Tribes In Ancient India

Author(s): Bimla Charn Law
Publisher: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007311/1

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Bhandarkar Oriental Series No. 4 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA By BIMALA CHURN LAW, M.A., B.L., Ph.D., D.Litt. Griffith Prizeman and Sir Asutosh Mookerjee Gold Medalist, Calcutta University: Fellow, Royal Geographical Society of London; Fellow, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal; Hony. Correspondent, Archaeological Survey of India; Hony. Member, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute; President, Calcutta Geographical Society; Author, A History of Pali Literature, The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, Geography of Early Buddhism, Geographical Essays, Vol. I, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, Mahavira : His Life and Teachings, The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, Concepts of Buddhism, Historical Gleanings, A Study of the Mahavastu, A Manual of Buddhist Historical Traditions, Designation of Human Types, Debates Commentary, Women in Buddhist Literature, India as described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism, Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon (P.T.S.), Saundarananda-Kavya, Dathavamsa, etc.; Editor, Buddhistic Studies, Thupavamsa (P.T.S.), etc.; Joint Editor, Annual Bibliography of Indian Archaeology, published by the Kern Institute, Holland FIRST EDITION MEHARCHAND MUNSHIRAM SANSKRIT & HINDI BOOK-SELLERS Nai Sarak. DELHI POONA 1943

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70deg 70 Kubha UD ICHYA Taksamila Taxila) Sureyya R. Asikai R. Parus Sutudri Aravalli Hills AVANTI Vindhya (Mes Narmada ASMAKA Pratisthana Satpura Range Bhima Sankasya. HERA R.Sindhu VAMSA PANDYA Kanyakhbja ANDHRA R.Tanpa Kausambi MAP OF INDIA showing important kingdoms, towns, etc. English Miles 200 CHOLA Sravasti, Risipata Prayag al SAKYA Sond 85 100 e Kepilavastu KOLIYA Kusinagara MALLA LICHrama Varanadi lands KALINGA TAMRAPARNI (CEYLON) 300 8. 85 M t Brahmaputra Rajagriha MAGADHAY 400 Champa ANGA 8. Longitude East 75 of Greenwich The map of India showing the important kingdoms, towns, etc.

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5297 Printed by G. E. Bingham, Baptist Mission Press, 414 Lower Circular Road, Calcutta, and Published by Dr. R. N. Dandekar, the Secretary, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 4 (India). 321 tut LAW-T.

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To THE SACRED MEMORY OF MY BELOVED SON GOPAL CHUNDER LAW (January, 1920--September, 1941)

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PREFACE The present book is the outcome of my continued study of the history of tribes of Ancient India. In past years I wrote some books on tribes which have been well received by scholars and the present treatise is an improvement of them and I have added many new tribes to it. The object of the volume is to present a comprehensive and systematic account of some tribes inhabiting different parts of India, viz. north, south, east, west and central, who played an important part in the early history of India. In preparing the volume, I have utilised original works in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tibetan and Chinese and I have also derived help from other sources, such as epigraphy, archaeology, numismatics, and the itineraries of the Chinese pilgrims. In a work of this kind, legends cannot altogether be ignored as they very often contain a substratum of truth. In my treatment I have spared no pains to make full use of the materials that may be gathered from our ancient literature. Modern literature on the subject, too, has been duly utilised. I have tried as far as possible to separate legends from authentic history. But the task is fraught with difficulties and it is not always easy to draw the dividing line. It must, however, be admitted that the history of India is not complete without a thorough knowledge of the history of tribes. Hence an attempt has been made here to present an exhaustive and careful study of the ancient Indian tribes without parti pris and in a spirit of scientific research. I believe that this work will remove a long-felt want and will prove to be of some use to scholars interested in the history of ancient India. I am grateful to the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, for having kindly included it in their series. BIMALA CHURN LAW 43 Kailas Bose Street, Calcutta, September, 1943.

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CONTENTS Page PREFACE BIBLIOGRAPHY xiii CHAPTER I THE KAMBOJAS CHAPTER II THE GANDHARAS .. 9 CHAPTER III THE KURUS CHAPTER IV THE PANCALAS CHAPTER V THE SURASENAS CHAPTER VI THE CEDIS CHAPTER VII THE MADRAS CHAPTER VIII THE MALAVAS CHAPTER IX THE SALVAS CHAPTER X THE USINARAS

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viii CONTENTS CHAPTER XI THE VAHLIKAS CHAPTER XII THE TRIGARTTAS CHAPTER XIII THE YAUDHEYAS CHAPTER XIV THE KEKAYAS CHAPTER XV THE ABHIRAS CHAPTER XVI THE SIBIS CHAPTER XVII THE DARADAS CHAPTER XVIII THE KARUSAS OR KARUNAS CHAPTER XIX KULATAS OR KULUTAS CHAPTER XX THE KULINDAS CHAPTER XXI THE BARBARAS CHAPTER XXII THE MURUNDAS CHAPTER XXIII THE ARJUNAYANAS AND THE PRARJUNAS

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THE AMBASTHAS THE NISADAS THE NISADHAS THE KASIS THE KOSALAS THE VATSAS LAMPAKAS THE YONAS THE KALINGAS THE ANDHRAS THE DAMILAS THE SAVARAS CONTENTS CHAPTER XXX THE VATADHANAS-THE ATREYAS THE BHARADVAJAS-THE THE MUTIBAS CHAPTER XXIV CHAPTER XXV CHAPTER XXVI CHAPTER XXVII CHAPTER XXVIII CHAPTER XXIX CHAPTER XXXI CHAPTER XXXII CHAPTER XXXIII CHAPTER XXXIV CHAPTER XXXV CHAPTER XXXVI ix Page 96 98 100 102 117 135 151 153 158 164 168 172 173

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CONTENTS Page CHAPTER XXXVII THE PULINDAS .. 174 CHAPTER XXXVIII THE KUNTALAS .. 176 CHAPTER XXXIX THE RASTRIKAS .. 178 CHAPTER XI THE NASIKYAS .. 179 CHAPTER XII THE ASMAKAS 180 CHAPTER XLII THE MULAKAS 184 CHAPTER XLIII THE COLAS 186 CHAPTER XIIV THE PANDYAS 190 CHAPTER XLV THE KERALAS OR CHERAS 193 CHAPTER XLVI THE MAGADHAS 195 CHAPTER XLVII THE VIDEHAS 235 CHAPTER XLVIII THE JNATRKAS 243 CHAPTER XLIX THE SAKYAS 245

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CONTENTS Page CHAPTER L THE MALLAS .. 257 CHAPTER LI THE VANGAS 263 CHAPTER LII THE GAUDAS 270 CHAPTER LIII THE SUHMAS 275 CHAPTER LIV THE PUNDRAS 277 CHAPTER LV THE KIRATAS 282 284 287 CHAPTER LVI THE PRAGJYOTISAS CHAPTER LVII THE BULIS--THE KOLIYAS--THE MORIYAS- THE BHAGGAS--THE KALAMAS .. CHAPTER LVIII THE LICCHAVIS CHAPTER LIX THE UTKALAS AND UDRAS.. CHAPTER LX 294 333 THE AVANTIS 337 CHAPTER LXI THE SINDHU-SAUVIRAS 344 CHAPTER LXII THE SURASTRAS 347

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tii CONTENTS Page CHAPTER LXIII THE SUDRAS 350 CHAPTER LXIV THE LATAS 351 CHAPTER LXV THE SURPARAKAS 354 CHAPTER LXVI THE AUDUMBARAS 355 CHAPTER LXVII THE KAKAS, KHARAPARIKAS AND SANAKANIKAS .. .. 356 CHAPTER LXVIII THE MATSYAS 357 CHAPTER LXIX THE RAMATHAS 363 CHAPTER LXX THE PARADAS 364 CHAPTER LXXI THE BHOJAS 366 CHAPTER LXXII THE MEKALAS 374 CHAPTER LXXIII THE DASARNAS 375 CHAPTER LXXIV THE PARIVATRAS 378 CHAPTER LXXV MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 381 INDEX 401

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Abhidhanacintamani (Hemacandra) Abhidhanaratnamala Abhidharmakosa (Vasubandhu) Adhyatma Ramayana (Kali Sankar Vidyaratna ed.) Ain-i-Akbari Aitareya Aranyaka (Anecdota Oxoniensia) Aitareya Brahmana Alexander's Invasion (McCrindle) Altindisches Leben (Zimmer) Amarakosa Ancient and Hindu India (V. A. Smith) Ancient Geography of India by Cunningham (Ed. S. N. Majumdar) Ancient India (E. J. Rapson) Ancient India (S. K. Aiyangar) Ancient India as described by Ptolemy (Ed. S. N. Majumdar) Ancient India: its invasion by Alexander the Great (McCrindle) Ancient Indian Historical Tradition (F. E. Pargiter) Aiguttara Nikaya (PT.S.) Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Antiquities of Kathiawar and Kacch (Burgess) Apadana (P.T.S.) Archaeological Survey of India (Annual Reports) Archaeological Survey of South India (Reports) Arthasastra, Barhaspatya (F. W. Thomas) Arthasastra, Kautilya (R. Shama Sastri Ed. and Tr.) Asiatic Researches Asoka (V. A. Smith) Asoka (Woolner) Acokavadana Astadhyayi, Panini Atharva-Samhita (Whitney & Lanman--Harvard Oriental Series) Atharvaveda Atharvaveda-Samhita (Roth & Whitney-Harvard Oriental Series) Atthasalini (P.T.S.) Avadana Sataka Avadanakalpalata (Bibliotheca Indica Series) Apastamba Srauta Sutra Balabharata or Pracandapandava of Rajasekhara (Nirnayasagar Press ed.) Barahasamhita Barhut (Barua) Barhut Inscriptions (Barua & Sinha) Baudhayana Srauta Sutra Bhagavadgita Bhagavati Sutra (Dhanpat Singh ed.) Bhattikavyam Bombay Gazetteer Book of the Kindred Sayings, The (P.T.S.)

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xiv BIBLIOGRAPHY Bihatsamhita (Kern) Buddhacarita (Cowell) Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka (J.P.T.S., 1882) Buddhavamsa Commentary (P.T.S.) Buddhism (Copleston) Buddhist Conception of Spirits, The (B. C. Law, 2nd ed.) Buddhist India (T. W. Rhys Davids) Buddhist Records of the Western World (S. Beal) Buddhist Suttas (S.B.E., Vol. XI) Calcutta Review Cambridge History of India, The, Vol. I, Ancient India Carmichael Lectures, 1918 and 1921 (D. R. Bhandarkar) Catalogue of Coins (V. A. Smith) Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Vol. 1 (Whitehead) Chinese Buddhism (Edkins) Chronicles of the Kings of Kasmir (Stein) Coins of India (Brown) Coins of India (Cunningham) Celas, The (Nilakanta Sastri) Corporate Life in Ancient India (R. C. Majumdar) Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Culavassa (P.T.S.) Dasakumaracarita Dathavamsa (Ed. B. C. Law) Der Vratya: Untersuchungen Uber die nicht brahmanische Religion Altindiens (J. W. Hauer) Dhammapada (Fausboll) Dhammapada Commentary (P.T.S.) Dharmasastra (Gautama) Dharmasutra Dialogues of the Buddha, I-III (S.B.B., II-IV-P.T.S. publication) Dictionary, Goldstucker Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, I and II (G. P. Malalasekera) Die Sk. Pr. Handschriften der Berliner Bibliothek (Weber) Die Sociale Gliederung (Fick) Digha Nikaya (P.T.S.) Dipavamsa (Oldenberg) Divyavadana (Cowell & Neil) Dokumente der Indischen Kunst, Erstes Heft, Malerei, des Citra Laksana (Berthold Laufer) Dynasties of the Kali Age (Pargiter) Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts (Fleet) Early History of India, 4th Ed. (V. A. Smith) Early History of Kausambi (N. N. Ghosh) Early History of the Dekkan (R. G. Bhandarkar) Early History of the Vaisnava Sect (H. C. Ray Chaudhuri) Eastern India (Martin) Epigraphia Indica Essays, Analytical, etc. (Wilson) Etude sur la Geog. Grecque (M. V. St. Martin)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY XV Gargi Samhita Gates of India (Holdich) Gaudalekhamala (Varendra Research Society) Gaudavaho Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Mediaeval India (N. L. Dey) Geographical Essays, I (B. C. Law) Geography of Early Buddhism (B. C. Law) Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur (M. Winternitz) Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien by Taranath (tr. into German by A. Schiefner) Gokarna-Bhagavata Gopatha Brahmana (Ed. R. L. Mitra.-Bibliotheca Indica Series) Grammar (Panini) Great Epic of India, The (Hopkins) Guide to Nalanda, A (A. Ghosh) Guide to Taxila, A (Sir John Marshall) Gupta Coins (Allan) Harivamsa Harsacarita (Bana) Harsha (R. K. Mookerjee) Heart of Jainism (S. Stevenson) Hinduism and Buddhism, I-III (Sir Charles Eliot) Hiranya kesi Srauta Sutra Historical Gleanings (B. C. Law) Historical Inscriptions of Southern India (Sewell) History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature (Max Muller) History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon (V. A. Smith) History of India as told by her own Historians (Elliot) History of Indian Architecture (G. Fergusson) History of Indian Literature (Max Muller) History of Indian Literature (Weber) History of Indian Logic (S. C. Vidyabhusana) History of Pali Literature, A, I & II (B. C. Law) History of Sanskrit Literature (Macdonell) History of the Bengali Language (B. C. Majumdar) Iconographie Bouddhique de l'Inde (M. Foucher) Imperial Gazetteers of India Index to the names in the Mahabharata (Sorensen) India (Alberuni) India as described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism (B. C. Law) India, What can it teach us? (Max Muller) Indian Antiquary Indian Coins (Rapson) Indian Culture Indian Historical Quarterly Indica (Arrian) Indiens Literatur und Cultur (Von Schroeder) Indische Alterthumskunde (Lassen) Indische Studien (Weber) Indo-Aryan Races (R. P. Chanda) Inscriptions of Asoka (Bhandarkar and Majumdar)

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Avi BIBLIOGRAPHY Inscriptions of Bengal (Varendra Research Society) Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings (J. F. Fleet) Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana Jaina Sutras I & II (Jacobi, S.B.E. Vols. XXII & XLV) Jataka (Cowell and Fausboll)-All the volumes Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal (J.A.S.B.) Journal of the Buddhist Text Society Journal of the Department of Letters, Calcutta University Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (J.R.A.S.) Journal of the U.P. Historical Society Kalpasutra and Nirayavali sutra Kamasutra, Vatsayana (Punjab ed.) Karatoyamahatmya Karmasataka (M. L. Feer) Karpuramanjari (Sten Konow) Kathaka-Samhita Kathasaritsagara (Durgaprasad and Kasinath) Kathavatthu (P.T.S.) Kausambi in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I. No. 60 (B. C. Law) Kausitaki Upanisad Kavyamimansa (Rajasekhara) (Gaekwad's Oriental Series) Khuddakapatha Commentary (P.T.S.) Lalitavistara (Lefmann) Lalitavistara (R. L. Mitra-Bibliotheca Indica Series) L'art Graeco Bouddhique der Gandhara (J. Foucher) Lattayana Srauta Sutra Laws of Manu. S.B.E. (Buhler) Le Mahavastu (Senart) Le Nepal (S. Levi) Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, The (B. C. Law) Life of Hiuen Tsang (Beal) Life of the Buddha, The (Rockhill) List of Southern Inscriptions (Keilhorn) Mahabharata (Vangavasi ed.) Mahabharata (M. N. Dutta tr.) Mahabharata, Vanaparva (Maharaja Burdwan's ed.) Mahabhasya (Patanjali) Mahabodhivamsa (P.T.S.) Mahavamsa, P.T.S. (Geiger) Mahavamsa Tika (Sinhalese ed.) Mahavira: His Life and Teachings (B. C. Law) Majjhima Nikaya (P.T.S.) Manasi Manava Dharmasastra (J. Jolly) Manimekhalai Manjusrimulakalpa (Ganapati sastri ed.) Manorathapurani (P.T.S. and Sinhalese eds.) Manual of Buddhism (Spence Hardy) Manual of Indian Buddhism (Kern)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY xvii Manusamhita Markandeya Purana (Pargiter) Memoirs of Central India (Malcolm) Milindapano (Trenckner) Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, The (B. C. Law-S.B.B., P.T.S. publication) Modern Review Mudraraksasa (Visakhadatta) Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions (Rice) Natural History (Pliny) Nepal Vamsavali Niddesa (P.T.S.) Nirukta (Yaska) Numismatic Chronicle Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (B. M. Barua) On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India (T. Watters) Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, The (S. K. Chatterjee) Origin of the Bengali Script, The (R. D. Banerjee) Pali Granimar by Kaccayana (Ed. S. C. Vidyabhusana) Panchalas and their capital Ahichchhatra, M.A.S.i. No. 67 (B. C. Law) Panini (Goldstucker) Papancasudani (P.T.S.) Paramatthadipani on the Petavatthu (P.T.S.) Paramatthadipani on the Theragatha (P.T.S.) Parisistaparvan (Jacobi) Pataliputra (Manoranjan Ghosh) Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, The (Schoff) Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed. (H. C. Ray Chaudhuri) Prabodhacandrodaya Pracina Mudra (R. D. Banerjee) Pratijnayaugandharayana (Bhasa) Psalms of the Brethren (P.T.S.) Psalms of the Sisters (P.T.S.) Public Administration in Ancient India (P. N. Banerjee) Pujavaliya (Sinhalese ed.) Puranas-all. Questions of King Milinda (S.B.E.). Raghuvamsa Rajatarangini (Stein) Rajagpha in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I. No. 58 (B. C. Law) Rajgir and its neighbourhood (D. N. Sen) Ramacarita Ramavana (Bombay and Vangavasi eds.) Ramavana (Griffith's tr.) Ratnavali and Priyadarsika (Harsa) Records of the Buddhist Religion (I-tsing) Rgveda (Wilson's tr.) Rgveda Brahmana (Keith) Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, The (Beal).

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xviii BIBLIOGRAPHY Samantapasadika (P.T.S.) Samhitopanisad Brahmana Samyutta Nikaya (P.TS.). Sankhayana Aranyaka (Keith) Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Monier-Williams) Sanskrit Texts (Muir) Saratthapakasini (P.T.S.) Sasanavamsa (P.T.S.) Satapatha Brahmana (Eggeling, S.B.E.) Saundarananda-Kavya (B. C. Law's tr.) Selections from the Mahabharata (Johnson) Shan-hsien-lu Sirikalpasutram (Bhavnagar ed.) Social Organisation in North-East India in Buddha's time (Fick) Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India (B. C. Law) South Indian Epigraphy, Annual Reports of South Indian Inscriptions (Hultzsch) Sravasti in Indian Literature, M.A.S.I., No. 50 (B. C. Law) Sthaviravali-charita (Hemchandra) Studies in Indian Antiquities (H.C. Ray Chaudhuri) Study of the Mahavastu, A (B. C. Law) Successors of the Satavahanas (D. C. Sircar) Sumangalavilasini (P.T.S.) Suttanipata (P.T.S.) Suttanipata Commentary (P.T.S.) Svapnavasavadatta (Bhasa) (Sukhthankar's tr.) Taittiriya Brahmana Taittiriya Samhita Thera-Therigatha (P.T.S.) Therigatha Commentary (P.T.S.) Thupavamsa (P.T.S.) Travels of Fa-Hien (Legge) Travels of F.-Hien and Sung-Yun (S. Beal) Udana (P.T.S.) Udana Commentary (1 Udana-vannana (Siamese ed.) University of Nalanda, The (H. D. Sankalia) Upanisads--all Uttaradhyayana Sutra (J. Charpentier) Uvasagadasao (Hoernle) - * Vaijayanti (G. Oppert) Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems (R. G. Bhandarkar) Vajasaneyi-Samhita Vamsatthapakasini (P.T.S.) Vangalar Itihasa (R. D. Banerjee) Veda of the Black Yajus' School (Keith) Vedic Index (Macdonell and Keith) Vedic Mythology (Macdonell) Vimanavatthu Commentary (P.T.S.) Vinaya Pitaka (Oldenberg)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Vinaya Texts, I-III (S.B.E.) Visnudharmottara Mahapurana Visnupurana (Wilson's ed.) Vividha-tirtha-kalpa (Singhee Jaina Granthamala Series) Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda (Roth) FREE RAMAKRISHNA MISSION NEW DELHI READING LIBRARY ROOM & xix

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CHAPTER I THE KAMBOJAS The Kambojas appear to have been one of the early Vedic tribes. The earliest mention of them occurs in a list of ancient Vedic teachers given in the Vamsa Brahmana of the Samaveda, where we find one of the teachers to be Kamboja Aupamanyava, i.e., Kamboja, the son of Upamanyu (Vamsa Brahmana, edited by Pundit Satyavrata Samasrami). We are told that the sage Anandaja received the Vedic learning from Samba, son of Sarkaraksa, and also from Kamboja, son of Upamanyu. It is interesting to note that he received this instruction from two teachers, whereas one teacher only was the usual rule. From the order in which the names are given, Samba appears to have been his first teacher, and the Kamboja teacher must have been approached later, perhaps because he was distinguished for special pre-eminence in Vedic learning. We lay stress on this fact because it shows that the Kambojas, in early Vedic times, must have been a Vedic Indian people, and not Iranian, as has been supposed by several scholars. From the list of teachers we also find that both the teachers of Anandaja had received their education in Vedic lore from the same sage, viz., Madragara Saungayani, whose name shows that he belonged to the Madra people. I This connection between the Madras and the Kambojas is natural, as they were close neighbours in the N.W. of India. The Kambojas are not mentioned in the Rgveda itself, but indirect evidence may help to justify the assumption that they were included among the Vedic Aryans in the Rgvedic era. A sage Upamanyu is mentioned at aegveda, I, 102, 9, and it is not unreasonable to conjecture that he may have been the father of the Kamboja teacher of the Vamsa Brahmana list. Such a possibility is suggested by Zimmer.2 The next important mention of the Kambojas is in a passage of Yaska's Nirukta (II, 8), which shows that they spoke a dialect of the Vedic tongue differing in some respects from the standard language, which in Yaska's time was apparently in language of the Madhyadesa, the region around the Ganges-Jumna Doab. The Kambojas appear from Yaska's remarks to have been a Vedic people who had retained 1 Vedic Index, I, p. 138. 2 Altindisches Leben, p. 102.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA the original sense of an ancient verb (savati) while it was lost among other sections of the same people, who were separated from them by geographical barriers. Sir George Grierson, however, deduces from Yaska's remarks that, as savati is an Iranian, not a Sanskrit, word, the Kambojas cannot have been Indo-Aryans. He holds that they either spoke Sanskrit with an infusion of Iranian words to which they gave Indian inflexions, or else spoke a language partly Indo-Aryan and partly Iranian.1 Yaska also attempts a (pseudo-) philological explanation of the name Kamboja, by connecting it with Kambala, 'blanket', and further with the root Kam, to love, enjoy. He suggests that the Kambojas may have been so called because they were Kamaniyabhojas or enjoyers of pleasant things', and adds that a Kambala is a pleasant thing. Though we cannot take this etymology seriously, there can be no doubt that the warm blanket, Kambala, was a pleasant thing to a people living in the rigorous climate of the N.W. highlands. The Kambalas or blankets manufactured by the Kambojas are referred to in the Mahabharata, which tells us that at the great Rajasuya sacrifice, the Kamboja king presented to Yudhisthira 'many of the best kinds of skins, woollen blankets, blankets made of the fur of animals living in burrows in the earth, and also of catsall inlaid with threads of gold' (Sabhaparvan, Chap. 51, 3); and again, 'The king of Kamboja sent to him hundreds and thousands of black. dark and red skins of the deer called Kadali, and also blankets (Kambala) of excellent texture' (Sabhaparvan, Chap. 48, 19). The next mention of the Kambojas is made by Panini. His Sutra (IV, 1, 175) lays down the rule that the word Kamboja denotes not only the Kamboja country or tribe, but also the Kamboja king. With regard to the location of Kamboja, Rhys Davids says that it was a country in the extreme N.W. of India, with Dvaraka as its capital.2 Dr. S. K. Aiyangar places it in the territory answering to the modern Sindh and Gujarat 3 and Dr. P. N. Banerjee too in his Public Administration in Ancient India (p. 56) assigns Kamboja to a country near modern Sindh. Both these writers agree with Prof. Rhys Davids in locating the capital at Dvaraka. Kamboja is mentioned in Petavatthu (II, 9, I), but from the commentary on that passage (PvA, 111) it appears that Dvaraka is not its capital. V. A. Smith seems to place the Kambojas among the mountains either of Tibet or of the Hindu Kush. He further says that they 1 T.R.A.S., 1911, pp. 801-2. 2 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 28. 3 Ancient India, p. 7. 4 See also B. C. Law, 'Buddhist Conception of Spirits (2nd Ed.), p. 102. IB

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THE KAMBOJAS 3 are supposed to have spoken an Iranian tongue (Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 193 and f.n. I). According to McCrindle, Kamboja was Afghanisthan, the Kaofu (Kambu) of Hsuan Tsang (McCrindle, Alexander's Invasion, p. 38). In the Vedic Index, it is stated that the Kambojas were settled to the N.W. of the Indus and were the Kambujiya of the old Persian inscriptions (see also D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 54-5). According to Sir Charles Eliot (Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 268), the Kambojas were probably Tibetans; in another volume of the same work, he calls them an ambiguous race who were perhaps the inhabitants of Tibet or its border lands. M. Foucher in his Iconographie Bauddhique (p. 134) points out that the Nepalese tradition applies the name Kambojadesa to Tibet. Doubtful would be the attempt to connect Cambyses (O.P. Ka(m)bujiya) with the frontier people of Kamboja.2 Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri 3 points out that from a passage of the Mahabharata we learn that a place called Rajapura was the home of the Kambojas (Mbh., VII, 4-5, Karna Rajapuram gatva Kamboja nirjitastyaya"). The association of the Kambojas with the Gandharas enables us to identify this Rajapura with Rajapura of Hsuan Tsang (Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 284), which lay to the S. or S.E. of Punach.4 Panini belonged to the north-west quarter of India and hence had an accurate knowledge of the customs and dress of the Kambojas. The Mayuravyamsakadigana of Panini speaks of the Kambojas as munda or shaven-headed. Apparently the Kambojas were in the habit of completely shaving their heads, as would also appear from a passage quoted by Raghunandana from the Harivamsa and pointed out by Max Muller 5: The Sakas (Scythians) have half their head shorn, the Yavanas (Greeks ?) and Kambojas the whole, the Paradas (inhabitants of Paradene) wear their hair free, and the Pahlavas (Persians) wear beards'. Coming to the Pali Buddhist literature we find the Kamboja country spoken of several times in the canonical texts as sixteen great States (Mahajanapadas) that were most prominent in India about the time of the Buddha (see, e.g. Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 213; Vol. IV, p. 252-6). 1 Vol. III, p. 6. 2 Cambridge History of India, Ancient India, p. 334, f.n. 3 Political History of India from the accession of Parikshit to the coronation of Bimbisara, P. 77. 4 R. D. Banerjee refers to a Kamboja or Cambodia on the east side of Samatata (Bengal), which must be identical with Sir Charles Eliot's Camboja, as distinct from Kamboja. 5 History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 28.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA In the Harivamsa, we find that the people of Kamboja were formerly Ksatriyas. It was Sagara who caused them to give up their own religion (Harivamsa, 14). From verses 43 and 44 of Chap. X of the Manusamhita, we find that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, and other Ksatriya tribes were gradually degraded to the condition of Sudras on account of their omission of the sacred rites, and of their not consulting the Brahmins. Kautilya's Arthasastra states that the corporations of warriors (ksatriya-sreni) of Kamboja and other countries lived by agriculture, trade and profession of arms (Vartasastropajivin ).1 The horses of Kamboja were famous throughout all periods of Indian history. In the Sumangalavilasini, Kamboja is spoken of as the home of horses (Kambojo assanam ayatanam). The Mahabharata is full of references to the excellent horses of Kamboja. In the Sabhaparvan (51, 4), we read that the king of Kamboja presented to Yudhisthira three hundred horses of variegated colours, speckled like the partridge and having fine noses like the suka bird. In the great battle of Kuruksetra, the fast and powerful horses of Kamboja were of the utmost service.3 The Jaina Uttaradhyayana Sutra 4 tells us that a trained Kambojan horse excels all other horses in speed, and no noise can frighten it. In the Campeyya Jataka - we read that a king of Kasi, being requested by a Naga king to visit his abode, ordered welltrained Kambojan horses to be yoked to his chariot.6 Visnuvardhana, who later became ruler of Mysore, owned Kambojan horses, which were evidently much coveted for their speed.? The Atthakatha on the Kunala jataka furnishes us with the interesting piece of information that the Kambojas were in the habit of capturing horses in the forest by tempting them into an enclosed space by means of aquatic plants which they smeared with honey.8 In the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa makes Raghu meet the Kambojas after defeating the Hunas on the bank of the Vanksu or the Oxus. The Kambojas, being unable to meet the prowess of Raghu, bowed low before him, just as their walnut trees were bent down on account of Raghu's elephants being tied to them. An immense treasure including excellent horses was offered as tribute to Raghu by the Kambojas. i Arthasastra, trsl. by Shama Shastri, p. 455. 2 I, 124. 3 See, e.g. Moh., Bhisma parvan, 71, 13; 90, 3; Dronaparvan, 22, 7; 22, 22-3; 22, 42; Karnaparvan, 38, 13; Sauptika parvan, 13, 12. 4 Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., pt. II, p. 47. 5 Jataka (Fausboll, Vol. IV, p. 464. 6 See also Mahavastu, II, p. 185. 7 S. K. Aiyangar, Ancient India, p. 236. 8 Jataka, V, 446. Raghuvamsa, IV, 69-70.

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THE KAMBOJAS The Kambojas occupy a prominent place among the Ksatriya tribes of the Mahabharata. In the geographical enumeration of the peoples of India, the Kambojas are located in the north. They were the allies of Duryodhana, and by their bravery, and especially through the prowess of their king Sudaksina, they rendered great service to the Kuru side in the Kuruksetra war. Sudaksina was one of the few Maharathas or great heroes in the field. Drupada advised Yudhisthira to ask the Kambojas and other tribes on the western frontiers for their assistance, 2 but the Pandavas were not able to obtain their alliance. Duryodhana was more successful, perhaps through his kinship with the neighbouring Gandharas, and later boasted to the Pandavas of his alliance with the Kambojas and other northern peoples. He gives an important place to the Kambojas by mentioning them together with the greatest heroes on his side (see Mbh., Chap. 160, 40). Bhisma too extols the prowess of the Kamboja king, Sudaksina, of whom he says, 'In my opinion Sudaksina of Kamboja is equal to one Ratha. The best of the chariot-warriors under him are strikers with fierce force. The Kambojas, O great king, will cover the land like a swarm of locusts' (Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 165, 1-3). When the Kaurava army took up their position on the field, the Kambojas occupied the van of Duryodhana's army, along with the home forces of the Pauravas themselves. We are told: "The Pauravas, the Kalingas and the Kambojas with their king Sudaksina and Ksemadhanva and Salya took up their positions in front of Duryodhana' (Mbh., Bhismaparvan, Chap. 17, 26-7). The Kambojas appear to have been consistently in the thickest of the fight.4 Their king Sudaksina was eventually killed in a duel with Arjuna. The verses which describe him as he lay slain on the battle-field are worth quoting for their poetic imagery: 'Like a charming Karnikara tree, which in the spring grows gracefully on the top of a hill, with beautiful branches, lying in the grove when uprooted by the tempest, the prince of the Kambojas, accustomed to sleep on the most precious bed, lay lifeless on the bare ground. Adorned with precious ornaments, graceful, possessing eyes of coppery hue, wearing around his head a tiara of gold radiant like the flames of fire, the mighty armed Sudaksina, prince of the Kambojas, felled by Partha with his arrows, and lying dead on the ground, appeared beautiful like a charming hill with a flat summit's 1 Mbh., Bhisma parvan, Chap. 9. 2 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, 18. 3 'Udicya Kambojasakaih Khasaisca' (Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 160). 4 See Bhismaparvan, Chap. 45, 66-8; Chap. 56,7; Chap. 75, 17; Chap. 87, 10; also Dronaparvan, Chap. 7, 14; 19, 7. 5 Mbh., Dronaparvan, Chap. 92, 61-75.

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6 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA In the fierce battle that ensued, when Satyaki, urged on by Yudhisthira, was following in the track of Arjuna, the Kambojas arrested his progress. Then, we are told, Satyaki slew thousands of the Kambojas, worked havoc among them, and pressed onward.1 Again, when Karna assumed the leadership of the Kuru army, the Kambojas were there taking an active part by his side 2; and even after Sudaksina's younger brother had laid down his life for the cause, we still hear of the Kambojas delivering an attack on Arjuna.1 We thus find the Kambojas leading a large army to the field of Kuruksetra and laying down their lives like the valiant Ksatriyas. Afterwards it appears from the later sections of the Mahabharata, viz. the Santi and Anusasanika parvans, that their country had been overrun by barbarous hordes, so that the ancient Ksatriya population was overwhelmed, and we find the Kambojas ranked with the Yavanas and looked down upon as one of the barbarous peoples. Thus a verse of the Santiparvan enumerates the Kambojas along with many peoples not included in what we may call 'Indo-Aryan society', and in another chapter they are placed among the barbarous peoples of the Uttarapatha (northern regions). The Anusasanikaparvan (33, 21) speaks of the Kambojas as having been degraded to the rank of Sudras for want of Brahmanas in their country. These passages go to show that at the time when these parvans were added to the Epic, the Kambojas were losing touch with Brahmanical society, probably owing to admixture with uncivilised invaders from the North. Turning to the other great epic, we read in the Adi Kanda of the Ramayana that the Kambojas were created by the divine cow Sabala, at the request of Vashistha (20-24). The Kiskindhya Kanda (Chap. 43) tells us that Sugriva sent a monkey named Sugriva to North India in search of Kamboja and other countries (11-12). The Vayupurana informs us that after killing the Haihayas, King Sagara was engaged in annihilating the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and others. All these tribes, however, secured the aid of Vashistha, Sagara's spiritual preceptor. Listening to the words of Vashistha, Sagara set the Kambojas free after having completely shaven their heads (Vangavasi Edition, Chap. 88). It is stated in the Harivamsa that the Iksvaku King Vahu was dethroned by Kambojas and others (Chaps. 13, 14). 1 Mbh., Chap. III, 59-60; Dronaparvan, 119, 51; 118, 9. 2 Ibid., Karnaparvan, Chap. 46, 15. 3 Ibid., Karnaparvan, Chap. 56. 4 Ibid., Chap. 88. See also Salyaparvan, Chap. I, 26; Chap. 8, 25. 5 Ibid., Santiparvan, Chap. 65, 14. 6 Ibid., 207, 43-4.

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THE KAMBOJAS In the Jatakas we read that the Kambojas were a N.W. tribe who were supposed to have lost their original Aryan customs and to have become barbarous. In the Bhuridatta Jataka we find that many Kambojas who were not Ariyas falsely held that peoples were purified by killing insects, snakes, frogs, etc. It is stated in the Sasanavamsa 3 that in the 235th year of the Buddha's Parinibbana, the Thera Maharakkhita went to the Yonaka province and established the Buddha's doctrine in Kamboja and other places. In other passage of the Sasanavamsa, we find the son of the king of Kamboja referred to as a Buddhist monk, Tamalinda, who sailed from Ceylon to India with the Thera Uttarajiva. Also in the Sasanavamsa, we read of Sirihamsya, who came from Kamboja and conquered the city of Ratanapura. Fearing the increasing power and influence of the Buddhist monks, which might become a danger if they turned their minds to secular objects, he determined on a wholesale slaughter. He invited all the great theras of Jeyyapura, Vijayapura and Ratanapura together with their disciples, to meet him in the forest Ton-bhi-luh; and there he caused them, to the number of 3,000, to be surrounded and slain by his army. Many shrines were demolished and books burnt at the same time.5 The Emperor Asoka sent missionaries to the nations on the borders of his empire, viz. the Kambojas, Yavanas, etc., with the object of converting them to Buddhism. He celebrates their conversion to the true Dhamma in Rock Edict XIII (see V. A. Smith, Asoka, p. 168); while Rock Edict V tells us that Censors were created by Asoka for the establishment of the law of piety, for the increase of the law, and for the welfare and happiness of the Kambojas, Gandharas and others living on the W. frontier of his dominions. In the ninth century A.D. the Kambojas are said to have been defeated by Devapala, the great king of the Pala dynasty of Bengal. But during the latter part of the roth century the tables were turned, and the rule of the Pala kings of Bengal was interrupted by the Kambojas, who set up one of their chiefs as king.? In a place called Vanagarh in Dinajpur, Bengal, mention is made of a certain king of Gauda, born in the Kamboja family. It is probable that the Kambojas first attempted to conquer Gaula during the reign of Devapala, but were defeated at that time.8 R. P. Chanda surmises 1 Jataka (Fausboll), VI, p. 208; Ibid. (Cowell), VI, p. 110, f.n. 2. 2 Ibid. (Fausboll), Vol. VI, pp. 208, 210. 3 Sasanavamsa, P.T.S. Ed., 49. 4 p. 40, P.T.S. edition. 5 Ibid. (P.T.S.), p. 100. 6 R. D. Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, p. 182. 7 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 414. 8 Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, p. 184.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA that in the middle of the tenth century A.D., the Kambojas again attacked North Bengal, and that its present inhabitants (of Koch, Mech, and Palia) are descended from them. The Kamboja rulers were expelled by Mahipala I, the ninth king of the Pala line, who is known to have been reigning in A.D. 1026, and may be assumed to have regained his ancestral throne about A.D. 978 or 980.2 1 Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, p. 205. 2 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., pp. 414-15.

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CHAPTER II THE GANDHARAS Gandhara formed an integral part of India from the earliest epoch of Indo-Aryan civilisation, and is unique among the countries of India, in that its history may be traced in unbroken continuity from Rigvedic times down to the present day 1 (Rapson, Ancient India, p. 81). The Gandharis 2 or people of Gandhara are mentioned in the hymns of the Rgveda, while the name Gandhara occurs in the other Vedas, and in the Epics and Puranas as well as the Buddhist books. Gandhara was on the N.W. frontiers of India in the neighbourhood of the Kambojas, Madras and similar other tribes, but there are differences of opinion among scholars with regard to its exact boundaries. It is generally accepted that Gandhara denotes the region comprising the modern districts of Peshawar in the N.W. Frontier Province and Rawalpindi in the Punjab; but in the Old Persian inscriptions it seems to include also the district of Kabul in Afghanistan (see Rapson, Ancient India, p. 81). Rhys Davids (Buddhist India, p. 28) says that Gandhara (modern Kandahar) 3 was the district of E. Afghanistan, probably including the N.W. Punjab. Vincent Smith apparently concurs with this view, saying that Gandhara was equivalent to the N.W. Punjab and the adjoining regions. Dr. S. K. Aiyangar holds that Gandhara was equivalent to E. Afghanistan, extending from the Afghan mountains to the district somewhat to the East of the Indus (Ancient India, p. 7). According to Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar, Gandhara included the western Punjab and E. Afghanistan. Its capital was Takshasila where ruins are spread near Saraikala in the Rawalpindi District of the Punjab. In the Ain-zAkbari, Gandhara forms the district of Pukely lying between Kashmir and Attock. Gandhara, says N. L. Dey, comprised the modern districts of Peshawar and Hoti Murdan or what is called the Eusofzai 1 Rapson, Ancient India, 81. 2 Gandhari is the Vedic form, later supplanted by Gandhara. 3 There is no proved etymological connection between the names Kandahar and Gandhara. See McCrindle, Ptolemy, p. 116. 4 V. A. Smith, Asoka, 170. 5 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 54.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA country. Cunningham, relying on the narratives of the Chinese pilgrims, Fa Hien and Hsuan Tsang, gives the following boundaries to Gandhara (Chinese Kien-to-lo): Laghman and Jalalabad on the west, the hills of Swat and Bunir on the N., the Indus on the E., and the hills of Kalabagh on the South (Ancient Geography, p. 48; and see McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 116). According to Strabo, the country of the Gandarai, which he calls Gandaritis, lay between the Khoaspes (Kunar) and the Indus, and along the river Kophes (Kabul). The name is not mentioned by any of the historians of Alexander, but it must have been known to the Greeks as early as the time of Hekataios, who calls Kaspapyros a 'Gandaric city'. Herodotus mentions the Gandarioi.2 Rennell placed them to the west of Baktria in the province afterwards called Margiana, while Wilson took them to be the people south of the Hindu Kush, from about the modern Kandahar to the Indus, and extending into the Punjab and to Kashmir (Ancient India as described by Ptolemy-McCrindle, pp. 115-6). In some books, the name 'Cave country' was applied to Gandhara (Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 200). From the above observations, and also from the various references to Gandhara in Indian literature, it appears that the boundaries of the country varied at different periods in its history. At one time it appears to have included the Afghan District round Kandahar, but afterwards it receded to the mountains on the Indian frontier. IO In the Rgveda the long wool of the sheep reared by the Gandharis is referred to by Lomasa, the queen of King Bhavya or Bhavayavya, who ruled on the banks of the Sindhu (Indus); she says to her husband, 'I am covered with down like a ewe of the Gandharins' (Rgveda, I, pp. 126, 7; Wilson's Trans., II, p. 78). From the facts that the verse is brought in very abruptly and that it is in a metre different from the rest of the hymn, Wilson observes that it is 'probably a fragment of some old popular song' (Trsl., p. 19). This would, therefore, attribute a knowledge of the Gandharis to the Vedic Aryans in very ancient times. A hymn in the Atharvaveda consigns Takman or fever to the Gandharis along with other people like the Mujavants, the Angas and the Magadhas. The authors of the Vedic Index explain this mention of two northern peoples (the Gandharis and Mujavants) 1 Discoveries have been made in this district of Buddhist architecture and sculpture of the time of Kanishka (first century A.D.). See N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. 23. 2 Book III, c. xci. He describes them as being clad in cotton garments, and bearing bows of reed, and arrows tipped with iron. See Rapson, Ancient India, p. 87; and McCrindle, p. 116.

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THE GANDHARAS II with two eastern tribes (Argas and Magadhas), by noting that the latter two tribes are apparently the Eastern limit of the poet's knowledge; the two former the Northern'.1 In the Brahmana literature also we find mention of the Gandharis (e.g. Chandogya Upanisad, 6, 14--the familiar example of the man who is led blind-folded from the land of the Gandharas, and has to find his way back by asking directions from village to village). The Aitareya Brahmana (VII, 34) mentions Nagnajit, a king of Gandhara, among the Vedic teachers who propagated the Soma-cult, -so it is evident that Gandhara was not excluded from Vedic 'Aryandom'. In the Satapatha Brahmana (VIII, I, 4, 10) also we find King Svarjit Nagnajita or Nagnajit of Gandhara referred to,--though in this case his opinion on a point of ritual is treated with scant respect as he was merely a Rajanya-bandhu, i.e. belonging to the princely order, and not a Rsi. But this King Nagnajit is mentioned with great regard and respect in later literature from the great Epic onwards, and in a technical book on painting he is quoted as the originator of that art.3 Coming to the next period of Vedic literature, viz. the period of the Sutras, we find the people of Gandhara mentioned in the Srauta-Sutras of Baudhayana, Apastamba and Hiranyakesi, along with other Aryan peoples of the east and the west.4 The Mahabharata contains many legends about Gandhara. In the Adiparvan we find that Dhrtarastra, king of the Kurus, married the daughter of Suvala,5 King of Gandhara, and 100 sons were born to them (Chap. 10, p. 118; Chap. 63, p. 72). A princess of Gandhara was one of the wives of Ajamidha who was the originator of the Kuru family. Gandhara, it is said, was named after this Gandhari (Adiparvan, Chap. 95, p. 105). In the Udyogaparvan we find that King Yayati sent his son Vadu into exile in Gandhara, because he began to disregard his Ksatriya superiors, becoming vain on account of his strength (Chap. 149, p. 771). In the Dronaparvan it is said that Karna brought Gandhara under the sway of Duryodhana (Chap. 4, p. 997); while in the Asvamedha parvan we read that Arjuna went to the Punjab (Pancanada), where he had a hard fight with the son of Sakuni, King of Gandhara. The Gandharan army 1 Vedic Index, I, p. 219. 2 In the Kumbhakara sataka, for example, it is said that he ruled over Gandhara and Kashmir, and later became a monk. 3 Dokumente der Indischen Kunst, Erstes Heft, Malerei, des Citra Laksana, edited by Berthold Laufer. 4 Baudhayana Srauta Sutra, XXI, 13; Apastamba Srauta Sutra, XXII, 6, 18; Hiranyakesi Srauta Satra, XVII, 6. 5 Suvala is also mentioned in the Sabhaparvan (Chap. 34, p. 245).

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12 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA was put to flight, but Arjuna spared the life of Sakuni's son (Chaps. 83-4, pp. 2093-4). It would be wearisome to recount in detail all the references from the Mahabharata to the actions of the Gandharas in the longdrawn-out battle of Kuruksetra. We may note, however, that the Gandharas, led by their King Sakuni, made up a powerful division of the Kuru army. When at the commencement of the battle Duryodhana came out in procession at the head of his vast army, Sakuni's contingent of hill troops (parvatiya) surrounded him on all sides.1 This would seem to indicate that the warriors from the hills of Gandhara were the most trusty of Duryodhana's soldiers, for they were chosen to form his bodyguard. After various adventures (Bhismaparvan, Chap. 46, p. 76; Chap. 51, p. 14; Chap. 58, pp. 7-10), the Gandharas on the 5th day of the battle, together with the Kambojas, Madras and other peoples of the N.W. frontier made an onset against Arjuna, under the lead of Sakuni (Bhismaparvan, Chap. 71, pp. 13-17). The Gandharas and their princes further distinguished themselves throughout the battle (see Bhismaparvan, Chap. 90; Dronaparvan, Chap. 20; Chap. 29, pp. 2-27; Chap. 48, p. 7; Chap. 85, pp. 16-17; Salyaparvan, Chap. 8, p. 26). Evidently great reliance was placed on their prowess, and perhaps especially on their fast horses; for it appears that, like their neighbours, the Kambojas, the Gandharas reared a large number of horses in their country, and their troops fought for the most part on horseback. References which do not give them credit are, e.g. Karnaparvan, Chap. 44, p. 46 and Chap. 45, p. 8, where Karna says that the Gandharas along with the other races on the N.W. frontier are men of disgusting practices and customs; and ibid., Chap. 95, p. 6, where it is said that Sakuni cravenly fled from the field, surrounded by thousands of the Gandharas (Cf. also Dronaparvan, Chap. 29, pp. 2-27). Gandhara is also mentioned in the Puranas. According to the Matsya, Vayu and Visnu Puranas,2 a certain Gandhara was born in the family of Druhyu, one of the sons of Yayati, and the kingdom of Gandhara was named after him. According to the Bhagavata and Brahma Puranas,3 Gandhara was fourth in the line of descent from Druhyu. Gandhara had four children, namely, Dharma, Dhrti, Durgam and Praceta.4 Praceta had 100 sons who, being the kings of the Mleccha country, conquered the north (Visnupurana, 4th 1 Bhismaparvan, 20, 8; see also ibid., Chap. 16, p. 28. 2 Matsya purana, 48; Vayupurana, 99; Visnupurana, 4th Anika, Chap. 17. 3 gth Skandha, Chap. 23 (Bhagavata); Chap. 13 (Brahma). 4 According to the Matsyapurana, three children: Dharma, Vidusa and Praceta.

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THE GANDHARAS 13 Anka, Chap. 17). Mention is also made of the Gandhara people in Varahamihira's Byhatsamhita (Kern's Edition, p. 92). Turning from legend or semi-legend to fact, we note that in the days of Asoka and some of his immediate successors, Gandhara was one of the most flourishing seats of Buddhism. We learn from Rock Edict V that Asoka appointed Dharma-mahamatras (high officers in the department of dharma or religious conduct) to further the welfare and happiness of the Gandharas. Fa-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim, who visited India at the beginning of the fifth century A.D., relates that Gandhara was the place where Dharmavivardhana, son of Asoka, ruled. Here the Buddha, when a Bodhisattva, was supposed to have given his eyes for another man.2 Buddhist scholastic philosophy reached its culmination in the fifth century A.D., at the time when two famous Gandharans, and Vasubandhu, flourished. Asanga, at first an adherent of the semiorthodox Mahisasakas, later became a great teacher of Yogacara. Vasubandhu likewise became a convert to Mahayanism; he was celebrated as the author of the Abhidharmakosa. Other notable Buddhist scholars who made Gandhara, and particularly its capital Taksasila (Taxila) famous throughout India were Dhammapala, Yasadatta,4 and Angulimala. For legendary accounts of Gandhara as associated with Buddhism, see, e.g. Gandhara Jataka, Sasanavamsa (P.T.S., p. 12), Divyavadana (Cowell and Neil, pp. 60-1). Hsuan Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century A.D., has left an interesting account of Gandhara. He records the ruined state of monasteries and shrines which two centuries before showed no traces of decay. The kingdom of Gandhara, according to him, was about 1,000 li 6 from north to south. On the east it bordered on the river Sin (= Sindhu). The capital was called Po-lu-sha-pu-lo, i.e. Purusapura, and was about 40 li in circuit. The royal family was extinct, and the kingdom was governed by deputies from Kapisa. The towns and villages were deserted; but the country was rich in cereals, producing a variety of flowers and fruits, and abounding in sugarcane. The Chinese pilgrim goes on to say: "The climate is warm and moist. The disposition of the people is timid and soft; they love literature, and while most of them belong to heretical schools, a few believe in the true law (i.e. Buddhism)'. In the town of P'i-lo-tu-lo (i.e. Salatula), he observes, Panini was born (see Buddhist Records of the Western World (Beal), Vol. I, pp. 97-8; p. 114). 1 Cf. Chapter on Kambojas. 2 Legge, Travels of Fa-Hien, pp. 31-2. 3 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 149. 5 Ibid., pp. 319 et seq. 4 Ibid., p. 201. 6 One li = approx. 576 metres.

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14 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The early capital cities of Gandhara (each being the centre of its own kingdom) were Puskalavati or Puskaravati, and Taksasila (Taxila), -the former being situated to the west and the latter to the east of the Indus. It would appear that in early times the Gandhara territory lay on both sides of the Indus, but was later confined to the western side (McCrindle, p. 115). As we have just seen, Hsuan Tsang knew Purusapura (= Peshawar) as the capital; and yet another city, namely, Kapisa, was a Gandharan capital during the days of Greek rule. According to Cunningham, the most ancient capital of Gandhara was Puskaravati, which is said to have been founded by Puskara, son of Bharata and nephew of Rama.2 Puskalavati's antiquity is undoubted, as it was the capital of an Indian Prince named Hasti (Greek Astes) at the time of Alexander's expedition (326 B.C.). It is called Peukelaotis by Arrian and Peukalei by Dionysius Periegetes. Together with Taksasila, Puskalavati came under the Saka rule during the reign of Maues 3 (c. 75 B.C.). Taranatha mentions the town as a royal residence of Kaniska's son (Vincent Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 277, f.n. I). Shi-shi-ch'eng, the Chinese name for Taksasila, the Eastern capital of Gandhara, means 'severed head'. The legend goes that when the Buddha was a Bodhisattva in this city, he gave his head away in charity, and the city took its name from this circumstance.4 The city as described by Arrian was great, wealthy and populous. Strabo and Hsuan Tsang praise the fertility of its soil. Pliny calls it a famous city, and states that it was situated on a level where the hills sank down into the plains. About 80 years after Taksasila's submiss on to Alexander, it was taken by Asoka; while by the early part of the second century B.C. it had become a province of the Graeco-Baktrian monarchy, only to be conquered in 126 B.C.5 by the Indo-Skythian Sus or Abars, who retained it until it was taken from them by a different tribe of the same nationality, under Kaniska (c. 78 B.C.). About the middle of the first century A.D. it is said to have been visited by Apollonius of Tyana and his companion Damis, who described it as being about the size of Nineveh, walled like a Greek city, with narrow but well-arranged streets. Taksasila must have been destroyed long before the Muhammadan 1 Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 133, 141-2. 2 Visnupurana, Wilson's Edition, Vol. IV, Ch. 4. 3 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 560; see also Brown, Coins of India, p. 24. 4 Legge, Fa-Hien, p. 32. 5 But note discrepancy in dates of conquest.

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THE GANDHARAS 15 invasion, for it is not mentioned by any Muhammadan author who has written upon India.1 Cunningham says that the site of Taksasila is found near ShahDheri just one mile to the N.E. of Kala-ka-sarai, in the extensive ruins of a fortified city around which he was able to trace no less than 55 stupas (of which two are as large as the great Manikyala tope), 28 monasteries and 9 temples. Now the distance from Shah-Dheri to Ohind is 36 miles, and from Ohind to Hashtnagar another 38, making 74 miles in all,--which is 19 in excess of the distance between Taxila and Peukelaotis (Puskalavati) as recorded by Pliny. To reconcile the discrepancy, Cunningham suggests that Pliny's 60 miles or LX should be read as 80 miles or LXXX, which is equivalent to 731 English miles or within half a mile of the actual distance between the two places (Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 105). Dr. Bhandarkar says 2 that in Asoka's time Taksasila does not appear to have been the capital of Gandhara, for from his Rock Edict XIII it seems that Gandhara was not in his dominions proper, but was feudatory to him; while from the Kalinga Edict I, we learn that Taksasila was directly under him, as one of his sons was stationed there. The deduction that Taksasila was not the capital of Gandhara at that time is confirmed by Ptolemy's statement that the Gandarai (Gandhara) country was situated to the west of the Indus with its city Proklais, i.e. Puskaravati.3 Taksasila was visited by Hsuan Tsang in the seventh century A.D. (when it was a dependency of Kashmir).* Taksasila figures prominently in Buddhist and Jain stories. It was associated with Mahavira, the founder of Jainism 5 (see Heart of Jainism by Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, p. 80, f.n.), and with traditions regarding the Buddha. It is stated in the Dipavamsa that a Ksatriya prince named Dipamkara, and his sons and grandsons governed their great kingdom in Taksasila (Pali Takkhasila). In the Dutiyapalayi Jataka we find that King Gandhara (= the Gandharan) of Taksasila attacked and surrounded Benares with his four-fold army, and boasted that nobody would be able to defeat him. But the King of Benares said to him: 'I shall destroy your army like mad elephants destroying a nalavana (bamboo grove)'. King Gandhara forthwith 6 1 See McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, pp. 119 et seq. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 54, f.n. 3 See also Fa-Hien's Travels (Legge's Ed.), pp. 31-2 where the traveller distinguishes Takkhasila from Gandhara. 4 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th edition, p. 368. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 240. 5 S. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 80, f.n. 6 Dipavamsa, ed. Oldenberg, III, 31.

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16 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA fled, terrified, to his own kingdom. But we find the situation reversed in the Palayi Jataka: Brahmadatta, King of Benares, leads an army to Taksasila, but is so struck by the splendour of the city gate, which he mistakes for a palace, that he does not dare to make an attack on so mighty a king (the king being pictured as the Bodhisattva), and returns baffled to his own country.2 Taksasila was a great seat of learning in Ancient India. Various arts and sciences were taught there, and pupils from different parts of India would flock to the city for instruction. Here also magic charms 4 and spells for understanding the cries of animals 5 were taught. According to Jataka (IV, 391), only Brahmans and Ksatriyas were admitted to the university. The details of Taxila's importance as a seat of learning have been given by me elsewhere,6 and a brief notice is all that is necessary here. As regards the authentic political history of Gandhara itself, as distinct from that of its capitals, we find that in the Buddha's time Pukkusati, King of Gandhara, is said to have sent an embassy and a letter to King Bimbisara (Skt. Bindusara) of Magadha. Prof. Rapson states 8 that Gandhara was in all probability conquered by Cyrus (558-530 B.C.), and remained a Persian province for about two centuries. After the downfall of the Persian empire in 331 B.C., it came under the sway of Alexander the Great, together with the Persian province of 'India' or 'the country of the Indus'. Through Gandhara and the 'Indian' province was exercised the Persian influence which so greatly modified the civilisation of N.W. India. Later, as we have seen, Gandhara was feudatory to Asoka, but it declared its independence shortly after his death, only to fall very soon under the sway of the Greek kings. According to Whitehead,10 it was Euthydemos (circa. 230-195 B.C.) who conquered Gandhara R. D. Banerjee, however, presumes 11 that the conqueror was Diyadata (Diodotos) II, as some gold coins of his reign have been discovered by Sir John Marshall in the ruins of Taxila. Whitehead's supposition is the more probable, if we are to assume that Gandhara was subject to the Maurya Empire until 1 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. II, pp. 2I9-2I. 2 Ibid., pp. 217-8. 3 See, e.g. Psalms of the Brethren, p. 136. 4 Jataka, II, No. I85, p. 100. 5 Ibid., III, No. 416, p. 415. 6 See B. C. Law, Historical Gleanings, Chap. I, pp. 1-8. 7 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 28. 8 Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 81-82. IR. D. Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, pp. 31-2. 10 Catalogue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, Lahore, Vol. I, p. 4. 11 Pracina Mudra, p. 27.

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THE GANDHARAS 17 Asoka's death in 227 B.C., for the house of Diodotos was supplanted by Euthydemos in 230 B.C. A rival Greek prince, Eucratides (circa. 175-155 B.C.) wrested Gandhara, with other territories, from Demetrios, the 4th Bactrian king. The family of Eucratides was supplanted in its turn by Saka satraps in Kapisa and Taxila, but continued to hold the Kabul Valley until finally overpowered by the Kushanas. At the end of the fifth century A.D., Gandhara was occupied by the Hunas.3 After this, information is scanty until we come to the late 9th century, when Lalliya founded the Hindu Shahiya dynasty, with its capital at Ohind, on the Indus. In the IIth century (1021 A.D., according to Vincent Smith) Trilocanapala, the last king of the Shahiya dynasty, was defeated on the banks of the river Tosi by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, and after his reign no account is available of the Hindu rule in Gandhara, apart from the fact that his son Bhimapala regained his independence for five years. I We may close this chapter by making one or two remarks on the trade relations of Gandhara, and by giving some references for the further study of the celebrated school of art which takes its name from this country. The Jatakas testify to the existence of trade relations between the Kashmir-Gandhara kingdom and the north-eastern kingdom of Videha (see, e.g. Gandhara Tataka and Fick, The Social Organisation in N.E. India in Buddha's Time, p. 272). Horse-dealers figure prominently amongst the Gandharan traders, and we learn from the Vayupurana that the Gandharan horses were considered the best of all (Chap. 99). We find references to the production of valuable blankets or woollen shawls (kambala) in the Vessantara Jataka (Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. VI, pp. 500-I), and also in the Suttani pata Commentary (II, 487). In later times (9th and 10th centuries) it was in Gandhara that the finest 'doubledie' coins were struck.6 The story of Gandhara art is a complete study in itself, and all we can do here is to give some references to authorities on the subject, for example, Vincent Smith's History of Fine Art in India and Ceylon; James Fergusson's History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (2nd Edition, London, 1910); A. Foucher, L'Art greco-bouddhique du Gandhara; Sir John Marshall, A Guide to Taxila; and contributions to A.S.I. (Annual Reports) by J. Ph. Vogel, D. B. Spooner, Sir John Marshall and A. Cunningham. 1 See Rapson, Ancient India, p. 133; Brown, Coins of India, pp. 23-4. 2 Ibid., pp. 133 and 142. 3 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 328. 4 Ibid., 4th Ed., p. 388. 5 R. D. Banerjee, Pracina Mudra, p. 198. & See Brown, Coins of India, P. 53.

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CHAPT CHAPTER III THE KURUS The Kurus form one of the most ancient and prominent of the Indo-Aryan Ksatriya tribes. In one of the verses of a Rigvedic hymn (X, 33, 4) occurs the word, Kurusravana, which is interpreted by some scholars either as 'the glory of the Kurus', or as 'the hearer of the praises of the Kurus'; but is more generally taken to be the name of a particular king, a ruler of the Kuru tribe. In the hymn which follows this one, the charities of the prince Kurusravana are praised, and there can be no doubt that 'Kurusravana' is here the name of a particular sovereign, especially as some of his ancestors are also mentioned (see Rgveda, X, 33, 1 and 4-9; Wilson, RRgveda, Vol. VI, pp. 89-90). The seer mourns the death of his generous donor, and, in the last four verses, it seems that he consoles Upamasravas, the son of Kurusravana, and mentions Mitratithi, grandfather of Upamasravas. But the Brhaddevata (supported by Katyayana's Sarvanukramani) states that it was for the death of his grandfather Mitratithi that Upamasravas is being consoled in these verses. In the same hymn, Kurusravana is also called Trasadasyava or 'descendant of Trasadasyu'. Trasadasyu is well known in the Rgveda (IV, 38, 1; VII, 19, 3, etc.) as a king of the Purus. Trasadasyu's people, the Purus, were settled on the Sarasvati (see Vedic Index, I, 327), a locality which accords well with the later union of Purus and Kurus. According to the Vedic Index, 'it is likely that the Trtsu-Bharatas who appear in the Rgveda as enemies of the Purus, later coalesced with them to form the Kuru people',1 for there is evidence that the Bharatas, like the Purus, occupied the territory in which the Kurus were later found. Two of them are spoken of in a hymn of the Rgveda (III, 23) as having kindled fire on the Drsadvati, the Apaya and the Sarasvati-that is to say, the sacred places of the later Kuruksetra.2 in Professor Keith also urges this view of the incorporation of the Bharatas with the Kurus in his chapter contributed to the Cambridge History of India (p. 118, Cam. Hist.), while Prof. Rapson concurs with him, observing that the Bharatas who were settled in the 1 Vedic Index, I, 167. 2 For further evidence of the merging of the Bharatas in the Kurus, see Vedic Index, 1, 167-8. 2B

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19 country of the Sarasvati in Rigvedic times were later merged in the Kurus; and that their whole territory, the new together with the old, became famous in history under the name 'Kuruksetra'-'the field of the Kurus'. This was the scene of the great war of the descendants of Bharata, and the centre from which Indo-Aryan culture spread, first throughout Hindusthan, and eventually throughout the whole sub-continent.1 THE KURUS Another king, whose glories as a generous donor are sung in a hymn of the Rgveda (VIII, 23), namely Pakasthaman, is given the designation Kaurayana, most probably a patronymic; while in the Atharvaveda (XX, 127, 8) a man called Kauravya is described as having enjoyed prosperity under the rule of King Pariksit. Evidently, therefore, the name Kuru was already applied in the early Vedic age to a prominent tribe of Indo-Aryan Ksatriyas. It is, however, in the Brahmana literature that the Kurus acquire the greatest prominence among the Ksatriya tribes of ancient India. In the Brahmana literature, the Kurus are often connected with the Pancalas and from the way in which the Kuru-Pancalas are mentioned, there is no room for doubt that it was in the country inhabited by them that some of the most famous Brahmana works were composed. Thus the Aitareya Brahmana in its chapter on the Mahabhiseka of Indra states: "Then in this firm middle established quarter the Sadhyas and the Aptyas, the gods, anointed him (i.e. Indra). for kingship. Therefore in this firm middle established quarter, whatever kings there are of the Kuru-Pancalas with the Vasas and Usinaras, they are anointed for kingship' (Aitareya Brahmana, VIII, 14, Tr. Keith, Rgveda Brahmanas, p. 331). From the way in which mention is made of the country of the KuruPancalas, it is evident that the author of the Aitareya Brahmana was a native of that region. The authors of the Vedic Index 2 are of the opinion that the great Brahmanas were composed in the Kuru-Pancala country, though Weber would suggest a different locality for the Tandya Mahabrahmana of the Samaveda, and the Satapatha Brahmana of the White Yajurveda. Eliot points out that at the time when the Brahmanas and earlier Upanisads were composed (circa 800-600 B.C.), the principal political units were the kingdoms of the Pancalas and Kurus in the region of Delhi. The Kurus are comparatively seldom mentioned alone, their name usually being coupled with that of the Pancalas; and the Kuru-Pancalas are often expressly referred to as a united 1 Cambridge History of India, I, 47. 3 History of Indian Literature, pp. 68 and 132. 4 Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 20. 2 I, 165.

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20 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA nation. Speech is said to have its particular home in the KuruPancala land; and the mode of sacrifice of the Kuru-Pancalas is proclaimed to be the best. The Kuru-Pancala Brahmins are famous in the Upanisads: for example, in the last kanda of the Satapatha Brahmana we find mention of the Brahmins of the Kuru-Pancala country being invited and given huge largesses by Janaka, king of Videha (cf. Brhadaranyaka Up., III, 1, 1, foll.). The Satapatha Brahmana (XII, 9, 3, 3) speaks of a Kauravya King Balhika Pratipiya (Kauravya and Kaurava being interchangeable variants); while Yaska's Nirukta 1 also asserts that Devapi Arstisena and Santanu were Kauravyas. The Kuru kings are mentioned by the name Koravya in the Pali Buddhist literature, as we shall show below. The Chandogya Upanisad, which is the remnant of an ancient Brahmana work belonging to the Samaveda, contains an account of the destruction of crops in the Kuru country by locusts or by a hailstorm, and it further recounts the story of how a famished Rsi (Usasti Cakrayana) of the Kuru land was forced to partake of food that was unclean, and how in spite of this temporary impurity under the stress of famine, the Rsi was successful in winning for himself the highest functions at the subsequent sacrifice performed by the king at Ibhyagrama (Chandogya Upanisad, I, 10, 1-7; Sacred Books of the East, Vol. I, pp. 18-19). We have seen that the Aitareya Brahmana speaks of the country of the Kuru-Pancalas as belonging to the 'dhruva madhyama dik', i.e., to what is known in later literature as the Madhvadesa or country. Prof. Rapson points out that the territories occupied by the Kurus extended to the East far beyond the limits of Kuruksetra. The Kurus must have occupied the northern portion of the Doab, or the region between the Jumna and the Ganges, having as their neighbours on the east the North Pancalas, and on the south, the South Pancalas, who held the rest of the Doab as far as the land of the Vatsas, the corner where the two rivers meet at Prayaga (Allahabad).2 The great law-giver Manu speaks of the country of the Kurus and other allied peoples (Matsyas, Pancalas and Surasenakas) as forming the sacred land of the Brahmarsis (Brahmanical sages), ranking immediately after Brahmavarta (Manu, II, 17-19). He indirectly praises the prowess of these peoples by saying that they should be placed in the van of any battle-array (Manu, VII, 193). In the first verse of the Bhagavadgita, the only book in India which is reverenced by people of all kinds of religious belief, the land 1 II, IO. 2 Rapson, Ancient India, p. 165.

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THE KURUS 21 of Kurus is called Dharmaksetra, or the holy land. In other parts of the Mahabharata, too, Kuruksetra is mentioned as a land which was especially holy. Thus the Vanaparvan (Chap. 129, pp. 394-5) tells us that Kuruksetra was the holy spot of the righteous Kurus. It was here that Nahusa's son, Yayati, performed many religious ceremonies, that divine and royal sages performed the Sarasvata Yajna, and that Prajapati performed his Yajna. In the Brahmana texts also, Kuruksetra is regarded as a particularly sacred country, for within its boundaries flowed the sacred streams Drsadvati and Sarasvati, as well as the Apaya.1 The'field of the Kurus', or the region of Delhi, was the scene of the war between the Kurus and Pandus, in which all the nations of India were ranged on one side or the other, according to the Epic in its present form. It has been the great battle-field of India ever since, as it forms a narrow strip of habitable country lying between the Himalayas and the Indian Desert through which every invading army from the Punjab must force its way. Because of this strategical importance, Delhi became the capital of India under the Mughal emperors who came into India by land from the N.W. (Rapson, Ancient India, p. 173). Besides the Kurus of the Madhyadesa, we find references to another Kuru people. viz. the Uttara-Kurus. The Aitareva Brahmana mentions the country of the Uttara-Kurus in its chapter on the mahabhiseka of Indra (Ait. Br., VIII, 14; Tr. Keith's Rgveda Brahmanas, pp. 330-1). The authors of the Vedic Index are of the opinion that the Uttara-Kurus were a historical people at the time when this passage of the Aitareya Brahmana was written. They observe: The Uttara-Kurus, who play a mythical part in the Epic and later literature, are still a historical people in the Aitareya Brahmana, where they are located beyond the Himalaya (parena Himavantam). In another passage, however, the country of the Uttara-Kurus is stated by Vasistha Satyahavya to be a land of the gods (deva-ksetra), but Janamtapi Atyarati was anxious to conquer it, so that it is still not wholly mythical. It is reasonable to accept Zimmer's view that the northern Kurus were settled in Kasmir, especially as Kuruksetra is the region where tribes advancing from Kasmir might naturally be found.2 In Buddhist literature, Uttara-Kuru is very often mentioned as a mythic region, but there are some passages which go to show that there was a faint memory of a country that once had a historical existence [see, e.g. the reference to 'Kurudipa', Dipavamsa, p. 16; and the statement in the Sasanavamsa (p. 12) that the place of the 1 Vedic Index, I, p. 169. 2 Ibid., I, p. 84.

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22 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA inhabitants of Uttaradvipa is called the kingdom of Kurus (Kururattham)]. * The Southern Kurus are mentioned in the Papancasudani (P.T.S. edition, p. 225), while the Anguttara Nikaya tells us that Kuru was one of the sixteen mahajanapadas or prominent countries of Jambudipa (= India), having abundant food and wealth, and the 'seven kinds of gems'.1 In Buddhist literature, as in the Brahmana literature, the Kurus are comparatively seldom mentioned alone, their name being usually coupled with that of the Pancalas. We read in the Papancasudani that there was no vihara for the Buddha's habitation in the Kuru kingdom, but that there was a beautiful forest outside the town of Kammasadhamma where he used to dwell. We are told further that the inhabitants of the Kuru kingdom enjoyed good health, and their mind was always ready to receive instruction in profound religious truths, because the climate was bracing at all seasons, and the food was good. The Buddha delivered some profound and learned discourses to the Kurus, e.g. the Mahanidana and Mahasatipatthana Suttantas of the Digha Nikaya. (For fanciful stories of the Kurus' meditation on Satipatthana, see further Papancasadani, P.T.S., pp. 227-9.) The Buddhist literature is full of stories in which the land of Kuru and its princes and people play a leading part. For instance, the Thera Ratthapala, who contributed some verses to the Theragatha, was born in the town of Thullakotthika in the country of the Kurus, and we are told that he converted the King Koravya' to Buddhism.2 The Dhammapada Commentary relates the story of Aggidatta, the chaplain of the king of Kosala (Mahakosala, predecessor of Pasenadi). After his retirement, Aggidatta dwelt on the borders of the Kuru country and Anga-Magadha, together with his 10,000 disciples; and the inhabitants of these countries used to supply the whole company with food and drink. Eventually Aggidatta and all his followers were converted by the Buddha.3 In the Therigatha commentary (p. 87) we read that a theri named Nanduttara was reborn in a Brahmin family in the city of Kammasadamma (or Kammasadhamma) in the kingdom of the Kurus. She first became a Jain, but was later converted by Mahakaccayana, accepted ordination from him, and attained arahantship. In the Paramatthadipani (pp. 201-4) we have an account of the miseries suffered after death by a certain Serini, a heretical woman of the Kuru capital. 1 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 243; Vol. IV, pp. 255, 256 and 260; Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 200, 201 and 203. 2 Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 302-7; Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 65 et seq. 3 See Dhammapada Comm., Vol. III, pp. 241-2; 246-7.

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THE KURUS 23 Returning to the history of the tribe itself, we find that the authors of the Vedic Index consider that the Kurus represent a comparatively late wave of Aryan immigration into India. "The geographical position of the Kuru-Pancalas', they say, 'renders it probable that they were later immigrants into India than the KosalaVidehas or the Kasis who must have been pushed into their more eastward territories by a new wave of Aryan settlers from the west'. 1 In the Papancasudani, there is a fanciful story of the origin of the Kurus. Mahamandhata, king of Jambudipa, was a cakravartin, and therefore ubject to no restrictions of place. He conquered Pubbavideha, Aparagoyana and Uttara-Kuru, besides the Devalokas. When he was returning from Uttara-Kuru, a large number of the inhabitants of that country followed Mahamandhata to Jambudipa, and the place where they settled became known as Kururattham. The ancient capital of the Kurus was Hastinapura which was situated on the Ganges in what is now the Meerut district of the United Provinces. Indraprastha, the modern Indrapat near Delhi, was the second capital. According to the Epic story, the blind king Dhrtarastra continued to rule at the old capital Hastinapura on the Ganges, while he assigned to his nephews, the five Pandus, a district on the Jumna where they founded Indraprastha. While the ancient capital of the Kurus sank into insignificance, the new city erected by the Pandavas has not only come down to our time, but has acquired a fresh lease of life as the seat of the central government of the British Indian Empire. Another city of the Kuru country, according to the Prakrit legend given in the commentary on the Uttaradhyayana Sutra, was Ishukara (Prakrit Usuyara or Isuyara), 'a wealthy and famous town, beautiful like heaven'.4 We have already referred to the town of Kammasadhamma, which must have been well known in the Buddha's time. It is also called Kammasadamma,-derived by popular etymology from Kammasa (a prince) and damma (from dam, to tame), because Kammasa was brought under control by the Bodhisattva when he was born as a son of King Jayaddisa of Pancala (Papancasudani, pp. 226-7). The story of Kammasa is narrated in full in the Jayaddisa Jataka, in which we find that the Bodhisattva was born as the son of King Jayaddisa of Pancala. One of the King's other sons was carried away by a Yakkhini (ogress) who brought him up, and taught him cannibalistic habits. After many attempts to capture him had failed, he was at last brought under control by the Bodhisattva. He was 1 Vedic Index, I, pp. 168-9. 3 Rapson, Ancient India, p. 173. 2 Papancasudani, pp. 225-6. 4 Jaina Sutras, II, p. 62n.

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24 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA called Kammasa (spotted, blemished') because of a boil which appeared on his leg. It is apparent that this story is simply a variation of the Puranic story of Kalmasapada. The Epic and Puranic tradition regarding the origin of the Kurus is as follows: Puru, the son of Yayati by Vrsaparva's daughter Sarmistha, and grandson of Nahusa, was fifth in descent from Pururava, son of Ila, daughter of Manu, the father of mankind (Manava-vamsa); and the dynasty which sprang from this Puru was celebrated as the Paurava dynasty. Tenth in descent from Puru was Samvarana. When his kingdom was conquered by the king of the Pancalas, Samvarana fled in fear, together with his wives, children and ministers, and took shelter in a forest on the banks of the Sindhu (Indus). He eventually regained his kingdom, with the help of his priest, the sage Vasistha; and a son named Kuru was born to him, by Tapati, daughter of Surya. The people were charmed by the manifold good qualities of Kuru, and anointed him king. After the name of this king, the plain became famous as Kuruksetra or the field of Kuru. In the Epic period, the Kurus became the most powerful Ksatriya tribe in northern India, after the downfall of the Magadha empire of Rajagrha when Bhimasena, who belonged to the younger branch of the Kauravas, killed the Samrat (Emperor) Jarasandha. Bhimasena's grandson, Pratipa, had three sons, Devapi, Vahlika and santanu. The eldest son, Devapi, was a leper, and for this reason King Pratipa was prevented by his subjects and by the advice of wise men from placing him on the throne. Devapi became an ascetic, while Vahlika went to rule over his maternal uncle's land, and, after Pratipa's death, granted permission to his brother Santanu to reign over the Kuru country.4 After santanu came his sons Citrangada and Vicitravirya, both of whom died childless. However, in a semi-miraculous manner, two sons (Dhitarastra and Pandu) were born posthumously to Vicitravirya's wives. Dhrtarastra married Gandi married Gandhari. daughter of Suvala, king of the Gandharas, and had by her one hundred sons, known as the Kurus or Kauravas, of whom the eldest was Duryodhana who could work miracles by the power of mantras.5 1 Tataka (Fausboll), V, pp. 21 et seg. 2 Mahabharata, Dronaparvan, Chap. 61, p. 1035. 3 Adiparvan, Vangavasi Ed., Chap. 75, pp. 86-8; Chap. 85, p. 96; Chap. 94, p. 104. 4 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 149, p. 771. 5 Ibid., Chap. 61, p. 707 (Vangavasi Ed.); and santiparvan, Chap. 4, p. 1378, for further details about Duryodhana. For detailed (largely legendary) genealogies of the descendants of Kuru, see Visnupurana, IV, Chap. 20; and Bhagavata Purana, Skandha 9, Chap. 22.

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THE KURUS 25 As Dhrtarastra was blind from birth, Pandu, though younger, was placed on the throne left vacant by the death of Vicitravirya. Matters grew complex when sons were born to both the brothers, and the difficulty was not lessened when Dhrtarastra took over the government on the premature death of Pandu, had his five nephews brought up with his own sons, and finally appointed his eldest nephew, Yudhisthira, to be heir-apparent. Dhrtarastra's own sons, consumed with jealousy, set various plots on foot against their cousins, and eventually the old king decided on a compromise, giving Hastinapura to his sons, and to his nephews a district where they built the city of Indraprastha. Here the Pandavas, in the words of Prof. Macdonell, ruled wisely and prospered greatly. Duryodhana's jealousy being aroused, he resolved to ruin his cousins, with the aid of his uncle Sakuni, a skilful gamester', Yudhisthira was thereupon challenged to a game of dice with Sakuni,--a challenge which he could not refuse, as this was a matter of honour among Indian Ksatriyas in those days. Owing to dishonest tricks on Sakuni's part, Yudhisthira was defeated, and lost everything, his kingdom, wealth, army, brothers, and finally Draupadi, the joint wife of the five Pandavas. In the end it was arranged that the Pandavas should go into banishment for twelve years, and to remain incognito for a thirteenth, after which they might return and regain their kingdom. They passed their period of banishment in the forest, and remained incognito for the thirteenth year at the court of King Virata of the Matsyas. The Matsya king and his people honoured Yudhisthira and his brothers, and were grateful to them for preventing the predatory excursions of the Trigarttas and Kurus against their cattle. The bond with the Matsyas was further cemented by the marriage of Virata's daughter with Abhimanyu, the son of Arjuna. The Pandavas were further related through Draupadi with the powerful king of Pancala; and they had a firm friend in Krsna, the hero of the Yadavas. It was felt, accordingly, that a successful attempt might be made to recover the dominions out of which they had been cheated. The King of Pancala suggested that they should resort to war, and kings of other neighbouring countries were invited to help the Pandavas. But before the war began the brothers made a last unsuccessful attempt to negotiate peace, sending Krsna Vasudeva as their emissary to the Kuru court.2 After the failure of negotiations, allies were invited from far and near; even the kings of the south contributed their quota, for by that 1 Sanskrit Literature, p. 292. 2 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Vangavasi Ed., Chap. 127.

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26 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA time the Ksatriyas had spread over the whole of India, and, according to the Epic account, all of them were ranged on one side or the other. Dhrstadyumna was made generalissimo of the Pandava forces, Arjuna being the greatest hero on their side, with Krsna Vasudeva as his chief, so to speak. Being prevented by a vow from taking up arms in the battle, Krsna took upon himself the duty of driving his friend's chariot. The Indian army in those days, as in later times, consisted of four divisions, viz. foot-soldiers, elephants, chariots, and horses. Arriving at Kuruksetra, the Pandavas encamped with their troops on the western part of the field, facing the numerically much stronger force of Duryodhana and his allies (Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 198; Chap. 151, Chap. 154). Of the 18 aksauhinis or regiments that assembled on the battle-field, II were on Duryodhana's side, and 7 on that of his cousins. In individual heroes also Duryodhana's army was apparently much stronger. But the Kurus, in spite of their preponderant strength, felt misgivings on the eve of the battle, while the Pandavas were buoyed up with the righteousness of their cause. The commander of Duryodhana's army was the old warrior Bhisma, and the allies of the Kurus included the peoples of Kosala, Videha, Anga, Vanga, Gandhara, Sindhu, and many other States. Duryodhana caused his camps to be made to look like a second Hastinapura, and into these camps he made soldiers with their horses enter in groups of a hundred each, arranging names and emblems for all of them so that they might be recognised in the battle. When the two powers were thus ready to fight, the Kurus and the Pandavas were bound to follow the traditional rules of a fair fight among the Ksatriyas of India. Only men equally situated or matched could fairly fight one another. Combatants armed with the same kind of weapons should be ranged against one another. Those that left the battle-field should never be killed, a fleeing enemy was not to be pursued, and one devoid of arms should never be struck. A chariot-warrior should fight only with another chariot-warrior, and, similarly, with horse and foot-soldiers, and those riding on elephants. One engaged in a personal combat with another, one seeking refuge, one retreating, one whose weapon was broken, and one clad in armour should never be struck; neither should noncombatants on the field of battle, such as charioteers, attendants engaged in carrying weapons, players on drums and blowers of conches, be smitten.1 1 Mbh., Bhismaparvan, Chap. I.

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27 This was the tacit understanding between the two armies, and the rules were generally not violated except under very special circumstances. THE KURUS The Kuru army with Bhisma at its head advanced first, then the Pandava army led by Bhimasena. The soldiers of both sides rushed upon one another with loud yells and a simultaneous blowing of conches. The fight raged furiously for ten days, at the end of which Bhisma fell, and both forces were withdrawn for a lull. On Bhisma's death, Drona was made commander of the Kaurava troops, and the fight raged for a further eight days, until finally Abhimanyu, Drona, Karna, and Salya were all slain, and a great disorder prevailed, especially in the Kuru army, now consisting only of a few scattered soldiers. Sahadeva, one of the Pandu princes, killed the gamester Sakuni, and Duryodhana himself was killed by Bhimasena after making a last desperate rush at the enemy. With Duryodhana's death, the victory in the Kuruksetra war fell to the Pandavas; but only a handful of their followers came out of the fray alive. With the death of the hundred sons of Dhrtarastra, the Kuru line through him became extinct, and the Pandavas now became lords of the Kuru kingdom, Yudhisthira being acclaimed king. The Pandus were reconciled to the aged Dhrtarastra who retired to the forest after remaining at Hastinapura for fifteen years, and he and his queens finally perished in a forest conflagration. Yudhisthira himself did not reign long. When he heard of Krsna's accidental death, and of the destruction of the Vrsnis, he determined to leave the world, and he and his brothers retired to the forest, leaving the young prince Pariksit,1 grandson of Arjuna, to rule over Hastinapura. Pariksit was learned in the science of the duties of kings, and is credited with having possessed all noble qualities. He is described as a highly intelligent ruler, and a great hero, who wielded a powerful bow, and never missed his aim. One day he was lost in the forest, having been led astray by a deer whom he had struck but failed to kill. While roaming about, he met a sage and asked him whether he had seen a deer running that way. The sage was observing a vow of silence, and did not reply. Angered at this, the king took up a dead snake with the end of his bow, placed it around the sage's neck, and went away. The son of the sage, hearing of this, cursed the king, saying that within a week he would be reduced to ashes by the bite of Taksaka, king of the snakes. Hearing of the curse, the 1 So called because he was begotten at the time of the decrease (pariksina) of the Kuru race.

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28 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA sage was sorry, and warned the king; but in spite of elaborate precautions, the curse was fulfilled, and Pariksit died of snake-bite. Pariksit's son, Janamejaya, now ascended the throne, and resolved to avenge his father's death by holding a snake sacrifice. Rsis by the force of their mantras caused the snakes in their thousands to fall into the sacrificial fire. However, Taksaka's nephew, Astika, son of a snake princess and the rsi Jaratkaru, won the king's favour, caused him to suspend the sacrifice, and saved the snakes from total destruction. Here the kernel of the Epic account ends. It will be readily seen that it is a mixture of history and legend; but the historicity of the battle itself, and of the Kuru kings who ruled shortly afterwards, need not be doubted. Turning once more to the Buddhist literature, we find numerous stories of kings of the Kuru land. For instance the Bodhisattva is described in the Dhammapada commentary as having once been born to the chief queen of the Kuru king (Dhananjaya, according to the Kurudhamma Jataka, Fausboll, Vol. II, pp. 366 foll.), in the capital city, Indapatta (Indraprastha). He went to Taxila to complete his education, and was then appointed a viceroy by his father. When he came to the throne, he, together with his family and his chief officials, used to obey the 'Kuru-dhamma'. This Kuru-dhamma consisted in the observance of the five 'silas' or rules of moral conduct, and it possessed the mystic virtue of bringing prosperity to the country. At this time the king of Kalinga was troubled by a dearth of rain in his kingdom. The Bodhisattva, king of the Kurus, had a royal elephant named Anjanavasabha, which was brought to the kingdom of Kalinga in the belief that its mere presence would bring rain. This device not having the expected result, it was concluded that rain did not fall in Kalinga because the Kuru-dhamma was not observed there; and Brahmins were sent to the kingdom of Kuru to make themselves acquainted with the Kurudhamma, and write it out for the king of Kalinga. Thereupon, King Kalinga observed the Kurudhamma faithfully, and forthwith the longed-for rain poured down in showers in his kingdom, and his crops were saved.1 The Kurudhamma Jataka, cited above, also narrates this story, and there are further references to King Dhananjaya Koravya' in other Jatakas (Cowell, Vol. IV, pp. 227231; Vol. V, pp. 31-7; and ibid., p. 246). In the latter passage we are told that the kingdom of Kuru extended over three hundred leagues. The king's chief minister is called Sucirata in one story, i Dhammapada Commentary, IV, pp. 88-9. 2 Jataka (Fausboll), V, p. 57.

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THE KURUS 29 and Vidhura in another. In each case the king is said to have been very righteous and charitable. In yet another Jataka version of the story, we are told, as usual, that there reigned in the city of Indapattana, in the kingdom of the Kurus, a king named Dhananjaya, of the race of Yudhitthila (Yudhisthira). The Bodhisattva was born in the house of his family priest (not in the king's own family in this case). After learning all the arts at Taxila, he returned to Indapattana and after his father's death he became family priest and adviser to the king. He was called Vidhurapandita.2 The story of King Dhananjaya-korabba and his wise minister appears to have been very popular in Jataka times, for its events find repeated mention in the tales. The Jataka contains an account of further incidents concerning Dhananjaya and Vidhura, notably the defeat of Dhananjaya at dice, and the meditation of Vidhurapandita in a friendly rivalry between the king and Sakka (Indra).3 Though the Buddha principally confined his ministering activity to N.E. India, the Buddhist Pali texts show that he travelled widely over regions in Northern India, and the Kuru country too appears to have been favoured by his discourses (see, e.g. Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. V, pp. 29-32; Samyutta Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. 92-3; Ibid., pp. 107-9; Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. I, pp. 55 et seq.; Ibid., pp. 501 et seq.; Vol. II, pp. 261 et seq., pp. 54 et seq.; Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. I, pp. 199-203 and cf. Ibid., Vol. III, pp. 193 et seq.; Digha Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. 55 et seq.; Ibid., pp. 290 et seq.). It is in nearly every case that the town of Kammasadhamma is mentioned as the scene of the Buddha's discourses. Some time before the fourth century B.C., the monarchical constitution of the Kurus gave place to a republic, for we are told by Kautilya 4 that the Kurus were 'raja-sabda-upajivinah', or 'enjoying the status of rajas', --i.e. all citizens had equal rank and rights. The Kurus appear to have played some part in Indian politics as late as the ninth century A.D., for when Dharmapala installed Cakrayudha on the throne of Kanauj, he did so with the consent of the neighbouring powers, amongst whom the Kurus are specifically mentioned. 1 Jataka (Fausboll, IV, p. 36I. 2 Ibid., VI, pp. 255 foll. 3 Ibid., Vol. VI, pp. 255 foll. 4 See Shama Shastri's translation of the Arthasastra, p. 455. Shama Shastri renders 'raja-sabda-upajivinah' by 'lived by the title of a raja', but this is too vague to convey the meaning. For a fuller discussion on the subject, see Chapter on the Licchavis. 5 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 413.

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CHAPTER IV THE PANCALAS The Pancalas, like the Kurus, are most intimately connected with the Vedic civilization of the Brahmana period. The Satapatha Brahmana' tells us that they were called Krivis in ancient times. In an enumeration of the ancient monarchs who had performed the Asvamedha sacrifice, a king Kraivya Pancala is mentioned, and it is definitely stated that Krivi was the ancient name of the Pancala tribe. Krivi appears as a tribal name in the Rgveda.2 Zimmer is of the opinion that the Krivis resided in the region near the Sindhu and the Asikni in the Punjab, and the authors of the Vedic Index express the same view. But the only piece of evidence in favour of this hypothesis is that Krivi is mentioned in a verse of a Rgvedic hyi which the names of those rivers occur in a subsequent verse (VIII. 20. 25). The Rgveda does not clearly testify to any connection between the rivers and the people. Zimmer 4 hazards another (more far-fetched) conjecture, viz. that the Pancalas with the Kurus made up the Vaikarna people; and the Vedic Index 5 lends its support to this theory. But the only evidence in support of this view is that the word Vaikarna appears in the dual in a verse of the Rgveda, and the Kuru-Pancalas appear combined as a dual people in the Brahmana literature. We are hardly justified in assuming any connection between these two facts, and moreover, it is doubtful whether Vaikarnayoh' in the Rgveda passage referred to, is a tribal name at all. Wilson following Sayana translates "Vaikarnayoh' by 'on the two banks (of the Parusni)'.? This meaning agrees very well with the context, as the subject-matter of the hymn is the crossing of the Parusni by King Sudas. In the later Vedic Samhitas and the Brahmana literature, the Pancalas are frequently referred to, and often combined with the Kurus. The Kathaka Samhita (XXX, 2) speaks of the Pancalas as being the Vamsa or people of Kesin Dalbhya, and says that, as a result of certain rites performed by him, they were divided into 1 XIII, 5, 4, 7. 2 Yabhirdasasyatha Krivim, Kgveda, VIII, 20, 24; Yabhih Krivim vavedhuh, Rgveda, VIII, 22, 12. 3 Vedic Index, I, 198. 4 Altindisches Leben, 103. 5 Vedic Index, I, 198. 6 Vaikarnayoh, Rgveda, VII, 18, II. 7 Wilson, Rgveda, Vol. IV, p. 59.

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THE PANCALAS 31 three parts. The same Samhita (X, 6) refers to the celebration of the Naimisiya sacrifice in the country of the Kuru-Pancalas. Here a discussion between Vaka-Dalbhya and Dhrtarastra Vaicitravirya is narrated, but there is nothing to justify Weber's conjecture of a quarrel between the Pancalas and the Kurus. In the Aitareya Brahmana, the Pancalas are mentioned along with the Kurus as one of the peoples in the Madhyama dik or midland. Similarly, the Kuru-Pancalas are mentioned in the Kanva recension of the Vajasaneyi Samhita (XI, 3, 3,). In the Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana, the Kuru-Pancalas are mentioned many times, and in the Gopatha Brahmana (I, 2, 9), they are referred to as a dual group beside other similar groups, such as the Anga-Magadhas, KasiKosalas, Salva-Matsyas, etc. The Satapatha Brahmana assures us that 'speech sounds higher here among the Kuru-Pancalas',1 and also informs us that the kings of the Kuru-Pancalas performed the rajasuya or royal sacrifice. The Taittiriya Brahmana (I, 8, 4, 1, 2) says that the kings of the Kuru-Pancalas marched forth on raids in the dewy season and returned in the hot season. The Kausitaki Upanisad (IV, I) also speaks of the Kuru-Pancalas, and in the Brhadaranvaka Upanisad they are repeatedly mentioned, -as, for instance, when we read that the Brahmanas of the Kurus and the Pancalas flocked to the court of Janaka, king of Videha. A Vedic teacher, Pancala-Canda by name, is mentioned in the Aitareya and the Sankhayana Aranyakas, 4 and most probably this sage belonged to the Pancala country, as his name suggests. The Byhadaranyaka (VI, 1, 1) and Chandogya Upanisad (V, 3, 1) tell how Svetaketu Aruneya went to the assembly (parisad) of the Pancalas where the Ksatriya, Pravahana Jaivali, put to him several questions which neither Svetaketu nor his father was able to answer. Svetaketu's father, though a Brahmana, was glad to learn the answers to these questions from Pravahana Jaivali, although the latter was a Rajanya or Ksatriya.5 Several of the Pancala kings are mentioned in the Vedic literature. For instance, Durmukha was a great and powerful king of the Pancalas, who, according to the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII, 23) made extensive conquests in every direction. Another powerful Pancala king who performed the horse sacrifice was Sona Satrasaha, about whom several gathas are quoted in the Satapatha Brahmana. The name Pancala has given rise to much speculation, it being supposed that the first part, Panca ('five '), has something to do with 1 S.B.E., Vol. XXVI, p. 50. 2 Vedic Index, I, 165. 3 Brh. Up., III, I, I. 4 Vedic Index, I, p. 469. 5 See also Chandogya Up., I, 8, 1-2, for another mention of Pravahana Jaivali. 6 S.B.E., Vol. XLIV, p. 400.

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32 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA five tribes that were merged together into a united nation. The evidence in favour of this hypothesis is not very clear. It has been suggested that the five peoples are the five tribes of the Rgveda, but, as the Vedic Index (I, 469) points out, the suggestion is not very probable. The problem of the origin of the name Pancala and its probable connection with Panca, five, struck the authors of the Puranas. Many of them traced the name to five princes, whose names vary slightly in different works. In the Bhagavata purana, gth Skandha, Chap. 21, we learn that King Bharmasva, born in the family of Dusmanta, had five sons, Mudgala, Yavinara, Vihadvisa, Kampilya, and Sanjaya. As these five sons were capable of guarding the five countries, they were named Pancala (alam = sufficient for, capable of). Then in the Visnupurana, Chap. 19, Arka 4, we are told that Haryasva, born in the family of Kuru, had five sons, Mudgala, Srinjaya, Vrhadisu, Pravira and Kampilya. He was under the impression that his five sons were competent to protect five provinces, and they became famous as Pancalas. The Vayupurana (Chap. 99) tells us that Rksa, born in the family of Dvimidha, had five sons, Mudgala, Srinjaya, Vrhadisu, Yaviyana and Kampilya. and Kamnilva The provinces of these five afterwards became famous as Pancala. Similarly, in the Agnipurana (Chap. 278) we read that Vahyasva, born in the family of Kuru,1 had five sons, Mukula, Srinjaya, Vshadisu, Yavinara and Krimila, who were known as Pancalas. In the Samhitopanisad Brahmana, there is a reference to the Pracya Pancalas.2 In the Epic, the Pancala country is divided into a northern and a southern part, so that evidently the Pancalas had spread and added to their country by conquest since the Vedic period. There is a Jataka story about the foundation of Uttara-Pancala, which seems to show that a Cedi prince went to the north and formed the Uttara-Pancala kingdom with colonists from the Pancala and Cedi countries. The Cetiya Jataka tells us that the king of Ceti (Cedi) had five sons. Kapila, the family priest, said to the fourth prince: You leave by the north gate and go straight on till you see a wheelframe all made of jewels: that will be a sign that you are to lay out a city there and dwell in it, and it shall be called Uttara-Pancala'.: The Mahabharata gives a different story of the division of the Pancala country. There, in the Adiparvan, we read that the Brahmin Drona and Prince Drupada had been friends in their boyhood. But their friendship changed to enmity in their manhood when Drupada, on being raised to the throne, treated the poor 1 Pargiter, The North Panchala Dynasty, J.R.A.S., 1918, pp. 229 foll. 2 Vedic Index, I, p. 469. 3 Jataka (Fausboll), III, pp. 460-I.

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THE PANCALAS 33 Brahmin's son with contempt. Drona, bent upon taking revenge, taught the science of war to the youths of the rival clan of the Kurus and, when their education was completed, he one day called all his pupils together and bade them seize Drupada, King of Pancala, in battle, and bring him captive. That, said Drona, would be the most acceptable teacher's fee (daksina) for him. A great battle ensued, in which the Pancalas were defeated and their capital attacked. Drupada was seized and offered to Drona by his disciples. Drona asked Drupada whether he would desire to revive old friendship, and told him that he would grant him half his kingdom as a boon. Drupada accepted the offer. Drona then took the northern half of the kingdom which came to be known as Uttara-Pancala: while Drupada ruled over the other half, known as Southern Pancala. That is to say, the country extending from the river Bhagirathi to the river Carmanvati in the south, with its capital at Kampilya, fell to Drupada's share, and the northern half with its capital at Ahicchatra was taken over by Drona. The plain of the Kurus, the (country of the) Matsyas, Pancalas and Surasenakas--these, according to Manu, formed the land of the Brahmarsis, ranking immediately after Brahmavarta.2 One of the earliest cities of Pancala was Parivakra or Paricakra, where King Kraivya Pancala performed his horse sacrifice. Another city, Kampila, appears to have been mentioned in the Yajurveda Samhita, where 'the epithet Kampila-vasini is applied to a woman, perhaps the mahisi or chief wife of the king, whose duty it was to sleep beside the slaughtered animal of the horse sacrifice (Asvamedha) The exact interpretation of the passage is very uncertain, but both Weber and Zimmer agree in regarding Kampila as the name of the town known as Kampilya in the later literature, and the capital of Pancala in Madhyadesa'.4 The Visnupurana (Chap. II) and the Bhagavatapurana (Chap. 22) say that Kampilya, son of King Haryasva, was celebrated as Pancala. Among the hundred sons of Nipa of the Ajamida dynasty, Samara is mentioned as the king of Kampilya. We have seen that Kampilya became the capital of King Drupada when he was invested with the sovereignty of the 1 Moh., Adiparvan, Chap. 140. Rapson (Ancient India, p. 167) says: 'In history, they (i.e. the Pancalas) are sometimes divided into two kingdoms-South Panchala, the country between the Jumna and Ganges to the east and south-east of the Kurus and Surasenas, and North Panchala, districts of the United Provinces lying east of the Ganges and north-west of the Province of Oudh ... 'Cunningham (Ancient Geography, p. 360) says: The great kingdom of Pancala extended from the Himalaya mountains to the Chambal river'. 2 Manusamhita, II, 19. 3 Vide ante. 4 Vedic Index, Vol. I, 149. 5 Visnupurana, IV, 19.

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34 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA southern Pancala country. In the Adikanda of the Ramayana (Sarga 33) we are told that King Brahmadatta used to live in the city of Kampilya. Cunningham identifies Kampilya with Kampil, on the old Ganges between Budaon and Farokhabad.1 According to N. L. Dey, it was situated at a distance of 28 miles north-east of Fatgarh in the Farokhabad district. It was the scene of the svayamvara of Drupada's daughter, Krsna or Draupadi, who became the wife of the five sons of Pandu. Drupada's palace is pointed out as the most easterly of the isolated mounds on the bank of the Bur-Ganga.3 Ahicchatra, where Drona established his capital, as we have seen, was another notable town of the Pancalas. When the Kuru army was marshalled on the field, it is stated that their rear extended as far as the city of Ahicchatra *; so that northern Pancala was contiguous with the Kuru land, and not very far from the Kuruksetra battle-field. According to Cunningham, the history of Ahicchatra goes back to 1430 B.C. The name is written Ahiksetra, as well as Ahi-cchatra, but the local legend of the Adi-Raja and the Naga suggests that Ahi-cchatra is the correct form, for Ahicchatra means 'Serpent Umbrella'. This grand old fort is said to have been built by Raja Adi, an Ahir, whose future elevation to sovereignty was foretold by Drona, when he found him sleeping under the guardianship of a serpent with expanded hood. The fort is also called Adikot, but the more common name is Ahicchatra. The form of the name in Ptolemy by a slight alteration becomes Adisadra, which has been satisfactorily identified with Ahicchatra. According to V. A. Smith, Ahicchatra City is the modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district. It was still a considerable town when visited by Hsuan Tsang in the seventh century. The name of the city, it appears, was extended to the whole of the country of Uttara-Pancala, for we find the Chinese pilgrim giving a description of the country' of Ahicchatra. He observes that it was about 3,000 li in circuit and the capital about 17 or 18 li. It was naturally strong, being flanked by mountain crags. It produced wheat, and there were many woods and fountains. The climate was agreeable and the people sincere and truthful. They loved religion, and applied themselves to learn 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 360; Uvasagadasao, Vol. II, p. 106. 2 Geographical Dictionary, p. 33. 3 N. L. Dey, op. cit., p. 33. See also Mahabharata, Adiparvan, Chap. 94, pp. 181-2. 4 Mahabharata, V, Chap. 19. 5 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 360. 6 McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 133. 7 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., pp. 391-392. 3B

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THE PANCALAS 35 ing. There were about 10 sangharamas and some 1,000 priests who studied the Hinayana; and also some 9 deva temples with 300 sectaries. They sacrificed to Isvara and belonged to the company of ashes-sprinklers' (Pasupatas). Outside the chief town was a Naga tank by the side of which was a stupa built by King Asoka. It was here that the Tathagata (Buddha) preached the law for the sake of a Naga-raja for seven days. By the side of it were four little stupas.1 In modern times, Ahicchatra was first visited by Capt. Hodgson, who describes it as the ruins of an ancient fortress several miles in circumference, which appears to have had 34 bastions, and is known in the neighbourhood by the name of the Pandu's fort.2 In the kingdom of Pancala there also existed the city of Kanyakubja. R. D. Banerjee, on the authority of a copper plate discovered at Khalimpura, points out that the kings of the Bhojas, Matsyas, Kurus, Yadus and Yavanas were forced to acknowledge Cakrayudha as the king of Kanyakubja.* Many are the stories told about the Pancalas and their dealings with the Kurus. In the Adiparvan 5 we read that there was a king named Sambarana, father of Kuru, of the Puru dynasty, who was the ruler of the world. At one time his kingdom was much afflicted, his subjects died, and disorder prevailed everywhere. The kingdom was afterwards conquered by the King of Pancala, and Sambarana fled with his wife and children to a forest on the banks of the river Sindhu. In connection with the expedition resulting in the victory of Bhimasena, we note that Bhimasena went to the east, attacked the Pancala country and brought it under his sway. At the outset of his expedition, Karna also attacked Pancala, defeated Drupada, and exacted tribute from him and his subordinate kings." During the Kuruksetra war, Drupada, king of the Pancalas, helped the Pandavas with his son, Dhrstadyumna, and an aksauhini of troops; and Dhrstadyumna was made the commander-in-chief of the entire Pandava force. Various kinds of horses are described as having been used by the famous heroes of Pancala during the war. In the Udyogaparvan we read that Yudhamanyu and 1 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I, pp. 200-201. 2 McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 134. 3 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. IV, p. 246. 4 Vangalar Itihasa, Pt. I, pp. 167-8. 5 Chap. 94, p. 104. 6 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 29, p. 241. 7 Mahabharata, Vangavasi Edn., Vanaparvan, Chap. 253, p. 513. 8 Udyogaparvan, Chaps. 156-7, pp. 777-8. 9 See Dronaparvan, Chap. 22, pp. 1012-13.

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36 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Uttamanja, two other princes of Pancala, went to the battle-field.1 They were killed by Dhrtarastra's army. Mitravarma and Ksatradharma, the Pancala heroes, were killed by Drona; and Ksatradeva, son of Sikhandi, was killed by Laksmana, son of Duryodhana.2 Pancala continued to be one of the great and powerful countries of Northern India, down to the time when the Buddha lived. The Anguttara Nikaya mentions it as one of the sixteen mahajanapadas of Jambudipa', having an abundance of the seven kinds of gems, etc. Pancala had a large army consisting of foot-soldiers, men skilful in fight and in the use of steel weapons. We read in the Kumbhakara Jataka 5 that in the kingdom of Uttara-Pancala, in the city of Kampilla, there was a king named Dummukha, who became a Pacceka-buddha. We have seen before that Durmukha was the name of one of the powerful Pancala sovereigns in the Vedic period. A Pancala monarch of the same name is also mentioned in the Jaina works. In the Gandatindu Jataka we read that during the reign of Pancala, king of Kampilla, the people were so much oppressed by taxation that they took their wives and families and wandered in the forest like wild beasts. By day they were plundered by the king's men and by night by robbers.6 The Samyutta Nikaya narrates that once while the Buddha was staying at Vaisali, Visakha of the Pancalas was in the meeting hall where he distinguished himself by his pious discourse." Visakha was the son of the daughter of the king of the Pancalas, and afterwards became known as the Pancali's son. After the death of his father, he succeeded to his title, but when the Buddha came to his neighbourhood, he went to hear him, believed, and left the world. Pancala and its princes also figure in the Jaina literature. It is stated in the Uttaradhyayana Sutra that the king of the Pancalas did no fearful actions. The Jain writers also refer to Brahmadatta, king of the Pancalas, 10 and to Dvimukha of Pancala, who was a Pratyekabuddha.11 1 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 198, pp. 807-8. See also Bhismaparvan, Chap. 19, p. 830. 2 Karnaparvan, Chap. 6, p. 1169. 3 Vol. I (P.T.S.), 213; IV, 252, 256, 260. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), VI, p. 396. 5 Ibid., III, p. 379. 6 Ibid., Vol. V, p. 99. 7 The Book of the Kindred Sayings, II, p. 190. 8 Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 152-3; vide also Thera-therigatha, P.T.S., p. 27. 9 S.B.E., Vol. XLV, Jaina Sutras, Pt. II, p. 60. 10 Ibid., p. 61. 11 Ibid., p. 87.

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THE PANCALAS 37 In the post-Asokan period Pancala was invaded by the Greeks, as we infer from the Gargi Samhita, which is dated about the second or third century A.D.1 In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., the Pancalas were a monarchical clan, but became a sangha (probably an oligarchy) in the fourth century, when Kautilya lived. In Kautilya's Arthasastra we read that the corporation of Pancala 'lived by the title of raja'.2 The change was very probably brought about in the following way. Members of the royal family were often given a share in the administration of a country, and in proportion as this share became less and less formal, the state organization would lose the form of absolute monarchy and approach that of an oligarchy.3 Sir Charles Eliot notes that the kingdom of Pancala passed through troublous times after the death of Harsavardhana, but from about 840-910 A.D. under Bhoja and his son, it became the principal power in Northern India, extending from Bihar to Sind. In the twelfth century, it again became important under the Gaharwar dynasty." In the district of Bareilly in the United Provinces, many old copper coins have been discovered amongst the ruins of ancient Ahicchatra. The word 'mitra' 5 occurs at the end of the names of the kings engraved on the coins. In many places of the United Provinces, coins of this kind are discovered every year. There are three symbols above the names of the kings. Carlyle of the Archaeological Dept. explains the symbols as Bodhi tree, Sivalingam surrounded by snakes, and stupa covered by fungus. Such coins are found in large numbers at Ahicchatra, so Cunningham calls them Pancala-mudra. They generally weigh 250 grs., the smaller ones weighing not less than 16 grs. According to the Cambridge History," several Pancala coins have on the obverse Agni, with head of flames, standing between posts on railing, on the reverse, in incuse, Agimitasa; above, three symbols. Whether Agnimitra whose coins are found in North Pancala and who was, therefore, presumably king of Ahicchatra, can be identified with the Sunga king of that name, is uncertain.8 1 See Max Muller, India, What can it teach us? 1883, p. 298. 2 Rajasabdopajivinah'-Arthasastra, Shama Sastri's Translation, p. 455. 3 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 165. 4 Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 27. 5 For a detailed discussion, see B. C. Law, Panchalas and their Capital Ahichchhatra, M.A.S.I., No. 67, pp. 12 foll. 6 R. D. Banerjee, Pracina Mudra, pp. 106-7. 7 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 538. 8 Ibid., p. 520.

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38 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The method of striking the early coins was peculiar, in that the die was impressed on the metal when hot, so that a deep square incuse, which coins the device, appears on the coin. A similar incuse appears on the later double-die coins of Pancala, Kausambi, and on some coins of Mathura. This method of striking may have been introduced from Persia, and was perhaps a derivative from the art of seal-engraving. Brown says that there is little foreign influence traceable in the die-struck coins, all closely connected in point of style, which issued during the first and second centuries B.C. from Pancala, Ayodhya, Kausambi and Mathura. A number of these bear Brahmi inscriptions and the names of ten kings, which some would identify with the old Sunga dynasty, have been recovered from the copper and brass coins of Pancala, found in abundance at Ramnagar in Rohilkhand, the site of the ancient city, Ahicchatra.2 1 Brown, Coins of India, p. 19. 2 Ibid., p. 20.

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CHAPTER V THE SURASENAS The Surasenas are not mentioned in the Vedic literature, but in the Manavadharma-sastra they are spoken of in high terms as belonging to the Brahmarsi-desa, or the country of the great Brahmanical seers, whose conduct was an example to all Aryans.1 Accordingly at the time of Manu's Code (between the second century B.C. and the second century A.D.), the Surasenas were among the tribes who occupied a rank in Indo-Aryan society second only to that of the small population of the narrow strip of Brahmavarta. Therefore they must have belonged to the Vedic people, though probably they had not acquired sufficient political importance in very early times to find a mention in the Rgveda or the subsequent Vedic literature. They claimed descent from Vadu, a hero whose people are repeatedly referred to in the Rgveda 2; and it is probable that the Surasenas were included among the Rgvedic Yadus. Manu also pays a high tribute to the martial qualities of the Surasenas, inasmuch as he advises a king when arranging his troops on the battle-field, to place the Surasenas in the very front line.3 In an enumeration in the Mahabharata of the various peoples of Bharatavarsa, the Surasenas are mentioned along with the Salvas, Kuru-Pancalas and other neighbouring tribes; and we read in the Virataparvan (Chaps. I and V) that the Pandavas passed through the Surasena country on their way to Viratanagara, from the Dvaitavana forest, where they had sojourned during their exile. It is easy to locate the Surasenas, inasmuch as their capital, Mathura, has been a great city from the early times of Indo-Aryan history down to the present day. They must have occupied 'the Muttra district and possibly some of the territory still farther south',5 according to the Cambridge History of India. Prof. Rhys Davids says: "The Surasenas, whose capital was Madhura, were immediately southwest of the Macchas, and west of the Jumna'. In the Ramayana," we read that Sugriva, when sending out his monkey generals in search of Sita, told those who were going towards 1 Manusamhita, II, 19; and see Matsya chapter. 2 Vedic Index, II, 185. 822. 4 Mbh., Bhismaparvan, Chap. 9, p. 5 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 316. 7 Kiskindhya Kanda, 11-12, 431d sarga. 3 Manusamhita, VII, 193. 6 Buddhist India, p. 27.

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40 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA the north to search the country of the Surasenas. In the Bhagavadgita section of the Mahabharata, the Surasenas are mentioned as forming part of the army of Duryodhana in the Kuruksetra war. They guarded Bhisma, and took a prominent part in the battle, to the point of having their army destroyed.1 Elsewhere in the Mahabharata, we read that Sahadeva, while proceeding southwards in the course of his conquests before the Rajasuya sacrifice, conquered the country of Surasenas. In the Pali Buddhist Tripitaka, Surasena is mentioned as one of the sixteen 'mahajanapadas' which were prosperous and had an abundance of wealth. One of the Jataka stories narrates how the Surasenas, along with the Pancalas, Matsyas and Madras, witnessed a game of dice between Dhananjaya Korabba and Punnaka Yakkha.4 The capital of the Surasenas, as we have seen, was Mathura on the Jumna, at present included in the Agra division of the United Provinces. It lay on the upper Jumna, about 270 miles in a straight line north-west of Kausambi. In the Pali Buddhist literature, the name is Madhura; Rhys Davids in his Buddhist India (p. 36) says that it is tempting to identify it with the site of the modern Mathura, in spite of the difference in spelling. In the Lalitavistara,5 the city of Mathura is mentioned as having been suggested as a possible locality for the birth of the Bodhisattva, when various places were being discussed by the gods in the Tusita heaven. From this it is evident that at the time that the Lalitavistara was composed, that is, in the early centuries of the Christian era, Mathura was one of the most prominent cities of India. The Greek historians make mention of Mathura. It was noticed by Arrian, on the authority of Megasthenes, as the capital of the Surasenas; and Ptolemy also mentions it. The town was surrounded by numbers of high mounds, one of which has since yielded numbers of statues and inscribed pillars, which prove that it represented the remains of at least two large Buddhist monasteries dating from the beginning of the Christian era.? In the fifth century A.D., Mathura was visited by the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien, who passed through a succession of monasteries 1 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 106, p. 974; Ibid., Chaps. 107-121, pp. 906-993; Dronaparvan, Chap. 6, pp. 998-9; Ibid., Chap. 19, P. 1009; Karnaparvan, Chap. 5, pp. 1167-8. 2 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 31, pp. 242-3. 3 Anguttara Nikaya, I, p. 213; Ibid., IV, pp. 252, 256 and 260. 4 Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. VI, P. 28o. 5 Ed. Lefmann, pp. 21-2. 6 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, (Majumder's Ed.), p. 429. The Greek writers also make mention of another city of the Surasena country, named Cleisobora (= Kysnapur = Brndaban). 7 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 374.

