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Biological Issues in the Bh.S
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existence of soul on the ground of doubt. Mahāvīra said, --"If the object about which one has doubt is certainly non-existent, who has a doubt as to whether I do exist or I do not exist? Or, Gautama! When you yourself are doubtful about yourself, what can be free from doubt?":20
The thing to be considered here from metaphysical point of view is that substance cannot exist without qualities and qualities have no place absolutely independent of substance.21 It means if the qualities are experienced, the experience of the substance is obvious. The Bh.S,22 describes number of such qualities that are related to soul only. For example-right and wrong knowledge, perception, memory, etc. are quite evident to prove the isolated existence of soul. Soul is the agent of all the actions of every being, for without it, eighteen types of sinful acts (act of killing upon perverted attitude), and the act of desistence from them, different states of the soul, such as, desire to know, determination, retention, exertion, action, strength, energy, effort, vigor and developed and undeveloped or underdeveloped consciousness of being do not take place. All these psychological functions are centered in a conscious and sentient entity. Besides, feelings of pleasure and pain, various types of emotions, such as, anger, greed, pride, deceit, hate, attachment etc. are not possible unless we regard the existence of spiritual entity as the source of all these phenomena.23
Consciousness as a Defining Characteristic
The definition of soul becomes clear by the attribute of Jīvāstikāya mentioned in the Bh.S. Among the five fundamental entities one is Jīvāstikāya i.e. conscious substance or soul. The word Jīvāstikāya represents all the living entities. Its fundamental quality is consciousness.24 Hence, it is quite obvious that the soul is consciousness and consciousness is invariably the soul. The synonymous words, 25 such as, cognizant, (vinnu), knower (veya) prove the fact. Acārānga Sūtra26 makes no difference between the soul and the consciousness. It is written-je āyā se vinnāyā. In later works, this quality is denoted by the word 'cetanā'.27 It is cetanā (consciousness) alone which cannot exist in any other substance than the soul. Hence, the main line of demarcation between soul and non-soul is consciousness (cetunā). Nandī sūtra clearly states that all living beings, howsoever, even in the lowest possible stage of development, possesses an infiniteth part of omniscient knowledge.28 If that part of omniscience is covered by the karmic particles, it would become non-living, but such a contingency never arises.
Consciousness consists of knowledge (jñāna) and intuition (darśana).29 In the Tattvārtha Sūtra and other Jain literature the definition of soul in the terms of 'upayoga' is very common "uvaogalakkhano jīvah."30 Knowledge is inherent, according to Jain philosophy, but does not shine because it is obscured by the veil of karma. The Bh.s31 mentions five kinds of knowledge,
