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These are further grouped into two major classes, and two such classifications are most common. The first model subsumes the first three nayas under the substantial, or substance-expressive viewpoint (dravyarthikanaya, dravyastika-naya), and the remaining four under the attributive, or mode-expressive viewpoint (paryayarthika-naya, paryayâstika-naya),12 The second model classifies the first four under the heading of the object-bound viewpoint, 'operating by means of object' (artha-dväreṇa [pravṛtta]), and the remaining three under the speech-bound viewpoint, *operating by means of speech element' (sabda-dvāreņa [pravṛtta]),13 Occasionally the purely sevenfold division is found as well, viz. the cases when the seven viewpoint are no longer organised into larger units.14
Since the seven viewpoints have been frequently dealt with,15 a more detailed description here seems unnecessary. For the sake of convenience, I render here two relevant passages of Tattvärthadhigama-bhāṣya that form quite a handy introduction to the problem:
I: [1] Speech elements that are expressed in inhabited localities (sc. colloquially) [have] their meaning; and the comprehension of [such a] meaning of speech elements [is what] the comprehensive viewpoint, which grasps collectively partial [denotations of a speech element, consists in]. [2] The collective viewpoint is the synthesising of one facet out of all [possible facets] of things. [3] The empirical viewpoint has an extended meaning, similar to [the way] common people [understand it], as in the conventional practice. [4] The comprehension by way of the denotative acts concerning the existent and present objects is the direct viewpoint. [5-7] The denoting according to the meaning is the verbal viewpoint. [5] The cognition of an object through a speech element already well-known on [account of] such [categories like] name etc. is the accurate [verbal viewpoint]. [6] The variance (sc. denial of any equivalence) among existing meanings is the etymological viewpoint. [7] The factual viewpoint [refers] to the momentary manifestation [of an object] and to the meaning [of the word denoting it],"16
II: [1] When one says "pot" what [is meant] is this particular substance (sc. thing) produced by the effort [of a pot-maker], with a rounded, elongated neck [and] a rounded edge at the top [as well as] with a spherical container below, [which is] suited for fetching and carrying water etc., [and has been] finished off by secondary operations [like baking]. [Accordingly.] the comprehensive viewpoint [consists in] the comprehension without [making] any distinction between such an individual [thing] furnished with particular features or [things]
THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE WALA METRUU
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belonging to its class.17 [2] The collective viewpoint [consists in] the comprehension of, [say.] present, past and future pots, distinguished by the name and other [standpoints (nikṣepa)], whether with regard to one [individual] or to many [things belonging to its class].18 [3] The empirical viewpoint [consists in] the comprehension of precisely such [present, past and future things like pots, grasped by the collective viewpoint], comprehensible to common people and experts, [and] accessible to the conventional practice just as they are gross objects.19 [4] The direct viewpoint [consists in] the comprehension of precisely such [particular things grasped by the empirical viewpoint] which are existent [here] (sc. which are being perceived here) and are present (existing now),20 [5] The accurate verbal viewpoint [consists in] the comprehension of precisely those [objects, grasped by means of the direct viewpoint, like] pots, that are present, that comprise one of [such categories like] name etc. [and] that are already well-known.21 [6] The etymological viewpoint [consists in] the variance (sc. lack of any equivalence) in the understanding of precisely such present [particular things grasped by the accurate verbal viewpoint], like [the case of two expressions:] "contemplation" and "meditation". 22 [7] The factual [viewpoint] means the grasping of the meaning mutually dependent on subtle momentary manifestation [of an object] and the meaning [of the word denoting it, but] only [in the case] of these [present objects grasped by the etymological viewpoint].23-24
What is conspicuous in the above account of the sevenfold description is that each viewpoint is directly related to the one preceding it and represents a further restriction of the point of reference. This fact is clearly pointed out for instance by Umäsväti, who consistently relates every subsequent viewpoint with the one preceding it (tesv eva, teşv eva satsu, teşv eva samprateșu, teşäm eva, teṣām eva sampratānām, etc.) and who emphasises the hierarchical, subordinating relation that links and arranges the viewpoints according to the scope of their respective contexts. The gradual decrease of the field of reference is conjoined with the ongoing specification of the context, with progressive enrichment of the linguistic tools, with the growth of the potential of the language and with the precision of expression. It is emphasised that contradictions involved in this theory are only apparent, in so far as each of the utterances has a different point of reference.25 What is significant is that not some abstract, eternal sentences are dealt with in the method. of conditionally valid predications, but particular concrete utterances pronounced in a particular situation.