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THE SURASENAS filled with a number of monks.1 It was also visited later by Hsuan Tsang who described the country as being above 5,000 li in circuit, the capital being above twenty li in circuit. The soil, according to him, was very fertile, and agriculture was the chief industry: mango trees were grown there in orchards. The country also produced a fine striped cotton cloth, and gold. Its climate was hot, the manners and customs of the inhabitants were good. There were Buddhist monasteries, and deva-temples, and the professed adherents of the different non-Buddhist sects lived pell-mell.2 Buddhism was predominant in Mathura for several centuries.3 The king of Mathura in the Buddha's time bore the title of Avantiputto, and was therefore related to the royal family of Ujjayini in Avanti. In the Majjhima Nikaya (II, pp. 83ff.) we read that king Avantiputto went to Mahakaccana, one of the Buddha's most influential disciples, and discussed with him the pride of the Brahmanas, and their view that they were vastly superior to all other castes. Mathura was the residence of Mahakaccana, 'to whom tradition attributes the first grammatical treatment of the Pali language, and after whom the oldest Pali grammar is accordingly named'. In Kaccayana's Pali Grammar we read that the distance from Mathura to Sankassa was 4 yojanas. A famous stupa was built at Mathura in honour of Moggaliputta Tissa (Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 506). Mathura was visited by the Buddha, but we do not find many references to the city in his time; whereas it is mentioned in the Milindapanho as one of the most famous places in India; so that the time of its greatest growth must have been between these dates.7 Besides Buddhism, the Jaina cult was also practised at Mathura which was one of the few centres of the cult in the centuries immediately before and after the Christian era.8 The Jains seem to have been firmly established in the city from the middle of the second century B.C.; while many dedicatory inscriptions prove that they were a flourishing community at Mathura in the reigns of Kaniska, Huviska and Vasudeva.9 1 Legge, Travels of Fa-Hien, p. 42. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 301. 3 Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. II, p. 159. 4 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 36. 5 Book III, Chap. I, p. 157, S. C. Vidyabhusana's edition. Anguttara Nikaya, II, 57; Vimanavatthu Comm., pp. 118-9. 41 7 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 37. 8 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 18; and Rapson, Ancient India, p. 174. 9 Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 113.

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42 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Mathura was also known in the time of Megasthenes (300 B.C.) as the centre of Krsna worship 1; it was well known as the birthplace of the hero Krsna.2 Cunningham points out 3 that Surasena was the grandfather of Krsna, and after him Krsna and his descendants, who held Mathura after the death of Kamsa, were called the Surasenas. Another cult which arose in Mathura was the Bhagavata religion, the parent of modern Vaisnavism *; but in the Saka-Kushan period, the city had ceased to be a stronghold of Bhagavatism. The paucity of Bhagavata inscriptions at Mathura probably indicates that Bhagavatism did not find much favour at the royal court, because from the first century B.C. to the third century A.D., the people were usually Buddhists. Mathura, then, was a city in which many divergent religious sects flourished side by side. To the Hindus its sanctity was, and still is, very great. As the birthplace of Krsna, it was and is one of the seven holy places of Hinduism.? In the semi-legendary accounts of the Puranas, we find some details regarding Mathura. In the Visnupurana for instance, we read that Lavana, son of the monster Madhu, was killed by Satrughna who founded the city of Mathura.8 The demons attacked Mathura, the home of the Vrsnis and Andhakas; ' and the Vrsnis and Andhakas, being afraid of the demons, left Mathura and established their capital at Dvaravati.10 Mathura was also besieged by Jarasandha, king of Magadha, with a huge army of 23 aksauhinis.i1 At the time of his 'great departure' (mahaprasthana), Yudhisthira installed Vajranabha on the throne of the city.12 The earlier rulers of Mathura find a place in the Puranas,13 but only in the general summary of those dynasties which were contemporary with the Purus. On the eve of the rise of the Gupta power, says the Vayupurana (Chap. 99), seven naga kings reigned in Mathura. They were followed by Magadha kings.14 i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 167. 2 See, e.g. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, p. 395, n. 1. 3 Ancient Geography, p. 374. 4 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 526. 5 H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, Early History of the Vaisnava Sect, p. 99. 6 Ibid., p. 100. 7 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 316. 8 4th Amsa, Chap. 4. 9 Brahmapurana, Chap. 14, sloka 54. 10 Harivamsa, Chap. 37. 11 Ibid., Chap. 195, sloka, 3. 12 Skandapurana, Visnukhanda; Bhagavata Mahatmya, Chap. I. 13 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 526. 14 Visnupurana, 4th Amsa, Chap. 23.

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THE SURASENAS 43 As regards Buddhist semi-historical records, we read in the Lalitavistara 1 of a king of the Surasenas named Suvahu, who had his capital at Mathura. He is said to have been a heretic, but a great king of Jambudipa (India).2 Mathura is also mentioned in the earliest chronicle of Ceylon, the Dipavamsa,' where we are told that sons and grandsons of Prince Sadhina reigned 'over the great kingdom of Madhura, the best of towns'. In the Ghata Jataka we read that in Upper Madhura there reigned a king named Mahasagara, who had two sons, Sagara and Upasagara. On his death the elder son became king and the younger Viceroy (= heir-apparent?). Upasagara quarrelled with Sagara and went to Uttarapatha in the Kamsa district, to the city of Asitanjana which was ruled over by King Mahakamsa, who had two sons, Kamsa and Upakamsa, and one daughter, Devagabbha. It was foretold that this daughter would bear a son who would kill his maternal uncles. Believing this prediction, on the death of King Mahakamsa the two brothers kept their sister in a separate round tower specially built for her, so that she should remain unmarried. But despite their precautions, Devagabbha and Upasagara saw each other, fell in love, and contrived to meet. When her brothers discovered the intrigue, they gave Devagabbha in marriage to Upasagara, and a daughter was born soon afterwards. The two brothers were pleased, and allotted to their sister and brother-in-law a village named Govaddhamana. In course of time, Devagabbha gave birth to ten sons, and her serving woman Nandagopa to ten daughters. Devagabbha, however, secretly exchanged her ten sons for the ten daughters of her maid. When the boys grew up, they became plunderers and their fosterfather, Andhaka-Venhu, was often rebuked by King Kamsa. At last Andhaka-Venhu told the king the secret of the birth of the ten sons. An arena was prepared for a wrestling match in the city. When the ten sons entered the ring and were about to be caught, the eldest of the ten, Vasudeva, threw a wheel which cut off the heads of Kamsa and Upakamsa, and himself assumed the sovereignty of the city of Asitanjana.4 The Jataka story ends with the accession of Vasudeva to the throne of Mathura. The Petavatthu Commentary gives a different story of the adventure of the ten sons who were born to the king of Uttara-Madhura.5 1 Ed. Lefmann, pp. 21-2. 2 Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, p. 29. 8 Oldenberg, Dipavamsa, p. 27. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. 79 foll. 5 Petavatthu Comm., 111 ff.; see also B. C. Law, Buddhist Conception of Spirits, 2nd Ed., p. 99.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA A king of Mathura named Brahmamitra was probably contemporary with king Indramitra of Ahicchatra, for both names are found in the dedicatory inscriptions of queens on pillars of the railing at Buddhagaya, which is generally assigned to the earlier part of the first century B.C.1 Rapson points out that in the second century B.C. Mathura was governed by native princes whose names are known from their coins; and it passed from them into the possession of one of the families of Saka satraps, c. 100 B.C. Menander (Milinda), king of Kabul and the Punjab, presumably occupied Mathura,3 and many of his coins have been discovered there.4 Numismatic evidence seems to prove 5 that the Hindu kings of Mathura were finally replaced by Hagana, Hagamasha, Rajuvula, and other Saka Satraps who probably flourished in or about the first century A.D. In the second century A.D. Mathura was under the sway of Huvishka, the Kushan king. This is evidenced by a splendid Buddhist monastery which bears his names. The epigraphic evidence that in the first century B.C. the region of Mathura had passed from native Indian to foreign (Saka) rule is confirmed and amplified by the evidence of coins. A Muttra (i.e. Mathura) inscription, according to R. Chanda, records the erection of a torana, vedika and catuhsala at the Mahasthana of Vasudeva, in the reign of the Mahaksatrapa Sodasa.? The Mathura naga statuette inscription is evidence of serpent worship in Mathura, which is important in view of the story of Kaliya naga and his suppression by Krsna, recorded in the Puranas compiled during the Gupta period.8 Brown' says that cast coins were issued at the close of the third century by the kingdoms of Mathura, Ayodhya and Kausambi, some of which bear the names of local kings in the Brahmi script. In the ruins of Mathura, many ancient copper coins along with many coins of the Greek and Saka rulers were discovered.10 Among the coins discovered in this region, those of the Arjunayanas are of special interest. 11 The Pre-Kushan sculptures of Muttra are the most instructive, because they all emanate from the same school. These sculptures may be divided into three main classes, the earliest belonging approxi i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 526. 2 Ancient India, p. 174. 3 Smith, Early History of India, p. 199. 4 R. D. Banerjee, Pracina Mudra, p. 50. 5 Smith, op. cit., p. 227. 6 Ibid., p. 271. Early History of the Vaisnava Sect, pp. 98-9. 8 Ibid., p. 100. 9 Coins of India, p. 19. 10 Pracina Mudra, pp. 105, 106. 11 Cunningham, Coins of India, pp. 89-90; see also R. D. Banerjee's Pracina Mudra, p. 109.

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THE SURASENAS 45 mately to the middle of the second century B.C., the second to the following century, and the last being associated with the rule of the local Satraps. The sculptures of the third class are more exceptional. Their style is that of the early school in a late and decadent phase, when its cut was becoming conventionalised and lifeless. A little before the beginning of the Christian era, Muttra had become the capital of a satrapy either subordinate to, or closely connected with, the Scytho-Parthian kingdom of Taxila. As a result, there was an influx there of the semi-Hellenistic Art, too weak in its environment to maintain its own individuality, yet still strong enough to interrupt and enervate the older traditions of Hindusthan ... As an illustration of the close relations that existed between Muttra and the north-west, the votive tables of Lona-sobhika is particularly significant, the stupa depicted on it being identical in form with the stupas of the Scytho-Parthian epoch at Taxila, but unlike any monument of the class in Hindusthan.! Sir Charles Eliot points out 2 that we need not feel surprise if we find in the religious thought of Muttra elements traceable to Greece, Persia or Central Asia, because we know that the sculptural remains found at Mathura indicate the presence of Graeco-Bactrian influence. Smith remarks s that Mathura was probably the original site of the celebrated iron pillar at Delhi, on which the eulogy of a powerful king named Chandra is incised. As Rapson says, we possess a most valuable monument of the Saka Satraps of Mathura, which was discovered by Bhagavanlal Indraji, who bequeathed it to the British Museum. It is in the form of a large lion carved in red sandstone and intended to be the capital of a pillar. The workmanship shows undoubted Persian influence. The surface is completely covered with inscriptions in Kharosthi characters which give the genealogy of the Satrapal family ruling at Muttra. These inscriptions show that the Satraps of Muttra were Buddhists'.4 i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 633. 2 Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. II, p. 158. 3 Early History of India, p. 386. 4 Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 142-3, 158.

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CHAPTER VI THE CEDIS The Cedis formed one of the most ancient tribes among the Ksatriyas in early Vedic times. As early as the period of the Rgveda, the Cedi kings had acquired great renown by their munificent gifts at sacrifices, and also by their great prowess in battle. Rsi Brahmatithi of the family of Kanva sings the praises of King Kasu, the Caidya, in a hymn addressed to the Asvins (Rgveda, VIII, 5, 37-9). From this account, even making allowances for some exaggeration, which is inevitable in these Danastutis or laudatory verses for munificence and charity, one may conclude that the Cedi king was very powerful, for he is described as making a gift of ten Rajas or kings as slaves to a priest who officiated at one of his sacrifices. The Cedis are not expressly mentioned in the later Vedic literature, but it would be wrong to suppose that they had become extinct, for they appear in the Mahabharata as one of the leading powers of Northern India. It is probable that they were not so prominent in their sacrificial rites, or their political power, in the Brahmana age as they had been in the earlier era of the Rgvedic hymns; but there were ups and downs in the history of every great Ksatriya power in India. Another well-known Cedi monarch of ancient times, Vasu, who acquired the designation of Uparicara, is glorified in the Mahabharata, and traditions about him and his successors are also recorded in the Jatakas. This Cedi king appears to have been characterised by great religious merit. Himself a Paurava, he is recorded to have been, through his daughter Satyavati, the progenitor of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. In the Adiparvan of the Mahabharata,1 we read that Vasu, the Paurava, conquered the beautiful and excellent kingdom of the Cedis on the advice of the god Indra, whose friendship he had acquired by his austerities, and who, pleased with his asceticism, presented him with a great crystal car. Because of his riding on it and moving through the upper regions like a celestial being, he came to be known as Uparicara.3 King Uparicara Vasu had one son and one daughter by an apsara named Adrika. The daughter, 1 M. N. Dutt, Mahabharata, p. 83. 2 Ibid., p. 84. 3 Ibid., p. 85.

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THE CEDIS 47 who was named Satyavati, became the mother of Krsnadvaipayana and others, and was the queen of King Santanu. The son afterwards became a virtuous and powerful monarch named Matsya. We further read that Uparicara Vasu Caidya had a few other sons, namely, Brhadratha, Pratyagraha, Kusamba and others, who founded kingdoms and cities which were named after them.1 The Vayupurana (Chap. 99) also confirms the story of the conquest of the Cedi country by Vasu the Paurava. We read there that Yayati had a chariot which used to move according to his desire. This chariot came into the hands of Vasu, king of the Cedis. According to another account, Vasu, a descendant of Kuru, conquered the Yadava kingdom of Cedi, and established himself there, whence he was known as Caidya-Uparicara. His capital was Suktimati on the river of the same name. He extended his conquests eastwards as far as Magadha and apparently also north-west over Matsya. He divided his territories of Magadha, Cedi, Kausambi, Karusa and apparently Matsya among his five sons. His eldest son Brhadratha took Magadha with Girivraja as his capital, and founded the famous Barhadratha dynasty there.2 Another section of the Mahabharata 3 also speaks of the greatness of the Cedi monarch, Uparicara Vasu, and describes an Asvamedha sacrifice which he performed. In the Cetiya Jataka, we find a dynastic list of the ancestors of Upacara or Apacara, who was the ruler of Sotthivatinagara 5 in the kingdom of Ceti. King Upacara had five sons one of whom went to the east, and founded Hatthipura; while the second son went to the south, and founded Assapura; the third to the west, and founded Sihapura; the fourth to the north, and founded Uttarapancala; and the last son went to the north-west, and founded Daddarapura. The next Cedi monarch who appears to have acquired considerable power in the Epic period is Sisupala who is called Damaghosasuta (Mbh., I, 7029) or Damaghosatmaja (II, 1594; III, 516). He allied himself with the great Jarasandha and on account of his heroism was appointed generalissimo of the Magadhan emperor. His conduct appears to have roused the displeasure of many of the Ksatriya tribes of his time, but he was looked upon with such fear that he was considered as an incarnation of the great Daitya Hiranya-Kasipu," and the Epic tells us that he bore a charmed 1 M. N. Dutt, Mbh., p. 84; Mbh. Adiparvan, Chap. 63, pp. 69-71. 2 Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 282. 3 Mbh., Santiparvan, Chaps. 136 and 137, pp. 1802-4. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. III, pp. 454-461. See also Pancala chapter. 5 Evidently identical with Suktimati. 6 Mbh., II, 14, 10-II. 7 Adiparvan, 67, 5.

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48 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA life unassailable by any ordinary mortal. He was related on his mother's side to the Satvats or Yadavas, but he allied himself with Kamsa and Jarasandha, enemies of the Yadavas, destroyed their city, Dvaraka, and molested them in other ways. The Yadava hero, Krsna, had been awaiting a suitable opportunity to remove this great enemy of his family. Such an opportunity was afforded him at the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhisthira who, by his conquests, had acquired the position of a suzerain among the Ksatriya monarchs of Northern India. Yudhisthira, finding it incumbent upon him, according to the procedure of the sacrifice, to make an arghya (offering) to the most honoured and worthy individual present in the assemblage gathered at his court on this occasion, was advised by Bhisma to offer the arghya to Krsna. This aroused the ire of Sisupala who strongly protested against this decision, and succeeded in securing the support of a large number of other kings. Sisupala challenged Krsna, being desirous to slay him with all the Pandavas. Krsna related all of Sisupala's misdeeds, and then thought of his magic discus which came into his hand; therewith he instantly cut off the head of Sisupala; the kings beheld a fiery energy issuing out of the body of Sisupala and entering Krsna's body; the sky, though cloudless, poured showers of rain. Yudhisthira caused his brothers to perform the funeral rites of Sisupala, the son of Damaghosa; then he, with all the kings, installed the son of Sisupala in the sovereignty of the Cedis. The Puranas corroborate the Epic story of Sisupala. We read in the Agnipurana (4, 14) that Damaghosa, king of the Cedis, married Srutasrava, sister of Vasudeva; and Sisupala was their son.2 Further details from the Mahabharata may be summarised as follows. Damaghosa's son, Sisupala, king of the Cedis, attended the Svayamvara of Draupadi.3 Bhimasena went to the kingdom of Cedi and easily subdued Sisupala. Karna conquered the son of Sisupala, and other neighbouring kings.5 Dhrstaketu who, after the death of his father, had been placed upon the throne of the Cedis by Yudhisthira, became a friend of the Pandavas, and when the great war broke out, he was appointed leader of the Cedi army which marched to the battle-field to help the Pandavas. The Cedis must have been very powerful at the time, for we are told that Dhrstaketu led one complete aksauhini to the field.? Dhrstaketu went to the battle-field on a Kambojian horse which had variegated 1 II, Chaps. 42 and 43. 2 Vayu P., Chap. 96; Brahma P., Chap. 14. 3 Mbh., Adiparvan, Chap. 87, p. 177. 4 Ibid., Sabhaparvan, Chap. 29, p. 241. 5 Ibid., Chap. 253, pp. 513-4. 6 Ibid., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 156, p. 777; Chap. 198, pp. 807-8. 7 V, 19.

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THE CEDIS 49 colours like a deer. The Cedi king along with Bhima and others was placed in the front of the Pandava army. He and his brother Suketu were killed in the Kuruksetra war.3 Bhima mentioned eighteen kings who by their great strength ruined their friends and relations, and among them was Sahaja of the Cedi dynasty.4 From the Asvamedhaparvan of the Mahabharata, we learn that Arjuna fought and defeated Sarabha, the son of Sisupala, at the city of Sukti in the kingdom of Cedi. The Visnupurana (4-12) and the Agnipurana (275) tell us that the descendants of Cedi, son of Kausika, were known as Caidyas. The Markandeya Purana (Chaps. 129-31) refers to a Cedi princess, Susobhana by name, who was one of the many queens of King Maru. It is recorded in the Visnupurana (4, 12) that Vidarbha, son of Jyamagha, had three sons of whom Kausika was one. Cedi was a son of Kausika, and the descendants of this Cedi were known as Caidyarajas. In the Matsyapurana (Chap. 44), Cedi is written as Cidi.? The Kurmapurana (Chap. 24) tells a similar story of the origin of the name of Cedi. King Vidarbha, it says, had a son named Cidi, and after him, his descendants came to be known as Caidyas. Dyutiman was the eldest of his sons, the others being Vapusman, Brhatmedha, Srideva and Vitaratha. Pargiter observes 8 that Cedi and other kingdoms, e.g. Vatsa, did not come under the rule of the Pauravas; but we may note that the famous king Vasu Uparicara was a Paurava by birth. Pargiter suggests that Pratyagraha may have taken Cedi. In the Mahabharata, we find the Cedis allied in a group with such western tribes as the Pancalas, Matsyas and Karusas, and also with peoples who lived in the east, such as the Kasis and Kosalas. We read of the Cedi-Karusakah bhumipalah, or rulers of the Cedis and Karusakas, who espoused the cause of the Pandavas.10 Elsewhere the Cedi-Pancala-Kaikeyas are grouped together.11 Again, we are told that Dhrstaketu was the leader of the Cedi-Kasi-Karusa peoples 12; and we find the group Cedi-Kasi-Karusa fighting together.13 Sometimes the Cedis are grouped together with the Karusas and the 1 Dronaparvan, Chap. 22, pp. 1012-3. 2 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 19, p. 830. See also Chap. 59, p. 935. 3 Mbh., Karnaparvan, Chap. 6, p. 1169. 4 Ibid., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 74, p. 717. Cf. Ibid., Chap. 72, p. 714. 5 Chapters 83-4, pp. 2093-4. 6 Vayupurana, Chap. 95. 7 Agnipurana, Chap. 275. 8 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 293. 9 Ibid., p. 118. 10 V, 22. 12 V, 196. 13 V1, 47; VI, 106; VI, 115; VI, 116. 11 V, 144.

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50 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Matsyas 1; or with the Karusas, Matsyas, and Pancalas 2; or with the Karusas and Kosalas. These examples could be further multiplied; but we can gather from those already quoted that the Cedis are found combined with the Matsyas in the majority of cases, and it seems that the Matsyas were their immediate neighbours on the west, and the Kasis on the east. The capital of the Cedi king, Dhrstaketu, is called Suktimati, and is described as named after Sukti or oyster. This city appears to have stood on the river Suktimati which, we are told,6 flowed near the capital of the Cedi king, Vasu Uparicara, and which is also described in the geographical chapter of the Bhismaparvan (VI, 9) as one of the rivers in Bharatavarsa. The Visnudharmottara Mahapurana (Chap. 9) mentions Cedi as a janapada or country, and so does the Padmapurana (3rd chapter). Cedi (Ceti) is also mentioned in the Jaina and Buddhist literatures as one of the sixteen mahajanapadas.? The Cetis, says Rhys Davids, were probably the same tribe as that called Cedi in older documents, and had two distinct settlements. One, probably the older, was in the mountains in what is now called Nepal. The other, probably a later colony, was near Kausambi to the east, and has been confused with the land of the Vamsa (Vatsa).8 S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar in his Ancient India 9 agrees with Rhys Davids that one branch of the Cedis had their local habitat in Bundelkhand, the other being located somewhere in Nepal. D. R. Bhandarkar says that Ceta or Cetiya corresponds roughly to the modern Bundelkhand 10; while Rapson says that in the post-Vedic period the Cedis occupied the northern portion of the Central Provinces. 11 In the Cambridge History of India (p. 84), we read that the Cedis dwelt in Bundelkhand to the north of the Vindhyas; while Pargiter says 12 that Cedi lay along the south of the Jumna. The following is a summary given by N. L. Dey in his Geographical Dictionary (p. 14): According to Tod, Chanderi, a town in Malwa, was the capital of Sisupala who was killed by Krsna. According to Dr. Fuhrer, Dahala Mandala was the ancient Cedi. Some are of opinion that Cedi comprised the southern portion of Bundelkhand and northern portion of Jabbalpur. Kalanjara was the capital of Cedi under the Gupta kings. Cedi was also called Tripuri. 1 VI, 54; VIII, 30. 2 VI, 59. 3 VII, 21. 4 Mbh., III, 22. 5 Mbh., XIV, 83. 6 Mbh., I, 63. 7 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. IV, pp. 252, 256 and 260; Cf. Bhagavati Sutra. 8 Buddhist India, p. 26. 9 p. 8. 10 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 52. 11 Ancient India, 'p. 162. 12 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 272. 4B

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THE CEDIS 51 Cunningham remarks that in the inscriptions of the Kalachuri or Haihaya dynasty of Cedi, the Rajas assumed the titles of 'Lords of Kalanjarapura and of Tri-Kalinga'. Kalanjar is the well-known hill-fort in Bundelkhand; and Tri-Kalinga or the 'three Kalingas' must be the three kingdoms of Dhanaka or Amaravati on the Kistna, Andhra or Warangal, and Kalinga or Rajamahendri.1 It is stated in the Vessantara Jataka that Cetarattha (i.e. Cedirastra, kingdom of the Cedis) was 30 yojanas distant from Jetuttaranagara, the birthplace of King Vessantara. It was inhabited by 60,000 Khattiyas (Ksatriyas) who are also described as Cetiyarajas. Vessantara with his wife and children started from Jetuttara at breakfast-time and reached the capital of Cetarattha in the evening. The Cedis' hospitality to strangers is illustrated by this story; for we read that the Cedis offered food and hospitality to Vessantara who had been banished from the kingdom of his father Sivi; and when the prince proceeded to Vankapabbata, the '60,000 Khattiyas' followed him to a certain distance as a kind of bodyguard.2 In the Adiparvan of the Mahabharata, we read that the kingdom of Cedi was full of riches, gems and precious stones, and contained much mineral wealth. The cities in the kingdom were full of honest, virtuous, and contented people. Here sons were mindful of their parents' welfare; here lean kine were never yoked to the plough or to the cart engaged in carrying merchandise, they were all well-fed and fat. In Cedi, the four castes were engaged in doing their respective duties.3 In the Vedabbha Jataka, we read that in a village in Benares there was a brahmin who was acquainted with a charm called Vedabbha. He went to the Cetiya country with the Bodhisattva, who was his pupil. Five hundred robbers caught them in a forest on the way, took the brahmin prisoner, and told the Bodhisattva to fetch a ransom for him. By repeating his charm, the brahmin caused money to shower from the sky; whereupon the robbers took the money and released him. But the first band of robbers was attacked by another band of the same number; and eventually the brahmin and all the robbers were destroyed, so that when the Bodhisattva returned with the ransom money, he found none there.4 This account shows that the way from Benares to Cedi was frequented by robbers and was unsafe for travellers. 1 Ancient Geography, p. 518. 2 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. VI, pp. 514-5. 3 M. N. Dutt, Mahabharata, Adiparvan, p. 84. * Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. I, pp. 253 foll.

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52 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA In the Arguttara Nikaya,1 we read that on several occasions Mahacunda, an eminent disciple of the Buddha, dwelt in the town of Sahajati among the Cedis. The same Nikaya 2 further tells us that Anuruddha (first cousin and disciple of the Buddha) dwelt among the Cedis in the Deer-Park of Pacinavamsa. In the Digha Nikaya,3 we read that the Buddha went to the Cedis and other tribes while out preaching; while the Samyutta Nikaya 4 informs us that many theras were dwelling among the Cedis in the Sahancanika. The Cedis of the Vedic period, like other tribes, e.g. the Purus, were a group of families, says Dr. V. A. Smith, and in each family the father was master. The whole tribe was governed by a Raja whose power was checked to an undefined extent by a tribal council. The details recorded suggest that the life of the people was not unlike that of many tribes of Afghanistan in modern times, before the introduction of fire-arms.5 The later kings of Cedi used an era according to which the year I was equivalent to A.D. 248-9. This era, also called the Traikutaka, originated in Western India, where its use can be traced back to the fifth century. The reason for its adoption by the kings of Cedi is not apparent.6 Rapson remarks that each of certain eras, e.g. the Traikutaka, Cedi, or Kalacuri era of 249 A.D., the Gupta era of 319 A.D., and the era of King Harsavardhana of 606 A.D., marks the establishment of a great power in some region of India, and originally denoted the regnal years of its founder.? Kokalladeva I of the Cedi dynasty helped Bhojadeva II (c. 907- 910 A.D.) to ascend the throne of Kanouj; and it is evident from the stone inscription of the kings of the Cedi dynasty discovered at Vishari that* Kokalladeva I erected two wonderful monuments.8 During the reign of Mahipaladeva of Bengal (c. 978-1030), Gangeyadeva of the Cedi dynasty attacked Gauda and occupied Mithila. Towards the close of the eleventh century, Kanyakubja (Kanouj) came under the sway of Karnadeva (c. 1040-1070), son of Gangeyadeva.10 Numismatists suppose that Gangeyadeva issued a new coinage in Uttarapatha. 11 Only coins of this monarch of the Cedi dynasty of 4 Vol. V, pp. 436-7. 1 Vol. III (P.T.S.), pp. 355-6; Vol. V, pp. 41 ff.; 157-161. 2 P.T.S., Vol. IV, pp. 228 ff. 3 Vol. II, pp. 200, 201, 203, Janavasabha Suttanta. 5 Ancient and Hindu India, p. 22. 6 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 409. 7 Ancient India, p. 22. 8 R. D. Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, p. 202. 9 Ibid., p. 224. 10 Pracina Mudra, p. 215. 11 Ibid., p. 211.

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THE CEDIS 53 Dahala have been discovered, and no coins of the kings prior or posterior to him in the dynasty are known to us.: Gold, silver and copper coins of Gangeyadeva have been discovered. On one side is the name of the king in two lines, and on the other a figure of a fourarmed goddess.2 Coins of one king of the Cedi or Kalacuri dynasty of Kalyanapura have also been discovered. On one side of the coins is engraved the figure of the boar-incarnation, and on the other is written 'Murari' in Nagari characters. Murari, as R. D. Banerjee says, is perhaps another name of Somesvaradeva, the second king of the abovementioned Cedi dynasty.3 1 Pracina Mudra, p. 212. 2 Ibid., p. 212. 3 Ibid., p. 184.

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CHAPTER VII THE MADRAS 1 The Madras were an ancient Ksatriya tribe of Vedic times. They are not mentioned in the early Vedic Samhitas, but the Vamsa Brahmana of the Samaveda mentions an ancient Vedic teacher, Madragara Saungayani, from whom Aupamanyava, the Kambojan, received the Vedic lore (cf. chapter on Kambojas). From the name Madragara, scholars infer that Saungayani belonged to the Madra tribe,2 and the fact that Vedic learning had spread so much among the Madras as to give one of them a prominent place in a list of ancient teachers would seem to show that the Madras belonged to the Vedic Aryandom before the age of the Brahmanas. Their Vedic learning in Brahmana times is testified to by the Satapatha Brahmana where we find that sages of N. India, most probably of the Kuru-Pancala district, repaired to the Madra country to receive their education in Vedic learning. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad (III, 7, 1), Uddalaka Aruni tells Vajnavalkya: 'We dwelt among the Madras in the houses of Patancala Kapya, studying the sacrifice'. And again, Bhujyu Lahayani says, 'We wandered about as students, and came to the house of Patancala Kapya' (Brh. Up., III, 3, 1). In the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII, 14, 3), we find the mention of a section of the Madra people, the Uttara or N. Madras who lived beyond the Himalayas (parena Himavantam) in the N. regions close to the Uttara-Kurus. Uttara-Madra is supposed by scholars to have been located in Kashmir.3 In the Ramayana, we read that Sugriva sent monkeys to the Madrakas and other tribes in quest of Sita. In the Visnupurana (2, 3, 17), mention is made of Madra together with Arama, Parasika, etc. and in the Matsyapurana (114, 41) together with Gandhara, Yavana, etc. In the same Purana (208, 5), King Asvapati of Sakala in the kingdom of the Madras is referred to. Madra (Pali Madda) is not mentioned in the list of sixteen Mahajanapadas in Buddhist literature. It has been supposed by some that Madra is to be identified with Vahlika 5 (see Chapter on Vahlikas). The Madras 1 Mr. H. C. Ray has contributed a paper to the J.A.S.B. (New Series, Vol. XVIII, 1922, No. 4) on the same subject. 2 Vedic Index, II, p. 123. 3 Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 102. 4 Ramayana (Griffith's translation), Additional Notes, p. 43. 5 N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. 49.

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THE MADRAS held the central portions of the Punjab; 1 they appear in the Epic period to have occupied the district of Sialkot, between the rivers Chenab and Ravi, or, according to some, between the Jhelum and the Ravi.3 The Madra tribe or kingdom is mentioned in the Bhismaparvan of the Mahabharata (Chap. IX), in Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita,and in Panini's grammar (II, 3, 73; IV, 4, 67). It is evident from the Allahabad Pillar Inscription that the Madra territory was contiguous with that of the Yaudheyas.5 The capital of the Madras was Sagala (Pali) or Sakala (Sanskrit), which has been identified by General Cunningham with Sanglawala-Tiba, to the west of the Ravi (Ancient Geography of India, p. 180). According to Cunningham, Sakala is still known as Madradesa or the district of the Madras. It lay about 32 N. by 74 E.? It appears from Hwui-lih that the pilgrim Hsuan Tsang visited Sakala. The old town of Sakala (She-ki-lo), according to the great pilgrim, was about 20 li in circuit. Although its walls had been thrown down, the foundation was still firm and strong, and in the midst of it a town of 6 or 7 li in circuit had been built. There was in Sakala a Sangharama (monastery) with about 100 priests of the Hinayana school, and N.W. of the Sangharama was a stupa about 200 feet high, built by Asoka; while a stone stupa of about the same height, also built by Asoka, stood about to li to the N.E. of the new capital. The Milinda Panho gives a splendid description of the Madra capital: There is a great centre of trade called Sagala, the famous city of yore in the country of the Yonakas. Sagala is situated in a delightful country, well-watered and hilly, abounding in parks and gardens, groves, lakes and tanks, a paradise of rivers and mountains and woods. Wise architects have laid it out. Brave is its defence, with many strong towers and ramparts, with superb gates and entrance archways, and with the royal citadel in its midst, white-walled and deeply moated. Well laid out are its streets, squares, cross-roads and market places. Its shops are filled with various costly merchandise. It is richly adorned with hundreds of alms-halls of various kinds and splendid with hundreds of thousands of magnificent 1 V. A. Smith, Early History of India (4th Ed.), p. 302. 2 Cambridge History of India, Ancient India, pp. 549-550. 3 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 185; and see also ibid., pp. 5-6. 4 Kern, Byhatsamhita, p. 92. 5 R. C. Majumdar, Corporate Life in Ancient India, p. 272. 6 Mbh., II, 1196; VIII, 2033. 7 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 185; Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 39. 8 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. I, pp. 166 et seq.

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56 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA mansions ... The passage goes on to describe the traffic of elephants, horses, carriages and pedestrians; the welcome given to teachers of all creeds, and the rich produce, precious metals, and delicacies which are to be found in the city. It is described as rivalling Uttara-Kuru in wealth and Alakamanda, the city of the Gods, in glory (Milinda Panho, pp. I and 2, and Trsl. S.B.E., Vol. 35, pt. I, pp. 1-3). According to the evidence of the Sanskrit Epics and Pali Jatakas, the Madras were Ksatriyas, and they entered into matrimonial alliance with the Ksatriya dynasties of the Gangetic kingdoms (see the account of the marriage of Pandu, the Kuru king, and a Madra princess; cf. also Mbh., Adiparvan, Chap. 95 (marriage of Pariksit and Madravati). The Jatakas bear ample testimony to the fact that the Madra princesses were sought in marriage by the great Ksatriya houses of N. India. Thus we read in the Kusa-Jataka that a certain king of Madra had seven daughters of great beauty. The eldest of them, Pabhavati, was given in marriage to Kusa (or Kusa), son of King Okkaka, and the kingdoms of Madra and Kusavati were thus united by matrimonial alliance.1 The same story of the union of Prince Kusa of the great Iksvaku family with a Madra princess is told in the Mahavastu-Avadana, with some variations. At Benares, we are told, there was a king named Kusa belonging to the Iksvaku family. His ministers, in quest of a beautiful bride for the king, reached the city of Kanyakubja in the kingdom of Surasena where the Madra king Mahendra ruled. Seeing his beautiful daughter, they approached the king who readily consented to give her in marriage to King Kusa of Benares. But King Kusa's appearance was repulsive, and his wife Sudarsana, discovering the defects in him, left Benares and returned to Kanyakubja. When he discovered his wife's absence, Kusa immediately set out in pursuit. Arriving at his father-in-law's palace, he tried by various means to regain his wife's favour, but in vain. Finally he disguised himself as a cook and prepared some delicious soup through which he won the king's favour. In the meantime, seven Ksatriya kings from neighbouring countries came to win Sudarsana, but they were refused. Then Kusa, practically single-handed, drove all the seven kings away, and having saved his father-in-law's kingdom, returned with his wife to his own country. The Madra king, Mahendra, on the advice of his son-inlaw, gave his remaining seven daughters in marriage to the seven 1 Jataka (Fausbol), Vol. V, pp. 284 foll,

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57 kings who had come to attack him, and thereby strengthened his position.1 THE MADRAS From the Kalinga-Bodhi Jataka we observe that even a prince of the royal house of Kalinga in the far east sought the hand of a princess of the Madra country. A daughter was born to the king of Madra in the city of Sagala. It was foretold that the girl should live as an ascetic but that her son would be universal monarch. The kings of India heard of this prediction and surrounded the city with the object of seeking the princess's hand. The king of Madra could not give his daughter in marriage to any one of them without incurring the wrath of the others. So he fled to a forest with his wife and daughter. The prince of Kalinga, who was also in the forest, happened to meet the Madra princess, and fell in love with her. Learning that she was a Ksatriya like himself, he obtained her parents' consent to their marriage, and a matrimonial alliance was thus established between the royal houses of Madra and Kalinga.2 In the Chaddanta Jataka, we find that the royal houses of Benares and Madra were allied with each other through matrimony 3 (see also Jataka, Vol. VI, p. 1). The great Ceylonese chronicle (Mahavamsa, 8, 7) records an alliance between a Madra, princess and a prince of Eastern India. The Madras, according to the Arthasastra of Kautilya (p. 455), were a corporation of warriors, and enjoyed the status of rajas (rajasabdopajivinah). The Mahabharata tells us that it was a family custom of the Madras to receive a fee from the bridegroom when they gave their daughters in marriage. The marriage proposal was first made by the bridegroom's party to the bride's party. When Pandu, the Kuru prince, won the hand of Kunti, the daughter of a Bhoja king, in a Svayamvara (the ceremony of a woman's choosing her husband), Bhisma wished him to take a second wife as well. Bhisma accordingly set out with a retinue and coming to the city of the Madra king named Salya of the Vahlika dynasty, asked the king to give his sister in marriage to Pandu. Salya told him of the custom of receiving a fee; Bhisma consented and having given the Madra king much wealth as fee for the bride, he brought her to Hastinapura, where the marriage ceremony was performed.5 In the Great Epic, we have further details of Salya, king of the Madras. On the eve of the Kuruksetra war, Yudhisthira sent messengers asking Salya for his assistance. The king set out with his brave sons and a huge army. When on the march, this army 1 Mahavastu, II, p. 440 et seq. 2 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. 228 foll. 4 Adiparvan, Chap. 113. 3 Ibid., Vol. V, pp. 37 foll. 5 Ibid., see also Chap. 95.

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58 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA occupied the space of half a yojana. Hearing of the Madra king's might, Duryodhana decided to seek his alliance, and received him on the way, giving him a great ovation. Salya was highly pleased with his reception, and offered Duryodhana a boon. Thereupon Duryodhana solicited his help in the ensuing Kuruksetra war; and King Salya consented, subsequently asking Yudhisthira to release him (on certain conditions) from his previous promise. After severe fighting, and many vicissitudes, the Madra soldiers were killed by Arjuna.1 The legend of Savitri and Satyavan, so popular all over India, is connected with the Madra country, for Savitri was the daughter of Asvapati, king of Madra. This story is too well-known to require repetition here.2 As far as authentic history is concerned, we learn that the Madra dominions, including the capital, Sakala, came under the sway of Alexander the Great (326 B.C.) who placed them under the Satrap of the adjacent territory between the Jhelum and the Chenab.3 In the course of the centuries following the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist religion spread from the N.E. districts of India to the extreme West,--no doubt largely owing to the powerful proselytising zeal of the great Maurya Emperor Asoka. About 78 A.D., we find Menander (Milinda), a powerful Greek king, ruling at Sakala, and the Pali 'Milinda Panho gives a full account of this king's conversion to Buddhism. During Menander's reign, the people knew of no oppression, since all their enemies had been conquered. Even before Menander's time, Sakala seems to have come under Buddhist influence (see, e.g. Mrs. Rhys Davids' Psalms of the Sisters, p. 48; Psalms of the Brethren, p. 359). In the fourth century A.D., the Madras are recorded as having paid taxes to Samudragupta.5 At a later date, in the early part of the sixth century A.D., Sakala became the capital of the Huna conqueror, Mihirakula. From the records of the travels of Hsuan Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, we read that some centuries before his time there was in the town of 1 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chaps. 8 and 19; Dronaparvan, Chap. 103; Bhismaparvan, Chaps. 51; 105-6; Karnaparvan, Chaps. 5-6. 2 Mbh., Vanaparvan, Chaps. 291-8, pp. 509-523, Maharaja of Burdwan's Edition. 3 Cambridge History of India, Ancient India, Vol. I, pp. 549-550. 4 Questions of King Milinda (S.B.E.), Pt. I, p. 6; Rapson, Ancient India, pp. 128-131. 5 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, p. 14; Gupta Inscriptions, Text and Translations. 6 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 549-550.

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THE MADRAS 59 Sakala a king named Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo (Mahirakula), who established his authority in that town, and subdued all the neighbouring provinces. This king was of a cruel nature, and, becoming enraged by the conduct of certain Buddhist priests, ordered his men to destroy all the priests 'through the five Indies', to overthrow the law of the Buddha and to leave nothing remaining. Baladitya, king of Magadha, heard of Mahirakula's cruel persecutions, and, after strongly guarding the frontiers of his kingdom, refused to pay tribute to him. Hearing that Mahirakula was marching against him, Baladitya fled, followed by his soldiers, to the islands of the sea. Mahirakula forthwith left his army in the charge of his younger brother, and himself put out to sea to attack Baladitya, but was captured by the latter's soldiers. Baladitya,. however, took pity on the captured sovereign and released him. Finding that his kingdom had meanwhile been usurped by his brother, Mahirakula went to Kashmir, where he was received with honour by the king, and given some territory over which to rule. After some years he betrayed his trust, killed the king, and placed himself on the throne. He then plotted against the kingdom of Gandhara, killed all the members of the royal family, and the chief minister, destroyed all Buddhist topes and temples, and appropriated the wealth of the country. However, retribution soon followed, for he was dead before the year was out.1 It appears that the kingdom of Madra was still intact in the ninth century A.D., when we find the Madras as the allies of Dharmapala, the monarch of Bengal, who with the help of the Madras and other northern powers dethroned Indraraja, king of Pancala.2 1 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. I, pp. 165-172; Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 289. 2 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 413.

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CHAPTER VIII THE MALAVAS The Malava tribe played an important role in the history of Ancient India. First settled in the Punjab, they gradually spread themselves over considerable portions of N. India and established their settlements in Rajputana, Central India, in different localities of the modern United Provinces, in the country known in ancient days as Lata-desa (comprising Broach, Cutch, Vadnagar and Ahmedabad), and finally in modern Malwa. They successfully maintained their tribal organisation from the time of Panini till at least as late as the time of Samudragupta (fourth century A.D.). The earliest definite mention of the Malavas is made in the writings of Alexander's historians who refer to them as Malloi, Malli or Mallai, associated with the Oxydrakai, Sudracae, Hydrakai or Sydracae. These two tribes have long been identified with the Malavas and Ksudrakas of Sanskrit literature.1 Panini does not actually mention them by name, but his sutra V, 3, 117, speaks of certain tribes as 'ayudhajivi samghas', or tribes living by the profession of arms, and the Kasika says that amongst these Samghas were the Malavas and Ksudrakas. The Malava tribe is actually mentioned in the Mahabhasya of Patanjali (IV, 1, 68). In the time of Alexander (and probably also earlier), the Malavas were settled in the Punjab, but it is difficult to locate exactly the territory they occupied. Smith thinks that they (the Malloi) occupied the country below the confluence of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Akesines (Chenab), that is, the country comprising the Jhang district and a portion of the Montgomery district. According to McCrindle, they occupied a greater extent of territory, comprising the modern doab of the Akesines and Hydraotes (= Chenab and Ravi) 1 Ind. Ant., Vol. I, p. 23. 2 According to the Jain Bhagavati Sutra, Malava is included in the list of the sixteen Mahajanapadas along with Malaya. The Malava country of the Bhagavati is probably identical with Avanti of the Anguttara Nikaya (P.H.A.I. p. 82, 4th Edn.). According to Weber, Apisali (according to Jayaswal, Katyayana) speaks of the formation of the compound-Ksaudraka-Malavah'. Smith points out that the Mahabharata couples the tribes in question as forming part of the Kaurava host in the Kuruksetra war. Curtius tells us that the Sudracae and the Malli had an army consisting of 90,000 foot-soldiers, 10,000 cavalry, and goo war-chariots (ibid., pp. 156-7). 3 J.R.A.S., 1903, p. 631.

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THE MALAVAS 61 and extending to the confluence of the Indus and Akesines-identical with the modern Multan district and portions of Montgomery.1 Ray Chaudhuri locates them in the valley of the lower Hydraotes (Ravi) on both banks of the river.2 * While sailing along the Hydaspes, Alexander heard that the Malloi and the Oxydrakai had combined together and prepared themselves to give him hostile reception'. But it is difficult to ascertain from the mass of contradictory information of the Greek authorities whether the two tribes were able to give the conqueror a united opposition. While Curtius tells us that their combined army was led by a Ksudraka hero, Diodorous says that the Syrakusoi (Ksudrakas) and Malloi could not agree as to the choice of a leader, and consequently did not take the field together. According to Arrian as well, the Malloi had agreed to combine with the Oxydrakai against Alexander, but the conqueror had advanced so suddenly that their design was thwarted, and the two tribes could hardly have had the opportunity to unite against the common enemy.3 The Malloi were certainly taken by surprise by Alexander's army, and suffered a defeat which was, however, not final. More than once the brave tribe offered determined opposition from their fortified cities which fell one by one to the sword of Alexander and his general Perdikas. The men deserted their cities, and preferred to make the desert and jungle their home rather than submit to the conquering hordes. Alexander then sent two of his generals, Peithon and Demetrius, against the largest city of the Malloi. But the Malloi had already abandoned that city, and crossed the Hydraotes, where they stood to offer further opposition. Eventually, however, when they saw that they were in danger of being surrounded by the Greek cavalry, they repaired to their capital city nearby, and made a last effort to resist the foreign invader. But they could not achieve any success. Their city-walls were razed to the ground and the citadel captured; but in the course of the heavy fighting Alexander himself was seriously wounded. He took r n the enemy by ordering all the inhabitants of the city, including women and children, to be put to the sword. This city has wrongly been assigned by Diodorous and Curtius to the Oxydrakai; - but both Arrian and Plutarch definitely state that the city belonged to the Malloi and not to the Oxydrakai. Even after this defeat and massacre, the Malloi do not seem to have been completely annihilated; OL 1 Invasion of India, App. Note, p. 357. 2 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 202. 3 McCrindle, Invasion of India, p. 236, f.n. 1, p. 150. 4 Ibid., App. Note Q., p. 351.

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62 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA for Arrian tells us that the leading men from the Malloi and Oxydrakai came to Alexander to discuss the terms of a treaty which was eventually concluded. Indeed, the Malavas seem to have occupied their territory in the Punjab for some time afterwards. We have already referred to the reference to the tribe in the Mahabhasya; and it is not improbable that the Mahabharata locates the tribe in the same place when it couples them with the Trigarttas, as well as with the Sivis and Ambasthas.2 But before long they seem to have migrated southwards and settled somewhere in Rajputana, where the tribes seem to have held their ground at the time of Samudragupta. A large number of coins found at Nagar, about 45 miles north of Kota, have on them the legend 'Malavanam Jayah' ('victory of the Malavas') in characters ranging in General Cunningham's opinion from perhaps B.C. 250 to 250 A.Th. "These coins', he says, 'show that the Malavas existed as a recognised and important clan, long before the time when their tribal constitution which led to the establishment of their era, took place'.3 Some of these coins, which are very small, have on them a legend that has been read as Magaya, Magojaya, Majupa, Mayojapa, Mapaya and so forth. "Some scholars have taken these legends as denoting so many names, but the probability is that these letters constitute not names so much as abbreviations. In fact it was suggested to me long ago by Prof. D. R. Bhandarkar that the three letters Ma ga ja which occur, e.g. on coins 82-4 of Smith's Catalogue of Coins in the Indian Museum, Vol. I, and which had been taken to be the name of a king, look like an abbreviation of the legend: 'Malava-ganasya jayah', which occurs for instance on coins Nos. 58-61 ... What looks like the letter pa in Mapaya may be la; and Mapaya might thus stand for Malaya, equal to Malava. Mr. Douglas 4 has pointed out that the tribal name is sometimes written Malaya instead of Malava. Similarly Ma pa ja may be explained as equivalent to Malajayah, equal to Malava-jayah. Again, Ma go ya sa may be equivalent to 'Malavaganasya yasah'.5 That the Malavas had migrated to the Jaipur region of Rajputana from the Punjab is supported by the fact that the legend on some of the Malava coins found in Rajputana has to be read from right to left as in Kharosthi, which was the prevalent script in the Punjab and the north-west from very early times. 1 Dronaparvan, Chap. 10, p. 17. 2 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 32, p. 7. 3 C.A.S.R., Vol. VI, 1871-3, pp. 72ff. 4 R. O. Douglas in his paper "On some Malava Coins', J.P.A.S.B., Vol. XIX, N.S., pp. 42ff. 5 A. C. Banerjee, 'The Malavas', A.B.O.R.I., Vol. XIII, Pts. III-IV, 1931-2, Pp. 218ff.

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THE MALAVAS The Malava occupation of the Nagar area near Jaipur in Rajputana is also upheld by the Nasik Cave Inscription of Usavadata, the Saka, son-in-law of the Ksatrapa Nahapana. The power of Nahapana and his allies seems to have been threatened by the Malayas (= Malavas) who had already besieged the Uttamabhadras, allies of the Saka king. Nahapana sent Usavadata, and the Malayas fled at the very sound of his approach, and were taken prisoner by the Uttamabhadras. Usavadata afterwards went to Puskara, six miles west of Ajmere. The Scythic invasions and conquests could not, however, destroy the tribal organisation of the tribe, for in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta they are included in the list of tribal states of the western and south-western fringe of Aryavarta. Among them the most important were the Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, and Abhiras, all of whom were settled in Rajputana at this time. The Bijayagadh Inscription (J.R.A.S., 1897, p. 30) definitely locates the Yaudheyas at this time in the Bharatpur State of Rajputana. The Abhiras also occupied some region in Western Rajputana, the place called Abiria in the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. According to the Puranas, the Malavas are associated with the Saurastras, Avantis, Abhiras, Suras, and Arbudas, and are described as dwelling along the Pariyatra mountains. Thus it seems that they occupied other territories besides the Punjab or Rajputana. After Samudragupta's time when, as we have seen, the tribe was settled in Rajputana, the Malavas seem to have migrated to the Mandasor region in the north-west part of Central India, where most of the records connected with the successors of Samudragupta have been found. This region is certainly to be identified with the ancient Mahajanapada of Avanti (mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya), as well as Avanti of the Junagadh Rock inscription of Rudradaman, and Malaya (= Malava) of the Jain Bhagavati Sutra referred to above whose capital was Ujjayini. This tract of country along with the region round Bhilsa comprises what is now known as Malwa (Malava). It is well-known that the years of the Vikrama Era in the Gupta epoch were known as Krta; and the Malavas were associated with them (cf. Mandasor Inscr. of Naravarman, C.I.I., Vol. III); and wherever the Kita years are specified in the inscriptions of the Gupta period, the name of the Malavas almost invariably occurs. We find the princes of Mandasor using the Era 1 Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, p. 44. 2 Bhag., XII, I, 36; Visnu, Bk. II, Chap. III; Brahma, Chap. XIX, sloka 17. The Ramayana (Kisk. Kanda, Canto XLII) locates the tribe in the east; but the Bengal recension does not know of them.

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64 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA (commencing 58 B.C.) traditionally handed down by the 'Malavagana'. And it is not only in the Mandasor region that inscriptions have been found associating the Malavas with the Krta Era; they have also been found among other places at Kansuvam in the Kotah State and Nagari in Udaipur State. In the period following that of Skandagupta and his successors (i.e. after about 550 A.D.), the Malavas seem to have migrated further to the east so as to cover the region from Bhilsa (Eastern Malwa) to Prayag. In the Harsacarita of Bana, Kumaragupta and Madhavagupta, two sons of King Mahasenagupta (of the line of Krsnagupta), who were appointed by Prabhakaravardhana to wait upon his sons, Rajyavardhana, and Harsavardhana respectively, are referred to as Malavarajaputrau'. It follows that Mahasenagupta was a king of Malava. He was most probably succeeded by a king named Devagupta, who is referred to in the Madhuvan and Banskhera inscriptions of Harsavardhana, and who must be identical with the 'wicked Malava King' who cut off Grahavarman Maukhari in battle, but was himself defeated by Rajyavardhana. It is difficult to identify the Malava Kingdom of Mahasenagupta and Devagupta, but it was most probably identical with Purva-Malava which lay between Prayaga and Bhilsa. It could not be the Mo-la-po (= Malava) of Hsuan Tsang, for Mo-la-po was then under the Maitrakas of Valabhi; nor could it be the Malava country whose capital was Ujjayini, for Ujjayini was at that time ruled by a brahmin dynasty, and the Guptas were not brahmins. Moreover, according to Vatsyayana, Ujjayinidesa was called Apara-Malava or Western Malava; where only Malava, without any prefix, is referred to, it should be taken to mean Eastern (Purva) Malava.? Just about this time, the celebrated Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang in the course of his Indian travels visited the kingdom of Mo-la-po'; its capital was on the south-east of the river Moha (= Mahi). Mo-la-po was a country where learning was much prized. This Mo-la-po must now be identified with Malavaka or Malavakaahara, referred to in a number of Valabhi grants as included in the kingdom of the Maitrakas of Valabhi. The Malavaka-ahara lay between Bhrgukaccha or Broach, Cutch, Valabhi, and Vadnagar (Smith), and corresponds roughly to the modern districts of Kaira and Ahmedabad, together with parts of the Baroda State and some adjoining territories. That the Mo-la-po of Hsuan Tsang cannot be 1 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., pp. 514 foll. 2 Ujjayinidesabhavastu evapara-Malavya-Malavya iti Purva-Malava bhava, N. Ray, The Maukharis of Kanoj, Cal. Review, 1928, Feb., p. 210 f.n. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 242. 4 Ibid., II, p. 341.

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THE MALAVAS 65 identified with Malava (i.e. Western Malava) whose capital was Ujjayini is also proved by the fact that the pilgrim describes the former as being included within the territory of Valabhi. "The diminutive suffix Ka also indicates that it was then known as Lesser Malava to distinguish it from Malava proper' (C.A.G.I., Mazumdar's Notes, p. 728). The Malavaka country is also referred to in the Gurvavali Sutra of Dharmasagaragani, where Sri Devendrasundari is represented as having gone from Malavaka to Gurjaratra or Gujrat; and it is also mentioned in the Tewar Stone Inscription of the region of Jayasimhadeva of the Cedi year 928.2 The Malavas and their country, evidently meaning the region around Ujjayini and Bhilsa, i.e. modern Malwa, are mentioned in a number of later epigraphic records, e.g. in the Sagartal inscription of the Gurjara Pratiharas, the Paithana Plates of Rastrakuta Govinda III, and a host of others. 27 We have seen that the Malavas migrated eastwards as far as Prayaga, probably in the second half of the sixth century A.D. During the rule of the Palas of Bengal and Bihar they seem to have migrated still further east; for in the copper-plates of the Pala kings (excepting Dharmapala), reference is made not only to the Kulikas, the Khasas and Hunas, but also to the Malavas who seem to have migrated to Bengal as mercenary troops. The name of the tribe survives to this day not only in the modern province of Malwa (which is a transformation of the word Malava), but also in those of two Brahmana castes called 'Malavis' or 'Malavikas'. They are the Brahmanas of Malava proper and the adjoining country, but are not only found in their special habitat, but also in Gujrat on the one hand, and Central and United Provinces on the other.3 1 Weber, Die Sk. Pr. Handschriften der Berliner Bibliothek, II, 290. 2 Ep. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 18-9. 8 See Ann. B.O.R.I., Vol. XIII, parts III-IV, 1931-2, p. 229.-'In Ep. Ind., V, 229, the Dandanayaka Anantapala, a feudatory of Vikramaditya VI, is said to have subdued the Sapta Malava countries up to the Himalaya mountains. This proves that there were as many as seven countries called Malava. These were probably (1) Mo-la-po (Malavaka-ahara of Valabhi grants) on the Mahi, governed by the Maitrakas, (2) Avanti ruled by a Brahmana family in the time of Hsuan Tsang, (3) Purva Malava (round Bhilsa), (4) District round Prayaga, (5) Fatehpur District, in U.P., (6) Cis-Sutlej districts of the Punjab, (7) Some Himalayan territory' (P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 492, f.n. 4). 5

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CHAPTER IX THE SALVAS The Salvas were an important people of Ancient India, and are referred to in Panini's Astadhyayi, in the Epics, and in the Puranas. But they do not seem to have been able to maintain their integrity until the beginning of the historical period, for they are scarcely referred to in inscriptions or in later Sanskrit or Pali literature. Perhaps the earliest mention of the salvas as a tribe is found in the Gopatha Brahmana (1, 2, 9), where they appear in connection with the Matsyas. The Matsyas were inhabitants of the region identical with the kingdom of King Virata of the Mahabharata, and the Matsya capital has been identified with Virat in the Jaipur State; and the Salvas probably occupied the territory now occupied by the native state of Alwar. According to the Mahabharata, the Salva country was situated near Kuruksetra and was the kingdom of the father of Satyavan, husband of Savitri.3 The capital of the Salvas seems to have been Salvapura, which is also called Saubhaganagara. King Salva's kingdom or territory was also known as Marttikavata or Mrttikavati.5 Salya is said to have attacked Dvaravati, but to have been killed by Krsna.8 In the great Kuruksetra war the Salvas along with the Matsyas, Kekayas, Ambasthas, Trigarttas, and others, lent their support to the army of Duryodhana against the Pandavas, and, along with the Ambasthas and Trigarttas, formed a unit of the army led by Bhisma.? In the Udyogaparvan (54, 18) they are associated with the Pancalas, Kekayas, and Surasenas; and (56, 18) with the Malavas. In the Bhismaparvan, the Salvas, Matsyas, Ambasthas, Trigarttas, Kekayas, Sauviras, and six other tribal states are said to have arrayed themselves by the side of Bhisma. The mighty Salva king is said to have been laid low on the battle-field by Bhimasena 1 Cunningham, An. R.A.S.I., XX, p. 120; Matsyapurana, Chap. 113. 2 Virataparvan, Chap. I. 3 Vanaparvan, Chap. 282. 4 Mbh., Vanaparvan, Chap. 14. 5 Pargiter, A.I.H.T., p. 279. Marttikavata must be distinguished from Mottikavati. Marttikavata existed before, e.g. according to the story of Xama Jamadagnya' (Mbh., III, 116, 11076; VII, 70, 2436)--Ibid., f.n. 7. 6 Vanaparvan, Chap. 14. 7 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 20, 10, 12, 15. 8 Chap. 18, 13-4. 5B

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67 THE SALVAS (Karnaparvan, Chap. 5, 42).1 The Salvas are several times referred to in the Mahabharata2 as Danavas and Daityas, i.e. demons,probably because of their fabled enmity to Visnu who is termed Salvari', foe of Salva. The Vayu and Matsyapuranas locate the Salvas amongst the central peoples (i.e. Madhyadesa); but the Visnupurana places them in the extreme west, along with the Sauviras, Saindhavas, Hunas, Sakalas, Madras, etc.; and the Brahmapurana (Chap. 19, 16-18) also locates them in the Aparanta or western country. In the Bengali recension of the Ramayana (Kisk. Kanda, XLIII, 23) also they are classed among the western nations. Commenting on Salvavayava in the sloka Salvavayava pratyagrathakalakutasmakadin' (4, 1,173), the Kasika on Panini's Astadhyayi names Udumbara, Tilakhala, Madrakara, Yugandhara, Bhulinga, and Saradatta as the six avayavas or parts of the Salvajanapada. Bhulinga here is probably the same as 'Bolingai' of Ptolemy. In the sloka na pracya Bhargadi Yaudheyadibhyah' (4, 1, 178), the Kasika includes the Karusas, Kasmiras, and Salvas. The Kasika on another sutra (4, 2, 76) refers to a city of the Salvas named Vaidhumagni, built by Vidhumagni; and elsewhere the Kasika includes the Salvas among the Kacchadi-gana, along with the Kasmiras (4, 2, 133; 4, 1, 169). 6 1 According to, Mbh., XII, 234, 8607 and XIII, 137, 6267, Dyutimant was a certain king of the Salvas who gave his kingdom to Reika. 2 III, 14, 633-4; 17, 695, 710; 885-6. 3 II, Chap. III, sloka 16-8. 4 McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 163.

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CHAPTER X THE USINARAS The Usinaras were an ancient, petty tribe dwelling to the north of the Kuru country. The Gopatha Brahmana (II, 9) tells us that the Usinaras and Vasas (Vatsas) were regarded as northerners. In the Rgveda (X, 59, 10) the tribe is alluded to in a passage which refers to their queen Usinarani. Panini, the grammarian, also refers to the Usinara country. The Aitareya Brahmana contains a geographical passage (VIII, 14) which assigns the Kurus and Pancalas, together with the Vasas and Usinaras, to the Middle Country, the later Madhyadesa. In the Kausitaki Upanisad (IV, I) too, the Usinaras are associated with the Kuru-Pancalas and the Vasas. Zimmer thinks that the Usinaras earlier lived farther to the north-west. This theory is based on the fact that the Anukramani of the Rgveda ascribes one hymn (X, 179) to Sivi Ausinara; and that the Sivis were known to Alexander the Great's followers as the Siboi, living between the Indus and Akesines (Chenab). The authors of the Vedic Index3 do not accept Zimmer's view, and observe: "This is in no way conclusive, as the Sibis, at any rate in Epic times, occupied the land to the north of Kuruksetra, and there is no reason whatever to show that in the Vedic period, the Usinaras were farther west than the Middle Country'. Pargiter,4 however, holds that Usinara and his descendants occupied the Punjab. Usinara established separate kingdoms on the eastern border of the Punjab, viz. those of the Yaudheyas, Ambasthas, etc., and his famous son Sivi Ausinara originated the Sivis in Sivapura and, extending his conquests westwards, founded, through his four sons, the kingdoms of the Vrsadarbhas, Madras, Kekayas and Suviras, thus occupying the whole of the Punjab except the north-west corner. According to tradition, King Usinara was descended from the Anavas. He had five wives, Mrga, Kemi, Nava, Darva and Drsadvati, who respectively had five sons, Mrga, Krmi, Nava, Suvrata and Sivi. The city of Mrga was Yaudheya; and the Harivamsa connects the Yaudheyas with Usinara.? i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 84. 2 Sutras, II, 4, 20; IV, 2, 118. 4 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 109. 5 Ibid., p. 264. 7 Pargiter, Markandeya Purana, p. 380. 3 Vol. I, p. 103 6 Ibid., p. 88.

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THE USINARAS 69 The story of Usinara's offering to sacrifice himself for a pigeon, and his subsequently being granted a boon by Indra, is one of the favourites of Indian mythology, and is too well-known to repeat here. In the Santi parvan of the Mahabharata, we read that Narada said to Sanjaya: 'Usinara Sivi was dead. He encircled the whole world like a skin'. Elsewhere in the same parvan 3 it is stated that Usinara became the sole emperor of the world, a patent exaggeration. In the Srimadbhagavatam we read that a famous king of Usinara named Suyajna was killed in battle.4 The Buddhist Jatakas refer more than once to King Usinara.5 For instance, in one Jataka we read that there once reigned a king named Usinara. His people were wicked and followed unrighteousness. During his reign, the religion of the Buddha began to disappear. Sakka (Sakra) observed the miserable plight of the people, due to the decadence of the religion of the Buddha. He turned the god Matali, his charioteer, into the shape of a huge black hound and entered the city with him. The people were terrified by the loud barking of the hound. Sakka said that it was hungry; but even when all the food in the city was given to the hound, it did not stop barking. The king said that it must be a goblin, not a hound. Sakka then explained that he had come with the hound to revive the religion of the Buddha, and thus to establish the people in the virtues of liberality. A mountain named Usiragiri or Usiraddhaja is referred to in the Divyavadana (p. 22) and elsewhere; and Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri points out that this may be identical with the Usinaragiri mentioned in the Kathasaritsagara (Ed. Durgaprasad and Kasinath, 3rd Edn., p. 5). Usinaragiri is placed near Kanakhala,7 and Usiraddhaja is mentioned in the Vinaya Pitaka 8 as forming the northern boundary of the Middle Country, accordingly, it is possible that the two are identical and associated with the Usinara country. 1 Mbh., Vanaparvan, Chaps. 130, 131. 2 Chap. 29, 39. 3 Ibid., 40; and see 41-3. 4 Chap. II, sloka 28, 7th Skandha, p. 393. 5 See, e.g. Nimi Jataka (Fausboll), VI, p. 99; and Mahanaradakassapa Jataka, ibid., Vol. VI, p. 251. 6 Jataka, (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. I8I foll. 7 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 55. 8 Vinaya, I, p. 197 (Oldenberg).

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CHAPTER XI THE VAHLIKAS Vahlika, Valhika and Valhika are variant names of a people who lived in the northern division of India from very early times. A king of the tribe, Balhika Pratipya, is referred to in the Satapatha Brahmana (XII, 9, 3, 1-3 and 13), and is represented as having opposed the restoration of Dustaritu, king of the Srnjayas (Vedic Index, II, pp. 470-1). Balhika (or Vahlika) Pratipeya (or Pratipiya), son (or descendant) of this Pratipa, as Pargiter points out (A.L.H.T., p. 166, f.n. 2), is mentioned in the Mahabharata (Adiparvan, Chap. 95, verse 44; Udyogaparvan, Chap. 47, verse 6). In the Sabhaparvan (Chap. 27, verse 22), mention is made of Valheka, which is evidently another name for Valhika. According to the Vayupurana as well as the Kavya Mimamsa of Rajasekhara, the Valhika country 1 is placed in the northern division. In the Bengal recension of the Ramayana (see, e.g. Kiskindhya Kanda, 44, verse 13) the Valhikas are associated with the people of the north, and sometimes (e.g. ibid., 43, verse 5) with those of the west. We may conclude, then, that the Valhika country should be identified with some region beyond the Punjab. A reference in the Udyogaparvan to its having been famous for its horses seems to connect the Vahlika country with Kamboja; this, together with the difficulty of approach to the country which is referred to in the account of Arjuna's digvijaya 2 may perhaps justify us in assuming that the tribe had its habitat somewhere in the | neighbourhood of Gandhara and Kamboja. That the Vahlikas were V settled beyond the Indus is definitely proved by the Meharauli Iron Pillar Inscription of Chandra, where the mighty King Chandra 3 is described as 'one ... by whom having crossed in warfare the seven mouths of the Indus the Vahlikas were conquered'. Accordingly, the country of the Valhikas may perhaps be identified with the region now known as Balkh; in other words, the Vahlikas should be identified 1 Also mentioned in Siva Purana, VII, 60, 20. 2 Sabhaparvan: 3 Chandra has been identified by some with Candravarman of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, as also with the king of the same name mentioned in the Susunia Rock Inscription.

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THE VAHLIKAS 71 with the 'Baktrioi' occupying the country near Arachosia in the time of the geographer Ptolemy.1 The Uttarakanda of the Ramayana (Chap. 100, verse 3) refers to a dynasty of kings who are said to have descended from one Kardama or Kardameya. They were related to the Aila race, and were associated with Valhi or Valhika over which they seem to have held sway. In another chapter of the Uttarakanda (103, verse 21) the Vahli or Vahlika country is said to have been situated outside the Madhyadesa, which must have extended as far as the Sarasvati in the west. A Kardamaka Vamsa or dynasty is referred to in the Kanheri Inscription of the minister (amatya) Sateraka. In his Political History of Ancient India (4th Edn., p. 423), Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri makes the illuminating suggestion that this Kardamaka Vamsa probably derived its name from the river Kardama in Parasika or Persia.2 In that case Vahlika, the home of the Kardama or Kardamaka kings, should be sought for somewhere in Persia; and we have a further justification for identifying the country of the Vahlikas with Balkh in Iran.3 The Vahlikas or Valhikas should not be identified with the Vahikas, who seem to have lived between the Sutlej and the Indus. A passage in the Karnaparvan (Chap. 44) seems to describe their position: 'Sakalam nama nagaramapaga nama nimnaga Jarttika nama Vahikastesam Vrttam suninditam' (verse 10). Satadrukam nadim tirttva tanca ramyam Iravatim' (verse 17). This passage states that the Vahikas were also known as Jarttikas (= Jat?) and Arattas, and that their capital was at Sakala, modern Sialkot, west of the Ravi. Another portion of the same passage suggests that in the Aratta countries religion was in disrepute; it was thus an impure region, and the Aryans of Mid-India were forbidden to go there. This is also reflected in the Varttikas of Panini by Katyayana who derives the word Vahika from 'vahi' or bahi', meaning outside',-suggesting those who were outside the pale of Aryandom. According to Panini and his scholiast Patanjali, Vahika was another name for the Punjab (IV, 2, 117; V, 3, 114; 1 Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Edn., p. 449, f.n.; and Ind. Ant., 1884, p. 408. 2 Comm. on Arthasastra, II, II: Parasikesu Karddama nama nadi. 3 For fuller details of the Kardamaka kings and their association with Vahlika, see Ray Chaudhuri's paper on 'The Karddamaka kings' in I.H.Q., Vol. IX, No. 1, PP. 37-9. 4 The Arattas were the Arattai of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, p. 41. 5 It will be remembered that Sakala was King Milinda's capital.

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72 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Ind. Ant., I, 122). That the Vahikas were held in disrepute is also proved by verse 41 of the Karnaparvan, which says: Vahisca nama Hikasca Vipasayam Pisacakau Tayorapatyam Vahika naisa systih prajapateh.' According to this verse, Vahi and Hika were names of two Pisacas (demons) of the Vipasa river (Beas). Their descendants, the Vahikas, were not (worthy of being called) 'a creation of Prajapati' (the Creator).

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CHAPTER XII THE TRIGARTTAS The earliest mention of the Trigarttas to which a fairly definite date can be assigned is made in the Astadhyavi of Panini, the celebrated grammarian, who flourished in the middle of the sixth century B.C. at the latest. Besides a direct reference to the tribe or country of the Trigarttas in a certain Sutra, there are indirect references to the tribe in at least two other Sutras, according to the scholiast on Panini. In 'na pracya Bhargadi Yaudheyadibhyah' (Sutra IV, 1, 178) Bhargadi is said to stand for the regions (janapada) of the Bhargas, Karusas, Kasmiras, and Salvas, whereas Yaudheyadi is taken to include the country or tribe of the Trigarttas as well as of the Yaudheyas (see chap. on Yaudheyas). The other reference to Yaudheyadi' is in Sutra, V, 3, 117, which mentions the Yaudheyas (and Trigarttas implicitly) as forming an 'Ayudha-jivi Samgha'. We may infer, then, that the Trigarttas, like the Vaudheyas, were a Ksatriya tribal republic depending mainly on arms. This close association of Trigarttas and Yaudheyas probably means that their territories were contiguous. In the Mahabharata, also, these two tribes are often associated, both having rallied on the side of Duryodhana.2 Two Trigartta heroes famous as Samsaptakas (bound by an oath to kill others) seem to have played an important part in the Kuruksetra war.3 The Trigarttas along with the Salvas, Ambasthas, and other tribes were included in the army of Bhisma.4 In the course of the war the Trigarttas seem to have had a hard fight with Nakula, the fourth Pandava,5 while on another occasion their King Susarma fought a stiff battle with Arjuna. As a result of the war, the Trigarttas along with the Kasmiras, Malavas, Sivis, Yaudheyas, Ambasthas, and other tribes were totally defeated, and they all paid homage to Yudhisthira.? 1 V. 3. 116: Damanvadi Trigarttasasthachah. 2 Sabhaparvan, Canto 52, 14-15; Dronaparvan, Canto 18, 16. 3 Udyogaparvan, Canto 57, 18. Before the actual war, five Trigartta brothers acted as agents of Duryodhana in harassing the Pandavas while they were living incognito in the Virata country (Udyogaparvan, Canto 165, 9). 4 Bhismaparvan, Canto 20, 10, 12, 15; Canto 81, 3; Canto 82, 13. 5 Ibid., Canto, 72, 7. 8 Ibid., 96, 17; 102, 22; 104, 8. 7 Sabhaparvan, 34, 7-12; 52, 14-15.

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74 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Trigarttas, as described in the Mahabharata, seem to have been a Punjab tribe. This is borne out not only by Hemachandra's Abhidhanacintamani, which speaks of Trigartta and Jalandhara (modern Jullundur) as synonymous, but also by a reference in the Rajatarangini (V, 144), which implies that the tribe inhabited a region not far from Kashmir. Epigraphic evidence 2 as well points to the fact that modern Jullundur was the ancient Trigartta country. In the Puranas, the Trigarttas are reckoned among the mountain tribes. Cunningham identifies the Trigartta country with Kangra, which is situated in Jullundur between the mountains of Chamba and the upper course of the Beas. 4 "Trigartta' is interpreted to be the land watered by the three rivers, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej.5 It is also explained as the country of the three strongholds, and is identified by some scholars with the modern hill-state of Kotoch, which is still called 'Trigartaka Mulk', or the region of the Trigarttas (Prof. Johnson's Selections from the Mahabharata, p. 64, f.n. 8).6 The Trigartta tribe or country (janapada) is also mentioned in the Dasakumaracaritam in connection with Mitragupta's travels.? Not very much is known of the authentic political history of Trigartta, but it seems certain that from about 700 to 1150 A.D., the country was practically a dependency of one or other of the Kashmir dynasties. From the Rajatarangini (V, 130-50), for instance, we learn that Karkota Sankaravarman, King of Kashmir (c. 883-902 A.D.), set out on a series of expeditions to recover the lost possessions of his father Avantivarman. Then Prthvicandra, King of Trigartta, who had previously given his son Bhavacandra as a hostage, came towards Sankaravarman to do homage; but fearing capture, fled far away. Kalhana's description does not show that Trigartta was actually conquered, and Stein is probably right in assuming that no material success was achieved by Sankaravarman in the hills, east of the Ravi. The Trigartta country is said to have acknowledged the supremacy of the King of Kashmir during the reign in Kashmir) of Ananta of the line of Abhinava (1028-63 A.D.). 1 IV, 24-Jalandharas-trigarttah syuh'. 2 Ep. Ind., Vol. I, pp. 102, 116. 3 Markandeya P., 57, 57; Matsya P., 114, 56. The Brahmapurana (14, 46) refers to a daughter, Jijnasa by name, of a certain Trigartta king, who was married to Sisirayani. 4 Cunningham, A.S.R., V, p. 148; cf. Byhatsamhita, Chap. 14; also Stein's Rajatarangini. Vol. I. p. 81. 5 Cunningham, A.S.R., V, p. 148. 6 According to Nundolal Dey, North Canara was also called Trigartta in ancient times (Gokarna-Bhagavata, X, Chap. 79). 7 B.S.S., p. 108.

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CHAPTER XIII THE YAUDHEYAS The Yaudheyas were a republican tribe of the Punjab known as early as the time of Panini, the celebrated grammarian (c. sixth century B.C.), whose Sutras contain what are probably the earliest reference to this people. In na pracya Bhargadi Yaudheyadibhyah' (IV, 1, 178) the term Yaudheya-adi includes the two tribes, Yaudheyas and Trigarttas (according to Scholiast). Elsewhere in the Sutras (V, 3, 117) the Yaudheyas (counting the Trigarttas with them) are referred to as forming an'Ayudha-jivi Samgha', or a tribal republican organisation depending mainly on arms (cf. the name Yaudheya' = warrior). The historical tradition of the tribe, however, goes back still farther than Panini's time. The Puranas 1 refer to the Vaudheyas as having been descended from Usinara, while the Harivamsa too connects the Yaudheyas with the Usinaras.2 According to Pargiter, King Usinara established the Yaudheyas, Ambasthas, Navarastra, and the city of Kemila, all on the Eastern border of the Punjab; while his famous son Sivi Ausinara originated the Sivis or Sibis in Sivapura.3 In the Mahabharata, 4 the Vaudhevas are described as having been defeated by Arjuna, along with the Malavas and Trigarttas; while in the Sabhaparvan (Chap. 52, 14-5), the Yaudheyas, together with the Sibis, the Trigarttas, and the Ambasthas, are represented as having paid homage to Yudhisthira. Elsewhere in the Great Epic (Dronaparvan, Chap. 159, 5) the tribe is mentioned along with the Madrakas and Malavas. 5 The Byhatsamhita places the Yaudheyas along with the Arjunayanas in the N. division of India. According to Ray Chaudhuri, they may have been connected with the Pandoouoi or Pandava tribe mentioned by Ptolemy as settled in the Punjab &; 1 Brahmanda Purana, III, Chap. 74; Vayu P., Chap. 99; Brahma P., Chap. 13; Matsya P., Chap. 48; Visnu P., Chap. 17, etc. 2 Harivamsa, Chap. 32; cf. also Pargiter, Mark. P., p. 380. 3 A.L.H.T., p. 264. 4 Dronaparvan, Chap. 18, 16; Karnaparvan, Chap. 5, 48. 5 'Yaudheyanadrijan rajan Madrakan Malavanapi'. Here 'Adrijan' has been interpreted by some as signifying a tribe, the 'Adrijas' (possibly = the Adraistai of the Greeks); but it seems more likely that it is simply an epithet qualifying the Yaudheyas ('mountain-born'). There is no mention in Sorensen's Index to the names in the Mahabharata of 'adrija' used as the name of a tribe. 6 Ind. Ant., XIII, 331, 349.

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76 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA for Yaudheya appears in the Mahabharata (Adiparvan, Chap. 95, 76) as the name of a son of Yudhisthira.1 Cunningham identifies the Yaudheyas with the Johiya Rajputs, and the country of the Yaudheyas with Johiyabar (= Yaudheyavara), the district around Multan. The Johiyas, he points out, are divided into three tribes; and he finds a strong confirmation of his identification in the fact that in the coins of the Yaudheya clan there can be traced the existence of three different tribes. These coins are of three classes, of which the first bears the simple inscription: 'jaya-Yaudheya-ganasya', i.e. (money) of the victorious Yaudheya tribe'. The second class has 'dvi' at the end of the legend, and the third has 'tri', which are taken by Rapson to be contractions for 'dvitiyasya' and 'tritiyasya', or second and third, as the money of the second and third tribes of the Yaudheyas. As the coins are found to the West of the Sutlej, it is almost certain that they belong to the Johiyas who now occupy the line of the Sutlej.2 The Yaudheyas are known from the Bijayagadh (Bijegarh ?) Stone Inscription (C.I.I., Vol. III, pp. 250-1) to have occupied the Bijayagadh region of the Bharatpur State, and we may assume that they had extended their rule quite far to the South by about 150 A.D., the date of the Junagarh (Kathiawar) Inscription of Rudradaman,* which contains that monarch's boast of having 'rooted out the Yaudheyas'. The tribe was not entirely extinguished, however, for in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta (fourth century A.D.) the Yaudheyas are included in the list of tribal states who paid him homage (Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunakas, Kakas, and Kharaparikas).5 1 Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Edn., p. 457. 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 245; pp. 281-2. Rapson, Indian Coins, p. 14. 3 Paleographically the inscription is of an early date, the characters being of the so-called Indo-Scythic form. The leader of the Yaudheya tribe who is referred to in the inscription is styled Maharaja and Mahasenapati. 4 Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, pp. 36ff. 5 Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Edn., p. 457.

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CHAPTER XIV THE KEKAYAS The Kekayas were a well-known tribe of Ancient India, and played an important part not only in the events recorded in the Ramayana, but also in the great Kuruksetra war of the Mahabharata. They were known as early as the Sata patha Brahmana and the Chandogya Upanisad, and continued for some considerable time to be one of the important tribes of the Punjab. The territory of the Kekayas, according to the Ramayana, lay beyond the river Vipasa (Beas) and extended up to the borders of the ancient Gandhara kingdom. According to the Puranic tradition, the Kekayas were descended from the (non-Aryan) Anu tribe or the family known as the Anavas, who appear from the Rigveda (8, 74) to have dwelt in the same territory of the Punjab as that later occupied by the Kekayas (according to the Ramayana). Rajasekhara in his Kavyamimamsa places the Kekaya country in the northern division (Uttarapatha) of India, along with the Sakas, Hunas, Kambojas, Vahlikas, etc. In the Mahabharata they are associated with the Vahlikas, while in the Puranas more emphasis seems to be laid on their association with the Madras. The earliest known king of the Kekayas was Asvapati. He was a theologian who is said to have instructed a number of Brahmanas. The name of a Kekaya king several times referred to in the Ramayana 4 was also Asvapati; but it is difficult to say whether the two were identical. King Asvapati of the Ramayana was the father of Kaikeyi, second queen of Dasaratha, and maternal grandfather of Bharata (Ayodhyakanda, Chap. 70). The capital city of King Asvapati, according to the Ramayana, was Rajagrha or Girivraja, identified by Cunningham with Jalalpur on the Jhelum (= Giryak: Cunningham's Arch. Sur. Rep., II). We learn from 1 II, 68, 19-22; VII, Chaps. 113-4. 2 Brahmanda P., III, 74; Vayu P., Chap. 99; Brahma P., Chap. 13; Harivamsa (Chap. 31); Matsya P., Chap. 48; Visnu P., IV, Chap. 18; Garuda P., I, Chap. 139; and Bhagavata P., IX, Chap. 23. 3 Satapatha Brahmana, X, 6, 1, 2; Chandogya Up., V, II, 4 et seq. 4 Adikanda, Cantos XII, LXXIV, LXXXVII; Ayodhyakanda, Cantos II, XXXV, XXXVII, etc. 5 Ram., II, 67, 7; II, 68, 22. This Girivraja or Rajagpha is not to be confused with the Girivraja or Rajagrha of Magadha (S.B.E., XIII, p. 150).

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28 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Jaina sources that one-half of the Kekaya kingdom was Aryan, and the Kekaya city was known as Seyaviya.1 The Kekayas fought on Duryodhana's side in the Kuruksetra war. They seem from the Puranas 2 to have been intimately related to the Usinaras and the Sivis, for they were traditionally descended from one of the four sons of Sivi Usinara. The latter is said to have originated the Sivis in Sivapura and extending his conquests westwards, to have founded through his four sons the kingdoms of the Vrsadarbhas, Madras, Kekayas or Kaikeyas, and Suviras or Sauviras. In the Visnupurana mention is made of a king of Kekaya or Kaikeya named Dhrstaketu (Bk., IV, Chap. XIV). A branch of the Kekayas seems in later times to have migrated as far south as the Mysore country, where they established a settlement. They were probably an ancient ruling family of Mysore, and were connected by marriage with the Iksvakus, a famous royal dynasty, known from inscriptions discovered from the ruins of the Jagayyapeta stupa in the Krsna district, as well as from Nagarjunikonda. 1 Ind. Ant., 1891, 375. 2 Vayu P., Chap. 99; Matsya P., Chap. 48; Visnu P., IV, Chap. 18; Agni P., Chap. 276, etc. *3 Pargiter, A.I.H.T., p. 264. See also Chap. on Yaudheyas, for further information about Sivi and his father Usinara. 4 Dubreuil, A.H.D., pp. 88, 101; see also Archaeological Survey of South India, Vol. I, pp. 110-III. 5 Ed. Vogel, Ep. Indica, Vols. XX, XXI; Annual Report of South Indian Epigraphy, 1926, p. 92; 1927, pp. 71-74.

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CHAPTER XV THE ABHIRAS The Abhiras as a tribe are well-known in the history of ancient India. Probably coming into prominence for the first time during the age roughly covered by the Epics, at a later period they came to occupy an independent kingdom, and establish more centres than one in the country. The tribe can still be traced in the present Ahirs (Ahir being the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Abhira) who, in tribal groups, abound largely in the United Provinces, Bihar, Nepal and some portions of Rajputana. They are a band of simple, sturdy people, mostly cowherds and agriculturists. . According to the Mahabharata (Sabhaparvan, Chap. 51), the Abhiras were located in the western division of India (Aparantaka). The Epic evidence is supported by that of the author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a Greek record of commercial geography of the first century B.C., as well as by Ptolemy, the Greek geographer who flourished in the middle of the second century A.D. Later epigraphic evidence also definitely places the Abhiras in the west, but the Puranas seem to locate them in the northern division or Uttarapatha. The fact seems to be', says Wilson, that the people along the Indus, from Surat to the Himalayas, are often regarded as either western or northern nations, according to the topographical position of the writer'.1 A more definite location of the tribe is provided by a sloka in the Mahabharata, which places them in West Rajputana, where the Sarasvati disappears' 2 * The Mahabhasya of Patanjali (second century B.C.) is perhaps the earliest authority that introduces the Abhiras into Indian history. At 1, 2, 3 of that work, the Abhiras are associated with the Sudras, who are most likely identical with the Sodrai or Sogdoi of Greek historians of Alexander's time. The tradition of their association with the Sudras 3 is upheld not only by the above-mentioned sloka of the Mahabharata (IX, 37, 1), but also by the Puranas. The Visnupurana 4 places them in the extreme west along with the Surastras, Sudras, Arbudas, Karusas, and Malavas, dwelling along the Paripatra mountains. The Markandeya Purana (Chap. 57, verses 35, 36) groups the Abhiras with the Vahlikas, Vatadhanas, Sudras, 2 Mbh., IX, 37, I. 1 Wilson, Visnu Purana, II, 168, f.n. 4. 3 Some scholars read Sura for Sudra. 4 Visnu P., Ed. Wilson, Bk. II, Chap. III, pp. 132-5.

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80 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Madrakas, Surastras, and Sindhu-Sauviras, all of whom are said to have occupied tracts of country that are included in the Aparantaka or western country. According to Pargiter, the Abhiras who are referred to in the Mahabharata had something to do with the events following the great Kuruksetra war: 'Some years after the battle, the Yadavas of Gujarat were ruined by fratricidal strife, and Krsna died. Under Arjuna's leadership they abandoned Dvaraka (on which the sea encroached) and Gujarat and retreated northwards, but were attacked and broken up by the rude Abhiras of Rajputana '.1 Both Ptolemy and the Periplus stress the close association of the Abhiras and the Surastras. The Periplus mentions the country of Aberia (doubtless identical with Abhira) and its seaboard Syrastrene (= Surastra); while Ptolemy speaks of Abiria (= Aberia = Abhira) as having been included in Indo-Scythia, by which was meant practically the whole of the country along the lower course of the Indus. Indo-Scythia in Ptolemy's time was divided into three parts, viz. Syrastrene (Surastra), Patalene (= Skt. Patala). and Abiria (Skt. Abhira),--Abiria being identified with the region east of the Indus, above the insular portion formed by its bifurcation. By the middle of the second century B.C. the Abhiras and their country must have been overpowered by the Bactrian Greeks who, not long after the expedition of Antiochus the Great (Antiochus III of Syria, 223--187 B.C.), had planned to extend their kingdom to the south of the Hindu Kush. It seems that these Bactrian Greeks occupied the whole of the country which Ptolemy designates as Indo-Scythia, and which included Aberia or Abiria. In Ptolemy's time, however, the Abiria or Abhira country was ruled over by the Saka rulers or Ksatrapas of W. India, who seem to have held sway over the entire realm of Indo-Scythia (cf. the Junagadh Inscription of the Saka ruler Rudradaman who flourished in the second century A.D.; Ep. Ind., Vol. VIII, pp. 36ff.). The Gunda Inscription of the saka king Rudra Simha (A.D. 181), who was third in succession from Rudradaman, refers to an Abhira general named Rudrabhuti who excavated a tank in his realm. Shortly afterwards 3 we find a certain Isvaradatta, who was probably a native of Abhira, holding the office of Mahaksatrapa. It is likely that Isvaradatta was the same person as Isvarasena, an Abhira king (son of 1 A.I.H.T., p. 284. 2 See Chap. on Surastras, and McCrindle's Ptolemy, pp. 136, 139-40. 3 188-90 A.D., according to Prof. Bhandarkar; but Rapson assigns Isvaradatta to the period after 236 A.D. 4 It is also suggested that this dynasty of Isvarasena is identical with the Traikutaka line of Aparanta, and that the establishment of the Traikutaka era in A.D. 248 marks the date at which the Abhiras succeeded the Satavahanas in the

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THE ABHIRAS 81 Sivadatta), who became Mahaksatrapa of W. India and wrested from the Satavahanas, probably in the third century A.D., portions at least of Maharastra, which was ruled over by them up till the reign of Yajnasri Satakarni. The Abhiras are next mentioned in the celebrated Allahabad Iron Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta (2nd quarter of the fourth century A.D.) as one of the tribal states of W. and S.W. India who paid homage to the great Gupta emperor, and who were thus a semi-independent people living outside the borders of his empire. If the traditional and legendary history of Nepal as contained in the Vamsavalis has any historical value, the Abhiras or Ahirs had a settlement in Nepal in very early times. The traditional history of Nepal as recorded in the Vamsavalis begins with a long line of legendary kings, after which the country was taken possession of by a line of Kirata pretenders, whose passing away probably marks the entry of Nepal into the domain of fairly precise historical tradition. These Kiratas were succeeded by eight princes belonging to the Gopala dynasty. The Gopalas in their turn were supplanted by the Abhiras. The tribe seems to have had another settlement in the South or Daksinapatha. According to the Markandeya Purana,1 the Abhiras are classed with the Pundrakas, Keralas, Kalingas, Pulindas, Andhras, Vidarbhas, Kuntalas and others, all of whom are said to be Daksinapatha-vasinah, or dwelling in the southern country. The Vayupurana also records the same tradition (Chap. 45, 126), and describes the Abhiras, Atabyas, Sabaras, Pulindas, Vaidarbhas and Dandakas as Daksinapatha-vasinah'. 6 government of northern Maharastra and the adjoining region. The last known rulers of the Traikutaka line were Indradatta, his son, Dharasena and his son, Vyaghrasena -Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 418, f.n. 2. 1 Chap. 57, vv. 45-8; Chap. 58, v. 22.

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CHAPTER XVI THE SIBIS The Sibis (or Sivas) seem to have been a very ancient people. They were a petty tribe occupying some tract in the Western Punjab, whence they seem later to have migrated or sent offshoots southwestwards to Sind and Rajputana and southwards as far as the Chola country. They are probably alluded to for the first time in the Rgveda (VII, 18, 7) where the Sivas, doubtless the same people as the Sibis, are grouped together with four other minor tribes, viz. the Alinas, Pakhtas, Bhalanasas and Visanins, who were all defeated by the combined army of King Sudas. 1 But whatever the fate of the other four tribes after their defeat, the Sivas seem to have maintained their independent existence for some considerable time, for they are referred to not only by the Greek geographers and historians of Alexander's time, but also by the Scholiast on Panini (IV, 2, 109). Their King Sivi, son of Usinara, is mentioned in Baudhayana's Srauta Sutra (III, 53, 22). There can hardly be any doubt as to the identity of the Rgvedic Sivas with the Sibai or Siboi of the Greeks 2 who dwelt between the Indus and the Akesines (= Asikns of the R.V.; mod. Chandrabhaga or Chenab) in Alexander's time. 'When the army of Alexander', states Arrian, 'came among the Sibai, an Indian tribe, and noticed that they wore skins, they declared that the Sibai were descended from those who belonged to the expedition of Herakles, and had been left behind; for besides being dressed in skins, the Sibai carry a cudgel, and brand on the backs of their oxen the representation of a club, wherein the Macedonians recognised a memorial of Herakles.' (Arrian, op. cit.) He continues: 'If any one believes all this, this must be another Herakles, not the Theban, but either the Tyrian or the Egyptian, or even some great King who belonged to the upper country which lies not far from India'. It seems reasonable to suppose, from the above description of their dress and weapons, that the tribe belonged to a racial group not distinctly Aryan. They are said to have had 40,000 foot-soldiers at the time of Alexander 1 The 'war of the ten kings' is sometimes interpreted as a struggle between the Aryans (under Sudas) and the pre-Aryans; in which case the Sivas or Sibis were not Aryans, but probably Sumerians. 2 Arrian, Indica, V, 12; Diodorus, XVII, 96. bv

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THE SIBIS 83 An earlier reference to this people is found in the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII, 23, 10), where mention is made of Amitratapana, a king of the Sivis. A place called Sivapura or 'town of the Sivas' is mentioned by the Scholiast on Paninii as situated in the northern country. Sivapura must be identical with Sibipura, mentioned in a Shorkot Inscription (Ep. Ind., 1921, p. 16); and Dr. Vogel takes the mound of Shorkot to be the site of the city of the Sibis. Another scholar points out that local tradition also connects Shorkot with Siva. Thus we may conclude that the Sivas or Sibis were a people inhabiting the Shorkot region in Jhang in the Punjab, lying between the Iravati and the Chandrabhaga, and therefore included in the northern region or Uttarapatha. The Sivas or Sibis seem to have migrated, or rather sent one or more of their offshoots southwards to Rajputana. It is difficult to say exactly when this movement took place, but early references to a geographical location of the tribe other than in the Punjab are found in the Jatakas and in the Mahabharata. The Jatakas 3 mention a Sivi king and his country with two of its cities, Aritthapura and Jetuttara. Aritthapura (Skt. Aristapura) is probably identical with Ptolemy's Aristobothra in the north of the Punjab 4 and may perhaps be the same as Dvaravati.5 Jetuttara or Jettuttara is identified by N. L. Dey with Nagari, a locality II miles north of Chitore. It is evidently the Jattararur of Alberuni, the capital of Mewar. That the Sibis had a habitat near Chitore is attested by other sources as well; a number of coins inscribed with the legend Majhamikaya Sivijanapadasa' have been discovered in the territory near Nagari,-indicating that the janapada or country of the Sibis was located in Madhyamika, near Chitore in Rajputana. On the testimony of these coins we also learn that the Sibis formed a ganarastra or some sort of republican state. This seems to have some support from the Vessantara Jataka, where we read that the king of the Sibis 8 was compelled to banish prince Vessantara in obedience to the demand of his people,-indicating that if not an absolute republic, this community at least had what we may call democratic institutions. 1 See Patanjali, IV, 2, 2; Vedic Index, II, pp. 381-2. 2 Mazumdar, C.A.G.I., p. 669; Sivapura = Siaura = Shor. C.A.S.R., V, Pp. 97 3 Sivi Jataka, No. 499; Ummadanti Jataka, No. 527; Vessantara Jataka, No. 547. 4 N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. II. 5 Tataka (Fausboll), VI, p. 421; cf. Dey, p. 187. 6 Geographical Dictionary, p. 81. 7 Alberuni's India, I, p. 202. 8 Cf. also Sivikaraja, which was the Tathagata's name in a previous birth, referred to in Beal's Records of the Western World, I, pp. xvi-cvii, 125.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Sivas or Sibis were intimately associated with the Usinaras, who are assigned by the Aitareya Brahmana to the Madhyadesa or 'Middle Country', together with the Kurus, the Pancalas, and the Vasas or Vatsas. The Anukramani of the Rgveda ascribes one hymn (X, 119) to Sivi Ausinara, i.e. the Sivi who is descended from Usinara; while the Mahabharata refers not only to a king Usinara Sibi (Mbh., santiparvan, Chap. 29, 39) but also to a Sibi-rastra or kingdom of the Sibis ruled by King Usinara (III, 130-1). It is, therefore, likely that the Usinara country was at one time the habitat of the Sibis. According to the tradition as recorded in the Epics and Puranas, Sivi was one of the five sons of King Usinara, each of whom founded a city. The city of Sivi was known as Sivapura. Sivi had four sons who came to be known as Sivis, giving their name to the tribe to which they belonged. According to Pargiter, Sivi Ausinara not only originated the Sivis in Sivapura but, extending his conquests westwards, founded through his four sons (Vrsadarbha, Suvira, Kekaya, and Madraka) the kingdoms of the Vrsadarbhas, Suviras (or Sauviras), Kekayas, and Madras, thus occupying the whole of the Punjab except the north-western corner. King Sivi Ausinara bears a legendary name for piety and humanity. The well-known and very popular fable of the hawk and the pigeon immortalises this king's spirit of self-sacrifice.2 In the Mahabharata description of the tribes, kings, and princes, who were ranged on Duryodhana's side in the Kuruksetra war, the Sivis are grouped with the foreign tribes, Sakas, Kiratas, Yavanas and Vasatis. As the Yavanas and Sakas did not appear in Indian history before the fifth and second centuries B.C. respectively, the passage in which the mention of these tribes occurs, must be regarded as a later interpolation; but however that may be, the fact that the Sivis are grouped with the foreigners' is significant, and it is not unlikely that the tradition has a historical foundation. Still later, the Sivis seem to have migrated to the extreme south of India. The Dasakumaracaritam (Madhya, Chap. VI) refers to a settlement of the Sivis on the banks of the Kaveri. The southern 1 See Chap. on Usinaras; and Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, pp. 41 and 264. 2 Mh., III, Chap. 196; Chap. 207;, XIII, Chap. 67; XIV, Chap. 90. In the Dronaparvan version (Chaps. 130-131) Sivi's father, Usinara, is the hero of the fable. Both Fa-Hien and Hsuan Tsang place the scene of the story in Udyana now called the Swat Valley where a steatite relief (now in the British Museum) representing the fable as given in the Moh. has been discovered. It is, therefore, probable that the present Swat Valley represents the ancient kingdom of Sivi. But according to the Maha-Ummaga Jataka the Sivi country was situated between the kingdoms of Videha and Pancala (Dey, Geographical Dicty., pp. 187-8).

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THE SIBIS 85 Sivis, according to Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri,1 are probably to be identified with the Chola ruling family. The Sivi country of the south may be identical with the Sivika country which is placed among the southern countries by Varahamihira in his Brhatsamhita (Chap. XIV, verse 12). 1 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 205, f.n. 5. 2 Keilhorn, List of Southern Inscriptions, No. 685.

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CHAPTER XVII THE DARADAS The Daradas were a tribe of N.W. India, well-known both to indigenous and to foreign traditions. They are referred to in the Mahabharata as having joined the Kaurava forces, and as having been defeated by Vasudeva, along with the Khasas, Sakas, Yavanas, Trigarttas, Malavas and others. The Visnupurana associates them with the Abhiras and Kasmiras 2; while in the Matsyapuranas the country of the Daradas is linked with Gandhara, Sivapura, Urja, Aurasa and other districts forming the basin of the Sindhu (=Indus). The Epic and Puranic traditions seem therefore to locate the Daradas in the north-west along the north-west frontier of Kashmir, and contiguously with the realm of the Khasas in the upper Punjab. They were probably a mountainous tribe, for 'mountain is the commonest meaning of the word darad from which they appear to have derived their name'. The Greek writers knew this people by various names. Strabo mentions them as Derdai, Pliny as Dardae; while in Dionys. Perieg. (V, 1138) their name is given as Dardanoi. Ptolemy refers to the same people as Daradrai, the additional r evidently being inserted by mistake. He locates them east of the Lambatai (= Lampak or Lamghan) and of Sonestane (= basin of the Swat river), and to the north of the uppermost course of the Indus. The mountains in the country of the Daradas, he says, are of surpassing height. The Daradas were an important factor in the history of Kashmir, and are often referred to in the Rajatarangini. The country once inhabited by the Daradas still retains clear traces of the ancient name, being known as Dardistan, the district of the Dardo. 1 Dronaparvan, Chap. 10, 18. 2 Wilson's Ed., II, p. 184. 8 CXXI, 45-51.

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CHAPTER XVIII THE KARUSAS OR KARUSAS The Karusas or Karusas were a well-known tribe of ancient India, who are often referred to in the Epics, particularly in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Throughout the whole range of early and later Vedic literature they are scarcely mentioned, and their sudden emergence in the period of the Epics and Puranas suggests that they had been an insignificant tribe inhabiting a region included in or continuous with the janapada of the Cedis, with whom they are constantly associated in the Mahabharata.1 The Padmapurana (IV, Chap. 274, 16-17) moreover, tells us that Dantavakra, King of Karusa, was of Caidya lineage. The evidence orded in the Mahabharata and the Puranas seems to point to the fact that Dantavakra and his father Vrddhasarman had been reigning in the time of the Pandavas.2 According to the Visnupurana (Bk., IV, Chap. XIV) Vrddhasarman married Srutadevi, who bore him the fierce Asura Dantavakra. The Vayupurana, however, does not call him an Asura, but King of the Karusas. According to the Padmapurana (Patala, Chap. 35) Dantavakra was killed by Krsna in Mathura (vide also N. L. Dey, G.D.A.M.I., p. 2). King Dantavakra is said to have had a foster-daughter named Prtha, who was married to Pandu.3 Their contemporaries in the contiguous territories were Damaghosa, his son Sisupala Sunitha, and grandson Dhrstaketu, kings of Cedi; and Virata, king of Matsya. The Karusa royal family was connected by marriage not only with that of the Cedis but also with those of the Yadavas (i.e. Vasudeva, Krsna and all his relations, and the Pauravas).5 We must turn to the Puranas for the legendary account of the origin of the Karusas. All the Puranas agree in saying that Vaivasvata Manu had nine sons 6: namely Iksvaku, Nabhaga 1 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 47, 4; Chap. 54, 8; Chap. 56, 9; Dronaparvan, Chap. 8, 28; Chap. 20, 23; Karnaparvan, Chap. 56, 2, etc. 2 Mbh., II, Chap. 13, 575, 577; Vayu Purana, Chap. 96, 255; Visnu P., IV, Chap. 14, 11; Brahmanda P., III, Chap. 71, 156, etc. 3 Brahma P., Chap. 14, 122. 4 Pargiter: A.I.H.T., p. 119. 5 Ibid., 166-7, f.n. 1; Vayu Purana, Chap. 96, 148-159; Matsya P., Chap. 46, 3-9; Visnu P., IV, Chap. 14, 10-13, ete. 8 According to the Mahabharata, I, Chap. 75, Manu had fifty other sons, all of whom perished through mutual dissensions.

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88 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA (= Nabhaga or Nrga), Dhrsta, Saryati, Narisyanta, Prambu, Nabhanedistha, Karusa, and Prsadhra. From Karusa were descended the numerous Ksatriya clans of the Karusas. They were all determined fighters, and are said to have protected N. India, -perhaps from southern inroads as Pargiter suggests (A.I.H.T., p. 255 and f.n. 14).2 The Karusas had different settlements at different periods; the location of the principal ones may be described as follows: I. (A) In the Mahabharata they are often mentioned along with the Matsyas, Kasis, Cedis, and Pancalas (Bhismaparvan, Chap. 47, 4; Chap. 56, 13; Chap. 54, 8; Dronaparvan, Chap. 8, 28; Chap. 20, 23, etc.). The Visnupurana mentions them together with the Matsyas, Cedis, and Bhojas (Wilson, II, pp. 156-90). Pargiter therefore suggests that the country of the Karusas lay to the south of Kasi and Vatsa, between Cedi on the west and Magadha on the east enclosing the Kaimur hills, -i.e. it was equivalent to the country of Rewa, from the Ken river in the west to the confines of Bihar in the east.3 (B) The Balakanda (XXVII, 18-23) of the Ramayana would seem to indicate a slight difference of locality; it seems to locate the tribe in the district now known as Shahabad (Bihar),-whence they probably migrated south-west to the region indicated by the Mahabharata. According to tradition, the southern district of Shahabad between the river Son and Karmanasa was called Karukhdesa or Karushadesa. This tradition is supported by a modern local inscription found at Masar in the Shahabad district, designating the territory as Karusadesa. Moreover, Vedagarbhapuri or modern Buxar is referred to in the Brahmandapurana (Purvakhanda, Chap. 5) as being situated in Karusa. II. The Karusas probably had another settlement in the territory known in ancient times as Pundra, or Pundravardhana, roughly identical with N. Bengal; for according to the Bhagavatapurana (X, Chap. 66) Karusa seems to have been another name for Pundra. III. In the Vayu (Chap. 45), Matsya (Chap. 114, 54), and Markandeya (Chap. 57, 53-5) Puranas, the Karusas are said to have occupied the ridge of the Vindhyas (Vindhaprstha-nivasinah). In the i Vayu P., Chap. 85, 3-4; Brahma P., Chap. 7; 1-2; Siva P., VIII, Chap. 60, 1-2; Kurma P., I, Chap. 20, 4-6, etc. 2 For references to Karusas, see Vayu P., Chap. 86, 2-3; Garuda P., Chap. 142, 4; Visnu P., IV, Chap. I, 14; Siva P., VII, Chap. 60, 31; Bhagavata P., XX, 2, 16. 3 J.A.S.B., 1895, p. 255: J.R.A.S., 1914, p. 271; Panini, IV, I, 178. 4 Martin's Eastern India, Vol. I, p. 405; cf. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. 95. 5 Cunningham, A.S.R., III, pp. 67-71.

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THE KARUSAS OR KARUSAS Markandeya Purana, they are mentioned along with the Keralas and Utkalas, and in the Brahmandapurana with the Malavas, Utkalas, and Dasarnas (all dwelling in the Vindhya region); while in the Visnupurana (Bk. II, Chap. III) they are associated with the Arbudas and Malavas. Further, the Visnupurana definitely refers to them as dwelling along the Paripatra hills. In the Balakanda of the Ramayana (XXIV, 18) the Karusas and the Maladas are named together; the Maladas are probably the Molindae of Pliny, whereas the Karusas may be identified with the Chrysei.1 The Karusas figure in the Kuruksetra war along with the Kekayas, Pancalas, Matsyas, Cedis and Kosalas, who rallied on the side of the Pandavas.2 At one time during the war, the Cedi, Kasi, and Karusa peoples seem to have been led by Dhrstaketu, King of the Cedis.3 Another King of the Cedis was Vasu, a descendant of Kuru, who having conquered the Yadava kingdom of Cedi, extended his conquests eastwards as far as Magadha, and apparently north-west also, over Matsya. He divided his territories of Magadha, Cedi, Kausambi, Karusa, and Matsya among his five sons (see Chap. on Cedis). 1 M. V. St. Martin's Etude sur la Geog. Grecque, p. 199. 2 See Udyoga, Bhisma and Drona Parvans. 3 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 198, 2; Bhismaparvan, Chap. 56, 13.

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CHAPTER XIX KULATAS OR KULUTAS The Kurmanivesa section of the Markandeya Purana (LVII, 49) mentions a tribe called Kulatas, and another named Kurutas (LVII, 51). Both seem to be results of a confusion with the well-known tribe or people known in history as the Kulutas. The Karnaparvan of the Mahabharata refers to the latter which seems to be identical with the Koluta or Koluka of the Kiskindhya Kanda of the Ramayana (XLIII, and annotations). Pargiter (Mark., p. 382, note) long ago identified the land of the Kulutas with the modern Kulu near the source of the Beas which is upheld by a reference to them in later literature of more reliable historical import. The Kulutas seem to have been a tribal republic. Inscriptions and coins testify to the existence of many such republics even in the days of Scythian invasions, among whom the Malavas, Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas were the most important, the Audumbaras Kulutas, Kunindas and the Uttamabhadras being only second in rank (Camb. Hist. of India, Vol. I, pp. 528-9). Yuan Chwang, the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, refers to a country named Ku-lu-to (Watters, I, p. 298) which place he reached from Jalandhara after having travelled north-east, across mountains and ravines, by hazardous paths, for above 700 li. The region, says he, was entirely surrounded by mountains. Its capital was 14 or 15 li in circuit. It had a rich soil and yielded regular crops, and it had a rich vegetation. The climate grew gradually cold and there was little snow. There were in the country twenty Buddhist monasteries with above 1,000 brethren of whom the most were Mahayanists, a few adhering to the Hinayana school. Of Deva temples, there were fifteen, and the professed non-Buddhists lived pell-mell. Cunningham long ago identified this Kiu-lu-to country of Yuan Chwang'with the position of the Kullu district in the Upper valley of Byas river'. The position is roughly identical with the modern Kangra district. Another important reference to the Kuluta people is also found in the introduction of Balabharata or Pracandapandava of Rajasekhara wherein the poet describes the victories of Mahipala of the Pratihara dynasty. Mahipala is there credited with having defeated the Kulutas along with the Muralas, Mekalas, Kalingas, Keralas, Kuntalas and the Ramathas (Nirnayasagar Press Ed. of Balabharata, I, 7-8).

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CHAPTER XX THE KULINDAS The Kulindas were a small N. Indian tribe, sometimes confounded with the Pulindas. They are mentioned in the Mahabharata 1 along with the Paisacas, Ambasthas and Barbaras, who are all described as mountainous people. McCrindle informs us that in another passage of the Mahabharata they are mentioned in a long list of tribes' dwelling between Meru and Mandara and upon the Sailoda river, under the shadow of the Bambu forests, whose kings presented lumps of ant-gold at the solemnity of the inauguration of Yudhisthira as universal emperor'.2 The country of the Kulindas is referred to by Ptolemy as Kulindrine. He locates it near the mountainous region where the Vipasa, Satadru, Yamuna and Ganga have eir sources. Cunningham identifies Kulindrine with the kingdom of Jalandhara (Jullundur), but this is not accepted by Saint-Martin. A territory of the name of Kuluta, which was formed by the upper part of the Vipasa basin, and which may be included in Ptolemy's Kulindrine, is mentioned in a Varaha Samhita list. It was visited by the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, who calls it K'in-lu-to. The name still exists under the slightly modified form of Koluta. The Kulindas were probably identical with the Kunindas, a tribe known from coins, and located in the W. Punjab along with the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Udumbaras, Kulutas and Uttamabhadras. 1 Dronaparvan, Chap. 119, 14. 2 McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 110. 3 C.A.G.I., p. 157. 4 McCrindle, Ptolemy, p. 110. 5 Cambridge History of Ancient India, I, pp. 528-9.

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CHAPTER XXI THE BARBARAS The Barbaras, a 'barbarian' tribe, are associated in the Mahabharata 1 with the Ambasthas, Paisacas, Kulindas, etc., and also with the Yaunas, Kambojas, Gandharas and Kiratas, in a passage which definitely states that these tribes were located in the Uttarapatha or northern country. The Matsyapurana associates them with the Tusaras, Pahlavas, Paradas, Sakas, Urjas, Aurasas and other tribes whose countries are said to have been watered by the Caksu stream of the Ganges before it entered the sea (CXXI, 45-51). "The Markandeya Purana (LVII, 39) places them in the Sindhu country, and the Byhatsamhita refers to them as a north or north-west tribe. The commentary on Kautilya's Arthasastra has some interesting remarks on the Barbara country, and its river Srotasi, which was a source of pearls. Alakanda, a city famous for its pearls, stood on this river. There was also a lake named Srighanta in a corner of the sea of Barbara.3 S. N. Mazumdar sees in Alakanda a remnant of Alexander's name, and he identifies the city with Alexander's Haven. V. A. Smith (Early History of India, p. 110, 4th Ed.) points out that the large lake at the mouth of the river where Alexander's Haven stood (near Karachi) still exists. This lake may be identified with the lake Srighanta mentioned in the Arthasastra commentary. Mazumdar remarks 5 that Barbara is mentioned in an Ayurvedic work called Rajanighantu; and Barbarika, evidently a city of the Barbaras, in another Ayurvedic work, Dhanvantariyanighantu. This Barbarika (the Barbarei of Ptolemy) is evidently the Barbaricum or Barbaricon emporium mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (prob. circa 80 A.D.). It was at that time a market town and port. was situated on the middle mouth of the Indus, and included in the Saka country whose metropolis was Minnagar. Barbarika and Patala (the latter identified by V. A. Smith ? with Bahmanabad) formed the two towns of the islands of the Indus delta. 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 31, 199, etc.; Drona parvan, Chap. 119, 14. 2 Mbh., XII, 207, 43. 'Uttarapatha-janmanah kirtayisyami tan api Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata Barbaraih saha.' 3 Arthasastra, Eng. Trsl., p. 86, f.n. 7, 8; p. 90, etc. 4 C.A.G.I., pp. 692-4. 5 Ibid., pp. 694-5. 6 McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 148. 7 Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 107.

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CHAPTER XXII THE MURUNDAS The Murundas were probably a foreign tribe. They are mentioned for the first time by Ptolemy (second century A.D.), under the name Moroundai. Ptolemy's description would place them on the western border of the 'Gangaridai'. They seem to have occupied an extensive territory, probably the whole of N. Bihar on the east of the Ganges, as far as the head of the delta. They had six important cities, all to the east of the Ganges: Boraita, Koryagaza, Kondota, Kelydna, Aganagora and Talarga. These places are difficult to identify, but to Saint-Martin Kelydna appeared to have some relation with the Kalinadi or Kalindi river, and Aganagora with Aghadip (Agradvipa) on the eastern bank of the Ganges, a little below Katwa (Ptolemy's Ancient India by McCrindle, pp. 215-6). According to Cunningham, the name of the Marundai is still preserved in the country of the Mundas, a hill-tribe scattered over ChotaNagpur and Central India. He says: "The name of Munda is found in the Visnupurana as the appellation of a dynasty of eleven princes who succeeded the Tusharas or Tokhari. In the Vayupurana, however, the name is omitted, and we have only Marunda'i (= Murunda, the Sanskrit name for Ptolemy's Marundai). Cunningham also suggests that the Moroundai of Ptolemy are identical with the Moredes of Pliny who are mentioned in conjunction with the Surari or Savaras. It may, however, be mentioned that the Marundas are referred to in the Vayupurana as one of the Mleccha tribes. Ptolemy also speaks of a city called Morounda as an inland town of the Aioi. The country of the Aioi was probably some region south of the Kerala country, but the city Morounda has not been identified. It is probable, however, that it was a city of the Maroundai = Murundas; and in that case the Moroundai had another settlement in the farthest south. The Abhidhanacintamani of Hemacandra (IV, 26) 2 identifies the Murundas with the Lampakas, the Lambatai of Ptolemy. The latter were located near the source of the modern Kabul river in the region around Laghman, and it, therefore, follows that the Murundas had a settlement in this region as well. 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Mazumdar's Ed., pp. 581-2. 2 Lampakastu Marundah syuh.

