
Though the belief that this world is afflicted with sorrows and troubles and there is definite way to attain freedom is shared by all of them yet the strongest strand of this thought is found in Buddhism, Jainism, Sāmkhya-Yoga and Vedānta.
While Hinduism and Sikhism are monotheistic, Jainism and Buddhism are non-theistic religions. Devotion to God is a dominant
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feature of the first two traditions. Although Jainism and Buddhism are both branches of the śramaņa thought, they do not agree with each other on several points. One outstanding point of difference between the two is concerning the idea of the self (ātman). Jainism is an ätmavāda tradition while Buddhism has taught anātmavāda.
On the other hand, although atmayāda is common to Hiduism and Jainism, the two traditions have taught radically different perspectives; the Hindu systems excepting the Sāņkhya, have taught the doctrine of the unity of atman, whereas Jainism has maintained the doctrine of the plurality of ātmans. Buddism denies the existence of a permanent self.
Another point worthy of remark in this context is that in the theistic religions such as Hinduism and Sikhism, the special favour (prasāda) of God is in itself sufficient for the liberation of a being. This is not so in Jainism and Buddhism. In these systems the concept of divine grace does not play a crucial part. The moral law of karman functions inexorably and each individual has to follow the prescribed path meticulously. Ascetic practices and moral virtues receive greater attention in these religions than devotion and worship.
God, according to Hinduism and Sikhism, creates and preserves the universe in accordance with the law of karma. But Jainism and Buddhism do not accept the theory of creation by God. In these systems, the role of the doctrine of karma is much more important than in Hinduism and Sikhism.
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