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94 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Among the foreign potentates who came of their own accord to offer allegiance to Samudragupta (fourth century A.D.) were the "Saka-Murundas' 1; while a 'Murunda-Svamini' is mentioned in a Central Indian inscription of the sixth century A.D. 1 According to Dr. Sten Konow, 'murunda' is the later form of a saka word meaning 'lord' or 'master'. The term 'Saka-Murundas' possibly stands, therefore, for those Saka lords or chieftains who were ruling in the regions of Surastra and Ujjain at the time of Samudragupta. (Cf. Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta.)

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bero. CHAPTER XXIII THE ARJUNAYANAS AND THE PRARJUNAS The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta (fourth century A.D.) (i, 22) refers to a host of tribes-Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sanakanikas, Kakas, Kharaparikas, and others--that obeyed the imperial commands and paid all kinds of taxes. Research has ascertained that all these tribal states were located along the north-western, western and south-western fringes of the N. Indian kingdom of Samudragupta. The Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas and Abhiras are more or less wellknown, but very little is known about the other tribes. The names of the two tribes, Arjunayanas and Prarjunas, apparently have some connection with the name of the I Arjuna, though this is not certain. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription, as we have seen, connects the Arjunayanas with the Yaudheyas, which is significant, inasmuch as the Adiparvan (95, 76) of the Mahabharata gives the name of one of Yudhisthira's sons as Vaudheya; so that the connection of the Vaudheyas and Arjunayanas appears to be warranted by the Epic. The author of the Byhatsamhita also connects these two tribes, and locates them both in the northern division of India. Ray Chaudhuri 1 locates the Yaudheyas in the Bharatpur State of Rajputana ; and the Arjunayanas may have occupied a contiguous position. The Arjunayanas are also known from coins, which do not, however, give any clue to their geographical location. Vincent Smith 2 places the Prarjunas in the Narasimhapur district of the Central Provinces, but a more plausible location is Narasimhagarh in Central India,3 inasmuch as three other tribes which are coupled with the Prarjunas, the Sanakanikas, Kakas and Kharaparikas, seem to have occupied regions more or less within the bounds of Central India. 1 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 458. 2 J.R.A.S., 1897, p. 892. 3 1.H.Q., Vol. I, p. 258.

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CHAPTER XXIV THE AMBASTHAS The Ambasthas 1 as a tribe existed at least as early as the time of the Aitareya Brahmana, when they were probably settled in the Punjab; and they can be traced up to the present day in parts of Bengal and Bihar, whither they migrated in later times. In the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII, 21-3), King Ambasthya (= 'of Ambastha') is mentioned as having been consecrated with the Aindra Mahabhiseka along with nine other kings. The Mahabharata 2 mentions the Ambasthas along with the Sivis, Ksudrakas, Malavas and other north-western tribes. In the Bhisma (Chap. 20, 10) and Drona (Chap. 119, 14) Parvans, the Ambasthas are referred to as having taken part in the Kuruksetra war, on the side of the Kurus; while in the Karnaparvan,3 Srutayuh, the valiant Ksatriya, who was killed by Arjuna, is described as a king of the Ambasthas. The Ambasthas were also once defeated by Nakula, the fourth Pandava, along with the Sivis, Trigarttas and Malavas 4; and Srutayuh was among those who did homage to Yudhisthira after the defeat.5 In the Puranas, the Ambasthas are represented as Anava Ksatriyas, and are said to have originated from Suvrata, son of Usinara; they were thus intimately related to the Vaudheyas and the Sivis, 6 and were settled on the eastern border of the Punjab.? The country is mentioned in the Barhaspatya Arthasastra,8 where it is associated with Sind (Kasmira-Huna-Ambastha-Sindhavah); while the tribe is included in the list derived by Colonel Wilford from the Varaha Samhita. The Puranas seem to represent the Ambasthas as Ksatriyas, descended as they were from Usinara; and, as we have seen, the Mahabharata refers to their King Srutayuh as 'the best of Ksatriyas'. But the evidence of Smrti literature seems to point to their mixed origin. According to the Gautama-Dharmasutra (IV, 16), children born of wives of the next, second or third lower castes become 1 According to Goldstucker, the older denomination of the tribe was probably Ambastha, not Ambastha. 2 II, 52, 14-15. 3 Chap. 5, 18. 4 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 32, 7. 5 Ibid., Chap. 52, 14-15. 6 Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 109. 7 Ibid., p. 264. 8 Ed. F. W. Thomas, p. 21. 9 Asiatic Researches, Vol. VIII, pp. 344, 346.

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THE AMBASTHAS 97 Sabarnas, Ambasthas, Ugras, Nisadhas, Dausyantas or Parasaras. The Ambasthas would thus be descendants of Brahmanas by Ksatriya, Vaisya or Sudra wives. In the Ambattha Sutta, an Ambattha (= Ambastha) is called a Brahmana; but, according to the Jatakas,2 the Ambasthas were farmers, while Manu describes them as a people who practised the art of healing. 3 S. N. Mazumdar thinks 4 that they were a tribe of Brahma Ksatriyas' (i.e. Brahmins by descent but warriors by profession); while Ray Chaudhuri 5 is of the opinion that they were a'tribe who were at first mainly a fighting race, but some of whom took to other occupations, viz. those of priests, farmers, and, according to the Smrti writers, physicians'. The Ambasthas are the same as the Abastanoi (Arrian), Sambastai (Diodoros), Sabarcae (Curtius) or Sabagrae (Orosius) of Alexander's historians. In Alexander's time the tribe was settled on the lower Akesines (Asikni), and had a democratic government, and an army consisting of 60,000 foot, 60,000 cavalry and 500 chariots.? The Ambasthas are referred to by Ptolemy as Ambastai, a tribe which is described as settled in the east of the country of the Paropanisadai,--Paropanisadai being a collective name for the tribes that were located along the southern and eastern sides of the Hindukush'.8 Lassen' thinks that the Ambastai may have been connected in some way with the Ambastai, another tribe mentioned by Ptolemy as dwelling along the country of the Bettigoi' and the mountain range of the same name (i.e. southern portion of the Western Ghats). The Ambasthas seem to have migrated in later times to some place near the Mekala hill which is the source of the Narmada (see Mekala chapter). In the Kurmavibhaga of the Byhatsamhita (XIV, 7) they are associated with the Mekalas who dwelt on the Mekala hill; and the mention of Mekhalamusta (which is in all probability a misreading for Mekalambastha) in the Markandeya Purana (LVIII, 14) would seem to prove that the two were neighbourng tribes. The tribe seems to have migrated eastwards as well, however, for even today a class of Kayasthas known as Ambastha Kayasthas can be traced in Bihar; while the Vaidyas of Bengal claim to be designated as Ambasthas. 10 1 Digha, I, p. 88; Dialogues of the Buddha, I, p. 109. 2 Jataka, IV, No. 363. 3 Manu, X, 47: 'Ambasthanam cikitsitam'. 4 C.A.G.I., notes, p. 670. 5 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 207. 6 McCrindle's Invasion of Alexander, pp. 292ff. 7 Ibid., p. 252. 8 McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, Majumdar's Ed., pp. 311-12. 9 Indische Alterthumskunde, pp. 159, 161. 10 They are described as such in Bharata Mallika's commentary on the Bhatti kavya.

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CHAPTER XXV THE NISADAS The Nisadas are referred to for the first time in the later Samhitas and the Brahmanas. The word Nisada 'seems to denote not so much a particular tribe, but to be the general term for the non-Aryan tribes who were not under Aryan control, as the Sudras were...' (Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 453). This is supported by the evidence supplied by Aupamanyava 2 who distinguishes the Nisadas from the other four varnas or colours' (castes). The word Nisada (Nisada) of the Vajasaneyi Samhita (XVI, 27) is explained by the commentator Mahidhara to mean a Bhil or Bhilla, a tribe that still exists in the hills of Central India and the Vindhyan tracts. Macdonell and Keith point out that 'a village of the Nisadas is mentioned in the Latyayana Srauta Sutra (VIII, 2, 8), and a Nisada Sthapati, a leader of some kind of craft, is referred to in the Katyayana Srauta Sutra (I, I, 12; Weber, Indische Studien, 10, 13) and in a Brahmana cited by the scholiast on that passage'.3 According to Weber,4 the Nisadas were settled aborigines. In the opinion of the authors of the Vedic Index, this view is supported 'by the fact that the ritual of the Visvajit Sacrifice (Kausitaki B., XXV, 15; | Lat. S.S., VIII, 2, 8; Pan. B., XVI, 6, 8, etc.) requires a temporary residence with the Nisadas; for the Nisadas who would permit an Aryan to reside temporarily amongst them must have been partially amenable to Aryan influence. But the name might easily be applied to the whole body of aborigines outside the Aryan organisation' (Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 454),5 The Law-giver, Manu, however, explains the origin of the Nisadas as 'the offspring of a Brahmana father and a Sudra mother'. In his chapter on Mixed Castes, Manu says that the son of a Nisada by a Sudra female becomes a Pulkasa by caste, but the son of a Sudra by a Nisada female is declared to be a Kukkutaka.? The social duty enjoined on the Nisadas was to kill 1 Taittiriya S., IV, 5, 4, 2; Kathaka S., XVII, 13; Maitrayani S., II, 9, 5; Vajasaneyi S., XVI, 27; Aitareya B., VIII, II; Pancavimsa B., XVI, 6, 8, etc. 2 Yaska's Nirukta, III, 8. 3 Vedic Index, I, p. 454. 4 Indische Studien, 9, 340. Cf. 10, 13, 16. 5 Von Schroeder seeks to identify (Indiens Literatur und Cultur, p. 366) the Nisadas with the Nysaeana of Greek geographers. This, however, is doubtful. In this connection, see also 'Indo-Aryan Races' by Ramaprasad Chanda who says that the Nisadas were a non-Aryan race. 6 Manu, X, 8; Muir's Sanskrit Texts, I, p. 481. 7 X, 18. 7B

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THE NISADAS 99 and provide fish for consumption by the people.1 According to the Pali texts as well, they were wild hunters and fishermen. That they were a tribe of rude culture or aboriginal stock' (A.1.H.T., p. 290) and outside the Aryan organisation is also attested by the Ramayana story of Guha, king of the Nisadas who are described as a wild band.3 During the period represented by Epic and Pauranic traditions the Nisadas seem to have had their habitat among the mountains that form the boundary of Jhalwar and Khandesh in the Vindhya and Satpura ranges. This is proved by a reference in the Mahabharata 5 to a Nisada rastra in the region of the Sarasvati and the Western Vindhyas, not very far from Pariyatra or Paripatra. The Mahabharata seems to connect the Nisadas with the Vatsas and Bhargas or Bhaggas: 'Vatsabhuminca Kaunteyo vijigye balavan balat Bharganamadhipancaiva Nisadadhipatim tatha.'? The Nisadas seem also to have had a settlement in the east. The Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira (XIV, 10) seems to recognise a kingdom of 'rastra' of the Nisadas in the south-east of the Madhyadesa. A Nisada kingdom whose capital was Srngaverapura (on the north side of the Ganges opposite Prayaga) is also referred to in the Ramayana (II Canto. 50. 33 to Canto. 52. W: and it t is not improbable that this Nisada kingdom is identical with the one referred to in the Byhatsamhita. The first epigraphic mention of the tribe is found in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of the year 72 of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman (i.e. 150 A.D.). Rudradaman is there credited with having conquered the Nisada country along with E. and W. Malwa, the ancient Mahismati region, the district round Dwarka in Gujrat, Surastra, Aparanta, Sindhu-Sauvira and others. Thus the Nisada country in the middle of the second century A.D. was under the suzerainty of the Western Ksatrapas. 8 1 Manu, X, 48. 2 Fick, Die Sociale Gliederung, 12, 160, 206, etc.; cf. Muir's Sans. Texts, 301, 303, 366, n. 164, 403, 481. 3 Adikanda, Canto I; Ayodhya Kanda, Canto 51. 4 Malcolm, Memoirs of Central India, Vol. I, p. 452. 5 III, 130, 4. 6 Ibid., XII, 135, 3-5. 7 II, 30, 10-II. 8 The Chitorgarh Inscription of Mokala or Mewad of the Vikrama year 1485 (Ep. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 416ff.) states in a general way (verse 46) that Mokala subdued the Angas, Kamarupas, Vangas, Nisadas, Cinas and Turuskas; 'but there can be no doubt that the verse has been put in solely for the sake of poetical ornamentation'.

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CHAPTER XXVI THE NISADHAS The Nisadhas were a different race from the Nisadas with whom they are often confounded; and we may conclude that they belonged to the Aryan fold. According to the Epic and Pauranic tradition, the Nisadhas are said to have sprung from the primeval King Prthu, son of Vena.1 The tribe seems to have derived its name from Nisadha who is described in the Puranas and Bhagavadgita to have been the son of Atithi, grandson of Kusa, and father of Nala. According to the Visnupurana (IV, Chap. 24, 17), the ten kings of the Mekala country and nine of the Sapta Kosala country are said to have been succeeded by the nine kings of the Nisadhas, while, according to the Vayupurana, the kings of the Nisadha country held sway till the end of the days of Manu. They were all descendants of King Nala, and lived in the country of Nisadha (Vayu P., Chap. 99, 376). This King Nala of the Puranas must be identical with the King Nala whose story is referred to in the Mahabharata (III). 3 But notwithstanding the celebrity of the Nisadha country as the kingdom of Nala, it is difficult to ascertain exactly where it was situated. It is, perhaps, permissible to conjecture that it was not very far from Vidarbha, the country of Nala's queen, Damayanti. From the directions given by Nala to Damayanti, Wilson thinks 4 that it was near the Vindhyas and Payosni river, and that it was near the roads leading from it across the Rksa mountain to Avanti and the south, as well as to Vidarbha and to Kosala. Lassen places Nisadha, the kingdom of Nala, along the Satpura hills to the north-west of Berar. Burgess also places it to the south of Malwa. The Puranas locate the Nisadhas in the upper and lower regions of the Vindhya ranges. According to the Mahabharata, the capital of the Nisadhas was Giriprastha (III, 324, 12). i Vayu P., 62, 137-48; Brahmanda P., II, 36, 158-73; Kurma P., 1, 1, 6; Ibid., 14, 12; Siva P., VII, 56, 30-1; Mbh., XII, 59, 2233-4, etc. 2 Kurma P., 21, 58; Bhagavadgita, 9, 12, 1; Saura P., 30, 69; Siva P., Dharma, 61-9; Brahma P., 8, 88. 3 The Nala story itself seems to have been much older than the Mahabharata, for it is referred to by Sita in the Ramayana (Ray Chaudhuri, Studies in Indian Antiquities, Chap. on Interrelation of the two Epics). 4 Visnu purana, Vol. II, pp. 156-90. 5 Antiquities of Kathiawar and Kacch, p. 131. o Brahmanda P., 49; Vayu P., 45; Vamana P., 13, etc.

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THE NISADHAS 101 The Nisadhas seem to have played a prominent part in the Kuruksetra war in which they ranged themselves on the side of the Pandavas, along with the Mekalas, Kosalas, Madras and Dasarnas. They were at one time defeated by Karna.2 1 Karnaparvan, Chap. 22, 3; Bhismaparvan, Chap. 54, 8. 2 Karna parvan, Chap. 8, 19; Drona parvan, Chap. 4, 8.

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CHAPTER XXVII THE KASIS Kasi was the ancient name of the kingdom of which the chief city was Baranasi, the modern Benares, which is situated 80 miles below Allahabad on the north bank of the Ganges, at the junction between that river and the river Barana.1 From the joint name of the two streams which bound the city to the north and the souththe Baran, and the Asi, -the Brahmanas derive Varanasi or Baranasi.2 The Barana or Varana is a considerable rivulet which rises to the north of Allahabad and has a course of about 100 miles; while the Asi is a mere brook. The former is probably identical with the river Varanavati, the water of which is said in the Atharvaveda (IV, 7, 1) to have had the property of removing poison. We agree with Macdonell and Keith that, though Kasi is a late word, it is quite possible that the town is older, as the river Varanavati may be connected with the later Baranasi.3 According to the Jatakas, Baranasi had other names in previous ages, i.e. in previous incarnations of the Buddha: e.g. Surundhana, 4 Sudassana,5 Brahmavaddhana,<< Pupphavati,? Rammanagara 8 and Molini.9 In the Chinese versions of Buddhist works, the terms Kasi and Varanasi are generally given in transcription, but the former term is sometimes translated by Ti-miao, meaning 'reed-sprouts'. Ti-miao may have been intended to translate Kasi, as supposedly connected with Kasi, 10 a certain kind of grass. Baranasi is also called Kasinagara and Kasipura (e.g. Jataka, V, 54; VI, 165; Dhammapada Comm., I, 87). The city proper, as Rhys Davids says, included the land between the Barana and the Asi. Its extent including the suburbs, is often stated to have been, at the time when it was the capital of an independent kingdom (that is some time before the rise of Buddhism) 12 leagues or about 85 miles.' 11 In the Jatakas we find the extent 1 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 34. 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India (S. N. Majumdar), p. 500. 3 Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 154. 4 Jataka (Fausbj11), IV, p. I04. 5 Ibid., IV, p. 119; V, p. 177. 6 Ibid., IV, p. 119; V, p. 312. 7 Ibid., VI, p. 131. 8 Ibid., IV, pp. 119, 26, etc. 9 Ibid., IV, p. 15. 10 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, pp. 58-9. 11 Buddhist India, p. 34.

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THE KASIS 103 of the city mentioned as 12 yojanas. Nowadays, Benares extends four miles along the bank of the river, which here descends to the water with a steep brink. Down this brink are built flights of steps known as ghats, at the foot of which pilgrims bathe and dead bodies are burnt.2 Although the capital of Kasi (Pali, Kasi) is generally given as Baranasi, it is said that when Asoka was king of Kasi, his capital was in Potali 3; and another king, Udaya Bhadda, had his seat of government in Surundha. It is possible that these cities did not form part of the regular kingdom of Kasi, but became annexed to it during the reigns of some of the more powerful kings. The little kingdom of Kasi, whose extent is given in the Jataka (V, 41; III, 304, 391) as three hundred leagues, was bordered by Kosala on the north, Magadha on the east, and Vatsa on the west. It was a wealthy and prosperous country, having 'an abundance of the seven gems',' and the Bhojajaniya Jataka (J., 1, 178) tells us that 'all the kings around coveted the kingdom of Benares'. It often served as a bone of contention between its three powerful neighbours, as we shall see. Kasi is mentioned several times in Vedic literature and in the Epics. The Sankhayana Srauta Sutra8 mentions Kasya, the king of Kasi, and Jala, son of Jatukarni, who became the king's chaplain. Kasya was a warrior, as the Byhadaranyaka Upanisad (III, 8, 2) informs us. From the Satapatha Brahmana (XIII, 5, 4, 19) we learn that Satanika, son of Satrajita, took the horse of King Kasya and performed the Govinata Yajna. Afterwards, the king too performed this sacrifice. The Brhadaranyaka and Kausita ki Upanisads speak of Ajatasatru, another king of Kasi 9; while the Baudhayana Srauta Sutra 10 tells us that Ayu, son of Pururavas, renounced the world and wandered in the countries of Kasi, Kuru and Pancala. Pururavas is mentioned in the Ramayana 11 as king of Kasi. Mitradeva said to the nymph Urvasi : 'Go to. Pururava, king of Kasi. He will be your husband'. In the same kanda (59, 19), Puru, son of Yayati, is represented as residing in Pratisthana and ruling over the kingdom of Kasi. We are told in the Adikanda (13th sarga) that 1 Jataka, VI, p. 160; IV, p. 377; Majjhima Nikaya Co ., II, p. 608; B. C. Law, India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, pp. 41 foll. 2 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 14. 3 Jataka, II, p. 155. 4 Ibid., IV, pp. 104ff. 5 Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol. I, article on Kasi'. 6 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 316. ? Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 213; Vol. IV, pp. 252, 256, 260; see also Digha Nikaya, II, p. 75. 8 XVI, 29, 5. 9 Byh. Up., II, 1, 1; Kaus. Up., IV, 1. 10 XVIII, 44. 11 Uttarakanda, 56th sarga, sl. 25.

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104 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Vasistha asked Sumantra to invite many pious kings, including the king of Benares, together with one thousand Brahmins, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. In the Kiskindhyakanda (40th sarga) we read that Sugriva sent the monkey king Vinata to Kasi, among other countries, in quest of Sita. Kasi figures even more prominently in the Mahabharata. Haryasva, king of Benares, was killed by the relations of king Vitahavya in a battle fought on the land between the Ganges and the Jumna. His son Sudeva was then installed on the throne of Kasi. Sudeva ruled righteously, but he also was defeated by the Vitahavyas, and his son Divodasa became king. Divodasa built the city of Benares which became populated by people of the four castes. The city lay between the north bank of the Ganges and the south bank of the river Gomati. Big markets were opened, and the city seemed likely to prosper, but the Vitahavyas again attacked, and a great war ensued, lasting for a thousand days. Divodasa was defeated, and fled to a forest, taking shelter in the hermitage of the sage Bharadvaja, eldest son of Brhaspati. This sage assured the king that he would perform a sacrifice so that Divodasa might be blessed with a son who would kill thousands of the Vitahavyas. This son was duly born, and was named Pratardana. He studied the Vedas and archery, and was sent in due course to conquer the Vitahavyas. A fierce fight ensued, in which the Vitahavyas were defeated.1 Another passage of the Mahabharata tells us that Divodasa, the son of Bhimasena, king of Kasi, had a son named Pratardana by Madhavi, daughter of Yayati.2 When Pratardana came to the throne of Kasi, he established his capital in Benares and acquired great fame by offering his own son in charity to a Brahmin.: We have yet another version of Divodasa's life story in the Puranas and the Harivamsa. Saunihotra, a certain king of Kasi, had a son named Dhanvantari who studied the Ayurveda with Bharadvaja. 4 and later became king of Kasi. He is celebrated as the author of the Ayurveda and killer of all diseases. Divodasa was the great-grandson of this Dhanvantari. It is said that in his time, Benares, owing to a curse, was deserted, and infested by a Raksasa named Ksemaka. Divodasa left Benares and founded his kingdom on the banks of the river Gomati. Once Bhadrasrenya, 1 Anusasana parvan, Chap. 30, pp. 1899-1900. 2 Udyoga parvan, Chap. 117, p. 746. 3 Anusasanaparvan, Chap. 137, pp. 1995-6. 4 Harivamsa, Chap. 31. 5 Vayu purana, Chap. 92. 6 Harivamsa, Chaps. 31-2; cf. Brahmapurana, Chap. 13, sl. 75. Genealogical tables of the family of Divodasa are given in the Hariv., Chaps. 31-2, Brahmapurana, Chap. 13, and Vayu purana, Chap. 92.

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THE KASis 105 son of Mahisman 1 and king of the Yadu dynasty, acquired Benares. His sons were defeated by King Divodasa who recovered the city, sparing the life of Bhadrasrenya's youngest son, Durdama. Later, however, this Durdama again took Benares which was then recovered by Pratardana, son of Divodasa. Elsewhere, we read that Alarka Saunati (grandson of Pratardana) re-established the city of Benares, after killing the Raksasa Ksemaka. We return to the Mahabharata references to Kasi. A certain king of Kasi gave his daughter Sarvaseni in marriage to Bharata, son of Dusmanta (Dusyanta), king of the Kuru dynasty, and Sakuntala, daughter of Visvamitra.3 Kasya, another king of Kasi, had three daughters, Amba, Ambika and Ambalika, who were won by Bhisma for his brother Vicitravirya in a Svayamvara.4 Suvahu, a king of Kasi, was conquered by Bhisma. On the occasion of the marriage ceremony of Abhimanyu, the king of Kasi and others were invited by Yudhisthira to a city named Upaplavya near Virata. The king of Kasi was an ally of Yudhisthira, and helped the Pandavas in the Kuruksetra war. In battle he rode horses decorated with gold and garlands 8; Saivya and he guarded the centre of the Pandava army with 30,000 chariots. The king of Kasi is mentioned as the best archer.10 Kasi, Karusa and Cedi armies were under the leadership of Dhrstaketu.11 The Puranas contain several stories about kings of Kasi. We have mentioned the account of Divodasa. Another king mentioned in the Vayupurana 12 is Kasa who was the son of Dharmavrddha of the Nahusa family. The sons of Kasa were Kasara, Rastra and Dirghatapas, and Dirghatapas' son was the learned Dharma. According to the Harivamsa (Chap. 29), the sons of Kasa, a king of the Anenah dynasty, were known as Kasis. Dirghatamas (=Dirghatapas ?) was the eldest son. Benares, the capital of Kasi, figures in the story of Krsna's quarrel with Pundva. King Pundva, aided by the king of Benares, fought with Krsna Vasudeva who defeated and killed Pundva, and burnt the city of Benares. 13 According to the Jainas, Parsvanatha was born in Benares about 817 B.C. His father Asvasena was the king of Benares, and 1 Padmapurana, Srsti, Chap. 12. 2 Vayupurana, Chap. 92. 3 Adiparvan. Chap. 05, p. 105. 4 Udyogaparvan, Chaps. 172-94, PP. 791-806. 5 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 30, pp. 241-2. 6 Virataparvan, Chap. 72, sl. 16. 7 Udyoga parvan, Chap. 72, p. 714. 8 Dronaparvan, Chap. 22, sl. 38. 9 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 50, p. 924. 10 Ibid., Chap. 25, p. 834. 11 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 198, p. 807. 12 Chap. 92. 13 Visnu purana, 5th Amsa, Chap. 34.

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106 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA he himself attained perfect knowledge (kevala-jnana) seated under a certain tree near the city.1 Kasi also figures in the stories of Mahavira and his disciples.2 For example, there lived in Benares a householder named Culanipiya who was prosperous and had no equal. His wife was called Sama. At a certain time Mahavira came and a congregation went out from Benares to hear him preach. Culanipiya lived in conformity with the teaching which he received from Mahavira.3 Among other disciples of Mahavira who were connected with Benares were Suradeva, a prosperous householder, Aryaraksita and Jayaghosa." We are told also that the king of Kasi named Nandana, the seventh Baladeva, son of King Agnisikha, abandoned all pleasures and hewed down his karma like a forest, as it were.7 On the night in which Mahavira died, the king of Kasi instituted an illumination, it being a day of fasting (Posadha); for he said, 'When the light of intelligence is gone, let us make an illumination of material matter'.8 There is a reference in Kautilya's Arthasastra to the poisoning of a king of Kasi by his own queen. 9 Although, as we have seen, Kasi and Benares feature fairly prominently in Hindu and Jain sources, it is the Buddhist books, and particularly the Jatakas, which give us fuller information on the subject. In the Puranas, Kasi is mentioned as a janapada or country. In the Pali canon, however, it is referred to as one of the sixteen 'Mahajanapadas,' and its capital, Baranasi, was one of the four places of pilgrimage for the Buddhists, and was included in the list of great cities suggested by Ananda as suitable places for the parinibbana of the Buddha.10 Although Kasi was no longer an independent kingdom in the Buddha's day, the memory of its independence seems to have been still fresh, for it is frequently mentioned as such in the Jatakas and elsewhere. To begin with, it is said that Kasi was once ruled by the Bharatas one of whom, Dhatarattha, was its king in the time of Renu."1 The traditional name of the king of Kasi was evidently Brahmadatta, and references to kings of that name abound in the Jatakas. 1 S. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, pp. 48-9. 2 B. C. Law, Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, sec. I. 3 Uvasagadasao, Vol. II, pp. 90-8. (B.I.S.) 4 Ibid., p. 100. 5 Heart of Jainism, p. 78. 6 Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., II, pp. 136-7. See also ibid., p. 50, for the story of the Jaina monk Bala, and Bhadra, daughter of King Kausalika. 7 Sutrakrtanga, Jaina Sutras, II, p. 87. 9 Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 213, etc. 8 Jaina Sutras, I, p. 266. 10 Digha Nikaya, II, 146. 11 Ibid., II, 135f. Here (Mahagovinda Sutta) the foundation of Baranasi is attributed to Mahagovinda, its first king being Dhatarattha.

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THE KASIS 107 Brahmadatta was probably the dynastic name of the kings of Benares; for instance, in the Gangamala Jataka (J., III, 452) Udaya, king of Benares, is addressed as Brahmadatta. Elsewhere in the Jataka (III, pp. 406ff.), we read that a certain prince Brahmadatta became king of Benares. He married the exquisitely beautiful daughter of the king of Kosala, and made her his chief queen. He held a parasol festival, and the whole city was decorated so splendidly as to seem like a city of the gods. The king went around the city in procession, and then mounted his throne on the dais in the palace. The throne was surmounted by a white parasol. Brahmadatta looked down on all the persons who stood in attendance, 'on one side the ministers, on another the Brahmins and householders resplendent in the beauty of varied apparel, on another the townspeople with various gifts in their hands, on another troupes of dancing girls to the number of sixteen thousand, like a gathering of the nymphs of heaven in full apparel', and reflected that all his splendour was due to 'an alms-gift of four portions of gruel given to four paccekabuddhas'. One King Brahmadatta told the inhabitants of Kasi that there would be a famine lasting for twelve years, and that only those inhabitants might remain who had provision for that period. Many people died at Benares on account of this famine. One very wealthy person, however, gave alms to a paccekabuddha who granted three boons in return. The almsgiver himself prayed that his granary should always be filled with paddy; his wife prayed that one pot of rice cooked by her would be sufficient for hundreds of thousands of people; and their son prayed that his treasure-house should always be full of wealth.1 There seem to have been frequent wars between the two kingdoms of Kasi and Kosala, first one side being victorious, and then the other. We are told,2 for instance, that a certain Brahmadatta was a wealthy king of Benares. He was rich in treasure, revenue, troops and vehicles. The king of Kosala at that time, named Dighiti, was not so wealthy as he was. Brahmadatta waged war against Dighiti, defeated him, and took possession of his treasuries and storehouses. The king of Kosala and his consort escaped, went to Benares, and lived there in disguise in a potter's house. The queen bore a son, Dighayu (or Dighavu), who was sent away for safety. The king of Kasi some time afterwards learnt that the king and queen of Kosala were dwelling in his kingdom, and they were captured, and were being led to the place of execution when Dighayu, who was on a 1 Divyavadana, 132ff. 2 Vinaya, I, 343ff.; Dhammapada Comm., I, 56ff.; Jataka, III, 2uff., 487.

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108 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA visit to the city, saw them. Dighiti gave out his dying advice to his son: Look not too far nor too near. Understanding this advice, Dighayu entered the service of the king of Kasi. One day the king ascended a chariot driven by Dighayu. Travelling at high speed, he left the royal retinue far behind. The king became tired, stopped the chariot, and fell asleep. Dighayu thought of killing him, but remembering his father's advice he desisted. When Brahmadatta awoke, however, Dighayu revealed his identity, and promised the king his life. His father's kingdom was restored to him, and he married Brahmadatta's daughter. On another occasion, the king of Benares attacked the kingdom of Kosala and took its king prisoner. He set up royal officials as governors in the conquered country, and himself having collected all their available treasure, returned with his, spoils to Benares. The king of Kosala had a son named Chatta who fled when his father was taken prisoner, and went to Taxila to complete his education. On his way back from Taxila, Chatta came to a wood where dwelt five hundred ascetics. Chatta joined them, and eventually became their leader. He came to Benares with the ascetics, and spent a night in the king's garden. The next morning the ascetics, in their quest for alms, came to the door of the palace. The king was charmed with their deportment, and particularly with Chatta, who answered all his questions to his satisfaction; and he asked the ascetics to stay in his garden. Chatta knew a spell whereby he could bring to light buried treasure. He repeated this spell, and discovered that the treasure which had belonged to his father was buried in that very garden. He then told the ascetics that he was the son of the king of Kosala, and they agreed to help him. Chatta removed the treasure which was taken to Sravasti by the ascetics. He then had all the king's officers seized, recovered his kingdom, made the city invincible against invasion, and took up his residence there. 1 In the Mahasilava Jataka we read that the kingdom of Benares was once seized by the king of Kosala who buried the king of Kasi (Mahasilava) and his soldiers alive, up to the neck. The king of Kasi managed to get out of the pit, and to rescue his soldiers; and by the magic power of two yaksas who happened to be there disputing over a corpse, he secured his sword of state, and went to the usurper's bedside at dead of night and frightened him. On being told the story of the king of Kasi's escape, the usurper praised him, begged his pardon, and on the morrow gave back his kingdom, and himself with his troops and elephants returned to his own country. 1 Jataka, III, pp. II5ff. 2 Ibid., I, pp. 262 et seq.; see also I, 409; Udana Comm., 123.

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THE KASis 109 In the Asatarupa Jataka, we read that the kingdom of Benares was once seized by the king of Kosala who marched with a great force against Benares, killed the king, and carried off his queen. But the king's son escaped, and later collected a mighty force and came to Benares. He pitched his camp close to the city, and sent a message to the king of Kosala, demanding that he should surrender the kingdom or else give battle. The king informed him that he would give battle. But the young prince's mother sent word to her son advising him not to fight, but to blockade the city on every side, so that the citizens would be worn out for want of food and water. The prince acted on this advice, and the citizens were famished and on the seventh day they beheaded their king and brought his head to the prince. Thus the prince succeeded in regaining his paternal kingdom. On another occasion the kingdom of Benares was seized by a king of Savatthi (Sravasti) named Vanka, but was soon restored.2 There seems to have been friendly intercourse between the chieftains of Benares and the kings of Magadha, as instanced by the fact that King Bimbisara sent his own physician Jivaka to attend the son of the Treasurer of Benares, when the young man had twisted his internal organs through practising acrobatics. The Cambridge History of India (p. 316) informs us that at different periods Kasi came under the sway of the three successive suzerain powers of N. India--the Purus of Vatsa, the Iksvakus of Kosala and the kings of Magadha; but it seems to have enjoyed independent power between the decline of Vatsa and the rise of Kosala, when King Brahmadatta conquered Kosala, possibly about a century and a half before the Buddha's time. As we have seen, in the early days, Kasi and Kosala are represented as two independent countries whose kings fought with each other.4 Kasi and Kosala are frequently mentioned together in literature (e.g. Arguttara Nikaya, V, 59). In the Buddha's time, Kosala was already the paramount power in India. We have seen how several successful invasions of Kasi had been carried out by the kings of Kosala. Kasi's absorption into Kosala was an accomplished fact before the accession of Pasenadi, for Pasenadi's father Mahakosala gave his daughter a village of Kasi (Kasigama) as 'bath money', on the occasion of her marriage with King Bimbisara of Magadha. 1 Tataka, I, p. 409. 2 Ibid., III, pp. 168-9. 3 Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, pp. 184-5 (Mahavagga, VIII, I). 4 D. R. Bhandarkar, Car. Lec., 1918, p. 55. 5 Jataka, IV, 342; II, 403.

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IIO TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA After Bimbisara's death, Pasenadi withdrew the gift from Ajatasatru, and this led to a war between Kosala and Magadha. Pasenadi was defeated in three campaigns, but in another battle he avenged his defeat, and took possession of Kasi. However, Pasenadi treated Ajatasatru generously, giving him his daughter in marriage, and even bestowing the disputed village on her as a wedding gift.1 In the Digha Nikaya we read that Pasenadi, king of Kasi, used to collect taxes from the inhabitants of these two countries. He used to share the income with his subordinates.2 The Mahavagga,3 however, mentions a Kasika-raja (king of Kasi) who sent a robe to Jivaka. Buddhaghosa says that this was a brother of Pasenadi and son of the same father. He was probably a sub-king of Pasenadi.5 Later, when Ajatasatru succeeded in establishing his sway over Kosala, Kasi too was included in his dominions (see Chapter on Kosala). The Sumangalavilasini, referring to the more ancient period of Kasi, mentions a certain Rama, king of Kasi, who had an attack of leprosy, in consequence of which he became distasteful to the members of his harem, and the dancing girls. Being much distressed, he left his kingdom in charge of his eldest son, went to a forest, and was soon cured of the disease by living on leaves and fruits. His body now appeared like gold. He dwelt in a tree-hole, and later married the daughter of King Okkaka (Skt. Iksvaku). Thirty-two sons were born to him; and these sons afterwards built the city named Kola, and became known as Koliyas. There were intermarriages between the Koliyas and the Sakyas (other descendants of Okkaka) down to the time of the Buddha Gautama. The names of several other kings of Benares are mentioned in the Jatakas, among them being those of Anga, Uggasena, Udaya, Dhananjaya, Vissasena, Kalabu (Jataka, III, 39), and Samyama. The Suttanipata Commentary on the Khaggavisana Sutta contains the names of several kings of Benares who renounced the world and became paccekabuddhas. The Ceylon Chronicles mention the names of others who reigned in Benares, e.g. Duppasaha and sixty of his descendants; Asoka, son of Samankara, and 84,000 of his descendants; also sixteen kings, ancestors of Okkaka. Sometimes the king is referred to merely as Kasi-raja. In the Jataka (III, p. 28) we are told that a king of Benares used to learn Vedic hymns from his family priest (purohita). 1 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 82-5. 3 Vin., I, 281. 2 I, pp. 228-9. 4 Vinaya Texts, II, 195, n. 2. 5 Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s.v. Kasi. 6 Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, pp. 260-2; vide also chapter on Koliyas. 7 Mahavamsa Tika, 127, 129, 130.

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THE KASis III The king of Benares at the time of the Buddha Kassapa is said to have been Kiki. When Kassapa Buddha arrived in Benares, the king, having listened to his sermons, entertained the Buddha and his monks at the palace. One of Kiki's daughters was Uracchada, who attained arahatship at the age of sixteen. He had seven other daughters, and a son Pathavindhara, who succeeded him (Divyavadana; 22, Sujata). During the life of the Buddha Kassapa, Kiki waited on him with many kinds of gifts, 2 and at his death built one of the four gates outside the Buddha's cetiya. This gate was a league in width.3 In the Sanskrit books he is called Krki,4 and is mentioned as owning a palace called Kokanada. From the Jatakas we learn that Benares was ruled with justice and equity. The ministers of the king were just; no false suit was brought to court, and sometimes true cases were so scanty that ministers had to remain idle for lack of litigants. The king of Benares was always on the alert to know his own faults. Once a certain king of Benares went outside the city to find out whether there was anyone who might know anything against him. The king of Kosala was out on a similar mission, and the two kings met at a place where the road was too narrow for two carriages to pass. Each of the drivers spoke of the virtues of his king, and finally the king of Kosala and his driver gave place to the king of Benares.5 There was a belief current amongst the people of Benares that when kings rule with justice and equity, when they reign peacefully, all things retain their respective nature and character; but that when kings rule with injustice and inequity, when their reign becomes one of terror and tyranny, all things lose their respective nature. Oil, honey, molasses and the like, and even the wild fruits lose their sweetness and flavour.6 In spite of good government, the country was not entirely free from crime. For instance, a physician named Cakkhupala in anger gave one of his women patients, who had tried to cheat him out of his promised reward for curing her, a drug which made her blind.? There were also instances of highway robbery and house-breaking. In the Satapatta Jataka (Jataka, II, pp. 387-8) we read that the Bodhisattva in a former life gathered 500 robbers together and became their chief, living by highway robbery and house-breaking. 1 Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 49ff. 3 Ibid., 194. % Suttani pata Comm., 1, 281, 283. 4 E.g. Mahavastu (ed. Senart), 1, 325; Divyavadana, 22f.; Avadana Sataka, I, 338, etc. 6 Jataka, II, pp. I-5. 6 Ibid., III, pp. 110-II. 7 Dhammapada Comm., Vol. I, p. 20.

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112 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Kasi was evidently a great centre of trade and industry, and a most populous and prosperous country. Frequent mention is made of caravans leaving Kasi to travel for trade. One highway went through Kasi to Rajagrha, 1 and another to Sravasti 2; and there was also direct trade between Kasi and Taksasila.3 We read of a trader of Benares who went with 500 carts to a frontier country and bought sandal wood"; and of another trader who was going to Sravasti with five hundred carts full of red cloth, but could not cross the river as it was in flood, and had to stay on the near side to sell his goods. The merchants of Benares used to go about hawking goods, which were carried by donkeys.6 Horse dealers from northern districts used to bring horses to Benares for sale.? Sindh horses were available in Benares, and were used as the royal horses of ceremony.8 In Benares, too, there were skilled elephant trainers,' and corn merchants. 10 In Benares fine cloths widely known as Kasi cloths were manufactured, and Kasi robes were most highly esteemed as gifts, each robe being valued at one hundred thousand.11 Mention is also made of the perfumes of Kasi [Kasi-vilepana-Jataka, I, 355; and Kasicandana-Arguttara Nikaya, III, 391; Udana Comm. (P.T.S.), 332]. At Benares there was a rich banker named Mahadhanasetthi. His parents taught him dancing and music, and he married the daughter of another rich banker, and of similar education. Mahadhana became addicted to drink and gambling, with the result that he lost his own wealth as well as his wife's, being finally reduced to begging for alms. 12 In general, however, the merchants of Benares must have been highly respected, for we read in the Divyavadana (p. 100) that after the death of Priyasena, the chief merchant, Brahmadatta, king of Kasi, appointed Supriya chief merchant of the royal court; and after Brahmadatta's death, the ministers anointed Supriya king (p. 121). There was in Benares a market known as the ivory workers' bazar, where ivory articles were sold.13 There were also stone cutters or experts in working stone-quarrying and shaping stones. 14 1 Vinaya, I, 212. 2 Ibid., II. 3 Dhammapada Comm., III, 445. 4 Suttani pata Comm., Vol. II, pp. 523ff. 5 Dhammapada Comm., Vol. III, p. 429. 6 Jataka, II, p. 109; Dhammapada Comm., Vol, I, P. 123. 7 Jataka, II, p. 287. 8. Ibid., II, 338. 9 Ibid., II, p. 221. 10 Ibid., III, p. 198. 11 Ibid., V, p. 377; Lalitavistara (Lefmann), p. 215. Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., XI, P. 92; Jataka, VI, I5I, 450. 12 Dhammapada Comm., Vol. III, p. 429. 13 Jataka, II, p. I97. 14 Ibid., I, p. 478.

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THE KASIS 113 Five hundred carpenters lived in a village in Kasi. There was in Benares a great carpenter-quarter containing a thousand families. These carpenters avowed publicly that they could make a bed or a chair or a house; but when they took a large advance from the people, they proved themselves to be liars. They were then so much harassed by their customers that they had to leave the town.2 A certain carpenter of Benares prepared mechanical wooden birds (airships), by means of which he conquered a tract of land in the Himalayas. His capital was known as Katthavahananagara. He sent valuable presents to the king of Benares who in return sent him the news of the advent of the Buddha Kassapa in Benares. 3 In Benares, there was a village of hunters on the banks of the river (=Ganges), and another on the farther side. Five hundred families dwelt in each.4 The Nesada of the Mara Jataka (II, 36), who was ordered by the king to catch a golden peacock, practised the profession of a hunter in a Nesada village near Benares. There were snake-charmers in Benares (Jataka, III, p. 198). An elephant festival was held in the city, in which Brahmins had to chant elephant lore (Hastisutram). In this festival five score elephants with pure white tusks were used. There was also a timehonoured drinking festival, at which people used to drink strong liquor and quarrel with one another. Sometimes their legs and arms were broken, crowns were cracked, and ears were torn off.6 From the Jatakas it is evident that the people of Benares were charitable, especially to hermits. Visayha, a great merchant of Benares, had alms-halls built at the four city-gates, besides one in the heart of the city and one at the door of his own house. He distributed alms at these six points, and everyday 600,000 men came there to beg.: In the Lalitavistara there is a reference to Ratnacuda (Ratnasikhi), a charitable king of Kasi. Enthusiastic young men of Benares used to go to Taxila, for their education.10 We read in the Dhammapada Commentary (I, 251ff.) how a certain king of Benares paid 1,000 kahapanas to a young Brahmin for teaching him a mantra (spell) which afterwards proved the means of saving his life, when his barber and senapati (general) plotted to kill him, and how another king of Benares paid 1 Jataka, II, p. 18. 2 Ibid., IV, p. 159. 3 Suttanipata Comm., II, pp. 575ff. 4 Jataka, VI, p. 71. 5 Ibid., II, p. 48. 6 Ibid., IV, p. 115. 7 Ibid., 1, p. 361; p. 239 (Fausboll). 8 Ibid., III, p. 129. cf. the almost identical stories of Sankha, Jataka, IV, p. 15; Jataka, I, p. 262; and of Prince Jarasandha, Jataka, IV, p. 176. 9 Lefmann, p. 171. 10 Dhammapada Comm., I, pp. 250-51; Jataka, II, 47.

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114 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 1,000 kahapanas to a young Brahmin for a spell which enabled him to read people's evil thoughts, so that he could learn whether any of his subjects spoke ill of him. There seem to have been educational institutions at Benares also, some of which were even older than those of Taxila (Khuddakapatha Comm., 198). We find for instance that Sankha, a Brahmin of Taxila, sent his son Susima to Benares to study.1 A knowledge of spells formed an important part of a young man's education in the days when Kasi was an independent kingdom; and it is natural that we should read of numerous superstitions which were current in Benares. We read in the Jatakas of the skill of the Brahmins of Benares in Lakkhanamantam', or charms for discovering the auspicious signs of various creatures.2 In Benares there was a Brahmin who professed to be able to tell whether the swords (of warriors) were lucky or not. There was a superstitious belief current in Kasi, as in other countries, that it was an evil omen if the wind touching the body of a candala (outcaste) touched that of a person of another caste.4 Slaughter of deer, swine and other animals for offerings to goblins was in vogue in Benares.5 Besides those already referred to, names of places mentioned in literature as belonging to Kasi are Vasabhagama, Macchikasanda, Kitagiri and Dhanapalagama. The place which was most intimately associated with the several visits that the Buddha paid to Benares was Isipatana Migadava, a famous Deer Park near the city. It was eighteen leagues from Uruyela, and it was there that the Buddha preached his first sermon after his enlightenment, to his friends the Pancavaggiya monks.? There also the Buddha spent his first rainy season; and he mentioned Isipatana as one of the four places of pilgrimage which his devout followers should visit.8 Isipatana was so called because sages, on their way through the air (from the Himalayas) alight here or start from here on their aerial flight'.' Several other incidents connected with the Buddha, besides the preaching of his first sermon, are mentioned in the texts as having taken place in Isipatana.10 1 Dhammapada Comm., III, 445. 2 Jataka, IV, p. 335. 3 Ibid., I, p. 455. 4 Ibid., III, p. 233. 5 Ibid., IV, p. 115. 6 B. C. Law, India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, p. 42. 7 Digha Nikaya, III, p. 141, Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 170ff.; cf. Samyutta Nikaya, V, pp. 420ff.; Kathavatthu, pp. 97, 559. 18 See Buddhavamsa Comm., p. 3; Digha Nikaya, II, p. 141. 9 Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s.v. Isipatana. 10 E.g. Vinaya Pitaka (ed. Oldenberg), I, p. 15f.; Dipavamsa, pp. 119-20; Therigatha Comm., p. 220; Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 110ff., 279-80; III, pp. 392ff., 399ff.; Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 105-6; V, pp. 406-8. 8B

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THE KASIS 115 Some of the most eminent members of the Buddhist community seem to have resided at Isipatana from time to time; among recorded conversations at Isipatana are several between Sariputta and Mahakotthita, and one between Mahakotthita and Citta-Hatthisariputta." According to the Mahavamsa, there was a large community of monks at Isipatana in the second century B.C. For we are told that at the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa in Anuradhapura, twelve thousand monks from Isipatana were present.3 Isipatana was still a monastic centre in Hsuan-Tsang's time, for he found 1,500 monks studying the Hinayana there. He quotes the Nigrodhamiga Jataka (Jat., I, 145ff.) to account for the origin of the Migadaya or Deer Park at Isipatana. According to him, the Deer Park was the forest which was given by the king of Benares for the deer to wander in it unmolested. Isipatana is identified with the modern Saranath, six miles from Benares. Cunningham 5 found the Migadaya represented by a fine wood, covering an area of about half a mile, extending from the great tomb of Dhamek on the north to the Chaukundi mound on the south. Near Benares, too, was a grove of seven sirisaka-trees where the Buddha preached to the Naga-king Erakapatta e; and also the Khemiyambavana where Udena met Ghotamukha.? On the other side of the river was Vasabhagama, and beyond that another village called Cundatthila.8 The Buddha is several times spoken of as staying in Benares, where he preached several sermons, and converted many people, including Yasa, whose home was in Benares, 10 and his friends Vimala, Subahu, Punnaji and Gavampati, all members of eminent families.11 In the Buddha's time, the Santhagarasala (Council-Hall) of Benares was no longer being used so much for the transaction of public business as for public discussion on religious and philosophical Samyutta Nikaya, II, pp. 112-14; III, pp. 167-9, 173-7; IV, pp. 384-6. * Anguttara Nikaya, III, p. 392f. 3 Mahavamsa, XXIX, p. 31. 4 Beal, Records of the Western World, II, pp. 45ff. 5 Arch. Reports, I, p. 107 6 Dhammapada Comm., III, p. 230. 7 Majjhima Nikaya, II, p. I57. 8 Petavatthu Comm., p. 168; B. C. Law, India as described in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, p. 42; see also Barua and Sinha, Barhut Inscriptions. 9 E.g. Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 110f., 279f.; III, pp. 392f., 399f.; Samyuita Nikaya, I, p. IO5; V, p. 406; Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp. I89, 2I6f., 289; Samantapasadika (P.T.S.), I, p. 201. 10 Vinaya Pitaka, I, p. 15. 11 Ibid., p. 19.

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116 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA questions.1 Ascetics who came to the city found lodging for the night in the Potters' Hall.2 Many venerable Buddhist monks, e.g. Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakaccana, Mahakotthita, Mahacunda, Anuruddha, Revata, Upali, Ananda and Rahula journeyed through the country of Kasi. The Buddha's converts in Benares included Addhakasi, the daughter of a rich banker of Kasi, who became a courtesan, whose fee was fixed by the king at half of the daily income of Kasi (this explains her name, Addhakasi). After her conversion by the Buddha, Addhakasi is said to have become an arahat. For other references to nuns who were connected with Kasi, see, e.g. Therigatha Comm., p. 106 and pp. 151-2. Elsewhere in the same work (pp. 71-2) it is said that Bhadda Kapilani became the chief queen of the king of Benares on account of her approving the offering of cloth to the Buddha in a previous birth. 1 E.g. Jataka, IV, p. 74. 2 E.g. Dhammapada Comm., I, p. 39. 3 Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, pp. 359-60. 4 Therigatha Comm., pp. 30-1. See also Vinaya Texts, III, p. 360, n. 3; II, pp. 195-6, n. 3. Japa

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CHAPTER XXVIII THE KOSALAS In the earliest Vedic literature, no mention is made of Kosala as the name of a people. It is only in some of the later Vedic works, like the Satapatha Brahmana and the Kalpasutras, that we find Kosala referred to as a country. Kosala is also mentioned in the Pali Buddhist literature as one of the sixteen great countries (Mahajanapadas) of Jambudipa or India.1 Panini, too, mentions Kosala in one of his Sutras. In the Atthasalini, mention is made of Kosala as one of the great Ksatriya tribes in Buddha's time. 4 Kosala lay to the east of the Kurus and Pancalas, and to the west of the Videhas, from whom it was separated by the river Sadanira, probably the great Gandak. In the Cambridge History of India, we read that the northern frontier of Kosala must have been in the hills in what is now Nepal; its southern boundary was the Ganges; and its eastern boundary was the eastern limit of the Sakya territory. According to Macdonell and Keith, Kosala lay to the north-east of the Ganges, and corresponds roughly to the modern Oudh.? Rhys Davids states that the Kosalas were the ruling clan in the kingdom whose capital was Savatthi (Sravasti), in what is now Nepal, seventy miles north-west of the modern Gorakhpur. He thinks that it included Benares and Saketa, and probably had the Ganges for its southern, the Gandak for its eastern, and the mountains for its northern boundary.8 In the Cambridge History of India,' we read that the Kosalans were almost certainly of the Aryan race, in the main at least. They belonged to the solar family, and were supposed to have derived directly from Manu through Iksvaku. A family of princes bearing this name is known from Vedic literature, and it is quite possible 1 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. I, p. 243; IV, pp. 255, 255, 26; cf. Visa patrama, Chap. IV, Amia 4. 2 VI, 1, 17. 3 Khuddakapatha Comm., pp. 110-II; cf. Papancasudani (P.T.S.), Vol. I, pp. 59-60. Kosala is mentioned as a beautiful place, attractive, pleasant, full of good things, and prosperous as the home of the gods. 4 Atthasalini (P.T.S.), p. 305. 5 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 308; cf. ibid., p. 117, and Rapson, Ancient India, p. 164; also Satapatha Brahmana, 1, 4, 11. 6 Vol. I, p. 178. 7 Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 190. 8 Buddhist India, p. 25. 9 Vol. I, p. 190.

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118 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA that the solar dynasties of Kosala and other kingdoms to the east of the middle country were descended from this family. If so, Iksvaku must be regarded as an eponymous ancestor; and as his superhuman origin had to be explained, a myth founded on a farfetched etymology of his name was invented, viz. that he was so called because he was born from the sneeze of Manu.1 Vedic literature points out that the Iksvakus were originally a branch of the Purus.2 Kosala is known to the Buddhists as the land of the Kosala princes,3 tracing their descent from Iksvaku. The descent of those ruling princes of Kosala from Iksvaku is borne out by the genealogies in the Ramayana as well as the Puranas. Buddhaghosa narrates an anecdote giving a fanciful origin of the name of Kosala, from 'kusala' (well, healthy, in good condition).5 In the Satapatha Brahmana (I, 4, 11), the Kosala-Videhas appear as coming later than the Kuru-Pancalas under the influence of Brahmanism. In the same work, the Kausalya or Kosala king, Para-atnara Hiranyanabha, is described as having performed the great Asvamedha or horse sacrifice. Hiranyanabha Kausalya and Asvalayana Kausalya figure in the Prasna Upanisad (1, 1) as two contemporary seekers of truth belonging to Kosala. The connection between Hiranyanabha of the Prasna and Para-atnara Hiranyanabha of the Satapatha is uncertain.? A passage in the Sankhyayana Srauta Sutra (XVI, 9, 13) shows the connection of Kosala with Kasi and Videha. It is in the Epic period that Kosala emerges into importance. The scene of action of the Ramayana is in Kosala, the princes of which country carried Aryan civilisation to the south as far as the island of Ceylon. Pargiter observes that it is remarkable that in the Ramayana the friendliest relations of Kosala were with the eastern kingdoms of Videha, Anga and Magadha, the Punjab kingdoms of Kekaya, Sindhu and Sauvira, the western kingdom of Surastra, and the Daksinatya kings, for these are especially named among the monarchs who were invited to Dasaratha's sacrifice, and no mention is made of any of the kings of the middle region of N. India except Kasi.8 Pargiter is of the opinion that it was under i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 305. 2 Ibid., p. 308. 3 Sumangalavilasini, I, p. 239. 4 Ray Chaudhuri's Political History, 4th Ed., p. 86. 5 Sumangalavilasini, I, 239. 6 XIII, 5, 4, 4. 7 In the dynastic list of kings, occurring in the Puranas of doubtful authority. Hiranyanabha is mentioned as the immediate predecessor of Prasenajit (Pasenadi) who was a contemporary of Buddha. According to Buddhist tradition, Mahakosala was the father and immediate predecessor of Pasenadi. 8 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 276.

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THE KOSALAS 119 King Dilipa II and his immediate descendants that the country acquired the name of Kosala.1 We may form some idea of the extent of the Kosala country in the Epic period from the story of the exile of Rama. Therein we find that, after setting out from Ayodhya (then the capital of Kosala), the young princes accompanied by Sita proceeded in a chariot. Evidently, then, there were good roads in the Kosala country, as we may also gather from the Jataka stories, where we read that merchants loading as many as 500 wagons with their merchandise went from Magadha and the Licchayi countries through Kosala up to the western and north-western frontiers of India. Rama made his first halt at the river Tamasa (the modern Tons). On the other side of the Tamasa, his chariot reached the Mahamarga or the 'great road', which was evidently a trade-route. Following this, the party reached the river Srimati Mahanadi. After crossing the river Vedasruti, Rama turned his course towards the south. After proceeding a long distance, he crossed the Gomati and the Syandika. Having crossed the Syandika, Rama pointed out to Sita the wide plain given by Manu to Iksvaku. This region was evidently considered by the people of Kosala as the cradle of their race, the country with which Iksvaku began his career of conquest. This country was highly prosperous (sphita) and populous (vastravrta). Proceeding through the extensive Kosalan plains, Rama left behind him the country of the Kosalas, and reached the Ganges, up to which river the Kosala dominion evidently extended. Here he arrived at Sragaverapura which was the seat of the Nisada king Guha. Sir Alexander Cunningham has identified Sragaverapura with the modern Singror or Singor on the left bank of the Ganges and 22 miles to the north-west of Prayaga or Allahabad.2 In the Adiparvan of the Mahabharata 3 we read that Janamejaya, one of the earliest kings of the Paurava family, was the son of Puru and Kausalya. Most probably this Kausalya was the daughter of a king of Kosala. When Yudhisthira was about to perform his Rajasuya sacrifice, setting himself up as paramount sovereign over the whole of N. India, and his brothers went out on their expeditions of conquest, it is said that Arjuna, Krsna and Bhima started from the Kuru kingdom and reached Mithila after crossing purva (eastern) Kosala. Afterwards, the second Pandava brother, Bhimasena, conquered Bthadbala, king of Kosala, and this Bihad 1 Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 275. 2 Arch. Survey Report, Vols. XI, 62 and XXI, II. For further geography of Rama's exile, see Pargiter, J.R.A.S., 1894, pp. 231 et seq. 3 Chap. 95, p. 105. 4 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 25, p. 240. 5 Ibid., Chap. 30, PP. 241-2.

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I20 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA bala attended the Rajasuya sacrifice. Karna, too, conquered Kosala and proceeded southwards after exacting tribute from the country.2 Evidently the conquest of Kosala by Karna was later than that by Bhimasena, for we find the Kosala king Brhadbala, led by Duryodhana, marching against the Pandavas.3 Perhaps it was because the Kosalas were smarting under the defeat inflicted on them by Bhimasena that they embraced the Kaurava side in the Kuruksetra war, in the course of which we find ten warriors including King Bihadbala of Kosala fighting in the van of the Kuru army.4 Bihadbala fought with Abhimanyu against whom the greatest leaders of the Kuru army led a united attack 5; and in the Karnaparvan 6 we read that Bihadbala was killed by Abhimanyu. Suksetra, the son of the king of Kosala, also fought in the great war between the Kurus and the Pandavas.? After the war was ended, Kosala was again attacked and conquered by Arjuna before the performance of the Asvamedha by Yudhisthira.8 As in the Epics, so also in the Puranas, the Kosalas are given great prominence among the Aryan Ksatriya tribes of N. India. According to Purana and Epic accounts, the Kosala line of kings derived from Iksvaku produced a large number of sovereigns who held the glory of the family very high, and some of them, like Mandhata, Sagara, Bhagiratha and Raghu, occupied the highest position amongst the kings of ancient India. Most of the Puranas' state that Iksvaku had a large number of sons who divided the whole of India amongst themselves. The Visnupurana says that Iksvaku had a hundred sons of whom fifty, with Sakuni at their head, became the protectors of N. India, and forty-eight established themselves as rulers over S. India.10 The Vayupurana says that it was not the sons of Iksvaku who divided the country among themselves; but the children of Iksvaku's son Vikuksi. Though the number of Iksvaku's immediate descendants as given in the Puranas is obviously fanciful, yet it seems worthy of credence that the family sprung from Iksvaku spread their rule far and wide over India, as many of the ruling families of India trace their descent to him. 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 34, p. 545. 2 Vanaparvan, Chap. 253, p. 513. 3 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 97, p. 807. 4 Bhisma parvan, Chap. 16, pp. 827-8. 5 Ibid., Chap. 45, p. 916. See also ibid., Chap. 57, pp. 924-5; Chap. 87, p. 957. 6 Chap. 5, pp. 1167-8. 7 Dronaparvan, Chap. 22, pp. 1012-13. 8 Asvamedhaparvan, Chap. 42, p. 2093. 9 E.g., Visnupurana, IV, 2, 3; Vayupurana, 88, 8-11. 10 Visnupurana, IV, 2, 3.

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THE KOSALAS I2I The Puranas state that Vikuksi incurred the displeasure of his father, Iksvaku, by the violation of some ceremonial rule, but later ascended the throne and reigned according to law and custom (dharmatah). A mythical story is related of the next king, Paranjaya. It is said that his aid was sought after by the Devas who were hard pressed by the Asuras; but the king imposed the condition that he would do so if borne on the shoulders of Indra himself. The king thus obtained the name of Kakutstha.. Sixth in descent from Kakutstha was King Sravasta, the founder of the city of Sravasti 1 which afterwards became the capital of northern Kosala. Sravasta's grandson, Kuvalayasva, is credited with the overthrowing of an Asura, Dhundhu, which seems to signify the control of a natural phenomenon. According to the account given in the Puranas and the Mahabharata, the Rsi Utanka complained to king Brhadasva that his hermitage, which was situated on the sea-coast in the west, was disturbed by the Asura Dhundhu, who caused him much trouble, from a subterranean retreat (antarbhumigatah). From the description that follows, it is manifest that this subterranean retreat (asura) was really a small volcanic pit near the western sea-coast which occasionally caused earthquakes and emitted smoke, ashes and fire. The old king Brhadasva sent his son Kuvalayasva to destroy the 'asura'. The prince went to the spot with an army of 21,000 men, who are said to be his sons, and whom he set to dig up the earth all around. After the excavation had proceeded for a week, the flaming body of Dhundhu became visible to all, but with disastrous consequences to the soldiers, who perished in the smoke and flames, only three surviving. The excavation, however, appears to have opened a subterranean channel or reservoir of water, which rushed into the volcanic pit and extinguished it for ever; for we read that after Dhundhu had reduced to ashes the 21,000 sons of Kuvalayasva, streams of water flowed out of his body, and by means of this water the prince put out the fire, and acquired the appellation of Dhundhumara for this achievement.3 A few generations after Kuvalayasva came the great monarch, Mandhata, who became a cakravartin or emperor exercising suzerain sway. In Mandhata's dominions, it was said, the sun never set: From where the sun rises to where it sets, all this is the land of Mandhata, the son of Yuvanasva.' 4 As in the cases of Iksvaku and Kakutstha, fanciful stories based on a literal derivation of the name are narrated in the Puranas, which state that the name Mandhata was 1 Visnu purana, IV, 2, 12, 3 Vayu purana, Chap. LXXXVIII. 2 Vanaparvan, Chaps. 201-3. 4 Visnupurana, IV, 2, xviii.

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122 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA due to what Indra said 1 when the prince was born. The Bhagavatapurana adds that Mandhata acquired the designation of Trasadasyu on account of the fear that he struck into the minds of the Dasyus. Mandhata's daughters were given in marriage to the Rsi Sauvari, and Purukutsa, one of the king's sons, married a Naga girl (evidently a girl of a non-Aryan tribe). Trasadasyu, the son of this Naga queen, ascended the throne on his father's death. His son Anaranya is said to have been killed by Ravana. Several generations after this, Prince Satyavrata, son of the Kosala king, Trayyaruna, was in disfavour with his father as well as with the family priest Vasistha, and was given the name of Trisanku. Vasistha's rival, Visvamitra, however, espoused his cause, and placed him on the throne of Kosala. Trisanku's son Hariscandra was a very great monarch of the Kosalas; he celebrated a Rajasuya sacrifice and became famous as a samrat or emperor.2 The story of how Hariscandra promised to sacrifice his son to Varuna, and how finally Sunahsepa, a Brahman lad, was sacrificed instead, is told in the Aitareya Brahmana and Bhagavatapurana. The latter also adds that there was a long-standing quarrel between Vasistha and Visvamitra over this Kosala king Hariscandra. The Mahabharata 3 also speaks of the surpassing glories of King Hariscandra of Kosala. With Vahu, who came to the throne of Kosala several generations after Hariscandra, the Kosala power suffered a great reverse. Vahu was defeated by his enemies, a confederacy of the Haihayas, Talajanghas and other allied Ksatriva tribes, and was forced to abdicate. He repaired to the forest where after his death his wife gave birth to a son, who was reared with great care by Rsi Aurva, near whose hermitage the king had taken refuge and built his woodland home. This young prince, Sagara, had in him the making of a great king, and when he came of age he sought to revive the glories of Kosala and place it once more in the high position of suzerain power in India. Sagara almost exterminated the Haihayas. A fanciful Purana story says that Sagara had one son Asamanjas by one of his queens, and sixty thousand sons by another. Abandoning Asamanjas on account of his bad conduct; Sagara employed the sixty thousand sons to defend against all aggressors the horse of the Asvamedha in its unbridled career over the earth. In the course of their journey, they insulted Rsi Kapila, and, as a result, they were reduced to ashes by him. Sagara then sent Asamanjas' son, 1 'Mam dhata', 'he will suck me'. 2 Vayu purana, Chap. 88, verse 118. 3 III, Chap. 12. See also Moh., Anusasanaparvan, XIII, 65; XII, 20, XIII, 3.

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THE KOSALAS 123 Amsuman, in quest of the horse; he appeased the wrath of Kapila, succeeded in bringing back the horse, and obtained a promise from the Rsi that his uncles would be purged of their sins when his grandson would bring down the heavenly Ganges to the pit which the uncles had excavated in their search for the horse. Thus the sacrifice was completed by Sagara who, pleased by the achievements of Amsuman, made over the Kosala throne to his son Asamanjas. The grandson of Amsuman was the great Bhagiratha who made his prowess felt far and wide and became a cakravartin, as the Mahabharata 1 tells us. A pretty story is told of him, in connection with the origin of the Ganges. Coming to know of his duty of rescuing his ancestors from their evil fate, Bhagiratha left the government of his vast empire in the hands of his ministers and succeeded by the severest penances in bringing the divine river down from the Himalayas, and thus filled up the pit excavated by his ancestors. The holy stream thereby acquired the designation of 'Bhagirathi'.2 Further down in the list of Kosala sovereigns, we meet with Rtuparsa who was a contemporary of the celebrated Vidarbha monarch, Nala. Rtuparna employed Nala as his charioteer when the latter suffered a reverse of fortune, and taught Nala the secret art of dice-playing, acquiring from him in exchange the science of training horses.3 Rtuparna's son was Sudasa who is identified by some with the king of the same name in the Rgveda. Sudasa's son was Mitrasaha Saudasa, who became famous afterwards as Kalmasapada. ge It is said in the Puranas that when Parasurama was carrying out his terrible vow of exterminating the Ksatriyas, Valika, grandson of Saudasa, was saved from his wrath by being surrounded by a number of naked women. He thus became known as Narikavaca, i.e. 'protected by women,' and, as he was the source (mula) from which future generations of Ksatriyas sprang up, he also acquired the designation of Mulaka (see Mulaka chapter). In the fourth generation after Mulaka, we come to a Kosala sovereign Khatvanga who is spoken of as a samrat whose great prowess led to the gods asking him to help them in their fight with the Asuras, The Bhagavata purana (IX, 9) adds that Khatvanga, within the remaining short period of his life, devoted himself to meditation on the supreme spirit with such zeal as to obtain liberation 1 III, 108. 2 Ramayana (I, 39-44) and Mahabharata (III, 106-9) give the story at great length. 3 Mahabharata, III, 7Iff. 4 See Asmaka chapter. 5 Visnupurana, IV, 4, 39.

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124 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA (moksa). Khatvanga's grandson was the great Raghu, and Raghu's grandson was Dasaratha, the father of Rama, in whom the glory of the Kosalan royal house reached its culmination. After Rama, the extensive Kosalan empire is said to have been divided amongst the sons of himself and his three brothers. The sons of the youngest brother, Satrughna, ruled at Mathura; the sons of Laksmana established two kingdoms in the far north, in the neighbourhood of the Himalayas, while Bharata's sons founded the cities of Taksasila and Puskaravati in the Gandhara country, as the Vayupurana tells us. The Kosala country proper is said to have been divided into two. In southern Kosala, Kusa, the elder of the two sons of Rama, became king, and transferred his capital from Ayodhya to Kusasthali which he built on the Vindhya range.2 Lava, the younger, became the ruler of the northern Kosala country and set up his capital at the city of Saravati or Sravasti which was still the seat of the Kosala sovereigns in the Buddha's time. Among the kings that followed Kusa in the main line of the Kosala monarchs we do not meet with any great name until we come to Hiranyanabha Kausalya who is said to have been a disciple of Rsi Jaimini, from whom he learnt the science of Yoga, and imparted it in his turn to Yajnavalkya. This distinction of proficiency in the Yogasastra is, however, transferred by some of the Puranas to Hiranyanabha's son, whom the Vayupurana calls Vasistha, and the Visnupurana, Pusya. The fifth in descent from Pusya was Maru or Manu who is said to be living in the village of Kalapa in a state of yoga, waiting to be the progenitor of the Ksatriyas in the next cycle. Several generations down from this monarch was Brhadbala who led the Kosala troops to the Kuruksetra war. Many of the Puranas end their enumeration of the Kosala kings with Brhadbala, while some others, like the Bhagavata, add a few more names of men who are called the future kings of the Iksvaku family. The Vayupurana also in a later chapter (Chap. 99) gives a list of the kings in the Iksvaku line after Brhadbala, whom it calls here Brhadratha. Five generations after this Brhadratha, the Vayupurana says that Divakara 'is at present ruling the city of Ayodhya', and after Divakara it speaks of the so-called future kings of the line. This list is substantially the same as the one in the Bhagavata, and one peculiar feature of these lists is that they 1 88, 189-90. 2 Vayupurana, 88, 198: 'Vindhya-parvata-sanusu.' 3 Bhagavatapurana, IX, 12. 5 IV, 4, 48. 4 88, 207-8. 6 IX, 12, 16.

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THE KOSALAS 125 include Suddhodana and Rahula, of Buddhist fame. The list in the Matsyapurana (Chap. 12) from Kusa to the Bharata war is considerably shorter than the others already referred to. It speaks of Srutaya as the king who fell in the Bharata war. The history of Kosala in later times is known chiefly from Jaina and Buddhist literature. In the Jaina Kalpasutra we read that on the death of Mahavira, the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala, the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, on the day of the new-moon instituted an illumination on the Posada (fasting day) 1. Jacobi observes 2: 'According to the Jainas, the Licchavis and the Mallakis were the chiefs of Kasi and Kosala. They seem to have succeeded the Aiksvakas who ruled there in the time of the Ramayana.' volglowing The Pali Buddhist literature is full of information about Kosala, which occupied a very prominent position at the time of the Buddha, though it was already being eclipsed by the growing power of Magadha. The Pali legends preserve the memory of kings of Kosala such One of these as Kalasena, Dighiti, Dighayu, Mallika and Vatika. had his capital at Ayodhya, some at Saketa and the rest at Sravasti.3 No connected chronology of Kosalan kings can as yet be made out of these stray names; but the legends are nevertheless important, first, as clearly indicating a succession of three capitals in the kingdom of Kosala, Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti; and, secondly, as broadly outlining the four main stages in the historical process which culminated at about the time of the rise of Buddhism in the unquestioned supremacy of Kosala over Kasi. With regard to the first of these questions, we have already seen that Ayodhya is mentioned in the Ramayana as the earlier capital of Kosala, and Sravasti as its later capital. Ayodhya was an unimportant town in Buddha's time, while both Saketa and Sravasti stood out prominently among the six great cities of India.5 The story of the rivalry between Kasi and Kosala has already been treated at some length in our chapter on the Kasis, so that a summary will suffice here. In the first stage, as brought out in the canonical legend of Dighiti and his son Dighayu Kumara, King Brahmadatta appears as the powerful king of Kasi invading the kingdom of Kosala, led by a love of conquest, easily defeating the Kosalan king Dighiti, and ordering the execution of the Kosalan 1 Kalpasutra, SS128, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. 266. 2 Jaina Sutras, Pt. II, p. 321, n. 3. 8 Ray Chaudhuri's Political History, 4th Ed., p. 90. 4 Ibid., p. 90. Cf. Ghata Jataka (No. 454) and Nandiyamiga Jataka (No. 385). 5 Digha Nikaya, II, p. 146. Ray Chaudhuri, op. cit., p. 90.

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126 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA king and queen when they were detected in the realm of Kasi living harmlessly in disguise. We then see how the Kosalan prince Dighayu, after having gained the favour of the king of Kasi and risen to the position of a general, tried to avenge his parents, and was re-established in his father's kingdom.2 In the second stage, as portrayed in the Rajovada Jataka (Fausboll, No. 334), Kasi and Kosala appear as two equally powerful kingdoms, flourishing side by side, each with its inner circle, outer districts, and border-lands, one ruled over by its king, Brahmadatta, and the other by King Mallika. We see the ruler of Kasi following the religious principle of 'conquering wrath by wrathlessness' (akkodhena jine kodham), and the ruler of Kosala following the strong administrative principle of 'applying hardness for the hard and softness for the soft' (dalham dalhassa khipati Malliko muduna mudum). In the third stage, as disclosed in the Mahasilava Jataka (Fausboll, No. 51), the king of Kosala appears as taking advantage of the goodness of the king of Kasi and invading the neighbouring kingdom, and the king of Kasi as remaining passive in the consciousness of his superior dignity and religious security.3 Finally, in the fourth stage, Kasi was absorbed by Kosala, and we find King Mahakosala, father and immediate predecessor of Pasenadi, wielding sovereign power over the extended realm of Kasi-Kosala. Mahakosala gave his daughter Kosaladevi in marriage to King Bimbisara of Magadha, and gave her a village in Kasi yielding a revenue of a hundred thousand for bath and perfume money.4 When Ajatasatru put his father Bimbisara to death, Kosaladevi died of grief. For some time after her death, Ajatasatru continued to enjoy the revenues of the village, but Pasenadi, king of Kosala, resolved that no parricide should have a village which had been given to his sister and so confiscated it. A war ensued between Ajatasatru and Pasenadi, in which Ajatasatru was at first victorious, but was afterwards taken prisoner by the Kosalan king. After he had been subdued, however, he was treated generously by Pasenadi who gave him his daughter in marriage, and even bestowed the disputed village on her as a wedding gift.5 1 Vinaya Pitaka, Mahavagga, pp. 342-9. 2 See also Jataka, III, 211f., 487; and Kasi chapter of the present work, where this story and the similar one of Prince Chatta are dealt with. 3 Jataka (Fausboll), I, 262f.; see also I, 409; Udana Comm., 123; and see Kasi chapter. 4 Jataba, II, p. 237; IV, 342ff. 5 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 82-5. See Kasi and Magadha chapters, and Jataka, Vol. IV, p. 343.

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THE KOSALAS 127 In addition to the stories of the rivalry between Kasi and Kosala which we have already dealt with in the Kasi chapter, two more may be mentioned, the stories of Dabbasena, king of Kosala, who seized a holy king of Benares, and was discomfited by a mystic experience ?; and of Manoja, king of Benares, and a king of Kosala. The latter story is related in the Sonananda Jataka. Manoja pitched his camp near the city of Kosala (i.e. Sravasti?), and sent a message to the king of Kosala asking him either to give battle or to surrender. The king accepted the challenge, and a fierce fight ensued, in which the king of Kosala was defeated, but he was allowed to retain his kingdom. From the Jataka stories of the two neighbouring countries of Kasi and Kosala, it is evident that there was great mutual jealousy between the two kingdoms actuated by a constant spirit of hostility. Each was looking out for an opportunity to inflict a defeat on the other, and annex either the whole or at least a part of the other's dominions. Sometimes they also appear to have been connected by matrimony, and it is probable that the two countries were united sometimes by conquest and sometimes perhaps by a common heir succeeding to the throne of both countries. Even in Vedic times they were closely associated, as is shown by the phrase Kasi-Kosala, which occurs in Vedic literature. In the Digha Nikaya we read that Pasenadi, king of KasiKosala, used to collect taxes from the inhabitants of these two countries. He used to share his income with his subordinates. The Mahavagga, however, mentions a Kasika-raja (king of Kasi?) who sent a robe to Jivaka.3 Buddhaghosa says that he was a brother of Pasenadi, and son of the same father. He was probably a sub-king of Pasenadi, who managed to extend his rule so far as to reign as a supreme monarch with four sub-kings under him.6 Later, before the end of Ajatasatru's reign, some parts of Kosala were annexed to the kingdom of Magadha,' and Kosala finally disappears from history as an independent kingdom, evidently being absorbed by Magadha. There is nothing surprising about this course of events, for, as the Cambridge History of India' points out, India appeared as a number of kingdoms and republics with a constant tendency towards amalgamation. 1 Jataka, III, p. 13. 2 Ibid., V, pp. 315-16. 3 Vin., I, 281. 4 Vinaya Texts, II, 195, n. 2. 5 Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s.v. Kasi. 6 See article, 'Kosala', B. C. Law, Indian Culture, Vol. I, No. 3. 7 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 79. 8 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 45. 9 I, p. 190.

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128 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA In the north, the Kosala country bordered on the region occupied by the Sakyas, and there were mutual jealousies between the two peoples, often developing into war. When Pasenadi was at the height of his power, the Sakyas became his vassals, and he received homage from them. The story of how Pasenadi acquired a sakyan bride (Mallika, a Vasabhakhattiya) has been related in our sakya chapter. Pasenadi had a great admiration for the Buddha, and many stories are told of his dealings with the Buddha and his disciples. The king became the Buddha's disciple after meeting him | at Jetavana." Pasenadi was famous for his charity. While Buddha was residing at Sravasti in the arama of Anathapindika at Jetavana, the king made gifts for a week on an immense scale. These gifts were known as asadisadana (incomparable charity).3 The king of Kosala provided Kunda-Dhana with all necessaries when the latter left the world after hearing the Buddha preach.4 A great preaching hall (Saddhamma Mahasala) was built by Pasenadi for the Buddha. On another occasion, Pasenadi performed a great sacrifice in which 500 bulls, 500 calves, 500 goats, and other animals were offered. Buddha, when requested to attend, expressed his disapproval of this sacrifice, as he was against the taking of life by slaughter.5 After the death of his wife, Mallika, Pasenadi went to the Buddha at Jetavana, and He consoled him in his grief.6 Pasenadi was also consoled by the Buddha when his grandmother died.? The Buddhist texts contain many stories about eminent men and women of Kosala, and many of these are in some way associated with Pasenadi. For instance, Mallika, queen of Pasenadi, built an arama at the Kosala capital, Sravasti, known as Mallikarama, where the teacher Potthapada went to live. 8 The Digha Nikaya tells us that Pokkharasadi, a famous Brahman teacher of Kosala, enjoyed some property given to him by Pasenadi. The king did not allow him to enter his presence, but used to consult him behind a screen. Buddhaghosa also furnishes some details about this sage. Pokkharasati or Pokkharasadi, says he, was a Brahmana, living at Ukkatthanagara, which had been given him by the king of Kosala, Pasenadi, as Brahmadeyya (i.e. as a Brahmin's fee). He was well versed in the Vedas and in the arts, and the king bestowed Ukkatthanagara upon him because he was satisfied by a display 1 Digha Nikaya, II, p. 83. 2 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 68-70. 3 Pithavimana, Vimanavatthu Comm., pp. 5-6. 4 Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 19-20. 5 Samyutta Nikaya, I, p. 76. 6 Aignattara Nikaya, III, p. 57. 7 Samyutta Nikaya, I, P. 97. 8 Digha Nikaya, I, pp. 178ff. 9 Ibid., I, p. 103.

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THE KOSALAS 129 of his learning.1 A certain Aggidatta was the purohita or royal chaplain of Mahakosala, father of Pasenadi, and Pasenadi also accepted him as his purohita. Later, Moggallana converted Aggidatta and his disciples to Buddhism.2 Another chaplain of Pasenadi was Bavari who was the son of the chaplain of Pasenadi's father. Pasenadi bestowed honour and wealth upon Bavari, and learnt the arts (sippa) from him in his youth. Bavari later took ordination and lived in the royal garden, many Brahmanas becoming his disciples. Pasenadi served him daily with the four requisites. Afterwards Bavari and his disciples went to the Deccan.3 Pasenadi also invited two prominent merchants, Mendakasetthi and Dhananjayasetthi, to settle in Kosala.4 The story of the conversion of the Kosala country to the Buddhist faith is told in some detail in the Majjhima Nikaya. Here we read that, in the course of his journey over N. India, on one occasion, the Buddha was sojourning in Kosala, and went to Sala, a Brahmin village of Kosala. The Brahmin householders of Sala went to see him and asked him various metaphysical questions which he answered to their satisfaction, and they became his life-long disciples. Once the Buddha went to Nagaravinda, a Brahmin village of Kosala. There many Brahmana householders came to see him, attracted by reports of his fame as a great teacher. After listening to his preaching, they became converted to the new faith. Another Brahmin village visited by the Buddha in Kosala was Venagapura. Here, too, the Brahmana householders went to pay their respects to him and talk with him.? Buddha spent much of his time at Sravasti and most of his sermons were delivered there. As we have seen, the capital cities of Kosala were Sravasti (Pali Savatthi) and Saketa. Many fanciful explanations of the name Savatthi have been suggested. For instance, it was said that Savatthi was so called because the sage Savattha resided there. The author of the Papancasudani holds that everything required by human beings is to be found there: hence it is called Savatthi (sabba and 1 Sumangalavilasini, I, pp. 244-5. 2 Dhammapada Comm., Pt. III, pp. 241ff. 3 Suttanipata Comm., II, pp. 579ff. 4 Dhammapada Comm., Pt. 1, pp. 384ff. For further references to Pasenadi, see Dhammapada Comm., II, pp. Iff.; Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 78-93; Anguttara Nikaya, V, pp. 65ff. 5 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 400ff. For another story of the Buddha and Kosala, see Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 45ff., and Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 205ff. 8 Majjhima Nikaya, III, pp. 29of.. 7 Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. I8of. See also Samyutta Nikaya, V, pp. 352ff. 8 Samyutta Nikaya, V, PP. 349ff.

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130 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA atthi).1 According to the Puranas, Sravasti is said to have been built by king Sravasta, eighth in descent from Vivaksu, son of Iksvaku.2 Savatthi was situated in what is now the province of Oudh.3 It is now known as Maheth of the village group Saheth-Maheth on the borders of the Gonda and Bahraich districts of the United Provinces. The Pali Buddhist literature is full of facts regarding the glories of Savatthi. Many of the Buddha's most edifying discourses were delivered at the Kosala capital, which was the place of residence of two of the most munificent benefactors of the Buddhist Samgha, viz. Anathapindika, the great merchant, and Visakha Migaramata, the most liberal-hearted of the ladies figuring in the Buddhist literature. Savatthi is mentioned in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya as a great city. It was the resort of many wealthy nobles, Brahmins, heads of houses and believers in the Tathagata. In one of the Jatakas we read that there was at Savatthi a rich merchant who was worth eighteen crores 5; in another we read that at Savatthi, in the house of Anathapindika, food was always ready for 500 brethren, and the same thing is told about Visakha and the king of Kosala. In the Vimanavatthu we read that the Kosalas and especially the inhabitants of Savatthi were remarkable for their charity, which, they believed, was one of the principal ways of obtaining heavenly bliss. References to the connection of the Buddha and his disciples with Savatthi are too numerous to be dealt with in full. Some famous names in the annals of Buddhism which are associated with the Kosalan capital are those of Nandaka,? Mahapajapati Gotami, Sariputta ' and Ananda.10 Savatthi contributed a fair number of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis to the Order. For instance, Mahasuvanna, a banker of Savatthi, had two sons, the elder of whom became a bhikkhu under the Buddha and was known as Cakkhupala. 11 Thul 1 Papancasudani, I, pp. 59-60; B. C. Law, Sravasti in Indian Literature, M.A.S.I., No. 50, p. 19. ( 2 Visnuburana, Chap. 2, Amsa 4; cf. Bhagavatabama, 9th skandha, Chap. 6, sl. 21; Matsyapurana, Chap. 21, sl. 30; Kurmapurana, Chap. 23, sl. 19; Lingapurana, Chap. 95. 3 Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 290. 4 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 51. 5 Jataka, VI, p. 68. 6 Ibid., IV, p. 144; see also pp. 236-7. 7 Majjhima Nikaya, III, pp. 27off.; Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. I93f. 8 Ibid. 0 Anguttara Nikaya, I, pp. 63ff., II8ff. 10 Ibid., pp. 215ff.; Digha Nikaya, I, pp. 204ff. 11 Dhammapada Comm., 1, pp. 3ff. 9B

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THE KOSALAS latissa, the Buddha's cousin, lived at Savatthi as a bhikkhu.1 Patacara was the daughter of a rich banker of Savatthi. She afterwards became a bhikkhuni. Kisagotami, also the daughter of a setthi of Savatthi, became a bhikkhuni after the death of her only child. Nanda, the son of Mahapajapati Gotami, was made a bhikkhu by the Buddha at Savatthi. Others who became bhikkhus were KundaAnitthigandhakumara, Vakkali," Kanharevata, Vira,8 dhana and Ajita.10 In the Therigatha we read that Sumana was born at Savatthi as the sister of the king of Kosala. She heard the Master preach the doctrine to King Pasenadi. She put faith in the Buddha, entered the Order, and afterwards became an arahant.11 the Suttanipata Commentary we read that there lived at Savatthi a paribbajaka named Pasura who was a great disputant. He held discussions with Sariputta, Laludayi and the Buddha, and was finally converted to Buddhism.12 In PHOTO As we may gather from the various accounts, there were many merchants at Savatthi. They used to go to Videha with cartloads of merchandise to sell there, and take Videhan commodities in exchange. 13 Some merchants of Savatthi went to Suvarnabhumi in a ship,14 and others went to the northern regions (Uttarapatha), taking with them 500 cartloads of merchandise. 15 Sravasti was visited by the two famous Chinese Pilgrims, Fa-Hien, and Hsuan Tsang, but the glories of the once splendid capital of Kosala had departed at the time of their visit. When Fa-Hien went to Sravasti (in the fifth century A.D.), the inhabitants of the city were few, amounting in all to little more than two hundred families. The pilgrim refers to King Prasenajit of Kosala, and he saw the place where the old vihara of Mahapajapati Gotami was built, the wells and walls of the house of Anathapindika, and the site where Angulimala attained arahantship. Topes were built at all these places.16 131 Cunningham points out on the authority of Hsuan Tsang that five centuries after Buddha or one century after Kaniska, Vikramaditya, king of Sravasti, became a persecutor of the Buddhists, and the famous Manorhita, author of the Vibhasasastra, committed suicide after being defeated in argument by the Brahmanas. During the reign of Vikramaditya's successor, the Brahmanas were over 3 Ibid., pp. 270ff. 6 Ibid., IV, p. 118. 8 Ibid., pp. 13 14. 10 Ibid., p. 25. 12 Suttanipata Comm., II, pp. 538ff. 14 Ibid., p. 64. 16 Legge, Travels of Fa-Hien, pp 55-6. 2 Ibid., II, pp. 260ff. 5 Ibid., III, pp. 281ff. 1 Dhammapada Comm., I, pp. 37ff. 4 Ibid., I, pp. 115ff. 7 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 7. 9 Ibid., pp. 19-20. 11 Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 19-20. 13 Buddhist Conception of Spirits, 2nd Ed., p. 63. 15 Ibid., p. 96.

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132 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA come by Vasubandhu, the eminent disciple of Manorhita. In the third century A.D., Sravasti seems to have been under the rule of its own kings, for we find Khiradhara and his nephew mentioned as rajas between A.D. 275 and 319. Still later, Sravasti was a dependency of the powerful Gupta dynasty of Magadha, as the neighbouring city of Saketa is especially said to have belonged to the Guptas. From this time Sravasti gradually declined. A famous Buddhist site at Sravasti was the Jetavana, where Anathapindika built a vihara which was originally of seven storeys. This vihara was dedicated to Buddha and the Buddhist Church by Prince Jeta.1 In later times, North Kosala itself came to be known as Sravasti in order to distinguish it from South Kosala. Hsuan Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century A.D., says that Sravasti, i.e. North Kosala, was about 600 li in circuit. Although it was mostly in ruins, there were some inhabitants. The country had good crops and an equable climate, and the people were honest in their ways, and given to learning, and fond of good works. There were some hundreds of Buddhist monasteries, most of which were in ruins. The brethren, who were very few, were Sammatiyas. There were a hundred deva-temples, and the non-Buddhists were very numerous. The preaching hall built by Pasenadi for the Buddha still survived, and there were several topes, many Buddhist monasteries, and many Mahayanist brethren.9 Another important town of Kosala was Saketa, which was the capital in the period immediately preaching the Buddha's time. The road from Saketa to Sravasti was haunted by robbers, who were dangerous to passers-by. Even the bhikkhus, who had very little in their possession, were robbed of their belongings and sometimes killed by the robbers. Royal soldiers used to come to the spot where robbery was committed, and used to kill those robbers whom they could arrest.5 Besides Savatthi and Saketa, we find mention of other towns in the Kosala country, e.g. Dandakappaka, Nalakapana, Setavya and Pankadha. Once the Buddha gave a discourse to Ananda at Dandakappa,& and he also visited Nalakapana, where he dwelt at Palasavana, and gave religious instruction to the bhikkhus on an uposatha night.? On another occasion Kumarakassapa went to Setavya with a large number of bhikkhus. The chief of Setavya, 1 Legge, Travels of Fa-Hien, pp. 56-7; Khuddakapatha Comm., pp. 110-2. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 377. 3 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 200. Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 51. 5 Vinaya Texts, Pt. I, pp. 220-I. 6 Anguttara Nikaya, III, pp. 402ff. 7 Ibid., V, pp. 122ff.

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THE KOSALAS 133 Payasi, enjoyed enormous wealth which had been given him by King Pasenadi. He was a false believer, but was converted by Kumarakassapa.1 The Buddha visited Parkadha, and gave instruction to Kassapagotta, a bhikkhu who was dwelling there.2 In the Samyutta Nikaya 3 we find mention of a village named Toranavatthu, between Savatthi and Saketa. In this village, the bhikkhuni Khema was observing lent, when Pasenadi spent one night there on his way from Saketa to Savatthi. Hearing of Khema, he went to her, and she answered to his satisfaction questions regarding life after death.4 The Jatakas and Vinaya texts are full of details about Kosala. In one Jataka there is a vivid description of a drought in Kosala, when the crops were withered, and ponds, tanks and lakes were dried up. Gangs of burglars, highwaymen and murderers were not unknown in Kosala, and the inhabitants were often carried away and killed by them. Their activities could not easily be checked, for the Kosala country included the forest-clad hills and valleys of the outer spurs of the Himalayas. In the Pabbajja Suttanta of the Suttani pata (p. 73), we read that the inhabitants of Kosala were healthy and powerful. One Jataka story 8 says that in Kosala there was a Brahmin who by simply smelling a sword could say whether it was lucky or not. The Kosalan kings and princes received a good education, usually being finished at Taxila. For instance, in the Brahachatta Jataka we read that Chatta, a son of the king of Kosala, fled to Taxila when his father was taken prisoner, and there he mastered the three Vedas and eighteen vijjas. While at Taxila he also learnt the science of discovering hidden treasure, and on his return he acquired his deceased father's buried wealth, engaged troops and reconquered the lost kingdom.King Pasenadi was also educated at Taxila; Mahali, a Licchavi prince, and a Malla prince of Kusinara were his class-mates. 10 Rhys Davids points out 11 that a conversational dialect, probably based on the local dialect of Sravasti, was in general use among Kosala officials, among merchants and among the more cultured classes, not only throughout the Kosala dominions but east and west 1 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 356ff. 3 Vol. IV, pp. 374ff. 5 Tataka, Vol. I, p. 329. 7 Vinaya Texts, Pt. I, p. 312. 9 Ibid., Vol. III, pp. 115-6. 10 Dhammapada Comm., Pt. I, pp. 337-8. 11 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, P. 153. 9 Anguttara Nikaya, I, p. 236. 4 Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 374f. 6 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 139. 8 Jataka, Vol. I, p. 455.

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134 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA from Delhi to Patna, and north and south from Sravasti to Avanti. Jacobi observes that the Ramayana was composed in Kosala on the basis of ballads popularly recited by rhapsodists throughout the district. Kosala was also the very centre of Buddhist literary activity.1 dolly alonder I How to loul rolander boog and al 1 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 183. oretozes brot ber start teal so lo quid out loo ed aroda bar B E Heid imon Som groine Elbo Hiarly Botre Paint antog zhiyadavia

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CHAPTER XXIX THE VATSAS The Vasas or Vatsas were one of the peoples of Vedic Aryandom from the earliest period. A certain Vasa Asvya is mentioned in several hymns of the first and eighth mandalas of the Rgveda, and also once in the tenth, as a protege of the Asvins. He is also mentioned in the Sankhayana Srauta Sutra.2 It would seem that this Vasa Asvya was a Brahmin Rsi and not a Ksatriya. He is said to have been the author of the Vasa hymn in the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas. It is possible to take Vasa as a personal name, but it is equally likely that Vasa here is a tribal designation and Asvya the personal proper name. Vasa is mentioned as the name of a people in the Aitareya Brahmana 4 which says,'...Therefore, in this firm middle established quarter (Dhruva-madhyama), whatever kings there are of the KuruPancalas with the Vasas and Usinaras, they are anointed for kingship...' Here we observe that the Vasas are spoken of as one of the Vedic tribes living in the Dhruva-madhyama dik or the Madhyadesa of Manu, along with the Kurus, Pancalas and Usinaras. Their connection with this last tribe appears also to be proved by the Gopatha Brahmana (I, 2, 9) where Oldenberg reads Sa-vasa-Usinaresu instead of Savasa in the printed edition. In the Kausitaki Upanisad, too,5 we have mention of the Vasas together with the Usinaras, Matsyas, Kurus and Panoalas. The Pali Anguttara Nikaya mentions the land of the Vamsas (identified by Oldenberg with the Vasas) as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, along with the Cedis, Kurus, Panca tsyas, Surasenas, etc., who appear to have been their close neighbours. The Tanavasabha-Suttanta associates the Vamsas rather with the Cedis than with the Usinaras, and mentions the powerful ruling peoples of the time in such groups as Kasi-Kosala, Vajji-Malla, Cedi-Vamsa, Kuru-Pancala and Maccha-Surasena. In the Pali Buddhist canon, King Udena of the Vamsas is said to have been a contemporary of the Buddha, and to have survived him. Both in Pali Buddhist and in Brahmanic Sanskrit literature, 1 R.V., I. 112, 10; 116, 21; VIII, 8, 20; 24, 14; 46, 21, 23; 50,9; X, 40, 7. 2 XVI, II, 13. 3 Satapatha Brahmana, VIII, 6, 2, 3; IX, 3, 3, 19; Aitareya Aranyaka, 1, 5, 1, 2; Sankhayana A., II, 10, II. 4 VIII, 14, 3. 5 IV, 1.

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136 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA stories are recited about this King Udena of the Vamsas (Pali) or Udayana of the Vatsas (Sanskrit). His capital is mentioned as Kosambi or Kausambi respectively, so evidently the Vamsas and Vatsas are identical. In the Jaina books the same people are spoken of as Vacchas.1 The country of the Vamsas or Vatsas must therefore have been located round about Kausambi, the position of which has been identified by Cunningham with Kosam, not very far from Allahabad. According to the Byhatsamhita, the land of the Vatsas was in the middle region. It probably lay to the north-east of Avanti along the bank of the Jumna, southwards from Kosala 2 and to the west of Allahabad.3 The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, who speaks of the land of the Vatsas as the Kausambi country, says that it was about 6,000 li in circuit.4 The Mahabharata contains certain items of traditional information regarding the Vatsa-bhumi or land of the Vatsas. In one passage, we are told that, prior to the Rajasuya sacrifice performed by Yudhisthira, Bhimasena led an expedition towards the east and conquered the Vatsa-bhumi; while in the Vanaparvan, it is stated that Vatsa was conquered by Karna. Elsewhere? we read that the Haihayas of the Cedi country seized the capital of the Vatsas after killing Haryasva who must have been a king of Vatsa. In the Bhismaparvan, it is said that in the Kuruksetra war, the Vatsa army took the side of the Pandavas. Nakula and Sahadeva along with the Vatsas and others guarded the left side of the Pandava army. According to the tradition in the Harivamsa, the Vatsa-bhumi was founded by a royal prince of Kasi, while, according to the Mahabharata proper, its capital Kausambi was founded by the Cedi prince Kusamba. The Pali tradition in the Mahavamsa Commentary suggests that fourteen pre-Iksvaku kings of the Solar dynasty, headed by Baladatta, ruled the Vatsa kingdom with their capital at Kausambi. The Puranas tell us that after Hastinapura was carried away by the Ganges, Nicaksu who was the fifth in descent from the Puru prince Pariksit, grandson of Arjuna, transferred his capital to Kausambi where altogether twenty-five Puru kings, 10 from Nicaksu to 1 Uvasagadasao, Hoernle, Vol. II, Appendix I, p. 7. 2 Buddhist India, p. 3. 3 N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary, p. 100. 4 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 365. 5 Chap. 30, pp. 241-2. 6 Chap. 253, pp. 513-14. 7 Anusasanaparvan, Chap. 30, p. 1899. 8 Chap. 50, p. 924. 9 Vamsatthappakasini, I, pp. 128, 120. 10 Rhys Davids (Camb. Hist., I, p. 308) says: 'The later list contains the names of 29 Puru kings who lived after the war. They reigned first at Hastinapura, the

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THE VATSAS 137 Ksemaka, reigned. In this genealogy we are given the succession of the kings of Vatsa from Nicaksu to Ksemaka without the length of their reigns. Udayana, who was a contemporary of the Buddha, is represented as the son and successor of Satanika; and the four successors of Udayana as Vahinara, Dandapani, Niramitra and Ksemaka. The evidence of Buddhist literature in general, and of the Pali canon in particular, clearly proves the contemporaneity of Udayana, the king of Vatsa, with Canda Pradyota (Pali Canda Pajjota) of Avanti, Prasenajit (Pasenadi) of Kosala, and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha. It is interesting to find that the Puranas mention just four kings who succeeded to the throne of Avanti after Canda Pradvota, and four kings who succeeded to the throne of Kosala after Prasenajit.2 The total length of the reigns of the five kings of Avanti from Pradyota to Nandivardhana is given as 138 years, Pradyota's four successors having reigned altogether for 115 years.3 Among the kings of N. India who were contemporaries of the Buddha, Bimbisara pre-deceased him by about 8 years, and Ajatasatru survived the Buddha by 16 years; Prasenajit, who was of the same age as the Buddha, died almost in the same year; and though both Pradyota and Udayana survived the Buddha, they could not have lived or reigned for more than 10 or 15 years after the Buddha's demise. Thus, on the whole, it may be surmised that Avanti, Kosala and Vatsa retained their independence for about a century after the Buddha's death, and lost it only during the period of the Nandas. We know that when King Asoka Maurya ascended the throne of Magadha, the three ancient kingdoms of Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were already included in the Maurya empire. Ujjeni or Avanti was placed under a Viceroy of Asoka, while Kausambi or Vatsa was governed by a Mahamatra.4 The Lalitavistara contains a tradition according to which King Udayana was born on the same day as the Buddha. He appears to have strengthened his political position by matrimonial alliances ancient capital of the Kuru princes, which is usually identified with a ruined site in the Meerut district on the old bed of the Ganges, lat. 29deg 9' N., long 78deg 3' E. (Pargiter, Mark. Pur., p. 355); but when this city was destroyed by an inundation of the Ganges in the reign of Nichakshu, they removed the seat of their rule to Kausambi.... Another of their capitals was Indraprastha in the Kuru plain, the ancient city of the Pandu princes ... 1 For the genealogy in full, see Pargiter, Dynasties of the Kali Age, pp. 65-6. 2 Ibid., pp. 67-8. 3 Ibid., p. 68. 4 Asoka's Kausambi Schism Pillar Edict. 5 Vide Foucaux, Tr. of the Tibetan version of the Lalitavistara; cf. Rockhill, The Life of the Buddha, PP. 16-17.

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138 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA with the neighbouring kings, particularly with King Canda Pradyota of Avanti. Stories of Udayana and his queens abound in Sanskrit and Pali literature, and provide the themes for no less than four dramas.1 The Pali legends tell us that Udayana ascended the throne of Vatsa by the assertion and establishment of his rightful claim as the son and successor of his father Parantapa. In the Udenavatthu, Vatsa is described as a pavenirajja, i.e. a kingdom in which succession to the throne was determined by the law of primogeniture. In most of the other references, whether Brahmanical, Jaina, or Buddhist, Satanika (better, Satanika II) is represented as Udayana's father. In the Skandapurana alone, Sahasranika is represented as the father and Satanika as the grandfather of Udayana.5 The Skandapurana speaks of Satanika as a king of Kausambi who belonged to the family of Arjuna, was powerful and intelligent, beloved by his subjects, and who was killed in a war between the Devas and the Asuras. According to the Jaina tradition, Udayana's father Satanika II invaded Campa, the capital of Anga, during the reign of King Dadhivahana.? According to the Skandapurana and Vividhatirthakalpa, Udayana's mother was Queen Mtgavati, granddaughter of Krtavarma, king of Ayodhya.8 In the plays of Bhasa, Udayana is described as Vaidehiputra, which indicates that his mother was princess of Videha.! Udayana was a warlike king who kept a strong army noted for its elephants. Envious of his fellow-monarch's wealth and prosperity, Canda Pradyota of Avanti laid a trap for Udayana when he was visiting the frontier of his kingdom, and succeeded in taking him captive. He made his escape from captivity with the help of Vasuladatta or Vasavadatta, daughter of Canda Pradyota, who eloped with Udayana and became his chief queen.10 | 1 Bhasa's Svapnavasavadatta and Pratijnayaugandharayana; Harya's Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. The legends of Udayana are also to be found in the Brahmakhanda of the Skanda purana, the Jaina Vividhatirthakalpa, the Lalitavistara, Tibetan Buddhist literature, Pali Udenavatthu, Sanskrit Makandika Avadana, and the Si-yu-ki of Hsuan Tsang. 2 Dhammapada Comm., I, pp. 165 foll. 3 Ibid., 1, p. 169. 4 Vividhatirthakalpa, ed. Jina Vijaya Suri, p. 23. 5 Cf. The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, p. 28, in which King Pih-Shing or 'Hundred Excellences', i.e. Satanika, is represented as the son of Tsien-Shing [Thousand Excellences' or Sahasranika). It should be noted that'anika' can also mean 'army, host'; it would appear that Parantapa, Satanika and Sahasranika may all be taken to refer to the valour and martial strength of the king of Vatsa. 6 Chap. 5, Brahmakhanda. 7 J.A.S.B., 1914, p. 321. 8 Skandapurana, Chap. V, Brahmakhanda. 9 Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 23; Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 59. 10 Dhammapada Comm., 1, pp. 191-9, and Svapnavasavadatta.

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THE VATSAS 139 According to the Pali legend, Udayana was born and brought up in the Himalayan region, in the hermitage of a sage who was previously a native of Allakappa. He was named Udena or Udayana because of his birth, just at sunrise, on the top of a hill, and under a clear sky.1 According to another Buddhist legend in the Tibetan Dulva, 'as the world was illuminated at his birth, as with the sun, he was called Udayana'.2 Udayana is said to have married Samavati (Syamavati), daughter of a banker of Bhaddavati, who was brought up in the family of the banker Ghosita of Kausambi. Another of his wives was Magandiya or Makandika, an exquisitely beautiful Brahmin girl from the Kuru country, and yet another was Padmavati, daughter of King Ajatasatru of Magadha. The Ratnavali represents Udayana as having also married Sagarika, a princess from Ceylon. In the Udenavatthu, each of his three queens Vasuladatta, Samavati and Magandiya, is said to have been attended by 500 dancing girls. The Priyadarsika also speaks of a matrimonial alliance made by Udayana with Drdhavarman, king of Anga. We are told that Udayana once helped Drdhavarman to regain his throne. In the Jaina Vividhatirthakalpa (p. 23), Udayana is praised as an expert in the science of music (gandhabbaveya-niuno). He ruled despotically and sometimes recklessly. When his queen Magandiya was found guilty of putting her co-wife Samavati to death, Udayana ordered her to be buried alive.. According to one Buddhist tradition, a hermit fled to Sravasti when his life was threatened by Udayana.5 On one occasion, in a fit of drunken jealousy, Udayana tortured the Buddhist Thera Pindola Bharadvaja by causing a nest of brown ants to be tied to his body. Later, however, he consulted this same Pindola about various spiritual matters, We have no evidence and ended by professing himself his disciple. that he proceeded very far along the path, but his fame has lasted in a curious way in Buddhist legends. Udayana is said to have made a golden image of the Buddha, and Hsuan Tsang brought back from India many things including a statue of the Buddha This figure carved out of sandal-wood on a transparent pedestal. is described as a copy of the statue which Udayana, king of Kausambi, 1 Dhammapada Comm., I, p. 165. 2 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 17. Cf. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 368. 3 Udenavatthu, pp. 161 foll. 4 Svapnavasavadatta, Pratijnayaugandharayana. 5 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 368. 6 6 Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 110-2. 7 Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, p. 49, 2nd Ed.

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140 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA had made. It is said in the Si-yu-ki that in the city of Kausambi, within an old palace, there was a large vihara about 60 feet high, containing a figure of the Buddha carved out of sandal wood above which was a stone canopy. It was the work of the King U-to-yen-na (Udayana). By its spiritual qualities it produced a divine light, which from time to time shone forth. The princes of various countries had used their power to try to carry off this statue, but although many men tried, none could move it. They therefore worshipped copies of it, and pretended that their likeness was a true one, the original of all such figures. The Petavatthu records the erection of a vihara by one Uttara, a wood-carver, in the service of King Udayana. The figure was known to have been made for King Udayana by a distinguished artist of the time. But nowhere in the earlier tradition is Udayana mentioned as the builder of any such temple or statue. Immediately prior to the rise of Buddhism, there were four powerful monarchies in N. India, each of which was enlarged by the annexation of a neighbouring territory. Thus Anga was annexed to Magadha, Kasi to Kosala, Bharga to Vatsa, and Surasena to Avanti. The kingdom of Vatsa must have served as a buffer State between Magadha and Avanti on the one hand, and Kosala and Avanti on the other. Bhasa in his Svapnavasavadatta tells us that an upstart named Aruni ousted Udayana and seized the throne of Vatsa.5 As in earlier days, so during the reign of Asoka in the third century B.C., Kausambi stood on the high road connecting Vidisa and Ujjayini with Benares and Pataliputra. Asoka appears to have been an overlord of Vatsa, and to have placed its administration in charge of Mahamatras with their headquarters at Kausambi. Kausambi was probably the place of residence of Asoka's second queen Kaluvaki, and her son Prince Tivala; the edict on her donations was promulgated only at Kausambi. However that may be, Vatsa was finally absorbed into the Magadhan empire,& probably during the reign of Sisunaga. We may infer from the inscriptions at Pabhosa that in the second century 1 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. I, Intro., p. xx. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 235. 3 This Uttara had friendly relations with Mahakaccavana and various Buddhist Theras, but his mother was a believer in false doctrines, see Paramatthadipani on the Petavatthu, pp. 140-4; cf. also B. C. Law, The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, and Ed., pp. 89-90. 4 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 368. 5 Svapnavasavadatta, Sukthankar's trsl., p. 64. 6 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 81 and 84.

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THE VATSAS 141 B.C., Vatsa (Kausambi) and Pancala (Ahicchatra) were governed by branches of the same royal family, and that both kingdoms acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sungas.1 Dhanabhuti, a Sunga feudatory, is called Vacchiputa, son of a princess of Vatsa.2 It may be that King Dhanabhuti, the donor of Bharhut gateways, his father Agaraju and grandfather Visvadeva were all local chiefs of Vatsa under the Sungas.3. However that may be, the stupa of Bharhut was erected in the Vatsa country not earlier than the second century B.C., the first pillar of its main railing being donated by Chapadevi, wife of Revatimitra, of Vidisa.4 Revatimitra was in all probability a member of the Sunga-Mitra family, stationed at Vidisa. If this is so, we can say that when the Bharhut railing was erected, the Sunga dominions extended as far west as Vatsa and Avanti. As clearly proved by the inscriptions, when the Bharhut gateways were erected by King Dhanabhuti not earlier than the first century B.C., the Vatsa country was included in the Sunga empire (Suganam raje).5 An inscription on the gateway on the fort of Kara, dated Samvat 1093 (1036 A.D.), records the grant of the village of Payalasa (modern Pras) in the Kausambi-mandala to one Mathura-vikata of Pabhosa together with its customary duties, royalties, taxes, gold and tithes in perpetuity to his descendants by Maharajadhiraja Yasahpala',6 who was the last Pratihara king of Kanauj. The history of Vatsa or the country of Kausambi as a political unit ended with the rule of Yasahpala of Kanauj. As we have seen, the Bhagga or Bharga State was a dependency of the Vatsa kingdom. We learn from the preface to the Dhonasakha Jataka, No. 353, that Prince Bodhi, the son of Udayana, king of the Vatsas (by his queen Vasuladatta or Vasavadatta), dwelt on the Sumsumaragiri and built a palace called Kokanada. Sumsumaragiri, according to Buddhist tradition, was the capital of the Bharga kingdom; so evidently in the sixth century B.C. the territory of the Bhargas was a dependency of the Vatsa kingdom, governed by a Viceroy of the royal family of Kausambi. Bhiksu Rahula Sam 1 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 525-6. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 523. 3 Barua, Barhut, Bk. I, pp. 41-2, inclines tentatively to connect King Dhanabhuti and his predecessors with Mathura or a nearby locality. Rapson, in Camb. Hist., loc. cit., observes: 'We may conclude that this family ruled at Bharhut, and that it was connected in some way with the royal family at Mathura, more than 250 miles to the north-west.' 4 Barua and Sinha, Barhut Inscriptions, p. 3. 5 Ibid., No. I, P. I. See B. C. Law, Kausambi in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I., No. 60, pp. 12-13, for a further discussion on the subject. 6 J.R.A.S., 1927, p. 694.

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142 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA krityayana proposes to identify the Bharga country with the present Mirzapur district, and its capital Sumsumaragiri with the present Chunar hill.1 Buddhaghosa suggests, however, that Sumsumaragira (not Sumsumaragiri) was the name of the principal town in the Bhagga country. Originally the Vatsas and Bhargavas (or Bhaggas) were two ruling clans that settled down and founded kingdoms side by side. Vatsa and Bhrgu, from whom the Vatsas and Bhargavas respectively claimed their descent, are said to have been sons of King Pratardana of Kasi.2 The country of Kausambi (i.e. Vatsa) is described as follows by the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang: "This country is about 6,000 li in circuit, and the capital about 30 li. The land is famous for its productiveness; the increase is very wonderful. Rice and sugarcane are plentiful. The climate is very hot, the manners of the people hard and rough. They cultivate learning and are very earnest in their religious life and in virtue's The Anguttara Nikaya 4 speaks of the land of the Vamsas as a country which abounded in seven kinds of gems and was consequently regarded as very rich and prosperous. Kautilya's Arthasastra mentions Vatsa as one of the countries of which the cotton fabrics were of the very best quality. de From the earliest times, the Vatsas, as the Aitareya Brahmana clearly attests, established a monarchical form of government in their land. They formally anointed their kings in accordance with the prescribed Vedic rites, and they are not known to have deviated from this practice at any period of their history. Ordeal by walking through fire was applied as a test of purity of descent of the kings. Capital punishment by impaling on a stake was inflicted on a culprit even for a light offence, as illustrated by the Jataka story of 'Mandavya with the Peg'. When King Kosambika ruled over Kosambi in the kingdom of Vatsa, a robber committed a theft and, being chased, left the stolen goods near the door of an ascetic named Mandavya, and himself escaped. When the owner of the property came there, he took the ascetic to be the robber, and brought him before the king. The king without enquiry said, 'Off with him, 1 Buddhacarya, pp. 75, 175; Ghosh, Early History of Kausamb7, p. 32. 2 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 112-13 and 159. The Mahabharata and the Harivamsa testify to the close connection between the Vatsas and the Bhargas. 3 Beal, Records of the Western World, I, p. 235. See also Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 366. 4 IV, pp. 252, 256, 269. 5 Arthasastra, Shama Sastri's trsl., p. 94. 6 Cambridge History of India, I, p. 134.

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THE VATSAS 143 impale him upon a stake'. Stakes of acacia and nimb wood did not pierce him, so concluding that the ascetic was innocent, the king ordered the stake to be drawn out. This was found to be impossible, however, so at Mandavya's suggestion the stake was cut off with the skin. Thenceforward he was called Mandavya with the Peg. The king asked his pardon and settled him in the royal park.1 According to the Buddhist legendary tradition, the Vatsa country was among those considered by the Devaputras in the Tusita heaven when a suitable birthplace for the Buddha was under discussion. The defects of the Vatsas and their royal family were then pointed out. For instance, it was said that the Vamsas were rude and rough, and their king an 'Ucchedavadin'; and, finally, it was decided that the royal family of Vatsa was unsuited for the honour of the Buddha's birth. However, when the Buddha was about to pass away, Ananda mentioned Kausambi of the Vatsas as one of six great cities suitable for the Buddha's parinibbana.3 Kausambi, the capital of the Vatsas, is identified by Cunningham with Kosam on the Jumna, about 30 miles south-west of Allahabad.4 The Cambridge History, following Cunningham, says that Kausambi seems to have been on the south bank of the Jumna, at a point about 400 miles by road from Ujjain, and about 230 miles upstream from Benares. The Chinese pilgrims, Fa-Hien and Hsuan Tsang, give discrepant accounts of the situation of Kausambi. Fa-Hien arrived there from the Deer Park to the north of Benares, after walking north-west for 13 yojanas (about 91 miles), as he says. This would make Kausambi lie to the north or north-west of Prayaga, as St. Martin thinks 6; but Hsuan Tsang, who visited Kausambi twice, arrived there by going from Prayaga 'south-west through a forest infested by wild elephants and other fierce animals, and after a journey of above 500 li (about 100 miles).'? The question of the site of Kausambi has been much debated, chiefly because of the impossibility of reconciling Cunningham's identification with the descriptions of the Chinese pilgrims. But such descriptions may either have been incorrect originally or may have been subsequently misinterpreted. For instance, there is nothing in the actual records of Hsuan Tsang to suggest that the | 1 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. 28 foll. 2 See the Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, p. 28; and Lalitavistara, ed. Lefmann, p. 21. 3 Digha Nikaya, pp. 146, 169. 4 Ancient Geography of India, p. 454. See also Rapson, Ancient India, p. 170. 5 Cambridge History, Vol. I, pp. 187-8. 6 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, pp. 366-7. 7 Ibid., p. 365.

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144 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA distance given was the actual distance between Prayaga and the city of Kausambi. It is likely that the pilgrim went to Kausambi by a roundabout route from Prayaga. The distance and direction of Kausambi from Sarnath as given by Fa-Hien may be taken as fairly correct. The distance of 13 yojanas (about go or 104 miles) is almost the present distance by road from Benares to Kosam. The fact that Fa-Hien placed Kausambi to the north-west of Benares may perhaps be due to his having walked along a road following a north-west direction for some distance. Vincent Smith considers that the site of Kausambi is to be looked for near the Sutna railway station in the valley of the Tons river. As for earlier evidence, the Brahmanas generally assert that Kausambi stood either on the Ganges or close to it, and the discovery of the name 'Kosambimandala' in an inscription over the gateway of the fort of Khara seems to confirm this, although the south-west bearing from Prayaga or Allahabad as recorded by Hsuan Tsang points unmistakably to the line of the Jumna.2 The Satapatha Brahmana (XII, 2, 2, 13) mentions Proti Kausurubindi as a pupil undergoing brahmacarya under Uddalaka Aruni (of Upanisadic fame) and bearing the local epithet sambeya which the commentator Harisvamin explains as meaning 'a native of Kausambi.'s The Gopatha Brahmana (I, 4, 24) contains the same reference, but the name of Uddalaka's pupil is here given as Predi Kausurubindu. Kosambeyaka, a Prakrit form of Kausambeya, occurs in one of the Barhut Inscriptions, being employed to mean'a person from Kausambi.' 4 Thus, from the employment of Kausambeya as a local epithet of a person in the Brahmanas, it may be safely inferred that the name Kausambi was current as early as the Brahmana age. The Pali canon abounds in references to Kausambi as a well-known city in N. India, the capital of the Vatsa country of King Udayana. The high antiquity of Kausambi as a royal city is equally proved by traditions not only in the two great Sanskrit Epics and the Puranas, but also in the Vamsatthappakasini (commentary on the Mahavamsa). The Mahabharata 5 attributes the foundation of the city of Kausambi to Prince Kusamba, third son of the Cedi king Uparicara Vasu. In the Ramayana story, however, Prince Kusamba is described as the eldest son of an ancient king named Kusa, who T911 1 J.R.A.S., 1898, p. 503 2 For a fuller discussion of the problem, see B. C. Law, Kausimbi in Ancient Literature (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India, No. 60). 3 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India (4th Ed.), p. 58. 4 Barua and Sinha, Barhut Inscriptions. p. 12. 5 Adiparvan (Vangavasi Ed.), Chap. 63, pp. 69-71.

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THE VATSAS 145 had four sons by his queen Vaidarbhi, the youngest of them being Vasu. According to the Matsyapurana, when Hastinapura was swept away by a Ganges flood, the Kuru or Bharata king Nicaksu, who was fifth in descent from Pariksit, the grandson of Arjuna, abandoned Hastinapura and dwelt in Kausambi. There is, however, no suggestion made in the Purana that Nicaksu was himself the founder of the city. We are told in McCrindle's Ptolemy 3 that Kausambi was a famous city on the river Jumna, which became the Pandu capital after Hastinapura had been swept away by the Ganges, and which was noted as the shrine of the most sacred of all the statues of the Buddha. Its fame began only with the reign of Cakra, the eighth in descent from Arjuna the Pandava.4 It is stated in the Puranas that the three sons of Adhisamakrsna, named Nirvakta, Nemicakra and Vivaksu, lived in Kausambi after the destruction of Hastinapura by the inundation of the Ganges. Several explanations have been suggested to account for the name Kausambi or Kosambi. Different traditions suggest (1) that the city was named after Prince Kusamba (r) ; (2) that it was originally the dwelling place of the sage Kosamba?; (3) that the city came to be called Kosambi because when it was founded, numerous Kosamba trees were uprooted on the site,8 or because the town abounded in shady Kosamba trees. Indian literature consistently refers to Kausambi as a royal city, i.e. the capital of a kingdom; but in the Si-yu-ki of Hsuan Tsang, Kausambi (Kiao-shang-mi) is represented rather as a country with its capital, which was 'evidently named Kausambi.' 10 The Chinese pilgrim must have followed the later usage which represented Kausambi as a political unit instead of as a mere city.11 Kausambi is described in the Trikandasesa (2, 1, 14) as Vatsapattana, 'the capital of Vatsa'.12 In the Buddhist literature, too, 1 Ramayana (Bombay Ed.), I, 32, 1-6. 2 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India (4th Ed.), p. 58. 3 McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 72. 4 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 391. 5 Matsyapurana, Chap. 50; cf. Vayu and Bhagavata Puranas. 6 See B. C. Law, Kausambi in Ancient Literature, p. 2. 7 Paramatthajotika, Vol. II, p. 300. Asvaghosa in his Saundarananda Kavya (B. C. Law's trsl., p. 9) refers to the hermitage (asrama) of Kusamba, where the city of Kausambi was built. 8 Papancasudani, Pt. II, pp. 389-90. * Vividhatirthakalpa, p. 23. 10 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, pp. 365-6. 11 E.g., Inscription of Yasapala, dated Samvat 1093 (A.D. 1037)-Kausambi is mentioned as Kosambamandala. 12 Ghosh, Early History of Kausambi, Introd., p. xvii. lo

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146 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Kausambi is described as the capital of the Vatsa country, as also in the Kathasaritsagara. The Vividhatirthakalpa (p. 23) definitely states that the forests of Kausambi were reached along the course of the Kalimdi (i.e. Yamuna or Jumna).2 According to the description in the Suttani pata of a journey of Bavari's disciples from Patitthana to Rajagaha, Kausambi was one of the halting places on the same high road which led to Saketa and Sravasti. The Vinaya Mahavagga 3 gives a description of a somewhat different route that lay between Kausambi and Sravasti. Kausambi was the most important entrepot for both goods and passengers coming to Kosala and Magadha from the south and west. The route from Kausambi to Rajagrha was down the river,4 and Kausambi was also one of the chief stopping places on the way from Sravasti to Patitthana.5 Kausambi had great military strength. The remains at Kosam include those of a vast fortress with eastern ramparts and bastions, four miles in circuit, with an average height of 30 to 35 feet above the general level of the country. The fact that the city was an important commercial centre, is indicated by the extraordinary variety of the coins found there. 6 Cast coins were issued at the close of the third century by the kingdoms of Kausambi, Ayodhya and Mathura, some of which bear the names of local kings in the Brahmi script.? There is little foreign influence traceable in the die-struck coins, all closely connected in point of style, which were issued during the first and second centuries B.C. from Pancala, Ayodhya, Kausambi and Mathura. A number of these bear Brahmi Inscriptions. The coins of Kausambi have a tree within a railing on the obverse. The coinage of the kings of Kausambi seems to begin in the third century B.C., and to extend over a period of about 300 years. In the Buddha's time, there were four establishments or settlements of the Order in or near Kausambi, each of them having a group of huts under trees. Buddhaghosa informs us that the three banker friends, Ghosita, Kukkuta and Pavarika, were the great business magnates of Kausambi in the Buddha's time. All of them went on 1 II, 1. 2 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 501. Cf. Manorathapurani, I, Pp. 306-7. 3 Vol. I, p. 352 foll. 4 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 36. 5 Ibid., p. 103. 6 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 524. 7 Brown, Coins of India, p. 19. 8 Ibid., p. 20. See also Pracina Mudra, p. 105. 9 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 525. IOB

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THE VATSAS 147 elephant-back from Kausambi to Sravasti to wait upon the Buddha at Jetavana, and it was at their invitation that the Buddha agreed to visit Kausambi. Each of the bankers built a suitable retreat for the Buddha in the neighbourhood of the city. Regarding Ghositarama, Hsuan Tsang tells us that it was situated outside the city on the south-east side with an Asoka tope over 200 feet high '.1 Within the city, at the south-east angle of it, there were the ruins of an old habitation, the house of Ghosita (Ghosira) the nobleman. In the middle there was a vihara of the Buddha and a stupa containing hair and nail relics. There were also ruins of the Tathagata's bathing-house. The pilgrim has also left hints as to the location of the remaining two aramas. Kukkutarama was situated to the south-east of Ghositarama. At the time of his visit, it was 'a two-storeyed building with an old brick upper chamber'.3 Pavarika's mango-grove was situated to the east of Ghositarama, where the old foundations of a building were visible.4 Besides the three retreats built by the three bankers, we read of another Buddhist retreat in or near Kausambi, which was known as Badarikarama. The Deer Park in Bhesakalavana or Kesakalavana in the neighbourhood of Sumsumaragira, the principal town in the Bhagga province, then ruled by Prince Bodhi as Viceroy was the other important Buddhist retreat and early centre of Buddhist activity in the Vatsa dominion. The Park evidently belonged to Prince Bodhi, who became an ardent lay supporter of Buddhism. The story of a cordial entertainment of the Buddha and his disciples in the famous 'Lotus Palace' then built by Prince Bodhi is narrated in the Majjhima Nikaya.? In the time of Hsuan Tsang, there were more than ten Buddhist monasteries in or near Kausambi), but all in utter ruins. The brethren, who were above 300 in number, were adherents of the Hinayana system. There were more than fifty deva-temples, and the non-Buddhists were very numerous. 8 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 369. The Asoka pillar on which Samudragupta recorded the history of his reign is supposed to have been erected originally at Kausambi, which was no doubt honoured at times by the residence of the monarch (see Smith, Early History of India, p. 310, 4th Ed.). 2 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. I, p. 236. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, I, p. 370. 4 Ibid., p. 371. 5 Tipallatthamiga Jataka (Fausboll, No. 16). 6 Bodhirajakumara Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, II, 91; Jataka (Fausboll), III, 157. 7 Vol. II, pp. 91 foll. 8 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. I, p. 366. See also Legge, Fa-Hien, p. 96.

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148 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Buddha's favourite retreat at Kausambi was undoubtedly the Ghositarama where he stayed on several occasions. For instance, we read in the Majjhima Nikaya 2 that once while the Buddha was staying at the Ghositarama, he tried to prevent the Kausambian monks, who were divided into two parties, from quarrelling. From the Surapana Jataka we learn that the Buddha, after staying for a long time at Bhaddavatika, went to Kausambi where he was cordially received by the townsfolk, some of whom invited him to a meal. On this occasion the Buddha condemned the drinking of intoxicants,3 While dwelling at the Badarika monastery in Kausambi, the Buddha related the Tipallatthamiga Jataka about the elder Rahula.4 In the Dhammapadatthakatha,5 we read that there lived at Kausambi a householder's son, Kosambivasi Tissathera, who took ordination from the Buddha. One of the Buddha's chief disciples, Ananda, also delivered several sermons at Kausambi. Among famous followers of the Buddha who stayed at Ghositarama were Sariputta and Upavana.? After the passing away of the Master, and when the First Great Council was over, Mahakaccayana lived near Kausambi in a forest hermitage with twelve bhikkhus.8 Some of the Kosambians entertained a great respect for the Buddha and the Buddhist faith, and were converted; while we are told that others went so far as to enter the Order and attain arahatship,-e.g. Gavaccha the Less. At the time of the Buddha, Samavati Theri was born in a rich householder's family at Kausambi. She was the favourite friend of Queen Samavati, wife of King Udayana. After the death of the queen, she was very much grieved, and became a bhikkhuni. Her grief was so bitter that she was unable to attain the ariyamagga. Afterwards listening to the instruction of Ananda, she became free from sorrow by developing insight, and became an arahat.10 When the Vajjian monks carried out the act of excommunication against Yasa, he is said to have risen up into the sky and descended Pt. 1, PP: ihima Nikaya, i. pp. 360 foll. 1 See, e.g. Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, p. 285; Ibid., Pt. III, p. 233; Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 513ff.; Samyutta Nikaya, III, pp. 94-5; V, pp. 224, 229-30; Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, pp. 317-19; Cullavagga (Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, pp. 370ff). 2 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 320 foll; Vol. III, p. 153. 8 Jataka (Fausbo11), Vol. I, pp. 360 foll. 4 Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 160 foll.; Vol. III, pp. 64 foll. 6 Vol. II, pp. 182-5. 6 Samyutta Nikaya, III, pp. 133 foll.; II, pp. 115 foll.; IV, pp. 113-14. 7 Ibid., V, pp. 76-7. 8 See Paramatthadipani on the Petavatthu, pp. 140-144. 9 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 16. 10 Therigatha Comm., P.T.S., pp. 44-5.

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THE VATSAS 149 at Kausambi. The Mahavamsa tells us, however, that the venerable Yasa is said to have fled from Vaisali to Kausambi just before the assembly of the second Buddhist Council.2 The Parileyyaka forest, where the Buddha is said to have spent one rainy season, and the location of which is unknown, was probably not very far from Kausambi.3 The town of Bhaddavatika which lay on the way from the Parileyyaka forest to Sravasti was another place in the Vatsa kingdom which became associated with the life of the Buddha.4 Somewhere in the neighbourhood of Kausambi and Ghositarama was a cave called Pilakkhaguha, where a Parivrajaka or wandering ascetic named Sandaka used to live with his 500 followers during the summer season. The venerable Ananda is said to have converted Sandaka to the Buddhist faith, with all his following. In the Digha Nikaya 6 we read that the city of Kausambi was visited by two wanderers named Mandissa and Jaliya, who interviewed the Buddha at Ghositarama. The Mahavamsa attests that some 30,000 bhikkhus of the Ghositarama, headed by Thera Urudhammarakkhita, visited Ceylon in about the first century B.C., during the reign of King Dutthagamani.? In the second year of the reign of King Kaniska, the Buddhist nun Buddhimitra or Buddhamitra installed a Bodhisattva image in Kausambi, which was then known to have been 'sanctified by the Buddha's several visits'. The records of the influence of religion over Vatsa and Kausambi prior to the introduction of Buddhism and Jainism are few and far between. The people were supposed to have been preoccupied with worldly thoughts, but we read even in the Brahmanas of hermits such as Proti Kausurubindi who had considerable influence. The main supporters of such hermits were the bankers of Kausambi, all of whom were members of the Vaisya caste.8 The introduction of Buddhism, too, was due to the religious tendencies of persons belonging to this caste, as we have seen from the story of the bankers Ghosita, Kukkuta, and Pavarika. According to the Buddhist tradition in the Tibetan Dulva, the Buddha visited Kausambi when King Udayana was busy planning a military expedition to the city of Kanakavati. The appearance of the messenger of peace was naturally 1 Kern, Indian Buddhism, p. 104. 2 Geiger, Mahavamsa, p. 22. See also Vinaya Texts, Pt. III, p. 394. 8 Samyutta Nikaya, III, pp. 94-5. * Jataka (Fausboll), I, p. 36o. 5 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 5I3 foll. 6 Digna Nikaya, I, pp. I57, I59-60. 7 P.T.S., p. 228. 8 Dhammapada Comm., I, p. 203.

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150 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA looked upon and dreaded as the appearance of a bad omen. It was evidently not easy to convert Udayana and members of the royal family to the new faith. There seems to be some truth in the Buddhist legends that the devotion of Queen Samavati and her attendants, and the martyrdom suffered by them, were greatly instrumental in bringing about a change of heart in Udayana and making him a supporter of Buddhism.? Here again the banker Ghosita is indirectly concerned, for Samavati was brought up with his family. The influence of Jainism over Kausambi does not appear to have been extensive. However, Kausambi is known to the Jainas as the sacred place where Vardhamana Mahavira was worshipped even by the Sun and Moon; and where Chandana attained to Kaivalya. Kausambi is also known to the Jainas as the place hallowed by the birth, career and death of Jina Prabha Suri. The Pabhosa rock cave was excavated in about the first century B.C. for the residence of the Kasyapiya arahats. In the inscription of the goldsmiths of Kausambi, dated Samvat 1621 (1565 A.D.) we find that six of them call themselves Vaisnavas, although the record itself contains only the prayers of five leading goldsmiths and of thirteen of their employees to Ganesa and the god Bhairava 'for favour'. 1 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 74. 2 Dhammapada Comm., I, pp. 208ff.

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CHAPTER XXX THE VATADHANAS---THE ATREYAS--THE BHARADVAJAS--THE LAMPAKAS THE VATADHANAS The Vatadhanas are mentioned in the Markandeya Purana, once along with the Vahlikas, the Abhiras, the Aparantakas and the Sudras, all grouped in the north-west (LVII, 36), and at another place, along with the Sividas, Daserakas, savadhanas, Puskalas, Kairatas, etc., all grouped as peoples of the north (LVII, 44). The Vayupurana, erroneously no doubt, reads Vadhadhanas (XLV, 115). That they were a Punjab tribe is also borne out by the evidence of the Mahabharata. There the Vatadhanas are said to be derived from an eponymous king Vatadhana who belonged to the same Krodhavasa group as the eponymous kings of the Vahlikas, Madras and Sauviras (Adi parvan, LXVII, 2695-9). The Sabhaparvan locates their country in the western region (XXXI, 1190-1), and the Udyogaparvan seems to suggest that they joined the side of the Kurus in the great Bharata War (XVIII, 569-601). The people are mentioned elsewhere in the Epics as well, e.g. Sabhaparvan, I, 1826; Udyogaparvan, III, 86; Bhismaparvan, IX, 354 and Dronaparvan, XI, 398. Vatadhana-dvijas were amongst those who were conquered by Nakula (Sabhaparvan, XXXI, 1190-1). According to Manu, Vatadhana was the offspring of an outcaste Brahmana woman (X, 21), but Pargiter points out that this is no doubt an expression of the same arrogance which in later times stigmatised all the Punjab races as outcastes' (Markandeya Purana, p. 312, notes). THE ATREYAS The Markandeya Purana list mentions the Atreyas along with the Bharadvajas, Puskalas, Kuserukas, Lampakas, etc., as peoples of the north (LVII, 39-40). The Matsyapurana reads Atris who are undoubtedly the same as the Atreyas (CXIII, 43). The Atreyas are also mentioned in several places in the Mahabharata. They are represented as a family of Brahmanas dwelling in the Dvaitavana (Vanaparvan, XXVI,971) not far from the Sarasvati (Vanaparvan, CLXXVII, 12354-62). They are also *mentioned in the Bhismaparvan list (IX, 376), and the Harivamsa

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152 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA seems to suggest that the people originated from the Rsi Prabhakara of Atri's race (XXXI, 1660-8) whence came the name of the tribe Atreya. THE BHARADVAJAS What is true of the Atreyas seems to be equally true of the Bharadvajas or Bharadvajas. The Markandeya list (LVII, 39-40) mentions the tribe along with the Atreyas, Puskalas, Lampakas, etc., and locates them in the north. They are also mentioned in the Bhismaparvan list (IX, 376) in the same context as that of the Atreyas; the Great Epic tradition connects Bharadvaja with the upper Gangetic region near the hills (Adiparvan, CXXX, 5102-6; CLXVI, 6328-32; Vanaparvan, CXXXV, 10700-28; Salyaparvan, XLIX, 2762-2824), and Bharadvaja, the Rsi, was evidently the originator of the race or tribe. Like the Atreyas, it is tempting to connect the people of various caste divisions of present-day India claiming to belong to the Bharadvaja gotra with the Bharadvaja tribe. THE LAMPAKAS The Lampakas are mentioned in the Markandeya list (LVII, 40) along with the Kuserukas, Sulakaras, Culikas, Jagudas, etc. as a people of the north. The Matsyapurana reads (CXIII, 43) Lampakas instead, which is no doubt wrong. The Mahabharata (Dronaparvan, CXXI, 4846-7) also mentions the tribe and seems to suggest that they were a rude mountain tribe like the Daradas and Pulindas. Long ago Cunningham identified the region of the Lampakas with modern Lamghan, hundred miles to the east of Kapisene, northeast of Kabul, which practically upholds Lassen's identification of the place with Lambagae, south of the Hindu Kush in modern Kafiristan. If the tradition contained in Hemacandra's Abhidhanacintamani is to be believed, then Lampaka seems to have once been the centre of the Sai-wang or the Saka-Muranda people (Lampakastu Murandah syuh).

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CHAPTER XXXI THE YONAS The Yonas or Yavanas, literally 'Ionians', a people or peoples of Greek descent, may be traced in Indian literature and inscriptions from the third century B.C. to the second century A.D. They were 'manifestly a factor of no small importance in the political history of Northern and Western India'.2 In the Mahabharata we find them taking part in the Bharata War at Kuruksetra as allies of the Kurus along with other peoples of North-Western India like the Kambojas, Sakas, Madras, Kaikeyas, Sindhus and Sauviras.3 Indian tradition, however, regards them as aliens or outcastes. Thus the Sutras mention the Yavanas (Greeks) as the most esteemed of foreigners, but all Yavanas are regarded as sprung from Sudra females and Ksatriya males. Gautama says that this view is held by some. 4 The Ramayana 5 refers to the struggles of the Hindus with mixed hordes of Sakas and Yavanas (cf. Sakan Yavanamisritan). In the Kiskindhya Kanda (IV, 43, II-12), Sugriva places the country of the Yavanas and the cities of the Sakas between the country of the Kurus and the Madras and the Himalayas. In the Mahabharata, the Yonas or Yaunas are classed with other peoples of Uttarapatha or Northern India like the Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras. In the Markandeya Purana, we also find a list of peoples where the Gabalas or Yavanas are classed with some other people of Northern or North-Western India like the Gandharas, Sindhu-Sauviras and Madrakas. Instead of Gabalas, the Vayu and the Matsya Puranas read Yavanas which seems to be the correct reading. The Yonas or Yavanas thus seem to be one of the ancient tribes settled in some part of India. A Yona or Greek State is, therefore, mentioned along with Kamboja 1 Indian Culture, Vol. I, pp. 343 foll. 2 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 225. 3 Ibid., p. 274. 4 Gautama Dharmasastra, IV, 21; Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, 240 f.n. 5 1, 54, 21. 6 Political History of Ancient India (4th Ed.), p. 3. 7 Cf. Uttarapathajanmanah Kirtayishyami tan api Yauna Kamboja Gandharah Kirata Barbaraih saha. Mbh., XII, 207, 43. 8 Cf. Gandhara Yavanascaiva Sindhu-Sauvira-Madrakah (Markandeya Purana, Chap. 57, 36).

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154 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA in the Majjhima Nikaya (II, 149) as flourishing in the time of Gautama Buddha and Assalayana.1 The Milinda-Panho refers to the land of the Yonas as the place fit for the attainment of Nibbana (Trenckner ed., p. 327). The Mahavastu speaks of the assembly of the Yonas where anything which was decided was binding on them (Vol. I, p. 171). Hence D. R. Bhandarkar in his Carmichael Lectures 2 observes that there is nothing strange in Panini flourishing in the sixth century B.C. and in his referring also to Yavanani, the writing of the Greeks. When Alexander invaded India he found a large number of autonomous tribes and principalities in the North-Western Frontier Province and the Punjab. Among these we find mention of the Nysaeans forming a small hill-state with a republican constitution. They had Adouphis then as their President and they had a Governing Body of three hundred members. Holdich in discussing the site of Nysa 3 shows that the lower spurs and valleys of Koh-i-Mor are where the ancient city of Nysa once stood. According to Bhandarkar, 4 Nysa was situated between the Kophen and the Indus. In the Fifth Book of Arrian's work,5 we find two relevant passages in this connection. Arrian says, 'The Nysaeans are not an Indian race, but descended from the men who came into India with Dionysus.'6 The deputies of Nysa, who waited upon Alexander, themselves told the Macedonian monarch that their city was founded by Dionysus; for Dionysus, the Greeks believed, had gone conquering across Asia, at the head of his revellers, in the old heroic days. "The Greeks', Bevan says,?'always experienced a keen joy of recognition, when they could connect foreign things with the figures of their own legends, and they were delighted with the suggestion. In the legend the name Nysa was specially connected with Dionysus-it was the name of his nurse, or of the place where he was born or of his holy hill--and the name of this little town in the Hindu Kush, as it was pronounced to Alexander, had a similar sound. Again the legend said that Dionysus had been born from the thigh (meros) of Zeus, and a neighbouring summit, the Greeks discovered, was called Meru. When, moreover, the Greeks saw the sacred plants of the same god, viz. vine and ivy (which grew nowhere else in the land of the Indians), running wild over the mountain, as they knew them at home, no doubt could be left. So hostilities with these interesting kinsmen i Cf. Yona Kambojesu ... dveva vanna, ayyo c'eva dasoca. 2 1921, p. 29. 3 Gates of India, p. 122. 4 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, p. 32. 5 Cf. McCrindle's Ancient India : its invasion by Alexander the Great, pp. 79-80. 6 Chinnock's edition, p. 399. 7 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 354.

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THE YONAS 155 could not be thought of, and the Nysaeans themselves joined with Alexander. Three hundred of them on their mountain horses joined the army of the Yavana king and followed him to battle in the plains of the Punjab. The evidence furnished by Arrian's account of Nysa shows that Nysa was a Greek colony before the advent of Alexander to India.2 In the inscription of Asoka, we find mention of the Yonas along with Kambojas. The question here arises-Who were these Yonas ? Bhandarkar in his Carmichael Lectures, 1921 (pp. 28ff.), points out that it is impossible to identify the Yonas of Rock Edict XIII with the Greeks of Bactria because the same edict was promulgated when Antiochus Theos, King of Syria, was living, his name being actually specified therein. In Asoka's time Bactria was included in the Syrian empire of Antiochus Theos. We learn from Greek historians, Trogus, Justin and Strabo, that it was Diodotus who first made Bactria independent. He was a Satrap of this province under Antiochus Theos. The death of Antiochus probably caused disturbance when Diodotus made himself independent in Bactria. So the Yonas of the Asokan inscription are to be located elsewhere. Bhandarkar therefore concludes: 'I suspect that it has to be identified with Aria or Arachosia which were the two provinces ceded by Seleucuos to Chandragupta and which must have been inherited intact by Asoka. I admit it is not possible to locate these Yonas exactly, but this much is certain that they were outside the kingdom of Antiochus Theos, and lived in Asoka's empire in a territory adjoining Gandhara but outside India.' 5 Bhandarkar therefore holds the view that in all likelihood, the Yavanas of Rock Edict XIII must have come and settled in large numbers in some outlying province of India long before Alexander. Numismatic evidence also lends support to such a view. Coins similar to those of the earliest type of Athens are known to have been collected from the north-west frontiers of India. They bear head of Athena on the obverse and owls on the reverse. These owls of Athens have been picked up in Southern Arabia Felix. But none of the owls found in the east are of the types known from Athens. The coins found in Arabia might have travelled there as a result of commercial intercourse, for they are generally counter-marked on the obverse with Sabaean letters or are scratched on the reverse with a 1 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 354. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, p. 32. 3 Rock Edict XIII. 4 Cf. "Yona-Kamboyeshu Nabhake Na(bhi)tina Bhoja-Pitinikeshu AmdhraPuli(de) shu savatra devanam priyasa dhramanusasti anuvatamti.' (Shabhazgarhi text-Inscriptions of Asoka, edited by Bhandarkar and Majumdar, pp. 53-4.) 5 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, p. 26. 6 Ibid., p. 27. 7 Numismatic Chronicle, XX, 191.

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156 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Sabaean monogram. Bhandarkar argues when a foreign money for the first time comes into circulation along with the native coinage of a country, all the new specimens are tested, and those, which are found not deficient in weight or quality of metal, are sanctioned by marking them with an official stamp which may consist of a single letter or symbol. These official stamps which are found on the owls of Athens, discovered in South Arabia, are conspicuous by their absence on those found on the frontiers of India. The practice of putting such counter-marks on coins was not unknown in or near India also, for the silver Persian sigloi which were current in the Punjab bear Indian counter-marks. When there is no countermark, it is not reasonable to say that they were brought there in course of trade. Bhandarkar 2 therefore concludes: The natural inference must be that they were native to some outlying district of India which was peopled by the Yavanas or Greeks. And as the original owls of Athens have been assigned to circa 594-560 B.C., a Greek colony, it is possible to infer, may have been established near India about 550 B.C.' Ray Chaudhuri 3 also notes that the exact situation of the Yona territory has not yet been determined. In the Mahavamsa (XII) we find that the Thera Maharakkhita was sent to the country of the Yonas. This work also refers to its chief city, Alasanda, which Geiger identifies with the town of Alexandria founded by the Macedonian conqueror near Kabul. Not only the Yonas are mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka, we also find a Yavana official or a vassal Yavanaraja called Tushaspha ruling as governor of Surastra with his capital at Girinagara (Girnar) during the days of Asoka, as we learn from the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Mahakshatrapa Rudradaman. Vincent Smith argues that the form of the name shows that the Yavanaraja must have been a Persian. But Ray Chaudhuri contends that if Greeks and other foreigners adopted Hindu names there is no wonder that some of them assumed Iranic appellations. There is, then, no good ground for assuming that Tushaspha was not a Greek, but a Persian. After the death of Asoka, a Yavana army crossed the Hindu Kush, which was the northern frontier of Asokan empire on the ruins of which an Indo-Greek kingdom arose. The Yuga Purana section of the Gargi Samhita points to the decline of Maurya power in the Madhyadesa when it says: "Tatah Saketam akramya Pancalam Mathuramstatha | Yavanah dustavikrantah prapsyati Kusuma 1 J.R.A.S., 1895, 874 and ff. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, p. 29. 3 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 253. 4 Mahavamsa, Geiger's translation, p. 194.

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THE YONAS 157 dhvajam | Tatah Puspapure prapte Karddame prathite hite | Akula visaya sarve bhavisyanti na samsayah|l'1 In Patanjali's Mahabhasya there is a similar line: 'Arunad Yavanah Saketam: Arunad Yavano Madhyamikam.' According to Sir R. G. Bhandarkar this shows that a certain Yavana or Greek prince had besieged Saketa or Ayodhya and another place called Madhyamika (near Chitor) when Patanjali wrote this. Kalidasa in his Malavikagnimitram refers to a conflict between the Sunga prince Vasumitra and a Yavana on the southern bank of the Sindhu. The name of this invader, however, is not given in the Mahabhasya or the Malavikagnimitram. It is clear at any rate that the extension of Yavana power to the interior of India was thwarted in the first instance by the Sungas. In Western India the rising power of the Andhras, Andhrabhrtyas or Satavahanas caused the last vestige of Yavana power to disappear. Thus from the Nasik Cave Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni we learn that he destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. While in the north-west of India the Yavanas were swept away by the onrush of the Parthians or Pahlavas, as we learn from Chinese sources. 1 Kern, Byhatsamhita, p. 37. 2 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 316.

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CHAPTER XXXII THE KALINGAS The Kalingas as a tribe are almost always associated with the Argas and Vargas in ancient Indian literature. These three tribes along with the Pundras and Suhmas are said to have been named after the five sons of Bali, Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Pundra and Suhma who were called Baleya Ksatra and also Baleya Brahmanas.1 These five tribes evidently then lived conterminously and had their distinct entities within respective geographical boundaries to which they gave the names of their respective tribes. The tradition referred to above is contained in the Puranas and the Great Epic, according to which, the sage Dirghatamas had married King Bali's Sudra nurse and had Kaksivant and other sons; and at Bali's desire begot on the queen Sudesna the aforesaid five sons. According to the Great Epic again, King Jarasandha is said to have extended his supremacy over the Angas, Vangas, Kalingas and the Pundras. In the Dronaparvan, Vasudeva is said to have once routed in battle the Angas, Vargas, Kalingas and the Paundras along with other peoples. A town named Kalinganagara, evidently one of the cities of the Kalinga people, is mentioned in the Ramayana, on the west of the Gomati and not far from it. A Kalinga tribe is also referred to in the Markandeya Purana 5 as having their settlement on the Satadru. Pargiter suggests that the reading is erroneous, for there seems to be no ground for thinking that the Kalingas lived in N. India.6 Moreover, the Vayupurana' in the same context reads Kulindas instead, which seems to be the correct reading. The Markandeya Purana 8 mentions another people named the Arkalingas along with the Kuntalas, Kasis, Kosalas, Atharvas and the Malakas. Pargiter doubts this reading as well, because of the Vayupurana reading which is different in the same context.' The Matsyapurana reads Avantas and Kalingas instead, 10 but this is also hardly satisfactory in view of the fact that the Kalingas are hardly known to have been associated with the Avantas and moreover that the Kalingas are elsewhere 1 Puranic tradition as contained in a number of Puranas, the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. See the Dirghatamasa story and its sequel. Compare Pargiter, A.I.H.T., p. 158. 2 Mahabharata, XII, Chap. 5, 6607. 3 Ibid., Chap. 10, 15. 4 Ayodhya K., LXXIII, 14, 15. 5 LVII, 37. 6 Markandeya Purana, p. 316 n. 7 XLV, 116. 8 LVII, 33. 9 Markandeya Purana, p. 308 n. 10 CXIII, 36.

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THE KALINGAS 159 described not only in the same Purana but also in other Puranas as a people of the southern region. The Markandeya, for example, says that they dwelt in the southern region along with the Maharastras, Mahisakas, Abhiras, Vaisikyas, Savaras, Pulindas and others. A number of famous Kalinga or Kalinga kings are mentioned in the Adiparva of the Mahabharata 2 and they are credited with having contracted matrimonial relations with princesses of the Aryan royal families of the north (e.g. Adiparvan, XCV, 3774-5, 3780; Dronaparvan, LXX, 2436). According to epic evidence as contained in the Mahabharata, the Kalinga country comprised the entire tract of country lying along the coast of Vaitarani in Orissa to the borders of the Andhra country.4 The country of the Kalingas is mentioned by Panini. According to Baudhayana, the country was branded as an impure one and was included in his list of Samkirna yonayah. According to Kautilya's Arthasastra,? elephants of Anga and Kalinga belonged to the best of their types, while those of Karusa, Dasarna and Aparanta were only second in order of classification, those of the Saurastras and allied tribes (Saurastrikah pancajanoh) having been the worst. The Jatakas contain a number of references to the Kalinga country and its kings. Thus, for example, according to the Kumbhakara Jataka, Karandu was a Kalinga and he was a contemporary of Nimi, king of Videha. The Mahagovinda Suttanta makes Sattabhu, king of Kalinga, a contemporary of Renu, king of Mithila and of Dhatarattha or Dhstarastra, king of Kasi and Anga. The Jatakas also refer to the capital city of Kalinga which was Dantapuranagara which is probably identical with Dantakura mentioned in the Mahabharata,8 Dantapura of inscriptions. Other cities of the Kalinga country are also known, e.g. Rajapura, 10 Simhapura, 11 which is probably identical with Singupuram near Chicacole, 12 Kancanapura of the Jainas, 13 and Kalinganagara which has been identified with Mukhalingam on the river Vamsadhara. 14 Kalinga (Kalinga) is mentioned in the Niddesa.15 From Kalinga the Buddha's tooth was brought to Ceylon at the time of King Sirimeghavanna. A Kalinga king picked up a quarrel with Aruna, the Assaka king of Potali, but was defeated and had to surrender. 16 1 LVII, 46-7. 2 LXVII, 2701. 3 III, 114, 4. 4 Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 75. 5 IV, 1, 170. 6 I, i, 30-1. 7 II, 2. 8 V, 48-76. 9 Epigraphia I ndica, XIV, p. 361. 10 Mahabharata, XIII, 4, 3. 11 Mahavastu, Senart's Ed., p. 432. 12 Dubreuil, A.H.D., p. 94. 13 Indian Antiquary, 1891, p. 375. 14 Epigraphia Indica, IV, 187. 15 Cullaniddesa, ii, 37. 16 Jataka (Fausboll), III, 3f.

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160 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Susima, a Kalinga princess, was married to a king of Vanga.1 Vijayabahu I married a Kalinga princess named Tilokasundari. Magha, a prince of Kalinga, did a great mischief to Ceylon.3 Asoka's brother Tissa spent his retirement in the Kalinga country with his teacher Dhammarakkhita. Important light on the history of the Kalinga people is thrown by Pliny, the classical historian. From the accounts of Diodoros Curtius and Plutarch, we know that at the time of Alexander's invasion, there were two very powerful peoples in the lower Gangetic valley, the Parasii (Braisioi) and the Gangaridai whose king was Xandrammes or Agrammes. The capital city of the Prasii was Palibothra or Pataliputra, while that of the Gangridai was Gange at the mouth of the Ganges, according to the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, or at the junction of the Ganges leading to the Maga and Kamberikhon mouths respectively. Pliny adds a third important people of E. India at that time, namely the Kalingas. He says: 'The tribes called Kalingas are nearest the sea, and higher up are the Mandaei and the Malli, in whose country is mount Mallus, the boundary of all that district being the Ganges ... the final part of its course is through the country of the Gangaridaes. The royal city of Kalinga is called Parthalis. Over their king 60,000 foot-soldiers, 1,000 horsemen and 7,000 elephants keep watch and ward. An alternative reading of Pliny's text makes GangaridaeKalinga one people, having a king, a capital city, and an army of their own. Pliny further mentions two more tribes which must have been allied with the Kalinga people proper, e.g. the Maccokalingae (cf. modern Mukhalingam referred to above, or is it Mukhya Kalingah, the main Kalingas?) and the Modokalinga, both inhabiting an island in the Ganges. The capital city Parthalis of the Kalingae has been identified with Purvasthali, a large village about 20 miles from the present Burdwan town, which, however, is not above criticism. In any case, from the description of Pliny, it is certain that the countries of the Gangaridae and the Kalingae were adjacent territories. Agrammes or Xandrammes has been usually identified with Mahapadma Nanda who was king of both Prasii and Gangaridae. Mahapadma was supplanted by Candragupta Maurya who is referred to by Greek writers as having been king of Prasii but nowhere is he mentioned as king of Gangaridae as well. The well-known Kalinga expedition of Asoka was, perhaps, directed against a probable 1 Mahavamsa, VI, I; Dipavamsa, IX, 2ff. 2 Culavamsa, LIX, 30. 4 Theragatha Commentary, I, 506. 3 Ibid., LXXX, 58f. 5 1.H.Q., IV, p. 55.

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THE KALINGAS 161 Kalingae-Gangaridae combination of forces, suggested by an alternative reading of Pliny referred to above. In any case, the Kalinga resistance must have been a very stiff one, as is evident from the description in the thirteenth Rock Edict. Kalinga is again lifted to historical prominence when Kharavela of the Ceta dynasty became anointed, when he had completed his twenty-fourth year, as Maharaja of Kalinga. In his Hathigumpha Cave Inscription Kalinga finds mention for more than once and it is said in that very inscription that in the first year of his reign he repaired the gates and ramparts of his capital Kalinganagara identified with Mukhalingam. We do not hear of the Kalingas or their country, so far at least as N. India history is concerned, for a long time, in fact not until we reach the time when Yuan Chwang visited the country in about the second quarter of the seventh century A.D. Kalidasa, however, in his Raghuvamsam mentions both Utkala and Kalinga, from which it is evident that they were two distinct countries. Yuan Chwang travelled from Odra to Kangoda whence he travelled through jungle and forest, dense with huge trees, south-west for 1,400 or 1,500 li, to Kalinga (Ka-long-ka). According to him, the country was above 5,000 li in circuit, its capital being above 20 li. There were regular seed-time and harvest, fruits and flowers grew profusely, and there were continuous woods for some hundreds of li. The country produced dark wild elephants prized by neighbouring countries. The climate was hot ... The people were ... fast and clear in speech; in their talk and manners they differed somewhat from "Mid-India". There were few Buddhists, the majority of the people being of other religions. There were above ten Buddhist monasteries, and 500 brethren students of the Mahayanist Sthavira School System. There were more than 100 Deva temples, and the professed adherents of the various sects were very numerous, the majority being nirgranthas.'1 Earlier, however, by about two centuries (i.e. fifth century A.D.) there is the well-known Komarti grant 2 which introduces us to a Sri Maharaja named Candravarman who is described as Kalingadhipati (lord of Kalinga). To his dynasty, probably, also belonged Umavarman and Visakhavarman who were both evidently lords of Kalinga. To about the same date as that of the Komarti grant, may be ascribed the inscription of a certain Kalingadhipati Vasisthiputra Saktivarman of the Mathara family who granted from Pistapura (= Pithapuram) the village of Rakaluva in the Kalinga 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 198. 2 Sewell, Historical Inscriptions of Southern India, p. 18.

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162 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA visaya.1 In the Aihole Inscriptions (634-35 A.D.) Pulakesin II claims to have subdued the Kalingas along with the Kosalas and took the fortress of Pistapura. One at least of the Vakataka kings is credited with having conquered the Andhra and Kalinga countries; he was Harisena, the father-in-law of Madhavavarman the Visnukundin.3 Towards the middle of the seventh century Kalinga seems to have come, for a time at least, under the sway of Kamarupa. One of her kings, Harsadeva or Sri Harsa, is described in a contemporary Nepalese inscription to have been the king of Gauda, Odra, Kalinga, Kosala and other countries. 4 Another reference to Kalinga we find in the Bheraghat Inscription of Alhanadevi, the queen of Gaya-Karna of the Kalacuri dynasty, the grandson of the famous Laksmikarna. It informs us that when Laksmikarna gave full play to his heroism, Varga trembled with Kalinga. King Ramapala of the Pala dynasty also seems to have inflicted a defeat on Kalinga as well as on Utkala and Kamarupa.6 King Vijayasena of the Sena dynasty is credited with having inflicted a defeat on the Kalingas whose king at that time was evidently Raghava.? The Madhainagar grant of Laksmanasena informs us that the Gaudesvara (i.e. Laksmana) in his youth took his pleasures with the females of Kalinga. The reference to Trikalinga in some of the old records is very interesting. The S. Indian dynasties that ruled in the northern districts of Madras, C.P., and Orissa assumed the title 'Lord of Trikalinga' or 'Trikalingadhipati'.8 Kalinga, evidently in a narrow sense, has always been distinguished in literature and sometimes also in epigraphs from Odra and Utkala and Kosala; but we must also take the Puranic statement into consideration that the Amarakantaka hill was situated in the western half of Kalinga (Kalingadese pascardhe parvate Amarakantake). Mention may also be made in this connection to Pliny's reference to three Kalingas in his time, already mentioned: (i) the Gangaridae-Calingae, the Kalingas who lived conterminously with the Gangaridae, (2) the Macco-Calingae, either the Mekala-Kalingas or (Macco = Muka = 1 Ep. Ind., XII, pp. Iff. * 2 Ibid., VI, pp. 4ff. 3 J.R.A.S., 1914, p. 137. 4 Ind. Ant., 1880, vol. IX, p. 179; J.R.A.S., 1898, pp. 384-5; 1.H.Q., 1927, p. 841. 5 Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p. II. 6 Ramacarita, II, 45 and 47. 7 Deopara Inscription. 8 E.g., the Sonpur grant of Mahasivagupta Yayati where the king is described as such. The same king is described in one of his grants as having been elected king of Kalinga, Kargoda, Utkala and Kosala. Kangoda is certainly the KungYu-t'u of Yuan Chwang, when the pilgrim went to Kaleng-ka, cf, the Narasapatam grant of Trikalingadhipati Vajrahastadeva. IIB

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THE KALINGAS 163 three) the Muka-Kalingas (perhaps identical with Mukhalingam) and (3) the Calingae proper. The word Tilang which we meet with in some Arabic records1 evidently is a corruption of this Trikalinga which is also responsible for the term Talaing used to designate the ancient people of Lower Burma or Ramannadesa who must have originally migrated from the Trikalinga countries. The term Kling applied to the people of Malay Peninsula must have originally been derived from Kalinga which seems to have been the original home of the Kling people. 1 E.g., see Elliot, History of India as told by her own Historians, Vol. III, p. 234.

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CHAPTER XXXIII THE ANDHRAS The earliest mention of the Andhras as a tribe is to be found along with the Savaras, Pulindas and probably also the Mutibas, in the Aitareya Brahmana where all these tribes are referred to as dasyus or non-Aryans. In the satapatha Brahmana also, the Andhras are mentioned along with the Pundras, Savaras, Pulindas and the Mutibas.2 Vincent Smith is of opinion that the Andhras were a Dravidian-speaking people and were evidently the progenitors of the modern Telegu-speaking people occupying the deltas of the Godavari and the Krsna,8 while P.T.S. Iyangar also holds that the Andhras were originally a Vindhyan tribe that extended its political power from the west gradually to the east down the Godavari and the Krsna valleys.4 That the Andhras were indigenous to the Deccan is attested to by both the epics; the Mahabharata says that they were Daksina-patha-janmanah, while the Ramayana connects them with the Godavari: Daksina-patha-janmanah sarve naravarandhrakah, Guhah Pulindah savaras Cukuka Madrakaih (?) saha. (Mbh., XII, 207, 42.) Nadim Godavarim caiva sarvamevanupasyatah, Tathaivandhramsca Pundramsca colan Pandramscakebalan. (Ram., Kish. Kan., 41, Chap. 11.) That the Andhras occupied the Godavari-Krsna valley is further upheld by one of the earliest records of the Pallava dynasty that flourished in the Andhra region. The Mayidavolu plates of the early Pallava ruler Sivaskandavarman prove that the Andhrapatha or the region of the Andhras embraced the Krsna district with Dhannakada or Bezwada as its capital.5 The Markandeya Purana 6 mentions in the list of peoples inhabiting the eastern countries a tribe called the Andhrarakas which is substituted by the Andhravakas.? But both seem to be misreadings for the Andhras who were always a people of the southern regions, as also in view of the fact that the same Markandeya Purana 1 Aitareya Br., VII, 18. 2 'Antan vah prajah taksista iti, etc. Andhrah Pundrah Savarah Pulindah Mutibah iti uddyantah vahaboh bhavanti.' 3 Ind. Ant., 1913, pp. 276-8. 4 Ibid., 1918, p. 71. 5 Ep. Ind., VI, p. 88. & Canto LVII, 42. 7 XLV, 122.

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THE ANDHRAS 165 places a people called the Andhas along with the Maulikas, Asmakas, Bhogavardhanas, Naisikas, Kuntalas, etc., in the southern region.i The reading Andhas is also corrected in the Vayupurana as Andhras.2 These peoples are mentioned in the Mahabharata in the Udyogaparvan and Bhismaparvan as Andhakas and Andhras respectively. According to the Sabhaparvan and Vanaparvan, the Andhas or Andhras were a rude uncivilised people. - The earliest epigraphic mention of the Andhra people is made in some of the edicts (XIII, R.E.) of Asoka where the Andhras, Palidas (Paladas, Parimdas = the Pulindas, or the Paradas), Bhojas and Rathikas (Rastrikas) are said to have been vassal tribes of the great Maurya. The Andhra people are also referred to by Pliny who says that the Andarae or Andhras possessed a very large number of villages, thirty towns defended by walls and towers, and supplied their king with an army of 100,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants.5 The founder of the great Satavahanas, Simuka, who is credited by the Puranas to have assailed the Kanvayanas and destroyed the remains of the Sunga power in about the first century B.C. is said to have started a dynasty that ruled over the Daksinapatha. for about 250 years. The Satavahanas are claimed by the Puranas to have been Andhras or Andhrabhrtyas. The exact significance of this appellation cannot, however, be determined but doubtless they ruled over the whole of Andhradesa and the adjoining regions. In the Haraha Inscription of the Maukhari king Kumaragupta III (554 A.D.) a certain 'lord of the Andhras' (Andhradhipati) is said to have given the Maukhari king a great trouble by his thousands of three-fold rutting elephants'. Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri suggests that the Andhra king referred to was probably Madhavavarman (I, Javasraya) of the Polamuru plates belonging to the Visnukundin family." This suggestion seems to be in agreement with the fact that the Jaunpur Inscription of Isvaravarman, father of Isanavarman Maukhari, refers to victory over the Andhras on behalf of isvaravarman.8 The Vakataka king Harisena, father-in-law of Madhavavarman of the Visnukundin family referred to above, also claims to have conquered the Andhra and Kalinga regions. The Iksvakus succeeded the Satavahanas in the rule of the Andhra region where almost all the records of the dynasty have 1 LVII, 48-9. 2 XLV, 127. 3 XVIII, 586 and X, 357 respectively. 4 IV, 119; XXX, 1175; XXXIII, 1270 and Vanaparvan, LI, 1988. 5 Ind. Ant., 1877, p. 339. 6 Ep. Ind., XIV, pp. IIoff. 7 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 509. 8 C.I.I., III, p. 230. 9 J.R.A.S., 1914, p. 137.

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166 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA been found. At the time of Pallava Sivaskandavarman, the Andhrapatha or the Andhra country seems to have come under the sway of the Pallava dynasty whose headquarters at this time were at Dhamnakada (Dhanya-kataka). According to the Puranas, the Andhra (i.e. the Satavahana) dynasty had five different branches.1 In fact, one of these five branches, namely, the Cutusatakarni branch, is, known from inscriptions, coins and literary references to have ruled in the Kuntala country before the Kadambas.2 The Vayupurana in the same context referred to above mentions the Abhiras who ruled after the Andhras (i.e. the Satavahanas). In about the second quarter of the seventh century A.D., the celebrated Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang visited the An-to-lo or the Andhra country. The nearest transcription of An-to-lo is Andara which is comparable to Pliny's Andarae referred to above, though doubtless it means the Andhra country. From Kosala (evidently South Kosala), the pilgrim travelled south, through a forest, for above 900 li to the An-to-lo country which 'had a rich fertile soil with a moist hot climate; the people were of violent character; their mode of speech differed from that of "Mid-India", but they followed the same system of writing. There were twenty odd Buddhist monasteries with more than 3,000 brethren. Near the capital was a large monastery with a succession of high walls and storeyed terraces....3 The name of the capital of the country as given by the pilgrim was Ping-ki-lo which does not seem to have as yet been correctly identified, though Cunningham sought to equate it with Warangal. We have seen above that in the time of Pallava Sivaskandavarman, Dharyakataka was the capital of the Andhrapatha, but Hsuan Tsang seems to refer to Dhanyakataka as a region separate from Andhra. The pilgrim proceeds to relate that from Andhra he continued his journey south, through wood and jungle, for over 1,000 li, and reached the Te-na-ka-che-ka country which was above 6,000 li in circuit, and its capital was above 40 li in circuit. Te-na-ka-che-ka has been equated with Dhanyayakataka or Dhanakataka. 1 E.g. Vayu P., 99, 358. 'Andhranam samsthita) panca tesham vamsah samak punah.' 2 Sircar, Successors of the Satavahanas, pp. 218ff. For a summary of the historical vicissitudes of Andhradesa after the Satavahanas, see ibid., pp. 3-5 of the introduction. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 209. 4 Watters, ibid., Vol. II, pp. 214ff. But there are scholars who hold that Yuan Chwang's description of the city and its surroundings does not suit the identification. Fergusson, Burgess and Sewell therefore locate the city at Bezwada. Cunningham, A.G.I., Majumdar's Ed., notes, p. 737.

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THE ANDHRAS 167 The country had a rich soil and yielded abundant crops; there was much waste land and the inhabited towns were few; the climate was warm, and the people were of black complexion, violent disposition, and fond of the arts. There was a crowd of Buddhist monasteries but most of them were deserted, about 20 being in use, with 1,000 brethren mostly adherents of the Mahasanghika system. There were about 100 Deva temples and the followers of the various sects were numerous ... Stray references to the Andhra country and people are made in later epigraphic records as well. Thus the Indian Museum inscription of the ninth year of Narayanapaladeva of the Pala dynasty refers to the Andhra-vaisayika Sakyabhiksu Sthavira Dharmamitra who erected an image, evidently of the Buddha. The Pali Buddhist literature is not wanting in references to the Andhras. The Apadana, a book of the Pali Canon, mentions Andhakas along with the Mundakas, Kolakas and Cinas who came to show respect to a banker's son named Jatukannika in the town of Hamsavati. A young brahmin after completing his education at Takkasila (Taxila), then a great seat of learning, came to the Andhra country to profit by practical experience.2 Assaka and Alaka or Mulaka were the two Andhaka kings.3 A brahmin well versed in mantras belonging to the kingdom of Kosala came to live in the kingdom of Assaka on the banks of the Godavari.4 1 Pt. II, p. 359. 2 Jat. [I, pp. 356ff (Fausboll)]. Cowell means Mahimsakarattha by Andhradesa (Coweli, Jat., I, p. 203). 3 Suttanipata Commentary, II, p. 581. 4 Suttanipata, p. 190.

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CHAPTER XXXIV THE DAMILAS The Damilas, commonly known as the Tamils, were a powerful S. Indian tribe, frequently mentioned in Buddhist texts, particularly the Ceylon Chronicles (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, Culavamsa). It is interesting to note that a Vinaya Commentary called Vimativinodani was written by Kassapa Thera, an inhabitant of the kingdom of Damila.2 In the Mahavamsa Tika, however, we are told that the Damilas were disrespectful to the Buddhist stupas. From the Pali Chronicles we find that the Damilas were a warlike people. From early times they made incursions into Ceylon, and we frequently find Damila rulers on the throne at Anuradhapura. For instance, in 177 B.C., two Damilas, Sena and Gutta, are said to have conquered King Suratissa (187-177 B.C.) and ruled the island of Lanka (= Ceylon) for twenty-two years. In the second and first centuries B.C. the island of Lanka was very much troubled by the Damilas who became very turbulent. A Damila king named Elara reigned in Lanka from 145 B.C. till 101 B.C., and was then defeated and dethroned by the famous Dutthagamani, 'himself a great warrior, accompanied by ten great heroes'.5 In the Mahavamsa Tika we read that Dutthagamani fought with the Damilas, killing large numbers of them, and made a single realm of Ceylon. This story is elaborated in the Sumangalavilasini (p. 640). Here we read that' Dutthagamani Abhaya', after defeating 32 Damila kings and being crowned at Anuradhapura as undisputed ruler of Ceylon, was so highly delighted that he did not sleep for a month. The Thupavamsa (p. 59) further says that Dutthagamani defeated the Damilas at Mahiyangana, where he built a golden cetiya 1 We may note that the word 'Dravidian' comes from the ethnic name Dravida', or 'Dramida' or 'Damila'. 2 Sasanavamsa, 33. 3 Mahavamsa Tika, p. 447 (P.T.S. Ed.). 4 Dipavamsa, 18, 47. 5 Mahabodhivamsa, p. 133. 6 Mahavamsa Tika, p. 24. | 7 Ibid., p. 489--the phrase is 'ghatetva Damile sabbe', 'killing all the Damilas', but this is probably poetic licence. 8 'Ekarajjam katva'-ibid., p. 437; and see p. 100. 9 Cf. Thupavamsa (P.T.S. Ed. by B. C. Law), p. 63, and B. C. Law, History of Pali Literature, Vol. II, p. 577.

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THE DAMILAS 169 and worshipped it. On another occasion, he conquered the Damilas 'on the other side of the Ganges' (Gangaya paratire). Many Damilas were also killed by Velusumano, a general of Dutthagamani, after they had taken refuge in the city called Vijitanagara (or Vijitapura). Thereupon Dutthagamani's troops went to Giriloka, where a Damila general named Giriya was slain.2 King Kakavanna Tissa, Dutthagamani's father, had also fought with the Damilas at Mahiyangana, where he built a golden stupa.3 In order to put a check on the Damilas he kept guards at the fords of the Mahaganga.4 In 43 B.C., in the fifth month of Vattagamani's reign, a Brahmin named Tissa rose against him, but was defeated by seven Damilas who landed at Mahatittha. Then these Damilas waged war against Vattagamani and defeated him at Kolambalaka. For fourteen years, Vattagamani and his queen Anula were exiled, and during this period five Damilas ruled in succession at Anuradhapura. First came Pulahattha who ruled this city for three years, and appointed a Damila named Bahiya as his commander (senapati).5 Bahiya succeeded Pulahattha, and was followed in his turn by Panayamara, Pilayamara, and Dathika. Meanwhile, Vattagamani was staging a comeback, and in 29 B.C. he attacked and slew Dathika, regained his throne, and reigned until 17 B.C.de Some years later (between 12 and 16 A.D.), the wicked queen Anula poisoned all her husbands in succession; among them were two Damilas, namely Vatuka and Niliya.? Though there must have been Damila incursions during the succeeding four centuries, we have no definite dates until 433 A.D. when a Damila usurper named Panduka reigned in Ceylon for five years, after killing King Mittasena.8 A little later, another Damila usurper named Pithiya ruled at Anuradhapura for seven months, and was then killed in battle. More Damilas were killed by Mana,10 eldest son of Kassapa II (641-650 A.D.). We then have another gap in the chronology, until 1 Mahavamsa Tika, p. 476. The Ganges in this case is the 'Great River' of Ceylon (= Mahavalukaganga). 2 Thupavamsa (P.T.S. Ed. by B. C. Law), p. 62; Mahavamsa sika, pp. 475, 479; and see Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s.v. Velusumano, Dutthagamani, and Giriya. 3 Thupavamsa, p. 58. 4 Mahavamsa Tika, p. 448. 5 Ibid., p. 617. 6 This Dathika must be identical with the Sathika or Dathika who is mentioned in the Dipavamsa (19, 16) as having been killed by 'Abhaya, son of Saddhatissa', i.e. by Vattagamani. 1 Mahavamsa sika, p. 626. 8 Culavamsa (P.T.S.), p. 22. 9 Ibid., p. 24. 10 Ibid., p. 71.

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170 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA the time of Parakkamabahu I of Ceylon (1153-1186 A.D.). During this period, Kulasekhara, a Cholian king of S. India, besieged the Pandyan king, Parakkama of Madhura, and the latter appealed for help to Parakkamabahu who sent an expeditionary force to S. India where they carried on a prolonged campaign against Kulasekhara and his allies, in the course of which the fortress of Semponmari was conquered by the Sinhalese.1 Meanwhile, the Pandyan king had been killed, but the Sinhalese defeated Kulasekhara and installed Parakkama's son on the throne of Madhura.2 About a century later, a powerful Damila general named Ariyacakkavatti laid waste the kingdom of Ceylon, entered the town of Subhagiri, seized all its sacred treasures, including the Buddha's tooth relic, and returned with them to the Pandu kingdom, then ruled over by another Kulasekhara (1268-1308 A.D.).3 A study of the Buddhist texts clearly shows that the Damilas were a fighting people, engaged in constant strife with the Sinhalese. They are described as 'anariya' or uncultured. They ere defeated and mercilessly massacred in almost all their battles with the Sinhalese; on one occasion, as we read in the Mahavamsa Commentary, 4 the Damilas were killed in such large numbers that the water of a pond became red on account of the profuse flow of Damila blood. They are said to have used red-hot iron balls and molten pitch against their enemies.5 The literary tradition of Ceylon does not clearly indicate who these Damila invaders were. But, as we have seen above, the general Ariyacakkavatti, for example, came from the Pandu kingdom, i.e. the land of the Pandyas in the southernmost part of India, and we may perhaps conclude from this that the Damilas who made predatory excursions into the island of Ceylon from time to time were natives of Pandya. We cannot tell, however, whether those Damilas who invaded Ceylon in early times were sent on their expeditions by the king of Pandu, or whether they were a race of marauders who undertook those expeditions on their own initiative. The Commentaries of Buddhaghosa distinguish the Damilas from the Yavanas and Kiratas on the one hand, and from the Andhras on the other. The relations between the Damila country and Ceylon were not always inimical. For instance, the account of Vijaya in the Mahavamsam distinctly brings out that a matrimonial alliance 1 Culavamsa (P.T.S.), p. 402. 2 See Malalasekera, op. cit., s.v. Kulasekhara. 3 Culavamsa, p. 512. 5 Ibid., p. 477. 4 p. 482. 6 VTi, 72.

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THE DAMILAS 171 existed between the rulers of Lanka and Pandya. It is also mentioned that there was a very early settlement in Ceylon of skilled craftsmen and families of the eighteen guilds, all from Pandya. There existed a close cultural relationship and constant intercourse between S. India and Ceylon; notable centres of Buddhist learning mentioned in Pali works being Kaveripattana, Madhura and Kancipura (modern Conjeeveram).

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CHAPTER XXXV THE SAVARAS The Savaras or Sabaras referred to in both the Great Epics were a non-Aryan tribe. The earliest mention of them is to be found in the Aitareya Brahmana (VII, 18), where it is stated that the elder sons of Visvamitra were cursed to become progenitors of such servile races as Andhras, Pundras, Savaras, Pulindas and Mutibas.1 The implication of this passage seems to be that the Savaras were a non-Aryan people dwelling somewhere in the Daksinapatha. The Matsya and Vayu Puranas definitely locate them in the south, describing them as Daksinapathavasinah.2 The Mahabharata (XII, 207, 42) also places them in the Deccan along with the Andhras and Pulindas: Daksinapathajanmanah sarve naravarandhrakah Guhah Pulindah savaras Cucuka Madrakaih (?) saha. Ptolemy 3 mentions a country called Sabarai which is generally held to be identical with the region inhabited by the Savaras. Cunningham identifies the Sabarai of Ptolemy with Pliny's Suari, and further identifies both with the aboriginal Savaras or Suars, a wild race who lived in the woods and jungles without any fixed habitations, and whose country extended as far southward as the Pennat river. These Savaras or Suars are only a single branch of a widely spread race found in large numbers to the south-west of Gwalior and Marwar and S. Rajputana where they are known as Surrius.4 The Ramayana story of the Savara women who were deeply attached to Ramacandra also seems to indicate that the Savaras were a wild tribe inhabiting the forest regions of the south.5 1 Roth, Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda, p. 133. 2 Matsya P., 144, 46-8; Vayu P., 45, 126. 3 McCrindle: Ptolemy's Ancient India, Ed. S. N. Majumdar, p. 173. 4 Ibid., p. 173. 5 See Ramayana, I, 1, 55 sq. (Cf. Ram., III, 77, 6 sq.)

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CHAPTER XXXVI THE MUTIBAS The Mutibas were a non-Aryan barbarian (Dasyu) tribe, mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana (VII, 18) along with the Andhras, Pulindas and Savaras. They are also probably referred to in the Sankhayana Srauta Sutra (XV, 26, 6) under the name Mucipas or Muvipas. The location of the Mutibas is not definitely known, but as they are mentioned along with the Savaras and Pulindas who, according to the Puranas 2 and the Mahabharata,3 were 'daksinapathavasinah' or located in the south, it may be surmised that the Mutibas also were a southern tribe. This is also indicated by the fact that the Andhras with whom they are associated were also a southern people. The Mutibas were probably the same as the Modubae of Pliny, who are said to have dwelt beyond the Modo-Galingae, a tribe occupying a large island in the Ganges; though it is difficult to account for the Mutibas evidently a southern tribe, coming to occupy a region not very far from the Ganges. The Mutibas do not seem to have been an important tribe; they are scarcely mentioned in the historical period. 1 'It is not altogether improbable that the Mucipas are the people who appear in the Markandeya Purana (57, 46) under the designation of Mushika. A comparison of the Aitareya Brahmana with the Sankhayana Srauta Sutra betrays a good deal of confusion with regard to the second and third consonants of the name. It was, therefore, perfectly natural for later generations to introduce further variations. The Mushikas were probably settled on the banks of the river Musi on which Hyderabad now stands' (P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 80). 2 Vayu P., 45, 126; Matsya P., 114, 46-8. 3 XII, 207, 42.

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CHAPTER XXXVII THE PULINDAS The Pulindas were a people belonging to the aboriginal stock, and have often been classed with such non-Aryan tribes as the Sabaras, Abhiras, Pulkusas, etc. They are usually definitely stated to be a southern tribe, but there seems to have been a northern branch of the Pulindas as well. The association of the Pulindas with the Andhras and Savaras, as also with the Pundras and Mutibas, is as old as the Aitareya Brahmana (VII, 18), where it is stated that the elder sons of Visvamitra were cursed to become progenitors of such races as the Andhras, Pundras, Savaras, Pulindas and Mutibas. The Mahabharata 2 places the Pulindas in the Daksinapatha (Deccan), along with the Andhras, Guhas, Savaras, Cucukas and Madrakas. The Matsya and Vayu Puranas s also describe them as Daksinapatha-vasinah (dwelling in the Deccan), along with the Vaidarbhas, Dandakas, Vindhyas and others. The Markandeya Purana 4 too places the Pulindas in the Deccan, and classes them with the Pundrakas, Keralas, Kalingas, Abhiras, Andhras, Vidarbhas and Kuntalas. The Srimad-Bhagavatam (2, 4, 18) associates them with the Kiratas, Hunas, Andhras, Pukkusas, Abhiras, Suhmas, Yavanas and Khasas, all of whom sought the protection of Sri Krsna. * In the Bengali recension of the Ramayana (Kiskindhya K., XLI, 17; XLIV, 12), the Pulindas appear both in the south and in the north. The northern recension knows only of the northern Pulindas (Kiskindhya K., XLIII). The Visnupurana 5 associates the Pulindakas (probably identical with the Pulindas) with the Sindhus: the two peoples are coupled in a compound-Sindhu 1 Roth, Zur Litteratur und Geschichte des Weda, p. 133. 2 XII, 207, 42. 3 Tesam pare janapada Daksinapatha-vasinah Karusasca sahaisika Atavyah savarastatha Pulinda Vindhyapusika Vaidarbha Dandakaih saha (Matsya, 114, 46-8). Abhirah saha caisikah Atavyah Savarasca ye Pulinda Vindhyamulika Vaidarbha Dandakaih saha (Vayu, 45, 126). 4 57, 45-8. The Pulindas are also mentioned in the Brahmanda Purana (see Purva Bhaga, 16, 40ff.), Brahma P. (27, 41ff.), Vamana P. (13, 35ff.), Garuda P. (55, Ioff.). 5 See Wilson, Visnu P. tr., Vol. 2 (1865), pp. 156ff.

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THE PULINDAS 175 Pulindakas--and are mentioned together with the Karusas, Bhojas, Dasarnas, Mekalas, Utkalas and other tribes. The compound Sindhu-Pulindaka also occurs in the Mahabharata (6, 346ff.) and Padmapurana (III, 6, 4ff.). The Pulindas are alluded to in the Raghuvamsa as well (XVI, 32), but there is hardly any clue to their geographical location. The capital of the (southern) Pulindas was Pulindanagara which lay to the south-east of Dasarna, i.e. in the Vidisa or Bhilsa region, and may have been identical with Rupnath, the find-spot of one recension of Minor Rock Edict I of Asoka.1 At the time of Asoka, the Pulindas, together with the Andhras, Bhojas and Rastrikas, formed a group of vassal tribes within the Emperor's dominions, which extended as far south as the Pennar river in the Nellore district, just stopping short of the Tamil kingdoms, which are referred to as Pracamta or frontier states. Some interesting information about the Pulindas is supplied by Ptolemy. According to him, the Pulindas seem to have been located along the banks of the Narmada, to the frontiers of Larike or Lata = Gujarat; for he describes them as occupying a region northward of Nasik, Ozene (= Ujjain), Minnagara, Larika or Latadesa (= Gujarat), Barygaza (= Bharukaccha = Broach), etc. His epithet for the tribe is 'Agriophagoi',-a Greek word indicating that they were a tribe that subsisted on raw flesh and wild roots and fruits. Yule in his map locates the Pulindas to the north-east of the Gulf of Cutch. 1 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., pp. 79, 258. 2 Rock Edict, V and XIII.

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CHAPTER XXXVIII THE KUNTALAS The Kuntalas are twice mentioned in the Markandeya Purana list of tribes, once in connection with the peoples of Kasi and Kosala (LVII, 33), which means that they were a Madhyadesa tribe, and elsewhere (LVII, 48) along with the Asmakas, Bhogavardhanas, Naisikas, Andhras, etc., which suggests that they were a people of the Deccan. The Bhismaparvan of the Mahabharata, however, seems to locate the people in three different regions. One verse (IX, 347) seems to locate them in the Madhyadesa, while another (IX, 367) in the Deccan which is also upheld by a reference apparently to the same people in the Karnaparvan (XX, 779). A third reference in the Bhismaparvan (IX, 359) suggests location of the tribe somewhere in the western region. Cunningham points out (A.S.R., XI, 123) that the country of the Kuntalas of the Madhyadesa should be identified with the region near Chunar which he calls Kuntila. Whatever be the merit of the identification, the Kuntalas of the Madhyadesa do not seem to have attained to any historical eminence. The Kuntalas of the west also have hardly any place in history. But the Kuntalas of the Deccan appear to have risen to considerable importance in historical times as will be evident from subsequent details. Literary and epigraphic references have now proved beyond doubt that there were several families of the Satakarnis of the Deccan, and one or more of these families ruled over Kuntala of the Kanarese districts before the Kadambas (Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., 339-40). One member mentioned in the Matsyapurana list is actually called Kuntala satakarni, a name that is commented upon by the commentator of Vatsyayana's Kamasutra. He takes the word 'Kuntala' in the name Kuntala Satakarni to mean'Kuntalavisaye jatatvat tatsamakhyah'. A Satavahana of Kuntala is also referred to in the Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara. This king ordered the use of Prakrit to the exclusion of every other language by the ladies of his inner apartments. He has often been identified with king Hala who hailed from Kuntala (Kavyamimamsa notes, p. 9). According to certain Mysore Inscriptions, the Kuntala region included the southern part of the Bombay Presidency and the 1 Rice, Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions, p. 3; Fleet, Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts, p. 284, f.n. 2.

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THE KUNTALAS 177 northern portion of Mysore, and it was ruled at one time by the kings of the Nanda dynasty. Kuntala figured in history also in later times. An Ajanta Inscription credits the Vakataka king Prthivisena I with having conquered the lord of Kuntala. Another Vakataka king Harisena claimed victories over Kuntala along with Lata, Avanti, Andhra, Kalinga, etc.

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CHAPTER XXXIX THE RASTRIKAS The Rastrikas are mentioned for the first time in the Rock Edicts of Asoka (V and XIII), along with the Andhras, Pulindas and Bhojas who were included as vassal tribes within Asoka's dominions. The Andhras, Pulindas and Bhojas were known as early as the time of the Aitareya Brahmana, but the Rastrikas find no mention there. The tribe had evidently not come into importance at that time. * Even after Asoka's time the Rastrikas continued to be associated with the Bhojas. In the Hathigumpha Inscriptions of King Kharavela of Kalinga (c. 150 B.C.), that monarch is said to have defeated the Bhojakas and Rakhikas (i.e. the Bhojas and Rastrikas of Asokan inscriptions) in the fourth year of his reign, and to have compelled them to do him homage. The Satavahana records refer to two tribes, Mahabhojas and Maharathis (Smith, Asoka, 4th Ed., p. 225), who were evidently identical with the earlier Bhojas and Rastrikas, and it is clear that the Rastrikas or Maharathis were the ancestors of the present Maharastra people or Marathas (cf. R. G. Bhandarkar, Anc. History of the Deccan). The Bhojas were located in the Vidarbha or modern Berar region, which is included within modern Marathi-speaking districts. The Rastrikas who were so frequently associated with them must have occupied the adjoining tracts, and it may be assumed that they were located in the very region where the present Marathas dwell. 12B

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CHAPTER XL THE NASIKYAS The Puranas make a mess in the mention of this people. The Markandeya Purana in one context reads it as Naisikas (LVII, 48), but in the same canto in another context reads it as Nasikyavas (LVII, 51), and still in another place correctly as Nasikyas (LVIII, 24). There is no doubt that at all these places one and the same people of ancient Nasik is meant. The Vayupurana reads Nairnikas (XLV, 127) which the Markandeya Purana reads Naisikas, and instead of Nasikyavas of the same source, it reads Nasikyas. The Matsyapurana reads Vasikas (CXIII, 50). This confusion makes it evident that the people and the region were not so widely celebrated. This people moreover does not seem to have been known to the authors of the Epics. Devorant Gado aleve Ad De Panne onene Bricothrainos begun hau, les aplamal onts med bus: Co TOP 20g inip 9 To 900 VL:10

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CHAPTER XLI THE ASMAKAS The Asmakas or Assakas formed one of the Ksatriya tribes of ancient India. They are not mentioned in the Vedic literature, but we find them referred to in the Epics and Puranas. In an enumeration of the countries in 'Bharatavarsa', the land of the Asmakas is mentioned along with those of the most prominent Ksatriya peoples of ancient India, such as the Kurus and Surasenas.1 In the different recensions of the Mahabharata, the name of the tribe varies, being spelt either Asmaka or Asvaka. In Pali Buddhist literature, the name is Assaka which, as Rhys Davids points out, may be the vernacular equivalent of either Asmaka or Asvaka. He continues: 'Either there were two distinct tribes so called, or the Sanskrit form Asvaka is a wrong reading or a blunder in the Sanskritization of Assaka'.2 The Greek writers mention a people called the Assakenoi in eastern Afghanistan and the Kunar valley, with their chief town at Massaga or Masakavati. In the Mahabharata, there is some confusion between the Asmakas and the Asvakas, and some of the passages appear to contradict one another. In the Jayadrathavadhaparvadhyaya,3 the Asmakas are found ranged on the Pandava side in the Kuruksetra war; on the other hand, an 'Asmaka-dayada', or a relative of the Asmaka monarch, is said to have been killed in battle by Abhimanyu (VII, 37, 1605); and the same person is also referred to as Asmakasya suta' (son of Asmaka) in the verse immediately following (VII, 37, 1606). An Asmakesvara (king of Asmaka) is also spoken of here (VII, 37, 1608). In a list of the tribes conquered by Karna, the Asmakas are mentioned along with the Vatsas, Kalingas, Rsikas, etc. (VIII, 8, 237). In the Adiparvan, a Rajarsi Asmaka, son of Vasistha and Madayanti, wife of Kalmasapada, is mentioned, and the story of his birth is referred to. The same king, who is called a Vasistha, is said to have founded Paudanya (I, 177, 6791). Panini mentions Asmaka in one of his Sutras (IV, I, 173). The Anguttara Nikaya," like the Puranas, tells us that Assaka was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of Jambudipa (India). It 1 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 9, p. 822. 3 VII, 85, 3049. 2 Buddhist India, p. 4 I, 122, 4737. 28. 5 I, p. 213; IV, pp. 252, 256, 260. 6 Padmapurana, Svargakhanda, Chap. III; Visnudharmottaramahapurana, Chap. IX.

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THE ASMAKAS 181 had an abundance of food and gems, and was wealthy and prosperous. From the Mahagovinda Suttanta, we learn that Potana was the (capital) city of the Assakas. * In the Suttani pata, one of the oldest works of the Pali Buddhist literature, the Assaka or Asmaka country is associated with Mulaka with its capital Patitthana (Paithan), and mentioned as situated on the bank of the river Godavari, immediately to the south of Patitthana. The same passage speaks of a Brahman guru called Bavari who, having left the Kosala country, settled near a village on the Godavari in the Assaka territory in the Daksinapatha.3 Rhys Davids points out that the country is mentioned together with Avanti, in the same way as Anga is with Magadha, and its position in the list of Mahajanapadas, between Surasena and Avanti, makes it appear probable that when the list was drawn up, Asmaka was situated immediately north-West of Avanti. In that case, the settlement on the Godavari was a later colony, and this is confirmed by the fact that there is no mention of Potana (or Potali) in the list.4 Further, Asanga in his Sutralankara mentions an Asmaka country in the basin of the Indus; and we have already noted that the Greek writers knew of a people called the 'Assakenoi' in eastern Afghanistan. The legendary story of the origin of Asmaka, founder of the tribe, barely mentioned in the Mahabharata, is narrated in full in the Byhannaradiya Purana. Once Sudasa, who is often identified with the Rgvedic hero who won the battle of the ten kings, went to the forest to hunt. He killed a tiger, and the dying animal took the shape of a terrible monster bent on wreaking vengeance on the king. An occasion soon presented itself. When Vasistha, the king's priest, had departed after performing a sacrifice for Sudasa, the monster assumed the form of the priest, appeared before the king, and asked him to prepare meat for him to eat. The monster once more changed his appearance, and appeared before King Sudasa in the guise of a cook. When ordered by the king to prepare a dish of meat for Vasistha, he cooked human flesh; and the king offered the dish to the genuine Vasistha when he arrived. Vasistha thought the king to be wicked in offering him meat; and when, after meditation, he discovered that it was actually human flesh, he cursed the king, saying that he would become a monster, greedy for human flesh. When the king told him that it was (supposedly) by Vasistha's own order that the dish had been prepared, the Rsi meditated once more, learnt the 1 Digha, II, p. 235. 2 Verses 976-7. 3 D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 4; and p. 53, n. 5. 4 Buddhist India, pp. 27-8.

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182 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA whole truth, and modified his curse to have effect for twelve years only. The king, in his turn, was about to curse Vasistha, but his queen Madayanti entreated him to forbear, and appeased his wrath. The king washed his feet with the curse-water; his legs turned black, and thenceforward he was famous as Kalmasapada (having speckled feet'). Every third night thenceforth the king took the shape of a raksasa, and strolling about the forest, used to kill human beings. One night he ate a Brahmani's husband, and the Brahmani cursed him, saying, 'You will die at the time of union with your wife'. After twelve years, the king was duly freed from the curse of Vasistha. He desired an heir, but recollecting the Brahmani's curse, requested Vasistha to act as his proxy. Queen Madayanti conceived, and a son was born to her after the lapse of seven years. According to the legend, the boy was named Asmaka because his mother smote her womb with a stone (asman) before he was born, in order to hasten delivery. Asmaka's son was Mulaka,and his great-grandson is said to have been Dilipa, the forefather of Rama. Thus a connection is established between the Iksvakus and the Asmakas.2 The Matsyapurana (Chap. 272) gives us a list of twenty-five Asmaka kings, contemporaries of the Sisunagas who reigned in Magadha before the Nandas. One of the Jatakas relates the following story. In Potali, the capital of Assaka, there reigned a king Assaka who had a queen of unique beauty. When she died, the king was overwhelmed with grief. The Bodhisattva, then dwelling at the foot of the Himalayas, got to know of the king's sorrow, and appeared before him. He showed the king his queen, reincarnated as a tiny dungworm. The king made himself known to his queen who told him in human voice that she no longer loved him,--the worm was now dearer to her. Thus the king was consoled. 3 In another Jataka, 4 we read that Assaka was the king of Potali in the Assaka country. At this time Kalinga was reigning in the city of Dantapura in the Kalinga kingdom. Kalinga had four daughters of surpassing beauty, whom he ordered to sit in a covered carriage to be driven to every village, town and city with an armed escort. Kalinga declared that if any king were desirous of taking them into his harem, he would join battle with him. Passing through various countries, the princesses reached Potali in the Assaka country. The gates were opened by order of Nandisena, 1 For the connection between the Asmakas and Mulakas, see Mulaka chapter. 2 Brhannaradiya Purana, Chap. 9. * Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. II, pp. I55 foll, 4 Ibid., III, pp. 3 foll.

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THE ASMAKAS 183 the minister of the king of Assaka; and the four princesses were brought before the king who, acting on Nandisena's advice, made them his queen-consorts and sent a message to King Kalinga informing him of this. Keeping his threat, Kalinga set out for Assaka with a large army, and a great battle was fought. Through Nandisena's diplomacy, Assaka defeated Kalinga who fled to his own city. Assaka demanded from Kalinga a portion of the dowry of his daughters. King Kalinga sent a befitting dowry to Assaka, and thenceforth the two kings lived amicably. According to this story, the countries of the Assakas and the Kalingas bordered on each other. Evidently it is the southern Asmaka country, on the Godavari, that is here referred to. The Vimanavatthu Commentary tells us that a king named Assaka, whose capital was Potananagara, reigned in the country of Assaka. In fulfilment of a promise to grant a boon to his younger wife, he reluctantly sent Sujata, his son by his first wife, to the forest, so that his younger wife's son should succeed him on the throne. Whilst in the forest, Sujata met the Elder Mahakaccayana, was instructed in the Dhamma by him, and afterwards became a bhikkhu. 1 Vimanavatthu Commentary, pp. 259ff.

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CHAPTER XLII THE MOLAKAS The Mulakas were a small tribe, very closely related with the Asmakas of the South 1 (= Asvakas of the Mahabharata, Assakas of Pali literature). They were perhaps situated to the south of Avanti, and according to Bhattasvami, the commentator of Kautilya's Arthasastra, their country was identical with Maharastra. The position of the Asmakas and Mulakas may be determined by two references in the Suttani pata. From verse 977 we gather that the Assakas and Mulakas 2 occupied the region on the banks of the Godavari; while in verse 1011 the capital of the Mulakas is described as being located at Patitthana (Sans. Pratisthana), i.e. Paithan (= Baithan of Ptolemy) on the north bank of the Godavari in the Aurungabad district of the Nizam's dominions. Some scholars are of opinion that the Mulakas occupied the same tract of country as that of the Asmakas, and that the two tribes were identical.3 This is, however, doubtful. In the Vayupurana, both Asmakas and Mulakas are no doubt stated to be scions of the Iksvaku family (Chap. 88, 177-8); and if we are to believe the Pauranic tradition as contained in the Garudapurana (Chap. 142, 34), Mulaka, the originator of the Mulaka tribe, was the son of King Asmaka, a descendant of Bhagiratha. The Asmakas and the Mulakas were thus intimately related, but that the two tribes were different and lived in separate regions is revealed not only by the Brahmanical sources of the Epics and Puranas, but by Buddhist sources as well. In early Pali literature, Assaka is distinguished on the one hand from Mulaka in the north and on the other from Kalinga in the east.4 According to the Paramatthajotika (II, Pt. II, p. 581), . the Godavari formed the border line between the territories of two Andhra kings (that is to say, between Assaka and Alaka). That the two countries were distinguished from each other is also upheld by the Pauranic tradition as contained in the Visnudharmottara 1 As distinguished from the Asmakas of N.W. India, identical with the Assakenoi of the Greeks. 2 It should be noted, however, that Mulaka occurs only in the Burmese reading of the S.N. The Singhalese has 'Alaka', which seems to be identical with Mulaka (Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 21). 3 Dey, Geographical Dictionary, pp. 13 and 133 4 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 53-4.

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185 (Pt. I, Chap. 9). D. R. Bhandarkar, however, suggests that in later times Mulaka came to be included in Assaka. In the Sonadanda Jataka,1 the Assaka country is associated with Avanti; this contiguity, according to Bhandarkar, can only be explained if it is assumed that Mulaka was included in Assaka, and that the latter country was thus contiguous with Avanti.2 In giving the genealogy of the kings of Ayodhya who belonged to the Iksvaku or 'solar' race, some of the Puranas mention the names of six kings, namely, Asmaka, Mulaka, Sataratha, Idavida (with variations), Vrddhasarman and Visvasaha, who came after King Saudasa Kalmasapada. The list differs from that given in the other Puranas, but Pargiter considers it more authentic (Anc. Ind. Hist. Tradition, pp. 94 and 147). King Mulaka is referred to in the Puranas enumerated above as reigning contemporaneously with one King Rama. Mulaka was afraid of Rama and lived protected by a guard of women (nari-kavaca). A similar statement occurs in the Mahabharata. In the historical period, Asmaka and Mulaka were no longer connected with Ayodhya.5 As late as the second quarter of the second century A.D., the Mulakas are distinguished from the Asmakas. The Nasik Inscription of Gautami, the Satavahana Queen, states that her son conquered the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas, and that her dominions extended not only over Asika, Asaka (= Asmaka) and Mulaka, but also over Surattha, Kukkura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha and Akara-Avanti. THE MULAKAS 1 Jataka (Fausboll), V, p. 3I7. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 53-4. 3 Vayu P., Chap. 88, 178-9; Brahmanda P., Pt. III, Chap. 63, 178-9; Linga P., Pt. I, Chap. 66, 29; Kurma P., Pt. I, Chap. 21, 14; Bhagavata P., Pt. IX, Chap. 9, 40. 4 XII, Chap. 49, 1770-8 and 1792-3; for the historicity of these tales, see Pargiter, op. cit., p. 152, f.n. 2. 5 The country of the Mulakas seems to have been mentioned as Maulika in Varahamihira's Brhatsamhita, XIV, 4. entopads to dino2

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CHAPTER XLIII COLAS In the earliest time of which we have any record, the Tamilagam or Tamil realm, as Dr. Barnett thinks, extended over the greater part of the modern Madras Presidency, its boundaries being on the north a line running approximately from Pulicat on the coast to Venkatagiri (Tirupati), on the east the Bay of Bengal, on the south Cape Comorin, and on the west the Arabian Sea as far north as the White Rock' near Badagara, to the south of Mahi. Malabar was included in it. It consisted of three kingdoms, those of the Pandyas, Colas and Cheras or Keralas. The Cola kingdom stretched along the eastern coast, from the river Penner to the Vellar, and on the west reaching to about the borders of Coorg. According to tradition, the Cola country comprised the land between two streams having the same name, Vellaru, in the north and the south, the sea on the east and Kottaikkarai in the west. The area included the modern districts of Trichinopoly and Tanjore and part of the Pudukkottah State.2 Its capital was Uraiyur (old Trichinopoly). Kaviri-pattinam or Pugar on the northern bank of the river Kaveri was its great port while Kanchi (modern Conjeeveram) was one of its chief towns. Uraiyur corresponds to Sanskrit Uragapura. Negapatam, about 10 miles south of Karaikkal, also on the seaboard, was perhaps known to Ptolemy as an important town; at any rate it became a centre of trade and of many religions including Buddhism long before it attracted the attention of European merchants and missionaries. Tanjore, Trichinopoly and Kumbakonam are the present notable cities of the former Cola country. Gangaikonda-Colapuram, at the meeting point of the modern districts of Trichinopoly, S. Arcot and Tanjore, rose to prominence as the Cala capital in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Cola country was thus drained by the river Kaveri and comprised the districts of Trichinopoly and Tanjore. The river Kaveri is often alluded to and associated with the name of the Colas in South Indian inscriptions. Thus we learn from a South Indian inscription 4 that Hara asked Gunabhara: 'How could I, standing in i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 595. 2 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, The Colas, Chap. II, p. 22. 3 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 271. 4 Hultzsch, South Indian Inscriptions, Vol. I, p. 34.

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COLAS 187 a temple on earth, view the great power of the Celas or the river Kaveri?' From another inscription we learn that the Calukya king Pulakesin II crossed the river Kaveri with his victorious army to enter the Cola country when the Kaveri had her current obstructed by the causeway formed by his elephants'. The glory of the Kaveri forms an inexhaustible theme of early Tamil poetry. According to the Manimekhalai," this noble stream was released from his waterpot by the sage Agastya in response to the prayer of the king Kanta and for the exaltation of the children of the sun'. She was the special banner of the just race of the Colas, and she never failed them in the most protracted drought. The yearly freshes in the Kaveri formed the occasion of a carnival in which the whole nation from the king down to the meanest peasant took part.2 The origin of the name Cola is uncertain. The Parimelalagar is inclined to make it the name, like Pandya and Cera, of a ruling family or clan of antiquity. The story of the eponymous brothers Ceran, Solan and Pandiyan is indeed suggestive. The name Cola, however, indicated from the earliest times the people as well as the country subject to the Cola dynasty of rulers. Col. Gerini wrongly connects the word Cola with the Sanskrit Kala (black) and with Kola which denoted in the early days the black or dark coloured pre-Aryan population of Southern India in general. The effort to derive it similarly from Tamil 'Colam' (millet) or Sanskrit 'Cora' (thief) seems unsound. Other names generally used for the Colas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi probably comes from Kil' (dig) meaning a' digger'; this word forms an integral part of early Cola names like Nedungilli and so on which is not found in later Cala names. Valavan probably comes from 'Valam' (fertility), and means owner of a fertile country, like the land of the Kaveri. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Sibi, a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Cala legends and forms the theme of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism.3 The Cola kings were alleged to belong to the tribe of Tiraiyar or 'Men of the Sea'. Their connection with the sea is probably indicated by the following reference of Aelian to the realm of Soras (Chola ?) and its chief city: There is a city which a man of royal extraction called Soras governed at the time when Eukratides erned the Bactrians, and the name of that city is Perimuda. It is inhabited by a race of fish-eaters who go off with nets and catch oysters. During the age of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1 I, 9-12; 23-4. 2 Manimekhalai, p. 23. 3 Ibid., p. 25. 4 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., 271, f.n. 2.

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188 as Dr. Ray Chaudhuri shows in Appendix B (p. 387) of his work, the kingdom of Argaru (= Uragapura) was included in Damirica. The geographer Ptolemy refers to the kingdom of Sora (Chola) ruled by Arkatos and the kingdom of Malanga (probably Kanchi, according to Dr. Ray Chaudhuri), ruled by Basaronagas. In the Markandeya,1 Vayu 2 and Matsya Puranas, the Colas are mentioned along with the Pandyas and Keralas. In the Ramayana, Sugriva is described as sending his monkey followers to the countries of the Colas, Pandyas and Keralas in quest of Sita. Katyayana in his Varttikas or aphorisms to Panini's Sutras or grammatical rules mentions the Colas and the Pandyas. Patanjali in his Mahabhasya mentions Kanchipura. Asoka in his Rock Edicts II and XIII mentions the Colas, Pandyas, Ketalaputras and Satiyaputras as forming 'prachamta' or outlying provinces outside his empire. They were on friendly terms with him. The Colas, like the Pandyas, are spoken of in the plural in all the versions of the Asokan edicts, and this has been held to imply that 'in Asoka's time there were more than one Coda and one Pandya King'. Two or three poets of the Sangam make references to an invasion of the south by the Moriyar (Mauryas). Mamulanar also speaks of the wealth of the Nandas hidden under the Ganges at Pataliputra. He says that the Vadugar formed the vanguard of the invading Mauryas (Aham 281). He further says that the Kosar undertook the subjugation of the south and as the Mohur chieftain continued defiant, the Mauryas came down with their great forces on a warlike expedition to the south (Aham 251). The above account thus confirms the story of Bindusara's conquest of Southern India as recorded by the Tibetan historian Taranath. It is evident thus that Maurya empire in Southern India probably received some setback before the date when Rock Edicts II and XIII were promulgated.8 Allusions to the land of the Colas and Kaveripattinam are found in the Mahavamsa. The Milinda-Panho mentions Kola-Pattana, which according to Rhys Davids, must be some place on the Coromandel Coast. Here is a reference probably to Kaveripattinam. In the Jataka story 10 Akitti to escape from his admirers is said to have left the neighbourhood of Benares for the Tamil country where he spent some time in a garden near Kaveripattana. The Mahavamsa shows that towards the middle of the second century B.C., a Damila of noble descent, Elara TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 2 Chap. 45, V, 124. 4 IV. Chap. 41, Bombay Ed. 1 Chap. 57, V. 45. 3 Chap. 112, V. 46. 5 R. G. Bhandarkar, Early History of the Dekkan, p. 6. 6 IV, 2, Second Ahnika. 8 Ibid., p. 28. 10 Jataka (Fausboll), IV, 237 foll. 7 Cf. Bhandarkar, Asoka, p. 41. 9 Trenckner Ed., p. 359.

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COLAS 189 by name, came to Ceylon from the Cola country (Colarattha) overpowered Asela, the then king of the island, and himself reigned as king for forty-four years with even justice towards friends and foes on occasions of disputes at law. He sentenced his only son to death for unwittingly causing the death of a young calf. In Tamil literature also we find the story of the prince and the calf which is placed in the reign of Manu. The early history of the Cola country is obscure. About the beginning of the Christian era the Cola king was Peru-nar-Killi. His son was Ilanjet-Senni whose son was Karikal, a vigorous ruler, under whom the Colas became the leading power of the south. He defeated an allied army of the Cheras and Pandyas and made an expedition to the north. At home he suppressed the turbulent Ayar, Aravalar, Kurumbar and Oliyar. He made his capital at Kaveri-pattinam on the Kaveri and he secured it from flood by raising the banks of the river as well as by making canals. From the Celas the hegemony of the south passed to the Cheras and later still to the Pandyas who were ousted by the Pallavas who later on became the suzerain power of Southern India. 1 Mahavamsa (Geiger), p. 166. AKRISHNA MISSIO RAMAR NEW DELHI HADING ROOT

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CHAPTER XLIV PANDYAS The Pandya kingdom comprised the greater part of the modern Madura and Tinnevelly Districts and in the first century of the Christian era Southern Travancore also. It had its capital originally at Kolkai on the Tamraparni river in Tinnevelly and later at Madura (Daksina Mathura).1 According to Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri the Pandya country corresponded to the Madura, Ramnad and Tinnevelly districts and perhaps the southern portion of the Travancore State. It was watered by the rivers Tamraparni and Krtamala or Vaigai. Katyayana in his Varttika derives Pandya from Pandu. In the Mahabharata and in several Jatakas the Pandus are spoken of as the ruling race of Indraprastha. In the statement of Katyayana regarding the connection of the Pandyas with the Pandus who are mentioned in the Epic tale, we find an interesting clue for the name of Madura, the Pandya capital. Madura or Daksina Mathura is in a sense the same as Mathura or Muttra, the capital of the Surasena kingdom. Now, according to Epic tradition, the Pandus of Indraprastha were closely connected with the ruling family of the Surasena country by ties of friendship and marriage. The geographer Ptolemy (circa 150 A.D.) speaks of the country of the Pandoouoi in the Punjab. The association of the Pandyas of the south with the Surasenas of Mathura and the Pandus of Northern India is probably alluded to in the confused statement of Megasthenes regarding Herakles and Pandaia. Megasthenes, who visited the court of Candragupta Maurya towards the end of the fourth century B.C., has left on record some rumours concerning these southern States. He thus notes a legend that Heracles placed the south under the rule of his daughter'Pandaia'. The Sanskrit Epics mention them vaguely as foreign lands outside their purview. Thus in the Mahabharata 2 Sahadeva, the youngest of the Pandu princes, is represented in his career of conquest to have gone to Daksinapatha after having conquered the king of the Pandyas. In the same way the country of the Pandyas is mentioned in the Ramayana where Sugriva is said to have sent his monkey-soldiers in quest of Sita, Rama's consort.3 In the Puranas also as in the case of the i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 595. 2 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 31, V. 17. 3 Ramayana, IV, Chap. 41.

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PANDYAS 191 Markandeya,1 Vayu 2 and Matsya, we find mention of the Pandyas. In Rock Edicts II and XIII, Asoka mentions the Pandyas whose territory lay outside his empire. The relations between the Damilas and the natives of Ceylon form one of the main strands in the narrative of the Mahavamsa. Though on several occasions the Chronicle speaks only of Damilas in general, still the distinction between the Pandya and Cola divisions of the Tamil country is well known and clearly observed in it. A careful study of the Buddhist texts shows that the Damilas were a fighting people always engaged in constant strifes with the Ceylonese. They are described as anariya or uncultured. "Might is right' was their policy with the result that they were defeated and mercilessly massacred in almost all their battles with the Sinhalese as we find in the Mahavamsa Commentary (p. 482). It is only in connection with a particular Damila general named Ariyacakkavatti that we are told that he returned with all booties to the Pandu country, the land of the Pandyas in the south. The literary tradition of Ceylon keeps us entirely in the dark as to whether those Damilas were sent with expeditions by the king of Pandu or they were a race of marauders who undertook those expeditions on their own initiative. The account of Vijaya distinctly brings out that there existed a matrimonial alliance between the ruler of Lanka and that of Pandya. It is also mentioned that there was a very early settlement in Ceylon of skilled craftsmen and families of the eighteen guilds, all from Pandya.4 There existed similarly a close cultural relationship and constant intercourse between South India and Ceylon; the notable centres of Buddhist learning mentioned in Pali works being Kaveripattana, Madhura, and Kancipura.5 Strabo (XV, 4, 73) makes mention of an embassy sent to Augustus Caesar about the year 22 B.C. by a king 'Pandion', possibly a Pandya of the Tamil country. In the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, the Pandian kingdom is mentioned which was included in Damirica.? From the Hathigumpha Inscription of the Cheta king Kharavela of Kalinga, it appears that in his eleventh year 'he had had Pithuda ploughed with a plough drawn by an ass', and seems to have pushed his conquest further south and made his power felt even by the king of the Pandya country. 8 We have very little information regarding the early history of the Pandya country. Meagre references in the pages of classical 1 Chap. 57, V. 45. 2 Chap. 45, V. 124. 3 Chap. 112, V. 46. 4 Mahavamsa, Chap. 7. 5 B. C. Law, Geographical Essays, Vol. 1, pp. 79-80. 6 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 597. 7 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., App. E, p. 541. 8 Ibid., 4th Ed., p. 349.

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192 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA writers like Pliny supplemented by the data collected from ancient Tamil literature are the only materials for a study of their history. From these we can gather that Nedun-jeliyan II was the first conspicuous Pandya ruler who made the Pandyas the leading power of the south. But the supremacy of the south ultimately passed to the Pallavas.

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CHAPTER XLV KERALAS OR CHERAS The Keralaputra (Ketalaputra or Chera) is the country south of Kupaka (or Satya), extending down to Kanneti in Central Travancore (Karunagapalli Taluk). South of it lay the political division of Mushika'. It was watered by the river Periyar on the banks of which stood its capital Vanji (near Cochin) and at its mouth the seaport of Muziris (Kranganur). According to L. D. Barnett 2 the Chera or Kerala territory comprised Travancore, Cochin and the Malabar District; the Kongu-desa (corresponding to the Coimbatore District and the southern part of Salem District), which at one time was separate from it and later annexed to it. Its capital was originally Vanji (now Tiru-Karur, on the Periyar river, near Cochin), but later Tiru-Vanjikkalam (near the mouth of the Periyar). It had important trading centres on the western coast at Tondi on the Agalappulai, about five miles north of Quilandi, Muchiri (near the mouth of the Periyar), Palaiyur (near Chowghat), and Vaikkarai (close to Kottayam). The three Tamil kingdoms, viz. Cala, Chera and Pandya, are vaguely mentioned in the Sanskrit Epics and Puranas. Thus in the Puranas, as Sir R. G. Bhandarkar points out,' the term Daksinapatha or Daksina is used to denote the whole peninsula to the south of the Narmada. The Markandeya Purana (Chap. 57, 45) reads Kevalas. The Vayupurana (XLV, 124) and the Matsyapurana (CXIII, 46) as well as the Bhismaparvan of the Mahabharata (IX, 352 and 365) give the correct reading Kerala: According to the Mahabharata, 4 the Keralas seem to have been a forest tribe. In historical times they are associated with the Colas and Pandyas. This is upheld by Harivamsa as well (XXXII, 1836). The Markandeya, Vayu and Matsya Puranas mention the Colas, Pandyas and Keralas among the peoples of the Daksinapatha. In the Markandeya Purana,5 the reading of the second line, as R. G. Bhandarkar says, is wrong. He gives his reading as follows: 'Pandyasca Keralascaiva Colah Kulyas tathaiva ca'. In the Ramayana, we read that Sugriva, the 1 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 273. 2 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 595. 3 Early History of the Dekkan, p. I. 4 Sabhaparvan, XXX, pp. 1174-5. 5 Chap. 57, 45 (ed. Bibliotheca Indica). 13 6 IV, Chap. 41, Bom. Ed.

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194 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA monkey-king, is described as sending his followers to the different quarters in search of Rama's wife, Sita, and Ravana, her ravisher. The monkey-soldiers are directed to go to the countries of the Andhras (Telugu people), the Pandyas, the Colas and the Keralas, in the south, and are told that they will there see the gate of the city of the Pandyas adorned with gold and jewels. In the Mahabharata 1 Sahadeva in his career of conquest is represented to have subdued the Pandyas, Dravidas, Udras, Keralas and Andhras. Patanjali in his Mahabhasya shows an intimate acquaintance with the south. In Mahabhasya 2 Kerala (or Malabar) is mentioned. The same work mentions Mahismati, Vaidarbha and Kancipura (Conjeeveram). In the second and thirteenth rock edicts of Asoka, the outlying provinces of the Colas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras, Ketalaputras (Chera or Kerala), and the Andhras and Pulindas are mentioned. Damirica is shown in the age of the Periplus as including Cerobothra (i.e. Keralaputra). During the age of Ptolemy the kingdom of Karoura was ruled by Kerobothros (Keralaputra). After the Calas, the Cheras for a time became the leading power of the south. After them the Pandyas became the supreme power for some time in Southern India and then the Pallavas. 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 31. 2 IV, 1, 4th Ahnika. 3 Early History of the Dekkan, p. 7. IZB

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CHAPTER XLVI THE MAGADHAS The Magadhas occupied a prominent position in very ancient times. Though the Rgveda does not mention them as such, yet Vedic literature generally contains innumerable references to them as a people. In the Atharvaveda Samhita, the Magadha is said to be connected with the Vratya as his Mitra, his Mantra, his laughter and his thunder in the four quarters. In the Latyayana Srauta Sutra 2 (which belongs to a school of the Samaveda), Vratya-dhana or the property of the Vratya is directed to be given either to a bad Brahmin or to a Brahmin of Magadha; but the Pancavimsa Brahmana (XVII, I, 16), which also belongs to the Samaveda, does not say anything on the point. In the Taittiriya Brahmana (III, 4, I, I) we read that the people of Magadha were famous for their loud voice. The fact that Magadha in later times often stands for 'minstrel' is easily accounted for by the assumption that the country was the home of minstrelsy and that wandering bards from Magadha were apt to visit the more western provinces of ancient India. The minstrel character of the Magadhas also appears from the Manava Dharmasastra which mentions them as bards and traders. The Brahmapurana tells us that the first great Samrat or Emperor Prthu gave Magadha to Magadha, being highly pleased with his song in praise of himself. Here The later texts recognise the Magadhas as a special caste, inventing their origin from intermarriage among the old established castes. In the Gautama Dharmasastra (IV, 17) and Manusamhita,5 the Magadha is not a man of Magadha, but a member of a mixed caste produced by the union of a Vaisya man and a Ksatriya woman. In the Sankhyayana Aranyaka it is said that Madhyama, son of Pratibodhi, was a resident of Magadha (Magadhavasin). In the Apastamba Srauta Sutra (XXII, 6, 18), the Magadhas are mentioned along with other peoples both of E. and of W. India, viz. the Kalingas, the Gandharas, the Paraskaras and the Sauviras. 1 Harvard Oriental Series, p. 774. 2 VIII, 6, 28. Cf. Katyayana Srauta Sutra, XXII, 4, 22. 3 Manusamhita, X, 47. 4 Chap. IV, 61. 67; Vayupurana, Chap. 62, sl. 147. 6 Keith, Sankhyayana Aranyaka, p. 46. 5 X, 47

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196 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA They are also mentioned in the sata patha Brahmana,' where it is said that neither Kosala nor Videha was fully brahmanised at an early date, -much less Magadha. Coming down to the Epic age, we find the Magadhas frequently mentioned, and much information about the country and the people may be culled from the Great Epics. For instance, the Ramayana 2 tells us that Vasistha asked Sumantra to invite many pious kings, including the Magadhan king, who was well versed in all the sastras. King Dasaratha tried to appease his irate queen Kaikeyi by offering to present her with 'articles manufactured in Magadha'.The Kiskindhya Kanda 4 informs us that Sugriva sent monkeys in quest of Sita to all parts of India, and even beyond its boundaries. Here Magadha is mentioned as one of the countries in the east. Pargiter has sought to show on the evidence of the Puranas that the dynasties of Magadha and the adjoining countries were descended from Kuru's son Sudhanvan. Vasu, the fourth in succession from Sudhanvan, conquered Cedi from the Yadavas, thereby obtaining the title Caidyoparicara, and also annexed the adjoining countries as far as Magadha. When he offered to divide his five territories among his five sons, the eldest son BIhadratha took Magadha with Girivraja as its capital and founded the famous Barhadratha dynasty there. We read in the Ramayana that 'Vasu, the fourth son of Brahma, built Girivraja, the ancient capital of Magadha'.6 The Puranas assert that the successors of Jarasandha ruled over Magadha for a thousand years. Two of these kings, Kusagra and Vrsabha, are commemorated in early names of Rajaglha (Girivraja, Kusagra-pura, Vrsabha-pura). Ripunjaya was the last king of this dynasty. He was killed by his minister Sunika (? Pulika, Munika, Sunaka), who installed his son Pradvota on the throne of Magadha. Five kings of the Pradyota dynasty ruled over Magadha for 138 years, after which the Sisunagas came into power.? Twelve kings of this dynasty reigned in Magadha for 162 years, Mahanandin being the last king. Mahapadma Nanda, son of Mahanandin by his Sudra wife, destroyed the Ksatriya race and established Sudra rule in Magadha. Thereafter eight sons of Nanda ruled over Magadha for 1 1, 4, I, IO. 2 Adi Kanda, 13th Sarga. 3 Ayodhya Kanda, sl. 37, roth Sarga. 4 48th Sarga, sl. 23. 5 Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, pp. 118, 282. 6 Adi Kanda, canto 32, verse 7. 7 The famous King Bimbisara is said to have been the fifth of the Sisunaga line, which was established before 600 B.C.; but the Mahavamsa makes Sisunaga the founder of a dynasty which succeeded that of Bimbisara.

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THE MAGADHAS 197 a hundred years, and then the Nandas were destroyed in their turn by Kautilya who installed Candragupta Maurya on the throne. Ten kings of the Maurya dynasty are said to have ruled over Magadha for 137 years. Brhadratha was the last king of this dynasty, which was followed by the Sungas, founded by Pusyamitra. Ten kings of this dynasty ruled for 112 years, Devabhuti being the last monarch of the Sunga family; he was killed by Vasudeva Kanva, who founded the Kanva dynasty, and four kings of this family ruled in Magadha for 45 years. Then Sipraka, a royal servant, murdered King Susarman, usurped the throne and founded the Andhra dynasty, thirty kings of which reigned in Magadha for 456 years. The Visnupurana gives us a long list of the ancestors of Jarasandha as well as of the monarchs who succeeded him.3 Kalidasa, who seems to have derived his materials from the Puranas and Epics, speaks of the intermarriage of the early kings of Kosaia with the ruling family of Magadha. He says that Dilipa, the father of Raghu, married Sudaksina, daughter of the king of Magadha. In his beautiful account of the Svayamvara of Indumati, Kalidasa also refers to the prominent position occupied by the Magadhan king, 5 We have a description of Magadha in the Dasakumaracaritam of Dandin who belongs to about the same period as Kalidasa. Dandin there speaks of a monarch, Rajahamsa, who was a powerful king of Magadha, and who defeated Manusara, king of Malava. Bhasa's Svapnavasavadatta also speaks of Magadha and its king, whose daughter Padmavati married the king of Vatsa, Udayana.? The Samantapasadi ka mentions two other kings of Magadha, viz. Anuruddha, and his son Munda. The latter is also referred to in the Anguttara Nikaya. Here we read that King Munda was overwhelmed with grief at the death of his queen, Bhadda, and asked his treasurer to embalm her body in an oil pot, so that he might continue to look at her. The treasurer besought Munda to go to the sage Narada who was dwelling at the Kukkutarama near Pakaligama 1 Twenty-two years according to the more reliable account of the Samantapasadika (72); cf. Mahavamsa, Chap. IV. 2 Visnupurana, IV, 24. The Buddhist Samantapasadika (Vol. I, pp. 72-3) gives the following summary of Magadhan dynasties. Udaya Bhadda reigned for sixteen years. He was succeeded by Susunaga (i.e. Sisunaga) who ruled for eighteen years. Then came the Nandas who reigned in Magadha for the same period. The Nanda dynasty was overthrown by Candagutta who ruled the kingdom for twentyfour years, and he was succeeded by Bindusara who reigned for twenty-eight years, and was succeeded by Asoka. 3 Visnupurana, IV, Chap. 19, Chap. 23; Matsyapurana, Chap. 50, Chap. 271. 4 Raghuvamsa, I, 31. 5 Ibid., VI 6 Sankhiptakatha, Purvapithika, pp. 4-5. 7 See Vatsa chapter.

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198 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA (later Pataliputra), and listen to his doctrine. Munda went to Narada who instructed him and brought him solace. The king then asked his treasurer to burn the dead body of his queen, and thereafter attended to his duties as usual.1 Before passing on to a more detailed account of the Magadhan dynasties, it may be as well to summarise what is known of the location of Magadha. According to Parasara and Varahamihira, Magadha was situated in the eastern division of the nine portions into which the sub-continent of India was divided.2 Magadha was bounded by the Ganges on the north, by the district of Benares on the west, by Hiranyaparvata or Monghyr on the east, and by Kirana Supavana or Singhbhum on the south. Cunningham infers that in ancient times Magadha must have extended to the Karmanasa river on the west and to the sources of the Damoodar river on the south.3 Rhys Davids gives as probable boundaries: the Ganges to the north, the Son to the west, the country of Ariga to the east, and a dense forest reaching the plateau of Chota Nagpur to the south.4 Magadha was a narrow strip of country of some considerable length from north to south, and of an area greater than that of Kosala. Just as Kosala corresponded very nearly to the present province of Oudh, but was somewhat larger, so Magadha corresponded at the time of the Buddha to the modern district of Patna, but with the addition of the northern half of the modern district of Gaya. The inhabitants of this region used to call it Maga, a name doubtless derived from Magadha. According to the Siamese and other Buddhist books, as Spence Hardy shows, Magadha or Madhvamandala was supposed to be situated in the centre of Jambudvipa. It is generally regarded as answering to Central Bihar. It is called Makata by the Burmese and Siamese, Mo-ki-to by the Chinese and Makala Kokf by the Japanese. All these are no doubt phonetic variations of the name Magadha. Rapson says ? that Magadha or Southern Bihar comprises the districts of Gaya and Patna; while Dr. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri places Magadha to the west of Anga, being separated from the latter kingdom by the river Campa.8 One of the earliest and most famous kings of Magadha was Jarasandha of Epic fame. The Mahabharata speaks of Jarasandha, son of King Bihadratha, as a very great and powerful king of Magadha who reigned in the city of Girivraja or RajagTha, 'well guarded by 1 Anguttara Nikaya, III, pp. 57ff. 2 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 6. 3 Ibid., pp. 518ff. 4 Cambridge History of India, Ancient India, p. 182. 5 Ibid., pp. 182-3. 6 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 140. 7 Ancient India, p. 166. 8 Political History, p. 53.

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Oxus R THE MAHAJANAPADAS OF ANCIENT INDIA PAMIR PLATEAU English Miles 80 100 200 300 400 Soa BACTRIANA VAHLIKA KAMBOJA Karakoram Mt. Kabul Kubhaft 00 rNAVA * Taxila O Helm Vipasar. Sindhu star. i KEKAYA Thanna MADRA anushn R. Satadru R. SarasvatiR... BRAHMAVARTA MATS orska diari Indraprastha Hastinapur > Virata 8. Math Gandhi GEDROSIA SAUVIRA anakpur PANCHAL? PRAGJYOTISHA FRA & KOSA LA Ayodhya Kau sambi Parnas Vatsali? Parivara AVANTI Vetravati MAGADHA VANG: KIRATAS ANARTA Narmada R. CURASES Bhrigukachcha ANGA wanadir. Tapti VIDARB VIDARBHA ko Rajagriha) Suvarnanekhar Waitaruni R. KALINGA SUHMA KN dhngrath R. Rishikulya R. Langulihi R. ANDHRA

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THE MAGADHAS mountains on all sides'. One of the ancient names of Rajagrha was Barhadrathapura, after Jarasandha. According to the Visnupurana, Jarasandha gave his two daughters in marriage to Kamsa, king of Mathura, and when Kamsa was killed by Krsna, Jarasandha marched with his army to Mathura to destroy Krsna with all the Yadavas, only to be repulsed with heavy loss. From other sources, however, we learn that Jarasandha besieged Mathura with his large army of 23 aksauhinis, defeated many of the kings of N. India, and kept them imprisoned in Girivraja, it is said in a temple of Siva, in order to sacrifice them to the god. According to the Santiparvan of the Mahabharata, Jarasandha, hearing of the valour of Karna, fought with him, but was defeated, and being pleased with his great skill in arms, made him king of the city of Malini. In the Adiparvan, Jarasandha is represented as a reincarnation of Vipracitti, a chief of the demons.5 Jarasandha exercised such great power that without defeating him it was not possible for Yudhisthira to assume the status of a paramount sovereign and perform the Rajasuya sacrifice. The Bhagavatapurana narrates that Bhima, Arjuna, and Krsna went to Girivraja where Bhima killed Jarasandha, and Krsna made Sahadeva (Jarasandha's son) king of Magadha, and released all the kings imprisoned by Jarasandha. The Sabhaparvan relates that Bhima proceeded again to Girivraja where he forced Sahadeva to pay taxes to him; and at the Rajasuya sacrifice, Sahadeva was present as one of the vassals of the Pandavas. In the Kuruksetra battle, Dhrstaketu, son of Jarasandha, helped the Pandavas with a fourfold army. After the battle of Kuruksetra, when the horse let loose at the Asvamedha sacrifice of Yudhisthira was proceeding towards Hastinapura, Meghasandhi, son of Sahadeva of Magadha, offered battle to Arjuna, but was defeated by him." 199 After Ripunjaya, the last king of Jarasandha's line, came the Pradyotas, of whom there is not much to relate; and then followed the Sisunagas. The Sisunaga dynasty was established before 600 B.C. (perhaps in 642 B.C.) by a chieftain of Benares named Sisunaga who fixed his capital at Girivraja or Rajagrha. Bimbisara, said to 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 21. 2 Visnupurana, Amsa 5, Chap. 22. The Khila-Harivamsa (Visnuparvan, Chap. 35, sls. 92ff. and Chap. 36, $1. 40) informs us that Jarasandha, king of Magadha, killed the horses yoked to the chariot of Balarama, but was ultimately defeated by the Vrsnis. 8 Mahabharata, II, 14-5; Brahmapurana, Chap. 195, 1. 3. 4 Santiparvan, Chap. 5. 5 Adiparvan, Chap. 67, v. 4. 6 Bhagavatapurana, Skandha 10, Chap. 72, sls. 16, 46. 7 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 30, v. 18. 8 Udyogaparvan, Chap. 57, v. 8. 9 Asvamedhaparvan, Chap. 82.

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200 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA have been the fifth of his line, came to the throne about 528 B.C. The Mahavamsa, however, makes Sisunaga the founder of a dynasty which succeeded that of Bimbisara; and the Puranas are self-contradictory. The first Pradyota, namely, Canda Pradyota Mahasena, was a contemporary of Bimbisara according to the early Pali texts; but the Puranas, as we have seen, make Sisunaga an ancestor of Bimbisara.1 The fact that Varanasi was included within Sisunaga's dominions 2 supports the view that Sisunaga came after Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, who were the first to establish Magadhan authority in Kasi. The Malalamkaravatthu 3 tells us that Rajagrha lost its rank as a royal city from the time of Sisunaga. This also goes to show that Sisunaga came after the flourishing days of Rajaglha, i.e. the period of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. The Mahavamsa (Geiger Ed., p. 15) records some facts regarding King Bimbisara of Magadha, telling us that he was 15 years old when he was anointed king by his father, and that he reigned for 52 years. The father of Bimbisara was probably Bhattiya 4 who was defeated by Brahmadatta, king of Anga. As we shall see, this defeat was later avenged by Bimbisara.5 Dr. Bhandarkar, however, makes Bimbisara the founder of a dynasty, and says that he was a general who carved out a kingdom for himself at the expense of the Vajjis. There are several more or less fanciful explanations of Bimbisara's name. The Suttanipata Commentary relates that he was called Magadha because he was the lord of the Magadhas. He was the possessor of a large army, hence he was called Seniya; and he was called Bimbisara because his colour was like that of excellent gold.? In Rockhill's Life of the Buddha (p. 16), it is said that Bimbisara was so called because he was the son of Bimbi, queen of King Mahapadma of Rajagrha. Jaina works represent Bimbisara as a Jain by religion, and sometimes in Jaina tradition his name is coupled with that of Asoka's grandson Samprati, as a notable patron of the creed of Mahavira.8 All the Buddhist books, however, represent him as a devoted patron of the Buddha, and a great benefactor of the Buddhist Order. 1 Vayupurana, 99, 314; Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 98, and his article on Seniya Bimbisara, Ind. Hist. Quar., Vol. I, No. 1, March, 1925, p. 87. 2 Dynasties of the Kali Age, p. 21. 3 S.B.E., XI, p. 16. 4 J.A.S.B., 1914, 321. 5 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 98-9. 6 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 72. 7 Ibid., p. 448. 8 Smith, Ancient and Hindu India, p. 45.

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THE MAGADHAS 201 Bimbisara is said to have built the new Rajagrha, the outer town to the north of the ring of hills encircling the ancient fort. We shall return later to the history of Rajagrha. King Bimbisara annexed Anga to his kingdom. Anga was a small kingdom to the east, corresponding to the modern district of Bhagalpur and probably including Monghyr.1 The Jataka stories contain several references to Anga both as an independent kingdom and as a vassal of Magadha. It is stated in one Jataka story that at one time the king of Benares conquered Anga and Magadha, 2 and in another that the Magadhan kingdom once came under the suzerainty of Anga.3 The Campeyya Jataka records a fight between the two neighbouring countries of Anga and Magadha. The river Campa flowed between Anga and Magadha, and a Naga king named Campeyya used to live in that river. From time to time Anga and Magadha were engaged in battle. Once the Magadhan king was defeated and pursued by the army of Anga, but he escaped by jumping into the river Campa. Again, with the help of the Naga king, he defeated the king of Anga, recovered his lost kingdom, and conquered Anga as well. He became intimately associated with the Anga king and used to make offerings to him on the bank of the river Campa every year with great pomp.4 While this story is evidently fanciful, the Mahavagga 5 offers reasonable evidence to prove that Anga came under Bimbisara's sway, while the Sonadanda Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya, by mentioning the bestowal of Campa, the capital of Arga, as a royal fief on the Brahman Sonadanda, indirectly proves the same. The Jaina works? tell us that a Magadhan prince governed Anga as a separate province with Campa as its capital. During Bimbisara's lifetime, his son Ajatasatru acted as Viceroy at Campa. The annexation of Anga was the turning point in the history of Magadha. As V. A. Smith says, it marked 'the first step taken by the kingdom of Magadha in its advance to greatness and the position 1 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 32. 2 Jataka (Fausboll), V, 316. 3 Ibid., VI, 272. See also Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 91. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), IV, pp. 454-5. In the Mahavastu (I, pp. 288ff.) a story is narrated of how once Rajagrha was suffering from a very severe pestilence. The king sent to the king of Anga for a bull with supernatural powers, owing to which the Anga kingdom was prosperous and healthy. This bull was lent by the king of Anga, and when it was brought within the boundary limits of the Magadhan capital, all pestilences due to attack by superhuman beings vanished. 5 S.B.E., XVII, p. I. 6 Digha Nikaya, I, pp. IIIff. 7 Hemchandra, Sthaviravali-charita; cf. the Bhagavati Sutra and the Nirayavali Stra.

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202 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA of supremacy which it attained in the following century, so that Bimbisara may be regarded as the real founder of the Magadhan imperial power. He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliances with the two neighbouring states, viz. Kosala and Vaisali. He took one consort from the royal family of Kosala and another from the influential Licchavi clan at Vaisali'.1. A third queen of Bimbisara, as mentioned in the Therigatha Commentary (p. 131) was Khema, daughter of the king of Madda (Madra) in the Punjab. According to the Jaina Nirayavaliya Sutta, the mother of Vehalla ar Vihalla one of the sons of Bimbisara. was a daughter of Cetaka. or Vihalla, one of the s the then king of Videha. There is also mention of Udumbarikadevi, a royal lady, whose relation with Bimbisara is not precisely known. The Jatakas tell us that Bimbisara married Mahakosala's daughter, Kosaladevi, to whom her father gave as a wedding gift a village of Kasi yielding a revenue of a hundred thousand, for bath and perfume money.3 The Mahavagga says that Bimbisara had 500 wives. Thus the marriages of Bimbisara paved the way for the expansion of Magadha both westward and northward, and enabled Bimbisara to add a part of Kasi to his dominions and to launch Magadha on that career of conquest and aggrandisement which only ended when Asoka sheathed his sword after the conquest of Kalinga. The Vinaya Pitaka (I, p. 179) tells us that Bimbisara was the lord of 80,000 villages, and the Mahavagga also states that Bimbisara's dominions embraced 80,000 townships, the overseers (Gamikas) of which used to meet in a grand assembly. Bimbisara had many sons, of whom we know the names of several, viz. Kunika Ajatasatru, Abhaya,? Vimala-Kondanna,8 Vehalla (or Vihalla), Silavat, Megha, Halla, and Nandisena. King Bimbisara's eldest son, Ajatasatru, murdered his father. Many are the myths surrounding this dreadful deed.10 Devadatta, the recalcitrant cousin of the Buddha, is said to have performed a miracle and thereby succeeded in persuading Ajatasatru to become his follower. It was he, it is said, who induced the prince to torture his father to death. During the lifetime of Bimbisara, Ajatasatru was made king, but at the instigation of Devadatta, he killed his 1 Smith, Early History of India, pp. 31-2. See Licchavi chapter. 2 Jaina Sutras, I, S.B.E., p. xiii. 3 Nos. 239, 283, 492. See Kosala and Kasi chapters. 4 VIII, I, 15. 5 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 166-7. 6 Cf. Vinaya Pitaka, Pt. II, p. I. | 7 See Licchavi chapter. 8 Psalms of the Sisters, p. 120; Psalms of the Brethren, p. 65. 9 Jaina Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, p. 22. 10 See e.g., Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, p. 134,

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THE MAGADHAS 203 father by starving him, in spite of the efforts of Queen Kosaladevi to provide her husband with sustenance. On the day that Bimbisara died, a son was born to Ajatasatru. The reports conveying the news of the death of his father and the birth of his child were received by his ministers simultaneously. They first handed to Ajatasatru the letter conveying the news of the birth of his son. Forthwith the king's mind was filled with filial affection, and all the virtues of his father rose up before his mind's eye, and he at once ordered Bimbisara's release. But it was too late. The ministers handed him the other letter, and on learning of his father's death, he wept, went to his mother, and asked her whether his father had any affection for him. Kosaladevi told him a story illustrating his father's love for him. Hearing this, Ajatasatru wept hot tears. The Vinaya (II, 490) gives a short account of an attempt made by Ajatasatru to kill his father with a sword, and in the concluding portion of the Samannaphala Sutta, there is an allusion to the actual murder which he afterwards committed.2 The details may or may not be true, but the fact that Bimbisara was put to death by Ajatasatru appears to have been a historical truth, the tradition is so strong and persistent with regard to this matter. According to the Ceylonese Chroniclers, this event took place 8 years before the death of Buddha, when Bimbisara had been on the throne for 52 years. According to other accounts, Bimbisara reigned for 28 or 38 years, and Ajatasatru for 25 years. After Bimbisara's death, Queen Kosaladevi died of grief. Ajatasatru then began to enjoy the revenues of the Kasi village, the dowry of his mother. But Pasenadi of Kosala determined that no parricide should possess a village which had been presented to his sister, and he accordingly waged war upon his nephew. Pasenadi was defeated in three campaigns, but in another battle he avenged his defeat, and took possession of Kasi. However, he treated Ajatasatru generously, giving him his daughter Vajira in marriage, and even bestowing the disputed village on her as a wedding gift. Thus Kasi once again came under the sway of Ajatasatru, and the two kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala were once more closely united by matrimonial alliance. Ajatasatru afterwards succeeded not only in permanently annexing Kasi, but also in absorbing the land of the Licchavis. At i Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, pp. 138-9. 2 Digha Nikaya, I, p. 86. 3 Dipavamsa, III, 50-60; Mahavamsa, II, 28-31. 4 Pargiter, Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, pp. 67-9. 5 Samyutta Nikaya, I, 82-5. See Kasi and Kosala chapters, and cf. Vaddhakisukara, Kummasapinda, Taccha-sukara and Bhaddasala Jatakas.

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204 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA any rate, the Licchavis were obliged to accept Ajatasatru's suzerainty and to pay him revenue, but they were in all probability independent in their internal politics. Ajatasatru is said to have made use of two deadly weapons, the Mahasilakantaga and the Ra(t)hamusala, in his war with the Licchavis. The first seems to have been some engine of war of the nature of a catapult which hurled big stones. The second was a chariot to which a mace was attached and which, when in motion, effected a great slaughter of men. It may be compared to the modern tank.1 Kunika Ajatasatru is represented throughout Jaina literature as a king of Anga who reigned in Campa. But the fact is that he was only the Uparaja or Viceroy of Anga which formed part of the kingdom of Magadha. While Viceroy of Anga, Kunika-Ajatasatru picked a quarrel with the Vrji-Licchavis of Vaisali over the possession of a mineral mine on the boundary of the two territories. The Pali commentatorial tradition indicates that Ajatasatru was jealous of the Vrji-Licchavis on account of their national solidarity and numerical strength. Accordingly, after he had ascended the throne of Magadha, he became bent upon destroying them and uprooting their power. He deputed his minister Varsakara to wait upon the Buddha and learn his opinion regarding the future of the Vrjis. On coming to know that the Buddha laid much stress on unity as the source of their national strength, Ajatasatru employed two of his ministers, Sunidha and Vassakara, to build a fort at Pataligama with a view to repelling the Vrjis. He also proceeded to weaken them by treacherous means, and eventually succeeded in conquering them.3 The Mahavamsa 4 assigns a reign of 32 years to Ajatasatru, while the Vinaya Commentary, Samantapasadika, puts his reign at 24 years, and the Puranic tradition indicates that he reigned for 25 years.5 Ajatasatru suffered the same miserable fate as his father, being put to death by his son Udayi Bhadda.& According to the genealogical lists given in the Puranas, Ajatasatru was succeeded by Darsaka.? Bhasa's Svapnavasavadatta mentions a Magadhan king named Darsaka, but makes no mention of any fact that might lead us to believe that Darsaka was the successor of Ajatasatru. 1 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 172-3. o Su mangalavilasini, II, pp. 5-6-7; Digha Nikaya, II, 87. 3 For a fuller account, see Licchavi chapter. 4 II, v. 29, 31, 32. 5 Pargiter, Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, pp. 67-9. 6 Mahavamsa, Chap. IV, v. I. 7 Pargiter, Purana Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, pp. 67-9. "Ajatasatru was followed by Darsaka who reigned for 25 or 27 years. After Darsaka, Udayin became king and made Kusumapura (Pataliputra) his capital, situated on the south bank of the Ganges.'

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THE MAGADHAS 205 Dr. Bhandarkar identifies him with Naga Dasaka who is represented by the Ceylonese Chronicles as the last king of Bimbisara's line. The Pali Canon and Jaina tradition do not warrant us in holding that Darsaka was the immediate successor of Ajatasatru. The former asserts that Udayi Bhadda was the son of Ajatasatru and probably also his successor, and the latter represents Udayi as the immediate successor of Kunika Ajatasatru. The Ceylonese Chronicles 2 also inform us that Udayi Bhadda succeeded his father Ajatasatru on the throne, and reigned for 16 years. That Udayabhadda or Udayibhadda was the son and successor of Ajatasatru is borne out by the Samannaphala Sutta of the Digha Nikaya (I, p. 50), by the Samantapasadika (p. 72) and the Sumangalavilasini (Vol. 1, pp. 153-4). Before his accession to the throne, Udayi Bhadda seems to have acted as his father's Viceroy at Campa.3 The Jaina work Parisistaparvan tells us that it was Udayin who founded on the bank of the Ganges a new capital which came to be known as Pataliputra, though the first beginning of a garrison town appears to have been made during the Buddha's lifetime. The Vayupurana bears testimony to this fact and says that Udaya built the city of Kusumapura in the fourth year of his reign.4 The successors of Udayi Bhadda, according to the Puranas, were Nandivardhana and Mahanandin. The Purana account does not tally with the Samantapasadi ka 5 which tells us that Udayi Bhadda was succeeded by his son Anuruddha who reigned for 18 years, and was succeeded by his son Munda who reigned for the same period. Then came Naga Dasaka who reigned for 24 years. Naga Dasaka was banished by the citizens who anointed the minister, Sisunaga, as king. This was probably because the people had become disgusted with the succession of parricides from Ajatasatru to Naga Dasaka. Sisunaga reigned for 18 years, and was followed by his son Kalasoka, who reigned for 28 years. Kalasoka had ten sons who ruled for 22 years.6 Then came in succession the nine Nandas who took possession of the throne of Magadha and are said to have reigned for 22 years. According to the Puranas, the founder and first king of the Nanda dynasty was Mahapadma Nanda, son of Mahanandin by a Sudra woman. He usurped the throne of Magadha in or about 413 B.C.? 1 Jacobi, Parisista parvan, p. 42. 2 Dipavamsa, V, 97; Mahavamsa, IV, I. 3 Jacobi, Parisista parvan, p. 42. 4 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 176. Cf. Vincent Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., pp. 38-9, and Samantapasadika, pp. 72-3 5 Ibid., pp. 72-3.. 6 Cf. Dipavamsa, V. 7 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 41.

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206 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA We learn from Kautilya's Arthasastra, Kamandaka's Nitisara, the Puranas and the Mudraraksasa that the Nanda dynasty was overthrown by Candragupta Maurya with the help of his wily and astute minister, Kautilya. Candragupta was the son of the chief queen of the Moriya king of Pipphalivana,1 and founder of the Imperial Maurya dynasty of Magadha. He was advised by his minister Kautilya to seek the help of the Licchavis who were then living under a sangha form of government. The Licchavis enjoyed a great deal of independence under Candragupta. It will be remembered that they had been forced by Ajatasatru to acknowledge the suzerainty of Magadha. Candragupta appears to have liberated the Punjab from foreign rule. He inherited from his Nanda predecessor a huge army which he increased until it numbered 30,000 cavalry, 9,000 elephants, 600,000 infantry, and a multitude of chariots. With this irresistible force, he overran and subdued all the northern States, probably as far south as the Narmada or even farther.2 Plutarch 3 tells us that he brought under his sway the whole of India. Justin also says that Candragupta was in possession of India. Vincent Smith states that 'the dominions of Candragupta, the first historical paramount sovereign or emperor in India, extended from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea'.4 Justin - informs us that while India was under Candragupta, Seleukos (Seleucus), a general of Alexander the Great, made an expedition into India (about 305 B.C.). Appianus says that he crossed the Indus and waged war on Candragupta, king of the Indians, until he made friends and entered into relations of marriage with him. The hosts of Candragupta, however, proved too strong for the invader to overcome, and Seleukos was perforce obliged to retire and to conclude a humiliating peace. This treaty may be dated in or about 303 B.C. It was ratified by a'matrimonial alliance', which is taken to mean that Seleukos gave a daughter to Candragupta. Seleukos was not only compelled to abandon all thought of conquest in India, but also to surrender a large part of Ariana to the west of the Indus. In exchange for the comparatively trifling equivalent of 500 elephants, Candragupta received the Satrapies of the Paropanisadai, Aria and Arachosia, the capitals of which were known as Kabul, Herat and Kandahar respectively. The Satrapy of Gedrosia with its capital Makran seems also to have been ceded. The inscriptions of Asoka prove the inclusion of the 1 See chapter on Bulis, Moriyas, etc. 2 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 124. 3 Alex., LXII. 4 Smith, op. cit., p. 124. 5 Watson's Ed., p. 143. 6 Indian Antiquary, Vol. VI, p. 114.

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THE MAGADHAS 207 Kabul Valley within the Maurya empire. After the war, the Syrian and Indian emperors lived on friendly terms. Seleukos sent an envoy, Megasthenes, to Candragupta's court. Megasthenes stayed at Pataliputra for a considerable time, and wrote a history of India. Unfortunately this work, which would have been invaluable for the ancient history of India, has been lost. The fragments which survive in quotations by later authors such as Strabo and Arrian have been collected by Schwanbeck, and translated by McCrindle. Great soldier and conqueror as Candragupta admittedly was, he was no less great as an administrator. We have a beautifully complete and detailed account of the system of administration in vogue in his time from the Arthasastra of Kautilya who is generally supposed to have been his chief minister, and the few fragments of Megasthenes which have survived amply corroborate this picture. The edicts of Asoka again confirm in many respects the particulars of the organisation of the empire given by Kautilya and Megasthenes. The supreme government, it appears from Kautilya's work, consisted of two main parts: (1) The raja, on the one hand, and (2) the Mahamatras, Amatyas or Sacivas (ministers) on the other. At the head of the State was the sovereign (raja) who had military, judicial, and legislative as well as executive functions, but was never the spiritual head. In addition to the Mantrins, there was the Mantriparisad or Assembly of Imperial Councillors. In several passages of the Arthasastra, the Mantrins are sharply distinguished from the Mantriparisad. The members making up the latter body evidently occupied an inferior position, their salary being 12,000 panas, while that of a Mantrin was 48,000 panas. Kautilya's Arthasastra has been so largely utilised by scholars that any attempt to present anew an account of Candragupta's government would be futile and a mere repetition of what has already been said on the subject. The Early History of India 2 and the Political History of Ancient India : give us a systematic and critical account of the government of the great Maurya Emperor, while Jayaswal's work on Hindu Polity illuminates many obscure points of ancient Indian statecraft and administration. Historians differ in presenting an account of the last days of Candragupta. According to Jain tradition, Candragupta abdicated the throne and became a Jain ascetic. He is said to have repaired to Mysore, where he died.4 According to Vincent Smith, 'Chandragupta either abdicated or died in the year 298 B.C.'.5 1 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 230. 2 By Vincent Smith. 3 By Hemchandra Ray Chaudhuri. 4 Rice, Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions, pp. 3-4. 5 V. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 126.

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208 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Candragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, surnamed Amitraghata (slayer of foes),--an epithet which is quoted, perhaps with reference to this king, in the grammatical work of Patanjali.1 It is uncertain whether Bindusara earned, or merely assumed, his sobriquet. The Puranas attribute to Bindusara a reign of 25 years, and the Ceylonese Chroniclers a reign of 28 years. The Samantapasadika,2 on the other hand, says that he ruled for 18 years only. According to Smith's chronology, Bindusara's reign terminated about 273 B.C.3 The Divyavadana 4 tells us that Taxila revolted during his reign, and that he sent his son Asoka to quell the rebellion. When the prince approached Taxila with his troops, all disturbance was allayed. The people came out to meet him and said: 'We are not opposed to the prince, nor even to King Bindusara, but the wicked ministers insult us.' Asoka alludes to the highhandedness of the Maurya officials in his Kalinga Edict. Nothing of political importance is known to have happened during Bindusara's reign, but it is clear that he maintained intact the dominions inherited from Candragupta. The friendly relations between India and the Hellenistic powers, which had been initiated by his father Candragupta and the Greek empire-builder Seleukos, continued unbroken throughout his reign.6 Bindusara was succeeded by his son Asoka, who is said to have won undivided sovereignty over all Jambudvipa after slaying all his brothers except the youngest, Tissa. Asoka reigned without coronation for four years, and then consecrated himself as king in the city of Pakaliputra. He assumed the title of Devanampiya' ('dear to the gods'), and loved to speak of himself as Devanampiyadasi. The name Asoka is found only in literature, and in two inscriptions, viz. the Maski Edict of Asoka himself, and the Junagadh Inscription of the Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman. Asoka was at first called Candasoka on account of his evil deeds, but he later became known as Dhammasoka on account of his meritorious deeds.10 The Sarnath Inscription of Kumaradevi mentions the name Dharmasoka. During the first thirteen years of his reign, Asoka appears to have followed the traditional Maurya policy of expansion within India and of friendly co-operation with foreign powers. In the thirteenth year of his reign, he conquered the kingdom of the Three Kalingas or Kalinga, and annexed it to his empire. The annexation of Kalinga, like that of Anga by Bimbisara, was a great landmark 1 Mahabhasya, III, 2, 88. 2 Vol. I, p. 73. 8 Asoka, p. 73. 4 Ibid., pp. 371-2. 5 Ibid., 3rd Ed., pp. 194-5. 6 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., pp. 156 foll. 7 Samantapasadika, 1, p. 41. Cattari vassani anabhisitto'va rajjam karetva. 8 Smith, Asoka, p. 232. 9 Cf. Rock Edicts. 10 Mahavamsa, Chap. V.

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THE MAGADHAS 209 in the history of Magadha and of India. But the unavoidably heavy loss of life and property involved in the conquest of Kalinga made a deep impression on Asoka and awakened in him feelings of profound compunction and sorrow. About this time he appears to have come under the influence of Buddhist teachers. This opened a new era-an era of peace and kindness to all animate beings, of social progress, of religious propaganda, and it marked the close of a career of conquest and aggression. The martial spirit of Magadha began to die out for want of exercise.' Thus came to an end the era of political digvijaya' begun by his mighty grandfather, giving place to the sacred era of Dhammavijaya' or conquest by the spiritual force of non-violence. Asoka's change of religion after the Kalinga war resulted in a change of the monarch's internal as well as foreign policy. He maintained friendly relations with the S. Indian and Hellenistic powers. He renounced once for all the old policy of violence, of conquering peoples, suppressing revolt by force and annexing territory. In Edict IV he says with a spirit of exultation: 'the reverberation of the war drums (Bherighoso) has become the reverberation of the Law (Dhammaghoso)'. He called upon his future successors-sons and grandsons to shun new conquests. This change of policy darkened the political horizon of the Magadhan empire in its heyday. Magadha which, before Bimbisara was merely a tiny State in South Bihar, had, during the interval from the time of Bimbisara to the Kalinga war of Asoka, expanded to a gigantic empire from the foot of the Hindu Kush to the borders of the Tamil country. After the Kalinga war, the political destiny of Magadha was reversed. The empire gradually became smaller and smaller till it sank to its pre-Bimbisarian area and position. At one time King Bindusara used to give alms to 60,000 Brahmins and heretics. Asoka also followed his father for some time in making donations to non-Buddhist ascetics and institutions. But becoming displeased with them he stopped further charities to them and gave charities to the Buddhist bhikkhus.1 Asoka sent missionaries all over India and also to Ceylon to preach the Buddhist dhamma. Almost all of these missionaries were natives of Magadha.2 Asoka continued the Council Government of his predecessors. The inscriptions bear ample testimony to the fact that he also retained the system of provincial administration in vogue under his forefathers. The emperor, and the princes who often acted as Viceroys in charge of the provinces, were helped by a number of officials who, according to the Edicts, may be classed as (1) The Mahamatras, 2 Ibid., I, p. 63. 1 Samantapasadika, I, p. 44. 14

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA (2) The Rajukas, (3) The Pradesikas, (4) The Yutas (the Yuktas of the Arthasastra, p. 59), (5) Pulisa (Purushas), (6) Pativedaka (Prativedakas), and (7) Vachabhumika (Vrajabhumikas).1 Asoka was succeeded by Dasaratha who was followed by a succession of weak Maurya kings who had only a vestige of the great power that Asoka wielded. Brhadratha, the last of the Maurya dynasty, was treacherously murdered by his commanderin-chief, Pusyamitra Sunga, who established himself upon the throne of his master and set up the Sunga dynasty. The Divyavadana (p. 434) tells us that the emperor continued to reside in Pataliputra. Pusyamitra ruled over Magadha for thirty-six years from about 185 to 149 B.C. During his reign the Mantriparisad (Assembly of Councillors) continued to be an important element of the governmental machinery. The viceregal princes were assisted by parisads.2 The historical events worth mentioning during Pusyamitra's reign were the Vidarbha war and the Greek invasion. The former resulted in the splitting up of the kingdom of Vidarbha into two States, between which the river Varada formed the boundary. The latter is referred to in Patanjali's Mahabhasya and Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitra. Unfortunately, the name of the Greek invader is not given in either of these works. Historians differ as to the identity of the invader, but they agree that he was a Bactrian Greek. Dr. Ray Chaudhuri 3 adduces strong evidence to identify Demetrius with the Yavana invader referred to by Patanjali and Kalidasa. Pusyamitra died in or about 149 B.C., as the Puranas affirm. He was followed by nine kings who ruled for 76 years. The Sunga dynasty probably lasted for 112 years. The last of the Sunga monarchs was Devabhuti who was a young and dissolute prince. The Puranas state that he was overthrown by his Minister, Vasudeva Kanva. Rapson says that the Sungas were a military power, but in later times they became puppets in the hands of their Brahmin councillors. They probably ruled originally as feudatories of the Mauryas at Vidisa, the modern Besnagar, on the Vetravati (Betwa) near Bhilsa, and about 120 miles east of Ujjain. The Sunga dynasty probably came to an end about 73 B.C., and was succeeded by the Kanva dynasty which lasted till 27 B.C., when the Andhras came into power. For some time, Pataliputra may have acknowledged their supremacy, but later on, it must have re-asserted its independence. After the period of the Andhras, the history of Pataliputra passes into oblivion. 4 210 1 For a full account of this reign, see Vincent Smith's Asoka. 2 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 324-5. 3 Ibid., pp. 308ff. 4 Cambridge History of India, Chap. XXI, pp. 522-3. 14B

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THE MAGADHAS 211 At the beginning of the fourth century A.D. the Magadhan monarchy again rose into prominence under the Guptas. I-tsing mentions a king Maharaja Srigupta of Magadha who may be placed in about the second century A.D. (175 A.D.). But the first independent sovereign (Maharajadhiraja) was Candragupta, son of Maharaja Ghatotkacha Gupta, and grandson of Maharaja Gupta. Candragupta ascended the throne in 320 A.D., the initial date of the Gupta era. Like Bimbisara he strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis of Vaisali, who appear to have continued to occupy an influential position in N. India, though for a time their glory was eclipsed by the rising State of Magadha. The union of Candragupta I with the Licchavis is commemorated by a series of coins, and by the Allahabad inscription. Through his Licchavi connection, Candragupta was elevated from the rank of a local chief, and he proceeded to lay the foundations of the second Magadhan empire. His son and successor Samudragupta often felt pride in describing himself as the son of the daughter of the Licchavis. Before his death, Candragupta selected Samudragupta, his son by the Licchavi princess, as his successor. It is clear from the Allahabad prasasti and from the epithet 'tatpadaparigrhita' applied to Samudragupta in other inscriptions that the prince was selected by Candragupta I from among his sons, as the best fitted to succeed him. It was the aim of Samudragupta to bring about the political unification of India and to make himself an Ekarat (sole sovereign) over this united empire; but his only permanent annexation was that of portions of Aryavarta, the Gangetic plain.1 Samudragupta made the rulers of the Atavika rajyas ('forest kingdoms') his servants, led an expedition to the south, and made his power felt by the powerful rulers of the Eastern Deccan. Here he defeated the kings, but following the pre-Mauryan Hindu policy he did not annex their territory. According to Dr. Fleet 2 the Atavika rajyas were closely connected with Dabhala, i.e. the Jabbalpur region. The Eran inscription of Samudragupta bears testimony to the conquest of this region and to the fact that the Vakatakas of the Western Deccan were deprived of their possessions in Central India by the Emperor.4 The kings (mostly of Daksinapatha) who came into conflict with the great Gupta conqueror were Mahendra of Kosala, Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara, Mantaraja of Kaurala, Svamidatta of 1 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 447. 2 Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, p. 114. 3 Epigraphia Indica, VIII, pp. 284-7. 4 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., pp. 455-6.

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212 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Pistapura and of Kottura of Mahendragiri, Damana of Erandapalla, Visnugopa of Kanci, Nilaraja of Avamukta, Hastivarman of Vergi, Ugrasena of Palakka, Kuvera of Devarastra, and Dhananjaya of Kusthalapura.1 The tribal States of the Punjab, W. India and Malwa are also said to have obeyed his compelling mandate or decree (pracanda-sasana) 'by giving all kinds of taxes, obeying his orders and coming to perform obeisance'. The most important among the eastern kingdoms which submitted to the mighty Gupta emperor were Samatata (part of E. Bengal bordering on the sea), Davaka (not yet satisfactorily identified) and Kamarupa (in Assam). The Damodarpur plates inform us that Pundravardhana or N. Bengal formed an integral part of the Gupta empire and was governed by a line of Uparika Maharajas as vassals of the Gupta emperor. The dominion under the direct government of Samudragupta in the middle of the fourth century comprised all the most populous and fertile provinces of N. India. It extended from the Brahmaputra on the east to the Jumna and Chambal on the west, and from the foot of the Himalayas on the north to the Narmada on the south. Beyond these wide limits, the frontier kingdoms of Assam and the Gangetic delta, as well as those on the southern slopes of the Himalayas, and the free tribes of Rajputana and Malwa, were attached to the empire by bonds of subordinate alliance; while almost all the kingdoms of the south had been overrun by the emperor's armies and compelled to acknowledge his irresistible might.3 The exact year of Samudragupta's death is not yet ascertainable. Dr. Ray Chaudhuri states 4 that he died some time after 375 A.D. He was succeeded by his son Candragupta II (born of Queen Dattadevi), who assumed the title of Vikramaditya ("Sun of Power'). He was also called Simhacandra and Simha Vikrama. Certain Vakataka inscriptions and the Sanchi inscription of 412 A.D. call him Devagupta or Devaraja. The greatest military achievement of Candragupta Vikramaditya was his advance to the Arabian Sea through Malwa and Gujarat, and his subjugation of the peninsula of Surastra or Kathiawad, governed for centuries by rulers known as Saka Satraps. As a result of the western expedition, Malwa and Surastra were added to the Gupta dominions. Another event of political importance was the Emperor's matrimonial alliance with 1 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 452. 2 Ibid., p. 456. 3 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 303. 4 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 464. 5 Indian Antiquary, 1913, p. 160. & Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 307.

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THE MAGADHAS 213 the Vakataka king of the Deccan, by the marriage of the Emperor's daughter Prabhavati with King Rudrasena II, son of Prthivisena I. The original capital of Magadha under Candragupta II was Pataliputra, but after his western conquests, Ujjain was made a second capital. Smith says: 'Ajodhya enjoyed a more favourable situation and appears to have been at times the headquarters of the government of both Samudragupta and his son, the latter of whom probably had a mint for copper coins there. There is reason to believe that during the fifth century Ajodhya rather than Pataliputra, was the premier city of the Gupta empire.'1 Detailed information regarding the administrative history of the Magadhan empire under Candragupta II is not available, but the narrative of Fa-Hien and the inscriptions that have hitherto been discovered throw much light on the character of his administration, and on the social and religious condition of India at the time. The Raja was the head of the State. He was apparently nominated by his predecessor, both primogeniture and capacity being taken into consideration. A body of high ministers whose office was very often hereditary used to assist him. There was no distinction between civil and military officials. After Candragupta II, the Gupta power in Magadha was temporarily eclipsed by the Pusyamitras.2 Then followed the Huna invasion, in which the Emperor Skandagupta, according to Dr. Ray Chaudhuri,s was presumably victorious, and, according to Smith, was unable to continue the successful resistance which he had offered in the earlier days of his rule, and was forced at last to succumb to the repeated attacks of the foreigners. But the Magadhan empire did not wholly perish on the death of Skandagupta. It was ruled by Puragupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta II, and Buddhagupta. Then the imperial line passed on to a dynasty of eleven Gupta princes known as the 'later Gupta monarchs of Magadha'. The Damodarpur plates, Sarnath inscriptions, the Eran epigraph of Buddhagupta, and the Betul plates of the Parivrajaka Maharaja Samksobha, dated in the year 518 A.D., testify to the fact that the Gupta empire continued to exert sovereign rights in the latter half of the fifth as well as the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. In the first half of the seventh century, Harsa, the great Kanouj monarch, overshadowed the Gupta power, which was revived by Adityasena, who assumed the titles of Paramabhattakara 1 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 310. 2 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 478. 3 Ibid., p. 488. 4 Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 328.

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214 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA and Maharajadhiraja. Adityasena and his successors, as proved by Aphsad and Deo-Baranark inscriptions, were the only N. Indian sovereigns who laid claim to the imperial dignity during the last quarter of the seventh century A.D., and appear actually to have dominated Magadha and Madhyadesa. The last king of the line of Adityasena was Jivitagupta II, who reigned early in the eighth century A.D. About this time, the throne of Magadha was occupied by a Gauda king named Gopala, as the Pala inscriptions seem to indicate.1 Then the great Magadhan empire decayed politically, being included in the Gauda empire of the Palas and Senas, but it continued to remain the centre and headquarters of Buddhist learning up to the time of the Muhammadan conquests at the close of the twelfth century, when the monasteries with their well-stocked libraries were reduced to ashes.2 Magadha and its ancient capital Rajagrha were intimately associated with the Buddha. Magadha was the scene of the real birth of Buddhism. The Buddha's chief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana, were natives of Magadha, and it was at Rajagrha that they were converted by the Buddha. Their conversion, and the consequent desertion of the school of Sanjaya the Wanderer, must have created a sensation among the citizens of Rajagrha. Another notable conversion was that of Mahakasyapa, who formerly belonged to another religious sect. Persons of many well-known families either became monks or lay supporters of the new doctrine. For want of accommodation in Venuvana, the bhikkhus passed the night in grottoes and caverns of the hills surrounding the city. This induced Anathapindika, the great banker of Rajagrha, to undertake, with the permission of the Buddha, to build some 60 viharas for them. Rajagrha was the first place visited by the Bodhisattva after his adoption of ascetic life at Anupiya in the Malla territory. It was here that he begged his food from door to door for the first time. It was somewhere in Magadha, between Rajagrha and Uruvela, that he met and placed himself under the training of Arada Kalama and Udra Ramaputra in the method of Yoga.' He 1 Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 413. 2 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 420. 3 Malalasekera, Pali Proper Names Dicty., II, s.v. Magadha. 4 Kathavatthu, 1, 97; Vinaya Pitaka, I, 37ff. 5 Vinaya, Cullavagga, p. 14. 6 Suttanipata, pp. 72ff.; Fausboll, Jataka, I, pp. 65ff. 7 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 163ff.; Mahavastu, II, 118; III, 322; Lalitavistara, VII, v. 54; Fausboll, Jataka, I, pp. 66ff.

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THE MAGADHAS 215 eventually selected Uruvela in Magadha as the most fitting place for meditation and the attainment of enlightenment. Shortly after his attainment of Buddhahood, it was suggested to him that his primary task was the reformation of the religions of Magadha, which had all become corrupt.1 A notable triumph of the Buddha in Magadha was the conversion of the three great leaders of the Jatilas with their thousand followers. With all these new converts, he proceeded towards Rajagaha and halted on the way at Latthi or Yasti-vana, a beautiful palm-grove belonging to King Bimbisara. He was received with ovations by all the citizens of Rajagrha and the inhabitants of Anga-Magadha, headed by King Bimbisara.2 The conversion of the king (who was the Buddha's junior in age by five years) to the new faith proved a great incentive to the people at large to welcome it. King Bimbisara made a gift of his bamboo grove, Veluvana-Kalandaka-Nivapa to the Buddha and his disciples. With the formation of the order of Bhikkhunis at Vaisali, many women of Rajagrha, headed by Ksema, the gifted queen of Bimbisara, joined the Order.4 Bhadda Kundalakesi, who was converted by the Buddha, went to Magadha after she became a theri, and lived in Gijjhakuta for some time. Theri Cala was born in Magadha at Nalakagama, in an influential Brahmin family. She, Upacala, and Sisupacala were the sisters of Sariputta. They obtained ordination from the Buddha when they learnt that Sariputta had been ordained. Other Magadhan ladies who entered the order were Mettika and Subha, the daughters of an eminent Brahmin of Rajagrha,? Dhammadinna,8 Citta,and Subha, a goldsmith's daughter. 10 - The Theragatha records the influence of the Buddha's teachings. For instance, once the Buddha gave instruction to Visakha, the son of a raja in Magadha, and as a result Visakha renounced the world. 11 The Divyavadana 12 gives an account of a journey from Sravasti to Rajagrha, which was undertaken by the Buddha and his monks. In the course of this journey, the Buddha six times saved some merchants of Sravasti from being robbed. Velattha Kaccana was another trader who, on his way to Rajagrha from Andhakavindha, 1 Majjhima Nikaya, I, p. 168; Vinaya, Mahavagga, P. 5. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 146; Mahavastu, III, 441ff. 3 Vinaya, Mahavagga, p. 39; Fausboll, Jataka, I, p. 85. 4 Therigatha Comm., pp. 127-8. 5 Ibid., pp. 106-7. 6 Ibid., pp. 162-3. 7 Therigatha, pp. 28 and 148. 8 Ibid., p. 16. 9 Ibid., p. 27. 10 Ibid., p. 142. 11 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 152. 12 pp. 55, 94-5.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 216 met the Buddha and his pupils, and offered each bhikkhu a pot of molasses.1 The Digha Nikaya 2 narrates that at Rajagrha the Buddha summoned all the bhikkhus and prescribed several sets of seven conditions of welfare for the Sangha. Once the Buddha, while sojourning amongst the Magadhas, went to a Brahmin village named Khanumata, and took up his abode in the Ambalatthika grove (mango-grove). An influential Brahmin named Kutadanta, the owner of the village, together with many Brahmin householders, was converted to the Buddhist faith after conversing with the Buddha.3 5 The Pali Texts abound with references to the Buddha's experience and converts in Magadha, and especially at Rajagrha.* One of the best-known stories is that of the Buddha and Bharadvaja, the Brahmin ploughman of Ekanala, a Magadhan village. The Digha Nikaya and Sumangalavilasini give a beautiful account of the visit paid to the Buddha by the parricide monarch of Magadha, Ajatasatru. Territorial expansion could not satisfy Ajatasatru or bring peace to his perturbed mind. After murdering his father he could not sleep soundly, but dreamed dreadful dreams; and he devised various means of spending the night without sleep. On one occasion, the whole of Rajagrha was illumined and decorated and was full of festivities and enjoyments. Ajatasatru with his ministers went on the terrace and saw the festivities going on in the city, so that he might not fall asleep. The moon-lit night by its soft beauty elevated his soul, and the thought arose within him of approaching a 'Samana or Brahmana' who could bring solace to his tortured mind. Hearing of the great virtues of the Buddha from Jivaka, the greatest physician of the day, Ajatasatru came to the mango-grove where the Buddha was staying, and asked whether he could show him the effect of leading the life of a Samana. The Buddha did so by delivering to the repentant king a discourse on various virtues of the ascetic life as narrated in the Samannaphala Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya.8 1 Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp. 224-5. 2 II, pp. 76-81. 3 Digha Nikaya, I, pp. 127ff. 4 See, e.g. Digha Nikaya, I, pp. 150ff.; II, pp. 202-3, 218; III, pp. 36ff., 58, 99, 194ff.; Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 8ff., 27-8, 52, 55, 65-7, 106-7, 160-4, 166-7, 185ff.; Anguttara Nikaya, II, pp. 29-30, 181-2; II, pp. 366ff., 374ff., 383ff.; Majjhima Nikaya, III, 237ff.; Jataka, I, 65-6, 86, 156. 5 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 172-3; Suttanipata, I, 3. 6 Sumangalavilasini, I, 141-2. 7 Ibid., I, 151-2. 8 Ibid., I, pp. 158ff. See also Digha Nikaya, I, 47ff.

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THE MAGADHAS 217 Once Vassakara (later the chief minister of Ajatasatru) began the work of repairing the fort at Rajagrha. He needed timber for the purpose, and went to the reserved forest, but was informed that the wood was taken by a bhikkhu named Dhaniya. Vassakara complained to King Bimbisara, and the incident was brought to the notice of the Buddha who ordered the bhikkhus not to take anything which was not offered or presented to them.1 The Buddha passed away in the eighth year of Ajatasatru's reign. It was from Rajagtha that he started on his last journey to Kusinara, stopping on the way at Ambalatthika, Nalanda and Pataligama, and delivering fruitful discourses to all who came in contact with him. After the Buddha's parinirvana, his relics were distributed among various clans. Ajatasatru obtained a share and enshrined it with great respect and honour, instituting a worship of the relics on a grand scale. He built Dhatu Caityas all round Rajagsha, his capital,5 and at his own cost repaired 18 mahaviharas at Rajagrha which had been deserted by the bhikkhus after the Buddha's death. The bhikkhus headed by Mahakassapa performed the funeral ceremony of the Buddha, and resolved to hold a council at Rajagsha.? Accordingly, Rajagrha is famous in the history of Buddhism as the place where 500 distinguished theras met under the leadership of the Venerable Mahakassapa to recite the doctrine and discipline of the Buddha, and fix the Buddhist canon. All later traditions, whether in Pali or Sanskrit, tell us that the First Council was convoked in front of the Saptaparni or Saptaparna cave on a slope of the Vaibhara or Vaihara hill, and under the auspices of king Ajatasatru, who constructed a suitable mandapa (tent) for the purpose; but the Vinaya account distinctly says that the main reason for selecting Rajagrha for the purpose was that it could afford spacious accommodation for the 500 theras. The shady slopes and caverns of the hills around Rajaglha were fitting places for the lonely meditation of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, theras and theris. The sombre beauty of the hills and the retreats was much praised by the Buddha. The Vimanavatthu Commentary points out that Rajagrha was much frequented by Gautama Buddha and his disciples. The people of Rajaglha were always ready to satisfy the needs of the 1 Vinaya Pitaka, III, pp. 41-5. 2 Samantapasadika, I, p. 72. / 3 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 72-89. 4 Paramatthadipani on the Petavatthu, p. 212. 5 Mahavamsa, p. 247. Ekatimsatimoparicchedo, v. 21. 6 Samantapasadika, I, pp. 9-10. 7 Mahavamsa, Chap. 3, pp. 16 foll. 8 Vinaya Cullavagga, XI. 9 Digua Nikaya, II, p. II6.

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218 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA bhikkhus. Buddhaghosa records various facts about Rajagrha. For instance, two chief disciples of the Buddha went to the city, and the inhabitants showered charities upon them. A silk robe was also given in charity to Devadatta (the Buddha's wicked cousin).2 The Samantapasadika records that Rajagrha was a good place, having accommodation for a large number of bhikkhus. We may also mention two Jataka references to legends regarding Rajagrha. It is not possible to refer to all of the stories told of the Buddha's disciples and their connection with Magadha, and particularly Rajagrha. We have already mentioned the fact that Sariputta was a native of Magadha; he is often referred to in the Pali literature.5 It was at Rajagrha that Anathapindika, the great banker of Sravasti, was converted by the Buddha.6 The Manorathapurani relates that Pindola Bharadvaja, one of the Buddha's foremost disciples, was born at Rajagrha in a rich Brahmin family.? It further narrates that Cullapanthaka and Mahapanthaka, grandsons of Dhanasetthi, a banker of Rajagrha, could by their supernatural power create as many bodies as they liked.8 Kumarakassapa, foremost of the orators amongst the Buddha's pupils, was born at Rajagsha. While the Buddha was at Rajagrha at Kalandakanivapa, a party of six bhikkhunis went to attend the Giraggasamajja, a kind of festival.10 Apparently such festivals were common in the Magadhan capital, for we read in the Jataka (I, 489) that there was a festival at Rajagrha where people drank wine, ate flesh, danced and sang; and in the Visuddhimagga 11 we read of a festival at Rajagrha in which five hundred virgins offered Mahakassapa-thera a kind of cake which he accepted. Another celebration known as Nakkhattakilam, 'sport of the stars', in which the rich took part, used to be held at Rajagrha, and lasted a week.12 The Divyavadana contains several stories about Rajagrha. For instance, a householder went to sea with merchandise 13; on another occasion 500 merchants came to Rajagrha, but could not buy merchandise as there was a festival going on at the time.14 Once a childless merchant of Rajagrha died. The inhabitants of the town put seeds of various colours into a pot and declared that the 1 Vimanavatthu Comm., pp. 250-1; and see ibid., pp. 246-7, 27-8. 2 Dhammapada Comm., I, pp. 77ff. s Vol. 1, P.T.S., pp. 8-9. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), No. 445, IV, pp. 37 foll., No. 3II, IV, pp. 33 foll. 5 See, e.g. Arguttara Nikaya, V, pp. 120-1; Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 251-60. 6 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 55-6. 7 Sinhalese Ed., p. 122. 8 Manorathapurani, Sinhalese Ed., pp. 13off. 9 Ibid., pp. 173ff.; and see Dhammapada Comm., III, pp. 144 foll. 10 Vinaya Pitaka, IV, 267. 11 Vol. II, p. 403. 12 Vimanavatthu Comm., pp. 62-74. 13 p. 301. 14 p. 307

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THE MAGADHAS 219 person who was able to pick out seeds of one colour only would become the merchant (i.e. his heir). A certain merchant of Rajagrha built a vihara for the bhikkhus. The Vinaya Pitaka 3 tells us a story of a trader who had made preparations to go on a journey from Rajagrha to Patiyaloka, when a bhikkhu on his begging tour came to the trader's house for alms. The trader exhausted the food which he had collected for the journey, by giving it to several bhikkhus. Not being able to start his journey when he had intended, he set out late and was killed by robbers on the way. It is apparent from the foregoing references that many people of Magadha, and more especially of Rajaglha, were engaged in trade and commerce. There are numerous references in the Jatakas to big bankers of Magadha in the Buddha's time. In the Asampadana Jataka, for instance, we find that a Magadhan setthi or banker named Sankha was the master of eighty crores of wealth. He had a friend in Benares who was also a banker, having the same amount of riches. Sankha helped his friend greatly, but was repaid by base ingratitude. Hearing of this ingratitude, the king caused the setthi of Benares to give all his wealth to his benefactor; but the Magadhan banker was so honest that he refused to take back more than his own money. The Petavatthu Commentary tells us that there was a merchant at Rajagrha who was so very wealthy that his immense riches could not be exhausted even if 1,000 coins were spent every day.5 Rajagrha, the ancient capital of Magadha, had many names in the course of its long history, and many explanations of these names have been put forward by various authorities, indigenous and foreign. By some it was said that Rajagrha (Pali Rajagaha) was so called because it was founded by a king, and every house in it resembled a palace. Buddhaghosa says, however, that the town was called Rajagaha because it was used as a residence (lit. seized) by Mandhata, Mahagovinda, and the rest.? Dhammapala refers to another opinion accounting for the name Rajagaha as a prison for inimical kings (patirajunam gahabhutatta). The town was also called Kusagrapura, 'the city of the superior reed-grass' which abounded there,' or 'city of (King) Kusagra' and Girivraja, 1 p. 309. 2 Vinaya Pitaka, II, p. 146. 3 IV, pp. 79-80. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), I, pp. 466-7. 5 PP. 2-9. 6 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 162, note. 7 Sumangalavilasini, I, p. 132. 8 Udana-vannana, Siamese Ed., p. 32. Cf. Bhagavatapurana, X, Chap. 7, according to which Jarasandha imprisoned several kings in RajagTha. 9 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 148.

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220 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA because it was surrounded by mountains.1 Girivraja is the name which was given in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata to the old capital of Jarasandha, king of Magadha. Dhammapala says that the place was originally built or planned by Mahagovinda, the famous architect, while in the Sasanavamsa we read that King Mandhata was the founder of Rajagaha, and in the Suttanipata Commentary it is stated that Rajagaha was ruled by famous kings like Mandhata and Mahagovinda. In the Jatakas it is mentioned as a great city.5 3 The Mahabharata describes Girivraja or Rajagrha, the capital of Jarasandha, as a city which had a teeming population and was noted for hot springs (tapodas). Jinaprabha-suri tells us that it contained 36,000 houses of merchants, half of which belonged to the Buddhists, while the other half belonged to the Jainas, shown forth in the middle as a row of magnificent buildings. Buddhaghosa too mentions Rajagaha as a city, the inner and outer areas of which contained each nine crores of people. The city had 32 gates and 64 posterns. According to the Chinese pilgrims' accounts, high mountains surrounded it on every side and formed its external ramparts, as it were. On the west it could be approached through a narrow pass, while on the north there was a passage through the mountains. The town was extended (i.e. broad) from east to west, and narrow from north to south. It was about 150 li in circuit. The remaining foundations of the wall of the inner city were about 30 li in circuit. Kanika trees with fragrant bright golden blossoms were on all the paths, and these made the woods in late spring all golden-coloured.8 9 Hsuan Tsang would have us believe that the name Rajagrha was strictly applicable only to the new city built either by Bimbisara or by Ajatasatru, not far to the north-east from Venuvana (the old city being known as Girivraja). Fa-Hien too speaks of the 'old city' and the 'new city'. By the old city Hsuan Tsang distinctly means Kusagrapura, and by the new city he means the city which King Ajatasatru made his capital. 1 Mbh., Sabhaparvan, Chap. XXI, v. 3. For a detailed description of the mountains surrounding Rajagrha, see B. C. Law, Rajagrha in Ancient Literature, M.A.S.I., No. 58. 2 Vimanavatthu Comm., p. 82. Mahagovindapanditena Vatthuvijjavidhina sammadeva nivesite, sumapite. 5 I, 391. 3 p. 152. * Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, p. 22. 7 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 323. 8 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, 150; Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 148. 9 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 162. 4 p. 413.

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THE MAGADHAS 221 The Jaina Vividha-tirtha-kalpa speaks of Rajagtha as the residence of such kings and princes as Jarasandha, Srenika, Kunika, Abhaya, Megha, Halla, Vihalla and Nandisena.1 Srenika was no other than King Seniya Bimbisara of Pali literature, and Kunika was King Ajatasatru. Abhaya, Megha, Halla, Vihalla and Nandisena we have already referred to as sons of Bimbisara. During the reigns of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the city of Rajagrha was at the height of its prosperity. Anga formed an integral part of the kingdom of Magadha, which comprised an area covered by the districts of Gaya and Bhagalpur. The Jaina texts describe Rajagrha as a city which was rich, happy and thriving ?; but some two centuries after the death of Mahavira a terrible famine visited Magadha.3 Rajagrha must have lost its glory with the removal of the capital to Pataliputra or Kusumapura by Udayibhadda, some 28 years after the Buddha's demise. But the Hathigumpha Inscription lifts the veil for a moment, and shows that when Brhaspatimitra was king of Magadha (second century B.C.), King Kharavela of Kalinga marched towards Magadha after having stormed Gorathagiri, and brought pressure to bear upon Rajagrha (Rajagaham upapidapayati).4 Rajagrha must have been used by the then king of Magadha, if not as a capital, at least as a strong fortress against foreign inroads. As was the case with most if not all ancient cities, Rajagrha was walled; we read in the Vinaya Pitaka (IV, pp. 116-7) that the city-gate of Rajagrha was closed in the evening, and then nobody, not even the king, was allowed to enter the city. The same inscription refers to Anga and Magadha as united into one kingdom. When Fa-Hien visited the place in the fifth century A.D., he found the sites still there as of old, but inside the city all was emptiness and desolation, no man dwelt in it'5 The Karanda Venuvana monastery was still in existence, tenanted by a 'company of monks'.6 At the time of Hsuan Tsang's visit in the seventh 'century A.D., 'the old inhabitants of the city were 1,000 Brahmin families', and many Digambaras lodged on the Pi-pu-lo (Vaibhara) mountain and practised austerities.? Rajagrha was intimately associated not only with the development of Buddhism, but also with its rival religion, Jainism, and with earlier popular creeds such as Naga- and Yakkha- worship. Nagas and Yakkhas were popular objects of veneration in Rajaglha 1 p. 22. 2 Jaina Sutras, Pt. II, p. 419. 3 Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 10. 4 Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, p. 17. 5 Legge's Fa-Hien, p. 82. * 6 Ibid., p. 84. 7 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 154, 162.

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222 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA in early times; while old ruined temples of Ganesa and Siva still remain on Vaibhara-giri. Rajagsha was popularly known to have been so much under the influence of such malevolent spirits as Nagas and Yaksas that even the Buddhist bhikkhus had to be furnished with a Paritta or 'saving chant' in the shape of the Maha-atanatiya Suttanta for their protection against them. The tapodas or hot springs and the Tapoda or Sarasvati carrying water from those hot springs were popularly regarded as punyatirthas or places for holy ablutions. The hot springs of Rajagrha survive today. Rajagrha was the earliest known stronghold of heresy and heterodoxy of the age. The early records of Buddhism bring before us six powerful teachers, Purana Kassapa, Makkhali Gosala, Pakudha Kaccayana, Ajita Kesakambali, Sanjaya Belatthiputta and Nigantha Nataputta (i.e. Mahavira), who proved founders of schools (titthakaras) and leaders of thought. Makkhali Gosala was the leader of the Ajivikas, and Nigantha Nataputta the leader of the Nirgranthas or Jainas. The beginnings of their career are bound up with the history of Rajagrha. Vardhamana Mahavira was born in Magadha,4 and he once preached at the court of Bimbisara with so much force and good logic that the heir, prince Nandisena, was converted. Mahavira spent fourteen rainy seasons in Rajagsha. The eleven Gandharvas of Mahavira died in Rajagrha after fasting for a month.? Jaya, son of King Samudravijaya of Rajagrha, renounced the world and practised self-restraint.8 Rajagrha was one of the three places selected by the Chabbaggiyas (Sadvargikas) of Vinaya notoriety, for planting centres of their mischievous activities. Rajagrha, too, was the place where Devadatta fell out with the Buddha, tried to do personal harm to him, fomented schism in the Sangha, and eventually created a division in it. The Dhammapada Commentary records the jealousy of other sects towards Buddhism. Moggallana, for example, was struck by certain fanatics with the help of some hired men.10 In the Petavatthu Commentary, we read that many heretics of the 1 Digha Nikaya, III, pp. I94ff.; Samyutta Nikaya, II, pp. 259-62. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 154, 162. 3 The Wanderer Mahasakuladayi informed the Buddha that Anga and Magadha were full of sophistic activities (Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 1-22). 4 Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 8. 5 Ibid., p. 126. 6 Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. I, p. 264. 7 Ibid., p. 287. 8 Ibid., II, pp. 86-7. For other mentions of Rajagpha and Jainism, see ibid., II, pp. Ziff., 383 f.n. Vinaya Cullavagga, VII. 10 III, pp. 65ff.

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THE MAGADHAS 223 Samsaramocaka caste lived in some villages of Magadha. Somewhere in Magadha, between Rajagtha and Uruvela, not far from the Mahanadi (Mohana) lived two teachers, Arada Kalama and Udra Ramaputra, who founded schools for the training of pupils in yoga.2 The Brahmins who lived in Rajagrha and around it were mostly of the Bharadvaja-gotra. Some of them were agnihotris, some upholders of the cult of purity by birth, morals and penance. They were generally opposed to the conversion of any of their number to the Buddhist and other such non-Brahmanical faiths. In the Buddha's time, Rajagrha was surrounded by many Brahmin villages or settlements. What actually happened to the Buddhist Sangha at Rajagrha as a consequence of the transfer of the capital to Pataliputra, we cannot precisely say. But we can tell from glimpses of fact here and there that the process of history was one of decay. Hsuan Tsang tells us that 'two or three li to the north-west of this (the Kalanda Tank to the north of the Venuvana monastery) was an Asoka tope beside which was a stone pillar, above 50 feet high, surmounted by an elephant, and having an inscription recording the circumstances leading to the erection of the tope. The circumstances that led to the erection of the tope at Rajagrha by Asoka are also narrated by the Pali scholiasts and chroniclers. The Mahavamsa says that the Venerable Indagutta (Indragupta) went from all places around Rajagrha as a representative to take part in the grand celebration of a Mahathupa in Ceylon during the reign of King Dutthagamani (second century B.C.). As some of the images recently discovered at Rajagrha indicate, there was some amount of new vigour in Buddhist activities at the place under the patronage of the Pala kings, after which the history of Buddhism at Rajaglha became practically closed for ever. We have already indicated that Rajagrha was surrounded by mountains. The Rsigiri or Isigili, as its name shows, was a favourite hermits' retreat, as indeed were the other mountains which encircled 1 pp. 67-72. 2 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. I63f.; Fausboll, Jataka, I, pp. 66ff.; Lalitavistara, pp. 243ff.; Mahavastu, Vol. II, p. 118; Vol. III, p. 322; Buddhacarita, VI, v. 54; Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 141. 3 Samyutta Nikaya, I, pp. 160-7. See also Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 162; Samyutta Nikaya, II, pp. 238-9; ibid., IV, p. 230. 4 E.g., Ekanala Ambasanda, Khanumata. 5 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 162. 6 Ed. Geiger, pp. 227-8. 7 Majjhima Nikaya, III, pp. 68-71; and see B. M. Barua's Historical Background of Jinalogy and Buddhalogy', in the Calcutta Review, 1924, p. 61.

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224 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA the city. The most famous of these mountains was the Grdhrakuta or Gijjhakuta peak, so called either because it was shaped like vulture's beak, or because it was frequented by vultures.2 Dhaniya, a potter's son, made a beautiful hothouse at the foot of the Gijjhakuta hill, and many people came to see it.3 The Vepullapabbata, which was once known as the Vankakapabbata, was another of the hills surrounding Rajagrha. King Vessantara was banished to this mountain, which was also called Supassa. It took three days to reach its summit.4 Among the villages which lay near Rajagsha was Ekanala, a Brahmin village in Dakkhinagiri, an important locality which lay to the south of the hills of Rajaglha. A Buddhist establishment was founded there. The Samyutta Nikaya distinctly places it in the kingdom of Magadha, outside the area of Rajagrha. Nala, Nalaka, Nalagama or Nalakagama was a village in Magadha, where Sariputta died. The Vimanavatthu Commentary 8 locates Nalakagama in the eastern part of Magadha. The village of Kolika is also associated with Sariputta. Khanumata was a prosperous Brahmin village somewhere in Magadha, where a Vedic institution was maintained on a land granted by King Bimbisara.10 The garden Ambalatthika in the vicinity of Khanumata became the site of a Buddhist establishment. The Rajagaraka at Ambalatthika was a garden house of King Bimbisara.11 Ambalatthika stood midway between Rajagsha and Nalanda, 12 and was the first halting place on the high road which extended in the Buddha's time from Rajaglha to Naland, and further east and north-east.13 The place where King Ajatasatru is said to have built a stupa for the enshrinement of his share of the Buddha's relics 14 is an important site from the Buddhist point of view. Hsuan Tsang definitely tells us that this stupa stood to the east of Venuvana.15 1 For a full account of these mountains, and indeed for everything regarding Rajagsha, see B. C. Law, Rajagyha in Ancient Literature, No. 58 of Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India. 2 Suttanipata Comm., p. 413. 3 Vinaya Pitaka, III, 41-2. 4 Ibid., II, 191-2. 5 Saratthappakasini, I, p. 242. 6 Sam yutta Nikaya, I, p. 172. 7 Ibid., V, p. 161. 8 p. 163 9 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 171. Kolika was located eight or nine li (11 miles) south-west of the Nalanda monastery. 10 & 11 Sumangalavilasini, I, p. 41. 12 Digua Nikaya, I, p. I; Sumangalavilasini, I, P. 35. 13 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 72ff. 14 Ibid., II, p. 166. See also Sumangalavilasini, II, pp. 611 and 613. Manjusrimulakalpa, p. 600. 15 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 158.

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THE MAGADHAS 225 The Veluvana or Venuvana was a charming garden, park or grove at Rajagrha, surrounded by bamboos.1 The name may be translated 'Bamboo Grove' or 'Bamboo Park'. The land was received as a gift by the Buddha. The fuller name of the site was Veluvana Kalandakanivapa, the second part of the name indicating that here the Kalandakas or Kalakas (squirrels or jays) roamed about freely and found a nice feeding ground. In the Pali accounts King Bimbisara figures as the donor of the garden. It is certain that the site was outside the inner city'. Fa-Hien definitely informs us that the Karanda Bamboo Garden stood to the north of the old city, over 300 paces from the gate, on the west side of the road.2 Hsuan Tsang adds further details regarding its site.3 Another grove which was presented to the Buddha and his Order was the Jivaka-Ambavana, a mango-grove which Jivaka converted into a vihara, and gave to the Buddha and his Order. King Ajatasatru had to go out of the city of Rajagrha to reach this orchard. In the commentary on the Samannaphala Sutta, Buddhaghosa says that the king proceeded by the eastern gate of the city, the 'inner city of Rajagaha', under the cover of the Gijjhakuta mountain, because the mango-grove stood somewhere between the mountain and the city wall. Fa-Hien places it at the 'north-east corner of the city in a (large) curving (space)'.6 Hsuan Tsang, too, locates the site 'in a bend of the mountain wall', northeast from the (old) city.? According to Watters' suggestion, based upon a Chinese account in the Fo-shuo-sheng-ching, Chap. II, the orchard 'was apparently in the inclosure between the city proper and the hills which formed its outer defences on the east side'.8 Other sites in or near Rajagrha, which find mention in Pali literature, were the deer-park at Maddakucchi, Pippali- or Pipphaliguha a cave which became a favourite resort of Mahakassapa,10 and which was visited by the Buddha, 11 Ambasanda (Skt. Amrakhanda), a Brahmin village, 12 and the Latthivana (Skt. Yastivana), the royal park of Bimbisara where the Buddha arrived from Gayasisa (the 1 Cf. Suttani pata Comm., p. 419. 2 Legge's Fa-Hien, pp. 84-5. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 162-3. 4 Digha Nikaya, I, pp. 47, 49. 5 Sumangalavilasini, I, p. 150; cf. ibid., p. 133. 8 Legge's Fa-Hien, p. 82. 7 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 150. 8 Ibid., II, p. 151. * Saratthappakasini, 1, pp. 77-8; Samyutta Nikaya, I, p. 110. 10 Udana, I, p. 4; Dhammapada Comm., II, pp. 19-21; D. N. Sen, Rajgir and its neighbourhood, p. 5; Udana-vannana, Siamese Ed., p. 77; Manjusyi-Mulakalpa, Patala LIII, p. 588. 11 Legge, Fa-Hien, p. 85; Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 154; Samyutta Nikaya, V, P. 79. iz Digha Nikaya, II, p. 263; Sumangalavilasini, III, p. 697. 15

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226 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA main hills of Gaya) and halted with the Jatila converts on his way to the city of Rajaglha. The Pasanaka-cetiya (Pasana-caitya) is famous in Buddhist tradition as the place where the Buddha had delivered the Parayana Discourses, now embodied in the concluding book of the Suttanipata.3 Other places which find mention in Pali literature are Macalagama,4 Maaimalaka-cetiya - and Andhaka-vindha. The Majjhima Nikaya describes Senanigama, one of the villages of Magadha, as a very nice place having a beautiful forest and a river with transparent water. It was a prosperous village, alms being easily obtainable there.? As already indicated, the later capital of Magadha was Pataliputra, near Patna of the present day, the seat of the Government of Bihar. Its ancient Sanskrit names were Kusumapura and Puspapura, from the numerous flowers which grew in the royal enclosure. The Greek historians call it Palibothra, and the Chinese pilgrims Pa-lin-tou. Hsuan Tsang, the great Chinese traveller, gives the following account of the legendary origin of the name of the city. Once upon a time, a very learned Brahmin had a large number of disciples. On one occasion a party of these disciples were wandering in a wood, and one youth among them appeared unhappy and disconsolate. To amuse the gloomy youth, his companions arranged a mock marriage for him. A man and a woman were chosen to represent the bridegroom's parents, and another couple, the parents of the imaginary bride. They were all near a Patali tree, which was chosen to symbolise the bride. All the ceremonies of marriage were gone through, and the man acting as father of the bride broke off a branch of the Pasali tree and gave it to the bridegroom. When all was over, his companions wanted the pseudo-bridegroom to go with them, but he insisted on remaining near the tree. Here at dusk an old man appeared with his wife and a young maiden, whom he gave 1 Vinaya, Mahavagga, I, p. 35; Fausboll, Jataka, I, pp. 83-5; Samantapasadika, Ceylonese Ed., p. 158; D. N. Sen, Rajgir and its neighbourhood, p. 13; Mahavastu, III, p. 441; Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 146-8; see also Ancient Geography of India, p. 529. 2 Commentary on the Cullaniddesa, Siamese Ed., p. 270. 3 Suttanipata, pp. 218ff. + Fausboll, Jataka, I, pp. I99-206; Dhammapada Co ., I, pp. 265-80; Sumangalavilasina, III, pp. 710ff. | 5 Samyutta Nikaya, I, p. 208. 6 Vinaya, Mahavagga, I, p. 109. Andhakavinda was connected with Rajagaha by a cart-road. 71, pp. 166-7. 15B

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THE MAGADHAS 227 to the young student to be his wife. The couple lived together in the forest for a year, when a son was born to them. The student, now tired of the lonely life of the woods, wanted to go back to his home, but the old man, his father-in-law, induced him to remain by promising him a properly built establishment. Afterwards, when the seat of government was removed to this place, it received the name Pataliputra, because it had been built by gods for the son of the Patali tree.1 According to Jaina tradition, Pasaliputra was built by Udaya, son of Darsaka, but the first beginnings were made by Ajatasatru, for the Buddha, when on his way to Vaisali from Magadha, saw Ajatasatru's ministers measuring out a town.2 Pataliputra was originally a village of Magadha, known as Pataligama, which lay opposite to Kotigama on the other side of the Ganges, which formed a natural boundary between Magadha and the territory of the Vrji-Licchavis of Vaisali. The Magadhan village was one of the halting stations on the high road which extended from Rajagrha to Vaisali and other places. The fortification of Pasaligama which was undertaken in the Buddha's lifetime by the two Brahmin ministers of Magadha, Sunidha and Vassakara, led to the foundation of the city of Pataliputra,s to which the capital of Magadha was removed by Udayi or Udayibhadda, the son and successor of Ajatasatru. Thus it may be established that Ajatasatru was the real builder of Pataliputra, which was in fact the new Rajagrha or new capital of Magadha, as distinguished from the old Rajagrha or Girivraja with its outer area. This tradition somehow became twisted and led the Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien and Hsuan Tsang to speak of the old city' and the 'new city' of Rajagrha, both with reference to Girivraja, crediting Ajatasatru with the building of the new city'. Fa-Hien says that a yojana to the west from Nala, the place of birth and death of Sariputra, brought him to New Rajaglha, the new city which was built by King Ajatasatru'. There were then (fifth century A.D.) two monasteries in it. It was enclosed by a wall with four gates. Three hundred paces outside the west gate was the stupa erected by Ajatasatru over a portion of the relics of Buddha. Some four li (less than a mile) south from the south gate was the old city of King Bimbisara, 'a circular space formed by five hills'.4 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 87. 2 See a paper on Patali putra by H. C. Chakladar in the Modern Review, March, 1918, where the traditions about the foundation of Pataliputra are discussed at some length. 3 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 86ff.; Sumangalavilasini, II, p. 540. 4 Legge, Fa-Hien, pp. 81-2.

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228 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA There may be some truth in the suggestion made by Hsuan Tsang that the cause of removal of the capital was a fire which broke out in the old capital.1 | Pataliputra was built near the confluence of the great rivers of Mid-India, the Ganges, Son and Gandak, but now the Son has receded some distance away from it. The city was protected by a moat 6oo ft. broad and 30 cubits in depth. At a distance of 24 ft. from the inner ditch there stood a rampart with 570 towers and 64 gates. The Samantapasadi ka informs us that Pataliputra had four gates, Asoka's income from them being 400,000 kahapanas daily. In the Sabha (council), he used to get 100,000 kahapanas daily. Pataliputra was the capital of the later Sisunagas, the Nandas, and also of the great Mauryan emperors, Candragupta, and Asoka, but it ceased to be the ordinary residence of the Gupta sovereigns after the completion of the conquests made by Samudragupta.3 Fa-Hien came to Pataliputra in the fifth century A.D. The Chinese pilgrim was so much impressed by the glory and splendour of the city that he says that the royal palace and halls in the midst of the city were all made by spirits which Asoka employed, and which piled up the stones, reared the walls and gates, and executed the elegant carving and inlaid sculpture-work in a way which no human hands of this world could accomplish'. There was in the city a Brahmin named Radhasami, a professor of the Mahayana system of Buddhism. By the side of the tope of Asoka there was also a Hinayana monastery. The inhabitants of the city were rich, prosperous and righteous. Fa-Hien further gives an interesting description of a grand Buddhist procession at Pataliputra.5 Hsuan Tsang says that south of the Ganges lay an old city above 70 li (about 14 miles) in circuit, the foundations of which were still visible, although the city had long been a wilderness. He notes that it was first called Kusumapura, and then Pataliputra. The poet Dandin speaks of Pataliputra as the foremost of all the cities, and full of gems.? During the reign of Candragupta Vikramaditya, Pataliputra was still a magnificent and populous city, and was apparently not ruined until the time of the Hun invasion in the sixth century. Harsavardhana, when he ruled N. India as a paramount sovereign (612-47 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 161-2. 2 Samantapasadika, I, p. 52. 3 V. A. Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 309. 4 Legge, Fa-Hien, pp. 77-8. 5 Ibid., Chaps. X-XVII. 6 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 87. 7 Dasakumaracaritam, ist Ucchvasa, sl. 2, Purvapithika.

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ALL THE MAGADHAS EST A.D.), made no attempt to restore the old Magadhan Imperial capital, Pataliputra.1 About 600 A.D. Sasanka Narendragupta, king of Gauda and Karnasuvarna, destroyed the 'Buddha's footprints' at Pataliputra, and smashed many Buddhist temples and monasteries.2 Dharmapala, the most powerful of the Pala kings of Bengal and Bihar, took some steps to renew the glory of Pataliputra, but the interests of the Pala monarchs seem to have been centred in Bengal rather than in Magadha.3 As might be expected, the Pali Buddhist literature has references to Pataliputra, but as it had not grown up into a city in the Buddha's lifetime, it does not find such frequent mention as Rajagrha, the ancient capital. However, on one occasion, the upasakas of Pataligama, as it then was, built an Avasathagara (living-house), and they invited the Buddha on the occasion of its opening ceremony. An influential Brahmin householder of Benares named Ghotamukha built a vihara at Pataliputra for Udena, a bhikkhu, and the vihara was called Ghotamukhi. Another bhikkhu, Bhadda, dwelt at Kukkutarama near Pataligama, and had conversations with Ananda, the Buddha's famous disciple. ban 11 The Dathavamsa contains a long story concerning King Pandu of Pataliputra, the heretical Niganthas, and King Guhasiva, a vassal of Pandu. In brief, the Niganthas went to Pandu to complain that Guhasiva worshipped the tooth-relic of the Buddha, instead of Pandu's gods Brahma, Siva and the rest. Pandu, angered, sent a subordinate king called Cittayana to arrest and bring Guhasiva to him with the tooth-relic. However, Cittayana was converted by Guhasiva to be a follower of the Buddha, and together they went to Pataliputra, where a series of miracles ensued, as every effort made by Pandu to destroy the relic failed. Finally, King Pandu was convinced of the relic's miraculous properties, and gave up his false belief." 229 Sthulabhadra, leader of some of the Jaina bhikkhus, summoned a council at Pataliputra (about 200 years after Mahavira's death), in the absence of Bhadrabahu and his party, to collect the Jaina sacred literature. Bhadrabahu on his return refused to accept the work of the Council of Pataliputra.8 1 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 310. 2 S. C. Vidyabhusana, History of Indian Logic, p. 349. 3 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., pp. 310-11. 4 Vinayapitaka, I, pp. 226-8. * Majjhima Nikaya, II, pp. 157 foll. 6 Samyutta Nikaya, V, pp. 15-16, 171-2. 7 See B. C. Law, Dathavamsa, Intro., pp. xii-xiv. 8 Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 72.

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230 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Pataliputra coins had their own individual marks. The discoveries of punch-marked coins give the death-blow to the theory that all symbols on them 'were affixed haphazard by shroffs and moneyers through whose hands the coins passed', and give rise to the incontestable conclusion that they constitute coinages' peculiar to three different provincial towns, one belonging to Taxila, the second to Pataliputra, and the third to Vidisa (Bhilsa) of Central India.2 The following are the interesting discoveries made by the Archaeological Department of the Government of India at the site of Pataliputra :I. Remains of wooden palisades at Lohanipur, Bulandi bagh, Maharajganj and Mangle's tank. 2. Punch-marked coins found at Golakpur. 3. Didarganj statue. 4. Durukhia Devi and Perso-Ionic capital. 5. The railing pillar probably belonging to the time of the Sungas. 6. Coins of Kushan and Gupta kings. 7. Votive clay tablet found near Purabdarwaza. 8. Remains of Hinayana and Mahayana monasteries at the time of Fa-Hien, the temples of Sthulabhadra and other Jaina temples and the temples of Choti and Bari Patan Devis. 3 Nalanda 4 was a famous seat of learning in ancient India. It was a village which Cunningham identifies with modern Baragaon, seven miles north of Rajgir in Bihar. Nalanda is mentioned in the Mahavastu Avadana 6 as a very prosperous place at no great distance from Rajagrha. After the nirvana of the Buddha, five kings, named Sakraditya, Buddhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya and Vajra, built five sangharamas or monasteries at Nalanda.? In the Buddha's time, Nalanda was one of the halting stations on the high road connecting Rajagtha with Pataligama, Kotigama, Vaisali, etc. Buddhaghosa knew it as a town at a distance of one yojana (about 7 miles) from 1 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, P. 100. 2 Ibid., p. 99. 3 Pataliputra by Manoranjan Ghosh, pp. 14-15. 4 For an interesting account of Nalanda vide Nalanda (1.M.U., Vol. XIII, No. 2) by K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, A. Ghosh, A Guide to Nalanda (Delhi, 1939), Nalanda in Ancient Literature (5th Indian Oriental Conference, 1930) and Harsha (Oxford) by Dr. R. K. Mookerji. 6 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 537. 8 Vol. III, p. 56. 7 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 164-5.

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THE MAGADHAS 231 Rajagrha. Cunningham identifies the ancient site with the modern village of Baragaon which lies at the northern end of the precincts of the Nalanda Mahavihara. The Pali texts, however, refer not so much to Nalanda itself as to Pavarika's mango-grove in its vicinity, as the real place of importance both to the Buddhists and the Jainas.2 According to the tradition recorded by Hsuan Tsang, in a Mango Wood to the south of this monastery was a tank the dragon of which was called Nalanda, and the name was given to the monastery. But the facts of the case were that Ju-lai (Buddha) as a P'usa (Bodhisattva) had once been a king with his capital here, that as king he had been honoured by the epithet Nalanda or 'Insatiable in giving' on account of his kindness and liberality, and that this epithet was given as its name to this monastery'. The grounds of the establishment were originally a mango park bought by 500 merchants for ten kotis of gold coins and presented by them to the Buddha.3 Nalanda was often visited by the Buddha.4 Mahakassapa, who was at first a follower of a heretical teacher, met the Buddha for the first time while he was seated on the road between Rajagrha and Nalanda. He declared himself a follower of the Buddha. The Majjhima Nikaya tells us that once Nigantha Nataputta was at Nalanda with a large retinue of his followers. A Jaina named Dighatapassi went to the Buddha, who was in the Pavarika ambavana at Nalanda, and the Buddha converted many of Mahavira's followers. In the Jaina Sutras we read that there was at Nalanda a householder named Lepa who was rich and prosperous. Lepa had a beautiful bathing hall containing many hundreds of pillars. ere was a park called Hastiyama. Once Gautama Buddha lived at Nalanda. He had a discussion with Udaka, a nigantha and follower of Parsva, who failed to accept Gautama's views as to the effect of karma.? It was at Nalanda that Mahavira spent the second year of his asceticism, and here, too, that he found many rich supporters. The Kalpa-sutra (p. 122) informs us that Mahavira spent as many as fourteen rainy seasons at Rajagrha and Nalanda. According to Tibetan accounts, the quarter in which the Nalanda University, with its grand library, was located, was called Dharmaganja (Piety Mart). It consisted of three grand buildings called 1 Sumangalavilasini, III, p. 873; I, p. 35: Rajagahato pama Nalanda yojanam eva. 9 Majjhima Nikaya, I, p. 37I. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, p. 164. |4 See, e.g. Digha Nikaya, I, pp. Iff., 211; ibid., II, pp. 81-4; Samyutta Nikaya, IV, p. 110, 311ff., 314-7. 5 Samyutta Nikaya, II, pp. 219ff. 6 Majjhima Nikaya, I, pp. 37iff. 7 S.B.E., II, pp. 419-20.

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232 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Ratnasagara, Ratnodadhi and Ratnaranjaka respectively.1 Dharmapala, a native of Kancipura in Dravida (modern Conjeeveram in Madras) studied at the University of Nalanda and acquired great distinction. In course of time he became the head of the University.2 Silabhadra, a Brahmin, came of the family of the king of Samatata (Bengal). He was a pupil of Dharmapala, and in course of time he too became the head of the University.3 The Chinese pilgrim, I-tsing, who started for India in 671 A.D., arrived at Tamralipti at the mouth of the Hooghly in 673 A.D. He studied Buddhist literature at Nalanda. He relates that venerable and learned priests of the Nalanda monastery used to ride in sedan chairs, never on horseback. 5 According to Dr. S. C. Vidyabhusana, the year 450 A.D. is the earliest limit which we can roughly assign to the royal recognition of Nalanda. Besides Nalanda, Magadha had other great seats of Buddhist learning which attracted students from all parts of India and beyond. such as the Universities of Odantapuri and Vikramasila. In the eighth century A.D., Gopala, the founder of the Pala dynasty of Bengal, founded a great monastery at Uddandapura or Otantapuri in Bihar.7 As a University, the glories of Vikramasila were hardly inferior to those of Nalanda. Hither too came students from Tibet, and Tibetan works tell us how Dipankara or Srijnana Atisa, a native of Bengal, who was at the head of the University from 1034-8 A.D., was induced to go to Tibet and establish the Buddhist religion there.8 The Vikramasila Vihara was a Buddhist monastery situated on a bluff hill on the right bank of the Ganges, and had sufficient space within it for a congregation of 8,000 men with many temples and buildings. On the top of the projecting steep hill of Patharghata, there are the remains of a Buddhist monastery, and the space covered by the ruins is large enough to hold an assembly of many thousands of people. This Patharghata was the ancient Vikramasila.9 It is said to have included 107 temples and 6 colleges.10 This University was known for its output of numerous commentaries. It was a centre 1 History of Indian Logic, p. 516; see also H. D. Sankalia, The University of Nalanda (Madras, 1934). 2 Ibid., p. 302; Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, p. 110. 3 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, p. 110. 4 I-tsing, Records of the Buddhist Religion, Intro., p. xvii. 5 Ibid., p. 30. 6 History of Indian Logic, pp. 514-5. 7 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 413; cf. Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. II, P. III. 8 Journal of the Buddhist Text Society, Vol. I. 9 J.A.S.B., New Series, Vol. V, No. I, pp. I-13. 10 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 414.

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THE MAGADHAS 233 not only of tantric learning but of logic and grammar, and is interesting as showing the connection between Bengal and Tibet.1 King Dharmapala endowed the University with rich grants sufficing for the maintenance of 108 resident monks, besides numerous non-resident monks and pilgrims. At the head of the University, there was always a most learned and pious sage. Thus, at the time of Dharmapala, Acarya Buddhajnanapada directed the affairs of the University. Grammar, metaphysics (including logic) and ritualistic books were especially studied at Vikramasila. On the walls of the University were painted images of panditas (learned men) eminent for their learning and character. The distinguished scholars of the University received diplomas of pandita from the king himself. The most erudite sages were appointed to guard the gates of the University, which were six in number. The University of Vikramasila is said to have been destroyed by the Mohammedan invader, Bakhtiar Khalji, about 1203 A.D., when Sakya Sri Pandita of Kashmir was at its head.2 Like princes of most other Indian States, Magadhan princes were frequently educated at Taxila. One Magadhan prince, Duyyodhana, as we learn from the Jataka, went to Taxila to learn the arts. He later became king, and used to give alms to Sramanas, Brahmanas and others, observe the precepts and perform many meritorious deeds. The Darimukha and Sankhapala Jatakas have references to the education of Magadhan princes at Taxila. Magadha was the birthplace of Jivaka, the famous physician, who educated himself at Taxila and on his return to his native city was appointed physician to the royal family. His success in operating on King Bimbisara won for him the post of royal physician, and the king later appointed him physician to the Buddha and the congregation of bhikkhus. Once, we are told, Magadha was badly attacked by five kinds of diseases, and Jivaka had to treat the suffering bhikkhus. The Jatakas are full of interesting information about Magadha. From them we learn that Magadha was famous for conch shells?; that white elephants were used there by the royal family 8; that agriculture was prosperous, and that some Brahmins used to cultivate 1 Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. II, p. III. 2 S. C. Vidyabhusana, History of Indian Logic, pp. 519-20. 3 Jataka (Fausb_11), V, pp. I6I-2. 4 III (Fausboll), pp. 238-40. Needless to say, the Jataka contains many stories of supposed previous incarnations of the Buddha, in the course of which he was born in Magadha, e.g. III, pp. 238-40; I, pp. 199, 213, 373. 5 Vinaya Pitaka, I, pp. 71 foll. 6 Ibid., I, p. 71. 7 Jataka (Fausboll), VI, P. 465. 8 Ibid., I, p. 444.

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234 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA land themselves in Magadha.1 The Vinaya Pitaka states that the fields of Magadha were well divided for the purpose of cultivation. We have already noted that there were stated to be 80,000 villages in Magadha in King Bimbisara's time. A story reminiscent of the Fools of Gotham is that of a particular village inhabited by fools who once went to the forest where they used to work for their livelihood. They had to pay the penalty for their foolishness by losing their lives while trying to destroy mosquitoes with bows and arrows.3 The Lakkhana Jataka refers to the destruction of paddy by deer which used to come to the field during the harvest. The Magadhans laid traps and devised various other means to capture and kill them.4 The Anguttara Nikaya mentions Magadha as one of the sixteen great janapadas or provinces of ancient India, stating that it was full of seven kinds of gems, and had immense wealth and power. Hsuan Tsang gives a fair account of Magadha in the seventh century A.D. According to him, the country was 5,000 li in circuit. There were few inhabitants in the walled cities but the other towns were fully populated. The soil was rich and yielded luxurious crops. It produced a kind of rice with large grain of extraordinary fragrance. The land was low and moist, and the towns were on plateaux. From the beginning of summer to the middle of autumn, the plains were flooded. and boats could be used. The climate was hot, and the were honest, esteemed learning and revered Buddhism. There were above 50 Buddhist monasteries and more than 10,000 ecclesiastics, for the most part adherents of the Mahayana system. There were some deva temples, and the adherents of the various sects were numerous. On account of Magadha's predominant political position, the language spoken there obtained recognition all over India in very early times. The Mahavamsa goes so far as to tell us that the Magadhi language is the root of all Indian languages. It was in this Magadhi language that Buddhaghosa translated the Sinhalese commentary on the Tripitaka.8 At the time of Asoka, as the numerous inscriptions scattered all over India show, the dialect of Magadha must have been understood over the greater part of India. 1 Jataka (Fausboll), IV, pp. 276-7. Cf. the Story of Bharadvaja. 2 Vinaya Pitaka, I, p. 287. 3 Makasa Jataka; Jataka, I, p. 246. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), I, p. I43; cf, ibhd., p. I54. 5 I. 213: IV. 252, 256. 260. Cf. Mahavastu, ed. Senart. II. p. 410 6 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 86-7; Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, pp. 82-3. 7 Culavamsa, 37, vs. 230, 242-4: Sabbesam mulabhasaya Magadhaya niruttiya. 8 B. C. Law, The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa, p. 37.

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CHAPTER XLVII THE VIDEHAS The Videhas are mentioned in the Brahmana portion of the Vedas as a people in a very advanced stage of civilisation. The part of the country where they lived appears to have been known by the name of Videha even in the still more ancient times of the Samhitas, for the Yajurveda Samhitas mention the cows of Videha, which appear to have been particularly famous in ancient India.1 According to Julius Eggeling, a confederacy of kindred peoples known as the Kosala-Videhas, occupying a position of no less importance than that of the Kuru-Pancalas, lived to the east of the Madhyadesa at the time of the redaction of the Brahmanas. The legendary account is that these people claimed Videgha Mathava as their common ancestor, and the two branches are said to have been separated from each other by the river Sadanira (corresponding either to the Rapti or to the Gandak). In Eggeling's opinion, the Videha country in those days constituted the extreme east of the land of the Aryans. Dr. Weber notes that the Aryans, led by Videgha Mathava and his priest, apparently pushed up the river Sarasvati as far east as the river Sadanira which formed the western boundary of the Videhas, or more probably the Gandak (?=Sadanira) which was the boundary between the Kosalas and the Videhas. 3 The Videha country, as we have seen, is said to have derived its name from this King Videgha Mathava or Videha Madhava, who introduced the sacrificial fire; and according to some, this introduction of the sacrificial fire is symbolical of the inauguration of the Brahmanical faith in the region. This legend, which is of importance in connection with the question of Aryan settlement in the Videha country, may be read in full in the Satapatha Brahmana. According to this account, King Mathava Videgha carried Agni Vaisvanara (=fire) in his mouth. When invited to do so, Agni sprang forth, and started to flash over the ground, burning it up. Starting from the river Sarasvati, he went burning along towards the east, drying up all the rivers. Only he did not burn over the river Sadanira, 1 The commentator of the Taittiriya Samhita explains the adjective Vaidehi by Visista-deha-sambandhini, 'having a splendid body' (see Vedic Index, Vol. II, p. 298 and Keith's Veda of the Black Yajus' School, Vol. I, p. 138). 2 Satapatha Brahmana, S.B.E., Vol. XII, Intro. XLII-XLIII. 8 S.B.E., Vol. XII, p. 104 f.

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236 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA flowing from the Northern (Himalaya) mountain. "That one of the Brahmanas did not cross in former times, thinking, "It has not been burnt over by Agni Vaisvanara ". Nowadays, however (i.e. in the time of the Satapatha Brahmana), there are many Brahmanas to the east of it.... Mathava, the Videgha, then said (to Agni), "Where am I to abide?" "To the east of this (river) be thy abode", said he. Even now this (river) forms the boundary of the Kosalas and the Videhas; for these are the Mathavas (or descendants of Mathava).'1 Great importance has rightly been attached to this passage which, since the days of Professor Weber, has been taken by scholars to indicate the progress of Vedic Aryan civilisation from N.W. India towards the east. Though we cannot be sure about this point, yet it shows at least that in which times the Satapatha Brahmana considers ancient, the Videha country had received Vedic civilisation, and the cult of offering sacrifices in fire had developed there. According to tradition, the Satapatha Brahmana was compiled in the Videha country by Yajnavalkya who flourished at the court of the Emperor (Samrat) Janaka, though parts of it bear testimony to its having originated like the other great Brahmana in the country lying farther to the west.. In the later Mantra period, Videha must have been organised so far as to take a leading part in Vedic culture, and the Satapatha Brahmana clearly indicates that the great spiritual and intellectual lead offered by Samrat Janaka and Rsi Vajnavalkya was accepted by the whole of N. India. Rsis from the Kuru-Pancala regions flocked to the court of Janaka and took part in the discussions held about the supreme Brahman; and they had to admit the superior knowledge of Yajnavalkya. In our opinion, the Videha country must have received Vedic culture long before the time of the compilation of this Brahmana, for we find in the Byhadaranyaka Upanisad which forms a part of it, that Samrat Janaka of Videha was a great patron of Vedic culture, and that Rsis from the whole of N. India repaired to his court.2 From the Brhadaranyaka account, it would seem that at the time of the Satapatha Brahmana the Videha Brahmanas were superior to the Kuru-Pancalas as regards the Upanisadic phase of the development of Vedic culture. In other works of the Brahmana period as well as of the Sutra period that followed, other celebrated kings of Videha are mentioned (vide Vedic Index, II, 298), so that there can be no question but that i Satapatha Brahmana, transl. Eggeling, S.B.E., XII, pp. 104-6. 2 Cf., for example, the story of Yajnavalkya and the cows, Brh. Up., III, 1-9,

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THE VIDEHAS 237 the Videhas maintained a high position in Vedic society at least in the Brahmana period, and from the superior intellectual position that they had attained in this period it is legitimate to assume that Vedic Aryan culture had taken its root in Videha long before the Brahmana age, and most probably in the early Samhita age of the Rgveda. The Jataka stories, too, refer to sacrifices performed by the Videhan kings, saying that goats were sacrificed in the name of religion. We are told in the Puranas that Nimi, Iksvaku's son, performed a sacrifice for a thousand years, with the help of Vasistha who had previously officiated as high-priest at a certain Yajna performed by Indra. The evidence of the Adhyatma Ramayana also testifies to the sacrificial activities of the Videhan royal family. Visvamitra is represented as saying to Rama : 'We are going to Mithila, of which Janaka is the ruler. After attending the great Yajna of Janaka we shall make for Ayodhya'. Coming to the Epic age, we find Ramacandra, the hero of the Ramayana, marrying Vaidehi (= Sita), the adopted daughter of Janaka, king of Mithila. This Janaka is probably not the same person as the patron of Yajnavalkya; it appears that several sovereigns of the dynasty bore that name which had been rendered glorious by the intellectual and political powers of the Vedic king. The Ramayana gives a splendid picture of the Videhan capital and the wide and richly equipped sacrificial ground of King Janaka. the wide and richly equipped a The distance between Mithila and Ayodhya may b n dhva may be gauged from the fact that during the reign of Janaka, king of Videha, it took Visvamitra, together with Rama and Laksmana, four days to reach Mithila from Ayodhya. On the way they rested for one night only, at Visala.5 The messengers sent by Janaka reached Dasaratha's capital in three days of very fast travelling; while Dasaratha on his journey to the Videhan capital in his chariot took four days. Mithila is identified by tradition with the modern Janakapura in the hills in the present Nepalese territories; a large number of pilgrims visit it every year. Videha, its capital, Mithila, and its King Janaka are mentioned many times in the Mahabharata. After Yudhisthira's accession to the throne of Indraprastha, before the Rajasuya sacrifice, Bhima 1 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. I, pp. 166ff. 2 Visnupurana, p. 246 (Vangavasi edition). 3 Adhyatma Ramayana, Balakanda, Chap. VII, p. 68, Kali Sarkara Vidyaratna's edition. 4 Ramayana, Balakanda (Bombay edition), Chap. 73. 5 Ramayana (Vangavasi edition), 1-3.

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238 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA defeated the king of the Videha people in the course of his digvijaya.1 Karna also conquered Mithila, the Videha capital, during his digvijaya. The celebrated sacrifice of Janaka is referred to in several places, while a conversation between Janaka and Yajnavalkya is related in the santiparvan (Chap. 311). There are many references to Janaka's spiritual enlightenment, his talks with Panca-sikha, with Sulabha and others, and the teaching imparted by him to the young Suka.4 Krsna, together with Bhimasena and Arjuna, visited Mithila on his way from Indraprastha to Rajagrha.5 The Videhas are mentioned twice in the list of peoples in the Bhismaparvan: once as Videhas along with the Magadhas, and once as Vaidehas along with the Tamraliptakas. The Visnupurana also mentions the Videha country, furnishes a list of its rulers from ancient times, and gives a fanciful account of the origin of the name of Videha and also that of Mithila, the capital. The story goes that Vasistha, having performed the sacrifice of Indra, proceeded to Mithila to commence the sacrifice of King Nimi. On reaching there he found that the king had engaged Gautama to perform the sacrificial rites. Seeing the king asleep he cursed him thus: 'King Nimi will be bodiless (videha, vi-vigatadeha), inasmuch as he having rejected me has engaged Gautama'. The king on awakening cursed Vasistha, saying that he too would perish, as he had cursed a sleeping king. Rsis churned the dead body of Nimi, and as a result of the churning a child was born, afterwards known as Mithi 6 (supposedly from manth, to churn). According to the Bhavisyapurana, Nimi's son Mithi founded a beautiful city which was named Mithila after him. From the fact of his having founded the city, he came to be known as Janaka ('begetter, creator').: The Mahagovinda Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya gives another account of the origin of Mithila, stating that it was built by Govinda.8 Undoubtedly the most important Videhan king was Janaka, but we find references to other kings in ancient literature, namely Sagaradeva, Bharata, Angirasa, Ruci, Suruci,' Patapa, Mahapatapa, 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 30. 2 Vanaparvan, 254. 3 Ibid., Chaps. 132, 134, etc. 4 Santiparvan, Chap. 327, etc. 5 Sabhaparvan, 20. 6 Visnupurana, pp. 388ff. See also Bhagavatapurana, IX, 24, 64. 7 Bhavisyapurana: "Nimeh Putrastu tatraiva .. purijanana samarthat Janakah sa ca kartitah'. See also Bhagavatapurana, IX, 13, 13, where the story of the founding of Mithila is also related. 8 P.T.S., Vol. II, p. 235. 9 For the story of Suruci's childless queen, see Jataka (Fausboll), IV, PP. 314 foll.

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THE VIDEHAS 239 Sudassana, Neru, Mahasammata, Mucala, Mahamucala, two Kalyanas, Satadhanu of ill-fame, Makhadeva, Sadhina and others. Kings of Videha usually maintained friendly relations with neighbouring powers. We have already referred to the marriage of Sita and Ramacandra, son of Dasaratha, king of Kosala. Instances of matrimonial alliances concluded by the kings of Videha with the neighbouring royal families occur also in later literature. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar points out that in the plays of Bhasa, Udayana is called Vaidehiputra, indicating that his mother was a princess of Videha.3 In the Buddhist literature we have a reference to a Videhan princess (no doubt a queen of Bimbisara), who was the mother of Ajatasatru. Her name was Vasavi.4 Vardhamana Mahavira, the great founder of Jainism,'a Videha, son of Videhadatta, a native of Videha, a prince of Videha, had lived thirty years in Videha when his parents died '.5 Mithila was his favourite resort, and he spent six monsoons there. 6 At the time when the Buddha preached his gospel, we find the ancient Videha country cut up into parts, the Licchavis occupying the foremost position. Eight peoples are named as making up the Vajjian confederacy, the Licchavis and the Videhas occupying a prominent position. The confederacy, according to Kautilya, was a 'rajasabdopajivi' Sangha.? Videha was twenty-four yojanas in length from the river Kausiki to the river Gandak, and sixteen yojanas in breadth from the Ganges to the Himalayas. The capital of Videha, Mithila, was situated about thirty-five miles north-west from Vesali. It is stated in the Jatakas that the city of Mithila was seven leagues, and the kingdom of Videha 300 leagues in extent.10 It was the capital of the kings Janaka and Makhadeva, in the district now called Tirhut.11 The city of Mithila in Jambudvipa had plenty of elephants, horses, chariots, oxen, sheep and all kinds of wealth of this nature, together with gold, silver, gems, pearls and other precious things. 12 From a Jataka description, we learn that the 1 Mahavamsa, P.T.S., Chap. II, p. 12. Kalyanakaduve. 2 Visnu Purana, Pt. III, Chap. XVIII, p. 217. (Vangavasi Ed.) 3 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 58, 59. Udayana is addressed as Vaidehiputra (S.V., Act 6, p. 68, Ganapati Sastri's Ed.). 4 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 63-4. 5 Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, Pt. 1, p. 256. 6 Ibid., p. 264. 7 Arthasastra, trsl. Shama Sastri, p. 455. See also Licchavi chapter. 8 Brhat Visnupurana. 9 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 26. 10 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. III, p. 365: Tiyojamasatile. 11 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 37. 12 Beal, Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, p. 30.

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240 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA kingdom of Videha had 16,000 villages, storehouses filled, and 16,000 dancing girls. Magnificent royal carriages could be seen, drawn by four horses; and the Videhan king was driven in state around his capital.2 In the Si-Yu-Ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World) we find that the Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang, describing the kingdom of Fo-li-shi (Vrji), says that the capital of the country was Chenshu-na. Beal quotes V. de St. Martin who connects the name Chen-shu-na with Janaka and Janakapura (= Mithila).3 From very early times, Videha was frequented by merchants. At the time of Buddha Gautama we find people coming from Sravasti to Videha to sell their wares. The Videhas were a charitable people. Many institutions of charity were in existence in their country, and we are told that six hundred thousand pieces were spent daily in alms-giving.5 The Jataka stories often make extravagant demands upon popular credence, as when they relate how the average length of human life at the time of the Buddha Gautama was thirty thousand vears. More fortunate than the average mortal. King the average mortal, King Makhadeva of Mithila had a lease of life of eighty-four thousand years, 6 in the earlier portion of which he amused himself as a royal prince. Later on, he was appointed a Viceroy, and last of all became king. We come to a more sober estimate when we find it related that there lived in Mithilaa Brahman named Brahmayu, aged one hundred and twenty years, who was well versed in the Vedas, Itihasas, Vyakarana, Lokayata, and was endowed with all the marks of a great man.? Polygamy appears to have been in vogue among the kings of Videha. Brahmadatta, king of Benares, had a daughter named Sumedha whom he declined to give in marriage to a Videhan prince who had a large number of wives, fearing that her co-wives would make her life miserable.8 Many writers bear testimony to the devotion and faithfulness of Videhan princesses. The story of Sita is too well-known to be repeated. Again, it is stated in the Amitayurdhyana Sutra that when Ajatasatru arrested his father Bimbisara at the instigation of 1 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. III, p. 365. 2 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 39. 3 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. II, p. 78, n. The actual words are: ... Janaka and Janakapura, capital of Mithila'; but, as we have seen, Mithila is identified with Janakapura. 4 See, e.g. Dhammapala's Paramatthadipani on the Theragatha, Pt. III, pp. 277-8. 5 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, p. 355. See also Makhadeva Jataba. 6 Ibid., vol. I, p. 139. 7 Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. I33-4. 8 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, PP. 314 foll.

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THE VIDEHAS 241 Devadatta, and confined him in a room with seven walls, declaring that none must approach him, Vaidehi (i.e. Videhan princess), the queen-mother, kept him alive (until she was discovered), by concealing food and drink for him. We read in one of the Jatakas that the people of Videha once reproached their king for his childlessness.2 The kings of Mithila were men of high culture. We have already referred to Janaka, the great Rajarsi of the Brahmanic period. In the Buddhist age, we find Sumitra, king of Mithila, devoted to the practice and study of the 'true law'.3 King Videha of Mithila had four sages to instruct him in law 4; and we read 5 that the son of this King Videha was educated at Taxila, the usual seat of learning for young men of noble birth. Stories regarding the religious tendencies of the royal family of Videha are frequently found in ancient literature,--see, e.g. the story of King Nimi and the hawk, Jataka, III, p. 230. Another Jataka story relates that Videha, king of Videha, and the Bodhisattva, then king of Gandhara, were on friendly terms, although they had never met. Once, on the fast day of the full-moon, the king of Gandhara took a vow to keep the five moral precepts, and delivered before his ministers a discourse on the substance of the law. At that moment the demon Rahu was overshadowing the full-moon's orb so that the moon's light was dimmed by an eclipse. The king observing the phenomenon thought that all trouble came from outside; he considered his royal retinue was nothing but a trouble, and that it was not proper that he should lose his light like the moon seized by Rahu. He thereupon made over his kingdom to his ministers, took to a religious life, and having attained transcendental powers, spent the rainy season in the Himalayan regions, devoting himself to the delights of meditation. When the king of Videha heard of the religious life of the king of Gandhara, he abdicated his throne, went to the Himalayan region and became a hermit. The two ex-kings lived together in peace and friendliness without knowing each other's antecedents. The ascetic of Videha waited upon the ascetic of Gandhara. One day, they witnessed an eclipse of the moon, and this was the indirect cause of their recognising each other as former fellow kings.? 1 S.B.E., Vol. XLIX, pp. 161-201. ? Jataka (Fausboll), V, pp. 279-8o. 3 Beal, Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, p. 30. 4 Jataka (Fausboll), VI, p. 333. 5 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 39. 6 See my paper: 'Taxila as a seat of learning in the Pali Literature', J.A.S.B., Vol. XII, 1916. 7 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. III, pp. 365-6. 16

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA We have already referred to the long life of King Makhadeva of Mithila. One day this king, on his barber showing him a grey hair from his head, thought that his days were numbered. Handing over his kingdom to his son, the old king became a recluse, and developed very high spiritual powers.1 Sadhina, a righteous king in Mithila, kept the five silas and observed the fast-day vows. His virtue was praised by the princes of heaven who sat in the Justice Hall' of Sakra, and all the gods desired to see him. Accordingly, Sakra ordered Matali to bring Sadhina to heaven in his own chariot. Matali went to the kingdom of Videha on the day of the full-moon, driving his celestial chariot side by side with the moon's disc. All the people shouted, 'See, two moons are in the sky'. Then, when the chariot came nearer, they saw what it was, and concluded that it had come for their virtuous king. Matali went to the king's door and made a sign that he should ascend the chariot. After arranging for the distribution of alms, the king went with Matali. One-half of the city of gods and twenty-five millions of nymphs, and a half of the palace of Vaijayanta were given to Sadhina by Sakra; and the king lived there in happiness for seven hundred years. But when his merits were exhausted, dissatisfaction arose in him, and he did not wish to remain in heaven any longer. The king was carried back to Mithila, where he distributed alms for seven days. On the seventh day he died, and was reborn in the heaven of the thirty-three (gods).2 Sakra is concerned in another legendary story about the Videhan royal family. Suruci, king of Mithila, had a wife named Sumedha who was childless. Sumedha prayed for a son. She took the eightfold sabbath vows (atthasilani), and sat meditating upon the virtues; and Sakra appeared to her and granted her boon. 242 1 Jataka (Fausboll), I, pp. 137-8. In the Makhadeva Sutta (Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. 74-83) we find the same story with slight variations. Nimi, a later king, was like Makhadeva. Indra with other gods came to him and praised him. When Nimi reached the Assembly Hall of the gods, he was received cordially by Indra, and sent back to his kingdom in a celestial chariot. 2 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. 355-6. 3 Ibid., Vol. IV, pp. 315 foll. 16B

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CHAPTER XLVIII THE JNATRKAS The Jnatnkas (also known as the Natha or Naya clan) gave India one of its greatest religious reformers, Mahavira, the last Tirthankara of the Jains, and this is their sole claim to fame among ancient Indian tribes. The Jnatrkas, or Ksatriyas of the Jnatri (or Naya) clan, used to dwell in Vaisali (Basarh), Kundagrama and its suburb Kollaga, and Vanijyagrama.1 The Cambridge History of India 2 states that Kundagrama was a suburb just outside Vaisali, probably surviving in the modern village of Basukund. Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson (Heart of Jainism, pp. 21-2) says that some 2,000 years ago, in Basarh, the same divisions existed as would be found today, and there, in fact, the priestly (Brahmana), warrior (Ksatriya) and commercial (Vaniya or Vanijya) communities lived so separately that their quarters were sometimes spoken of as though they had been distinct villages, as Vaisali, Kundagrama and Vanijyagrama. Strangely enough, she adds, it was not in their own but in the Ksatriya ward that Mahavira was to be the great hero of the commercial class. We are not prepared to accept Mrs. Stevenson's statement that Vaisali was exclusively a Brahmin settlement, in the absence of positive evidence. The Jain writers give an idealised picture of the Jnatrkas, telling us that they were afraid of sin, abstained from wicked deeds, did no mischief to any being, and therefore did not partake of meat.3 Dr. Hoernte says4: 'Outside their settlement at Kollaga, the Jnatrkas possessed a religious establishment (or Cheiya) which bore the name Duipalasa. Like most Cheiyas, 5 it consisted of a park enclosing a shrine, hence in the Vipaka Sutra it is called the Duipalasa Park (Ujjana)'. The Naya clan seems to have supported a body of monks who followed Parsvanatha, an ascetic, who lived some 250 years before Mahavira. It is stated in the Uvasagadasao that Mahavira's parents (and with them probably the whole clan of Naya Ksatriyas) are said to have been followers of the tenets of Parsvanatha. Whe Mahavira, who was taken to be the successor of Parsvanatha. appeared, the members of his clan became his devoted followers 1 Uvasagadasao (Hoernle), Vol. II, p. 4, f.n. 3 Jaina Satras, Pt. II, S.B.E., Vol. XLV, p. 416. 4 Uvasagadasao, Vol. II, pp. 4 and 5, f.n. 6 Mrs. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 31. 2 Vol. I, p. 157. 5 = Skt. Chaitya, shrine.

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244 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Dr. Hoernle says that Vaisali, one of the settlements of the Jnatrkas, was an oligarchic republic, the government of which was 'vested in a senate composed of the heads of the resident Ksatriya clans and presided over by an officer who had the title of king and was assisted by a Viceroy and a Commander-in-chief'.1 Mrs. S. Stevenson says that the government of Vaisali seems to have resembled that of a Greek State.2 In the early sixth century B.C., the chief of the Ksatriya Natha clan was Siddhartha who married Trisala, sister of Cetaka, the most eminent among the Licchavi princes. Siddhartha and Trisala were the parents of Mahavira, who lived from approximately 570-500 B.C. (See B. C. Law, Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, p. 53). Of Siddhartha Dr. Hoernle says: "Though, as may be expected, the Sacred Books of the Jains speak of him in exaggerated terms, they do not, I believe, ever designate him as "the king of Kundapura or Kundagama"; on the contrary, he is, as a rule, only called the Khattiya Siddhattha (Siddhatthe Khattiye) and only exceptionally he is referred to simply as King Siddhattha. This is perfectly consistent with his position as the chief of the Kshatriyas of Kollaga. Accordingly, Mahavira himself was born in Kollaga and naturally when he assumed the monk's vocation, he retired to the Cheiya of his own clan, called Duipalasa and situated in the neighbourhood of his native place, Kollaga.' 3 Mahavira, on renouncing the world, probably first joined Parsva's sect of which, however, he soon became a reformer and chief himself.4 A detailed sketch of the life and work of Mahavira would fill a volume and is beyond the scope of the present treatise. We may, however, mention the fact that it was Mahavira who brought the Jnatrkas into intimate touch with the neighbouring communities of eastern India and developed a religion which is still professed by millions of Indians. Another celebrity of the Jnatrka clan was Ananda, a staunch follower of Mahavira. The story of Ananda and his wife Sivananda is related in the Uvasagadasao.8 1 Uvasagadasao, Ed. Hoernle, Vol. II, p. 6. 2 Heart of Jainism, p. 22. 3 Uvasagadasao, Vol. II, pp. 5-6. 4 Ibid., p. 6. 5 For an account of Mahavira, see B. C. Law: Mahavira: His Life and Teachings. 6 Vol. II, tr. pp. 7-9.

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CHAPTER XLIX THE SAKYAS The Sakyas have acquired great importance in Indian history owing to the Buddha having been born among them. Before the birth of the founder of Buddhism, the Sakyas were comparatively little known; yet in the rugged fastnesses of the lower Himalayas, they had already built up a remarkable though not a very powerful principality. The traditional story of the Buddha's birth starts with a discussion among the Devaputras in the Tusita heaven, as to which of the great royal families of India the Bodhisattva should honour with his birth. In this discussion, the Sakyas were not mentioned. The Devaputras pondered over the merits of the sixteen Mahajanapadas of Jambudvipa (India), and analysed the claims of all the important royal families of the day, but found them all stained with one black spot or another. Being at a loss to find a people worthy of claiming him as their congener, the Devaputras at length had recourse to the Bodhisattva himself, and when finally the Sakyas were chosen as the recipient of that great honour, it was rather on account of their moral qualities. The Sakyas of Kapilavastu claimed to be Ksatriyas. As soon as they heard the news of the Buddha's passing away, they demanded a portion of his relics, saying, 'Bhagava amhakam nati-settho'? ('the Blessed One was the chief (or best) of our kinsmen'). While all the other Ksatriya clans that claimed a portion of the Buddha's ashes did so on the grounds of their belonging to the same caste (Bhagava pi Khattiyo, mayampi Khattiya), in the case of the Sakyas the claim was founded upon a closer relationship, that of consanguinity. The origin of the sakyas is traced back to King Okkaka, i.e. Iksvaku. It is stated in the Sumangalavilasinis that King Okkaka had five queens. By the chief queen, he had four sons and five daughters. After the death of the chief queen, he married another lady who extorted from him the promise to place her son upon the throne. The king thereupon requested his other sons to leave the kingdom. The princes, accompanied by their sisters, accordingly i Lalitavistara, Ed. Lefmann, pp. 26-7. 2 Digha Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. II, p. 165. 3 Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, pp. 258-60.

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246 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA left the kingdom, and going to a forest near the Himalayas, they began to search for a site to build a city. In the course of their search, they met the sage Kapila who said that they should build a town in the place where he lived. The princes duly built the town, and named it Kapilavatthu (Kapilavastu). In course of time, the four brothers married four of the sisters (excepting the eldest one), and the family came to be known as the Sakyas. This story is evidently fanciful. Sister-marriage was not in vogue in ancient India even in the earliest times of which we have any record, as the story of Yama and Yami in the Rgveda amply demonstrates. The descent from King Okkaka, however, may be based on fact. The Mahavamsa too traces the origin of the Sakyas to Okkaka, and gives their genealogy in great detail, going back to Mahasammata of the same dynasty.1 There can be no doubt that King Okkaka in this genealogy is no other than Iksvaku of the so-called solar dynasty of the Puranas. Comparing the names with those in the Pauranic list, we find that the lists do not agree in every detail, but there is agreement with regard to some of the more prominent names. Thus, for example, in the long history of the solar dynasty given in the Visnupurana, Pt. IV, we find many of the names in the Mahavamsa list, like Mandhata (Mandhata), Sagara (Sagara), etc. The Visnupurana states that King Bihadvala (Bihadbala) of this dynasty was killed in the Kuruksetra war, 2 and next proceeds to trace the descent of King Sakya from the Brhadvala.3 The source of the accounts given in the Mahavamsa and the Sumangalavilasini is not, however, the Puranas, but such ancient Buddhistical works as the Mahavastu. This latter work gives a detailed account of the foundation of Kapilavastu and the settlement of the sakyas there. The story of the sister-marriage is given there, and, as in the Mahavamsa, the Sakya family is traced back to Mahasammata. The names of the kings that succeeded him agree in the two accounts, for the most part. The following story 4 is told of Sujata, king of the Sakyas, who reigned in the city of Saketa The king had five sons and five daughters, and also another son by a concubine, Jenti. Being pleased with Jenti, he promised her a boon. She demanded that her son, Jenta, should be recognised as heir-apparent; and the king, thought loath to consent, could not break his word. The five princes, his legitimate sons, went into 1 For the complete genealogy of the Sakyas, according to Sinhalese tradition, see Mahavamsa, Chap. II, verses 1-24. 2 Visnupurana, Pt. IV, Chap. IV, verse 48. 3 Wilson, Visnupurana, Vol. IV, Chap. XXII, pp. 167-72. 4 Obviously corresponding to the story of King Okkaka.

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THE SAKYAS 247 exile, followed by many thousands of citizens. They were received by the king of Kasi-Kosala, and the people of Kasi-Kosala were delighted with the bearing of the princes. The king, however, became envious and drove the princes out of his kingdom. At the foot of the Himalayas there lived a wise sage called Kapila. His hermitage was vast and charming, with fruits and flowers, adorned with a good many plants and with a dense forest. The princes went to the dense forest and lived there. Traders used to pass through there on their way to Kasi and Kosala. When asked whence they came, these traders replied that they had come from a certain part of the forest called Sakotavana. The people of Saketa as well as the traders of Kosala visited the Sakotavana. The princes took their brides from among their sisters by the same mother, because they did not wish their race to be contaminated by a mixture of blood. Hearing of this, King Sujata asked his purohitas and learned Brahmins whether such a custom was permissible, and they replied in the affirmative. Meanwhile the princes decided to build a town. They went to the sage Kapila and said that they desired to build a city and name it after him. The princes built a city, making the sage's hermitage a royal residence. As the hermitage was given by Kapila the sage, the city became known by the name of Kapilavastu. Kapilavastu was prosperous, wealthy and peaceful; there alms were easily obtainable, and the people were fond of trade and commerce, sociable, and fond of taking part in festivities. The names of the five princes were Opura, Nipura, Karandaka, Ulkamukha and Hastikasirsa. Opura was the eldest, and he was elected king of Kapilavastu.i The story given in the Mahavastu and the Sumangalavilasini about the origin of the Sakyas by sister-marriage is referred to in the introduction to the Kunala Jataka. Here the story of the origin of the Sakyas exactly tallies with that in the Mahavastu, but there is some difference in the story of the Koliyas. While the Mahavastu says that they resided in a cave of a hill, the Jataka story relates that they received the name Koliya because of having resided in the hollow of a Koli or jujube tree. In the Mahavastu the Sakyas are called adityabandhus or 'kinsmen of the sun'. This refers to their descent from the Solar 1 Mahavastu, Ed. Senart, Vol. I, pp. 348-52. It will be observed that Opura, Nipura, Karandaka, Ulkamukha and Hastikasirsa are represented in a former passage of the Mahavastu as sons of King Sujata. Here, however, the relationship between each prince and the one next mentioned is represented as that of father and son.

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248 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA dynasty to which the Iksvakus belonged. The Mahavastu also speaks of King Suddhodana, father of the Buddha, as born in the Iksvaku family. Another passage in the same work speaks of the Buddha as a Ksatriya of the Adityagotra and of the Iksvakukula, i.e. born in the family of the Iksvakus who derived their descent from the sun.3 The Lalitavistara (p. 112) also speaks of the Buddha as born in the royal family of Iksvaku. The Sakyas were Ksatriyas of the Gotama gotra, as is seen from the fact that the Buddha had the surname Gotama, while the Licchayis and Mallas who also belonged to the same race, bore the gotra name of Vasistha. The gotra of a Ksatriya family was derived from the gotra name of the purohita or family priest; so evidently the Sakyas had adopted the Gotamas as their priests at an early date. The Gotama gotra is described in the Pali books * as occupying a very high position among the gotras, no doubt from its association with the founder of Buddhism. Kapilavastu, the Sakya capital, is sometimes called Kapilavastu. The Lalitavistara calls it Kapilavastu, and sometimes Kapilapura (p. 243) or Kapilahvayapura (p. 28, etc.); and these names are also found in the Mahavastu. The Divyavadana also connects Kapilavastu with the sage Kapila.6 In the Buddhacarita, the city is described as Kapilasya-vastu.? Kapilavastu is said to have been surrounded by seven walls. 8 A clue to the identification of the city is furnished by the discovery of the famous Rummindei Pillar which marks the site of the ancient Lumbini garden, the traditional scene of Sakyamuni's birth. Smith is inclined to identify the Sakya capital, which lay not far from the Lumbinigrama, with Piprawa in the north of the Basti district on the Nepalese frontier. The Chinese pilgrim, Fa-Hien, who visited India early in the fifth century A.D., says that the neighbourhood of Kapilavastu was infested by white elephants and lions, against which the people had to be on their guard.9 The country was thinly populated. He noticed towers at Kapilavastu, set up at various places, viz. where prince Siddhartha left the city by the eastern gate, where his chariot was made to turn back to the palace, where his horoscope was cast 1 Mahavastu, II, p. 303. 2 Ibid., III, p. 247. 3 Ibid., III, p. 246. 4 E.g. Suttavibhanga, Pacittiya, II, 2; Vinaya Pitaka, Oldenberg, Vol. IV, p. 6. 5 Vol. II, p. II, line 3. 6 Divyavadana, p. 548, lines 20-2. Kapilavastu, ibid., pp. 90, 390; Kapilavastu, ibid., p. 67. 7 Buddhacarita, Book I, verse 2. 8 Mahavastu, Vol. II, p. 75. 9 Travels of Fa-Hien and Sung-Yun, by S. Beal, pp. 88-98.

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THE SAKYAS 249 by the sage Asita, where the elephant was struck by Nanda and others, where the arrow going thirty li in a south-easterly direction penetrated into the earth and produced a fountain of water which quenched the thirst of travellers in later generations, where Suddhodana was met by his son when the latter had acquired supreme wisdom, where five hundred Sakya conyerts honoured Upali, and where the children of the Sakyas were massacred by King Viludabha.1 Hsuan Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century A.D., narrates that Kapilavastu, the country of the Sakyas, was about four thousand li in circuit. The royal precincts built of brick were within the city, measuring fourteen or fifteen li round. He says that, long after the passing away of the Buddha, topes and shrines were built in or near Kapilavastu.3 The villages were few and desolate. The monasteries (sangharamas) which were then in ruins, were more than one thousand in number. There still existed a sangharama near the royal precincts which contained thirty (3,000 according to one text) followers who read 'the little vehicle of the Sammatiya school'. There were two deva-temples where different sectarians worshipped. There were some dilapidated foundation walls, the remains of the principal palace of King Suddhodana, above which a vihara (monastery) was built containing a stupa of the king. Near it was a foundation in ruins, representing the sleeping palace of Queen Mahamaya. Above it a vihara was built containing a figure of the queen. Close by stood a vihara, on the spot where the Bodhisattva was supposed to have entered the womb of his mother. A stupa was built to the north-east of 'the palace of spiritual conception of the Bodhisattva. To the north-west of the capital, a stupa was built where King Viludabha massacred the sakyas. The cultured land was rich and fertile and the climate of the country was bracing. According to Rhys Davids, there were villages around the ricefields, and the cattle roamed about in the outlying forest. The jungles, which were occasionally resorted to by robbers, divided one village from another. Mention is made of several other Sakya towns besides Kapilavastu, viz. Chatuma, Samagama, Ulumpa, Devadaha, Sakkara, 1 Travels of Fa-Hien, by Beal, pp. 85-7. 2 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. II, pp. 13-14. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 4. 4 Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. II, pp. 14-15. 5 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 12. 6 Buddhist India, pp. 20-21.

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250 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Silavati, and Khomadussa.1 The latter was so called on account of its abundant produce of linen cloth.2 It is stated in the Jataka that the Sakyas were a haughty people, and did not do obeisance to Siddhartha on the ground that he was younger in age, but were afterwards made to do so on seeing a miracle performed by him. Hsuan Tsang, however, says that the manners of the people were 'soft and obliging',4 while in Rockhill's Life of the Buddha it is said that they did not kill any living thing, 'not even a black beetle'.5 The produce of their cattle and rice-fields supplied their only means of livelihood. The villages were grouped around the rice-fields, and the cattle wandered through the outlying forest over which the peasantry had rights of common.6 The Tibetan Buddhist Books as translated by Rockhill ? relate that the sakya law allowed a man one wife only. This law is rather remarkable inasmuch as polygamy was in vogue in India from the Vedic age downwards, especially among the Ksatriyas who were rich and powerful. We may, however, account for the existence of this law among the Sakyas on the ground of their special constitution and position. They were a small tribe, and very proud of their birth. They would not give one of their girls in marriage even to such a powerful prince as Pasenadi of Kosala. Among such a people, marriage was generally confined within the tribe itself, and the number of marriageable girls being limited, many adult males would have to go without a wife if polygamy prevailed. Hence the law had grown up among them limiting the number of wives to one. But that the Sakyas had no objection to polygamy as such on religious or other grounds, is clear from the fact narrated by the same Tibetan works that the rigorous provision of the law was relaxed in the case of Suddhodana, the father of the Buddha; in consideration of a great public service rendered by him when, as a young prince, in subduing the hillmen of the Pandava tribe, he was allowed by the Sakyas to have two wives. The Lalitavistara seems to suggest that Suddhodana had a crowded harem, when it says that Mayadevi was his chief queen, being at the head of a thousand ladies. But this appears to be a mere poetic exaggeration, for the Pali books speak of only two 1 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 175. 2 The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Pt. I, p. 233. 3 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. VI, pp. 479 foll. 4 Beal, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 14.. 5 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 117. 6 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 20. | 7 Life of the Buddha, p. 15. 8 Suddhodanassa pramada pradhana narisahasresu hi sagraprapta'. Lalitavistara, p. 28.

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THE SAKYAS 251 wives of the king. Prince Siddhartha had only one wife according to all accounts, and, according to the Lalitavistara, even the hand of this girl was not granted to him, although he was a prince, until he could satisfy the proud Sakya father of his knowledge of the silpas or arts, by an open exhibition of skill in warfare as well as the finer arts. Siddhartha's wife is named Yasodhar, in the Mahavastu, and her father is called Mahanama. How proud and aristocratic the Sakyas were when asked to give away their daughters in marriage to any one outside their clan will appear from the following story of King Pasenadi of Kosala, who desired to have a sakya girl as his consort. The king considered that if he married a sakya girl, the Brethren (i.e. Bhikkhus) would be his friends, as he would then be related to them by marriage. So, rising from his seat, he returned to the palace, and sent a message to Kapilavatthu to this effect: 'Please give me one of your daughters in marriage, for I wish to become connected with your family'. On receipt of this message the Sakyas gathered together and deliberated: 'We live in a place subject to the authority of the king of Kosala; if we refuse to give him one of our daughters, he will be very angry; and if we give her, the custom of our clan will be broken. What are we to do?' Then Mahanama said to them, 'I have a daughter named Vasabhakhattiya. Her mother is a slave woman named Nagamunda; the girl is sixteen years old, of great beauty and auspicious prospects, and noble on her father's side. Let us send her, as a girl nobly born.' The Sakyas agreed, and, sending for the king's messengers, said that they were willing to give a daughter of the clan, and that they might take her with them at once. But the messengers reflected: "These Sakyas are desperately proud in matters of birth. Suppose they should send a girl who is not one of them, and say that she is so. We will take none but one who eats along with them.' However, by a ruse, Mahanama avoided eating more than one mouthful with his daughter, and Pasenadi's messengers did not discover the secret. 'So Mahanama sent away his daughter in great pomp. The messengers brought her to Sravasti, and said that this maiden was the true-born daughter of Mahanama. The king was pleased, and caused the whole city to be decorated, and placed her upon a pile of treasure, and by a ceremonial sprinkling made her his chief queen. She was dear to the king, and beloved.' 3 The Tibetan books have preserved a story of Pasenadi. Once Pasenadi, king of Kosala, carried away by his horse, reached Kapila 1 Lalitavistara, pp. 243ff.; and see Mahavastu, II, 73. 8 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, pp. I46 foll. 2 Mahavastu, II, 48.

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252 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA vastu alone, and roaming about hither and thither, came to the garden of Mahanaman. Here he saw the beautiful Mallika, who was well versed in the Sastras, and asked her whose garden it was, and was told that it belonged to the Sakya Mahanaman. The king dismounted, and asked for water for washing and drinking. Mallika brought water for him, and then she was desired by the king to rub his feet, which she willingly did. Hardly had she touched his feet than he fell asleep. Mallika thought that the king might have enemies, and did not open the gate when instructed to do so by a multitude of people. The king awoke and asked her what the matter was, and she told him what she had done. Her shrewdness and wisdom were admired by the king. Coming to know that she was a slave girl of Mahanaman, he went to her master and expressed his desire to marry her. The master agreed, and the king took her with him in great pomp to Sravasti. The king's mother was highly displeased that her son had married a slave girl, but when Mallika went to pay respects to her and touched her feet, she immediately fell asleep. When she awoke, she thought that such a touch could not but be that of a maiden of noble birth, worthy of the family of Kosala. Shortly afterwards a son was born to Mallika, and was called Virudhaka or the high-born. It is evident that this story is a Tibetan version of the story of Pasenadi and Vasabhakhattiya. We learn, then, that the Sakyas contracted marriages within their own tribe, and even their ruling house did not enter into matrimonial relations with any of the numerous princel India, unlike the royal houses of Kosala, Magadha and Videha, for example. When the marriage of Prince Siddhartha was decided upon at the council of five hundred sakya elders, these proceeded to select a bride for him from among themselves. This clannish custom among the Sakyas perhaps gave rise to the idea that they married their sisters.2 In Hsuan Tsang's times, when a Sakya child was born, it was carried to the temple of Isvaradeva to be presented to the god. The temple contained a stone image of the god in the posture of rising and bowing. 3 The women appear to have enjoyed a greater amount of independence and freedom of thought among the Sakyas than among the people of the plains, perhaps owing to the scarcity of women. Thus, according to all Buddhist accounts, the Sakya ladies were the 1 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 75-7. According to Pali canonical literature, Virudhaka was the son of Pasenadi by another wife named Vasabhakhattiya, who was given in marriage to Pasenadi by the Sakyas. 2 Vide ante. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 13. ho11 N .

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THE SAKYAS 253 first to cut themselves off from the world, and to institute the order of nuns, the foster-mother of the Buddha, Mahapajapati Gotami, taking the lead. Some of the Sakya ladies who left the world and adopted the life of the female ascetic have left behind them poems and songs that are preserved in the Psalms of the Sisters (Therigatha). Among these ladies were Tissa, Abhirupananda and Mitta. Tissa was born at Kapilavastu among the Sakyas. She renounced the world with Mahapajapati Gotami, and attained Arahatship.2 Abhirupananda was the daughter of Khemaka the Sakya. She was called Nanda the Fair for her great beauty and amiability. Her beloved kinsman, Carabhuta, died on the day on which she was to choose him from amongst her suitors. She had to leave the world against her will, and though she entered the Order, she could not forget that she was beautiful. Fearing that the Buddha would rebuke her, she used to avoid his presence. At last, however, she was compelled to come to him for instruction, and by his supernatural power the Buddha conjured up a beautiful woman who became transformed into an old and fading figure. This had the desired effect, and Nanda became an Arahat.3 Mitta, born in the royal family of the Sakyas at Kapilavastu, left the world with Mahapajapati Gotami, and like the other two, soon attained Arahantship.4 There was a technical college of the Sakyas in the mango-grove. 'It was a long terraced mansion made for the learning of crafts.'5 The learning of one or other of the arts was incumbent upon every Sakya youth, for, as we have seen, no father would give his daughter in marriage to an idler or ignoramus. There was also a school for archery at Kapilavastu, where the Sakyas were trained. The Sakyas being a Ksatriya tribe devoted to warlike pursuits, and surrounded on all sides by warlike tribes, the school of archery was necessarily a flourishing institution. The Lalitavistara describes in details the various sciences and arts, beginning with the arts of writing, that the young Siddhartha had to learn. But the whole description is that of an ideal school which the poet imagined, no doubt basing the account on the condition of education in India at the time in which he wrote. There is nothing in the description that might be called particularly Sakya. The minds of the Sakya royal princes and nobles were so enlightened by the Buddha that they were able to realise the perfect 1 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Vol. XX, Pt. III, pp. 320-6, 1, 2, 3, 4, ist paragraph, and paragraphs 5 and 6. 2 Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 12-13. 3 Ibid., pp. 22-3, and see also ibid., pp. 55-7 (Sundari Nanda). 4 Ibid., p. 29. 5 Sumangalavilasini, Vol. III, p. 905. 8 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 13.

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254 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA fruit of righteousness'.1 Nandupananda and Kundadana, two principal nobles, and other persons of the Sakya clan became recluses.2 Upali, son of Atali, followed their example. Then the other princes and the sons of the chief minister renounced the world." At the request of the Buddha, many Sakyas became recluses, and were well provided for. The life of the Sakya recluse was so attractive that Sumangala (reborn in a poor family) became a recluse. The recluses were respected for their simplicity of life. There was a residence at Kapilavastu provided by the community for recluses of all schools. A The administrative and judicial business of the Sakya clan was carried out in their santhagara or Council-Hall at Kapilavastu.7 young Brahmin named Ambattha who went to Kapilavastu on business had the opportunity of visiting the santhagara of the Sakyas, where he saw the young and the old seated on grand seats. The 'samsthagara' is spoken of in the Mahavastu and the Lalitavistara, and we are told there that 500 Sakyas usually took their seats in the Hall. The Mahavastu describes how thirty-two princes, the sons of a Sakya girl and Raja Kola of Benares, came to settle in Kapilavastu, and presented themselves before the Sakya council (Sakyaparisad), where 500 Sakya leaders sat together to transact some important business. A new Council-Hall of the Sakyas was raised at Kapilavastu when the Buddha was dwelling at the Nigrodharama in the Mahavana which was close to it. At their request, the Buddha inaugurated the hall, and a series of ethical discourses lasting the whole of the night were delivered by him, Ananda and Moggallana." The Lalitavistara also gives 500 as the number of the members of the Sakya Council. 10 The Parisad of the Licchavis appears to have been larger, but the system of administration seems to have been very much the same, though there was this difference, that while at Vaisali everyone called himself a raja, at Kapilavastu there was one distinct headman called the raja who was elected by the people. According to Rhys Davids, he had to preside over the sessions and when no sessions were held, he had to conduct the business of the State. But we hear that once Bhaddiya, a young cousin of the Buddha, took the title of raja; and in one passage, Suddhodana is styled a raja, although he is elsewhere spoken of as a simple citizen."1 1 S.B.E., Vol. XIX, p. 226. 2 Ibid., pp. 226-7. 4 Ibid., pp. 226-7; Psalms of the Brethren, p. 81. 5 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 47. 6 Buddhist India, p. 20. 8 Digha, I,.p. 91. Uccesu asanesu nisinna'. 10 Lalitavistara, Ed. Lefmann, pp. 136-7. 8 Ibid., p. 227. 7 Ibid., p. 19. 9 Buddhist India, p. 20. 11 Buddhist India, p. 19.

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THE SAKYAS 255 In Prof. Rhys Davids' opinion, no doubt all the more important places had a 'Mote-Hall' or 'pavilion covered with a roof but with no walls in which to conduct their business'. The local affairs of the villages were conducted in open assembly consisting of the householders, 'held in the groves which, then as now, formed so distinctive a feature of each village in the long and level alluvial plain'.1 In the time of the Chinese travellers, Fa-Hien, Sung-Yun and Hsuan Tsang, there was no central government at Kapilavastu. There existed a congregation of priests and about ten families of laymen.2 Each town appointed its own ruler and there was no supreme ruler. 3 D. R. Bhandarkar says that kula or clan sovereignty was prominent among the Sakyas. Kula, which was more extensive than the family, was the lowest political unit amongst the political sanghas. To quote his words, kula 'denotes not simply the domination of a chief over his clan, but also and principally his supremacy over the territory occupied by that clan'.4 It appears from the Mahavastu 5 that Koliya and Licchavi young men also showed their prowess at the tournament held to test the knowledge of Prince Siddhartha before his marriage. It seems that the Koliyas and Licchavis were on terms of close relationship with the Sakyas. The Koliyas were of kindred origin, and the Licchavis, from their living in the country to the south-east of the Sakya territory, most probably often became intimate with the Sakyas. The Kosala country bordered on the region occupied by the Sakyas, and there were mutual jealousies between the two peoples that often developed into war. Thus we are told that the Sakyas became the vassals of King Pasenadi of Kosala who received homage from them. At first Pasenadi was scornful of and disrespectful towards the Buddha, but he later repented of his attitude, developed a great admiration for the Buddha, and paid his respects to him. We have already seen how he desired to establish a connection with the Buddha's family by marriage. When Vidudabha, the son of Pasenadi and Vasabhakhattiya, came of age, he found out that the sakyas had deceived his father, and he resolved to take revenge upon them. In order to do this, he decided to get possession of the throne for himself, and with the aid of his commander-in-chief, Dirgha Carayana or Digha Karayana, 1 Buddhist India, p. 20. 2 Beal, Travels of Fa-Hien and Sung-Yun, pp. 85-7. 3 Beal, Records of the Western Worla, Vol. II, p. 14. 4 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 162-4. 6 Majjhima Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. II, Pt. I, pp. 118-24. 5 Vol. II, p. 76.

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256 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA he deposed his father who fled from Sravasti, the Kosala capital, and set out for Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha. But it was late when he came to the city, and the gates were shut and lying down in a shed, exhausted by exposure to wind and sun, he died there'.1 After ascending the throne, Viludabha invaded the Sakya country, took their (capital) city and slew many of them without any distinction of age or sex. He then took 500 Sakya girls for his harem, to celebrate his victory. Full of rage and hatred, the girls declared that they would never submit to the king. On hearing this, the king was enraged, and gave orders that they should be killed. According to the king's orders, the officers cut off their hands and feet and threw them into a ditch. The girls invoked the Buddha who saw their plight through his divine insight, and ordered a bhikkhu to go to them and preach his doctrine. Having heard the instruction, they attained 'purity of the eyes of law', died, and were all reborn in heaven. Vidunabha himself is said to have perished by a sudden flood, along with numerous Kosalan followers. There is a different version of this account in the Vidudakavadanam of the Avadanakalpalata. According to this, Viludaka (= Viludabha) slaughtered seventy-seven thousand Sakyas and stole one thousand boys and girls. One day when he was eulogising his own prowess in his court, the stolen Sakya girls said, 'Wherefore this pride when death is inevitable to a man bound by action ?' The king heard this, became angry, and ordered his men to cut off the hands of the girls. Rhys Davids says that the real motives which led Vidudaka to attack and conquer the Sakyas were most probably similar to the political motives which led Ajatasatru to attack and conquer the Licchavis of Vaisali. Viludaka perhaps used the arrogance of the Sakyas as a pretext.4 It is stated in the Mahavamsa Tika that during the lifetime of the Buddha some sakyas, being oppressed by Vidudabha, fled to the Himalayas, where they built a beautiful city, which was known as Moriyanagara (Mauryanagara), because the spot always resounded with the cries of peacocks.5" The Buddhists hold that Asoka and the Buddha were of the same family, as the former was descended from Candragupta, who was a son of the queen of one of the kings of Moriyanagara.. 1 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. IV, p. I52. 2 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. II, pp. II-I2. 3 IIth Pallava (Bibl. Indica series). 4 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, pp. II-12; and see also Licchavi chapter. 5 Mahavamsa Tika (Ceylonese edition), pp. 119-21. Beal, Records of the Western World, Vol. I, Intro., p. xvii.

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CHAPTER L THE MALLAS The Mallas were a powerful people of E. India at the time of Gautama Buddha, and are often mentioned in Buddhist and Jaina works. The country of the Mallas is spoken of in many passages of a Buddhist work as one of the sixteen 'great countries' (Mahajanapadas).1 It is also mentioned in the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata, where we are told that the second Pandava, Bhimasena, during his expedition to E. India, conquered the chief of the Mallas, besides the country of Gopalakaksa and the northern Kosala territories. 2 The Bhismaparvan mentions the Mallas along with such E. Indian peoples as the Angas, the Vangas and the Kalingas.3 At the time of which we are speaking, the Mallas appear to have been divided into two confederacies, 'one with headquarters at Pava, and the other with headquarters at Kusinara', as we see from the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta. There is reason to believe that in the Buddha's time Kusinara was not a city of the first rank, like Rajagrha, Vaisali, or Sravasti. When the Lord expressed to Ananda his desire to die at Kusinara, Ananda said to him, 'Let not the Exalted One die in this little wattle-and-daub town, in this town in the midst of the jungle, in this branch township.... The fact that the Buddha hastened to Kusinara from Pava during his last illness indicates that the distance between the two towns was not great; but the description in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta does not enable us to make any accurate estimate. Kusinara has been identified by Cunningham with the village of Kasia in the east of the Gorakhpur district,5 and this view has recently been strengthened by the fact that in the stupa behind the Nirvana temple, near this village, a copperplate has been discovered, bearing the inscription (parini)rvana-caitya-tamra-patta', or 'the copperplate of the parinirvana-caitya'. This identification appears to be correct, although V. A. Smith would prefer to place Kusinara in Nepal, beyond the first range of hills.6 Rhys Davids expresses the opinion 1 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. IV, P. 252. 2 Vangavasi Ed., Vol. I, p. 241; Sabhaparvan, Chap. XXX, sl. 3. 3 Ibid., Bhismaparvan, Chap. IX, sl. 46. 4 Digha Nikaya, Vol. II, p. I65. 5 Ancient Geography of India, pp. 430-3. 6 Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 167, f.n. 5; J.R.A.S., 1913, p. 152. 17

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258 that, if we may trust the Chinese pilgrims, the territory of the Mallas of Kusinara and Pava was on the mountain slopes to the east of the Sakya land and to the north of the Vajjian confederation. But some would place their territory south of the Sakyas and east of the Vajjians. It is a considerable distance from Kasia in the Gorakhpur district to Pawapuri of the Jainas in the Patna district, and one so ill as the Buddha was not likely to go such a distance on foot. Therefore Pava of the Buddhist books appears to have been distinct from Pawapuri, and situated not very far from Kasia. TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Cullavagga of the Vinaya Pitaka mentions another town of the Mallas named Anupiya,2 where the Buddha resided for some time. This Anupiya may be the same as the mango-grove called Anupiya, where Gautama spent the first seven days after his renunciation, on his way to Rajagrha.3 A fourth town of the Mallas, called Uruvelakappa, where the Buddha stayed for some time, is mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya.* In its neighbourhood a wide forest called Mahavana appears to have existed, where the Buddha went alone for midday rest after his meal, and met the gahapati Tapusa. 6 From the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta account of the Buddha's death and cremation, it is evident that the Mallas belonged to the Ksatriya caste; and they are repeatedly addressed by the Buddha as well as by Ananda and others as Vasetthas or Vasisthas, showing that, like the Licchavis, they belonged to the Vasistha gotra. Like the Licchavis again, the Mallas are described by Manu (X, 22) as 'born of a Ksatriya mother and of a Ksatriya father who was a vratya,' i.e. who had not gone through the ceremony of Vedic initiation at the proper age. According to Kautilya, the Mallas were a sangha or corporation of which the members called themselves rajas, just as the Licchavis did. Buddhaghosa also calls them rajas." A passage in the Majjhima Nikaya mentions the Licchavis and Mallas as examples of sanghas and ganas. The Mallas of Pava and Kusinara, then, had their respective Santhagaras or Council-Halls, where all matters, both political and religious, were discussed. The Sangiti Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya tells us that when the Buddha came to the Mallas, a new Council-Hall named Ubbhataka had just been built at Pava. 8 1 Buddhist India, p. 26. 2 Cullavagga, VII, 1, 1; Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Pt. III, p. 224. * Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. I, pp. 65-6. 4 Samyutta Nikaya, Pt. V, p. 228; Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. IV, p. 438. 5 Digha Nikaya, II, p. 165. 7 Sumangalavilasini, III, p. 971; and see Licchavi chapter. 8 Digha, Pt. III, p. 207. 17B 6 Ibid., III, p. 209.

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THE MALLAS 259 The Mallas invited the Buddha to this hall, saying, 'Let the Lord, the Exalted One, be the first to make use of it. That it has first been used by the Exalted One will be for the lasting good and happiness of the Pava Mallas'. At their request, the Buddha gave a discourse on his doctrine to the Mallas of Pava, until the late hours of the night. The Mallas were in assembly and had been doing business in their Council-Hall when Ananda went to them with the message of the impending death of the Master; and again they gathered in assembly, evidently in the same Santhagara, to discuss the procedure to be followed in the disposal of the body, and afterwards to discuss the claims put forward by the various Ksatriya kings and peoples. In the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta, there is mention of a set of officers called Purisas among the Mallas of Kusinara, about whose functions we are quite in the dark. Rhys Davids1 takes them to be a class of subordinate servants. It is not unlikely that they are the same as the Pulisas mentioned in the edicts of Asoka. It seems that the Mallas were a martial race and were devoted to such manly sports as wrestling. It is probable that the word 'Malla' denoting a professional wrestler was derived from the tribal name of this people. But the Mallas cultivated learning as well as physical culture. We read in one of the Buddhist texts, for example, that Bandhula, a son of a king of Kusinara, went to Taxila for his education. There he studied with a great teacher, along with Pasenadi of Kosala, and Mahali, a Licchavi prince of Vaisali. After completing his education he came back to this realm. We often find the Mallas discussing philosophical problems, as may be seen, e.g. from Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 327ff.; V, pp. 228-9, 349ff. Before the advent of Jainism and Buddhism, the Mallas seem to have been caitya-worshippers like their neighbours, the Licchavis. One of their shrines called Makuta Bandhana, to the east of Kusinara, is mentioned in connection with the death of the Buddha: his dead body was carried thither for cremation. There is no indication of the kind of worship that was performed at this place. Jainism found many followers among the Mallas. The accounts in Buddhist Literature of the schism that appeared in the Jaina Church after the death of Mahavira amply prove this. At Pava, the followers of Nigantha Nataputta were divided after the death of their great Tirthankara. There were both ascetics and lay devotees among these Jainas, for we read that on account of the disputations among the ascetics, 'even the lay disciples of the white robe, who 2 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. II, p. 96. 1 Buddhist India, p. 21. 8 Fausboll, Dhammapadam (old edition), p. 211.

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260 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA followed Nataputta, showed themselves shocked, repelled and indignant at the Niganthas.'i These lay Jainas appear from this passage to have been draped in white robes, just as the Svetambaras are at the present day. The Buddha seems to have taken advantage of the schism that overtook the Jaina church on the death of its founder, for the propagation of the rival faith. In the Pasadika Suttanta, we find that Cunda, the novice of Pava, brought the news of the death of Mahavira to Ananda at Samagama in the Malla country. Ananda forthwith reported it to the Buddha who delivered a long discourse.2 The Mallas were much attached to the founder of Jainism. We are informed by the Kalpa Sutra that to mark the passing away of the great Jina, nine Mallakis or Malla chiefs were among those that instituted an illumination on the day of the New-moon, saying, Since the light of intelligence is gone, let us make an illumination of material matter.'3 Buddhism also attracted many devotees among the Mallas some of whom, like the venerable Dabba, attained a high and respected position among the brethren. 4 On account of his virtues. he was appointed after due election by the Buddhist Sangha, a regulator of lodging places and apportioner of rations. He was so successful in the discharge of these duties, which required a great deal of patience and tact, that he was considered by the Sangha to be possessed of miraculous powers. But there were some who were envious of him, and preferred charges against him to bring about his expulsion from the Sangha. The venerable Dabba, however, was exculpated from these charges. Another Malla, Khandasumana, born in the family of a Malla raja of Pava, entered the Buddhist Order and acquired six-fold Abhinna. Once, Buddha was in the country of the Mallas at Uruvelakappa. One day he asked Ananda to remain there, while he left for Mahavana to spend the day. While Ananda was at Uruvelakappa, a householder named Tapussa, probably a Malla, came to him, and Ananda took him to the Buddha whose teachings cured Tapussa of his desire for sensual pleasures. Another Malla, Roja, asked Ananda whether the Buddha would accept potherbs and meal from him, and the Buddha asked him to hand them over to the bhikkhus.? A certain Siha was born in the country of the Mallas, in the family of a raja. 1 Digha, III, p. 210. 2 Ibid., III, p. 118. 3 Jaina Sutras, Pt. I, S.B.E., XXII, p. 266. 4 Vinaya Texts, Pt. III, pp. 4ff. 6 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 90. 6 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. IV, pp. 438-48. 7 Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, S.B.E., Vol. XVII, p. 139.

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THE MALLAS 261 As soon as he saw the Buddha, he was attracted to him. The Buddha taught him the Dhamma, and he entered the Buddhist order and eventually developed insight and acquired Arhatship.1 It was at the Mallian city of Pava that the Buddha ate his last meal at the house of Cunda, the smith, and fell ill. Though in pain, the Buddha went to the rival Mallian city of Kusinara. When he felt that his last moment was fast approaching, he sent Ananda with a message to the Mallas of Kusinara who had then assembled in their Santhagara (Council-Hall) for some public affair. On receipt of the news, they flocked to the Sala grove where the Buddha was, with their young men, girls and wives, 'being grieved and sad and afflicted at heart'. The venerable Ananda caused them 'to stand in groups, each family in a group,' and presented them to the Buddha.2 After his last exhortations to the assembled brethren to work out their salvation with diligence, the Buddha entered into parinirvana. The Mallas then met together in their Council-Hall to devise some means of honouring the earthly remains of the Lord in a suitable manner, and carried them with music to the shrine of the Mallas, called the Makuta-bandhana, to the east of their city. They treated the remains of the Tathagata as they would treat the remains of a king of kings (Cakravarttiraja).3 When the cremation was over, they extinguished the funeral pyre with water scented with all sorts of perfumes, and collected the bones, which they placed in their CouncilHall, surrounding them with a lattice work of spears and with a rampart of bows.' 4 * As they had a separate principality, the Mallas of Pava were among the various clans that pressed their claims for a share of the remains. They sent a messenger to the Mallas of Kusinara, saying: "The Exalted One was a Ksatriya and so are we. We are worthy to receive a portion of the relics of the Exalted One. Over the remains of the Exalted One will we put up a sacred cairn, and in his honour will we celebrate a feast.' Both the Mallas of Pava and of Kusinara erected stupas over their respective shares, and celebrated feasts. The Mallas appear to have usually been on friendly terms with their neighbours, the Licchavis, with whom they had many ties of kinship, though, as was inevitable, there were occasional rivalries between the two States, as, for instance, the story of Bandhula, a Mallian general, shows.5 Bandhula drove to Vaisali, the Licchavi capital, where he arrogantly misused the water of a tank where the members of the king's families were in the habit of obtaining water 1 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 80. 3 Ibid., p. 161. 5 Fausboll, Dhammapadam (old ed.), pp. 218-20. 2 Digha, II, pp. 148 foll. 4 Ibid., p. 164.

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262 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA for ceremonial purposes. Five hundred Licchavi Rajas set forth to capture Bandhula, but the latter 'sped a shaft and it cleft the heads of all the chariots and passed right through the five hundred kings,'who forthwith died in gruesome circumstances. The Mallas appear to have lost their independence to that ambitious monarch of Magadha, Ajatasatru, and their dominions were annexed to the Magadhan empire.1 1 D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 79.

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CHAPTER LI THE VANGAS It is not difficult for the philologist to recognise the present Bengal in the tribal name 'Vanga'. But Vanga in ancient days denoted only a portion of present-day Bengal; it is distinguished in ancient literature and epigraphic records not only from Radha which included Suhma 1 or was conterminous with it 2 and Gauda which at one time included Karnasuvarna and a portion of Radha, 4 all making up what is now roughly known as Western Bengal,-- but also from Pundra or Pundravardhana which included Varendra or Varendri,5 making up what is roughly identical with present Northern Bengal. Vanga thus stood for what is now known as Eastern Bengal comprising the modern Dacca and Chittagong divisions. Among the important divisions of Vanga in ancient days were included Samatata (mod. Faridpur), according to Watters, and for some time even Tamralipta or Tamalitti (mod. Tamluk). Hemacandra in his Abhidhanacintamani (IV, 23), however, identifies the country of the Vanga with that of a tribe called the Harikelas.? In the eleventh century Cola Inscription (Tirumalai Rock Ins. of Rajendra Cola) as well as in the Goharwa Plate of Karnadeva, king of Cedi (c. 1040-1070 A.D.), the Varga country is referred to as Bangala-desam, which, in the thirteenth century, came to be called Bangala (Wright's Marco Polo) and in Mohamedan times Bangla. The Tirumalai Inscription distinguishes Vanga from South Radha (Takkana Ladham and North Radha (Uttila Ladham). Thus Vanga which at one time denoted Eastern Bengal has now given its name to the entire province of modern Bengal, the English rendering of the name being derived from Bargala or Bargla.8 1 1.H.Q., Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 525-9. 2 S.B.E., Vol. XXII, pp. 84-5, Nilakantha's commentary on the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata. Suhmah Radhah' = The Suhmas are the Radhas. 3 M. Chakravarti, J.A.S.B., 1908, p. 274. 4 Prabodhacandrodaya, Canto II. 5 Tarpandighi Grant of Laksmanasena, Inscriptions of Bengal, III, pp. 99ff. But in some of the Sena records Vanga is included in Pundravardhanabhukti. 8 1.H.O., Vol. VIII, No. 3, p. 533. 7 According to I-tsing (I-tsing, Takakusu, p. xlvi), Wuhing, another Chinese pilgrim, visited Harikela, which was the eastern limit of E. India. Harikela is also mentioned in an illustrated manuscript of A stasahasra prajnaparamita in the Camb. Univ. Library (MSS. Add. 1643). 8 In a Nalanda Inscription recently edited by N. G. Majumdar (Ep. Ind., Vol. XXI, Pt. III, pp. 97ff.) the name Vangala desa appears.

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264 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA In the time of Baudhayana 1 (fourth century B.C. ?), the Vangas were distinguished from the Pundras, while in the Epics and Puranas, Vanga is distinguished from Pundra and Suhma, as well as from Anga and Kalinga. According to the Puranas and the Mahabharata, 2 King Bali's queen, Sudesna, and the sage Dirghatamas had five sons (with Bali's consent): Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Pundra, and Suhma. These five were called the Baleya Ksatras or Baleya Brahmanas, and are said to have been the founders of the five countries bearing their respective names. In the Matsyapurana, Vanga and Suhma are included in a list of the eastern countries (Chap. 114, 43-45).3 According to the Mahabharata (XII, Chap. 5, 6607), King Jarasandha is said to have extended his supremacy over the Angas, Vangas, Kalingas, and Pundras. Karna is also once said to have conquered the Suhmas, Angas and Vangas (Karnaparvan, Chap. 8, 19), while Vasudeva is said to have once routed in battle the Angas, Vangas, Kalingas and Paundras along with other peoples. In the Sabhaparvan, the Pandavas are described as having subjugated the Pundras and the Vangas, and led their victorious army to Suhma (Sabhaparvan, Chap. XXX, 23-5). It, therefore, seems that in the period represented by the Epics and the Puranas, Vanga, Pundra (or Paundra) and Suhma were the three important divisions of Bengal, but it is difficult to define with any degree of exactitude the geographical positions of these divisions. We may, however, assume that Pundra and Suhma were two adjacent tracts, identical roughly with the modern Rajshahi and Burdwan divisions respectively. In the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata Anga and Vanga are mentioned as forming one Visaya or kingdom. This is supported by a reference in the Ramayana (Bk. II, Chap. X) where the Vargas are mentioned along with the Angas; they are, moreover, nearly always associated in ancient literature with the Angas and Kalingas. The Vangas as a tribe are not mentioned in earlier Vedic literature, unless we recognise them in the curious word 'VangaVagadhah' which occurs in the Aitareya Aranyaka (II, I, I). 'Vanga-Vagadhah' has often been amended into Vanga-Magadhah', 1 Dharmasutra, I, I, 14; cf. Oldenberg, Buddha, 394, n. 2 Vayu P., Chap. 99, 26-34, 47-97; Brahmanda P., III, Chap. 74, 25-34, 47-100; Matsya P., Chap. 48, 23-9, 43-89; Brahma P., IV, Chap. 18,1; Bhag. P., IX, Chap. 23, 5; Mbh. I, Chap. 104, 4193-221, with variations; XII, Chap. 343, 13177-84, cf. Pargiter, Anc. Ind. Hist. Tradition, pp. 109 and 158. 3 Cf. also Moh. (Bhismaparvan, Chap. 9, 46) where the Angas, Vangas and Kalingas are mentioned as East Indian peoples (Law, 'Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India', p. 147). Cf. also Ramayana (Kiskindhya Kanda, Canto xlii) where the Pundras are mentioned as an Eastern people,

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Hindukush ARABIAN SEA Chenab R ROMR. Sortes Beas R Karakoram Rang Indus R. Narbada R. Vindhya Range MANASAFOWARS Jamuna R PRER REA Kuen Mt. Kailas HIMALA Tsanggo Gha lun READING ROOM Ganges R NEW DELHI The physical map of India. RAMAKRISHNA MISSION 2 or Brahmaputra R. AYAN RANGES BAY OF BENGAL Mountains x 91 LIBRARY English Miles. 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 akan) Pegu Yom

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THE VANGAS 265 i.e. the Vangas and the Magadhas, who were neighbouring peoples. The amendment is doubtful; but if it be correct, the Vangas along with the Magadhas must have been branded by the Aryans as an impure people, probably a pre-Aryan tribe; for the two tribes are described as paksi-visesah' or like certain species of birds. Baudhayana too brands Vanga as an impure country, along with Pundra, Kalinga and Sauvira. An Aryan who had been to any of these countries was required to perform a certain sacrificial rite to become free from the impurities attaching to residence there. Even in the time of Patanjali (second century B.C.) the Vargas and their country were excluded from Aryavarta. The country was, however, Aryanised before Manu wrote his Dharmasastra (between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D., acc. to Buhler), for the Manusamhita extends the eastern boundary of Aryavarta to the sea. In the early Buddhist literature where detailed lists appear of many countries and peoples, the Vangas and their country are conspicuous by their absence. They are, however, mentioned in the Jain Prajnapana, 2 which ranks Anga and Vanga in the first group of Aryan peoples, and in the MilindaPanho, where Vanga is described as a trading-place to be reached by sea. The mother of Sihabahu and Sihasivali, of Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa fame, was a Vanga princess, the daughter of a king of Vanga who had married the daughter of the king of Kalinga. The first epigraphic mention of the Vangas is probably made in the Maharauli Iron Pillar Inscription (C.I.I., Vol. III, pp. 141ff.), where the mighty King Candra is said to have in battle in the Vanga countries turned back with his breast the enemies who uniting together came against him.' H. P. Sastri identified this King Candra with King Candravarman of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, and with the king of the same name of Pokhrana, which he located in Marwar 1 For early references to Vanga see Levi, Pre-Aryan et Pre-Dravidian dans l'Inde. 2 It is interesting to see what accounts we may get of the ancient Vanga people out of some records of non-Aryan activities of a time when the Aryans disdained to notice the tribes outside the pale of Aryavarta. For a detailed study vide B. C. Majumdar, History of the Bengali Language, pp. 38-41. Glimpses of the ancient relation of Bengal with the Tamils are reflected in at least one place-name of ancient Bengal Tamralipti, which was once called Damalipti or Damilitti, i.e. the city of the Damala people. The Damalas are the same as the Tamala people or the Tamila; and Bengal must once have been a home of these people. H. P. Sastri, Manasi, Vaisakh, 1321 B.S., pp. 356-8. 3 P. 359 (Trenckner). 4 Mahavamsa, VI, Iff.; Dipavamsa, IX, 2. We may note here that Lala, which is mentioned in this story has been proved by H. C. Ray, in an interesting note, to be identical with Radha (H. C. Ray, 'Lala-A Note', J.A.S.B. (new series), Vol. XVIII, 1922, No. 7).

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266 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA in Rajputana. H.C. Ray Chaudhuri and S. K. Chatterjee, however, identify Pokhrana or Puskarana with a village of the same name on the Damodara river in the Bankura district of Bengal, some 25 miles east of the Susunia Hill on which the record of Candravarman is inscribed. The Vargas are mentioned in Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa, where Raghu is said to have conquered the Vangas after he had finished his task with the Suhmas, and then to have planted his victorious banner in the midstream of the Ganges (Canto IV, 35-6). This passage shows that in the age of Kalidasa (c. 400 A.D.) the Vangas were distinguished. as in earlier days, from the Suhmas. It is likely that the realm of the Vangas abutted on the Ganges, which probably formed the dividing line between the two countries. The Vanga country is also referred to in the Mahakuta Pillar Inscription (Ep. Ind., Vol. V), which tells us that in the sixth century A.D., Kirtivarman of the Calukya dynasty gained victories over the kings of Vanga, Anga and Magadha, which were three neighbouring countries. Another reference to the realm of the Vanga people is made in the 'Gaudavaho', a Marathi Prakrit poem that records the exploits of King Yasovarman of Kanauj (first half of the eighth century A.D). The identity of Yasovarman has been sufficiently established by his mention in Chinese records (as I-chafon-mo), and also in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana; but the exploits recorded in the 'Gaudavaho', with the exception of the main topics, i.e. the defeat and death of the Gauda king, are of doubtful historical value. We are told that Yasovarman, bent on conquest, first came to the river Son, whence he proceeded to the Vindhyas with his army. Fearing his approach, the Gauda king. who was also the king of Magadha, fled, and Yasovarman entered his territory and fixed his camp there. The Gauda king returned, and a battle was fought in which he was killed. Yasovarman next proceeded to the Vanga kingdom, whose king also submitted to him.2 Not long after Yasovarman's victories, Odivisa, Vanga and five other countries of the east (which seem to have included Gauda, Suhma, Pundra, etc.) seem, according to the celebrated Tibetan historian Taranath (Ind. Ant., Vol. IV, pp. 365-6), to have been plunged into a chaos which has been described as "Matsya-nyaya',-i.e. the system where the strong destroy the weak, like the big fish eating up the small frog. This was ended when Gopala, the first of the Pala dynasty, was elected king from amongst the people sometime in the middle of the eighth century A.D. 1 Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., p. 448 (4th Ed.); S. K. Chatterjee, The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, II, p. 1061. See also I.H.Q., I, Pt. II, p. 255. 2 N. Ray, The Maukharis of Kanoj, Cal. Rev., 1928, Feb., pp. 216-7.

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THE VANGAS 267 From the above account we see that the Vanga country seems to have been distinguished from that of the Gaudas in the eighth century A.D.; and this distinction seems to have been maintained as late as the twelfth century A.D. In the Pithapuram plates of Prithvisena (A.D. 1186) King Malla is said to have subdued among others the kings of the Vargas, Magadhas and Gaudas. In the Tirumalai Rock Inscription 1 of King Rajendra Cola (1025 A.D.) Vangaladesam, i.e. the realm of the Vargalas or Vargas (at that time ruled over by Govinda Candra) is distinguished from UttiraLadam or Uttara-Radha (= the Brahma country of the Kavyamimamsa), ruled over by Mahipala, and from Takkana-Ladam or Daksina Radha (= Suhma of the Epics, the Puranas and the Kavyamimamsa), ruled over by Ranasura. The Kavyamimamsa, a work of the tenth century A.D., mentions Anga, Varga, Suhma, Brahma, Pundra, etc., as janapadas of the east. The Vanga country is also referred to not only in the copperplate grant of Vaidyadeva of Kamarupa (twelfth century), who is said to have been victorious in southern Vanga (Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p. 355), but also in the Edilpur plate of Kesavasena, the Madanpada plate of Visvarupasena, and the Sahitya Parishad plate of the same king (Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. III, pp. 119, 133 and 141). It thus appears that from the fall of the later Guptas (eighth century) to the break-up of the Sena dynasty (twelfth century), the more important divisions of Bengal were Vanga, Pundra, Gauda and Suhma (which latter, according to one authority, was identical with Radha-Nilakantha's commentary on the Mahabharata, and, according to another, stood for a portion, i.e. the southern portion of Radha, the northern portion being called Brahma). Other important divisions were Karnasuvarna and Varendra, Tamralipti, Bagdi, Samatata and Harikela (of which the last two were included in or identical with Vanga). Tamralipti was included in Suhma and Varendra in Pundra or Pundravardhana, while Karnasuvarna seems to have stood for some region perhaps identical with some portion of the northern Radha country. Some scholars have identified it with Rangamati in the Murshidabad district. Others think that Karnasuvarna was situated to the west of the Bhagirathi and included Murshidabad, Bankura, Burdwan and Hughli. Bagdi, one of the four divisions of the ancient Bengal, according to Vallalasena (Gopala Bhatta's Vallala-Charitam,-a book of doubtful 1 Ep. Ind., Vol. IX, p. 231. 2 Chaps. 3 and 17. 3 See P. Sen, Some Janapadas of Ancient Raoha, I.H.Q., Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 521-9. 4.J.A.S.B., XXII, p. 281; Kubjika Tantra, Chap. 7. 5 Dey's Geographical Dicty., p. 94.

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268 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA value-Purva-khanda, verses 6 and 7) comprised the delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, and may be identified with what is now known as the 24-parganas and the Sunderbans (C.A.G.I., Ed. Majumdar, pp. 730-1). Samatata, as we have already said, was included in the larger divisions of Vanga. Some scholars are of opinion that it was distinct from Varga, which lay between the Meghna on the east, the sea on the south, and the old Budiganga course of the Ganges on the north. The western boundary of Vanga appears always to have been indefinite (vide Bhattasali, Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, pp. 4-6).1 Samatata is mentioned for the first time in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta as one of the most important among the north-east Indian frontier kingdoms which submitted to the mighty Gupta emperor. It is also mentioned in the Karmavibhaga of the Byhatsamhita (Chap. XIV) as an eastern country, and was visited by the Chinese travellers, Hsuan Tsang, I-tsing and Seng-chi. Hsuan Tsang describes it as 'the country of which the rivers have flat and level banks of equal height on both sides'. According to him, it was much to the south of Kamrupa and east of Tamralipta; it was low, moist and on the sea side. Samatata thus seems to have been identical with the delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra and must have comprised, according to epigraphic evidence, the modern districts of Tipperah, Noakhali, Sylhet (J.A.S.B., 1915, pp. 17, 18), and probably portions of Barisal. That it included "Tipperah is proved also by Nos. 19 and 59 of the Cambridge MSS., Add., 1643, and Foucher, Iconographie Bouddhique, Vol. I; also Bhattasali, op. cit., pp. 12-13. When Hsuan Tsang visited the country (c. 640 A.D.). Samatata was an important kingdom. There were about 30 Buddhist Samgharamas with about 2,000 priests in the country, while the temples of Brahmanical gods were also numerous, and there were also many Jain (Nigantha) ascetics. During the visits of Hsuan Tsang and Seng-chi, Samatata seems to have been under the rule of the Khadga dynasty.3 The Asrafpur copperplates of the Khadgas (Mem., A.S.B., Vol. I, No. 6) were issued from a place called Karmanta, which has been identified with Bad-Mamta, 12 miles west of Comilla. Karmanta has often been identified as the capital of Samatata (Dey, Geog. Dicty., p. 175; Bhattasali, op. cit., p. 6). Later on, 1 Regarding Vanga, Vangala and Samatata, mention may be made here of H. C. Ray Chaudhuri's Bengali article, 'Vanga kon desa' in his Studies in Indian Antiquities, Cal. Univ., pp. 184-192. 2 C.I.I., Vol. III, No. I. 3 Memoirs of A.S.B., Vol. I, No. 6; also Beal, Life of Hiuen Tsang, Introduction, p. xi, No. 40.

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THE VANGAS 269 Samatata came to be ruled over by the Candra dynasty of Vanga (cf. Govindacandra of Vangala desam of the Tirumalai Inscription). The Rampal plate of Sricandradevam (Ep. Ind., Vol. XII, p. 136) informs us that a Candra dynasty held sway over the Rohita hill (identified by Bhattasali with a range of hillocks in the Tipperah district, see Sculptures in the Dacca Museum, pp. 9-10), and appears to have mastered the whole of Vanga including Samatata. Sricandradeva's father Trailokyacandra is described as having been the mainstay of the king of Harikela. The Candras were ousted from their possession of Samatata in the beginning of the eleventh century by the Varmans, who in their turn gave place to the Senas towards the end of the same century. During their rule Vanga was included in the Pundravardhanabhukti. word Ant Bas Took ban oral to or by & mushi il thre 43 JUNE 210 to dong) Paine dead no yuivit baille www D SUDEPAR Bood

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CHAPTER LII THE GAUDAS The earliest literary reference to the country of the Gaudas is made by the celebrated grammarian Panini who seems to locate the country in the east (Panini, VI, ii, 99-100). The country is also referred to in the Arthasastra of Kautilya as well as in the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana (nakhacchedya prakaranam, ii, 13). Varahamihira (sixth century A.D.) probably refers to the Gauda country when he places Gaudaka' in the eastern division of India. But the first epigraphic mention of the tribe is made in the Haraha inscription of A.D. 554 (Ep. Ind., XIV, pp. IIoff.), where King Isanavarman of the Maukhari dynasty claims victories over the Andhras, the Sulikas (prob. = the Calukyas) and the Gaudas, who are described as living on the seashore (Gaudan samudrasrayan). It is difficult to define with any amount of certainty the exact region which the Gaudas occupied at that time. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, however, suggests that their proper realm' was Western Bengal as it bordered on the sea, and included Karnasuvarna and Radhapuri (P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 509). This may find confirmation in the combined testimony of Bana and Hsuan Tsang who state that Sasanka or Karnasuvarna (identified with Rargamati in Murshidabad, W. Bengal) was the Gauda king, the great rival of Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana, the kings of Thanesvar (seventh century). The fight with the Maukharis seems to have brought the Gaudas into the forefront of Eastern Indian politics. At first the GuptaMaukhari struggle effected the serious discomfiture of the Guptas; in fact they were obliged to give up Magadha to their enemies and retire to Malava.1 During the reign of Rajyavardhana of Kanauj, the king of Malava was Devagupta,2 and the king of the Gaudas. was Sasanka who was also the king of Karnasuvarna, according to Hsuan Tsang. Devagupta allied himself with Sasanka, and defeated and killed Grahavarman, the Maukhari king, who had married Rajyasri, sister of Rajyavardhana and Harsavardhana. Rajyavardhana, who came to the rescue of his widowed sister, and succeeded in defeating Devagupta, was treacherously slain I N. Ray, The Maukharis of Kanoj, Cal. Rev., 1928, Feb. 2 Bana's Harsacarita; cf. also the Madhuvan and Banskhera Inscriptions of Harsavardhana.

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THE GAUDAS 271 by the latter's ally, Sasanka, king of Gauda 1 (606 A.D.). Though the murdered king's brother Harsavardhana sought to avenge his death, Sasanka is known to have been still in power as late as the year 619; but his kingdom probably became subject to Harsa at a later date.2 After the death of Sasanka, the Gaudas seem to have faded out of history for a time; but in the first half of the eighth century they again appear on the stage, and a Gauda king is seen to occupy the throne of Magadha. This appears from the Gaudavaho, a Prakrit poem by Vakpatiraja, which records the slaying of the Gauda king, who was also the king of Magadha, by Yasovarman, king of Kanauj. The Gauda country in Vakpatiraja's account is distinguished from the Vanga country. As its king was also the king of Magadha, it may be assumed that it was contiguous with Magadha. The sequel to the story of Yasovarman is given in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana. Yasovarman was defeated in his turn by Lalitaditya, king of Kasmir, who had launched out on a career of conquest. Lalitaditya is also credited by Kalhana with having defeated another Gauda king and compelled the latter to give him his whole elephant force. We are not told who this Gauda king was or which region he ruled over. According to Kalhana, Lalitaditya had the Gauda king killed in spite of a promise given not to harm him and sworn by his favourite god Parihasa Kesava. When the Gaudas heard of this treachery, they at once started for Kasmir, and entering the capital, they threw down the idol of the Ramasvami temple, broke it into pieces and strewed them on the road. While they were thus engaged, the royal army from Srinagar arrived and attacked them. Undaunted, the Gaudas continued in their work of destruction until they were annihilated by the army. Even in the time of Kalhana (twelfth century A.D.) the Ramasvami temple was empty, and the heroism of the Gaudas was sung all over the valley. But it is difficult in the absence of other records to ascertain the elements of historic truth underlying this romantic story, and sober history would hardly agree to recognise it.3 Lalitaditya's grandson Jayapida (close of the eighth century) is also described by Kalhana as having had some relations with the Gaudas. He is said to have once gone to Bengal incognito. 1 V. A. Smith. Early History of India (4th Ed.), p. 350. 2 The Gauda country is referred to in the Apshad Inscription of Adityasena (c. 655 A.D.), where Suksmasiva. the engraver of the inscription, i being a native of the Gauda country. 3 After Yasovarman's defeat Kalhana makes Lalitaditya start on a march of triumphal conquest round the whole of India, which is manifestly legendary (Stein, Chronicles of the Kings of Kasmir, Vol. I, p. 90).

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272 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Having killed a tiger which had become a terror to the city of Paundravardhana, he came to the notice of the king who ruled there, one Jayanta. Jayanta gave him his daughter in marriage, and Jayapida is then said to have subdued five kings of the Gauda country (which probably meant the major portion of the province of Bengal with Monghyr and Bhagalpur of the province of Bihar) on behalf of his father-in-law, and then returned to Kasmir in triumph with his bride. The whole story reads more as fiction than history, and serious criticism has doubted its authenticity. The Gaudas are twice mentioned in Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa, where it is said that they spoke Sanskrit, but could not speak Prakrit well (Chap. X, p. 57; Chap. 7, p. 33). The Pala kings of Bengal are often described as "Lords of Gauda' (Gaudendra or Gaudesvara) as well as 'Vangapati', in the contemporary epigraphic records of the ninth century A.D. Dharmapala and Devapala had often to measure swords with the Gurjara Pratiharas on the one hand and the Rastrakutas on the other. Thus the Radhanpur plates of Rastrakuta Govinda III (Ep. Ind., VI, p. 248) as well as the Wani grant of the same monarch refer to a defeat inflicted by the Rastrakuta king Dhruva upon Vatsaraja, the Gurjara king, who had already defeated the king of Gauda. The Sanjan Copperplate of Amoghavarsa I tells us that Dhruva took away the white umbrellas of the king of Gauda, which were destroyed between the Ganges and the Jumna (Ind. Ant., Vol. XII, p. 159). That Dhruva actually advanced so far is also proved by a verse in the Baroda plates of Kakkaraja. This proves almost conclusively that the kingdom of Gauda in the ninth century stretched at least as far as Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganges; and Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata is stated in the Gwalior Inscription of Bhoja to have defeated the king of Bengal (c. 810 A.D.). The Jodhpur Inscription of Bauka informs us that his father Kakka 'gained renown by fighting with the Gaudas at Madgagiri (or Monghyr)' (Majumdar, Gurjara Pratiharas, p. 60). The Sirur and Nilgund Inscriptions (Ep. Ind., Vol. VI) of Amoghavarsa I (866 A.D.) refer to the Rastrakuta Govinda III, who imprisoned not only the Keralas and Malavas, but also the Gaudas, whose king at that time was Devapala who is described in the Garuda Pillar Inscription of Badal (Ep. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 16off.) as the Lord of Gauda. It was probably during the reign of Devapala's grandson 1 Stein, Chronicles of the Kings of Kasmir, Vol. I, p. 94. But the romantic tale of his visit incognito to the capital of Paundravardhana, then the seat of government of a king named Jayanta, unknown to sober history, seems to be purely imaginary' (Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 387).

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THE GAUDAS 273 Narayanapala that the Rastrakuta king Krishna II inflicted a defeat on the Gaudas. In the Deoli Plates he is said to have taught humility to the Gaudas'. The Gaudas are represented as having been humiliated by Krishna III as well (Karhad Plates of Krishna III, Ep. Ind., IV, p. 287). The Kamarupa copperplate of Vaidyadeva also refers to the Lord of Gauda, evidently meaning the Pala king 1 who appointed Vaidyadeva as ruler (Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p. 348). After the fall of the Palas, the Gauda country seems to have passed into the hands of the Senas. Vijayasena (c. 1060 A.D.), one of the early kings of the Sena dynasty, is described in the Deopara Inscription (Ep. Ind., Vol. I, pp. 305-15) as having defeated Nanya, Vira, and the kings of Gauda, Kamarupa, and Kalinga. The Madhainagar copperplate of Laksmanasena (J.A.S.B., N.S., Vol. V, pp. 467ff.) describes Laksmanasena (early twelfth century) as having suddenly seized the kingdom of Gauda, and raided Kalinga. He is referred to as Gaudesvara, i.e. Lord of Gauda, and his sons Kesavasena and Visvarupasena are also referred to as Lords of Gauda (J.A.S.B., N.S., Vol. X, pp. 99-104). During the rule of the Senas the Gauda country seems to have more than once been attacked. In the Nagpur Stone Inscription of the rulers of Malava (1104-5 A.D.), Laksmadeva, the Paramara king, is said to have defeated the Lord of Gauda-an unhistorical claim, says Kielhorn (Ep. Ind., Vol. II, p. 193). The Pithapuram Inscription of Prithivisvara (Prithivisena) points out that King Malla is credited with having subdued among others the Lord of the. Gaudas.2 The Gaudas at one time or another must have inhabited other countries and localities than the region with which they were primarily associated. The late A. M. T. Jackson pointed out that Thaneswar was called Gula (a corruption of Gauda) in Alberuni's day (J.R.A.S., 1905, pp. 163-4). He was supported by B. C. Majumdar (J.R.A.S., 1906, p. 442), who cites a verse from the Matsyapurana to the effect that Raja Sravasta founded Sravasti in Gaudadesa--the evident conclusion being that 'Gauda must have been lying to the north of Kosala and to the north-west of Mithila'. The reference is supported by similar references in the Kurma and Linga Puranas 3; and R. C. Majumdar 4 was led to conclude that there was more than one Gauda. It is more 1 Kumarapala, acc. to Smith, Early History of India, p. 416 (4th Ed.). 2 See chap. on the Vargas. 3 Matsya P., XII, p. 30; Linga P., I, p. 65; Kurma P., I, 20, 19. 4 Gurjara Pratiharas, p. 34, f.n. 2. 18

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 274 likely, however, that Sravasti which is referred to in the Puranas is the same Sravasti which is mentioned in the Silimpur Inscription of Prahas (Ep. Ind., Vol. XII, pp. 283-95), and which is to be located somewhere in North Bengal, i.e. in the Varendra country of Gauda. Gonda, a subdivision of Uttara Kosala, 42 miles south of the Kosala Sravasti, is, according to Cunningham, a corruption of Gauda. The term Panca Gauda, often used to designate the entire territory of Northern India as far as Kanauj and the river Sarasvati, is however late, and is probably 'reminiscent of the Gauda empire of Dharmapala and Devapala, and cannot be equated with the ancient realm of the Gaudas in the early centuries of the Christian era' (P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 537). The ruins of the ancient city of the Gaudas, which was situated at the junction of the Ganges and the Mahananda, can still be seen near Maldah in North Bengal, at a distance of 10 miles from the town. 1 Cunningham, Anc. Geography, p. 408; Dey's Geographical Dictionary, p. 63. 18B 21 FUN Send 000 21 Kabe ngtons 2 Sted Biar

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CHAPTER LIII THE SUHMAS The land of the Suhmas is mentioned for the first time probably in the Ayaranga-sutta, one of the oldest sacred books of the Jainas. It is stated therein that Mahavira 'travelled in the pathless countries of the Ladhas, in Vajjabhumi and Subbhabhumi', where he was very rudely treated by the people. This Ladha 1 is doubtless identical with what later came to be known as Radha, and Subbhabhumi with the country of the Suhma people. The Suhma country was thus a portion of the more comprehensive region which was later known as Radha. According to the Epics and the Puranas, the Suhma country is distinguished from Vanga and Pundra, the two other important divisions of Bengal. The Epic account of Bhima's eastern conquests makes the country of the Suhmas distinct from Vanga and Tamralipta. In the Dasakumaracaritam (Chap. VI), Damalipti or Tamralipti (mod. Tamluk in Midnapur) is described as having been a city of the Suhmas, while according to the Matsyapurana (Chap. 114) Suhma and Tamralipti were different countries. The Jain Prajnapana includes Tamalitti in Vanga (see chapter on the Vangas). The distinction between Suhma and Vanga (and Pundra) is supported by the Epic and Pauranic tradition, which distinguishes Suhma, one of the eponymous 'Baleya Ksatras', from his brothers Anga, Vanga, Kalinga and Pundra.2 In the Sabhaparvan (Chap. 30, 16) of the Mahabharata, the Pandavas are described as having subdued the Pundras and Vangas, and led their victorious army to Suhma. In Kalidasa's Raghuvamsa also, Suhma is distinguished from the sea coast and the country of the Vargas (Canto IV, 35-6). According to the Pavanaduta of Dhoyika, the Suhma country seems to have been situated on the Ganges (verse 27). In Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa, the Suhma country along with Brahma to the north, Vanga and Pundra, was included in a list of the Janapadas of the east. In the Byhatsamhita it is located between Vanga and Kalinga. According to Epic tradition, Suhma was once conquered by Pandu (Mbh., Adiparvan, Chap. 113), and at another time by Karna (Mbh., Karnaparvan, Chap. 8, 19). It was in Sumbha 1 J.A.S.B. (New Series), Vol. XVIII, 1922, No. 7. 2 See chapter on the Vangas.

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276 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA or Suhma that the Buddha delivered the Janapada-kalyani Sutta, while dwelling in a forest near the town of Desaka 1 (Telapatta Jataka, Jataka No. 96, Vol. I, p. 393). According to Nilakantha's commentary on the Mahabharata, the Suhmas and the Radhas were one and the same people (see Vanga Chap.); but from the Ayaranga-sutta, one may gather that the Suhma country formed a part of the Radha (Ladha) country, the other important part having been called Brahma (cf. Brahmottara of the Puranas and Brahma of the Kavyamimamsa). In the fourth Jain Upanga, called the Prajnapana (or Pannavana), as well as in the fifth Jain Anga, called the Bhagavati, Ladha is described as having been one of the 16 great Janapadas, and one of the Ariya Janapadas of India. But the name Radha is not traceable in the Epics or any other Sanskrit record before the tenth century A.D. The reason for this fact seems to be that in all Sanskrit records of the period including the Great Epic, the names Suhma and Brahma have always been used to denote the Radha country which was almost fully covered by these two Janapadas.'2 By the end of the tenth century A.D. Radha which seems to have comprised the whole of Western Bengal, bounded on the north and east by the Ganges and the Bhagirathi, had come to be divided into two parts: Uttara Radha and Daksina Radha: for Sridhara Bhatta, the author of the philosophical work, Nyayakandali, composed in 991 A.D., is said to have been born in a village called Bhurisrsti in Daksina Radha. Moreover, the Tirumalai Rock Inscription of Rajendra Cola (1025 A.D.) mentions Uttara Radha and Daksina Radha as two distinct Janapadas (see Vanga Chap.); and Uttara Radha is also mentioned in the Belava copperplate of Bhojavarman as well as in the Naihati copperplate of Vallalasena, as a mandala (district) included in the bhukti (limit) of Vardhamana. It is highly probable that the two Janapadas, Brahma and Suhma, of the Epics, the Puranas, the Kavyamimamsa, and other Sanskrit sources are identical with the two divisions of Radha (Uttara and Daksina) alluded to in the Nyayakandali, the Tirumalai Inscription, the Prabodhacandrodava (Canto II), and finally in the Sena records. The Radha country seems to have comprised the modern districts of Hooghly, Howrah, Burdwan, Bankura, and the major portions of Midnapur; Uttara and Daksina Radha being separated by the river Ajaya. 1 Sedaka, acc. to Samyutta Nikaya, V, 89. 2 For a most interesting and original discussion of this subject, see Sen, Some Janapadas of Ancient Radha (I.H.Q., Vol. VIII, No. 3, pp. 521ff.).

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CHAPTER LIV THE PUNDRAS The Pundras seem to have been a very ancient people. They are mentioned in the Aitareya Brahmana (VII, 18), where they are described as outcaste descendants of Visvamitra. Visvamitra, so the story goes, had many sons; but he adopted the Bhargava Sunahsepa, calling him Devarata, and made him the chief of all his sons. But the other sons did not all accept Devarata's headship; and it is said that Visvamitra cursed those who repudiated it to become mlecchas or dog-eaters 1 such as Andhras, Pundras and Sabaras. The Pundras are mentioned in the Sutras as well (cf. Baudhayana, I, 2, 14), and in Manu's Dharmasastra (10, 43-4)here in the form Paundraka. But they are most frequently mentioned in the Puranas and Epics by the name of their originator, Pundra, one of the eponymous Baleya Ksatras'3 (see Vanga Chap.). It is said that Vasudeva defeated the Pundras along with the Angas, Vargas, Kalingas, Kasis, Kosalas, Karusas and others (Mbh., Dronaparvan, XI). Jarasandha, king of Magadha, is referred to in the Harivamsa (Chap. 116) as having once held sway over the Pundras as well as over the Angas, Vangas and Kalingas. In the Ramayana (Kiskindhya Kanda, XLI, 12), Pundra is referred nto as a southern country, but, according to the Puranas and the Mahabharata, the realm of the Pundras seems to have been situated in the eastern division, as they are always associated with the (Vangas, Angas and Kalingas, as also with the Suhmas. This is also supported by Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa, which places the Pundra country in the east along with Pragjyotisa and Tamralipta.4 This determines the correctness of the usually accepted identification of the ancient Pundra country with what later came to be known as Pundravardhana. The Pundras are sometimes referred to as Paundras, Paundrakas (cf. Manusamhita), or even Paundrikas. In the Mahabharata, 1 Mahabharata, XIII, Chap. 3. 2 Cf. also Sankhyayana Sr. Sutra, XV, 26; vide Pargiter, Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, p. 235. 3 Brahma P., Chap. 13, 30-1; Agni P., Chap. 278; Matsya P., Chap. 48, 19; Visnu P., IV, Chap. 18, 1-2; Mh., Adiparvan, Chap. 104; Garuda P., Chap. 143, V.7: Chap. 17.

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278 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA these names are sometimes used as equivalents, but sometimes a distinction is made between the Paundras and Pundras. Pargiter? holds that they were two different tribes occupying two different countries. According to this theory, the Pundras, linked as they were with the Vangas and Kiratas (Sabhaparvan, XIV) and with the Angas and Vangas (Sabhaparvan, IV), occupied some intermediate position between the Angas, the Vangas, and the hilly countries of the Himalayas. Accordingly, the Pundra country should be identified with Maldah, portions of Purnea, east of the Kosi, and parts of Dinajpur and Rajshahi. The Paundras, however, linked as they were with the Udras, Utkalas, Mekalas, Kalingas and Andhras (Bhismaparvan, IX; Dronaparvan, IV), occupied the modern district of Santal Parganas and Birbhum and northern portion of Hazaribagh. But as the enumeration of the countries and peoples in the Epics and Puranas is often loose, the distinction cannot be pushed very far, and in fact it is hardly ever accepted. In later literary and epigraphic records the distinction between Pundra and Paundra is never maintained. According to the Divyavadana (pp. 21-2), Pundravardhana was the eastern boundary of the Middle Country). In the Sumaghadhavadana of the Avadana Kalpalata (Chap. 93, v. 10), Pundravardhana is described as being situated 160 yojanas (or 640 miles) to the east of Sravasti. It is not improbable that Pundravardhana formed a part of the Magadhan empire during the time of the Mauryas. This is suggested by the testimony of Hsuan Tsang, who saw stupas of Asoka near Tamralipta and Karnasuvarna in Samatata, as well as in Pun-na-fa-tan-na (Pundravardhana). Travelling east, Hsuan Tsang 'crossed the Ganges, and after a journey of above 600 li reached the Pun-na-fa-tan-na country. This country was above 4,000 li in circuit and its capital was more than 30 li in circuit. Twenty li to the west of the capital was a magnificent Buddhist establishment, the name of which is given in some texts as Poshih-po. Near it was an Asoka tope at the place where the Buddha had preached for three months'. (Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, 184-5.) On the authority of Hsuan Tsang's description of the Po-shih-po monastery in Pundravardhana, Cunningham identified the capital of Pundravardhana with Mahasthan, saying that the Buddhist remains of Bhasu Vihara, 4 miles to the west of Mahasthan, corresponded with those noted by Hsuan Tsang at 1 Bhismaparvan, IX; Sabhaparvan, LII. 2 J.A.S.B., 1897, p. 85. 3 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Majumdar, Notes, PP. 723-4.

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THE PUNDRAS 279 the Po-shih-po monastery, situated just 4 miles to the west of the capital city of Pundravardhana. This conclusion is confirmed by the mention of 'Pundanagala' (= Pundranagara, the city of the Pundras) in a fragmentary Maurya Brahmi Inscription paleographically dated in the second century B.C., which has been discovered at Mahasthan, 7 miles north of the modern town of Bogra.2 About the second century B.C., then, the Pundras had their chief city at Pundranagara. Not long after, they had spread over a wider area, which came to be known as Punavadhana (= Pundravardhana), for the name Punavadhana occurs in at least two inscriptions (Nos. 102 and 217, Ep. Ind., Vol. II, pp. 108 and 380) of the Sanchi stupa. Its inhabitants, Dhamata (Dharmadatta) and Isinadana (Rsinandana), made gifts of architectural pieces that went to the building up of the Sanchi stupa and its walls and toranas. The Mahasthan fragmentary inscription proves that the district of Bogra was certainly included in what later came to be known as Pundravardhana. That it also included the district of Rajshahi, or at least portions of it, is proved by the recently discovered Paharpur copperplate (478-9 A.D.) which purports to have been issued from Pundravardhana city itself.3 But contemporaneously the term appears as the name of a bhukti or provincial division. Thus, in the Damodarpur (a village in the Dinajpur district) Copperplate Inscriptions (Ep. Ind., XV, pp. 113ff.) of Kumaragupta I (443 and 448 A.D.) and of Budhagupta, the Pundravardhanabhukti is referred to as being governed successively by Ciratadatta, Brahmadatta and Yayadatta, all provincial governors. In all these records, Kotivarsavisaya is recorded as a subdivision of the Pundravardhanabhukti. But naturally enough it is in the epigraphic records of the Palas and Senas of Bengal that the name most frequently occurs. Pundravardhana continued as in the days of the Guptas to be a provincial division of Bengal. Among the Pala records, it is referred to in the Khalimpur grant of Dharmapala, the Nalanda grant of Devapala, the Bangarh grant of Mahipala I, the Amgachi grant of Vigrahapala III and 1 A.S.R., XV, p. 110. 2 This inscription has been edited by D. R. Bhandarkar for the Ep. Ind. Cf. also "Mahasthan and its environs' (monograph No. 2); and also D. R. Bhandarkar's Important Fragmentary Inscription found at Mahasthan (Bogra district) belonging to the Varendra Research Society', published in the Indian Antiquary, September, 1933. 3 In the Sangli copperplates (Saka year 855) of the Rastrakuta king Govinda Suvarna-varsa, Paundravardhananagara is mentioned as the place from which the donee, Kesava Diksita, is said to have come (Ind. Ant., XII, pp. 251ff.).

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280 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA the Manhali grant of Madanapala.1 Among the Sena grants it is referred to in the Barrackpur grant of Vijayasena, the Anulia, the Tarpanadighi, the Madhainagar and the Sunderban copperplates, all of Laksmanasena, the Edilpur copperplate of Kesavasena, the Madanapada and the Sahitya Parishad copperplates of Visvarupasena (for Sena records, see Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. III, Varendra Research Society). During the rule of the Guptas, the Pundravardhanabhukti included as we have seen Kotivarsavisaya, which must have included the whole or a part of Dinajpur. It is certain that by that time (c. 535-720 A.D.) Pundravardhana stood for the greater part of North Bengal, including at least the modern districts of Rajshahi, Bogra, Dinajpur, and portions probably of Maldah and Rungpur. But in the time of the Palas (c. 730-1060 A.D.), the Pundravardhanabhukti must have comprised a larger area, while the Senas must have ruled over a still larger division. We are led to this conclusion by the fact that the records of these two dynasties refer to the following subdivisions as included in the larger division of Pundravardhanabhukti: The Kotivarsavisaya (Dinajpur), the Vyaghratati mandala (Maldah), the Khadivisaya (identical with the Sunderbans and the 24-Parganas), Varendri (roughly identical with Rajshahi, Bogra, Rungpur and Dinajpur), and Vanga (Eastern Bengal, more particularly the Dacca division). That Pundravardhana included Varendri as well as Gauda (Maldah and Dinajpur) is also proved by a reference in Purusottama's lexicon (eleventh century A.D.), where we have 'Pundrah syur Varendri-Gauda-nivrti', i.e. 'the Pundras include the Varendri and Gauda (countries)'. The capital city of the Pundravardhanabhukti is referred to in the Ramacaritam of Sandhyakara Nandi (eleventh century A.D.), as well as in the Karatoya Mahatmyam (sixteenth century A.D.) as Sri Pundravardhanapura, and also as Pundranagara. According to the Ramacaritam (Kaviprasasti, v. I), Sri Pundravardhanapura seems to have been situated in Varendri, for it is there stated that Varendri was the foremost place of the east, and Pundravardhanapura was its 'crest jewel', or the most beautiful ornament. Pundravardhana is also referred to in a picture label of a manuscript of the Pala period now in the Cambridge University Library 2; and the name occurs in the Devi-bhagavata, Padma, Matsya, Brahmanda and Markandeya Puranas, as well as in the Jnanarnava Tantra. According to the Rajatarangini, Paundra 1 For Pala Inscriptions see Gaudalekhamala (in Bengali), Varendra Research Society. 2 Foucher, Iconographie Bouddhique de l'Inde, p. 190.

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THE PUNDRAS 281 vardhana was the seat of government of Jayanta, a vassal chief of the kingdom of Gauda, when Jayapida, king of Kasmir, is said to have visited it in the eighth century A.D.; but Jayanta is not recognised as historical by present-day scholars. Paundrabhukti, a shortened form of Pundra-vardhana-bhukti, is referred to in the Rampal copperplate of Sricandradeya, Belava copperplate of Bhojavarman, and Dhulla plate of Sricandra (for these records see Inscriptions of Bengal, Vol. III). 1 See Gauda chapter; Chronicles of the Kings of Kasmir, pp. 93-4.

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CHAPTER LV THE KIRATAS The Kiratas were a non-Aryan mountain tribe, possessing a rude culture. They are referred to in the Mahabharata (XII, 207, 43) together with the Yaunas or Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, and Barbaras, who all dwelt in the northern region or Uttarapatha; while the Ramayana mentions them along with the Mlecchas, or 'barbarians', another non-Aryan tribe. That the Kiratas were outside the Aryan fold is evident from a passage in the Srimadbhagavatam (II, 4, 18) which states that the Kiratas along with the Hunas, Andhras, Pulindas, Pulkasas, Abhiras, Suhmas, Yavanas, Khasas, and other impure tribes purified themselves by offering their allegiance to Sri-Krsna. The Kiratas are mentioned in the Visnupurana (Wilson's Ed., II, pp. 156-90), in a long list of Indian peoples and countries, where they also seem to have been located in the northern region. That the Kiratas were located in the Uttarapatha seems also to have been attested to by Ptolemy who includes the Kirrhadai (or Kirrhodoeis) among the tribes of Sogdiana (present-day Soghd), which was divided from Baktriana by the river Oxus (see McCrindle, Ancient India, p. 277). Kirrhadia, the country of the Kirrhadai, is mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as lying west from the mouth of the Ganges. This reference seems to suggest that the Kiratas had settlements in the eastern region as well. Ptolemy's Kirrhadoi or Airrhadoi spread widely not only over Gangetic India, but also over countries farther east. The Mahabharata, too, seems to point to a settlement of the Kiratas in Kamarupa; we are told that Bhagadatta, the powerful ruler of Pragjyotisa (= Kamarupa), led a mighty Mleccha army of Kiratas and Cinas in the battle of Kuruksetra. For further remarks on the location of the Kiratas or Kirrhadoi, see Lassen's Indisches Alterthum, Vol. III, pp. 235-7. L. Pliny and Megasthenes also mention the tribe under the name Skyrites. According to Megasthenes, they were a nomadic people'who instead of nostrils have merely orifices'. They were probaly a flat-nosed people of primitive origin dwelling in forests and mountains and living by hunting. Long assures us 1 that there is still a tradition in Tripura, precisely where Ptolemy places his Kirrhadia, that the first name 1 J.A.S.B., XIX, Chronicles of Tripura', p. 536.

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THE KIRATAS 283 of the country was Kirat. The Kiratas had an influential settlement in Nepal, and a Kirata dynasty of kings held the valley in sway in succession to the Abhiras. Sylvain Levi has pointed out that the Nepalese usage still gives the name Kirata to the country between the Dudh-kosi and the Arun, and that there is evidence that the Kiratas once occupied a much more extensive area in Nepal.1 1 Le Nepal, II, PP. 72-8.

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CHAPTER LVI THE PRAGJYOTISAS If the story of Krsna's fight with the demons Muru and Naraka, as told in the Visnupurana, the Mahabharata," and the Harivamsa, can be interpreted as having an ethnological significance, then undoubtedly the Pragjyotisas were a people of non-Aryan extraction. The Epics definitely describe the country of Pragjyotisas as an Asura or Danava kingdom ruled over by the demons, Naraka and Muru, with whom the leaders of Aryanism were in frequent conflict. The Pauranic description of Naraka, the Asura leader. attributes to him immense power and a strength that baffled and perplexed even Indra. The environs of his capital city called Pragjyotisapura were defended by nooses constructed by the demon Muru. Of course, the Aryan leader, Krsna, is described as having got the better of the fight with the demons, which may be interpreted as one of the exploits in the history of the spread of Aryan influence in the east. The Mahabharata in other places 4 refers to Pragjyotisa as a Mleccha kingdom ruled over by a king named Bhagadatta who is always spoken of in respectful and even eulogistic terms. Bhagadatta is styled a Yavana, probably denoting that he did not belong to the Aryan fold." The Udyogaparvan describes him as the son of Naraka, the Pragjyotisa king, and as an ally of Duryodhana. Among his retinues Bhagadatta counted the Cinas (the people of China),' and if the Kalayavana of the Visnupurana refers to the same king, as Wilson seems to think, he also'assembled many myriads of Mlecchas and barbarians' among his followers. The Mahabharata mentions him as a king of boundless might (aparyanta-bala) ruling over (the country of) Muru and Naraka. 1 Wilson's Ed., 5, XXIX, 88ff. 2 Vanaparvan, XII, 488; Udyogaparvan, XLVII, 1887-92. 3 CXXI, 6791-9; CXXII, 6873, etc. 4 Sabhaparvan, XXV, 1000-1; ibid., L, 1834; Udyogaparvan, CLXVI, 5804; Karnaparvan, V, 104-5. 5 Sabhaparvan, XII, 578-80; ibid., L, 1834-6. 6 Chap. IV. 7 Udyogaparvan, XVIII, 584-5. S 8 Wilson's Visnupurana, Bk. V, pp. 54-5. * Sabhaparvan, I, 578-9: Murum ca Narakam caiva sasti yo Yavanadhipah aparyantabala-raja praticyam Varuno yatha. Bhagadatto maharajo Vyddhastavapituh sakha sa vaca pranatastasya karmana ca visesatah.'

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THE PRAGJYOTISAS 285 According to the Mahabharata, Pragjyotisa was situated in the northern region of India; but the Markandeya Purana places it in the eastern region, together with the Brahmottaras (or Suhmottaras), Pravijayas (perhaps Praveseyas), Bhargavas, Jneyamallakas, Madras, Videhas, Tamraliptakas, Mallas and Magadhas; or together with the Candresvaras, Khasas, Magadhas, and Lauhityas.2 The mountainous regions called Antar-giri, Vahirgiri, and Upa-giri in the Mahabharata 3 appear to comprise the lower slopes of the Himalayas and the Nepalese Terai; and it is not unlikely that the Pragjyotisas lived contiguously, as Bhagadatta is called Sailalaya ('one whose abode is in the mountains ').4 According to the Abhidhanacintamani, Pragjyotisa was the same as Kamarupa, though in the Raghuvamsa the Pragjyotisas and Kamarupas are described as two different peoples. Generally speaking, the two countries came in later times to be regarded as one and the same. In the Kalikapurana, for example, the capital of Kamarupa is called Pragjyotisapura, which has been identified with Kamakhya or Gauhati. The Raghuvamsa seems to locate Pragjyotisa beyond the Brahmaputra,? but Kalidasa's knowledge of distant geographical locations is not always satisfactory. For all practical purposes, Pragjyotisa may, therefore, be identified with the whole of Assam proper, along with Northern Bengal as far as Rungpur and Cooch Behar, which is the territory comprised by Kamarupa, according to the Yoginitantra. King Bhagadatta, as we have seen, was a Mleccha, and his people also Mlecchas or Yavanas, i.e. non-Aryans, but the Ramayana ascribes the foundation of the kingdom to Amurtarajas, one of the four great sons of King Kusa-a significant Aryan name. According to the Brahmandapurana and the Ramayana, there seems to have been another Pragjyotisapura on the river Vetravati or Betwa. The later kings of Kamarupa, who claimed to have been descended from the line of Narakasura and Bhagadatta, figured prominently in Indian history. Most important of them was Kumara Bhaskaravarman, an ally of Harsavardhana Siladitya, and referred to both by Bana (in his Harsacarita) and by Hsuan Tsang, the celebrated Chinese pilgrim. 1 Sabhaparvan, XXV, 1000; Vanaparvan, CCLII, 15240-2. 2 Pargiter's Ed., pp. 327-30, 357. 3 Sabhaparvan, XXV, 1000--XXVI, 1012. 4 Striparvan, XXIII, 644. 5 Pragjyotisah Kamarupah, IV, 22. The name Kamarupa seems to have come into use later. 8 Chap. 38. 7 IV, 81. 8 Imp. Gaz. India, XIV, p. 331. o Brahmandapurana, Chap. 27; Ramayana, Kiskindhya Kanda, Chap. 42.

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286 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA King Pralamba of Kamarupa (c. 800-825 A.D.) 1 is described in the Tezpur plates of his grandson as 'Pragjyotisesa', i.e. 'ruler of Pragjyotisa'. His grandson Vanamala claims to belong to the line (anvaya) of the lords of Pragjyotisa, and so also does Balavarman, another king of the same dynasty (c. 975 A.D.). During the earlier half of the eleventh century A.D., the capital city of Pragjyotisa seems to have attained great eminence under the kingship of Ratnapala. In the Bargaon grant of this king, the city is referred to as impregnable, and rendered beautiful by the Lauhitya (= Brahmaputra river?).2 3 The Kamauli grant of Vaidyadeva (c. 1100) refers to the Mandala of Kamarupa and the Visaya of Pragjyotisa, which implies that the latter was the larger administrative division, including Kamarupa. Rajyamati, a daughter of King Harsavarman Pragjyotisa (according to the stray plate of King Harjara), is described as Bhagadattarajakulaja,5 i.e. born of the family of King Bhagadatta. 1 J.A.S.B., 1840, IX, 2, pp. 766ff. 2 Ibid., 1898, LXVII, pp. 115-8. 3 Ep. Ind., XII, pp. 37ff. 4 I.H.Q., Dec. 1927, p. 841, f.n. 1. 5 Ind. Ant., 1880, IX, p. 179; J.R.A.S., 1898, pp. 384-5. 506 100 sus minglig Hols gur Hou mond avad I barel most Folvesk GAME FRAME 2 vd died Barnsley GOR batradalen oft z

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CHAPTER LVII THE BULIS--THE KOLIYAS_THE MORIYAS THE BHAGGAS--THE KALAMAS We may group together a number of lesser tribes which are occasionally referred to in the Buddhist texts, particularly in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta. They may be enumerated as follows: (1) The Bulis of Allakappa. (2) The Koliyas of Devadaha and Ramagama. (3) The Moriyas of Pipphalivana. (4) The Bhaggas of Sumsumara Hill. (5) The Kalamas of Kesaputta." These five clans or tribes are mere passing shadows in the early Buddhist records, there being scarcely any data for an historical account of them. The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta mentions the Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyas of Ramagama and the Moriyas of Pipphalivana, along with the Licchavis of Vesali, the Sakyas of Kapilavatthu and others, as so many distinct clans or corporations, all of whom claimed shares of the bodily remains of the Buddha Gautama on the ground that, like the deceased master, they were of the Ksatriya caste.2 The claimants are said to have obtained their respective shares of relics, which they enshrined with customary ceremonies. The Bulis of Allakappa and the Koliyas of Ramagama had the good fortune to obtain one share each of the bodily remains, while the Moriyas of Pipphalivana had to be satisfied with a share of the ashes, as they were rather late in sending their messenger to Kusinara. One of their descendants (or at least a namesake of theirs) a Moriya of Pataliputra--was more fortunate. The es xisting Buddhist traditions all agree on the fact of the redistribution of the relics of the Buddha (with the exception of those enshrined at Ramagama by the Koliyas) in the time of King Asoka Moriya (Maurya). The legend from the Asokavadana, as summarised by the late Dr. Vincent Smith, is as follows: 'When King Asoka desired to distribute the sacred relics of the body of Buddha among the eighty-four thousand stupas erected by himself, he opened the stupa of the Urn, wherein King Ajatasatru had enshrined the 1 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 22. 2 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 164ff., Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 132.

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288 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA cremation relics collected from seven of the eight original stupas. The eighth, that at Ramagama, was defended by the guardian Nagas, who would not allow it to be opened. The relics thus withdrawn from the stupa of the Urn were distributed among eighty-four thousand stupas, "resplendent as the autumn clouds" which were erected in a single day by the descendant of the Mauryas.'1 A similar legend can be gathered from the Sinhalese chronicles and other late Pali works, particularly Buddhaghosa's commentary on the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta; while the epilogues attached to the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta and the Buddhavamsa indicate that the sacred relics of the Buddha's body were, after their re-distribution, enshrined all over Northern India from Gandhara to Kalinga. The Mahavamsa Commentary + furnishes us with some interesting information about the origin of the Moriyas of Pipphalivana and their connection with the Maurya rulers of Magadha. We are told that there are two theories about the derivation of the name Moriya. According to one theory, the name is derived from 'modiya', meaning pleasing or delightful; the Moriyas were a people who lived in a delightful land. According to the other, the name is connected with 'mora', peacock, and the people came to be known as Moriyas from the fact that the place where they founded their city always resounded with the cries of peacocks. Further, the city which they founded had buildings of blue stone, like the neck of the peacock. It is said that the Moriyas were originally Sakyan princes of Kapilavatthu, who escaped to the Himalaya regions to save themselves from the attacks of Vidudabha, the ambitious and cruel usurper of the throne of Kosala, and established a city there, building it around a lake in a forest tract abounding in peepul trees. When the Moriyas are introduced to us in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta, they are contemporaries and powerful rivals of the Sakyas of Kapilavastu. Vidudabha's invasion of Kapilavastu and the carnage committed upon its citizens took place, if the tradition is to be believed, shortly before the demise of the Buddha. There may be some truth in the suggestion that the Moriyas were in some way connected with the sakyas of Kapilavastu, and with the advance of ethnological researches it may be found that the matri 1 Vincent Smith, Asoka, 2nd Ed., pp. 251-2. 2 Sumangalavilasini, Burmese edition, Pt. II, pp. 183ff.; P.T.S. Ed., II, 60gff. 8 Digha Nikaya, II, p. 167; The Buddhavamsa and the Cariyapitaka, J.P.T.S., 1882, p. 68; The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, Pt. III, translated by B. C. Law, p. 87. 4 Mahavamsa Tika (Sinhalese edition), pp. 119ff.

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THE BULIS-THE KOLIYAS, ETC. 289 monial alliance of the Sakyas with the neighbouring hill peoples brought some new tribes into existence. Moreover, the Mahavamsa Commentary traces the origin of the Maurya rulers of Magadha to the Moriyas of Pipphalivana. According to this account, Candragupta, the founder of the Maurya dynasty, was born of the chief queen of the Moriyan king of Pipphalivana. This conflicts with the evidence of Visakhadatta's Mudraraksasa, where Candragupta is represented as a Vrsala,1 a person of low birth, an illegitimate son of the last Nanda king by a Sudra woman named Mura. How far Visakhadatta's account represents the true state of things is a controversial point. But there are many instances of a misconception of history resulting from a conjectural etymology of personal and dynastic names. It appears, however, that the royal family of the Nandas was connected by matrimonial alliance with the Moriyas of Pipphalivana; and Asoka's mother, Dhamma, was also a Moriyan princess.2 As regards the Kalamas of Kesaputta, our information is very meagre. There is a bare mention of them in the Nikayas, but no doubt they existed at the time of the Buddha as a distinct tribe or clan. Their home was probably in a mountain fastness, not far from the upper Gangetic valley. The etymology of the name 'Kesaputta' indicates that the tribe traced its descent from the Kesins, a tribe connected with the Pancalas.3 Among members of the Kalama clan specially mentioned by name are Bharandu-Kalama, who was once a co-disciple of the Buddha (as Bodhisattva), and Alara-Kalama, a renowned religious teacher, who is mentioned frequently in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta 5 and in other Buddhist texts, ancient and modern. One caravan merchant named Pukkusa, a young Mallian, was a disciple of Alara-Kalama. Pukkusa laid much emphasis on the spiritual attainments of Kalama. He said that his preceptor's ecstatic trance was so very deep and profound that a long train of heavily laden carts passed by him without his perceiving them." The Buddhist texts represent the Kalamas as worshippers of the Buddha Gautama, who was a disciple of Alara-Kalama, before his enlightenment." The Buddha preached a famous sermon when on a visit to Kesaputta.8 Little is known of the Bulis, apart from the fact that they claimed and obtained one-eighth share of the Buddha's relics and 1 Act III, pp. 134-6, 141-3, etc. 2 Vamsatthappakasini (Mahavamsa Tika), P.T.S., 189. 3 Vedic Index, Vol. 1, p. 468. 4 Anguttara Nikaya, I, 277 f. 5 Digha Nikaya, II, pp. 130-1. 6 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 76. 7 Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 18. 8 Anguttara Nikaya, I, 188 f. 39

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290 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA raised a stupa over them in their city of Allakappa.1 Their territory was probably near Vethadipa, for the king of Allakappa is mentioned 2 as being in intimate relationship with the king of Vethadipa. The Koliyas were one of the republican clans in the time of the Buddha, and owned two chief settlements--one at Ramagama and the other at Devadaha. The commentaries contain accounts of the origin of the Koliyas. For instance, the Sumangalavilasinis states that the eldest of the five daughters of Okkaka contracted leprosy (kuttharoga). Her four brothers, being afraid of infection, took her to a forest and there confined her in an underground chamber. Rama, king of Benares, contracted the same complaint at this time, entered the forest, and cured himself by eating wild fruits and leaves. Hearing the voice of a woman one night, he discovered the princess in her underground chamber. He cured her by means of the fruits and leaves which had cured him, and then married her. He built a town in the forest. removing a big Kola tree in order to do so. Inasmuch as the town was built on the site of the Kola tree, it came to be called Kolanagara, and the king's descendants were known as Koliyas. We find a variant of the story in the Mahavastu, 4 which tells us that the daughter of a certain Sakya noble was attacked with leprosy. The physicians failed to cure her; sores appeared all over her body, and the people began to hate her. She was taken by her brothers in a palanquin to a spot close to the Himalayas. They dug out a subterranean room, and she was left there with plenty of food and water. They blocked up the entrance to the cave with planks, and put a large heap of dust in front of it, and then returned to Kapilavastu. After living in the stuffy room for some time, she resumed her former beauty, for the heat had cured her of leprosy. Now, not far from the cave lived a royal sage named Kola. While wandering about in the vicinity of his hermitage, Kola came to the cave where the Sakya girl lived, and saw a tiger scratching up the heap of dust with its feet. His curiosity was aroused; the sage drove away the tiger, removed the planks, and opened the door of the cave, revealing the Sakya girl. Seeing her exquisite beauty, the sage became very much attached to her, and took her along to his hermitage. Sixteen pairs of twin sons were born to the couple. When these sons were grown up, they were sent to Kapilavastu by their mother, who told them 1 Digha Nikaya, II, p. 67. 2 Dhammapada Comm., I, I61. 3 Pt. I, pp. 260-2. 4 Vol. I, pp. 352-5. 5 A variant of Rama; Kola also is stated to have been a king of Benares. tov

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THE BULIS-THE KOLIYAS, ETC. 291 that they would there be provided for by their uncles, who were Sakya nobles. She trained them in the manners of the Sakyas, and they were then allowed to set out. They saluted their parents and went to Kapilavastu. On arriving, the sons of the sage, surrounded by a vast crowd, went to the assembly hall of the Sakyas, where five hundred sakyas were assembled and transacting business. They approached the assembly in the way their mother had taught them. The Sakya assembly was astounded to see the Sakya manners in them, and asked them whence they came. They answered as they had been instructed, 'We are sons of Kola, the royal sage, who has his hermitage somewhere at the foot of the Himalayas. Our mother is the daughter of a certain sakya.' Hearing this, the Sakyas were pleased to learn that the youths were born of the royal sage, and not of some one of inferior rank. Recognising them as Sakyas, they said, 'Let them be given Sakya girls and appointments.' They were given Sakya brides, cultivable lands, and villages. As the princes were sons of the sage Kola, they were known as Koliyas. It is stated in the Introduction to the Kunala Jataka 1 that the Koliyas used to dwell in the Kola tree. Hence they came to be called 'Koliyas' or dwellers in Kola (jujube) trees. When the sakyas wished to abuse the Koliyas, they said that the latter had once 'lived like brute beasts in a hollow Kola tree'. The territories of the Sakyas and Koliyas were adjacent, being separated by the river Rohini. A bitter quarrel once arose between the two tribes regarding the right to the waters of the river which irrigated the land on both sides. Incensed by insulting remarks as to their respective origins, the two tribes got themselves ready for battle, and sallied forth at eventide. Now at this time, so the story goes, the Buddha came to the spot from Savatthi, and sat cross-legged in the air between the two hosts. The Sakyas recognised him and at once threw down their arms with the words, 'Let the Koliyas slay us or roast us alive.' The Koliyas, on seeing the Buddha, acted in the same way. The Lord instructed them, quelled the feud and brought about a reunion. In gratitude, each tribe dedicated some of its young men to the membership of the Order, and during the Buddha's stay in the neighbourhood, he lived alternately in Kapilavastu and in Koliyanagara.2 1 Jataka, Fausboll, V, p. 413. 2 For details of the quarrel and its results, see Jataka, V, 412ff.; Dhammapada Comm., III, 254ff.; Sumangalavilasini, II, 672ff. A variant of the river-motif runs as follows: 'When the female slaves of the Sakyas and Koliyas came to the river to fetch water, and throwing the coils of cloth that they carried on their heads upon the ground, were seated and pleasantly conversing, a certain woman

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Mahavastu tells us that there was a Koliya prince who aspired to rival the Buddha in the art of arrow-shooting, but he, together with others, was defeated.1 292 In the Udana we read of Suppavasa, daughter of the king of the Koliyas (Koliyadhita'), who was helped by the Buddha when she was suffering, and who, after a healthy son had been born to her, entertained the Buddha and Sariputta at her house.2 It is stated in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta that the inhabitants of Ramagama belonged to the serpent race.3 According to Cunningham, Ramagama (Ramagrama) is identical with Deokali; some scholars hold that the Koliyas of Ramagama originally came from the same ethnic group as the Koliyas of Devadaha. There are no historical data for ascertaining the political relations of the Koliyas of Ramagama and the Sakyas. Several other townships of the Koliyas, visited by the Buddha or by his disciples, are mentioned in literature; e.g. Uttara, the residence of the headman Pataliya; Sajjanela, residence of Suppavasa; Sapuga, where Ananda once stayed 7; Kakkarapatta, where Dighajanu lived 8; and Haliddavasana, residence of the ascetics Punna Koliyaputta and Seniya." od The Bhaggas (or Skt. Bhargas) were a republican tribe of Northern India in the Buddha's time (sixth century B.C.). They are mentioned not only in Buddhist works, but also in Sanskrit works of the Brahmana and Epic periods. The earliest mention of the Bhargas is made in the Aitareya Brahmana (VIII, 28) where reference is made to a Bhargayana prince named Kairisi Sutvan. They are also referred to by Panini in his Astadhyayi (IV, i, 178), where they are associated with the Yaudheyas (na pracya Bhargadi Yaudheyadibhyah'). In the Bhismaparvan 10 of the Mahabharata, mention is made of the Bhargas along with other tribes, e.g. the Andhras, Kiratas, Kosalas, Gandharas, Sauviras, Sindhus, etc. In both the Mahabharata proper 11 and the Harivamsa,12 the took another's cloth, thinking that it was her own; and when owing to this a quarrel arose, each claiming the coil of cloth as hers, gradually the people of the two cities, the serfs and the labourers, the attendants, herdsmen, councillors and viceroys, all of them sallied forth ready for battle. 1 Mahavastu, ed. Senart, II, pp. 76-7. 2 Udana, P.T.S., pp. 15-18. 3 Digha Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. II, p. 167. 4 Anc. Geography of India, p. 423. 6 Anguttara Nikaya, II, 62. 9 Majjhima Nikaya, I, 387; see also Samyutta Nikaya, V, 115. 10 Chap. 9, p. 822. 11 Vatsabhuminca Kaunteyo vijigye balavan balat Bharganamadhipancaiva Nisadadhipatim tatha.-Mbh., II, 30, 10, II. 12 29, 73 5 Samyutta Nikaya, IV, 340. 7 Ibid., 194. 8 Ibid., IV, 281.

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THE BULIS--THE KOLIYAS, ETC. 293 Bhargas are associated with the Vatsas, as well as with the Nisadas (II, 30, 10-11). The Harivamsa tradition describes the Bharga and the Vatsa as the two sons of Pratardana. Attention may also be drawn here to the mention of a people called 'Bhargavas' in the Puranas, e.g. in the Markandeya Purana (LVII, 43). The Bhargavas are also mentioned in the Bhismaparvan (IX, 358) where the Bhargas also find mention (cf. Pargiter, Mark. P., pp. 310 note and 327-8, note). It is likely that the Bhaggas, Bhargas and Bhargavas are one and the same people. The epic tradition of the close association of the Bhargas with the Vatsas is corroborated by the Buddhist tradition as recorded in the Jatakas. The Dhonasakha Jataka (No. 353) states that Prince Bodhi, son of Udayana, king of the Vatsas, had his dwellingplace on the Sumsumara Hill, where he built a palace called Kokanada. It seems that in Udayana's time (i.e. the sixth century B.C.), the Bhagga State was under the suzerainty of the Vatsa king: The Bhaggas of the Sumsumara Hill are casually referred to in some suttas of the Majjhima and Samyutta Nikayas. There is no doubt that the Sumsumara Hill, their capital, was used as a fort. It was situated in a deer park at Bhesakalavana. In the lifetime of the Buddha, Prince Bodhi, son of Udena (Udayana), ruled over the Bhaggas, apparently as his father's Viceroy. He became a follower of the Buddha.2 When the Buddha was amongst the Bhaggas, the householder Nakulapita came to him and asked for instruction, afterwards becoming one of the devotees of the Master at Bhesakalavana.3 The Bhagga country lay between Vesali and Savatthi. In the Apadana,5 the Bhaggas are mentioned with the Karusas. The social customs, religious beliefs, laws and administrative systems of these minor clans were in all likelihood the same as, or similar to, those of the more important tribes dealt with in other chapters. 1 Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. I, pp. 332-8; Vol. II, Pt. I, pp. 9I-7; Samyutta Nikaya, Pt. III, pp. 1-5; Pt. IV, p. 116. z Bodhirajakumara Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. II, p. 91; Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. III, p. 157. 3 Samyutta Nikaya, Pt. III, pp. 1-5. 4 Malalasekera, Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, s.v. Bhagga. The Cambridge History of India (I, 175) says that the Bhaggas were members of the Vajjian confederacy. 5 II, 359. Other references to the clan are: Anguttara Nikaya, II, 61; IV, 85, etc.; Vinaya Pitaka, II, 127; IV, 115, 198; V, 145; Theragatha Comm., I, 70. See also B. C. Law, Countries and Peoples of India (Epic and Pauranic sources), A.B.O.R.I., Vol. XVII, Pt. III, April, 1936.

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CHAPTER LVIII THE LICCHAVIS Name and Origin The Licchavis were a great and powerful people of Eastern India in the sixth century B.C. Their peculiar form of government, their free institutions, their manners and customs, their religious views and practices afford us glimpses of India of the transition period, when the ancient Vedic culture was developing in new directions, and undergoing a transformation under the influence of the speculative activity out of which emerged the two great religions of Jainism and Buddhism. Fortunately for us, Buddhist literature, and to a lesser extent the Jaina sacred books, have preserved for us facts and comments, which, though fragmentary, are yet sufficient to give us a living picture of this interesting people. From the account of their political institutions that can be gleaned from the Pali Buddhist Canon, we obtain an insight into the democratic ideas of statecraft and government that prevailed among the majority of the Aryan clans that peopled Northern India before the imperialistic policy grew and developed. In Indian literature we find the name of this people in slightly varying forms-Licchavi, Licchivi, Lecchavi, Lecchai and so on. Throughout the Pali Canon, the name occurs in the form 'Licchavi'. In some of the Buddhist Sanskrit texts, e.g. the Divyavadana,1 the name is found in this form, but in others, e.g. the Mahavastu, the usual form is Lecchavi.2 In the Chinese translations of the Buddhist sacred books, the name occurs in both forms, Licchavi and Lecchavi, as is to be expected, since these translations are based on the Buddhist Sanskrit texts. The Mahavastu form Lecchavi answers very well to the Prakrit form Lecchai, which we find in another set of works claiming to be contemporaneous in origin with the Buddhist Canon, namely, the Jaina sacred literature which, according to some scholars, began to be composed perhaps by the direct disciples of Mahavira in the first century after his death, or at the latest in the next century, by the time 312 dis HE TVI 1 Divyavadana, ed. E. B. Cowell and R. A. Neil, pp. 55-6, 136. 2 Mahavastu, ed. E. Senart, Vol. I, p. 254, etc. 3 T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 77.

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THE LICCHAVIS 295 of Candragupta Maurya, when the first Council of the Jains was held at Pataliputra. In the Sutrakytanga, one of the earliest works of the Jaina sacred literature, we meet with the name Lecchai, and the same form occurs in the Kalpasutra attributed to Bhadrabahu, who is considered to have been a contemporary of Candragupta (c. 321-297 B.C., according to Rapson, Ancient India, p. 182). The Jain commentators equate the Prakrit Lecchai with Sanskrit Lecchaki. In the form Lecchaki, however, the name never occurs in Sanskrit literature, in which the earliest mention of the tribe, so far as we have been able to ascertain, is in Kautilya's Arthasastra, where they are called Licchivis. Here we read that the corporations of Licchivi, Vrji, Malla, Madra, Kukura, Kuru, Pancala and others were 'rajasabdopajivinah', i.e. enjoyed the status of rajas or kings. We next find the Licchavis mentioned in the Manava Dharmasastra (X, 22). Here there are some variae lectiones; the anonymous Kashmirian comment on the text reads Lichavi which approximates very closely to the Buddhistic form. Medhatithi and Govindaraja, the two earliest commentators, read Licchivi, and this reading tallies exactly with the name as given by Kautilya; this form, therefore, represents the earliest spelling of the word in the Brahmanic Sanskrit literature. Kulluka Bhatta, the Bengali commentator, however, reads Nicchivi, and Raghavananda, another 1 M. Winternitz, Geschichte der Indischen Litteratur, II, p. 295. 2 Kalpasutra, paragraph 128. Sirikalpasutram, Bhavnagar edition, p. 192; see also Jaina Sutras by H. Jacobi, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. 266, f.n. I; Vol. XIV, part II, p. 321, f.n. 3. 3 Jaina Sutras. Jacobi, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, part I, p. 266, f.n. 1. 4 See Kautilya's Arthasastra, translated by R. Shama Shastri, p. 455. The Sanskrit text has: "Licchivika-Vrjika-Mallaka-Madraka-Kukura-Kuru-Pancaladayo rajasabdo pajivinah.' The 'ka' at the end of Licchivi, etc., is adjectival. It will be noted that Kautilya distinguishes the Licchivis from the Vrjis. Regarding this H. Panday (Notes on the Vajji country and the Mallas of Pava', J.B.O.R.S., Vol. VI, pt. II, June 1920, pp. 259 et seq.) says that it appears from the Pali Suttas that the names Vajji and Licchavi are interchangeable to some extent. The accounts of Chinese pilgrims, however, point to a different conclusion. Fa-Hien calls the country of which Vaisali was the capital, 'the kingdom of Vaisali', and the people of the country, 'Licchavis'. He does not mention Vrji or Vajji. Hsuan Tsang describes Vaisali and Vrji as two distinct countries, and Watters is inclined to doubt the accuracy of his description of the Vrji country. Ray Chaudhuri reconciles the evidence of the Pali literature with that of Kautilya and Hsuan Tsang, saying: 'Vajji was not only the name of the confederacy but also of one of the constituent clans. But the Vajjis like the Licchavis are sometimes associated with the city of Vesali which was not only the capital of the Licchavi clan, but also the metropolis of the entire confederacy.'-(Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 101.)

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296 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA commentator, follows him in this as in other matters; and the ordinary printed editions of the Manusamhita have generally adopted this reading. Both Jolly and Buhler have accepted the form Licchivi, but Jolly cites two MSS. and five printed editions with the form Nicchivi'. Kulluka, who probably wrote in the fifteenth century, i.e. about 600 years later than Medhatithi, and about 300 years later than Govindaraja, was probably misled by the similarity of the letters 'N' and 'L' as they were written in Bengali in the fifteenth century, and as they are still written even in modern Bengali manuscripts. The Sanskrit inscriptions of the early Gupta emperors favour the form 'Licchavi'. In the Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, that monarch is described as "Licchavidauhitra', 'the son of the daughter of the Licchavis',3 so we have here the same form as in the Pali Buddhist works. The same form occurs in many other inscriptions of the Guptas, for example, in the Mathura Stone Inscription of Candragupta II,4 the Bilsad Stone Pillar Inscription of Kumara Gupta of the year 965 and the Bihar Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta. On the other hand, the variant Licchivi occurs in the Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta? and the Gaya Copperplate Inscription of Samudragupta 8 (which is considered to be spurious). Some coins of Candragupta I bear the name Licchavi. Moreover, in the inscriptions of the Nepal kings, who claim to be descended from the family of the Licchavis, the expression used is always Licchavikula-ketu, 'the banner (or glory) of the Licchavi family! We have seen that in the Chinese translations which are based on Sanskrit Buddhist texts, the form is Licchavi or Lecchavi; Fa-Hien speaks of them as Licchavis, 10 while in Hsuan Tsang (Beal's Records of the Western World) the form is Li-ch'e p'o, which would correspond to the form Licchavi.11 The Tibetans, who began to have 1 For the various readings see Manava Dharmasastra, ed. J. Jolly, p. 325. See also Laws of Manu, Buhler, S.B.E., Vol. XXV, p. 406, n. 2 R. D. Banerjee, The Origin of the Bengali Script. Cal. Univ., 1919, p. 04, pp. 108-9. It is clear, however, that the form Nicchivi is a very old reading, as it occurs in the Sinhalese Atthakatha, which forms the basis of Buddhaghosas story. 3 Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, ed. J. F. Fleet-Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. III, p. 8. 4 Ibid., p. 27. 5 Ibid., p. 43. 6 Ibid., p. 50. 7 Ibid., p. 53. 8 Ibid., p. 256. 9 Ibid., p. 177 f.n.; Indian Antiquary, Vol. IX, pp. 168ff. 10 Legge, Fa-Hien, pp. 71, 76. 11 Buddhist Records of the Western World, by S. Beal, Vol. II, p. 73.

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THE LICCHAVISTAR 297 the Buddhist books translated into their own language from the eighth century A.D., also have the form Licchavi.1 There is clear evidence in the Buddhist literature to show that the Licchavis belonged to the Aryan ruling caste--the Ksatriya. In the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta we read that after the decease of the Buddha, the Licchavis claimed a share of the remnants of his body. They sent a messenger to the Mallas of Kusinara, where he had died, saying: The Exalted One was a Ksatriya and so are we. We are worthy to receive a portion of the relics of the Exalted One.' 2 Here we see that the claim of the Licchavis was based on the fact that they were Ksatriyas or people of the same caste as the Buddha. " Moreover, we are told that a Licchavi named Mahali says, 'I am a Khattiya (Ksatriya), so is the Buddha's; while in the introduction to the Sigala Jataka we read of a Licchavi girl, 'the daughter of a Ksatriya and high-born'. Dr. Richard Fick in his work, The Social Organisation in North-East India in Buddha's Time, is rather sceptical as to whether the word Ksatriya as used in the Pali texts has exactly the same connotation as in the ancient Brahmanical literature; but Professor Oldenberg observes that there is no ground for this scepticism. That the Licchavis were Ksatriyas appears also from the Jaina sacred literature. Just as the Licchavis of Vaisali honoured the Buddha at his death by erecting a noble monument (stupa) over their share of the remnants of his body, so they had, before this, done honour to the memory of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism. The Kalpasutra narrates: 'In that night in which the venerable ascetic Mahavira died...., the eighteen confederate kings of Kasi and Kosala, the nine Mallakis and nine Licchavis, on the day of new moon, instituted an illumination on the Poshadha, which was a fasting day....' The Jaina works further tell us, as Professor Jacobi points out, that these nine Licchavis were tributary to Cetaka, king of Vaisali and maternal uncle of Mahavira," who was 1 Tibetan Dulva, quoted by Rockhill in his Life of the Buddha (pp. 97 et seq.); Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien, translated into German by Anton Schiefner, pp. 9, 41, 146. 2 Digha Nikaya, P.T.S., Vol. II, pp. 164 et seq. Trsl. Prof. and Mrs. Rhys Davids, in Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. III, p. 187. 3 Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I, P.T.S., p. 312. 4 Jataka, ed. V. Fausboll, Vol. II, P. 5. 5 Prof. H. Oldenberg, On the History of the Indian Caste System, Z.D.M.G., Vol. LI; translated into English by Prof. H. C. Chakladar, Ind. Ant., Vol. XLIX, December, 1920, p. 227. 6 Kalpasutra, paragraph 128, trsl. Prof. H. Jacobi, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. 266. 7 Jacobi, op. cit., note 1, p. 266.

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298 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA a Jnatri Ksatriya of the Kasyapa gotra, as we read in the Kalpasutra. There are reasons to believe that Mahavira was a native of a suburb of Vaisali. That the Licchavis were looked upon as persons of high pedigree appears from a passage in another Jaina work, the Sutrakytanga, where we read of the 'renowned gotra' (family) of the Licchavis. The Licchavis were Ksatriyas of the Vasistha gotra, and were addressed as 'Vasisthas' by the Buddha (Mahavastu-Avadana, ed. Senart, Vol. I, p. 283, and elsewhere) and by Maudgalayana, one of the pillars of the Buddhist Church (Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 97ff.). Further, the Jaina sacred works state that the Ksatriyani Trisala, mother of Mahavira, and sister of Cetaka, one of the kings of Vaisali, belonged to the Vasistha gotra. In the Nepal Vamsavali, the Licchavis are allotted to the Suryavamsa or solar race of the Ksatriyas. This is quite in agreement with the fact elicited from the Buddhist records that they were Vasisthas by gotra, for we know from the Aitareya Brahmana that the gotra or pravara (family) of a Ksatriya is the same as that of his purohita or family priest.5 Sir R. G. Bhandarkar also points out that the gotra of a Brahmana 'could be assumed for sacrificial purposes by a Ksatriya, for, according to Asvalayana (Sr. S., XII, 15), the gotra and the ancestors of the Ksatriyas invoked are those of their priests or chaplains, and the only Rsi ancestors that all the Ksatriyas have, are Manava, Aila and Paururavasa. The names of these do not distinguish one Ksatriya family from another, and to answer the purposes of such a distinction, the gotra and ancestors of the priest are assumed ' The Vasistha gotra was, therefore, the gotra of their family priest, and we know that the Vasisthas were the family priests of the kings of the solar race, especially of the Iksvakus. In this connection it is interesting to note Prof. Jacobi's observation: 'According to the Jainas, the Licchavis and Mallakis? were the chiefs of Kasi and Kosala. They seem to have succeeded the Aiksvakas who ruled there in the times 1 Kalpasutra, pp. x-xii. 2 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, Part II, S.B.E., Vol. XLV, p. 321. 3 S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. xii. See Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. 193 (Ayaranga-sutra, 11.15.15). - 4 Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXVII, p. 79. Aitareya Brahmana, Ch. 34, Kanda 7, verse 25. 6 Sir R. G. Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism. and minor Religious Systems, p. 12. 7 The kinship of Licchavis and Mallas is confirmed by the Mahaparinioana Suttanta (Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, pp. 121-2), and the Sangiti s a the Digha Nikaya (Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. III, p. 202), where the Mark likewise addressed as Vasetthas' (=Vasisthas).

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THE LICCHAVIS 299 of the Ramayana.'1 The Ramayana tells us that the city of Vaisali was founded by Visala, a son of Iksvaku and the heavenly nymph Alamvusa,while the Visnupurana substitutes Trnabindu, a later member of the Iksvaku family, as the father of the eponymous hero who founded the city. This shows that the ruling family of Vaisali was traditionally believed to have been descended from the Iksvakus. The Licchavis were also associated with the Sakyas. We read in the Karma-Sataka : that Prabodha, king of the Vrjis, gave away his two daughters, Maya and Mahamaya, as brides to Suddhodana, son of Simhahanu, and father of the Buddha. Rockhill in his Life of the Buddha (derived from Tibetan works) speaks of a tradition, according to which the Sakyas and the Licchavis were branches of the same people. 4 We now come to the mythical account of the origin of the Licchavis, which can be gathered from Buddhaghosa's Paramatthajotika on the Khuddakapatha. It came to pass that the chief queen of the king of Benares was with child. When her time came, she was delivered, not of a child, but of a lump of flesh, 'of the colour of lac and of bandhu and jivaka flowers'. Fearing the displeasure of the king if he should hear of this, the other queens put the lump of flesh into a casket marked with the royal seal and placed it on the flowing waters of the Ganges. However, a certain god, wishing to provide for its safety, wrote with a piece of cinnabar on a slip of gold the words 'The child of the chief queen of the King of Benares', tied it to the casket, and replaced it in the river. The casket was discovered by an ascetic, and taken by him to his hermitage, where he cared for the lump of flesh. After the lapse of some time, the lump broke up into two pieces of flesh, which gradually assumed shape, till finally one of them became a boy resplendent like gold, and the other a girl. Whatever entered the stomach of these two infants looked as if put into a vessel of precious transparent stone (mani), so that they seemed to have no skin (nicchavi). Others said: The two were attached to each other by their skin (lina-chavi) as if they had been sewn together'; so that these infants came to be designated 'Licchavis'. The ascetic, having to nurse these two children, had to enter the village in the early morning for alms and to return when the day was far advanced. Accordingly the neighbouring cowherds, seeing 1 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, Pt. II, p. 321, note 3. 2 Ramayana, Bombay edition, Bala Kanda, Chap. 47, verses II-12. 8 Karma-Sataka, 20, ii, 7, trsl. from Tibetan by M. L. Feer. Reprint, p. 40. 4 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha (popular edition), p. 203, note.

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300 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA his difficulty, offered to look after the children for him. The ascetic gladly agreed, and handed over the two children with these words: "The children are possessed of great virtue and goodness, bring them up with great care and when they are grown up, marry them to each other; please the king and getting a piece of land, measure out a city, and instal the prince there. But the children, when grown big, used to beat and kick the children of the cowherds. Then the parents of these other children would say, 'These children harass the others and trouble them, they are not to be kept, they must be abandoned (Vajjitabba).' Thenceforward that country measuring 300 yojanas is called Vajji. Then the cowherds securing the king's permission, obtained that country, and measuring out a town there, they anointed the boy king. After giving the girl in marriage to the boy, who was then sixteen years of age, the old king made it a rule that no bride was to be brought in from outside, nor any girl from within the settlement to be given away outside. Sixteen pairs of twins were born to the couple (a boy and a girl each time), and as these children were growing up, and there was no room in the city for their gardens, pleasure groves, residential houses and attendants, three walls were thrown up round the city at a distance of a quarter of a yojana from each other; as the city was thus again and again made larger (Visalikata), it came to be called Vesali. This is the history of Vesali.1 The Pujavaliya,2 a Ceylonese Buddhist work, gives the same account with slight variations. These stories are, of course, entirely mythical and must have grown up in recent times, there being no evidence in the sacred canon itself to corroborate any part of them. The two derivations of the name Licchavi which are suggested by Buddhaghosa are entirely fanciful. Licchavi is the name of a race or tribe.The people must have acquired that name long before they come to our notice in the pages of the Buddhist or Jaina literature, or in the Arthasastra. Buddhaghosa's derivations must have been invented much later, when the Licchavis had acquired renown and power, and it was thought necessary to find some meaning for the word, which defies easy analysis. It should be observed that the two derivations suggested by Buddhaghosa are almost identical with those given in Chinese Buddhist works, indicating a common source. It is clear that at the time the Buddha and Mahavira lived and preached, the Licchavis were recognised as Ksatriyas with 1 Paramatthajotika on the Khuddakapatha, ed. H. Smith, P.T.S., pp. 158-60. 2 Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, 2nd Ed., 1880, pp. 242-3. 3 Shan-hsien-lu (Chap. 8), T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 77.

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810 THE LICCHAVIS 301 whom the highest-born princes of eastern India considered it an honour to enter into matrimonial alliance. The powerful king Ajatasatru was always designated 'Vedehiputto', the family name of his mother in the Pali Buddhist Tripitaka. Even two centuries later, in the time of Candragupta Maurya, the Licchavis were of equal rank and position with the great Ksatriya peoples of Northern India, viz. the Madras in the north-west, the Kuru-Pancalas in the central region, and the Mallas and others in the east-the tribes who were organised as corporations of warriors and lived upon their position as rajas, that is as owners of land deriving an income from their tenants. At the time when the present code of Manu was composed, we find that the Licchavis were still looked upon as Ksatriyas, though of the Vratya variety.1 Regarding the Vratyas, Manu says: "Those (sons) whom the twice-born have by wives of equal caste, but who, not fulfilling their sacred duties, are excluded from the Savitri, one must designate by the appellation Vratyas.' 2 Here 'not fulfilling their sacred duties' stands for 'avratah', which means not being initiated at the proper time', on the authority of what Manu himself states in an earlier chapter, where he fixes the upper limits of the age before which the initiation of the twiceborn castes must take place. After those periods, men of the three upper castes who had not received the sacrament become Vratyas (outcastes) excluded from the Savitri (initiation) and despised by the Aryans. Here Manu is in agreement with the earlier lawgivers, Gautama, Apastamba, Vasistha and Baudhayana.3 There is no question, then, that the Licchavis were pure Ksatriyas by origin but were not very careful in obeying the regulations about initiation and perhaps similar other matters.1 From what we know of the religious history of the Licchavis as a people, it is natural to expect that they would depart from the strict observance of the Brahmanic regulations. We have seen that Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was of their very kin, and we also know that he had many followers among the residents of Vaisali, even among the highest officers. Then again, between the sixth century B.C. and 200 B.C., the earliest estimated date 1 Manu, X, 22; Buhler, Laws of Manu, p. 406. 2 Manu, X, 20; Buhler, Laws of Manu, pp. 405-6. 3 See Buhler, Laws of Manu, pp. 405-6, note 20; Gautama, XXI, 11; Apa., I, I, etc.; Vas., XI, 74-9; Baudh., I, 16, 16. 4 For further information regarding the Vratyas, see J. W. Hauer, Der Vratya: Untersuchungen Uber die nichtbrahmanische Religion Altindiens; and Haraprasad Sastri's Annual Address, J.A.S.B., 1921, No. 2 (Vol. XVII, New Series).

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302 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA of the Manusamhita, the Licchavis had won the good graces of the Buddha as well as of the followers of the religion he preached, as we shall see later. During this long interval, when the two great 'heretic' faiths flourished in their country, it is but natural to expect that the Licchavis were not over-particular about initiation and similar other ceremonies and practices that the regulations of the orthodox Brahmins required. Hence we can understand how Manu, the great Brahmin law-giver, came to refer to the Licchavis as Vratyas. To claim the authority of this passage of Manu in support of a theory of non-Aryan origin of the Licchavis is quite unwarranted. The above discussion, we hope, will also explain what the lexicographers and the author of the Vaijayanti, following Manu, declare regarding the origin of the Licchavis, viz. that they were sons of a Ksatriya Vratya and a Ksatriya.2 Before leaving the question of origin, we must refer to the two theories about the Tibetan and Persian affinities of the Licchavis, originated by the late Drs. V. A. Smith and Satis Ch. Vidyabhusana respectively. Dr. Smith's conclusion about the Tibetan affinity rests on the agreement that is observed between the Tibetans and the Licchayis in the custom of exposure of the dead and in judicial procedure. We shall discuss these two points separately. The prevalence among the Licchavis of the practice of exposing the dead to be devoured by wild animals is vouched for by a passage in Beal's Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, derived from Chinese sources. There we have a description of a visit paid by the Bodhisattva (future Buddha) to a cemetery at Vaisali, where the Rsis are stated to have told him: 'In that place the corpses of men are exposed to be devoured by the birds, and there also they collect and pile up the white bones of dead persons....; they burn corpses there also, and preserve the bones in heaps. They hang dead bodies also from the trees; there are others buried there, such as have been slain or put to death by their relatives, dreading that they should come to life again; whilst others are left there upon the ground that they may return, if possible, to their former bodies.' Dr. Smith argues that this passage 'proves a belief that the ancient inhabitants of Vaisali disposed of their dead sometimes by exposure, sometimes by cremation, and sometimes by burial. The tradition is supported by the discoveries made at prehistoric cemeteries in | 1 According to Buhler, the Manusmrti was compiled at some time between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. (Buhler, Manu, Introduction, p. cxvii). 2 Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English Dictionary, 1899, p. 902; Vaijayanti, ed. Gustav Oppert, p. 76. 3 pp. 159-60.

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THE LICCHAVIS 303 other parts of India, which disclose very various methods of disposing of the dead.'1 He then concludes from the similarity between these customs of the disposal of the dead, and those of Tibet, that the Licchavis had Tibetan affinities. But we need not go to Tibet for these customs, inasmuch as they were prevalent among the Vedic Aryans from whom the Licchavis were descended. We read in the well-known funeral hymn of the Atharvaveda 2: "They that are buried, and they that are scattered (vap) away, they that are burned and they that are set up (uddhita)- all those Fathers, O Agni, bring thou to eat the oblation's Whitney, whose translation of the verse we have quoted here, observes on the expression Uddhitah, 'it evidently refers to exposure on something elevated, such as is practised by many people'.4 Whitney also refers to an analogous passage in A pastamba (I, 87) which contains a further reference to the customs of burial and exposure on a raised platform. The Vedic literature shows that cremation was one of the methods of the disposal of the dead. Methods other than cremation were in vogue, it seems, in particular localities and among particular classes or peoples; and the custom of exposure of the dead was most probably brought into India by the Vedic Aryans, as we find the same custom among the closely allied Iranians. To seek for the origin of this ancient Aryan custom in Tibet is absolutely unwarranted. The other argument of Dr. Smith, that the ancient judicial procedure at Vaisali as given in the Atthakatha is substantially identical with the modern procedure at Lhasa as observed by the Bengali traveller in Tibet, the late Rai Bahadur Sarat Chunder Das, C.I.E., need not detain us very long. This procedure the Tibetans may well have imbibed along with Buddhism from the province of Tirhut, which was nearest to their frontiers, and which was inhabited by the descendants of the Licchavis of old. Satis Chandra Vidyabhusana held that the Licchavis were of Persian origin. His strongest argument is the verbal coincidence between Nisibis in the Persian Empire, and the word Nicchivi which occurs in Manu. He continues: 'It appears to me very probable that while about 515 B.C., Darius, king of Persia, sent an expedition to India, or rather caused the Indus to be explored 1 Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXII, 1903, p. 234. 2 XVIII, 2, 34. Ye nikhata ye paropta ye dagdha ye coddhitah sarvamstanagna avaha pitrin havise attave.'-Atharvaveda Samhita, ed. Roth and Whitney, p. 339. 3 Atharva Samhita, trsl. W. D. Whitney, revised and ed. C. R. Lanman, Harvard Or. Series, Vol. VIII, p. 840. 4 Ibid., p. 841. 5 With regard to this passage see also Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, p. 402; and Macdonell and Keith, Vedic Index, Vol. I, p. 8.

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304 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA from the land of the Pakhtu (Afghans) to its mouth, some of his Persian subjects in Nisibis (off Herat) immigrated to India, and having found the Punjab over-populated by the orthodox Brahmanas, came down as far as Magadha (Bihar) which was at that time largely inhabited by Vratyas or outcaste people.'1 This is absurd on the face of it. The Licchavis were already a flourishing people, long established in the Videha country, and had built up a splendid capital at Vaisali at the time of the Buddha's death; and whether we take the date of this event to be 487 B.C., as the late V. A. Smith thought, or 544 B.C., the traditional date maintained by the Ceylonese Buddhist monks, it is absurd to identify the Licchavis with the followers or subjects of Darius who were exploring the Indus about 515 B.C. It remains for us to refer to another theory about the foreign origin of the Licchavis, started by Beal, viz. that they were Yuechi'.2 It hardly requires to be refuted, as the Yue-chi came to India about the beginning of the Christian era, and the Licchavis were a highly civilised and prosperous people in the fifth and sixth centuries B.C. when the Ephathalites or White Huns had not started from their original home in the east. Vaisali, the Capital of the Licchavis Vaisali, the large city' par excellence, is renowned in Indian history as the capital of the Licchavi rajas and the headquarters of the powerful Vajjian confederacy. This great city is intimately associated with the early history of both Jainism and Buddhism. Vaisali claims the founder of Jainism as its citizen. The Sutrakrtanga, a Jaina canonical work, says of Mahavira, the last Tirthankara of the Jains : Thus spoke the Arahat Jnatrputra, the reverend, famous native of Vaisali, who possessed the highest knowledge and the highest faith.'5 Mahavira is spoken of as Vesalie or Vaisalika, i.e. a native of Vaisali.. Moreover, Abhayadeva in his commentary on the Bhagavati (2,1, 12, 2) explains Vaisalika by Mahavira and speaks of Visala as Mahavirajanani or 'the mother of Mahavira'.?" Besides, from a comparison of the 1 Indian Antiquary, Vol. XXXVII, 1908, p. 79. 2 The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by Beal, Intro. p. xxii. 3 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, p. 40. 4 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Pt. II, p. 261 (Sutrakytanga, 1, 2, 3, 22). 5 Ibid., Pt. II, Lecture VI, 17, p. 27 (Uttaradhyayanasutra). 6 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, Pt. I, Introduction, xi. 7 Weber, Indische Studien. Band XVI. p. 263: Auch Abhayadeva zu Bhag. 2, I, 12, 2 erklart Vaicalika durch Mahavira, und zwar als Metronymicum Vicala Mahavirajanani.'

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THE LICCHAVIS 305 Buddhist and Jaina scriptures, it appears that Kundagrama, the birthplace of Mahavira, was a suburb of Vaisali. As we have already seen, Mahavira's mother Trisala was a sister of Cetaka, one of the rajas of Vaisali. The Jaina Kalpasutra speaks of the connection of Mahavira with the Videha country and its capital Vaisali. During his later ascetic life Mahavira did not neglect the city of his birth, and we are told that out of the 42 rainy seasons of this period of his life, he passed no less than 12 at Vaisali.3 The connection of the Buddha with Vaisali is no less close. Many of his immortal discourses were delivered here either at the mango-grove of Ambapali, on the outskirts of the city, or at Kutagarasala in the Mahavana, the great forest stretching out up to the Himalayas. The Buddha was charmed with the conduct of the Vajjis or Licchavis residing within the town, and looked upon them with kindness and approbation. The seven points of excellence,4 with which he characterised the Licchavis in answer to the queries put to him by the ministers sent by King Ajatasatru of Magadha, are very well known. One hundred years after the Buddha's Nirvana, Vaisali again drew to itself the care and attention of the Buddhist Church,-- but this time not on account of the many good qualities of character and powers of organisation of its citizens, but because of the secular tenets held by the Vaisali monks (Vajjiputtaka bhikkhus), who were not carrying out the Master's precepts conscientiously. The second general council of the Buddhist Church, known as the Sattasatika or the Convention of the 700, took place at Vaisali in order to suppress the heresies of these pleasure-seeking monks. We have already referred to the fanciful accounts of Buddhaghosa, the Ramayana and the Visnupurana regarding the origin of Vaisali. The Ramayana further tells us that when Rama and his brother Laksmana, guided by the sage Visvamitra, crossed the river Ganges on their way to Mithila, they had a view of the city of Vaisali. It does not tell us that it was exactly on the bank of the river, but says that while seated on the northern shore they saw the town'. Then, the story goes on, the travellers went to the city of Visala which was an excellent town, 'charming and 1 Jacobi, Taina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, pp. x-xi. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 256, Kalpa Sutra, paragraphs IIO, III. 3 Jacobi, Kalpasutra, paragraph 122. 4 Digha Nikaya, II, 73f.; Arguttara Nikaya, IV, 15f. 5 Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, pp. 13iff.; Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, pp. 103-9. Examination of the Pali Buddhistical Annals, Vol. VI, Pt. II, p. 729, J.A.S.B., 1837 (Sept.). 6 Ramayana (Bombay edition), Chap. 45, verse 9. 20

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306 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA heavenly, in fact a veritable svarga'.1 Visvamitra here narrates a long mythological story to show the importance of the locality. He goes on to say that the Iksvaku prince then ruling over the country was named Sumati, and adds that, by favour of Iksvaku, the father of the eponymous founder of the city and ancestor of the ruling dynasty, all the kings of Vaisali (sarve Vaisalika nepah) were long lived, high souled, possessed of strength and power and highly virtuous.2 From all these mythical stories, it is apparent that the name of the city had something to do with the word visala or 'extensive', and from what we read of the description of the ruins that Hsuan Tsang saw in the seventh century A.D., there can be no doubt of its wide extent. The Chinese traveller relates, "The foundations of the old city Vaisali were sixty or seventy li in circuit, and the "palace city" (i.e. the walled part of the city) was four and five li in circuit.'3 This would mean an area of about twenty miles in circumference for the outer town; and the 'palace city' perhaps represents the earliest of the three cities which, according to Buddhaghosa, were built to accommodate the Licchavis as they rapidly increased in numbers; but its area would not in that case agree with the statement that each of the three walls was at a distance of a gavuta (gavyuti) or a quarter yojana, that is roughly a league from the other. Buddhaghosa's description is also supported by the Atthakatha to the Ekapanna Jataka, where we are told, 'At the time of the Buddha, the city of Vesali was encompassed by three walls at a distance of a gavuta from one another, and at three places there were gates with watch-towers and buildings.'4. The three walls are also referred to in the Atthakatha to the Lomahamsa Jataka. The Tibetan Dulva (iii, f. 80) gives the following description: "There were three districts in Vaisali. In the first district were seven thousand houses with golden towers, in the middle district were fourteen thousand houses with silver towers, and in the last district were twenty-one thousand houses with copper towers; in these lived the upper, the middle and the lower classes according to their positions.' 1 Ramayana (Bombay edition), Chap. 45, verses to and II. 2 Ibid., Chap. 47, verse 18. Whether nrpah can here be taken to mean the oligarchy of rajas referred to elsewhere is uncertain. 3 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 63. + Jataka (Fausb611), Vol. I, p. 504. Vesalinagaran gatagauntantare Wh pakarehi parikkhittam tisu thanesu gopurattalokayuttam.' 5 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 389. 6 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 62. 20B

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THE LICCHAVIS 307 Hoernle in his English translation of the Jaina work, Uvasagadasao, advances the suggestion that the three districts referred to in the Dulva and in the Atthakatha, 'may very well have been Vesali proper, Kundapura and Vaniyagama occupying respectively the south-eastern, north-eastern and western portions of the area of the total city. Beyond Kundapura, in a further north-easterly direction lay the suburb (or 'station', sannivesa) of Kollaga which appears to have been principally inhabited by the Ksatriyas of the Naya (or Jnatr) clan, to which Mahavira himself belonged; for it is described as the_Naya-kula'.1 He further observes that the phrases used in the Ayaranga-sutra like 'Uttara-Khattiya-Kundapura-sannivesa or dahina-mahana-Kundapura-sannivesa', 'do not mean the northern Ksatriya (resp. Southern Brahmanical) part of the place Kundapura, but the Northern Ksatriya, etc., suburb of Kundapura, i.e. that suburb (sannivesa) of the city of Kundapura, which lay towards the north and was inhabited by the (Naya clan of) Ksatriyas; it was distinguished from the southern Suburb of the same city (Kundapura or Vesali) which was inhabited by the Brahmins. This interpretation is confirmed by the parallel phrases in Kap. $22 (et passim), KhattiyaKundagame Nayare and Mahana-Kundagame Nayare, which are rightly translated as the Ksatriya (resp. the Brahmanical) part of the town Kundagama'.2 He also points out that 'the phrase ucca-niya majjhimaim kulaim, "upper, lower and middle classes", applied to the town of Vaniyagama in sections 77, 78 (of the Uvasagadasao) curiously agrees with the description of Vesali given in the Dulva'.: The Buddha must have paid many visits to the Licchavi capital, and reports of at least two besides that already referred to are preserved in Buddhist books. The earliest of his visits is described at length in the Mahavastu. We are told there, how the people of Vaisali were troubled by a frightful pestilence which was laying their country waste, and how all their efforts to stay the plague proved fruitless. In their distress they sent for various well-known holy men, but these failed to afford them any relief. As a last resort the people of Vaisali sent a deputation headed by Tomara, a Licchavi chief, to Rajagtha to bring the Buddha to their city. King Bimbisara himself secured the Buddha's consent to help the Licchavis, and insisted on accompanying him to the boundaries of his territory. 1 Hoernle, Uvasagadasao, Vol. II, translation, p. 4, note 8. 2 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 5.. 3 Ibid., Vol. II, translation, p. 6. * Le Mahavastu, ed. E. Senart, Vol. I, pp. 253ff. See also Buddhaghosa's introduction to commentary on Ratana-sutta.

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308 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA To impress the Licchavis with an idea of his power and wealth, the king of Magadha had the road from Rajaglha to the Ganges, which formed the boundary between the two dominions, levelled, cleaned, decorated, and sprinkled with flowers; while the smoke of rich incense perfumed its whole length. He himself followed the Buddha, with his whole court and numerous retinue. The Licchavis, both the Abhyantara-Vaisalakas, those living within the walls of the city, and the Bahira-Vaisalakas, the people living in the suburbs and surroundings, came in all their splendour and magnificence, in dazzling garments of all colours. Even the Buddha was impressed by their appearance, and compared them to the Tavatimsa gods. The Licchavis decorated the road from the Ganges to Vaisali with a magnificence that far outdid the preparations made by the Magadhan king, and they provided for the comfort of the Buddha and the congregation of monks on a still more lavish scale. As soon as the Buddha crossed over to the northern side of the river and stepped on Licchavi soil, all malign influences that had hung over the country vanished, and the sick and the suffering were restored to health. The Buddha did not wish to live in the city or its suburbs, but he accepted the invitation 1 of Bhagavati Gosongi to live in the Mahavana, the great forest extending from the city far away to the north. The Licchavis built the Kutagarasala monastery for the Buddha in the forest, and offered it to him and to the Buddhist congregation; and the Buddha permitted the bhikkhus to reside there. One day the Licchavis on coming to the Mahavana learnt that the Buddha had repaired to the Capala-Caitya to spend the day: thereupon they presented it to him and to the congregation of monks. Similarly, finding the Buddha spending the day at the Saptamra-Caitya, Bahuputra-Caitya, Gautama-Caitya, KapinahyaCaitya and Markatahrada-tira-Caitya respectively, the Licchavis made a gift of all these places of worship to him and to the Buddhist Church. Even the courtesan Amrapali made a gift of her extensive mango-grove to the congregation; and similarly Balika made over Balikachavi, which is evidently the same as the Balikarama of the Pali Buddhist books. On this visit to their city, the Buddha delivered many discourses to the people of Vaisali, and established the Buddhist faith on a strong foundation at the capital of the Licchavis. We read in the Vinaya (Mahavagga and Cullavagga) and other Pali texts of the Buddha's visits to the Kutagarasala and other 1 Le Mahavastu, ed. Senart, Vol. I, pp. 295-9. 3 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Pt. III, p. 408. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 300.

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THE LICCHAVIS 309 retreats. On one such occasion the Buddha taught his monks many matters connected with the sort of houses they were to build and dwell in; and he also ordered the Samgha to excommunicate Vaddha, a Licchavi, who had brought a false charge against one of the brotherhood; but afterwards relented on Vaddha's making due reparations.1 In accounts in the Buddhist books, whether Pali or Sanskrit, Vaisali is represented as a rich and prosperous town.2 For example, in the Lalitavistara we are told that some of the gods of the Tusita heaven, in advancing the claims of Vaisali for the honour of being the Buddha's birthplace, said, 'This great city of Vaisali is prosperous and proud, happy and rich with abundant food, charming and delightful, crowded with many and various peoples, adorned with buildings of every description, with storeyed mansions, buildings with towers, and palaces, with noble gateways and charming with beds of flowers in her numerous gardens and groves. This city, resembling the city of the gods, is indeed fit for the birth of the Bodhisattva.'3 We next come to the accounts of the city left by the Chinese travellers. Fa Hien, who visited Vaisali at the beginning of the fifth century A.D., i.e. about a thousand years after the Buddha's time, says, 'North of the city is a large forest, having in it the double-galleried vihara where Buddha dwelt, and the tope over half the body of Ananda.' The double-galleried vihara is evidently the Kutagarasala in the Mahavana or great forest', which stretched right up to the Himalayas as Buddhaghosa explains in his Sumangalavilasini to the Mahali Sutta in the Digha Nikaya. With regard to the Kutagarasala Buddhaghosa says: 'In that forest (i.e. Mahavana) was established a samgharama (monastery). A pasada (storeyed building) was built on pillars and putting a pinnacle above, it was made into a kutagarasala resembling a chariot of the gods (devavimana). From it, the whole samgharama is known as Kutagarasala.'c This agrees with Fa-Hien's description of the double-galleried vihara. The upper storey was evidently built 1 Cullavagga, Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, S.B.E., pp. 101 et seq. See also Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Pt. III, pp. 322 and 408; Pt. II, pp. 210-II. 2 See, e.g., Mahavagga, Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, S.B.E., p. 171. 3 Lalitavistara, ed. Lefman, Chap. III, p. 21. 4 Legge, Fa-Hien, p. 72. 5 Sumangalavilasini, Pt. I (P.T.S.), p. 309. 6 Ibid., Pt. I, P.T.S., p. 309. "Tasmin vanasande sangharamam patitthapesum. Tattha kannikam pojetva thambhanam upari Kutagarasala-samkhepena devavimana-sadisam pasadam akamsu. Tam upadaya sakalo pi samgharamo Katagarasala ti pannayittha.'

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310 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA upon a large number of pillars instead of walls, and on the top there was a kuta or peak, so that there were two galleries, one below and the other above, and from the upper storey rose a pinnacle, as we see in the vimanas or rathas referred to by Buddhaghosa. Hsuan Tsang, who visited the city more than 200 years after Fa-Hien, found this great vihara in ruins. He adds, "To the east of the tope of the Jataka narrative was a wonder-working tope on the old foundations of the "two-storey Preaching Hall", in which Ju-lai delivered the P'u-men-t'o-lo-ni and other sutras. Close to the remains of the Preaching Hall was the tope which contained the half-body relics of Ananda.'2 The story of the parinirvana of Ananda and the division of the remnants of the body has been told by Fa-Hien, and the same account is also given in the Tibetan works. 3 Hsuan Tsang's account of the country of which Vaisali was the capital agrees pretty well with the tradition of its prosperity preserved in the Buddhist books. The Vaisali country is described by the pilgrim as being above five thousand li in circuit, a very fertile region abounding in mangoes, plantains and other fruits. The people were honest, fond of good works, lovers of learning, and both orthodox and heterodox in faith. In the Tibetan works, a similar account is given of the prosperity and opulence of Vaisali, which is invariably described in the Dulva as a kind of earthly paradise, with its handsome buildings, its parks and gardens, singing birds and continual festivities. The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, translated by Beal from Chinese sources, gives an account similar to that in the Lalitavistara. The identification of Vaisali, the capital of the Licchavis, has been much discussed by scholars. General Cunningham identified the present village of Basarh in the Muzafferpur district in Tirhut as marking the spot where Vaisali stood in ancient days, and M. Vivien de Saint Martin agreed with him. Dr. W. Hoey sought, though on very insufficient evidence, to establish the identity of Vaisali with a place called Cherand, situated on the northern bank of the Ganges about 7 miles south-east from Chapra. This identification was proved to be untenable by V. A. Smith,' who succeeded 1 Evidently the Kutagara Hall. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 71. 8 Legge, Fa-Hien, pp. 75-7. 4 Beal, Buddhist Records of the Western World, II, 66. 5 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 63. 6 P. 28. 7 Arch. S. Report, Vol. I, pp. 55, 56 and Vol. XVI, p. 6. 8 J.A.S.B., 1900, Vol. LXIX, Pt. I, pp. 78-80, 83. 9 V. A. Smith, J.R.A.S., 1902, p. 267, n. 3.

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THE LICCHAVIS 3II in confirming Cunningham's identification. The identity of Vaisali and Basarh was proved still more decisively by the archaeological explorations carried out on the site in 1903-4 by T. Bloch. Bloch excavated a mound called Raja Visal ka garh. Three distinct strata were found, the uppermost belonging to the period of Mahomedan occupation of the place, the second, at a depth of about five feet from the surface, related to the epoch of the Imperial Guptas, and the third, at a still greater depth, belonging to an ancient period of which no definite date could be obtained. The finds in the second stratum, however, were of great value, especially a hoard of 700 clay seals evidently used as attachment to letters or other literary documents.2 The names of certain Gupta kings, queens and princes on some of these seals, coupled with palaeographic evidence, clearly demonstrate that they belonged to the fourth and fifth centuries A.D.3 Some of the impressions show that the name Tirabhukti (the original form of Tirhut) was applied to the province even in these early times, and some show the name of the town itself, Vaisali.4 These things go to prove the identity of the site with Vaisali, and there seems to be no ground to question this conclusion any longer. But it must be noted that the results so far obtained by excavation are very meagre. Manners and Customs We have already seen that the Licchavis were included in the great Vajjian confederacy. But sometimes Vajji (Skt. Vrji) and Licchavi were used indiscriminately as synonyms. At the time the Buddha lived, 'the Vajjis were divided into several clans such as the Licchavis, the Vaidehis, the Tirabhuktis and so on, and the exact number of those clans would appear to have been eight, as criminals were arraigned before the Atthakulaka or eight clans, which would appear to have been a jury composed of one member from each of the separate divisions of the tribe'. All these Vajjis lived in great amity and concord, and this unity coupled with their martial instincts and the efficiency of their martial institutions made them great and powerful amongst the nations of North-Eastern India. Their sympathy for one another was exemplary. If one Licchavi fell ill, the other Licchavis came to see him. The whole clan would join in any auspicious 1 Sir John H. Marshall, Arch. Surv. of India, Annual Report, 1903-4, p. 74. 2 Ibid., p. 74. 3 Ibid., p. IIO. 4 Ibid., p. 110. 6 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, p. 447. & Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 3; see also Turnour, Pali Buddhistical Annals, No. 5, J.A.S.B., Dec. 1838, p. 992.

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312 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA ceremony performed in the house of one of their number; if any foreigner of rank and power paid a visit to the Licchavi capital, they would all go out in a body to receive him and do him honour.1 The young Licchavis were handsome in appearance and fond of brilliant colours in their dress and equipages. We have already seen how their splendour impressed the Buddha when he first met them. We have a detailed account of the attire of the Licchavi nobles in the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta, which describes how the Licchavi nobles went out for the last time to meet the Buddha. Apparently the Licchavis suited the colour of their clothes and ornaments to the tint of their complexions, and dressed themselves in dark blue (nila), yellow (pita), red (lohita), or white (odata) accordingly.3 Exactly the same description of the colours favoured by the Licchavis is given in the Anguttara Nikaya, which shows that they wore these colours not only on festive occasions but in their ordinary daily life also. Once while the Buddha was staying at the Kutagarasala in the Mahavana, five hundred of the Licchavis were seated around him. Some of them were nila or blue all over in clothes and ornaments, and similarly others were yellow, red or white. We may compare these descriptions with the more detailed account in the Mahavastu of the colours favoured by the Licchavis: "There are Licchavis with blue horses, blue chariots, blue reins and whips, blue sticks, blue clothes, blue ornaments, blue turbans, blue umbrellas and with blue swords, blue jewels, blue footwears and blue everything befitting their youth.' In the same terms the Mahavastu speaks of the Licchavis decked all in yellow (pita) and in light red, the colour of the Bengal madar (manjistha), in red (lohita), in white (sveta), in green (harita), and some in variegated colours (vyayukta). Perhaps the Licchavis were divided into separate septs as Senart suggested, distinguished by the colour worn by each; otherwise it is difficult to explain why the same colours should be preferred for the trappings of the horses and decorations of their carriages, as well as the articles of dress adorning their own persons. There was moreover a profusion of gold and jewels in everything in their equipage carriages drawn by horses, gold-bedecked elephants, palanquins of gold set with all kinds of precious stones. 1 Sumangalavilasini (P.T.S.), II, pp. 517-8. 2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 79. 3 Digha Nikaya, Vol. II, p. 96; Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 31. 4 Anguttara Nikaya, P.T.S., Pt. III, p. 239. 5 Mahavastu, Vol. I, p. 259. 6 We have here followed the interpretation, suggested by Senart, of Vyayukta (Le Mahavastu, note, p. 574); this meaning, however, is very doubtful.

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THE LICCHAVIS * 313 All this bespeaks a prosperous people, and it might be expected that they would be given to luxury and indolence. But this was not their character at the time when the Buddha lived and preached among them. The Samyutta Nikaya preserves this saying, which is attributed to the Buddha: 'Look ye Bhikkhus here, how these Licchavis live sleeping with logs of wood as pillows, strenuous and diligent (appamatta), zealous and active (atapino) in archery. Ajatasattu Vedehiputto, the Magadhan king, can find no defect in them, nor can he discover any cause of action (against them). Should the Licchavis, O Bhikkhus, in the time to come, be very delicate, tender and soft in their arms and legs, should they sleep in ease and comfort on cushions of the finest cotton until the sun is up in the heavens, then the Magadhan king, Ajatasattu Vedehiputto, will find defects and will discover cause of action.'i This testimony of the Buddha goes to show that the Licchavis were hardy and active, ardent and strenuous in their military training. The Licchavis used to kill animals on the 8th, 14th and 15th day of the lunar months and eat their flesh.2 They were fond of manly pastimes such as elephant training and hunting. Among the Psalms of the Brethren (Theragatha), we find one composed by Vajjiputtaka, the son of a Licchaviraja at Vaisali, who, in his early life, was engaged in training elephants.3 The Anguttara Nikaya narrates how a large number of Licchavi youths, armed with bows, ready with strings, set and surrounded by a pack of hounds, were roving about in the Mahavana, but finding the Buddha seated at the foot of a tree in the forest, threw away their bows and arrows and sending away the pack of hounds sat by the Great Teacher, subdued by his presence. A Licchavi of advanced years, named Mahanama, who came to pay his respects to the Buddha, expressed his great wonder at the sight of the Licchavi youths, full of life and vivacity, notorious for their insolent and wanton conduct in the city, thus sitting silent and demure, in an attitude of reverence before the Great Teacher. The Licchavi youths, O Lord!' he goes on, 'are rude and rough and whatever presents are sent to the families, sugarcane or plums, cakes, sweetmeats or preparations of sugar, these they plunder and eat up, throw dust at the ladies of respectable families and girls of good families; such young men are now all silent and demure, are doing obeisance with joined palms to yourself, O Lord.'' 1 Samyutta Nikaya (P.T.S.), Pt. II, pp. 267-8. 2 Divyavadana (Cowell and Neil), p. 136. 3 Psalms of the Brethren, Mrs. Rhys Davids, p. 106; Theragatha, V, 119. 4 Anguttara Nikaya (P.T.S.), Pt. III, p. 76.

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314 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 'In the Buddha's time, the young Licchavis of the City', says Watters, 'were a free, wild, set, very handsome and full of life. and Buddha compared them to the gods in Indra's heaven. They dressed well, were good archers, and drove fast carriages, but they were wanton, insolent and utterly irreligious.'1 This is an exaggeration and is probably based on the Chinese translations of such passages as the one in the Lalitavistara, where some of the Tusita gods point out the defects in the character of the Vaisalians when their city was recommended by others among them as a suitable place of birth for the Bodhisattva.2 Whatever might have been the opinions of these sons of heaven' before the birth of the Buddha, they must later have changed their opinions about the people of Vaisali, who showed such remarkable veneration towards the Buddha and received such marked favour from him. We may, however, assume that the Licchavis were rather independent in character and would not easily accept a subordinate position to any one, whether in politics, religion, or ordinary daily life. Then again the statement that the Licchavis did not respect their elders or were irreligious, is in direct contradiction to what the Buddha said about their regard for elders to Vassakara, the Magadhan minister.3 The Licchavi youths went to distant countries for their education. We read of a Licchavi named Mahali who went to Taxila to learn silpa or arts. It is said that he in his turn trained as many as 500 Licchavis who also, when educated, took up the same task and in this way education spread far and wide among the Licchavis.4 Nor were the fine arts neglected. Artisans such as tailors, goldsmiths and jewellers must have been much in demand in the city of Vaisali to furnish the gay robes of the seven thousand seven hundred and seven' rajas or nobles. The art of architecture also was much developed in Vaisali; the magnificent palaces of the Licchavis are spoken of in the Lalitavistara. They were equally enthusiastic in the building of temples, shrines, and monasteries for the Bhikkhus; and we are told that the Bhikkhus themselves superintended the construction of these buildings for the Order. The Licchavis of Vaisali built many caityas or shrines inside and outside their great city, and we have already seen with what great 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, p. 79. 2 Lalitavistara, ed. S. Lefmann, Vol. I, p. 21. 3 Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, p. 80. 4 Fausboll, Dhammapada (old ed.), p. 211. 5 Chap. 3, p. 23 (Bibl. Indica Series).

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THE LICCHAVIS 315 liberality they gave the best among them to the Buddha and the Buddhist Church. That these caityas were beautiful and fine buildings, where people might wish to dwell indefinitely, was the expressed opinion of the Buddha, as we see from a passage in the Digha Nikaya. About the marriage rites of the Licchayis, it is said in the Tibetan books that there were rules restricting the marriage of all girls born in Vaisali to that city alone. They state, The people of Vaisali had made a law that a daughter born in the first district could marry only in the first district, not in the second or third; that one born in the middle district could marry only in the first and second; but that one born in the last district could marry in any of the three; moreover, that no marriage was to be contracted outside Vaisali.'2 Certain passages in the Bhikkhuni Vibhanga Sanghadidesa : indicate that a Licchavi could ask the Licchavigana or corporation of Licchavis to select a suitable bride for him, or to try a case of adultery. The punishment for a woman who broke her marriage vow was very severe; the husband could even kill her with impunity. But an adulterous woman could save herself from punishment by entering the congregation of nuns.* The Licchavis appear to have had a high idea of female chastity; violation of chastity was a serious offence amongst them. The Buddha says that 'no women or girls belonging to their clans are detained among them by force or abduction '.5 The Petavatthu Atthakatha gives the story of a Licchavi raja named Ambasakkhara who was enamoured of a married woman, whose husband he engaged as an officer under him; but he was foiled in his attempts to gain her love. The Licchavis observed various festivals, of which the Sabbarattivaro or Sabbaratticaro was the most important. At this festival, songs were sung, and drums and other musicalinstruments were used.? When a festival took place at Vaisali, all the people used to enjoy it, and there were dancing, singing and recitations. 8 1 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 58. 2 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 62. 3 Bhikkhuni Vibhanga Sanghadidesa, II, Vinaya Pitaka, ed. H. Oldenberg, Vol. IV, pp. 225-6. 4 Ibid., p. 225. 5 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, pp. 3-4. 6 Petavatthu Atthakatha, Sinhalese edition, Simon Hewavitarana's Bequest Series, No. 1, pp. 154-6; and see B. C. Law, The Buddhist Conception of Spirits, 2nd Ed., pp. 73-5. 7 Samyutta Nikaya, Vol. I, pp. 20I-2. 9 Theragatha Commentary, v. 62; Psalms of the Brethren, p. 63.

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316 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Views and Practices All our information about the views and practices of the Licchavis is derived from Buddhist books, and to a smaller extent from Jaina works. From these we learn that the Licchayis, though vigorous, martial, and highly prosperous, were at the same time of a strongly religious bent of mind. Both Jainism and Buddhism found many followers among them. Even before the advent of the two new forms of religion, the Licchavis, or to call them by their wider designation, the Vajjis, appear to have been imbued with a strong religious spirit. The Vajjis appear to have had numerous shrines in their town as well as in the country. Even after Jainism and Buddhism had obtained a strong hold on the Licchavis of Vaisali, the great body of the people of the Vajji country as well as of the capital remained staunch followers of their ancient faith, the principal feature of which was Caitya worship, although they had due respect for the Jaina or Buddhist sages who wandered over their country preaching the message delivered by their respective teachers. The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta tells us what the Buddha told Vassakara, the prime minister (mahamatra) of Magadha, when the latter was sent by Ajatasatru to learn from the Buddha what he would predict with regard to the king's daring plan of exterminating the Vajjis. The Buddha said: 'So long as the Vajjians honour and esteem and revere and respect and support the Vajjian shrines 1 in town or country, and allow not the proper offerings and rites, as formerly given and performed, to fall into desuetude, so long as the rightful protection, defence and support shall be fully provided for the Arahants among them .... so long may the Vajjians be expected not to decline but to prosper. ? This was said by the Buddha on the eve of his last departure for Vaisali. Buddhaghosa in his commentary, the Sumangalavilasini, also informs us that the Licchavis observed their old religious rites. We must here bear in mind the fact that Buddhism at the early stage of which we are speaking was a form of faith for ascetics only, not a religious creed for all people. The Buddhists at this period formed only one of the numerous ascetic sects of Northern India; thus there was nothing unusual in the fact that many of the 1 The word in the text is 'Cetiyani'. T. W. Rhys Davids' translation seems to be too exclusive for, as Kern points out, the name Cetiya was applied not only to shrines, but also to sacred trees, memorial stones, holy spots, images, religious inscriptions (Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 91. See also B. C. Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 79-80). 2 T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, p. 80. 3 Sumangalavilasini (P.T.S.), II, pp. 517-8.

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THE LICCHAVIS 317 Licchayis who were householders and had not accepted the life of Bhikkhus should remain firm followers of their former faith. From the meagre mention of the Caityas of the Licchavis in the Buddhist books, it is not easy to determine what the principal objects of their worship were; but there is nothing to show that the religious beliefs of the Licchavis were in any way different from the form of faith which obtained in other parts of Northern India. The Vedic religion was still in full vigour in N.E. India, as the references to Vedic sacrifices in the Buddhist books show. We should bear in mind that the country of the Vajjis was the sacred land of Videha, where the great Samrat Janaka had exercised his sway, and where Yajnavalkya preached the White Yajurveda. The Caityas mentioned in the Mahavastu are the Capala, Saptamraka, Bahuputra, Gautama, Kapinahya, and Markatahradatira. In the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta, we find the following names of Caityas as mentioned by the Buddha: Gotamaka (= Gautama), Sattambaka (= Saptamraka), Bahuputtaka (= Bahuputra or Bahuputraka), Sarandada, and Capala. The Patika Suttanta seems to indicate that Vaisali was bounded by four shrines: Udena (Udayana) on the east, Gotamaka on the south, Sattamba on the west, and Bahuputta on the north. A passage in the Divyavadana also gives a list of the Caityas in almost the same words as the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta; there also the Buddha is represented as speaking of the beauties of the Caityas called Capala, Saptamraka, Bahupatraka and Gautama-nyagrodha.2 Bahupatraka is evidently the same as the Bahuputraka of the other texts. Buddhaghosa in his commentary on the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta explains cetiyani in the text as Yakkha-cetiyani, and regarding the Sarandada-caitya where the Buddha preached, he says: 'This was a Vihara erected on the site of a former shrine of the Yakkha (tree deity) Sarandada.' 3 Hence it is reasonable to assume that the Yakkhas were worshipped in some of the Caityas. The Buddhist books show further that the Vedic gods, Indra and Prajapati or Brahma,4 were popular deities in the regions where the Buddha preached; while Kautilya's Arthasastra 5 speaks of many gods popularly worshipped, besides the Vedic divinities. Some scholars are of opinion that the Caityas were 'shrines of pre-Buddhistic 1 Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. III, p. 14. 2 Divyavadana, p. 201. 3 Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, p. 80, notes 2 and 3. 4 For Brahma, see S.N., 122 seq.; Samy., VI, I, 1-3, 10, etc.; M.P.S., VI, 15, etc. 5 Ed. R. Shama Shastri, 2nd Ed., p. 244.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 318 worship' and that 'they were probably trees and barrows.'1 Some of the Caityas, as their names suggest, might have been named after the trees which marked the spots, but it would be going too far to imagine merely from the name that these shrines consisted of trees and nothing else. As we have seen, Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jains, was a citizen of Vaisali. Even before his advent, the faith of which he was the last exponent seems to have been prevalent in Vaisali and the surrounding country, in some earlier form. It appears from the Jaina accounts that the religion as fixed and established by Parsvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, was followed by some at least of the Ksatriya peoples of N.E. India, especially amongst the residents of Vaisali. We read in the Ayaranga-sutra that Mahavira's parents were 'worshippers of Parsva and followers of the Sramanas'. Similar accounts are given in other Jaina works of the prevalence in the country of a faith which was afterwards developed by Mahavira. Sramanas or wandering ascetics had been in existence ever since the time of the earlier Upanisads, and evidently the Sramanas that were followed by the parents of Mahavira belonged to one of the numerous sects or classes of Indian ascetics. After Mahavira's time, the number of his followers among the Licchavis appears to have been large, even including some men of the highest position in Vaisali, as is seen from the Buddhist books. In the Mahavaggas we read that Siha, a general-in-chief of the Licchavis, was a disciple of Nigantha Nataputta (= Mahavira). When the Buddha visited Vaisali, Siha wished to see him, having heard reports of his greatness; but Mahavira dissuaded him, pointing out the defects in the doctrines preached by the Buddha. Siha's enthusiasm for the Buddha abated for the time, but was again roused by the discussions of the other Licchavis, so that he finally did pay a visit to the Buddha, who gave him a long discourse on the Buddhist doctrine. Siha was converted to the Buddhist faith. One day he invited the Buddha and the Bhikkhus to take their meal at his house, and procured meat at the market to feed them. But the Jains spread a false report that Siha had killed an ox and made a meal for the 'Samana Gotama', and that the Samana Gotama was knowingly eating the meat of an animal killed for this very 1 Prof. and Mrs. Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, p. 110, f.n. 2. See also R. P. Chanda's Mediaeval Sculpture in Eastern India, Cal. Univ. Journal (Arts), Vol. III. p. 194. 2 Jaina Sutras, Pt. I, Ayaranga-sutra, trsl. H. Jacobi, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, See Vinaya Texts, trsl. Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, S.B.E., Vol. XVII, pp. 108ff.

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THE LICCHAVIS 319 purpose, and was therefore responsible for the killing of the animal.1 This false report circulated by them only made Siha firmer in his zeal for his new faith, but the story shows that the number of the Niganthas at Vaisali was sufficiently large to defy the influence of such an important man as Siha, and this is also confirmed by the story of Saccaka, a Nigantha, who had the hardihood to challenge the Buddha himself to a discussion on philosophical tenets before an assemblage of five hundred Licchavis. We read in the Majjhima Nikaya that the Niganthaputta Saccaka told the Licchavis of his intention to defeat the 'Samana Gotama' in argument, and induced 500 of them to go with him to the Mahavana to listen to the discussion. He approached the place where the Bhikkhus were walking up and down and told them, 'We are anxious to see Gotama, the Blessed One'. The Buddha was seated to spend the day in meditation at the foot of a tree in the Mahavana. Saccaka with a large number of Licchavis went up to him; then arguments relating to the samghas and ganas, and some knotty points of Buddhist psychology and metaphysics were started between Saccaka and the Buddha. Saccaka, being defeated, invited the Buddha to dinner. The Licchavis were informed of this, and asked to bring whatever they liked to the dinner, which would be held on the following day. At the break of day, the Licchavis brought five hundred dishes for the Buddha. The Niganthaputta and the Licchavis became greatly devoted to the Buddha. und The Buddha paid at least three visits, but probably many more, to Vaisali; and the Pali works have recorded many occasions similar to those mentioned above, on which the Licchavis sought his aid for the solution of numerous problems of religion and dogma. Once when the Buddha was staying in the Kutagarasala in the Mahavana, a Licchavi named Bhaddiya paid a visit to him and asked him whether it was true that he employed magic spells to attract converts. Thereupon the Buddha explained his doctrine of 'kusala and akusala-dhamma' saying that his teaching did indeed rest on fact. Bhaddiya, delighted with the exposition, forthwith declared himself a follower of the Buddha.3 On another occasion we find that when the Buddha was at Vaisali, two Licchavis, named Salho and Abhaya, approached him, and asked his opinion as to the relative merits of purity of conduct' (sila) and the practice of self-mortification' (tapa).* 1 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Vol. XVII, p. 116. 2 Majjhima Nikaya, Vol. I, pp. 227-37 (Culasaccaka Sutta). 3 Anguttara Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. II, pp. 190-94. 4 Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 200-2.

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320 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Another time a Licchavi minister (mahamatra) named Nandaka approached the place where the Buddha was, and the Buddha explained to him the four Dhammas. On another occasion when the Buddha was at Vaisali, there were 500 Licchavis assembled at the Sarandada-cetiya. They had a discussion about the five kinds of 'rare gems' (elephant, horse, jewel, woman, and householder), and asked the Buddha's opinion, whereupon he solved the problem in an unexpected way." The Anguttara Nikaya tells of a large number of distinguished Licchavis who went to see the Buddha when he was at Vaisali; and also narrates how on another occasion, when the Buddha was at Vaisali, he was worshipped by 500 Licchavis arrayed in various coloured garments, ornaments and trappings. A certain Anjana-Vaniya was born at Vaisali in the family of a raja. During his adolescence, the three-fold panic of drought, sickness and non-human foes afflicted the Vajjian territory. Afterwards, the Buddha put a stop to the panic and addressed a great gathering. Hearing his discourse, the prince attained faith, left the world, and eventually became an Arahat. Another son of a raja who was converted by the Buddha was Vajjiputta, 'the son of the Vajjis '.5 In the Samyutta Nikaya 6 we read of Mahali, a Licchavi, who went to the Buddha and told him that Purana Kassapa was of opinion that beings suffered or were purified without cause. The Buddha refuted this theory. The Anguttara Nikaya? also speaks of a Licchavi named Mahali, at whose request the Buddha expounded the causes of merit and demerit.8 The Buddha exercised a remarkable influence even over the fiercest of the Licchavis. For instance, it was said of a certain Licchavi prince that he was so very fierce, cruel, passionate and vindictive that none dared to utter more than two or three words in his presence. At last his parents resolved to bring him to the Buddha for correction. Accordingly he was brought before the Buddha, who painted a convincing picture of the results of cruelty 1 Samyutta Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. V, pp. 389-90. 2 Anguttara Nikaya, Vol. II, pp. I67-8. 3 Ibid., Vol. V, p. 133. 4 Theragatha, V, 55 and comm.; Psalms of the Brethren (P.T.S.), p. 56. 5 Ibid., V, 119 and comm.; ibid., p. 106. 6 Pt. III, pp. 68-70. 7 Vol. V, pp. 86-7. 8 For other discussions between the Licchavis and the Buddha or his chie disciples, see Anguttara Nikaya (P.T.S.), I, pp. 220-22; II, pp. 190-94, 200Samytutta Nikaya (P.T.S.), Vol. IV, pp. 26I-2; Vol. V, pp. I63-5.

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THE LICCHAVIS 321 and wickedness. After this exhortation, the prince's heart miraculously became filled with love and kindness Among the Licchavi women who were converted by the Buddha, we read of Siha, Jenti, Vasetthi, and Ambapali. - Siha, a niece of the Licchavi general Siha, was born at Vaisali at the time of Gotama Buddha. When she attained years of discretion, one day she heard the Master preaching. She became a believer, obtained the consent of her parents to enter the Order, and eventually became an Arahat.2 The case of Jenti or Jenta was similar. She was born in a princely family of the Licchavis at Vaisali, and won Arahatship after hearing the Dhamma preached by the Buddha. Another Licchavi woman, Vasitthi, was born in a clansman's family at Vaisali. Her parents gave her in marriage to a clansman's son of equal position. She had a son. When the child was able to run about, he died. Overwhelmed with grief, Vasitthi came to Mithila, and there she saw the Buddha. At the sight of the Buddha she regained her normal mind; and he taught her the outlines of the Dhamma, whereupon she soon attained Arahatship.4 We have read of the courtesan Amrapali, who gave a vihara to the Buddha. For further details of her life, see Therigatha, V, 252ff. (Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 120-1, 125). Government and Administration of Justice The Licchavis formed a republic in the sense that there was no hereditary monarch, the power of the State being vested in the assembly of citizens. It does not appear to have been a completely democratic republic, but an oligarchy, citizenship being confined to members of the confederate clans. There is ample evidence to show that in ancient times this form of government, as described in the Buddhist books, was much more in vogue than we are led to imagine from later literature. The Licchavis formed what was called a samgha organa, that is, an organised corporation. One of the Buddhist canonical books, the Majjhima Nikaya, speaks of the Vajjis and the Mallas as forming samghas and ganas, i.e. clans governed by an organised corporation and not by an individual sovereign. The Mahavastu says that when plague raged in Vaisali, a Licchavi named Tomara 1 Ekabanga Jataka, Fausboll, Jataba, Vol. I, pp. 504f. 2 Therigatha, V, 77ff.; Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 53-4. 3 Ibid., V, 21 and 22; Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 23-4. 4 Ibid., V, 133ff.; ibid., pp. 79-80. 5 P.T.S., Vol. I, p. 231. 21

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322 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA was elected by the gana to appeal to the Buddha and bring him to the city. Kautilya says 1 that the Licchavis and various other tribes were 'raja-sabda-upajivinah'. This apparently means that among these peoples each citizen had the right to call himself a raja, 'king", i.e. a dignitary who did not owe allegiance or pay revenue to any one else. Each citizen not merely looked upon himself as a raja, but considered that his title should be recognised not only by his fellow clansmen but also by the other people of India. This is corroborated by the description of the Licchayis given in the Lalitavistara, which says that at Vaisali there was no respect for age, nor for position, whether high or middle or low, each one thinking that he was a raja. Kautilya's account shows that this designation of each individual clansman was not confined to the Licchavis, but was shared by them with many other warrior peoples of Northern India. Savaraswami in his commentary on the Purvamimamsa Sutra, Book II, says that the word 'raja' is a synonym for Ksatriya, and states that even in his time the word was used by the Andhras to designate a Ksatriya. On his authority, it can be said that the word 'raja' in early times designated a member of the Ksatriya caste, and subsequently acquired the specialised meaning of 'king'. In practice the rank of raja must have been restricted to a comparatively small section of the community, because we learn from the Ekapanna Jataka that besides the rajas, there were the uparajas, senapatis, etc. What the real number of de facto rajas was, we do not know. The Mahavastu 3 speaks of the twice 84,000 Licchavi rajas residing within the city of Vaisali. The Pali commentaries, e.g. the preambles to the Cullakalinga Jataka 4 and the Ekapanna Jataka 5 speak of seven thousand seven hundred and seven rajas of Vaisali. The Kalpasutra speaks of only nine (Jaina Sutras, Pt. I, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, p. 266). Kautilya 6 observes that all these samghas by virtue of their being united in such corporations, were unconquerable by others. He further observes that for a king, a corporation was the best and most helpful of all allies, because of the power derived from their union which made them invincible. When Ajatasatru sent his prime minister (mahamatra) to ascertain the views of the Buddha 1 See Arthasastra, trsl. R. Shama Shastri, p. 455. 2 * Ekaika eva manyate aham raja, aham rajeti.' Lalitavistara, ed. Lefmann, Vol. I, p. 21; Bibl. Indica Series, Chap. III, 23. 3 Vol. I, p. 271. * Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. III, p. I. 5 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 504. 6 Arthasastra (2nd Ed.), p. 378. 21B

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THE LICCHAVIS 323 with regard to his proposed extermination of the Vrjis, the Buddha said to Ananda, 'So long, Ananda, as the Vajjians hold these full and frequent public assemblies; so long may they be expected not to decline but to prosper'.1 The public hall where the Licchavis used to hold their meetings was called the Santhagara, and there they discussed both religion and politics. We have seen in the story of the conversion of Siha that the Licchavis met at the Santhagara to discuss the teaching of the Buddha. The procedure that was followed in these assemblies may be gathered, as D. R. Bhandarkar 2 has pointed out, from an account of the procedure followed at a ceremony of ordination in the samgha of the Buddhist Bhikkhus. There can be no doubt that in organising the Buddhist samgha, the Buddha took as his model the political samghas of N.E. India, especially that of the Licchavis whose corporation, as we have seen, he esteemed very highly. Fortunately for us, the rules of procedure followed in the Buddhist community or samgha have been preserved in the description of the upasampada or ordination ceremony in the Patimokkha section of the Vinaya Pitaka, and from this description we can form an idea of the procedure followed in the political samgha of the Licchavis. First of all, an officer called the Asanapannapaka (regulator of seats) was elected, whose function seems to have been to seat the members of the congregation in order of seniority. As in the Buddhist congregation, so among the Licchavis, the elders of the clans were highly respected, as we see from the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta.* The form of moving a Resolution in the council thus assembled and seated may be gathered from the full description of procedure in the Buddhist samgha, for which see Rhys Davids and Oldenberg, Vinaya Texts, Pt. I, pp. 169-70. As might be expected in such an assembly, there were often violent disputes and quarrels with regard to controversial topics. In such cases, the disputes were settled by the votes of the majority and this voting was by ballot; voting tickets or salakas were served out to the voters, and an officer of approved honesty and impartiality was elected to collect these tickets or voting papers. The appointment of this officer, who was called the Salaka-gahapaka, was also made by the whole assembly. 1 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 3. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 181. 3 Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., Vol. XX, p. 408, f.n. 4 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, p. 3. 5 Cullavagga, S.B.E., Vol. XX; Vinaya Texts, Pt. III, p. 25.

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324 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA There was also a provision for taking the votes of absent members. The Mahavaggal mentions an example of a declaration of the consent of an absent member (of the congregation of monks) to an official Act. Such a declaration was called Chanda. A quorum was required, and difficulty was often experienced in securing the right number, so that the Buddha exhorted the Bhikkhus to help to complete the quorum. There are other detailed rules in the Vinaya Pitaka for the regulation of the assembly. This elaboration of the procedure, as well as the use of technical terms for each detail, shows that the organisation of these popular assemblies had already been highly developed among the political samghas like that of the Licchavis before the Buddha adopted them for the regulation of his religious samgha or congregation. The Tibetan works - mention a Nayaka who was the chief magistrate of the Licchavis and 'was elected by the people or rather by the ruling clans of Licchavis'. We do not know exactly what his functions were; perhaps he was an executive officer for carrying out the decisions of the assembly. There does not appear to have been any outstanding, figure among the Licchavis, comparable to Suddhodana among the Sakyas. The preamble to the Ekapanna Jataka 5 relates that of the Rajas who lived in Vaisali permanently exercising the rights of sovereignty, there were seven thousand, seven hundred and seven, and there were quite as many Uparajas (subordinate officials), Senapatis (generals), and Bhandagarikas (treasurers). A passage in the preamble to the Cullakalinga Jataka 6 also mentions seven thousand, seven hundred and seven Licchavi rajas, who lived at Vaisali. The number seven thousand, seven hundred and seven cannot be the number of all the Licchavis living in the town of Vaisali; in fact we are told in the Mahavastu that the Licchavis, who went out of Vaisali to meet the Buddha on his first visit to that city, numbered as many as twice eighty-four thousand, which was not an incredible number for such an extensive city as Vaisali. But 7,707 is evidently an artificially concocted number, seven being used from the idea that it had some magic potency. It is significant 1 Mahavagga, S.B.E., Vol. XIII, p. 277. 2 Ibid., pp. 307-9. 3 For the democratic organisation of the Licchavis, see D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, pp. 179-84. 4 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 62. 5 Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. I, p. 504: 'Niccakalam rajjam karetva vasantanam yeva rajunam sattasahassani satta ca rajano honti, tattaka yeva uparajano, tattaka senapatino, tattaka bhandagarika.' 6 Ibid., Vol. III, p. I.

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THE LICCHAVIS 325 that none of the canonical texts themselves gives this number, which occurs only in a later commentary, the Nidanakatha of the Jatakas. Bhandarkar says that an Uparaja or Viceroy, a Senapati or general, and a Bhandagarika or treasurer formed the private staff of every Licchavi Raja. He adds that each Raja had personal property of his own which was managed by himself with the help of these three officers. This seems to be likely, because the existence of a Bhandagarika attached to each Raja necessarily implies that each Raja had his own separate Bhandagara or treasury. There must have been officers who recorded the decisions of the Council. A passage in the Mahagovinda Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya seems to justify this conclusion. In describing a meeting of the thirty-three gods in the Tavatimsa heaven, it is said that after the deliberations were over, four great kings recorded the conclusions arrived at, and on this passage the translators observe, "This sounds very much as if the Four Great Kings were looked upon as Recorders of what had been said. They kept the minutes of the meeting. If so (the gods being made in the image of men), there must have been such Recorders at the meetings in the MoteHalls of the clans.'1 A passage in the preamble to the Bhaddasala Jataka mentions a tank, the water of which was used at the ceremony of abhiseka or coronation of the kulas or families of the gana rajas of Vaisali.2 This may refer to the ceremony performed when a Licchavi raja was elected to a seat in the assembly of the State, or it may denote that the ceremony of coronation was performed when a young Licchavi kumara (prince) succeeded to the title and position of his father. The Atthakatha on the Mahaparinibbana Suttantas gives an account of the judicial procedure among the Licchavis. When a person who had committed an offence appeared before the Vajjian rajas, they surrendered him to the Viniccaya-Mahamattas, i.e. officers whose business it was to make enquiries and examine the accused with a view to ascertaining whether he was innocent or guilty. If they found the man innocent, they released him; but if they considered him guilty, they made him over to the Voharikas, i.e. persons learned in law and custom. These could discharge 1 Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. II, p. 263. 2 Fausboll, Jataka, Vol. IV, p. 148: 'Vesalinagare ganarajakulanam abhisekamangalapokkharanim, ...' See also D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, Pp. 150-1. 3 Sumangalavilasini, II, 519 (P.T.S.).

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326 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA him if they found him innocent; if they held him guilty, they transferred him to certain officers called Suttadharas, that is, officials who kept up the sutra (sutta) or thread of (ancient) law and custom. They in their turn made further investigation, and if satisfied that the accused was innocent, they discharged him. If, however, they considered him guilty, he was made over to the Atthakulaka 1 (lit. 'the eight castes or tribes') which was evidently a judicial institution composed of judges representing the eight kulas or tribes of the confederacy. The Atthakulaka, if satisfied of the guilt of the accused, made him over to the Senapati or commander of the army, who delivered him over to the Uparaja or sub-king, and the latter in his turn handed him over to the Raja. The Raja released the accused if he was innocent; if he was found guilty, the Raja referred to the Paveni potthaka, that is, the pustaka or book recording the law and precedents, and prescribing the punishment for each particular offence. The Raja,2 having measured the culprit's offence by means of that standard, used to inflict a proper sentence.3 Political History It is from the Buddhist literature that we first realise the importance of the Licchavis. In the Brahmana literature, though there is repeated mention of Videha, which in the Buddha's time joined with the Licchavis and formed a confederation, there is no mention of the Licchavis. It is remarkable that while the Mallas, their immediate neighbours, are mentioned in the Mahabharata, the Licchavis are not found among the peoples that were encountered by the Pandava brothers in their peregrinations, or on their mission of conquest. In the sixth century B.C., however, we find them in the Jaina and Buddhist books as a powerful people in the enjoyment of great prosperity and of a high social status among the ruling races of Eastern India, and, as we have seen, they had already evolved a system of government and polity bearing no small 1 The Hon. G. Turnour says that no satisfactory explanation can be obtained as to the nature of the office held by these functionaries. It is inferred to be a judicial institution composed of judges from all the eight castes. 2 It seems that the 'Raja' who was the highest authority in the administration of criminal justice was different from the ordinary rajas who constituted the popular assembly. He was perhaps the senior amongst the rajas, or was one elected from time to time to administer criminal justice. 3 G. Turnour, An Examination of the Pali Buddhistical Annals, J.A.S.B., December, 1838, pp. 993-4, f.n.

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THE LICCHAVIS 327 resemblance to some of the democracies1 of the western world. It must have taken a long time to develop such institutions. But we must not imagine that the system was a creation of the Licchavis; for it seems that the samgha form of government was the normal form in ancient India even among the peoples that had a king at their head. The earliest Indian tradition of a king is that of a person elected by the people and ruling for the good of the people.2 The procedure of conducting the deliberations of an assembly must have been developing from the earliest Vedic times, as the samiti and the parisad were well-known institutions in the Rgveda. The Licchavis must have modelled their procedure on that which was already in vogue among the Indian Aryans, allowing a century for the evolution of the particular form of government of the Licchavis from the already existing system. Their emergence from obscurity may fairly be placed at the beginning of the seventh century B.C. It is true that we do not find the Licchavis among the Vedic peoples, but in the fourth century B.C. (the time of the Arthasastra) they are mentioned along with the Kuru-Pancalas and the Madras, i.e. with some of the powerful races of the Brahmanic period. 3 We know nothing of the history of the Licchavis during the period of their early growth and development. The earliest political fact of any importance that we know of is that a Licchavi girl was given in marriage to Seniya or Srenika Bimbisara, king of Magadha. This Licchavi lady, according to the Nirayavali Sutra, one of the early Jaina works, was Cellana, the daughter of Cetaka, one of the Rajas of Vaisali, whose sister Ksatriyani Trisala was the mother of Mahavira. In a Tibetan Life of the Buddha, her name is given as Sribhadra, and in some places she is named Madda.5 She is, however, usually called Vaidehi in the Buddhist books, and her son Ajatasatru is frequently designated 'Vedehiputto', or the son of the Videhan princess. 1 It may be argued that the Licchavi constitution was not a democracy, since citizenship was confined to the Licchavi clan, but in reply it may be pointed out that even in the great democracy of Athens, every resident was not a citizen. The Metics and the Slaves, for instance, were excluded from citizenship. 2 See, e.g., the story of Bena and Prthu, Mahabharata, Santiparvan, Vangavasi Ed., Chap. 60, verse 94. 3 Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII, Introduction, p. xiii. 4 Ibid., p. xiii, note 3. 5 Mrs. Rhys Davids and S. Sumangala Thera, The Book of the Kindred Sayings, Pt. I, p. 38, n. I. 6 Samyutta Nikaya, Pt. II, p. 268.

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328 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Divyavadana in one passage 1 speaks of Ajatasatru as Vaidehiputra, and elsewhere? it states that King Bimbisara reigned at Rajagrha with his chief queen Vaidehi, and Ajatasatru, his son. The Tibetan Dulva gives the name of Vasavi to Ajatasatru's mother, and narrates a story regarding Ajatasatru's origin which cannot be traced in the Pali Canon.3 D. R. Bhandarkar holds that 'this matrimonial alliance was a result of the peace concluded after the war between Bimbisara and the Licchavis',4 and that Bimbisara thus appears to have seized Magadha after expelling the Vajjis beyond the Ganges' Bhandarkar's theory is based on Rhys Davids' supposition that the expression Vesalim Magadham puram in verse 1013 of the Suttanipata 6 (P.T.S.) refers to one and the same city, taking Magadham puram in apposition to Vesali. But the commentator has taken Magadham to be a synonym of Rajagaha (= Rajagtha). Mention of the Pasana-cetiya in the same verse also goes to show that Magadham puram was not Vaisali. In several places we find mention of the caityas or cetiyas round about Vaisali, but nowhere do we come across a Pasana-cetiya. From verse 1014 of the Suttanipata it appears that this cetiya was situated on a mountain peak. It is quite possible, therefore, that it was one of the cetiyas round about Rajagrha, and most probably it was the Grdhrakuta (Pali Gijjhakuta) monastery. There seems to have been some basis, however, for concluding that there was a war between Bimbisara and the Licchavis, as such a war is referred to incidentally in the Tibetan Dulva, in a passage which traces the birth of Abhaya (fearless'), another son of Bimbisara, also by the Licchavi woman. This story, which makes Abhaya or Abhayakumara, as the Jaina books have it, a son of Ambapali (Amrapali), the courtesan of Vaisali, is not confirmed by the Pali books, where her son by Bimbisara is called Vimala-Kondanna, who became a Bhikkhu. The Licchavis appear to have been on friendly terms with King Pasenadi (Prasenajit) of Kosala, who speaks of them as his 1 Divyavadana (Cowell and Neil), p. 55. 2 Ibid., p. 545. 3 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, pp. 63-4. 4 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 74. 5 Ibid., p. 73. 6 P.T.S. (new edition), p. 194. 7 Suttanipata Commentary, p. 584: "Magadham puranti Magadhapuram Rajagahan-ti adhippayo'. 8 Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 64. 9 Psalms of the Sisters, pp. 120-1; Psalms of the Brethren, p. 65.

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THE LICCHAVIS 329 friends. The relation of the Licchavis with their neighbours, the Mallas, also seems to have been friendly in general, as is evidenced by the Mallas standing by the Licchavis against their common foe, Ajatasatru. The Jaina books also speak of nine Malla chiefs and nine Licchavi chiefs showing reverence to Mahavira at the time of his passing. There were, however, occasional hostilities between the two tribes, as is shown by the story of Bandhula, a Mallian prince, who was victorious over the Licchavi chiefs. We must now speak of the relations of the Licchavis with Ajatasatru, the son and successor of Bimbisara. The Magadhan king must have felt that the confederacy formed the greatest bar to the realisation of his idea of Magadhan expansion; and we find him taking the dreadful resolve to root out and destroy the Vajjians. According to one account,4 the Vajjians attacked Ajatasatru many times. This enraged him, and in order to baffle their attempts he had a fort constructed at Pataligama, and finally annihilated them. It is probable that Ajatasatru was partly influenced by his fear of his foster-brother Abhaya, who had Licchavi blood in him. At this time, too, the Licchavis were gaining strength day by day, and no doubt becoming increasingly arrogant. In the Sumangalavilasini account 5 we read that there was a port near the Ganges extending over a yojana, half of which belonged to Ajatasatru and half to the Licchavis. There was a mountain not far from it, and at the foot of this mountain was a mine of precious substance (Mahogghabhanda). Once Ajatasatru was late in arriving there, and the Licchavis took away all the treasure; and this happened again the following year. Having sustained a heavy loss, Ajatasatru decided on vengeance. He realised, however, that the Licchavis were numerically stronger; so he conceived the idea of destroying their unity by sowing seeds of dissension among them. He sent his prime minister Vassakara to the Buddha, who predicted that in future the Licchavis would be delicate and pleasure-loving, but that at present they could not be overcome save by propitiating them with tributes, or dissolving their internal unity. When Vassakara reported this to Ajatasatru, the king did not agree to propitiate the Vajjians with tributes, so he decided to break up their union, and arranged to bring a trumpedup charge against Vassakara, whereupon the latter, feigning anger at his disgrace, would go to the Vajjis and offer to betray Ajatasatru 1 Majjhima Nikaya, P.T.S., Vol. II, pp. 100-1 (Angulimala Sutta). 2 Jataka, Vol. IV, p. 149 (Bhaddasala Jataka). 3 Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, pp. 1 and 2 (Mahaparinibbana Suttanta). 4 Ibid., p. 18. 5 (P.T.S.) II, p. 516.

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330 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA to them. This plan was duly carried out, and the Vajjis offered Vassakara the same post as he had held in Magadha, of 'Judicial Prime Minister'. Vassakara accepted this post, and very soon acquired a reputation for his able administration of justice. After some time he started sowing dissension among the Licchavis, making them suspicious of each other and of their chiefs. In this way he succeeded in the course of three years in bringing about such disunion among the rulers that none of them would tread the same road together. He then sent a mission to Ajatasatru, telling him that the time to strike had arrived. The king forthwith assembled his forces and set out. The Vajjians, on receiving intimation thereof, sounded the tocsin calling the citizens to action; but no one responded to the call, and Ajatasatru entered the city and routed the inhabitants.1 Thus the Magadhan kingdom was very much extended during his reign. Of the subsequent history of the Licchavis we know very little. But it is certain that they were not completely exterminated by Ajatasatru. He seems to have succeeded in making the Licchavis acknowledge his suzerainty and pay him revenue, but they must have been independent in the matter of internal management, and maintained their democratic institutions, for Kautilya speaks of them two centuries later as living under a samgha form of government, and advises King Candragupta Maurya to seek the help of these samghas which, on account of their unity and concord, were almost unconquerable. It may safely be presumed that the Licchavis acknowledged the suzerainty of Candragupta's grandson Asoka. After this we next meet them (as Licchivis) in Manu's Code, some time between 200 B.C. and 200 A.D., and then we do not hear of them again until the fourth century A.D., when their name appears in the records of the Imperial Guptas. At the beginning of the fourth century A.D., Candragupta I, a son-in-law of the Licchavi family and son of Ghatotkaca Gupta, established a new kingdom. A gold coin was introduced under the name of Candragupta I by his son, the emperor Samudragupta, who succeeded in establishing his suzerainty over a great part of India. On the obverse of the coin were incised the figures of Candragupta and his queen Kumaradevi. The former is offering an object (which on some coins appears clearly as a ring) to his queen. The words 'Candragupta' and 'Kumaradevi', or 'Sri Kumaradevi', or 'Kumaradevi Srih' are inscribed in the Brahmi 1 Digha Nikaya Comm. (Sumangalavilasini), II, 524 (P.T.S.). 2 R. D. Banerjea, Pracina Mudra, p. 121.

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THE LICCHAVIS 331 character of the fourth century A.D., and on the reverse was engraved the figure of Laksmi, the goddess of Fortune, seated on a lion couchant, with the legend 'Licchavayah', 'the Licchavis'. With this is to be combined the significant fact that Samudragupta in his Allahabad Inscription takes pride in describing himself as 'Licchavidauhitra', 'the son of a daughter of the Licchavis'. This combined evidence justifies the conclusion that in the fourth century A.D., when the Guptas rose to power, the Licchavis must have It is possessed considerable political power in N.E. India. quite probable that Candragupta's dominions received considerable expansion by the addition of the country which he obtained through his Licchavi wife Kumaradevi, perhaps by succession. Fleet, in editing the inscriptions in which the Gupta-Licchavi connection is mentioned, observes: 'Proof of friendly relations between the early Guptas and the Licchavis, at an early time, is given by the marriage of Candra Gupta I with Kumara Devi, the daughter of Licchavi or of a Licchavi king. And that the Licchavis were then at least of equal rank and power with the early Guptas, is shewn by the pride in this alliance manifested by the latter.'1 Fleet even goes so far as to declare: 'In all probability the so-called Gupta era is a Licchavi era, dating either from a time when the republican or tribal constitution of the Licchavis was abolished in favour of a monarchy; or from the commencement of the reign of Jayadeva I, as the founder of a royal house in a branch of the tribe that had settled in Nepal.2 The fact that this royal house that was planted by the Licchavis in Nepal about the period 330 to 355 A.D. by Jayadeva I was all along Brahmanical, proves that the Licchavis had not entirely dissociated themselves from the Brahmanic faith.' Allan presumes that it was to keep up the memory of his father, Candragupta, and his mother, Kumaradevi, that the coin bearing their names and that of the Licchavis was issued by Samudragupta. It is not improbable that the inscription 'Licchavayah' which occurs on Candragupta's gold coins together with the name of his queen Kumaradevi may signify that she belonged to a royal family of the Licchavis previously reigning at Pataliputra (modern Patna), which seems to have been the original capital of the Gupta empire. A similar opinion is held by V. A. Smith, who says that Candragupta, a local raja at or near Pataliputra, married Kumaradevi, a princess 5 1 Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions-Corpus Ins. Ind., Vol. III, Introduction, p. 135. 2 Ibid., p. 136. 3 Ibid., p. 135. 4 Allan, Gupta Coins, pp. 8-11. 5 Rapson, Indian Coins, pp. 24, 25.

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332 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA belonging to the Licchavi clan, in or about the year 308.1 In ancient times, the Licchavis of Vaisali had been the rivals of the kings of Pakaliputra, but Candragupta was now elevated through his Licchavi connection from the rank of a local chief. The Nepal inscriptions point out that there were two distinct houses, one of which, known as the Thakuri family, is mentioned in the Vamsavali, but is not recorded in the inscriptions; and the other was the Licchavi or the Suryavamsi family which issued its charters from the house or palace called Managrha and uniformly used an era with the Gupta epoch. I V. A. Smith, Early History of India (4th Ed.), p. 295. 2 Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, Vol. II, p. 135. RISHNA MIO MISSION AMAKRIS NEW DELHI READINI BRAR OG ROOM

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CHAPTER LIX THE UTKALAS AND UDRAS THE UTKALAS Some Puranas seem to imply that one of the ten sons of Manu was Ila-Sudyumna, a Kimpurusha 1 who in his turn had three sons, Utkala, Vinatasva 2 and Gaya who enjoyed respectively the territories of Utkala, an undefined western country and Gaya.3 These three territories have sometimes been collectively designated in the Puranas as Saudyumnas.4 The Saudyumnas thus seem to have occupied the hilly tracts from Gaya to Orissa. Epic tradition 5 connects the Utkalas with the Udras, Mekalas, Kalingas and Andhras. The Dronaparvan of the Mahabharata would have us believe that Karna conquered the Utkalas along with the Mekalas, Paundras, Kalingas, Andhras, Nisadas, Trigarttas and Vahlikas. In the Ramayana the Utkala country is associated with the Mekala and Dasarna countries. In sending his army of monkeys to the different countries in quest of Sita, Sugriva asked Susena to send his retinue among other countries of the south to Mekala, Utkala and Dasarna (Canto XLII). From the Epic tradition as contained in the Mahabharata cited above, it is evident that even as early as the period when the tradition was recorded, Utkala was distinguished from Odra or Udra and the distinction seems to have been maintained throughout in ancient Indian literature and inscriptions. It is equally evident that it was distinguished from Kalinga as well, though a verse in the Vanaparvan of the Mahabharata & seems to suggest that Utkala at one time formed a part of Kalinga. The Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa,? however, represents Utkala as an independent kingdom. The Brahmapurana 8 also suggests that Utkala and Kalinga were separate kingdoms. . According to the Raghuvamsa, the eastern boundary of 1 For a critical and synthetic study of Pauranic legends in this connection, see Pargiter, A.I.H.T., pp. 253-4. 2 Or simply Vinata in most Puranas, or Haritasva according to Matsyapurana and Padmapurana. 3 Utkalasya Otkalam rastram Vinatasvasya pascimam dik purva tasya rajarser Gayasya tu Gayapuri. 4 E.g., Vayu purana, pp. 99, 266. 5 Mbh., Bhismaparvan, Chap. IX, 348; Dronaparvan, Chap. IV, 122. 6 Vanaparvan, Chap. 114. 7 IV, v. 38. 8 47, 7.

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334 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Utkala seems to have extended to the river Kapisa (probably identical with either the modern Suvarnarekha, according to Lassen, or with the Kasai in Midnapur, according to Pargiter) and to the realm of the Mekalas on the west, with whom they are constantly associated. and who were inhabitants presumably of the Mekala hills. In the Apadana of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta-pitaka, a book of the Pali Canon, Okkala or Ukkala or Utkalas were a tribe mentioned along with the Mekalas.1 Southward must have extended the realm of the Kalingas. From this, Pargiter deduced that Utkala must have comprised the southern portion of modern Chotanagpur.2 He further suggests that the reading Suhmottarah, a people of the eastern countries, of the Matsyapurana, should be amended to Suhmotkalah to mean the 'Suhmas and the Utkalas', in which case the Utkalas become the immediately contiguous southern neighbours of the Suhmas who occupied roughly the modern districts of Bankura, Midnapore, Purulia and Manbhum. The Markandeya Purana, however, locates the Utkalas as inhabiting the Vindhya mountains, along with the Karushas, Keralas (according to Vayu and Matsya Puranas, the reading here should be Mekalas and not Keralas which is evidently incorrect), the Uttamaranas and the Dasarnas. Roughly speaking, the Utkalas were indeed a Vindhyan people inasmuch as the Chotanagpur hills are just an extension of the Vindhya ranges. Coming to more definite historical times, we hardly find mention of the Utkalas as a people, though in later inscriptions and literature there are numerous references to Utkaladesa or Utkalavisaya, the country presumably of the Utkala people. Thus a twelfth century epigraph of Gahadavala Govindachandra refers to a Buddhist scholar Sakyaraksita, who was a resident of the Utkaladesa. Another inscription, also of the twelfth century (Bhuvaneswar Stone Inscription of Narasimha I) refers to the building of a Visnu temple by Candrika, sister of Narasimha, at Ekamra or modern Bhuvaneswar, in the Utkalavisaya. It is obvious from this inscription that Utkalavisaya at this period at least comprised the Puri and Bhuvaneswar regions as well. Earlier, in the Bhagalpur grant of Narayanapala, a certain king of the Utkalas (Utkalanamadhisa) took fright and fled from his capital at the approach of Prince Jayapala of the Pala dynasty. The Badal Pillar Inscription of the time of Gudavamisra credits King Devapala with having eradicated the race of the Utkalas along with the pride of the Hunas and the conceit of the rulers of Dravida and Gurjara. The Ramacaritam of Sandhyakara Nandi in giving a list of foreign countries invaded by 1 Pt. II, p. 359. 2 Markandeya P., p. 327 f.n. 3 Chap. CXIII, 44.

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THE UTKALAS AND UDRAS 335 his hero Ramapala distinguishes Utkala from Kalinga in the eleventh century. A Sonpur grant of Mahasivagupta Yayati, of about the same date, also distinguishes Utkaladesa from Kalinga and Kongoda. The Buddhist literature contains some interesting information about Utkalas or Okkalas. Two merchants, named Tapussa and Bhallika,' were on their way from Ukkala to see the Buddha who was at the foot of the Rajayatana tree near Uruvela. They were asked by their relative to offer food to the Blessed One who at first refused to accept it, but he afterwards accepted it and ate it up. The two merchants became his disciples. They were wealthy merchants who also visited Majjhimadesa from Ukkala with five hundred carts. Two inhabitants of Ukkala, named Vassa and Bhanna, did not believe in causation action on reality (ahetuvada, akiriyavada, and natthikavada).4 THE UDRAS The earliest mention of the Udras or Odras or Audras as a people is, perhaps, found in the following sloka of the Manavadharmasastra where the Odras are classed as outside the Brahmanical pale (i.e. Mlecchas) along with the Paundrakas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Cinas, Kiratas, Daradas and Khasas. Sanakaistu kriyalopadimah kshatriyajatayah Vysalatvam gata loke brahmanadarsanena cha Paundrakaschauara Dravioa Kamboja Yavanah sakah Paradah Pahlavaschainah Kirata Daradah Khasah. The Apadana, a work of the Pali Canon, mentions Oddaka who were the same as Odra or Udra.5 Pliny in his Natural History mentions the Oretes as a people of India in whose country stood Mount Maleus which in another passage he locates amongst the Monedes and Suari. Cunningham identifies the last two peoples as the Mundas and Suars, from which he is led to conclude that the Oretes must be the people of Orissa. But it must be remembered that even then we cannot definitely equate the Greek Oretes with the Sanskrit Odra or Uara or Audradesa. Epic tradition connects the Udras along with the Pondras, Utkalas, Mekalas, Kalingas and Andhras. According to the 1 Cf. Mahavastu, III, p. 303, where Ukkala is mentioned as situated in Uttarapatha. 2 Vinaya Pitaka, P.T.S., Vol. I, pp. 3-4. - 3 Jataka, Fausboll, I, P. 8o. 4 Anguttara Nikaya, II, p. 3; C. Samyutta Nikaya, III, P. 73; Majjhima Nikaya, III, 78, and Kathavatthu, I, p. 141. 5 Pt. II, p. 358. 6 Vanaparvan, LI, 1988; Bhismaparvan, IX, 365; Dronaparvan, IV, 122.

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336 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Brahmapurana (28, 29, 42) which is admittedly very late, the country of the Odras extended northwards to Vrajamandala (Jajpur). and consisted of three kshetras called Purushottama or Srikshetra. Savitu or Arkakshetra, and Birajakshetra through which flew the river Vaitarani. But it is somewhat strange that nowhere in early inscriptions do we find any mention of the people and their country. The first elaborate account of the people and their country is found in the itinerary of Hsuan Tsang. From Karnasuvarna the pilgrim travelled south-west for about 722 li and came to the Wu-t'u or U-cha country. "The country was above 7,000 li in circuit, and its capital above 20 li. The people were of violent ways, tall and of dark complexion, in speech and manners different from the people of "Mid-India". They were indefatigable students and many of them were Buddhists. There were above roo Buddhist monasteries, and a myriad brethren, all Mahayanists. Of deva temples there were fifty, and the various sects lived pell-mell. Near the shore of the ocean in the south-east of this country was the city Che-li-ta-lo (= Charitrapura = Puri?), above 20 li in circuit which was a thoroughfare and resting-place for sea-going traders and strangers from distant lands.'1 About a century later the country of the Odras became involved in chaos which has been described as matsyanyaya in contemporary records. The celebrated Tibetan historian Taranath in his History of Buddhism records that Odivisa, Vanga and five other countries of the east plunged themselves in a chaotic political condition 2 from which they were rescued by the election of King Gopala on the throne. Odivisa of Taranath is certainly a corruption or adaptation of Odra-visaya. Odivisa is further mentioned by Taranath in connection with the reign of Devapala who is credited by him as having 'brought into submission the kingdom of Varendra in the east and afterwards the province of Odivisa'. The Tirumalai Rock Inscription of the thirteenth year of King Rajendra Cola credits the king as having seized by his great warlike army the Odda-visaya in the course of his northern expedition. This Odda-visaya is certainly identical with Odra-visaya. The Cola king, Raja-raja, is also said to have conquered the Odda country. Doubtless, during this period, Odda-visaya came to mean the whole of the present Orissa country. 1 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, II, pp. 193-4. 2 There was no longer any member of it (the royal family of a king; in Odivisa, in Vanga, and the other five provinces to the east, each Ksatriya, Brahmana, and merchant, constituted himself king of his surroundings, but there was no king ruling the country'-Taranath, Ind. Ant., IV, 1875, pp. 365-6.

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CHAPTER LX THE AVANTIS In Vedic times, the Avantis do not emerge into importance as a ruling Ksatriya tribe of ancient India. Their name is not found in the Vedic literature; but in the Mahabharata they are found to be one of the most powerful of the Ksatriya clans. Their dual monarchs, Vinda and Anuvinda, each led an aksauhini of troops to Duryodhana's army, and thus the Avantis made up one-fifth of the entire Kuru host (V, 19, 24). The two monarchs are designated 'maharatha' ('great warrior'), the highest title given to an epic warrior (VII, 5, 99), and are spoken of as wielding powerful bows.3 The two Avanti princes figure very prominently in the battle, and many are the glorious and heroic deeds with which they are credited. They rendered useful service to the Kaurava cause by their individual prowess and generalship as well as by the large army consisting of forces of every description which they led to battle. They fought bravely in the field until they were slain,-by Arjuna, according to one account (VII, 99, 3691), and by Bhima, according to another (XI, 22, 617). We read of the mighty hosts of the Avantis - Sainyam Avantyanam-in the Karnaparvan and elsewhere (VII, 113, 4408; VIII, 8, 235). The Matsyapurana (Chap. 43) traces the origin of the Avantis to the Haihaya dynasty of which Karttaviryarjuna was the most glorious ruler, and adds that Ayanti was the name borne by one of the sons of this monarch. The Lingapurana states that out of the hundred sons of Karttaviryarjuna, five, namely Sura, Surasena, Dtsta, Krsna and Yayudhvaja, ruled Avanti and acquired great renown. The Visnu-Dharmottara Mahapurana (Chap. IX) and the Padmapurana (Svarga Khanda, Chap. III) speak of Avanti as one of the mahajanapadas or chief provinces of ancient India. The Skandapurana has a whole section, the Avantyakhanda, dealing with the sacred sites and places of pilgrimage in the country of the Avantis. It is stated (Chap. 43) that the god Mahadeva, after he 1 'Avantyau ca mahipalau mahavalasamurtau pythagaksuhinibhyam tavabhiyatau suyodhanam. 2 'Vindanuvindavavantyau rajaputrau maharathau.' See also Mbh., V, 166, 5753, Cal. Ed.; Bhismaparvan, VI, 99, 4504; VI, 114, 5293, 5309. 8 VI, 83, 3650; VI, 94, 4195. 4 Mbh., VI, 16, 622; II, 17, 673, etc.; VI, 59, 2584; VI, 81, 3557; VI, 83, 365060; VI, 86, 3823; VI, 102, 4666; VI, 113, 5240; VII, 14, 542; 25, 1083; 32, 1410. 22

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338 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA had destroyed the demon Tripura, visited Avantipura, which came to be known as Ujjayini in honour of his victory. This Purana in the section of Ayodhya-mahatmya (Chap. I) relates that saints of Ujjayini, the Avanti capital, came to Kuruksetra with their disciples to attend the sacrifice of Rama. The Puranas also speak of intermarriages between the royal family of the Avantis and the ruling dynasty of the Yadus. Thus the Visnupurana (IV, 12) and Agnipurana (Chap. 275) state that a Vadu princess called Rajyadhidevi was married to the king of Avanti. She was one of the five sisters of the Yadu monarch, Vasudeva, son of Sura. The Visnupurana adds (IV, 14) that Rajyadhidevi bore two sons, Vinda and Upavinda, who are most probably to be identified with the Avanti princes, Vinda and Anuvinda of Epic fame. The grammarian Panini refers to Avanti in one of his sutras (IV, 1, 176). With regard to the location of Avanti, the sage Dhaumya (Vanaparvan, Mbh.), in enumerating the places of pilgrimage in W. India, refers to the country of the Avantis, and speaks of the sacred river Narmada as being situated therein. At the beginning of the Virataparvan, Arjuna mentions Avanti along with other kingdoms in W. India, namely, Surastra and Kunti (IV, 1, 12). The geographical connection between the Avantis and the Kuntis is also shown in the description of 'Bharatavarsa' in the Bhismaparvan (VI, 9, 350). A path leading to the city of Avanti is referred to in the Nalopakhyana of the Vanaparvan (III, 61, 2317). Mrs. Rhys Davids notes 2 that Avanti lay north of the Vindhya mountains north-west of Bombay. It was one of the four chief monarchies in India when Buddhism arose, and was later absorbed into the Mauryan empire. Rhys Davids observes: "The country (Avanti), much of which is rich land, had been colonized or conquered by Aryan tribes who came down the Indus valley and turned west from the Gulf of Kutch. It was called Avanti at least as late as the second century A.D. (see Rudradaman's Inscription at Junagadh) but from the seventh or eighth century onwards, it was called Malava' (Buddhist India, p. 28). Ujjayini, which was situated on the Sipra, a tributary of the Carmanvati (Chambal), is the modern Ujjain in Gwalior, Central India. It was the capital of Avanti or Western Malava, and the residence of the Viceroy of the western provinces both under the Maurya and the Gupta empires.3 1 Mbh., Vanaparvan, III, 89, 8354; Avantisu Praticyam vai. 2 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 107, note i. 3 Rapson, Ancient India, p. 175, s.v. Ujjayini. 22B

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THE AVANTIS 339 1 In the Dipavamsa, we read that Ujjeni (Ujjayini) was built by Accutagami. Watters points out that the Avanti capital Ujayana mentioned by Hsuan Tsang is generally supposed to be the well-known Ujain or Ujjen (Ujjain). In some of the canonical scriptures, Ujain is located to the west of Kanoj, which lies between Ujain and Benares. The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang thus describes Ujjayini, which name he gives to the whole country surrounding the capital'Ujjaini is about 6,000 li in circuit; the capital is some 30 li round. The produce and manners of the people are like those of the country of Surastra. The population is dense and the establishments wealthy. There are several tens of convents, but they are mostly in ruins; some three or five are preserved. There are some 300 priests; they study the doctrines both of the Great and the Little Vehicle. There are several tens of Deva temples, occupied by sectaries of various kinds. The king belongs to the Brahman caste. He is well-versed in heretical books, and believes not in the true law. Not far from the city is a stupa; this is the place where Asoka-raja made the hell (of punishment)." 93 Owing to its position, Avanti became a great commercial centre. Three trade-routes met here; from the western coast with its sea-ports, Surparaka (Sopara) and Bhrgukaccha (Broach); from the Deccan; and from Sravasti in Kosala (Oudh). It was also a great centre of science and literature. Ujjayini was one of the seven sacred cities of the Hindus, and astronomers reckoned their first meridian of longitude from there. The dramas of Kalidasa were performed on the occasion of the Spring Festival before the viceregal court of Ujjayini, c. 400 A.D.4 An interesting notice of Ujjain is to be found in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (sec. 48) where we read: 'Eastward from Barygaza (=Bhrgukaccha) is a city called Ozene, formerly the capital where the king resided. From this place is brought down to Barygaza every commodity for local consumption or export to other parts of India, onyx-stones, porcelain, fine muslins, mallow-tinted cottons and the ordinary kinds in great quantities. It imports from the upper country through Proklais for transport to the coast, spikenard, kostos and bdellium.' The ancient city no longer exists, but its ruins can be traced at a distance of a mile from its modern successor.5 1 Oldenberg, p. 57, Text. 2 On Yuan Chwang, Vol. II, pp. 250-1. 3 Buddhist Records of the Western World, Vol. II, p. 270. 4 Rapson, Ancient India, p. 175; and see McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 154. 5 McCrindle, Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, p. 155.

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340 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Avanti was one of the most flourishing kingdoms of ancient India, mentioned in the Anguttara Nikaya as one of the sixteen 'mahajanapadas' of Jambudvipa. From the first, Avanti became an important centre of the new doctrine which we now call Buddhism. and may have been the scene of elaboration of Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhists.2 Several of the most earnest adherents of the Dhamma were either born or resided there: Abhaya Kumara, Isidasi,4 Isidatta, Dhammapala,Sona Kutikanna,and especially Mahakaccayana.8 Many are the stories that are told of Mahakaccayana. He was born at Ujjayini in the family of the chaplain of King Candapajjota. He learnt the three Vedas, and, on his father's death, succeeded him in the chaplainship. Subsequently, both Mahakaccayana and the king his master were converted by the Buddha, and Mahakaccayana devoted himself to furthering the Dhamma in his native province. One of his most celebrated converts was Sono Kutikanno (so called because he used to wear ear-jewellery worth a crore). Kutikanno, the son of a wealthy councillor of Avanti, became a land-owner, but asked Mahakaccayana to ordain him, after hearing him preach.10 Isidatta was another of Mahakaccayana's converts. He was born at Velugama as the son of a guide to caravans. 11 Dhammapala, a Brahman's son of the country of Avanti, was also one of the early converts to the new faith. When he was returning from the university of Taksasila after completing his education, he met a thera, heard the Dhamma from him, left the world and acquired six-fold abhinna.12 When the first Great Council of the disciples of the Buddha was held after his parinibbana, to compile his teachings, Yasa sent messengers to the bhikkhus of Avanti inviting them to attend and help to perform the task.13 This shows that at that time 1 Arguttara Nikaya, Vol. IV, pp. 252, 256, 261. 2 Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I, p. 282. 3 Theragatha Commentary, 39. 4 Therigatha Commentary, 261-4. 5 Theragatha, 120. 6 Ibid., 204. 7 Vinaya Texts, II, 32; Theragatha, 369; Udana, V, 6. 8 Samyutta Nikaya, III, p. 9; IV, I7; Aiguttara Nikaya, I, p. 23; V, 40, Majjhima Nikaya, III, I94, 223. 9 Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 238-9; also (for further stories of Mahakaccayana) Anguttara Nikaya, V, pp. 46-7; Samyutta Nikaya, III, pp. 9ff.; ibid., Vol. IV, PP. 11516, Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. II, pp. 176-7. 10 Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. IV, p. 101; cf. also Vinaya Texts, S.B.E. Pt. II, pp. 32ff.; Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 202-3. 11 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 107; Samyutta Nikaya, IV, pp. 285-8. 12 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 149. 18 Vinaya Texts, Pt. III, p. 394; cf. Geiger, Mahavamsa, Tr., p. 21.

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THE AVANTIS 341 (c. 480 B.C.) followers of the new faith in the western province of Avanti must have been numerous and influential. King Bimbisara of Magadha had a son, Abhaya, by a courtesan of Ujjayini named Padumavati. The great propounder of the Jaina faith, Mahavira, is said to have performed some of his penances in the country of Avanti, especially in Ujjayini.2 Here, too, the temple of Mahakala-one of the twelve most famous Saiva temples in India-was built.3 One of the sacred places of the Lingayat sect is situated at Ujjain. The Lingayat itinerant ascetics wander over India, frequenting especially the five simhasanas or Lingayat sees. With regard to the political history of Avanti, we have already referred to King Canda Pajjota or Pradyota, who was a contemporary of the Buddha, and under whom the new faith became the state religion of Avanti. The Pradyotas were kings of Avanti (Western Malwa), and their capital was Ujjayini. There is a reference to King Canda Pajjota in the Chinese Buddhist legends collected by Beal. In Buddha's time, the king of Madhura (Mathura) was styled Avantiputta, showing that on his mother's side he was connected with the royal family of Ujjain. The commentary on verses 21-3 of the Dhammapada gives a romantic story of the manner in which a matrimonial alliance was established between the royal families of Kausambi and Avanti. One day, King Pajjota asked his courtiers whether there was any king more glorious than himself, and they told him that King Udena of Kosambi surpassed him. Angered, King Pajjota determined to attack Udena. He caused a wooden elephant to be made, and concealed sixty warriors in it. Knowing that Udena had a great liking for fine elephants, he had him informed by spies that a magnificent elephant was to be found in the frontier forest. King Udena came to the forest, and, in pursuit of the prize, became separated from his retinue and was taken prisoner. While a captive, he fell in love with Vasuladatta, daughter of King Pajjota. One day, when Pajjota was away on a pleasure jaunt, Udena put Vasuladatta on an elephant and eloped with her. On his return, King Pajjota sent a force in pursuit, but the wily Udena delayed 1 Therigatha Commentary, p. 39. For further references in Buddhist texts to Ujjain and Avanti, see, e.g. "Therigatha Commentary, pp. 260-1, Vimanavatthu Commentary, pp. 137ff. 2 Mrs. S. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, p. 33. 3 Ibid., p. 75. 4 Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. II, p. 227. 5 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 310-II. 6 The Romantic Legend of Sakya Buddha, S. Beal, p. 29. 7 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 53.

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342 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA his pursuers by scattering coins and gold-dust on the route, and reached his own territory in safety. Udena and Vasuladatta entered the city in triumph, and with due pomp and ceremony the princess was anointed queen. In the fourth century B.C., Ujjayini became subject to Magadha. Later (early third century B.C.), Asoka was stationed at Ujjayini as Viceroy of the Avanti country, prior to his accession. We reads that Asoka's son, Mahinda, was born while Asoka was Viceroy in Ujjayini, under his father Bindusara. Asoka's grandson, Samprati, ruled in Ujjain and figured in Jaina legends. Vikramaditya, the celebrated king of Ujjain, who is usually identified with Candragupta II (c. 375 A.D.) is said to have expelled the Scythians and thereafter established his power over the greater part of India. In later times some of the ruling families of Avanti made their mark on Indian history. The Paramara dynasty of Malwa, anciently known as Avanti, is especially memorable by reason of its association with many eminent names in the history of later Sanskrit literature. The dynasty was founded early in the ninth century by a chief named Upendra or Krsnaraja. Upendra appears to have come from Candravati and Achalgarh near Mount Abu, where his clan had been settled for a long time. The seventh raja, named Munja, was famous for his learning and eloquence, and was not only a patron of poets but himself a poet of no small reputation. About 1018 A.D., Munja's nephew, the famous Bhoja, ascended the throne of Dhara, which was the capital of Malwa in those days, and reigned gloriously for more than forty years. About 1060 A.D., this prince succumbed to an attack by the confederate kings of Gujarat and Cedi; but his dynasty lasted as a purely local power until the beginning of the thirteenth century, when it was superseded by chiefs of the Tomara clan, who were followed in their turn by Chauhan rajas, from whom the crown passed to Muhammadan kings in 1401. The Emperor Akbar suppressed the local dynasty in 1569, and incorporated Malwa in the Mughal empire. There is generally one distinguishing mark of the coins current in Ujjain; but on some of the rare coins the word 'Ujeniya' is incised in Brahmi characters of the second century B.C. Generally on one side is a man with a symbol of the Sun and on the other is seen the sign of Ujjain. On some coins, a bull within a fence, or the Bodhi-tree, or Sumeru hill, or the figure of the Goddess of Fortune, 1 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, pp. 4-7. The same story is related in another form by Bhasa in his drama, Svapnavasavadatta: Dham. Com., Vol. I, pp. 191-2. 2 V. A. Smith, Asoka, p. 235. 3 Copleston, Buddhism, p. 181. 4 Mrs. Stevenson, Heart of Jainism, p. 74. 5 Smith, Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 410. 8 Ibid., p. 411.

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THE AVANTIS 343 is seen on one side. Some coins of Ujjain are quadrangular while others are round. The class of round coins found at Ujjain display a special symbol, the 'cross and balls', known from its almost universal occurrence on the coins of ancient Malwa as the Ujjain symbol.2 Square copper Mughal coins were struck at Ujjain up to the time of Shah Jahan 1.3 1 R. D. Banerjee, Pracina Mudra, p. 108. 2 Brown, Coins of India, p. 20. 3 Ibid., p. 87.

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CHAPTER LXI THE SINDHU-SAUVIRAS The Sauviras seem to have been an ancient people. Their country is mentioned as early as Baudhayana's Dharmasutra. It was at that time considered an impure country, situated outside the limits of Aryandom proper; and Aryans who happened to go there were required to perform a sacrifice of purification on their return.1 In later literature, the Sauviras are often connected with their neighbouring tribe, the Sindhus, and the inclusive name 'SindhuSauvira', at once determines that the two tribes which were later regarded as one and the same were settled on the Sindhu or Indus. The Sauviras and Sindhus seem to have played an important part in the Kuruksetra war; they are described in the Bhismaparvan as having joined the Kauravas, along with the Bhargas, Andhras, Kiratas, Kosalas and Gandharas.2 Elsewhere, the Sauviras are said to have supported Bhisma in the war, together with the Salvas, Matsyas, Ambasthas, Traigarttas, Kekayas and Kaitavas. In Bhismaparvan (51, 14), the Sindhus and Sauviras are mentioned together, and are associated with the Sivas, Vasatis and Gandharas. In a late passage of the Epic,4 mention is made of a Greek overlord (Yavanadhipa) of Sauvira; he must have been one of those IndoBactrian princes who established themselves in the north and western portions of India between about 200 B.C. and 200 A.D. According to the Ramayana (Bengal recension, Kis. K., 41, 8-10) the Sindhu-Sauviras were settled in the western division of India The Sindhus (or Saindhavas) and Sauviras are usually conjoined in the Puranas, though they are mentioned separately in the Visnupurana. According to the Markandeya Purana, they were located in the north (LVII, 36; LVIII, 30); but the Visnupurana places them in the extreme west along with the Hunas, Salvas, Sakalas, Madras (see Madra Chapter for their location, etc.; Wilson's Visnu P., Hall's Ed. II, III, 133). Puranic tradition seems to point to the intimate relation of the Sauviras with the Sivis, and therefore with their neighbouring Usinaras as well. The Sauviras were traditionally descended from Suvira, one of the four sons of Sivi Ausinara. Sivi and his sons are said to have founded the 1 Baud., I, I, 2. 3 Bhismaparvan, Chap. 18, 13-14. 4 Adiparvan, Chap. 139, 21-3. 2 Chap. 9, p. 822. 5 Book II, Chap. III.

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345 THE SINDHU-SAUVIRAS kingdoms of the Sibis, Vrsadarbhas, Madras, Kekayas and Sauviras, thus occupying the whole of the Punjab except the north-western corner. According to the Agnipurana (Chap. 200), the river Devika, but, according to the Bhagavatapurana (verse 10), the river Iksumati flowed through Sauvira. Other Epic references to the Sauviras include the mention of a Sauvira king Satrunjaya, who received instruction from a priest named Bharadvaja (Mbh., XII, Chap. 140, 5249-50), and of a Sauvira princess who married Manasyu, the son of Pravira by a Saurasena princess, and grandson of Puru (Mbh., Adiparvan, Chap. 49, 3696-7). Sovira or Sauvira is also mentioned in early Buddhist literature. The Mahagovinda Suttanta 2 refers to Sovira whose king was Bharata; while the Divyavadana in relating a story (pp. 544-86) accounting for the name of Bharukaccha (Broach), refers to Rudrayana, king of Roruka in Sauvira. The Mahabhasya of Patanjali and the Vvakarana of Kramadesvara mention a city named Dattamitri in Sauvira. In the Milinda-Pamho, Sovira is described as a great sea-port (Trenckner Ed., p. 359); and it is not unlikely that the country is identical with the famous Sophir or Ophir of the Bible.4 Alberuni appears to identify Sauvira with Multan and Jahrawar (India, Vol. I, pp. 300, 302); while, according to the Haimakosa (IV, 26), the Sauvira country is identical with Kunalaka. Towards the middle of the second century A.D., the land of the Sindhus and the Sauviras seems to have been administered by the Ksatrapa rulers of W. India. The Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman (c. 150 A.D.) refers to the Mahaksatrapa's conquest of Sindhu-Sauvira,5 along with E. and W. Akara (= mod. Khandesh) and Avanti (Purvaparakaravanti), Anupanivrt (probably the Mandhata region), Anartta, Surastra, Svabhra, Maru, Kaccha, Kukura, Aparanta and other countries. The Ksatrapas seem, however, to have wrested the country from the Kusanas, probably from one of the successors of Kaniska. After the era of the Ksatrapas, the region probably passed over to the Guptas, and later to the Maitrakas of 1 Pargiter, A.I.H.T., pp. 109, 264; and Chap. on Yaudheyas. 2 Digha, II, pp. 235-6. 3 Ind. Ant., 1911, Foreign Elements in Hindu Population (Bhandarkar); Bomb. Gaz., I, i, II; Kramadisvara, p. 96. 4 Cunningham, A.G.I., pp. 569-71. 6 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 390. Sindhu is the inland portion lying to the west of the Indus (Watters. On Yuan Chwang, II. 252-3 read with 256). Sauvira includes the inland portion lving to the east of the Indus as far as Multan (Alberuni, I, 302; Ind. Ant., 7, 259). See also in this connection Appendix B of P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., dealing with the Chronological relation of Kaniska and Rudradaman I (pp. 522-7).

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346 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Valabhi. The country of the Sindhus, i.e. Sind, was the first kingdom to feel the impact of the conquering raids of the Arabs. An eighth century copperplate grant of the Gujarat Calukya Pulakesiraja 1 refers to the Tajikas (i.e. Arabs), who are described as having defeated the Saindhavas and other tribes of W. India. 1 Bom. Gaz., Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 109.

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CHAPTER LXII THE SURASTRAS The Surastras as a tribe must have existed at least as early as the period represented by the Epics. The tribe, together with its country, is mentioned in more than one connection in Valmiki's Ramayana.1 The Kiskindhya Kanda locates the tribe in the west; for, in sending the retinue of monkeys in the western direction in quest of Sita, Sugriva asked Susena to send his unit to Surastra (among other countries). There are a number of countries and peoples in this list, e.g. the Kalingas, Andhras, Cholas, Vidarbhas, etc. that cannot be located in the west ; but the fact that the Surastras were included in the west division of India is upheld not only by a reference in the Mahabharata,2 where they are associated with the countries of the Kuntis and Avantis, but also by the evidence of the Puranas. According to the Visnupurana, they are definitely located in the extreme west, and associated with the Suras, Abhiras, Arbudas and Malavas, all of whom dwelt along the Paripatra mountains. The Markandeya Purana* includes them in W. India (Aparanta), while the Brahmapurana associates them with the Aparantas, Sudras, Abhiras and Malavas, and describes them as dwelling along the Pariyatra (= Paripatra) hills. This geographical location of the tribe is also supported by the evidence of the Kavyamimamsa 5 of Rajasekhara who includes the Surastra country in the Pascaddesa or west division along with Dasoraka, Travana, Bhrgukaccha, Kacchiya, Anartta, Arbuda and other countries. At the time of the Mahabharata, the Surastra country was ruled by the Yadavas. The Surastra country is referred to in Baudhayana's Dharmasutra, where it is coupled with Daksinapatha (Deccan). The country came to be included in the Maurya empire as early as the reign of Candragupta; for the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman refers to Candragupta's Rastriya (= Viceroy) Pusyagupta the Vaisya, who constructed the Sudarsana lake. It was included in Asoka's dominions, for the same inscription refers to Tushaspha, a Persian contemporary and vassal of Asoka, who carried out supplementary operations on the lake. This Tushaspha 1 Adi Kanda, Canto XII; Ayodhya Kanda, Canto X; Kiskindhya Kanda, Canto XLI. 2 Virataparvan, Chap. I, 12. 3 Book II, Chap. III, 132-5. 4 Chap. 57, 52. 5 Gaekwad's Oriental Series, pp. 93-4.

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348 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA was Raja of the Surastra Samgha (community). That Surastra enjoyed the democratic form of government implied by the use of the word 'Samgha' is also testified to by Kautilyal (Arthasastra, p. 378), who refers to a number of Samghas, among which were included Kamboja and Surastra. The records of Greek historians establish that after Asoka and his successors, Surastra passed into the hands of the Bactrian Greeks. According to Strabo,2 the Bactrian conquests were achieved partly by Menander (middle of second century B.C.) and partly by Demetrios, son of Euthydemos (c. 190 B.C.). They gained possession not only of Patalene, but of the kingdom of Saraostos and Sigerdis 3 which constitutes the remainder of the coast. Patalene is to be identified with the Indus delta, while Saraostos must certainly be identical with Surastra (Syrastrene of Ptolemy). Ptolemy 4 refers to a country called Syrastrene, which must be identical with Surastra (= mod. Sorath in Kathiawar) on the Gulf of Kanthi (= Gulf of Kaccha or Cutch). Syrastrene, which extended from the mouth of the Indus to the Gulf of Cutch, was one of the three divisions of Indo-Scythia in Ptolemy's time, the other two being Patalene and Abiria. Syrastrene is also mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as the sea-board of Aberia (= Abiria = Abhira), which is to be identified with the region to the east of the Indus, above the insular portion formed by its bifurcation (McCrindle, p. 140). Pliny, in his enumeration of the tribes of this part of India, mentions the Horatae, evidently a corruption of Surastra or Sorath (Lib., VI, c. XX). The Indo-Scythian or Saka rule was interrupted by a member of the Andhra dynasty, Viliyavakura II (Gautamiputra Satakarni, 113-138 A.D.). In the Junagadh Rock Inscription, Rudradaman is stated to have extended his rule over East and West Avanti, Anartta, Surastra, Anupa, Sindhu-Sauvira, Maru, Kaccha, Kukura, Aparanta, etc. Of these, Surastra, Kukura, Anupa and Aparanta, which formed parts of Gautamiputra Satakarni's dominions, must have been conquered either from him or from one of his sons. After the Scythian occupation, Surastra seems to have passed into the hands of the Guptas. It is not improbable that Surastra was one of the countries whose rulers hastened to buy peace by establishing diplomatic relations with Samudragupta (c. 326-375 1 Arthasastra, p. 378. 2 Strabo, Bk. XI, sec. XI, I, in Falconer's version. (Strabo, Hamilton and Falconer, Vol. II, pp. 252-3, vide also Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 317.) 3 Prob. = Sagaradvipa of Mahabharata, II, 31, 66. 4 See McCrindle's Ptolemy, pp. 35-6, 136, 140.

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THE SURASTRAS 349 A.D.). The Saka-Murundas alluded to in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription (C.I.I., Vol. III) were probably the Ksatrapas of IndoScythia who came to do homage to the great conqueror. His successor Candragupta II (375-413 A.D.) also seems to have led a successful campaign against the Western Ksatrapas of Surastra. The fall of the Saka Satrapa is alluded to by Bana, and also proved by coins; while we find decisive evidence of the Gupta occupation of Surastra in the Junagadh Inscription of Skandagupta (c. 455480 A.D.) which tells us that he (Skanda) deliberated for days and nights before making up his mind who could be trusted with the important task of guarding the lands of the Surastras'.2 He finally appointed Parnadatta as governor. The rule of the Guptas in this territory does not seem to have long survived Skandagupta. Soon the Maitrakas of Valabhi asserted their independence, and established their supremacy over West Malwa, Baroda, Gujrat, Kathiawar and the adjoining region.3 Accordingly, when Hsuan Tsang visited Su-la-ch'a or Suratha in the seventh century A.D., it was included in the kingdom of Valabhi. According to the pilgrim, Su-la-ch'a touched the river Mo-hi (= Mahi) on the west, and its capital lay at the foot of Mt. Yuh-shan-ta (= Prakrit Ujjanta, Skr. Urjayat of the Junagadh Inscriptions of Rudradaman and Skandagupta), which is to be identified with the Girnar hill near Junagadh.4 When the Maitrakas of Valabhi became extinct about the middle of the eighth century A.D., the Surastras seem to have suffered a reverse at the hands of the Tajikas who are generally identified with the Arabs. Already, during the early years of the eighth century, the Arabs had taken possession of Sind, and it is certainly not unlikely that they attempted a conquest of the neighbouring Surastra country. In a Nausari Copperplate grant of the Gujarat Calukyas, Pulakesiraja (eighth century A.D.) is credited with having defeated the Tajikas who are therein reported to have destroyed the Saindhavas, Kacchelas, Surastras, Cavotakas, Gurjaras and Mauryas, before they were themselves defeated by the Calukya king. 1 C.I.I., Vol. III--Udaygiri Cave Inscription. 2 Ibid. 8 Ray, Maitrakas of Valabhi, I.H.Q., Sept., 1928. 4 C.A.G.I., Mazumdar's Ed., pp. 372-4, 697-8. 5 Bomb. Gazetteer, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 109.

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CHAPTER LXIII THE SUDRAS The Sudras as a tribe (as distinct from the fourth caste) seem to have played some part in Ancient Indian History, and are several times mentioned in the Mahabharata and Puranas, as also in the accounts of Greek geographers and historians. The Sudras were a fairly important tribe of the north-west at the time when Alexander the Great invaded India (326 B.C.). They were among those who were vanquished by the Macedonian conqueror. Greek writers refer to them as Sodrai, in association with the Massanoi and Mousikaroi, all of whom occupied portions of modern Sind. The next datable reference to the tribe is contained in Patanjali's Mahabhasya (1, 2, 3), where they are associated with the Abhiras. In the Mahabharata also they are associated with the Abhiras, and are said to have occupied the region where the river Sarasvati vanishes into the desert, i.e. near Vinasana in Western Rajputana. In the Harivamsa,3 we have 'Madrabhirah' (Madras and Abhiras) where we would expect to find 'Sudrabhirah'; here Madra may be a misreading for Sudra, for the Madras are hardly anywhere connected with the Abhiras. According to the Markandeya Purana (57, 35), the Sudras were located in the Aparanta region or western country, and were associated with the Vahlikas, Vatadhanas, Abhiras, Pallavas, etc. The Brahmapurana 5 also places them in the west, and associates them with the Saurastras, Abhiras, Arbudas, Malavas, etc. The Visnupurana (II, 3) has Surabhirah for what obviously should be Sudrabhirah. In the Bhagavatapurana (XII, 1, 36) also we have: 'Saurastravaityabhirasca Sudra Arbuda-malavah.' 1 Salyaparvan, 2119., 2 Mh., IX, 37, 1: 'Sudrabhiran prati dvesad yatra nasta Sarasvati'. 3 Cal. Ed., 12, 837. 4 M. Langolis reads 'Surabhirah', evidently following the Visnu, Bhagavata, and some other Puranas. See his translation of the Harivamsa, Vol. II, p. 401; also Goldstucker's Dictionary, p. 299. 5 19, 17: 'Tathaparantyah Saurastrah Sudrabhirastatharbudah Maruka Malavascaiva Pariyatranivasinah.'

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CHAPTER LXIV THE LATAS The name of the Latas as a people must have been known as early as the beginning of the Christian era, if not earlier, and their country Lata or Lata-visaya was well known in Indian history till as late as the seventh and eighth centuries. It is curious, however, that neither the country nor its people is ever mentioned in any of the earlier Puranas, or even in the Epics. The earliest definite mention of the country seems to have been made by Ptolemy. According to his description of India within the Ganges, Larike lay to the east of Indo-Skythia along the sea-coast.1 Latadesa in its Prakrit form Lardesa (the country of Lar) seems to have been a very early name for the territory of Gujrat and Northern Konkon,2 and McCrindle conjectured that Larike 'may therefore be a formation from Lar with the Greek termination ike appended'.3 The name Lardesa probably survived the Hindu period, for the sea to the west of that coast was in the early Muhammadan time called the sea of Lar, and the language spoken on its shores was called by Mas'udi, Lari'.4 In Ptolemy's Larike lay the mouth of the river Mophis, which is identical with the Mahi, a village named Pakidare which is difficult to identify, and the cape Maleo which 'must have been a projection of the land somewhere between the mouth of the Mahi and that of the Narmada, but nearer to the former if Ptolemy's indication be * correct'.5 The two great cities of Barygaza and Ozene were also within the political division of Larike. In Ptolemy's Gulf of Barygaza lay Kamane, doubtless identical with Kamonone of the Periplus which places it to the south of the Narmada estuary, while tolemy locates it to the north; Nausaripa, which is the same as modern Nausari on the coast and Sanskrit Navasarika, and finally Poulipoula, which in Yule's map is located at modern Sanjam on the coast south from Nausari. Barygaza itself is the same as Sanskrit Bhrguksetra or Bhrgukaccha, Pali Bharukaccha, modern Broach; while Ozene, of course, is Ujjayini or Ujjain. 3 McCrindle, p. 38. 1 McCrindle, Ptolemy's Ancient India, pp. 38, 152-3. 2 Marco Polo, Vol. II, p. 302 n. (Yule). 4 Ibid., p. 153; Marco Polo, II, p. 353 n. 6 McCrindle's Ptolemy, p. 38.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Ceylonese chronicles (Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa) refer to the country of Lala in connection with the first Aryan migration to Ceylon, led by Prince Vijaya. Attempts have been made to identify Lala both with Lata or Lada in Gujrat, and Radha in Bengal, and both countries claim the honour of the first Aryanization of Ceylon. Prince Vijaya is described in the chronicles as having been the greatgrandson of a princess of Vanga; hence one school of scholars mainly depending on historical evidence proposes to equate Lala with Radha, while the other school finds Lala to be philologically more closely akin to Lata or Lada. It is not impossible that the tradition of two different streams of immigration came to be knit together in the story of Vijaya, as Dr. Barnett thinks.1 In the days of the early Imperial Guptas, the Lata country came to be formed into an administrative province as Lata-visaya, along with Tripuri-visaya, Arikina-visaya, Antarvedi-visaya, Valavi-visaya, Gaya-visaya, etc. These visayas or pradesas seem to have been subordinate to the larger administrative division, called bhukti. It is likely that the Lata country was the same as the Latesvara country mentioned in one or two early Gurjara and Rastrakuta records. In the Baroda Copperplate Inscription (verse II) the capital of the kingdom of Latesvara is said to have been at Elapur. The inscription also gives the genealogy of the kings of Latesvara. K. M. Munshi, in his work 'Gujarata and its literature', gives us some information about Lata. He says: 'From about c. A.C. 150, the tract between Khambhata (Cambay) and Narmada acquired the name of Lata which, thereafter, came to include the country south of the Narmada up to the Damanaganga. Under the Chalukyas of Anahilavada Patana (A.C. 961), the name Lata was gradually displaced by the name Gurjara Bhumi. The whole of Lata up to Damanaganga became part of Gujarata in c. A.C. 1400.'2 Lata, then, was evidently the equivalent of South Gujarata. Lassen, however, identifies Larike with Sanskrit Rastrika, in its Prakrit form Latika, which is easily equated with Lata, though the equation of Rastrika and Latika is not convincing enough. 352 Lata is mentioned twice in Vatsyayana's Kamasutra. Vatsyayana does not give any clue as to location of the country, but contents himself with describing the characteristics of the men and women respectively. Lata is also referred to by the author of 1 J.A.S.B., Vol. XVIII, 1922, No. 7. 2 Ibid., pp. 2-3. See also ibid., p. 20 n., p. 36. $ See chapter on Rastrikas. It may be that Rastrika formed the northern part of Gujarat, and Lata, the southern. 4 Ibid., pp. 103 and 126.

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THE LATAS 353 Kuvalayamala (c. 779 A.D.). The inhabitants of Lata are distinguished from those of Gurjara, the Lata people appearing as pleasure-loving and humorous, and those of the north as sterner and of stronger build. Lata appears to have possessed distinctive literary traits. A kind of style, favoured by the authors of Lata, acquired the name of Lati. Rajasekhara represents the people of Lata as preferring Prakrit to Sanskrit. 23

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CHAPTER LXV THE SURPARAKAS The Surparakas were evidently the people of Surparaka. The Markandeya list (LVII, 49) reads Suryarakas which is evidently a mistake, but all the Puranas agree in placing them in the west where lived the celebrated sage Rama Jamadagnya (Mbh., Vana P., LXXXV, 8185). But the Mahabharata also locates them in the south (Sabha P., XXX, 1169; Vana P., LXXXVIII, 8337) because it bordered on the southern sea in the western region (Santi P., XLIX, 1778-82). The region situated near Prabhasa (Vana P., CXVIII, 10221-7) included the country around the mouth of the Narmada (Anusasana P., XXV, 1736). It was the sage Rama Jamadagnya who is credited with having built the city of Surparaka (Harivamsa, XCVI, 50). Surparaka is mentioned in one of the inscriptions of Saka Usavadata and is undoubtedly the same as Supparaka of Pali literature where it is described as a great sea-coast emporium identified with Sopara of early Greek geographers. 23B

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CHAPTER LXVI THE AUDUMBARAS The Audumbaras seem to have been a minor oligarchical or republican tribe. They are mentioned in the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata (II, 1869), where they are located in the Madhyadesa (midland district). The Harivamsa refers to certain ascetics, descendants of Visvamitra, as Audumbaras, but it is difficult to determine their exact relation with the tribe of the Sabhaparvan. The Puranas 1 mention a people called the Udumbaras, along with the Kapingalas, Kuruvahyas and Gajahvayas. The lastnamed people were connected with Hastinapura, the Kuru capital, and the Kuruvahyas must also have had some connection with the famous Kuru people. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that the Udumbaras (presumably identical with the Audumbaras) occupied a district contiguous with, or not far from, the Kuru country. Both Lassen (Ind. Art. map) and Cunningham (Arch. Surv. Rep., XIV, 115 and 135) seem to locate the Udumbaras somewhere in Cutch. The Harivamsa 2 mentions a river Udumbaravati in the south, while the Manjusrimulakalpa : refers to a city named Udumbarapura in the Magadhajanapada. The Audumbaras are also known from coins which come chiefly from the Kangra District of the Punjab, and which belong to about the eighteenth century A.D. 1 See, e.g. Markandeya Purana, LVIII, 9. 2 CLXVIII, 9511. 3 Ganapati Sastri's Ed., p. 633. "Magadham janapadam Udembarahoaye". 4 Smith, Cat. of Coins, pp. 160-1. prapya pure

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CHAPTER LXVII THE KAKAS, KHARAPARIKAS AND SANAKANIKAS These three tribal peoples are referred to in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, along with the Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras and Prarjunas. Recent researches have ascertained that the better-known among these tribes-i.e. the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madras and Abhiras--inhabited the regions on the western, north-western and south-western fringe of Aryavarta proper; and it is likely that the Kakas, Kharaparikas and Sanakanikas also occupied this region. So far as is known, there is no other mention of the Sanakanikas, either in literature or in any other epigraphic record except the Udayagiri Cave Inscription of G.E. 82 which mentions a Maharaja of the Sanakanika tribe. Udayagiri is just two miles to the northwest of Bhilsa, ancient Vidisa. The name Kharaparika does not occur elsewhere in inscriptions or literature; but Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar1 finds a probable identification of the tribe with Kharpara mentioned in the Batihagarh Inscription of the Damoh District of the Central Provinces. The Markandeya Purana (LVIII, 47) mentions a tribe called Kharasagara-rasis, along with the Gandharas and the Yaudheyas; and the Matsyapurana (CXXI, 56) refers to a country named Kharapatha, watered by the river Nalini. It is difficult to say whether this people Khara-sagara-rasi, and country Kharapatha, had anything to do with the Kharaparikas. The Kakas 3 are mentioned in the Mahabharata (VI, 9, 64) where they are associated with the Vidarbhas who were a wellknown people occupying tracts of territory in what is now known as the Central Provinces. The territory of the Kakas is sometimes identified with Kakupur near Bithur, while Smith suggests an identification with Kasanada near Sanci. 1 I.H.Q., I, p. 258; E.P., XII, p. 46, v. 5. 2 A variant reading is 'Svarasagararasi'. 3 Var. reading Kancika. 4 Bombay Gazetteer. 5 J.R.A.S., 1897, pp. 892-9.

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CHAPTER LXVIII THE MATSYAS The Matsyas appear to have been one of the prominent Ksatriya tribes that made up the Vedic Aryan people in the earliest period of their residence in India. We read in a hymn of the Rgveda (VII, 18, 6) that the Matsyas were attacked by Turvasa, a famous king, in order to extract from them the wealth which he required for the performance of a sacrifice. We observe that the Matsyas were regarded as a wealthy people, their riches most probably consisting of cows which were much in demand for the performance of lengthy and elaborate sacrifices. It is well known that in Epic times the Matsyas were very rich in this wealth of cows, for which the Trigarttas and the Kurus led predatory expeditions against them. In the Rigvedic passage referred to above, the word 'Matsya' in the text has been taken by some scholars to mean 'fish' (its original meaning). Sayana gives both meanings, and the authors of the Vedic Index (Vol. II, p. 121) also think both possible. From the context, however, Matsya clearly refers to the people. There is, moreover, no doubt that cattle made up the wealth here intended, for the verse following the one in question states clearly that Indra recovered the cows (gavya) from the Tritsu plunderers (just as Indra's son, Arjuna, recovered the cattle plundered by the Kurus as described in the Mahabharata). Further, other tribes of Western India, e.g. the Druhyus and the Bhrgus, are mentioned in the verse (VII, 18, 7) side by side with the Matsyas. So it is evident that the latter is here also a tribal name. The question arises whether the name Matsya has anything to do with totemism, as suggested by Prof. Macdonell in his Vedic Mythology. He says: "There are possibly in the Rgveda some survivals of totemism, or the belief in the descent of the human race or of individual tribes or families from animals or plants', and he refers to the Matsyas as an illustration of his statement (Vedic Mythology, p. 153). But, as Prof. A. Berriedale Keith points out, 'mere animal names prove little as to totemism, which is not demonstrated for any Aryan stock'. The myth about the birth of a king called Matsya from the womb of a fish along with Matsyagandha Satyavati, as related in the Mahabharata (Adiparvan, 1 Aitareya Aranyaka (Anecdota Oxoniensia), p. 200, f.n., a.

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358 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Chap. 63) 1 cannot be proved to have any connection with the Matsya people. Nor is there anything in the account of the Matsyas to show that the fish was an object of worship among them, or was ever regarded with any special veneration. The fish incarnation of Visnu has nothing specifically to do with the Matsya people. There is, in fact, no valid reason for thinking that such Indo-Aryan tribal names as Matsya (fish), Aja (goat), and Vatsa (calf) have anything to do with totemism. Coming down to the Satapatha Brahmana,2 we find that a Matsya king, Dhyasan Dvaitavana, is mentioned among the great monarchs of ancient times who acquired renown among the Vedic Aryan people owing to their performance of the horse sacrifice. We shall have occasion to mention this king again in connection with the lake to which he gave his name. In the Kausitaki Upanisad, the Matsyas are mentioned along with other tribes, viz. 'the Usinaras, Kuru-Pancalas, and KasiVidehas. In the Gopatha Brahmana, they are connected with the Salvas, a Ksatriya tribe in their neighbourhood, and mentioned along with other well-known Ksatriya tribes of the Vedic period, such as the Kuru-Pancalas, Anga-Magadhas, Kasi-Kosalas and Vasa-Usinaras. The relation of the Matsyas with the Salvas is also attested by the Mahabharata. King Susarma of the Trigarttas, addressing Duryodhana, says: 'We have been defeated more than once by the Matsyas and Salvas (Matsya-Salveyakaih).'5 Evidently the Salvas were neighbours of the Matsyas and their allies in Vedic and Epic times. In the Padmapurana (Chap. 3) and the Visnudharmottara Mahapurana (Chap. 9), Matsya is mentioned as one of the Janapadas of Bharatavarsa. In later times, we find the Matsyas associated with the Cedis and the Surasenas. Among the kings who brought about the ruin of their own tribes and families, the Mahabharata (Vol. 74, 16) mentions a King Sahaja who was instrumental in causing the destruction of the Cedi-Matsyas. In the Pauranic age the Matsyas are spoken of along with the Surasenas and the Cambridge History of India observes that the two peoples are constantly associated, and may possibly have been united under one king. In the Bhismaparvan of the Mahabharata, the Cedi-Matsya-Karusas are grouped together in one passage, the Cedi-Matsyas in another, and the Cedi 1 The Vayupurana (Chap. 99) also refers to this King Matsya born of Uparicara Vasu and a fish. 2 Sata patha Brahmana, XIII, 5, 4, 9; S.B.E., Vol. XLIV, p. 398. 3 Kausitaki Up., IV, I. Trsl. by Max Muller, S.B.E., Vol. I, p. 300. 4 Gopatha Brahmana, 1, 2, 9; Bibliotheca Indica Series, ed. Dr. R. L. Mitra, p. 30. 5 Moh., Virata parvan, Chap. 30, pp. 1-2. 6 Vol. I, p. 316.

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THE MATSYAS 359 Matsya-Karusas in another. Elsewhere in the Mahabharata, in the description of the Kuruksetra battle, the Cedi-Pancala-KarusaMatsyas,2 Matsya-Pancala-Cedis,3 Cedi-Karusa-Matsyas,+ and CediMatsyas 5 respectively are grouped together. in the Manusamhita we read. The plains of the Kurus, the (country of the) Matsyas, Pancalas and Surasenakas, these (form) indeed, the country of the Brahmarshis (Brahman sages) which ranks immediately after Brahmavarta. From a Brahman born in that country let all men on earth learn their several usages.' From this passage it appears that the Matsyas were regarded by the Indians as belonging to the most orthodox followers of Brahmanism in ancient times. Manu also prescribes, when laying down rules for the marshalling of troops on the battle-field, that (Men born in) Kuruksetra, Matsyas, Pancalas, and those born in Surasena, let him (i.e. the king or leader) cause to fight in the van of the battle, as well as (others who are) tall and light'.? Apparently the Matsyas occupied a pre-eminent position both because of the purity of their conduct and customs, and through their bravery and prowess on the field of battle. In the Kiskindhya Kanda of the Ramayana, we read that when Sugriva sent his monkey host to search for Sita, those under Angada made their enquiries throughout the countries of the Matsyas and the Kalingas, two peoples situated at the two extremities of India'. When speaking 8 about the country of the Surasenas and the Kurus and Bharatas who were the immediate neighbours of the Matsyas, Sugriva does not refer to the Matsyas at all, although as we have seen, the Surasenas and Matsyas were constantly associated in the Pauranic age. This omission suggests that at the time of the Ramayana the Matsyas were not regarded as an important people: perhaps they had lost the importance which they had acquired in the Vedic age. Among references to Matsya in the Buddhist literature, we may mention Arguttara Nikaya (I, p. 213; IV, pp. 252, 256, 260), where Matsya is named as one of the Mahajanapadas of India. There is a reference to the Matsyas or Macchas (together with the Kasis and Surasenas) in the Janavasabha Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya in connection with the account of the Buddha's stay in Nadika. In the Vidhurapandita Jataka we read that the Macchas witnessed the dice-play of the king of the Kurus with the Yakkha Punnaka.10 1 See Bhismaparvan, Chap. 9; Chap. 52, 9; Chap. 54, 8. 2 Mbh., Vangavasi Edn., 59, 129. 3 Ibid., 118, 52-3. 4 Ibid., VIII, 30, 27, 29. 5 Ibid., VIII, 78, 25. 6 Manusamhita, II, 19-20; S.B.E., Vol. XXV, pp. 32-3. 7 Ibid., VII, 193; S.B.E., Vol. XXV, p. 247. 8 Kiskindhya Kanda, 43, II. 9 Digha Nikaya, Vol. II, P. 200. 10 Jataka (Fausboll), Vol. VI, pp. 28o foll.

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360 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Satapatha Brahmana contains a reference to a Matsya king, Dhvasan Dvaitavana, who appears to have given his name to a lake, Dvaitavana. In the Mahabharata, we find mention of an extensive forest named Dvaitavana where the Pandavas passed a large portion of their exile. In the Virataparvan (IV, 5, 4-5), we are told that the Pandavas went to the Matsya capital (Virata) from lake Dvaitavana, leaving the Dasarnas to the South and the Pancalas to the North, passing through the country of the Yakrllomas and Surasenas, and entering the Matsya dominion from the forest. Elsewhere in the same Parvan (III, 24), a lake Dvaitavana is mentioned as existing in the Dvaitavana forest (which was supposed to be situated around the Sarasvati), and this lake appears to have been close to the Sarasvati (III, 177). Evidently both the lake and the forest were named after Dhyasan Dvaitavana, and were included in the Matsya dominions in early times. From the Mahabharata account, it appears that the forest was outside the Matsya country, though not very far from it. We have seen that according to Manu the Matsya country formed a part of the Brahmarsi-desa, the country of the holy sages which, as Rapson 1 points out, included the eastern half of the State of Patiala and of the Delhi division of the Punjab, the Alwar State and adjacent territory in Rajputana, the region which lies between the Ganges and the Jumna, and the Muttra District in the United Provinces. In this land of the Brahmarsis, as Cunningham shows, 'In ancient times the whole of the country lying between the Arabali hills of Alwar and the river Jumna was divided between Matsya on the W. and Surasena on the E., with Dasarna on the S. and S.E. border. Matsya then included the whole of the present Alwar territory, with portions of Jaypur and Bharatpur. Vairat and Machari were both in Matsyadesa ... To the E. were the Pancalas ...' In later times the Matsya country appears to have been known also as Virata or Vairata. Hsuan Tsang speaks of it as Vairata, and Cunningham points out on his authority that in the seventh century A.D. the kingdom of Vairata was 3,000 li or 500 miles in circuit. It was famous for its sheep and oxen, but produced few fruits or flowers. This is still the case with Jaypur to the S. of Vairata, which furnishes most of the sheep required for the cities of Delhi and Agra, and their English garrisons. Vairata, therefore, may have included the greater part of the present State of Jaypur. Its precise boundaries cannot be determined; but they may be fixed approximately as extending on the north from Jhunjun to Kot Kasim, 70 miles; on the west from Jhunjun to' Ajmer, 120 miles; 1 Ancient India, pp. 50-1. 2 Cunningham's Report, Archaeological Survey of India, Vol. 20, p. 2.

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THE MATSYAS 361 on the south from Ajmer to the junction of the Banas and Chambal, 150 miles; and on the east from the junction to Kot Kasim, 150 miles; or altogether 490 miles.1 The capital of the country is generally called Viratanagara in the Virataparvan and elsewhere in the Mahabharata?; but occasionally it is called Matsyanagara, and also sometimes Matsyasyanagara. Evidently it was this Viratanagara which afterwards became known as Vairat. This city was the royal seat of the Epic king Virata, the friend of the Pandavas. The fourth book of the Mahabharata refers to an attempt made by the Trigarttas to plunder the cows of Virata. Virata heard that the Trigarttas were taking away thousands of his kine. He thereupon collected his army; kings and princes put on their armour. Dreadful, infuriated elephants appeared like rain-bearing clouds, and were driven to battle by trained and skilled heroes. The leading heroes of Matsya, who followed their king, had 8,000 chariots, 1,000 elephants, and 60,000 horses. Nevertheless King Virata was taken captive by the Trigarttas, but was rescued by Bhima, the second Pandava. The period of exile of the Pandava brothers concluded with a year's living incognito in the kingdom of Matsya. They then disclosed their identity, and a marriage between Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna, and Uttara, daughter of King Virata, was arranged and celebrated with great pomp. So much for the traditional history of Virata and his capital. The earliest historical mention of Vairat is that of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, in 634 A.D. According to him, the capital was 14 or 15 li, or 21 miles, in circuit, corresponding almost exactly with the size of the ancient mound on which the present town is built. The people were brave and bold and their king, who was of the race of Fei-she (either a Vaisya or a Bais Rajput), was famous for his courage and skill in war.? We next hear of Vairat during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni, who invaded the country in A.D. 1009. The Matsya king submitted to Mahmud, but his country was again invaded in A.D. 1014, and Vairat taken and plundered by Amir Ali who found an ancient stone inscription at Narayan, which was said to record that the temple of Narayan had been built 40,000 years previously. As this inscription is also mentioned by the contemporary historian Otbi, we may accept the fact of the discovery of a stone record in characters so ancient that the Brahmins of that day were unable to read them. 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, pp. 344-5. 2 Moh., IV, 6, 35; IV, 13, 3. 3 Ibid., IV, 13, 1. 4 Ibid., IV, 14, I. 6 M. N. Dutt, Mahabharata, Virata parvan, Chap. XXXI; also Chap. X, and Chap. XXII. & Ibid., Chap. LXXII. 7 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 343.

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362 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Cunningham thought it highly probable that this was the famous inscription of Asoka that was afterwards discovered by Major Burt on the top of a hill at Vairat.1 The present town of Vairat is situated in the midst of a circular valley surrounded by low bare bed hills, which have all along been famous for their copper mines. It is 105 miles to the south-west of Delhi, and 41 miles to the north of Jaypur. The soil is generally good, and the trees, especially the tamarinds, are very fine and abundant. Vairat is situated on a mound of ruins, about one mile in length by half a mile in breadth, or upwards of 2 miles in circuit, of which the present town does not occupy more than o u town does not occupy more than one-fourth The old city Vairatnagara is said to have been quite deserted for several centuries until it was repeopled about 350 years ago, most probably during the reign of Akbar. The town was certainly in existence in Akbar's time, as it is mentioned by Abul Fazl in the Avin-i-Akbari as possessing very profitable copper mines. Another city of King Virata's kingdom was Upaplavya, whither, according to the Mahabharata account, the Pandavas transferred themselves (from Virata) on completion of their exile. This city of Upaplavya is also mentioned in other places. It was hither that Sanjaya, the messenger of the Kurus, was sent by Dhrtarastra (Mbh., V, 22, I). Upaplavya does not appear to have been a capital of the Matsyas as asserted in the Cambridge History of India (p. 316), but only one of the towns in the Matsya country. The commentator on the Mahabharata, Nilakantha, explains that Upaplavya was the name of another (or some) city near Viratanagara' 4. but its exact site is uncertain. Dr. Ray Chaudhuri points out that Matsya is not mentioned by Kautilya as a state having the samgha form of government. Therefore the probability is that the monarchical constitution lasted throughout the period of Matsya's independence. The kingdom was probably annexed at one time by the neighbouring kingdom of Cedi, and finally absorbed into the Magadhan empire. 5 1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography, pp. 343-4. 2 Ibid., p. 342. 3"Tatastrayodase varse nivytte pancapandavah Upaplavyam Viratasya samapadyanta sarvasah" (Mbh., IV, 72, 14). 4 Nilakantha on the Mbh., IV, 72, 14: 'Upalavyam Viratanagarasamipasthanagarantaram'. 5 H. C. Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 116. For further references to Matsya, see, e.g. Smith's Early History of India, 4th Ed., p. 413 and R. D. Banerjee, Vangalar Itihasa, p. 158.

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CHAPTER LXIX THE RAMATHAS The Ramathas seen also to have been a northern people living not far from the Kulutas. The Vayupurana mentions a people named Ramatas (XLV, 117), while the Matsyapurana refers to a people named Ramathas (CXIII, 42), both no doubt meaning the one and the same people, the Ramathas. The Kurmapurana (XLVII, 41) reads Ramas instead and the Markandeya Matharas (LVII, 37). The Byhatsamhita places them in the western division of India along with the Pancanadas, while the Vayupurana in the reference cited above locates them in northern division along with the Kulindas. * The Byhatsamhita contention that the Ramathas were a western people is upheld by the Mahabharata (Sabhaparvan, XXXI, 1195; Vanaparvan, LI, 1991; santiparvan, IXI, 2430). The Bhismaparvan mentions a people called Ramanas who also may be the same people as the Ramathas (IX, 374). In the same context of the introduction of the Balabharata or Pracandapandava of Rajasekhara where we find Mahipala of the Pratibara dynasty is credited with having inflicted a defeat on the Kulutas, we find also the Ramathas having shared the same fate at the hands of the Pratihara king. This will be evident from the following passage: 'Namita-Murala-maulih pukalo Mekalanam rana-Kalita-Kalingah keli-tat Keral-endoh. Ajani-jita-Kulintah Kuntalanam, kutharah, hatha-hyta-Ramatha Srih Sri Mahipaladevah Tena ca Raghuvamsa - muktamaninaAryavartamaharajadhirajena. SriNirbhayanarendra-nandanenadhikytah Sabhasadah sarvan ... etc.' (Nirnayasagar Press Ed., 1, 7-8.)

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CHAPTER LXX THE PARADAS The Paradas, like the Barbaras and Daradas, seem to have been a barbarous hill tribe and are associated in the Puranic and Epic tradition with similar rude tribes of the North (e.g. Moh., Sabhaparvan, L, 1832; LI, 1869; Dronaparvan, CXXI, 4819). In the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata, they are associated with the Kulindas and Tanganas (LI, 1858-9). They are mentioned in the Vayupurana (Chap. 88) as well as in the Harivamsa (I, 14). The Markandeya Purana at one place (LVII, 37) locates them along with the Kalingas, the Harabhusikas. Matharas (Ramathas). etc. while at another place (LVIII, 31), with the Sudras, the Barbaras, the Kiratas the Pandyas, the Parasavas, etc. In the Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata (LI, 1858-9), the Paradas are said to have dwelt on the river Salioda along with the Khasas and the Tanganas. A collation of Epic and Puranic tradition referred to above shows that the tribe is found mentioned in a list of barbarous and rude tribes with the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Khasas, Mahisikas, Colas, Keralas, etc. The Harivamsa states (XIII, 763-4; XIV, 775-83) that King Sagara degraded them and ordered them to have their hair-locks long and dishevelled; according to the same authority they were mlecchas and dasyus. They also find mention in Manusmyti where it is said that they were originally Ksatriyas, but were degraded owing to extinction of sacred rites, etc. (X, 43-4). At least one reference in the Great Epic connects the people with the Abhiras (Sabhaparvan, L, 1832). The Rock Edicts of Asoka give a list of territories that were occupied by vassal tribes; among them figures a tribe named Palidas along with the Andhras, Bhojas and Rathikas. The Palidas have often been identified with the Pulindas, but Hultzsch does not accept this identification in view of the fact that the Kalsi and Girnar versions of the relevant portion of the Edicts have the variants Palada and Parimda. H. C. Ray Chaudhuri thinks that these variants' remind us of the Paradas'. If that be so, then the association of the Paradas with the Andhras in Asokan inscriptions would suggest that in the Maurya period they may have been in the Deccan. But the matter must be regarded as not definitely settled'1 1 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 259.

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THE PARADAS 365 According to ancient Indian historical tradition as contained in the Epics and the Puranas, the Paradas were one of the allies along with others, namely, the Sakas, the Kambojas, the Yavanas and the Pahlavas, of the Haihaya-Talajanghas that drove Bahu, the eighth king in descent from Hariscandra, from his throne (Pargiter, A.I.H.T., pp. 206, 268 and f.n.). Pargiter places all these tribes in the north-west.

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CHAPTER LXXI THE BHOJAS The Bhojas were a very ancient tribe, who attained to considerable eminence as early as the period represented by the Aitareya Brahmana. The term Bhoja is mentioned even in the Rgveda (III, 53, 7) though many scholars do not consider it to be a tribal name there, and Sayana also explains it otherwise. According to the Aitareya Brahmana, the Bhojas were a southern people, a ruling tribe whose princes held the Satvats in subjection. The Satapatha Brahmana (XIII, 5, 4, 21) seems to imply that the Satvats were located near the Ganga and Yamuna, which was the realm of the Bharatas, for the defeat by Bharata of the Satvats, and his taking away of the horse which they had prepared for an Asvamedha sacrifice are here referred to. It is likely, therefore, that the Bhojas had spread over Central and Southern India in very early times. According to the Puranas, the Bhojas and the Satvats were allied tribes, both belonging to the Yadu-vamsa which dwelt at Mathura (the capital of the Surasenas, q.v.) on the banks of the Yamuna. The Visnupurana 4 alludes to a branch of the Satvats as Bhojas, and by the Epic period at least the Bhojas and Satvats were indistinguishable. In the Mahabharata, the Bhojas are declared to have been descended from Druhyu, the third son of Yayati, the great ancestor of the Kuru-Pandavas. When King Yayati proposed to have Druhyu's youth transferred to himself, and was unceremoniously refused, he cursed his son, saying that he would be a king only in name. You shall rule over a region where there will be no roads, no passages for either horses or horse-drawn excellent chariots, nor for elephants, asses, goats, bullocks, palanquins and other good vehicles, where the only means of locomotion will be rafts and floats. In such a place will you have to live, and with all your family you will get the designation of Bhoja, --and there will not be a Raja amongst you.5 Druhyu's children were the Bhojas. 6 1 VIII, 14: 'Daksinasyam disi ye ke ca Satvatam rajano Bhaujyayaiva te' bhisincyante Bhojetyenanabhisiktan-acaksata.' 2 Satapatha Brahmana, XIII, 5, 4, II. 3 Matsyapurana, Chap. 43, p. 48; Chap. 44, pp. 46-8; Vayupurana, Chap. 94, p. 52; Chap. 95, p. 18; Chap. 96, pp. 1-2; Visnupurana, IV, 13, 1-6. 4 IV, 13, 1-61. 5 Mahabharata, Adiparvan, Chap. 84, pp. 20-2; Vangavasi Ed. 6 Ibid., Chap. 85, verse 34.

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THE BHOJAS 367 Though the Bhojas are condemned in the above passage, yet there appear to have been very cordial relations between them and the Pauravas, the children of Puru, Vayati's favourite son, from whom the Kurus and Pandavas traced their descent. Thus we find that when Arjuna in the course of his expedition of pilgrimage went to Dvaraka, the Bhojas and their allied tribes, the Vrsnis and Andhakas, hurried to have a look at the great Pandava hero as he marched along the road. Arjuna was welcomed and honoured by the young men of his own age among the Bhojas, Vrsnis and Andhakas, and went to take up his residence in the house of Krsna, who evidently belonged to these people.1 We then meet with an account of festivities celebrated by the Bhoja-Vrsni-Andhakas on the hill of Mahendra.2 When the report of the abduction of Subhadra, Krsna's sister, was proclaimed at the assembly of the allied tribes, then the Bhojas along with the Vrsnis and Andhakas took up arms to recover the princess from the clutches of her abductor.3 Again we read that Krsna, accompanied by a host of Bhoja-VrsniAndhakas, paid a visit to Indraprastha when Arjuna returned there after his exile; and we are further told that Krsna paid a formal visit to the Pandava king, attended by Vrsnis, Andhakas and Bhojas.* It appears from many passages in the Mahabharata that the Bhojas formed a confederacy for offensive and defensive purposes with the Vrsnis, Andhakas, and also the Yadavas. They were evidently descended from the same main stock, and were therefore bound together by consanguinity as well as by mutual interest. Besides the references given above, we may mention Vanaparvan, Chap. 120, where the prominent warriors of the Vrsnis, Bhojas and Andhakas are mentioned together; and Virataparvan, Chap. 72 and Udyogaparvan, Chap. 7, where we are told that a large crowd of Vrsnis, Andhakas and Bhojas followed Krsna to Dvaraka.5 When Krsna returned to Dvaraka after the Kuruksetra war was over, the Bhojas, Vrsnis and Andhakas received him with honour. In the Mausalaparvan, where the extermination of the relatives and followers of Krsna by internecine quarrel is described, we have a mention of the Bhojas who along with the Vrsnis and Andhakas took part in that mutually destructive combat. In the Sabhaparvan, we find Krsna telling Yudhisthira of the oppressive domination of Jarasandha, king of Magadha. In this 1 Adiparvan, Chap. 218, verses 18-21. 2 Ibid., Chap. 219, verses 2ff. 3 Ibid., Chap. 220, verses 12 and 32. 4 Ibid., Chap. 221, verses 33 and 38. 5 See also Udyogaparvan, Chap. 28. 6 Mahabharata, Asvamedhaparvan, Chap. 59.

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368 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA connection he says that the Bhojas descended from Yayati had propagated and acquired a high position for themselves, but had been robbed of it by the confederacy under the suzerainty of Jarasandha. In a later verse (v. 25) of the same chapter, we are told that the eighteen families of the Bhojas that lived in the Udicya or northern country had, from fear of Jarasandha, been forced to take refuge far in the west. Krsna is also represented as saying that the aged Bhoja kings, being oppressed by Kamsa who was in alliance with Jarasandha, had sought refuge with him (Krsna), in order to rescue their relatives; and it appears that the connection between the Vrsnis and the Bhojas was cemented by the marriage of Ahuka's daughter with Akrura.2 We gather, then, that at this time the Bhojas had spread far and wide over India; they were found in the west, in the Madhyadesa, and in the south, for King Bhismaka, father of Rukmini and fatherin-law of Krsna, is called a Bhoja. Thus Krsna says, "That mighty king of the Bhojas, Bhismaka... who governs a fourth part of the world, who has conquered by his learning the Pandyas and Krathakausikas... has (also) become a servitor to the king of Magadha (Jarasandha). We are his relatives... yet he does not at all regard us. He is always doing us ill. Without knowing his own strength and the dignity of the race to which he belongs, Bhismaka has placed himself under Jarasandha's shelter, only seeing his blazing fame. '3 5 We have an indication of the position of this Bhoja king Bhismaka in a later chapter of the Sabhaparvan, where we are told that Sahadeva, the youngest of the Pandava brothers, when on his expedition of conquest, proceeded towards Bhojakata, the capital of the Bhojas under Bhismaka, after conquering Avanti, i.e. Malwa in Central India. Later in the same chapter we read that after subjugating the king of Surastra or Kathiawar, Sahadeva sent ambassadors to Bhismaka, the ruler of Bhoja-kata, and also to his son Rukmin (who was probably associated with him in the government of the country); and we are told that Bhismaka and his son respected the mandate of Sahadeva out of consideration for Krsna. The following story is told about the foundation of Bhojakata. When Krsna carried away Rukmin's sister by force from his father's capital, Kundinapura, Rukmin swore that he would not return home without defeating the abductor of his sister. As fate would have it, Rukmin was worsted in the fight that followed and true to his oath, 1 Sabhaparvan, Chap. 14. 3 Ibid., Chap. 14, verses 21-4. 5 Ibid., Chap. 31, verses 62-4 2 Ibid., Chap. 14, verses 32-3. 4 Ibid., Chap. 31, verses 10-11.

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THE BHOJAS 369 he never returned to Kundinapura, but built a new city of the Bhojas on the site of the battle-field, and called it Bhojakata.1 Bhojakata is interpreted by Vincent Smith as 'Castle of the Bhojas'. He says that the name 'implies that the province was named after a castle formerly held by the Bhojas...' It is alluded to in the Chammak grant of the Vakataka King Pravarasena II, which makes it clear that the Bhojakata territory included the Ilichpur district in Berar or Vidarbha's Bhojakata has been identified with Bhat-kuli in the Amraoti district of Berar. It is not improbable that the Bhojas had some relation with Bhojanagara, the capital of king Usinara of the Usinara country near the Kankhal region where the Ganges issues from the hills. In any case we may conclude that the Bhojas and the Vidarbhas were closely related. Kalidasa also calls the king of Vidarbha a Bhoja (Raghuvamsa, V, 39, 40). 4 It was said of the heroic Bhoja prince Rukmin that he was in the very front rank of the warriors of his time; the bow named Vijaya which he wielded was only equalled by the Gandiva of Arjuna and the Sarngadhanu of Krsna. This prince is said to have been equally skilled with the bow and the sword and various other weapons, but to have been inordinately proud, and because of his boastfulness, his offer of aid was refused by both sides in turn before the Kuruksetra War. On the eve of the war he came to the battlefield at the head of one complete Aksauhini of forces of every description.5 6 In the Sabhaparvan, we read that the whole confederacy of Anhakas, Yadavas and Bhojas abandoned Kamsa who was slain by Krsna who had been appointed to do so (niyogat). It appears from this that Krsna had at least the tacit approval of all the allied peoples who had been tyrannized over and ill-treated by Kamsa. Kamsa himself was a Bhoja, as we learn from what Krsna said to the Kurus in their assembly on the eve of the battle.7 Another tribe with which the Bhojas are associated in the great Epic are the Kukuras who were evidently members of the Vrsnicakra or confederacy of tribes 8; for we are told in the Udyogaparvan of the Bhoja king joining the Kuru forces together with the Bhojas, Andhakas and Kukuras.9 In another chapter of the Udyogaparvan Mahabharata, Udyogaparvan, Chap. 157; see also ibid., Chap. 48, p. 74. 2 Ind. Ant., 1923, 262-3. 3 Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Edn., p. 77 4 Mahabharata, I, 85, 3533. 5 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 157. 6 Mbh., Sabhaparvan, Chap. 62, p. 8. 7 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 128, p. 37. 9 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 19. 24 8 Mausalaparvan, Chap. I, 7.

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370 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA also we find the Bhojas in company with the Andhakas, Vrsnis, Kukuras, Srinjayas and Cedis. Again, when all the people in this confederacy of tribes were engaged in a deadly conflict among themselves, we find the Kukuras fighting with and exterminating their allies and friends, the Bhojas and Andhakas.2 The Kukuras, Andhakas, and all the tribes in the Union rushed at each other like maniacs run amuck, and brought about the destruction of their closest friends. We have already seen that the kings among the Satvatas or Satvats were called Bhojas: Bhoja was the designation of the royal family of the Satvatas in the days of the Aitareya Brahmana, and afterwards the name Bhoja must have been extended to the whole Satvat tribe. In the Mahabharata we find the names Bhoja and Satvata used indiscriminately to designate the same individual, e.g. in the case of Krtavarman, the Hardikya or son of Hrdika. He was one of the greatest of the Bhojas, and was in the very front rank of the warriors of that warlike age. He led a complete Aksauhini or division of forces to the great Kuruksetra war 4 (on the Kuru side), and appears to have been the leader of the allied army of the BhojaAndhaka-Kukura-Vrsni confederacy, as we learn from the Udyogaparvan.5 Krtavarman appears to have been the official commander of the allied forces even before they came to the field of battle. He seems to have belonged to the city of Mrttikavati, as we may gather from the Dronaparvan. When the young son of Subhadra was making terrible slaughter in the Kuru army, and the Kuru heroes could not match him fighting singly according to the laws of honourable warfare, six of the leaders, Krtavarman amongst them, simultaneously made an onslaught against him.? Abhimanyu aimed a number of arrows at Bhoja Marttikavata, that is, the Bhoja from Mrttikavati, who must have been Krtavarman.8 In various passages of the Mahabharata,' Krtavarman is called either a Bhoja or a Satvata, the two terms being used interchangeably. From a passage of the Karnaparvan (Mahabharata, VIII, 7, 8) Kltavarman's capital Mrttikavati appears to have been 1 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, V, 28. 2 Mausala parvan, Chap. 5, verse 2. 8 Ibid., Chap. 3, pp. 40-3. 4 Rukmin is mentioned as leader of the Bhojas. 5 Mbh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 19, pp. 17-18, 25. 6 Ibid., Chap. 7. 7 Mbh., Dronaparvan, Chap. 46, p. 4. | 8 Ibid., 47, 8. 9 For example, Kitavarman is mentioned as a Bhoja at Muh., Udyogaparvan, Chap. 57, p. 21; Chap. 165; Karna parvan, Chap. 2, etc.; and as a Satvata in Chap. 143 (Udyogaparvan); Bhismaparvan, Chaps. 16, 51, 56, 81, 86, 95; Karnaparvan, Chap. 9, p. 80. 24B

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THE BHOJAS 371 situated in the Anarta country, for he is called a resident of Anarta. Towards the end of the battle, when Drona was killed, Krtavarman was elected leader by the remnant of the Bhojas, Kalingas and Vahlikas.1 Krtavarman, the Bhoja, was one of the three heroes who attended Duryodhana when the latter took refuge in the Dvaipayana lake. We read of Krtavarman the Satvata addressing the defeated Kuru monarch, and calling upon him to come out of his hiding place in the lake. Krtavarman took part in the slaying of the Pancalas and the sons of Draupadi, and then he and two other heroes went to give the dying king Duryodhana this welcome news. Finally, he returned to his own country,5 and was later slain by Satyaki in the mutually destructive encounter of the confederacy of tribes, his son then being placed on the throne of Mrttikavati by Krsna. 6 It is stated in the Puranas' that the Satvats and the Bhojas were branches of the Yadu family who dwelt at Mathura on the banks of the Yamuna; and the Mahabharata tells us that Krsna. removed the Yadava headquarters from Mathura to Dvaraka through fear of King Jarasandha of Magadha. In the Visnupuranas we read that Satvata was born in the family of Krosthu, son of Yadu. The descendants of Satvata, son of Mahabhoja, were known as Bhojas. According to the Matsyapurana,10 the Bhojas were pious, learned, truthful, valiant and charitable, and were performers of religious rites; but in another passage of this Purana (34, 30) as well as in the Mahabharata (I, 85, 3533), the Bhojas are relegated to the Mleccha caste. Pargiter thinks,11 however, that this tradition is 'unintelligible compared with all other traditions, and is probably late, and certainly very doubtful'. As we learn from the Puranas, 12 the Bhojas were related to the Haihayas who were a branch of the Yadavas. The Haihayas are said to have comprised five families, the Vitihotras, Saryatas, Bhojas, Avantis and Tundikeras. As we have seen, the Bhojas were closely related with the Vidarbhas; and they probably also held sway over Dandaka, the region around Nasik. This is 2 Ibid., IX, 29, 53-4 1 Mahabharata, VII, 193. 3 Ibid., IX, 30, 9-13. See also ibid., X, 1; X, 4, 6, etc. 4 Ibid., X, 8; X, 9, 6. 5 Ibid., XI, 11; XI, 66. e Ibid., XVI, 3; XVI, 7. 7 Matsyapurana, 43, 48; Chap. 44, pp. 46-8; Vayupurana, Chap. 94, p. 52; Chap. 95, p. 48; Chap. 96, pp. 1-2. 8 IV, 3. 9 Cf. Bhagavatapurana, Chap. 9, p. 24; Kurmapurana, Chap. 24, sl. 40; Harivamsa, Chap. 37. 10 Chap. 44, $1. 69. 11 A.I.H.T., p. 260, f.n. 1. 12 Agnipurana, Chap. 275, sloka 10; Vayupurana, Chap. 94, pp. 3-54; Matsyapurana, Chap. 43, pp. 7-49, etc.

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372 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA implied by a passage in Kautilya's Arthasastra 1 according to which a Bhoja named Dandakya, or king of Dandaka, tried to seduce a Brahmana girl, as a result of which he perished with his relations and his kingdom. The Jaina sacred books speak of the Bhojas as Ksatriyas and descendants from those whom Rsabha acknowledged as persons deserving of honour.2 The Jaina Sutras also tell us of a Bhoja princess, Rajimati who showed extraordinary religious zeal and strength of mind in overcoming all temptations.3 In the Pali Buddhist literature also we find references to Bhoja. In the Samyutta Nikaya 4 there is a mention of a Rsi named Rohitassa Bhojaputta, i.e. one belonging to the Bhoja family or tribe. One of the Jataka stories 5 tells that the Bodhisattva was born once as a Naga king named Sankhapala. He always used to give in charities and observe the religious precepts. On a certain sabbath day, while observing the precepts, he resolved to give away his own body in charity, and he became an iguana. Sixteen Bhojaputtas saw this iguana, made it weak by beating it, and carrying it off when they were seen by a merchant of Mithila who caused Sankhapala to be released. The Bhojas, along with the Andhras, Pulindas and Rastrikas, were among the vassal tribes of Asoka.6 Scholars hold that the Bhojas and the Rastrikas were evidently ancestors of the Mahabhojas and Maharathis of the Satavahana period.? The next important mention of the Bhojas in the historical period is made in the Hathigumpha Inscription of the Cheta king Kharavela (first century B.C.), which points out that Kharavela, the Maharaja of Kalinga, defeated the Rathikas and Bhojakas in the fourth year of his reign and compelled them to do homage to him. The Rathikas and Bhojakas are evidently the Rastrikas and Bhojas of Asoka's Rock Edict. The Khalimpur grant of the Emperor Dharmapaladeva of Gauda (c. 800 A.D.) speaks of the king of Bhoja along with kings of Matsya, Kuru, Yadu and Yavana as having uttered benedictions at the coronation ceremony of the king of Kanyakubja.8 R. D. Banerjee holds that the king of Bhoja was defeated by Dharmapala, and compelled to accept Cakrayudha instead of Indraraja as lord 1 1919 Edn., p. II. 2 Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Pt. II, p. 71, n. 2. 3 Pt. II, pp. 115-8. 4 P.T.S. Ed., Pt. I, pp. 61-62. 5 Vol. V, 164ff. 6 Rock Edicts, V and XIII. 7 Cf. Ray Chaudhuri, P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 259. 8 Gaudalekhamala, p. 14.

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THE BHOJAS 373 of Kanyakubja. In Banerjee's view, Bhoja is to be identified with part of present Rajputana.1 The Arulala-Perumal Inscription and the Ranganatha Inscription of Ravivarman refer to a Bhoja king of that name who belonged to the Yadu family of the Kerala country in S. India. This king Ravivarman is declared in the inscription to have been wise, liberal and a protector of the good. i Vangalar Itihasa, B.S. 1321, pp. 167-8. 2 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. IV, Pt. IV, June 1896, p. 146.

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CHAPTER LXXII THE MEKALAS The Mekalas were a small tribe inhabiting the tract of country comprising the modern Amarkantak (Amarakantaka) hills and the surrounding region. In ancient times, the Amarkantak range was known as Mekala, whence the name of the tribe is derived; and as the river Narmada (mod. Narbada) has its source in these hills, she was known as Mekalasuta 1 or Mekalakanya, i.e. 'daughter of Mekala', or Mekala.3 The Mekala mountain (mod. Amarkantak) is a part of the Vindhyas; and in the Puranas, the Mekalas are referred to as a Vindhyan tribe. This is also supported by the Vamanapurana (Chap. 13)4 which locates the Mekalas along with the Karusas, Bhojas, Dasarnas, Nisadhas and others, just below the Vindhyan range. The identification of the locality is confirmed by mythological allusions as well; for Mekala is said to have been a Rsi, the father of the river Narmada,--a mythological interpretation of the well-known geographical fact. The mountain where the river rises is also known as Mekaladri (Haimakosa, IV, 149). According to the Bengal recension of the Ramayana, Mount Mekala is referred to as the source of the river Son (Kiskindhya Kanda, XI, 20). According to the Epic tradition as contained in the Dronaparvan (IV, 8) of the Mahabharata, Karna is said to have conquered the Mekalas along with the Utkalas, Paundras, Kalingas, Andhras, Nisadas, Trigarttas and Vahlikas. In the Ramayana also, the Mekala country is associated with the Utkala and Dasarna countries. The army of monkeys which was despatched in search of Sita was asked to visit Mekala, Utkala, and Dasarna, among other countries of the south (Canto XLII). The Markandeya Purana probably associates the Mekalas with the Ambasthas (LVIII, 14): the reference is to Mekhalamusta, which appears to be a corruption of Mekala and Ambastha. If this is the case, it doubtless refers to the time when the Ambasthas or a section of them had migrated from their original habitat in the Punjab to south-eastern India, near the Mekala hill in the upper regions of the Narmada. There is another reference to Mekala in the Visnupurana (IV, Chap. 24, 17), where ten kings are said to have had Mekala as their land of birth. 1 S. Konow, Karpuramanjari, p. 182. 2 Amarakosa, I, 2, 3, 32, etc. 3 Abhidhanaratnamala, III, 52. 4 Among the tribes mentioned in this list are the Kosalas who were definitely not located anywhere near the Vindhyas, but in the N.E. Accordingly, this list is not to be taken as accurate.

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CHAPTER LXXIII THE DASARNAS The Dasarnas are mentioned in the Epics and Puranas, and also in Kalidasa's Meghaduta. They appear to have had more than one settlement during the Epic period. The Mahabharata seems to refer to two Dasarnas, one in the west, which was conquered by Nakula (Sabhaparvan, Chap. 32), and another in the east (or southeast), which was subjugated by Bhimasena (Sabhaparvan, Chap. 30). The Ramayana and the Puranas point to a Dasarna country grouped with those of the Malavas, Karusas, Utkalas and Mekalas, who are all said to have lived in the Vindhyan tract. This Dasarna is probably the same as the one conquered by Bhimasena. The Dasarna country in the west seems to have been more important than the other localities in the east or south-east. According to the Meghaduta (verses 24-5), the capital of this Dasarna country was Vidisa (mod. Bhilsa) on the Vetravati (= mod. Betwa). The Dasarnas thus occupied a site on the Dasarna river (which can still be traced in the modern Dashan river that flows through Bundelkhand, rising in Bhopal and emptying into the Betwa). According to Wilson,2 a Dasarna river is said in the Puranas to rise in a mountain called Citrakuta (= Kamptanath-gir in Bundelkhand). This is doubtless identical with the modern Dashan river. The Meghaduta further mentions a hill called Nicah as situated in the Dasarna country (loc. cit.). As we have seen, the Puranas associate the Dasarnas with the Vindhyan tribes, Malavas, Karusas, Mekalas, Utkalas, and Nisadhas. In the Ramayana, also their country is connected with those of the Mekalas and Utkalas, whither Sugriva sends his monkey army in quest of Sita (Kiskindhya K., loc. cit.). The Dasarna country of the Ramayana and the Puranas is thus different from the Dasarna of the Meghaduta; it is probably identical with Dosarene of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. According to Wilson, eastern or south-eastern Dasarna formed a part of the Chattisgarh Ramayana; Kiskindhya K., 41, 8-10; Brahmanda P., Chap. 49; Vayu P., Chap. 45; Matsya P., Chap. 114; Markandeya P., Chap. 57; Vamana P., Chap. 13; etc.--'Vindhya-prstha-nivasinah'. 2 Essays Analytical, etc., Vol. II, p. 336, f.n. I. 3 Wilson's Visnu P., Hall's Ed., Vol. II, p. 160, f.n. 3.

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376 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA District in the Central Provinces, including the native State of Patna. 1 The territory was probably situated on the river Dosaron which is mentioned by Ptolemy, and which has been identified with the river Brahmani that flows through modern Cuttack and empties itself into the Bay of Bengal. As Ptoleniy did not write from personal knowledge, he could not probably give the indigenous name of the river, but named it after the people inhabiting the region. Thus 'the Dosaron is the river of the region inhabited by the Dasarnas, a people mentioned in the Visnupurana as belonging to the southeast of Madhyadesa'2 The Dasarnas figure in the Mahabharata as one of the tribes who fought for the Pandavas in the great Kuruksetra war. The Dasarna king at that time was Ksatradeva, a mighty hero, who fought valiantly on elephant-back. He attacked the enemy-generals,4 and the king of Pragjyotisa or Kamarupa. The warriors of the Dasarna king were all mighty heroes and could fight best on elephants.6 According to Kautilya's Arthasastra (Book II, Chap. II), the elephants of Anga and Kalinga belonged to the best of their species, while those of Karusa, Dasarna and Aparanta ranked second, those of the Saurastras and allied tribes (Saurastrikah pancajanah) being the worst. We read elsewhere in the Mahabharata of another Dasarna king, named Hiranyavarman who appears also as Hemavarman and Kancanavarman (both Hema and Kancana being synonyms of Hiranya, 'gold').? Pargiter thinks 8 that during the period of the Kuruksetra war, Dasarna was a Yadava kingdom.9 Erakaccha, a town in the Dasanna (= Dasarna) country, is referred to in Pali literature. We read in the Petavatthu and Commentary of a certain merchant of Erakaccha, and of the miseries which he suffered through lack of faith in the Buddha.10 We are told 11 that the Theri Isidasi was once reborn at Erakaccha as a wealthy 1 J.A.S.B., 1905, pp. 7, 14. 2 McCrindle's Ptolemy, Mazumder's Ed., p. 71. 3 Karnaparvan, Chap. 22, 3; Bhismaparvan, Chaps. 95, 41, 43; Dronaparvan, Chap. 25, 35. 4 Bhisma parvan, Chap. 95, 41, 43. 5 Dronaparvan, Chap. 25, 35. 6 Karnaparvan, Chap. 22, 3. 7 Mbh., V, 190, 7419; 193, 7493, 7506, 7511 and 7518. 8 A.I.H.T., p. 280. 9 Mbh., V, 190, 7417ff.; Harivamsa, Chap. 91, 4967. 10 Petavatthu, 20; Commentary, pp. 99-105. 11 Therigatha, 435; see also Buddhist India, p. 40.

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THE DASARNAS 377 craftsman, a worker in gold. Dasanna was apparently a centre of the art of sword-making. It is mentioned in the Mahavastu 2 as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas. We also read in the Mahavastu that the Buddha distributed knowledge among the Dasarnas who built a vihara for him. 1 Jataka (Fausboll), III, 338: 'Dasannakam tikhinadharam asim'. 2 1, 34. (Senart's edition). 3 Law: A Study of the Mahavastu, p. 9.

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CHAPTER LXXIV THE PARIYATRAS It is doubtful whether Pariyatras, or Paripatras as they were also called, can ethnologically be classed as a tribe or people, to be distinguished from the Vindhyas with whom they lived contiguously, or from other peoples who had their habitat in and around the same locality. The Puranas, however, always enumerate them as a distinct people, associated with the Paripatra mountains, from which they evidently took their name. As already noticed, there are two variant forms of the mountainous region inhabited by this people, as given in the Puranas: Pariyatra and Paripatra; Paripatra seems to be the more usual reading, though Pariyatra occurs not infrequently. * In the topographical list of the Puranas, the Pariyatra or Paripatra hills are mentioned as one of the seven hill ranges together forming the Kulacalas or Kulaparvatas, family mountains', i.e. mountain ranges or systems. These are the Mahendra, Malaya, Sahya, Suktimat, Rksa, Vindhya and Paripatra. The Bhagavata, Vayu, Markandeya and Padma Puranas and the Bhismaparvan of the Mahabharata add a list of inferior mountains to these seven.3 The seven principal hill ranges are similarly enumerated by all the Puranic authorities, and their situation is easily determined by the rivers which are listed as flowing from them. Paripatra in particular is always associated with the Vindhyas. Vindhya, as is well known, is the general name of the chain of hills that stretches across Central India, dividing India into its welldefined and natural north and south divisions; but it is evident from the Puranic list and the situations of the hills mentioned in it that in the Puranas the name Vindhya is generally restricted to the eastern division of the long range of hills. According to the Vayupurana, however, it is the part south of the river Narmada, or the Satpura range of hills. Paripatra constitutes the northern and 1 Markandeya Purana, 58, 8. 2 E.g., Visnupurana, Wilson's Ed., Bk. II, Chap. III, pp. 127-8; also Markandeya Purana, 57, IO; Mahabharata, VI, 9, II. agavata burana. V. 10. 16ff: Markandeva P. LVII. 12ff.: Moh. Bhismaparvan, sl. 317-378. As subordinate portions of them are thousands of mountains; some unheard of, though lofty, extensive and abrupt; and others, better known, though of lesser elevation, and inhabited by people of low stature.

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THE PARIYATRAS 379 western portion of the Vindhyas, and may be said to include the range of hills now known as the Aravalli. "The Visnupurana, for example, mentions Pariyatra or Paripatra as situated on the west, associated with the semi-mythical mount Meru. "Nisadha and Pariyatra are the limitative mountains on the west (of Meru), stretching, like those on the east, between the Nila and Nisadha ranges.' 1 The list of the seven Kulacalas seems to have been known in some form or other to Ptolemy as early as the first half of the second century A.D.; for he also specifies seven ranges of hills, although his list does not correspond with the Puranic list, with the exception of the Ouindion, identical with the Vindhyas, and the Ouxenton, identical with the Rksa (Vant).2 Wilson thought that Adeisathron might be identified with the Pariyatra3; but this has been found to be untenable, and modern research tends to connect the range with the Western Ghats, or, more properly, 'that section of the Western Ghats which is immediately to the north of the Coimbatore gap, as it is there the Kaveri rises'.4 According to Rajasekhara, all seven Kulaparvatas were comprised within the Kumari-dvipa whose southernmost limit, according to the Skandapurana was the Pariyatra.5 In the period of the Brahmanical and Buddhist Sutras too, Pariyatra was the southernmost limit of contemporary Aryavarta, while the eastern and western boundaries were formed by Kalakavana (probably near Allahabad) and Adarsana and Thuna (on the Sarasvati) respectively. The Puranas refer to a number of rivers issuing from the Pariyatra, e.g. the Mahi, the Varnasa or Parnasa, the Sipra, the Carmanvati, the Sindhu and the Vetravati. The Mahi is well known; Varnasa or Parnasa has been identified by Pargiter with the modern Banas, a tributary of the Carmanvati (Chambal). Sindhu is Kali Sindhu, a tributary of the Carmanvati, and Vetravati is modern Betwa. Sipra is the famous river immortalised in Sanskrit classical poetry. The Visnupurana mentions yet another river issuing from the Paripatra mountains, namely, the Vedasmrti? (or Vedasmrta according to the Mahabharata). 1 Visnupurana, 2, II, Wilson's Ed., p. 123. 2 Ptolemy's Ancient India, by McCrindle, S. N. Majumdar's Ed., pp. 75-81. 3 Visnu Purana, Wilson's Ed., 2, III, p. 128. 4 McCrindle, Ptolemy's Ancient India, p. 8o. 5 Skandapurana, Kumarika-khanda, Chap. 39, 113: 'Pariyatrasya caivarvak khandam Kaumarikam smytam'. & Dharma-sutra of Bodhayana, I, I, 25. *Pragadarsanat pratyak Kalakavanad daksinena Himavantam udak Pariyatram etad Aryavartam'. 7 Wilson's Ed., p. 130 (2, III). 8 Bhismaparvan.

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380 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Vayupurana mentions the Karusas and the Malavas as dwelling along the Paripatra mountains. The Nasik Prasasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni seems to associate the Kukuras also with the Pariyatra.2 This is probably the earliest epigraphic mention of the mountains. A more elaborate mention is made in the Mandasor Inscription of Yasodharman and Visnuvardhana, where a large tract of land is described as 'containing many countries, which lie between the Vindhya (mountains), from the slopes of the summits of which there flows the pale mass of the water of (the river) Reva, and the mountain Pariyatra, on which trees are bent down in (their) frolicsome leaps by the long-tailed monkeys (and which stretches) up to the ocean'. 1 Wilson's Ed., p. 133 (2, III). Malukas and Marukas are variant readings for Karusas. See also Kurma P., Purva Chap. 7, which seems to include the countries of Aparanta, Saurastra, Sudra, Malapa (Malava), Malaka and others within the Pariyatra area. 2 Byhatsamhita, XIV, 4. 3 C.I.I., Vol. III, p. 154.

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CHAPTER LXXY MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES PETENIKAS - GO-LANGULAS - SAILUSAS - KUSUMAS --- NAMAVASAKAS-ADHAKYAS-DANDAKASPAURIKAS-ATHARVAS AND ARKALINGAS-MAULIKAS-MUSIKAS OR MUSAKAS-CULIKAS AND SULIKAS - KANKANAS - TOSALAS - VAIDISAS - TUSTIKARAS - MAHISAKAS OR MAHISIKAS-KIKATAS-PRAVANGAS-RANGEYAS -MANADAS-UGRAS-TANGANAS-MUDAKARAS - ANTARGIRYAS -BAHIRGIRAS - ANUPAS - KUKURAS-SURYARAKAS - VRKAS - HARABHUSIKAS - MATHARAS - JAGUDAS - BRAHMOTTARAS - BHRGUKACCHAS-MAHEYAS-BHOJAS-APARANTAS-HAIHAYAS - BHOGAVARDHANAS-SARAJAS-VIRAHOTRAS-VINDHYAMAULEYAS - JANGALAS - BHADRAKARAS - KSHUDRAKAS -PUSKALAS-CINAS-TUKHARAS-SARASVATAS-ASVAKUTASKULYAS - MALAKAS - BODHAS - DASAMALIKAS - HARSAVARDHANAS-KUSERUKAS-HAMSAMARGAS-KUHAKAS-SATAPATHA -CARMAKHANDIKAS-GABALAS/SATADRUJAS-URNAS-DARVAS -BAHU-BHADRAS-TRAIPURAS-GAJAHVAYAS-PARNA-SAVARAS -ARBUDAS-KHASAS The Petenikas of Asokan inscriptions have been plausibly identified with the Paithanikas or inhabitants of refenikas Paithan on the Godavari 1 in North-Western Hyderabad. Paithan is the present name of ancient Pratisthana which was a flourishing city during the rule of the Satavahana kings. Pratisthana, the modern Paithan on the north bank of the Godavari in the Aurangabad District of Hyderabad, is famous in literature as the capital of King satakarni (Satavahana or Salivahana) and his son Sakti-kumara who are generally identified with the king Satakarni and the prince Sakti-Sri of the Nanaghat inscriptions. According to Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar the word 'Pitinika' of Asokan inscriptions, as mentioned in Rock Edicts V and XIII, should not be treated as a separate word and is to be regarded as an adjective qualifying Rastrika (mentioned in Edict V) and Bhoja (mentioned in Edict XIII) which are mentioned along with it. In this connection Dr. Bhandarkar points to certain i Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 603. 2 Ibid., Vol. I, p. 531.

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382 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA passages in the Anguttara Nikaya | where the term Pettanika occurs in the sense of one who enjoys property given by father.2 Other scholars, however, identify the Pitinikas with the Paithanakas or natives of Paithan and some go so far as to suggest that they are the ancestors of the Satavahana rulers of Paithan.3 Both the author of the Periplus and Ptolemy mention Paithana or Baithana. Paithan is placed by the author of the Periplus at a distance of twenty days' journey to the south of Barugaza (identified generally with Bharukaccha or modern Broach), and is spoken of as the greatest city in Dakhinabades or Daksinapatha and Tagara (identified by some with Devagiri, by others with Junnar and by R. G. Bhandarkar with Dharur in Nizam's territory), ten days' east of Paithan. No people of the name Co. people of the name Go-Langulas are known. The MatsyaGo-Langulas purana reads Celas and Kulyas (CXIII, 46) and the Vavu Caulyas and Kulyas instead (XLV, 124). The Colas (Caulyas) were a well-known people and were famous from very early times, being one of the four tribes of the far south. The Kulyas are not met with anywhere; but undoubtedly they are the same people as the Kolas mentioned more than once in the Mahabharata.4 But the people cannot satisfactorily be identified. The Vayu (XLV, 125) and the Matsya (CXIII, 47) Puranas read Setukas instead; but none of the names can be Sailusas identified. Pargiter's suggestion that they might mean the people who lived near the Setu of Rama is ingenious and may not altogether be improbable, for they are mentioned in connection with the people of the far south. The Kusumas are also known as Kumanas 5 and Kupathas. Pargiter suggests an identification with the Kurubas Kusumas or Kurunbas, who were the same as the Pahlavas, an important tribe of Southern India. The Vayupurana reads (XLV, 125) Vanavasikas and the BhismaNama-Vasakas parvan list Vanavasakas (IX, 366) which is the parvan li do correct reading. Doubtless they refer to the people of the kingdom of Vanavasi, a well-known region of the south in North Kanara in historical times, and not unknown to the author of the Harivamsa (XCV, 5213 and 5231-3). The Matsyapurana reads Vaji-Vasikas (CXIII, 47) which is apparently incorrect. It is ancient Vaijayantipura, also known as Jayantipura, capital of the 1 III, 70 and 300. 2 Ind. Ant., 1919, p. 80. 3 Cf. Woolner, Asoka, p. 113; J.R.A.S., 1923, 92. 4 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1171, Asvamedhaparvan, LXXXIII, 2476-7. 5 Vayupurana, XLV, 125. 8 Matsyapurana, CXIII, 47.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 383 Kadambas and the Vejayanti of epigraphic records. It is held to be the same as the Buzantion of the Periplus. The Vayu and Matsya Puranas (XLE, 126 and CXIII, 48) read Adhakyas Atavyas which is no doubt the correct reading. hakyas Atavi as a city of the Deccan is mentioned in the Mahabharata.1 The Atavyas were certainly the same as the Atavikas of the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, who were perhaps aboriginal tribes dwelling in the jungle tracts of Central India. The Dandakas are undoubtedly the people dwelling in the Dandaka forest celebrated in the Ramayana in conDangakas nection with the story of Rama's exile. According to the description in the Ramayana, the forest seems to have covered almost the whole of Central India from the Bundelkhand region to the Godavari,2 but the Mahabharata seems to limit the Dandaka forest to the source of the Godavari.3 For Paurikas the Vayupurana reads Paunikas instead (XLV, 127) perhaps wrongly. According to the Harivamsa, Paurikas Purika was a city in the Mahismati kingdom (XCV, 5220-28). It is not improbable that Purika was the city of the Paurikas. These two names are evidently misreadings and it is difficult to find out what is the correct form. The VavuAtharvas and Arkalingas purana reads atha parsve talangasca while the Matsya gives Atharvasca Kalingasca. All these readings are improbable. Tilangas are well known as a southern people who are mentioned in connection with the southern peoples in the Markandeya Purana (Chap. 58, verse 28). They are identical with the Trikalingas. Avantas and Kalingas though otherwise well known are nowhere located in the Madhyadesa. *The Markandeya Purana speaks of the Avantas as a Vindhyan tribe (Chap. 57, verses 52 and 55). In the same Purana, the Kalingas are once spoken of as a northern tribe (ibid., verse 37) and then again as a southern tribe (ibid., v. 46). The reference to the Kalingas as a northern tribe is undoubtedly wrong. The Vayupurana reads Maunikas (XLV, 127) instead. The Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata refers to a people Maulikas named Mauleyas. The Maulikas were evidently the people of Mulaka mentioned in the Parayanavagga of the Suttanipata. 1 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1176. ? J.R.A.S., 1894, p. 24I; f. Jataba, Fausboll, Vol. V, P. 29. 3 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1169; Vanaparvan, LXXXV, 8183-4.

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384 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Mahabharata 1 and the Markandeya Purana mention a people called the Musikas as dwelling in the south;. The Musikas or Musakas or the same people evidently were also called Musakas who are mentioned twice in the Mahabharata.2 The Markandeya Purana in another context refers to a people called Mrisikas 3 as dwelling in the south-east and still another called Risikas 4 in the south. The Mrisikas were apparently the same as the Musikas or the Musakas. The Risikas were also a well-known people; they are referred to as dwelling in the north in the Mahabharata, in the Ramayana 6 as well as in the Matsyapurana.? Another section of the same people seems to have their location in the south.8 It is difficult to say whether the Risikas were the same as the Mrisikas or the Musikas = Musakas. Pargiter suggests that the Musikas = Musakas were probably settled on the banks of the river Musi on which stands modern Hyderabad. Dr. Ray Chaudhuri suggests 10 that it is not altogether improbable that the Muchipa or Muvipa of the Sankhyayana Srauta Sutra are the same people as the Musikas. It is also reasonable to suggest that the Musikas = Musakas were a southern offshoot of the Punjab tribe known to Alexander's historians as the Mousikenos. 11 Patanjali mentions a people called Mausikara 12 which appears to have some connection with the Musikas. A Musikanagara is referred to in the Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga who in the second year of his reign is said to have struck terror into the heart of the people of that place.13 The Culikas and the Sulikas are mentioned in Markandeya list 14 as two different peoples, but both in the north. For The Culikas and Sulikas and Culikas, the Vayupurana reads Pidikas 15 and the Matsyapurana Sainikas instead.16 The Markandeya Purana in another context 17 places the Culikas in the Tortoise's tail at the westernmost part of India. For Sulikas, the Vayupurana reads Culikas in the same context, and the Matsyapurana says that they were a people through whose country flowed the river Caksu, one of the three large rivers which rising from the mid-Himalayan 1 Bhismaparvan, IX, 366. 2 Ibid., IX, 366 and 371. 3 LVIII, 16. 4 LVIII, 27. 5 Sabhaparvan, XXVI, 1033-6. 6 Kiskindhya Kanda, XLIV, 13. 7 CXX, 53 8 Ramayana, Kiskindhya Kanda, XLI, 16; Harivamsa, CXIX, 6724-6. 9 Markandeya Purana, p. 366. 10 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., p. 80. 11 Cf. Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 377. 13 Epigraphia Indica, XX, 79, 87; Barua reads Asvaka or Risika instead in his Old Brahmi Inscriptions, p. 176; Thomas also finds no reference in the passage to any Musika city, J.R.A.S., 1922, 83. 14 LVII, 40, 41. 15 XLV, 119. 16 CXIII, 43. 17 LVIII, 37. ka, CXIth Ed., 22 IV, This

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 385 region flows westward.1 Pargiter suggests that Caksu may perhaps be meant for Vaksu (= Vamksu) which is the Oxus, and says that in that case the Sulikas would be a people on the Oxus in Turkistan.2 He also points to the resemblance of the name Sulikas with that of the Sulakaras mentioned in the same canto of the Markandeya Purana.3 But the Sulikas are mentioned in the Haraha Inscription of Isanavarman Maukhari in a different context; there they are mentioned along with the Andhras and Gaudas, all of whom appear to have been defeated by Isanavarman. Dr. Ray Chaudhuri 4 suggests that the Sulikas should be identified with the Calukyas who are mentioned in the Mahakuta Pillar Inscription as Calikya, names so near to Culika of the Puranas. The Sulikas may further be identified with the Solaki and Solanki of the Gujrat records. The Culikas and Sulikas may thus be the same people. The Sulikas or the Saulikas are further mentioned in the Byhatsamhita5 along with the Aparantas, Vanavasis and the Vidarbhas. Elsewhere the Byhatsamhita connects the same people with the Gandharas and Vokkaras (occupying modern Wakhan). This suggests that a section of the people must have once been dwelling in the north or north-west, and another in the western or Aparanta region. The kingdom of Sulik according to Taranatha was located beyond Togara = Tegara = modern Ter? in the Deccan. The Kankanas as a tribe are referred to in the Markandeya The Kankanas e Purana 8 and the Harivamsa. According to the amas latter source, they were defeated and degraded by King Sagara. They must have been the people dwelling along the low strip of land between the Western Ghats and the sea called in historical times Kankan or Konkan. Their mention along with the Bhrgukacchas in the Markandeya Purana makes this identification more significant. The Tosalas are referred to in the Markandeya Purana along with the Karusas, Keralas, Utkalas, Dasarnas, The Tosalas Kosalas, Avantis, etc., all of whom dwelt on the slopes of Vindhya mountains. The Matsyapurana reads Stosalas (CXIII, 53) erroneously, for Tosalas is the correct reading meaning the people of Tosali or Tosala and the adjoining region. Tosali or Tosala was the name of a country as well as of a city. The city of Tosali was the seat of the provincial government of Kalinga in the 1 CXX, 45, 46. 3 LVII, 40. 5 IX, 15; XIV, 8. 7 Ind. Ant., IV, 364. 2 Markandeya Purana, p. 342, note. 4 P.H.A.I., 4th Ed., 509. 6 IX, 21; XVI, 35. 8 VIII, 22. 9 XIV, 784 25

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 386 In days of Asoka. The country or janapada of 'Amita-Tosala' is referred to in the Gaudavyaha along with its city Tosala.1 Pauranic literature, Tosala is always associated with Daksina Kosala and distinguished from Kalinga. Tosala in medieval times seems to have been divided into two parts: Daksina Tosala and Uttara Tosala. The city of Tosala seems to have been the same as Tosalei of Ptolemy. The Vaidisas are undoubtedly the people of Vidisa, a famous city of early times, the capital of the Dasarna country, Vaidisas immortalised by Kalidasa in his Meghadutam. Vidisa is probably the modern Besnagar, close to Bhilsa. It was situated on the river Vetravati, modern Betwa. The name Tustikaras seems to be a misreading. The Vayupurana reads Tundikeras (XLV, 134) which is supported by Tustikaras the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa (XXXIV, 1895). According to the Harivamsa they belonged to the Haihaya race (ibid.). The tribe seems to have left their trace in the little town of Tendukhera, a little to the north of the source of the Narmada.* Saundikeras, which is the reading of the Matsyapurana, is incorrect. The Mahisakas or Mahisikas are referred to in the Puranas 5 as a people of the south. They are mentioned in the The Mahisakas 7 same context in the Sabhaparvan list of the or Mahisikas Mahabharata. Undoubtedly they are the same people as the Mahismakas of the Asvamedhaparvan of the Mahabharata, and were the inhabitants of the ancient region Mahismati mentioned also in the Mahabharata. Mahismati seems to have been situated on the river Narmada between the Vindhya and the Riksa and can safely be identified with the modern Mandhata region, where there was a river called Mahisiki mentioned in the Ramayana." According to one passage in the Harivamsa,10 the founder of Mahismati seems to have been Mucukunda, according to another 11 Mahismat. According to the Puranas, 12 Mahismati was founded by a prince of the Yadu lineage. Bhandarkar says that Avanti Daksinapatha had its capital at Mahismati or Pali Mahissati. The Puranas style the first dynasty of Mahismati as Haihaya,13 whereas the Mahagovinda 1 Cf. Levi, Pre-Aryan et Pre-Dravidian L'Inde, J.A., July-Sept., 1923. 2 Ep. Ind., IX, 286; XV, 3. 3 Dronaparvan, XVII, 691; Karnaparvan, V, 138. 4 Pargiter, Markandeya Purana, p. 344, note. 5 Markandeya Purana, LVII, 46; Matsyapurana, CXIII, 47. 6 IX, 366. 8 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1125-63. 10 XCV, 5218ff. 7 LXXXIII, 2475. 9 Kiskindhya Kanda, XLI, 16. 11 XXXIII, 1846-7. 12 Matsyapurana, XLIII, 10-29; XLIV, 36; Vayupurana, 94, 26; 95, 35. 13 Ibid., 43, 8-29; Vayu, 94, 5-26. 25B

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 387 Suttanta mentions Mahissati as the capital of the Avantis, and refers to their king Vessabhu. But the Mahabharata distinguishes between Avanti and Mahismati.1 The Kikatas or Kikata tribe are mentioned in the Rgveda (III, 53, 14) as being under the rule of a king named Kikatas Pramaganda. Yaska in his Nirukta (VI, 32) says that Kikata was a non-Aryan country (anarya-nivasa). The author of the Byhaddharma Purana echoes this feeling of Yaska when he says that the Kikata country was papa-bhumi or impure country (Kikate ca myto'pyesa papabhumau na samsayah, XXVI, 47). The Gaya District was probably included in the Kikata country as is evident from the following passage of the Byhaddharma Purana (XXV, 20, 22): Kikate nama dese' sti Kaka-karnakhyo nrpahi Prajanam hitakrnnityam Brahmadvesakaras tatha il Tatra dese Gaya nama punyadeso'sti visrutah Nadi ca Karnada nama pitsnam svargadayini ii' Similar statements are also found in the Vayu and the Bhagavata Puranas as well as in the commentary of Sridhara. E.g. : 'Kikatesu Gaya punya punyam Rajagsham vanami Cyavanasyasramam punyam nadi punya punahpunah'(Vayu, 108, 73). 'Buddho namnanjanasutah Kikatesu bhavisyati' (Bhagavata, 1, 3, 24). "Kikatesu madhye Gayapradese' (Sridhara). Kikata thus was an impure country but later Brahmanical sources seem to have regarded some of its localities at least as holy, e.g. Gaya, Rajaglha and the hermitage of the sage Cyavana. Later authorities seem to hold the Kikata country identical with Magadha. Thus in Hemacandra's Abhidhanacintamani we find: 'Kikata-Magadhahvayah'. According to Prof. A. B. Keith 2 if the Kikatas of the Rgveda were, as has been suggested, really located in Magadha, the dislike of the country goes back to the Rgveda itself. The causes most probably have been the imperfect Brahmanisation of the land and the predominance of aboriginal blood, which later in history rendered Magadha the headquarters of Buddhism. The Pravangas probably stand for those people who dwelt Pravangas just in front of the Vangas (Pravanga). It is not unlikely that they may be the same people as the Angas. This is evidently a copyist's mistake for Vangeyas which is the reading of the Vayupurana (XLV, 122). The Rangeyas 18 Matsyapurana simply reads Vangas. They are undoubtedly the people of ancient Vanga or Bengal. 1 Mahabharata, II, 31, 10. . Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 123.

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388 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA The Vayupurana reads Maladas (XLV, 122). Pargiter assumes that here we have a reference to the people of Manadas modern Maldah in which are situated the old cities of Gaud and Panduya. The Maladas are also mentioned as an eastern people in the Mahabharata.1 The Ugras seem to have been a very old and once a well-known tribe. They are mentioned in the Byhadaranyaka Ugras Ubanisad (III, 8, 2) and also in the Uvasagadasao.2 According to the Anguttara Nikaya, the Uggas or Ugras are associated with Vesali or Vaisali.3 They are also connected with Hatthigama according to the same Nikaya. The Dhammapada Commentary refers to a city called Ugga or Ugra. * A passage in the Sutrakytanga seems to suggest that the Ugras along with the Aiksvakas, Bhogas and Kauravas were associated with the jnatrs and Licchavis as subjects of the Vajji rulers and members of the Vajji clan.4 The Vayupurana reads Tanganas (XLV, 120) and more than once in the Mahabharata 5 we find reference to Tanganas Tanganas and Para-tanganas. The Epic description shows that they were allied with the Kiratas and Pulindas. From the description given in the Mahabharata it appears that they were a rude tribe, for their main fighting weapon was stone.? The name Mudakaras is found in the Markandeya Purana.8 - The Vayupurana gives Sujarakas and the Matsya Mudakaras de Madgurakas. None of these names is identifiable. One may, nevertheless, guess that here is a name which is a corrupt rendering of Mudgagiri or Modagiri, mentioned in literature and inscriptions, which is generally identified with the hills of Monghyr in Bihar. Monghyr was also known as Mudgala-puri, Mudgalasrama and so on. The Mudgalas or the people of Monghyr are also referred to in the Mahabharata. The Antargiryas must be those people dwelling in the hilly stretch Antargiryas e of the Rajmahal ranges of the Santhal Parganas. They are mentioned in the Bhismaparvan list of the Mahabharata. The Bahirgiras may also be said to have been associated with the hilly tracts of Bihar and from their mention along with Bahirgiras the Antargiryas it seems that the people meant were 1 Sabhaparvan, XXIX, 1081-2; Dronaparvan, VII, 183. 2 Hoernle's Ed., II, p. 139, art. 210. 8 C. Uggo gahapati Vesaliko; Anguttara Nikaya, I, 26. 4 S.H.E., XIV, 339. 5 Sabhaparvan, LI, 1859; Bhismaparvan, IX, 372. 6 Vanaparvan, CXL, 10863-5; Sabhaparvan, LI, 1858-9. 7 Drona parvan, CXXI, 4835-47. 8 Markandeya Purana, 57, 42. * Dronaparvan, XI, 397.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 389 dwellers on the outskirts of the hills of Bhagalpur and Monghyr regions. The Anupas are mentioned as a tribe in the Vayupurana (XIV, 134); the Matsyapurana reads Anipa (CXIII, 54) Anupas while the Markandeya Purana (LVII, 55) reads Annajas. Anupa literally means any marshy tract or country lying not very far from the seas. In this sense the word 'sagaranupa' is used in several places in the Mahabharata. Thus we find tracts known as Anupa in Bengal1 in the far south 2 on the western coast 3 in or near about Kathiawar. From the Harivamsa we learn that the country of the Anupa tribe lay near Surastra and Anartta. The Harivamsa further informs us that it was to the south of Surastra (XCIV, 5142-80). In the Mahabharata king Kartavirya and Nala are styled 'lords of Anupa'.5 It seems likely, therefore, that the Anupas occupied the tract of country south of Surastra, around Mahismati on the Narmada. Epigraphic evidence also lends support to such a view. The Nasik Cave Inscription of Queen Gautami Balasri records that her son conquered Anupa along with other countries, namely, Maharastra, Mulaka (country round Paithan), Suratha (Surastra or Kathiawar), Kukura (country near the Pariyatra or the Western Vindhyas), Aparanta (northern Konkan), Vidarbha (Berar) and Akaravanti (eastern and western Malwa). Most of these tracts seem to have been reconquered from Gautamiputra by Saka Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman whose Junagadh Rock Inscription states that his sway extended over Purv-apar-akar-avanti (east and west Malwa), Anupanivrit or the Mahismati (Mandhata?) region, Anartta (tract round Dwarka according to some; district round Vadanagara according to others), Surastra (district round Junagadh), Svabhra (the country on the banks of the Sabarmati), Maru (Marwar), Kaccha (Cutch), Sindhu-Sauvira (the lower Indus valley), Kukura (part of Central India, probably near the Pariyatra Mt. according to the Brhatsamhita, XIV, 4), Aparanta (north Konkan), and Nisada (in the region of the Sarasvati and the western Vindhyas)." 6 The Kukuras as a tribe find mention in the Bhagavatapurana. They seem to have occupied the Dwaraka region Kukuras which is described as: 'Kukur-Andhaka-Vrsnibhih Juptah'. The Vayupurana also seems to refer to the tribe when it represents Ugrasena, the king of the Vadavas as 'Kukurodbhava' or 'originated from Kukura'. The Brhatsamhita seems to locate the 1 Sabhaparvan, XXV, 1002; XXIX, I101; XXXIII, 1268-9. 2 Udyogaparvan, XVIII, 578. 4 Harivamsa, CXIII, 6361-9; CXIV, 6410-11. 3 Ibid., III, 81. 5 Bhismaparvan, XCV, 4210. 6 Cf. Bomb. Gaz., 1, i, 6. 7 Cf. Nisadarastra, Mbh., III, 130-4 and Pariyatracarah, Mbh., XII, 135, 3-5.

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390 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA tribe in western or central India (XIV, 4). According to the Nasik Cave Inscription of Queen Gautami Balasri, her son conquered the Kukuras, Surathas, Mulakas, Aparantas, Anupas, Vidarbhas and others. From the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman we learn that most of these peoples along with the Kukuras were again conquered by him. These provinces were in all probability wrested from the hands of the contemporary Satavahana ruler of Deccan. According to Sir R. G. Bhandarkar, the Satakarni lord of Daksinapatha from whom Rudradaman conquered these provinces was Gautamiputra Satakarni. According to Rapson the Satavahana ruler of Deccan, whom Rudradaman defeated, was Pulumayi. The name Suryarakas is a misreading for Surparakas. The Surparaka country was known from very early times, Suryarakas S and is celebrated in the Mahabharata in connection with the legend of Rama Jamadagnya.2. There it is located in the western region, but some passages seem to locate it in the south as well. This does not mean that there were two Surparakas. The reason for this anomaly seems to be clear, for the country was near the southern sea in the western region. According to the same Epic, it was situated on the sea near Prabhasa, that is, modern Somnath in Kathiawar. The city of Surparaka, identical with the modern town of Sopara near Bassein, is said to have been founded by Rama Jamadagnya.5 In the Mahabharata 6 we find reference to the Vrkas. The Matsyapurana reads Andhakas instead. The Vikas Andhakas are intimately associated with the Yadavas and are often referred to in the Mahabharata? but they are known to have been located in Western India or Aparanta. A more correct or better reading seems to be Vrsnikas. The variant readings are Harapurikas 8 and Haramurtikas. None of these names is identifiable. Pargiter Harabhusikas suggests Hara-hunakas who are mentioned in the Mahabharata as a people outside India on the west 10 This reading is evidently wrong. The Matsyapurana (CXIII, Matharas 43) reads Ramathas instead. The Mahabharata * makes mention of them and locates them in the 1 Early History of the Dekkan, 23. 2 Vanaparvan, LXXXV, 8185. 3 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1169; Vana parvan, LXXXVIII, 8337. 4 Vana parvan, CXVIII, 10221-27. 5 Harivamsa, XCVI, 5300. 6 Bhismaparvan, LI, 2106. 7 Udyogaparvan, LXXXV, 304; Harivamsa, XXXV, 1907-8; Ibid., XXXIX, 2041. 8 Vayu, XLV, 116. 9 Matsya, CXIII, 41. 10 Sabhaparvan, XXXI, 1194; L, 1844; Vanaparvan, LI, 1991.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 391 west.1 The name of the people is also given as Ramatas or Ramathas in the Vayupurana (XLV, 117) and also in the Mahabharata. There is, however, no clue to their identification. The Vayupurana reads Jugudas, the Matsya Jangalas. In another place the Matsyapurana mentions the Jagudas ugas Jagudas as a people through whose country the Indus flows (CXX, 46-48).2 But this indication is too vague to admit of any definite identification. The Mahabharata : also mentions the Jagulas. Pargiter suggests the reading Suhmotkalas 4 which is neither intended nor necessary, for evidently a better suggesBrahmottaras u tion is that of the Matsya which reads Suhmottaras meaning the people who dwelt north of the Suhma country. In the Kurmanivesa section 5 of the Markandeya Purana the w Bhrgukacchas are located in the south. Evidently Bhsgukacchas this is the correct Sanskrit form of the name which we find in a corrupt form, Bhiru-kacchas, in another section of the same Markandeya Purana, whereas the Matsyapurana reads Bharukacchas (CXIII, 50), who are the same people, namely, the Bhrgukacchas of Sanskrit literature. Bhrgukaccha, Bharukaccha, Bhirukaccha are all identical with the modern Broach or Bharuch which is the Barygaza of early Greek geographers. All these names survive in the modern Broach, on the mouth of the Narmada. In early Buddhist literature as well as in the early centuries of the Christian era, the town was reputed to be an important seat of sea-going trade and commerce. Along with the Bhrgukacchas, the Vayu (XLV, 131) and the Matsya Puranas (CXIII, 51) mention a people called the Kacchikas. These were undoubtedly the people of what is now known as Kutch or Cutch. The Maheyas must have been the people dwelling on the banks of the Mahi. They are the same as the Mahikas of Maheyas the Bhismaparvan list of the Mahabharata (IX, 354). The Vayu (XLV, 132) and Matsya Puranas (CXIII, 52) read Bhojas which is undoubtedly a more probable Bhojas reading. The Bhojas were a Yadava tribe who dwelt in north-eastern Gujrat. The Vayupurana reads Aparitas and Matsya Purandharas Aparantas instead; both are evidently erroneous. The Bhisma parvan list of the Mahabharata agrees with that of the 1 Sabhaparvan, XXXI, 1195; Vanaparvan, LI, 1991; Santiparvan, LXV, 2430. 2 Cf. Pargiter, Markandeya Purana, p. 322, note. 3 Vanaparvan, LI, 1991. 4 Markandeya Purana, p. 327, note. 5 LVIII, 22. 6 LVII, 51.

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392 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Markandeya Purana. Mention is often made of this tribe in the Mahabharata as Aparanta or Aparantas. Generally the term is applied to all the tribes living in the western region of India. But the Markandeya and Bhismaparvan list must also be taken to signify a particular tribe. According to the astronomical list of the Markandeya (Chap. 58) the tribe seems to have been located north of the Sindhu-Sauvira country. The word Aparanta in the narrowest sense or connotation of the term, that is, the kingdom of Aparanta is identified with northern Konkan with its capital at Surparaka (modern Sopara). It lay to the west of Maharastra. It is mentioned in the inscriptions of Asoka where we find that his empire included all the Aparantas (Surparaka, Nasik, etc., according to the Markandeya Purana (57, 49-52)). - The author of the Periplus mentions King Mambarus (identified by some with Nahapana) whose capital was Minnagara in Ariake. According to D. R. Bhandarkar Minnagara is Mandasor and Ariake is Aparantika. Ushavadata's inscriptions show that Nahapana's political influence extended from Poona and Surparaka (N. Konkan) to Mandasor and Puskara (Ajmir). From the Nasik record of Queen Gautami Balasri we learn that her son extended his sway over Aparanta as well as over other western countries. Later on Aparanta was reconquered by the Saka Satrap Rudradaman of Western India, as we find from his Junagadh Rock Inscription of the year 72, that is, 150 A.D. The Puranas style the first dynasty of Mahismati as Haihaya. This family is referred to in Kautilya's Arthasastra Haihayas (p. 11). The Haihayas are said to have overthrown the Nagas whose habitat was probably somewhere in the Narmada region (cf. Nagpur). Five branches of the Haihayas are mentioned in the Matsyapurana, namely, Vitihotras, Bhojas, Avantis, Kundikeras or Tundikeras and the Talajanghas (43, 48-9). In the fourth century B.C. Avanti formed an integral part of the Magadhan empire. Thus Mahapadma Nanda, the first Nanda king, is described in the Vayu, Matsya and Brahmanda Puranas as 'ekarat', or sole and undisputed monarch of the earth and 'sarva Ksatrantaka', that is, the destroyer of all ksatriya families who ruled over the different parts of India along with the Saisunagas, viz. the Iksvakus, Kurus, Pancalas, Kasis, Maithilas, Vitihotras, Haihayas, Kalingas, Asmakas, Surasenas and so on. It appears, therefore, that the Haihayas were one of the ruling Ksatriya dynasties of ancient India. In the Mahabharata (XIII, 30) Pratardana, king of Kasi, is said i Bhismaparvan, IX, 355; Vanaparvan, CCXVII, 7885-6; santiparvan, XLIX, 1780-82. 2 Matsya, 43, 8-29; Vayu, 94, 5-26. 3 Ray Chaudhuri, Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 141.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES to have crushed the power of Vitahavyas or Haihayas. According to E. J. Rapson,1 the Haihayas, Asmakas and Vitihotras, like the Surasenas, belonged to the great family of the descendants of Yadu who occupied the countries of the river Chambal in the north and the river Narbada in the south, though it is difficult to identify with precision the kingdoms indicated by these different names. Haihaya is often used as a synonym of Yadava to denote the whole group of peoples and the Vitihotras are said to be a branch of the Haihayas. The Vitihotras and the Asmakas are closely associated in literature with the Avantis of Western Malwa, whose capital was Ujjain (Ujjayini) on the river Sipra, a tributory of the Chambal (Charmanvati). In the Puranic list of ruling dynasties the rulers of Ujjain are not mentioned. The obvious explanation for this, as Rapson points out, is that they are probably styled Haihayas in the Puranas.2 393 Bhogavardhanas Sarajas The tribe cannot satisfactorily be identified. Bhogavadham occurs in the Barhut Inscriptions.3 The Vayu and Matsya Puranas read Malavas which is no doubt the correct reading. The Malavas had settlements in different parts of India. The tribe referred to here may probably mean that branch of the Malavas which settled in and around that portion of Malwa which borders on the Vindhyas. The Vayu and Matsya Puranas read Vitihotras," which seems to be the correct reading. They were descended from Virahotras race.6 king Vitihotra and were a branch of the Haihaya A variant of their name is given in the Dronaparvan of the Mahabharata." The name Virahotra or Varahotra is met with in the Sanci Inscriptions of the second century B.C. VindhyaMauleyas The Matsyapurana erroneously reads Vindhya-pusikas (CXIII, 48), but the Vayu reads Vindhyamulikas (XLV, 126). No particular people of the name are known, but the name may mean the 'people who live at the foot of the Vindhyas'. Pargiter rightly suggests that the Jangalas are the same as the people of Kurujangalas. Kuru-jangala, that is, Jangalas the waste land of the Kurus, was the eastern part of their territory and appears to have comprised the tract between the Ganges and North Pancala. The Jangalas are mentioned with the 2 Ibid., p. 316. 4 XLV, 132 and CXIII, 52, respectively. 5 XLV, 134; CXIII, 54. 7 LXX, 2436. 6 Harivamsa, XXXIV, 1895. 8 Ramayana, Ayodhya Kanda, LXXII; Mahabharata, Sabhaparvan, XIX, PP. 793-4. 1 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 316. 3 Vide Barua and Sinha, Barhut Inscriptions, p. 15.

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394 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Kurus and contiguous tribes. So Pargiter's assumption seems to be correct, for we do not hear of any other people of this name mentioned in ancient literature or inscription. It is very difficult to locate the Bhadrakaras or determine their identity. They are no doubt the same people as the Bhadrakaras arakaras Bhadrakaras 1 and the Bhadras 2 of the Mahabharata. It is not unlikely that their habitat was near about the Kurus, the Matsyas and the Surasenas. It is not improbable that the Uttamabhadras known in historical times as a republican tribe were a section of the Epic and Pauranic Bhadrakas or Bhadras. The Sudracae or Oxydrakai of the Punjab are generally held to Kshudrakas be the same as Kshudrakas. They were settled rakas between the Hydraotes (Ravi) and the Hyphasis (Beas) during the age of Alexander as we learn from classical historians. According to Ray Chaudhuri 3 they were probably settled in the territory included within the present Montgomery District of the Punjab. They were one of the most numerous and warlike of all the Indian tribes in the Punjab. Arrian in one passage refers to the leading men of their cities and their provincial governors', besides other eminent men. Megasthenes, 4 as quoted by Strabo, records that the Persians got mercenary troops from India, namely, the Hydrakes, i.e. the Oxydrakai or Kshudrakas in the Punjab. The Malloi (Malavas) and the Oxydrakai formed a grand alliance against the army of Alexander whom they opposed tooth and nail at first but finding it an impossible task they are said to have tendered their submission to the Macedonian conqueror by sending a thousand of their troops as hostages. They are alleged to have said that love of independence alone prompted them to oppose the invader. In the Mahabharata 6 we find mention of the Kshudrakas. The Puskalas probably were the people from whom the name Puskalavati or Puskaravati," the old capital of Puskalas SS Gandhara, derived its name. The Vayu and Matsya Puranas read Prasthalas. The Prasthalas were evidently people of Prasthala,& closely connected with Trigarta and therefore located probably in the Punjab. Puskaravati or Puskalavati (Prakrit Pukkalaoti, whence the Peukelaotis of Arrian) is represented by the 1 Sabhaparvan, XIII, 590. 2 Vanaparvan, CCLIII, 15256. 3 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 205. 4 Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, p. 331 f.n. 5 Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 375-6. 6 II, 52, 15; VII, 68, 9. 7 Ramayana Kiskindhya Kanda, XL, III, 23. 8 Mbh., Virataparvan, XXX, 971; Bhismaparvan, LXXV, 3296; Dronaparvan, XVII, 691.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 395 modern Prang and Charsadda, 17 miles north-east of Peshawar on the Swat river.1 Peukelaotis represents Sanskrit Puskaravati which is mentioned in the Bodhisattvavadana Kalpalata (32nd, p. 40). Puskalavati formed the western part of the old kingdom of Gandhara. It lay on the road from Kabul to the Indus when Alexander invaded India. Arrian tells us that the Kabul falls into the Indus in the land called Peukelaotis. The people of the surrounding region are referred to sometimes as the 'Astakenoi' by classical historians. The reigning king at the time of Alexander's invasion was Astes (Hasti or Ashtaka?) who was defeated and killed by Hephaestion, a general of Alexander. During the days of Asoka, Puskaravati was the capital of TransVindhyan Gandhara. At a later age Indo-Greek kings of the house of Eukratides ruled for some time over Taksasila, Puskaravati, Kapisa and Bactria.2 Bhandarkar 3 draws our attention to an interesting coin on which the term nagara-devata occurs, indicating that it is a civic coin bearing the image or the symbol of the tutelary or presiding deity of the city. On the obverse is a goddess with the Kharosthi legend [Pa]Khalavadi-devada, which has been taken to mean the tutelary divinity of Puskalavati. Puskalavati was a Hindu city and yet we find that the goddess on this coin wears Greek dress and a mural crown which is the emblem of a Greek civic deity. Bhandarkar holds that we cannot regard it as a Greek deity because a Hindu divinity may appear in a Greek or Hellenic garb on Indo-Bactrian coins. In Markandeya Purana 4 the Cinas are mentioned. In the Mahabharata we find them taking part in the Bharata Cinas as war as allies of the Kurus along with the king of Pragjyotisa and the Kiratas of North-Eastern India. But the reference here is probably to those Chinese people who had settled somewhere from the north-west to the east along the Indian side of the Himalayas. Thus in one place in the Mahabharata 5 they are associated with the Kambojas which shows that they were settled in the north-west, while in another 6 they are mentioned among the soldiers who followed Bhagadatta, king of Pragjyotisa, i.e. roughly modern Assam. Other references in the Mahabharata ? seem to indicate that they were settled not very far from the sources of the Ganges. They appear as a well-known and highly respectable 1 Schoff, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, pp. 183-4. 2 Political History of Ancient India, 4th Ed., p. 352. 3 Carmichael Lectures, 1921, p. 34. 4 Chap. 57, 39. 5 Bhismaparvan, IX, p. 373. 6 Udyogaparvan, XVIII, pp. 584-5., 7 Vanaparvan, CLXXVII, 12350; santiparvan, CCCXXVII, 12226-9.

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TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA 396 people. Their country was famous for a particular breed of horses.2 The Markandeya Purana mentions the Cinas. A people called the Apara-Cinas (Western Cinas) is mentioned in the Ramayana.* The Pali Buddhist literature refers to the kingdom of the Cinas 5 which is situated far from the Andhakas, Mundakas, Kolakas, etc. and to the China garment." According to the Milinda-Panho, Cina was as old as Ujjeni, Bharukaccha, Kosala, Magadha, Saketa, Surattha, etc. The same text further points out that a king of China who when he wanted to charm the great ocean performed an act of truth at an interval of four months and then he entered into the great ocean on his chariot drawn by lions (siharathena). In front of his chariot the mighty waves rolled back and flowed once more over the spot as soon as he left it (p. 121). The Mahavastu & refers to the assembly of the Cinas who were bound by its decision. The Tukharas are mentioned in the Markandeya Purana (LVII, 39) along with the Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras and Tukharas Cinas, all of whom are described as 'races of men outside' (vahyato narah). The Vayupurana (XIV, 118) reads Tusaras instead, meaning of course the same people. They are mentioned in the Mahabharata both as Tukharas as well as Tusaras.10 The Tukharas are also mentioned in the Ramayana.11 From the Vanaparvan of the Mahabharata the Tukharas seem to have been an outside northern race bordering on the Himalayas. The Harivamsa groups them along with the Sakas, Pahlavas, Daradas and others who are all branded as Mlecchas and Dasyus. Strabo (XI, 515) says: "The best known of the nomad tribes are those who drove the Greeks out of Bactria,-the Asii, the Pasiani, the Tochari, and the Sacarauli, who came from the country on the other side of the Jaxartes, over against the Sacae and Sogdiani, which country was also in occupation of the Sacae.' Lassen identifies the Tukharas with this Tochari tribe and locates them on the north of the Hindu Kush.12 The geographer Ptolemy mentions the Tokeroi, who are doubtless identical with the Tukharas as an important element of the Bactrian population. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea seems to point to the same people when it speaks of the warlike nations of the Bactrians'. The Tukharas continued as a tribe till 1 Udyogaparvan, XVIII, pp. 584-5. 3 Chap. 57, 39. 5 Cinarattha, Apadana, II, p. 359. 7 Trenckner Ed., pp. 327-8, 331. 9 Sabhaparvan, L, 1850. 10 Vanaparvan, LI, 1991; Santiparvan, 11 Kiskindhya Kanda, XLIV, 15. 2 Ibid., LXXXV, 3049. 4 Kiskindhya Kanda, XLIV, p. 15. 6 Cinapattunna, Apadana, I, p. 2. 8 Vol. I, p. 171. LXV, 2429. 12 Ind. Alt. Map.

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MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 397 the ninth and tenth centuries of the Christian era when they seem to have played an important part in the history of Kashmir. The Vayupurana reads Sahasas and Sasvatas instead (XLV, 130); but these names are not identifiable. The Sarasvatas 48 Sarasvatas are of course the people dwelling along the Sarasvati, the river that flows into the sea past Prabhasa, i.e. modern Somnath.1 The Asvakutas, as it is given in the Markandeya Purana (p. 57, 32), is obviously a misreading, for the Vayupurana Asvakutas as reads Kisasnas, Kisastas or Kisadyas instead (XLV, 110), while the Matsya (CXIII, 35) reads Kiratas. We have, however, no other evidence to show that the Kiratas were in the Madhyadesa. Epic and Pauranic tradition places them in the eastern region. Particulars of the tribe called Kulyas are not known. It may be possible that they were the same people as the Kulyas Kulutas, a republican community, who are mentioned in inscriptions of about the first century A.D. The Kulutas dwelt in the Punjab with such tribes as the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Udumbaras, Kunindas and others. The Vayupurana reads Magadhas and the Matsya reads Mukas. * Both are evidently misreadings, for the Magadhas Malakas ses are mentioned as an eastern people in the Markandeya Purana (Chap. 57, verse 44). Pargiter 2 suggests that the reading should be Malajas. The Malajas are mentioned in the Mahabharata 3 and in the Ramayana. The course of the journey taken by Visvamitra and Rama, as described in the Ramayana, seems to show that they were neighbours of the Karusas and occupied the district of Shahabad, west of the Sone.5 The Bodhas are mentioned in the Mahabharata 6 and perhaps also in the Ramayana ? as Bodhis. These people Bodhas were probably located somewhere in the eastern districts of the Punjab. The reading Bahyas of the Matsyapurana seems to be wrong, for this name is not found elsewhere unless we take them as identical with the Bahikas. The Vayupurana reads Dasamanikas (XLV, 117) while the Matsya reads Dasanamakas (CXIII, 42). The Dasamalikas Bhismaparvan list, however, agrees with the 1 Vanaparvan, LXXXII, 5002-4; Salyaparvan, XXXVI, 2048-51. 2 Markandeya Purana, p. 309. 3 Bhismaparvan, IX, 357. 4 Adi Kanda, XXVII, 16-23. 5 Ibid., pp. 8-16. 6 Sabhaparvan, XIII, 590 and Bhismaparvan, IX, 347. 7 Ayodhya Kanda, LXX, 15.

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398 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA Markandeya Purana in giving the above reading. We cannot, however, identify or locate the people. The Markandeya Purana gives a list of peoples (Vahyatonarah) h who evidently dwelt on the borders of India. Among has these mention is made of the Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras, Harsavardhanas, Cinas and Tukharas. Instead of Harsavardhanas, the Vayupurana reads Priya-laukikas. But there is no clue whatsoever to the identification of these names. The Vayupurana reads Kaserukas and Matsya Daserakas instead. But none of them can be identified Kuserukas ukas satisfactorily. Daserakas are, however, mentioned in the Mahabharata 1 as taking part in the Kuruksetra war. The Hamsamargas are mentioned in the Markandeya Purana as also in the Bhismaparvan list of the Mahabharata. Hamsamargas According to the Matsyapurana, the river Paosni flowed through the countries inhabited by Tamaras and Hamsamargas. The description of the Matsyapurana seems to locate the two tribes in the region east of Tibet. The Vayupurana reads Ahukas or Ahukas instead. They may be the same as the Kurus of the Matsyapurana Kuhakas who are said to have dwelt on the Indus (CXX, 46-8). The name Satapatha is unintelligible and obviously erroneous. Pataccara is indeed a better reading, for a people of Satapatha this name is found in the Mahabharata.2 The Matsyapurana reads Atta-khandikas or Catta-khandikas and the Bhismaparvan list of the Mahabharata Carmakhandikas (IX, 355) Carmamandalas instead. These names are not identifiable. Pargiter's suggestion of its identification with Samarkand is interesting. For Gabalas, the Vayu and Matsya Puranas read Yavanas, which undoubtedly is the correct reading (for details see Gabalas Yonas or Yavanas). The Satadrujas are the people who dwelt along the river Sutlej. Satadrujas The Vayupurana reads Sakas and Hradas (XLV, 116), the Matsya reads Sakas and Druhyas instead. The Sakas were a well-known people who left their traces on Indian history. They were at first a northern or north-western people but later on they extended their dominions to the south, east and west. They are known to have established royal families as far east as Mathura (Muttra) and as far south and west as Ujjain and Surastra 1 Bhismaparvan, L, 2080; CXVIII, 5483; Dronaparvan, XI, 397; XX, 798. 2 Sabhaparvan, XIII, 590-91 ; XXX, 1108; Virataparvan, I, II-2.

Page #419
MISCELLANEOUS TRIBES 399 (Kathiawar). The Hradas cannot be identified. The Druhyas were undoubtedly an ancient people being mentioned as Druhyus in the Rgveda along with the Anus. For the Urnas, the Vayupurana reads Puranas. None of these names can, however, be identified with any amount of Urnas precision unless we find in the Urnas a people inhabiting the Urnadesa which Lassen places on the Sutlej near Garhwal (Ind. Alt. Map). The Mahabharata associates the Darvas with the Trigarttas, the Daradas and other northern tribes to the north of Darvas the Punjab. The name Bahu-bhadra is differently given as Bahu-badhas 2 and Balabhadras 3 in the Mahabharata. Bahu-bhadras The Matsyapurana reads Kantakaras while the Vayupurana reads Raddha Katakas.4 The Traipuras are the people of Tripuri or Tripura which was both be a city and a country. The city of Tripuri was the Traipuras uras capital of the Cedi kingdom. It was a well-known city that derived its name from three cities or tri-pura once in possession of the asuras. In the time of the Guptas, Tripuri-visaya was formed into a province under a Viceroy. It roughly corresponded to the modern Jubbulpur region which was the ancient Cedi country. The Gajahvayas, according to the Kurmanivesa section of the Markandeya Purana, are located in the middle of Gajahvayas ayas the tortoise', along with the Udumbaras, etc. Pargiter very ingenuously guessed that the Gajahvayas were none other than the people of Hastinapura, the capital of the Kurus. By a play on the meaning of the word 'hastin', 'elephant', the city was also called Hastinapura, Gajapura, Gajahvaya, Gajasahvaya,? Nagapura,8 Nagahva, Nagasahvaya, etc The Parna-savaras, located in the right foot of the tortoise, in be the Kurmanivesa section of the Markandeya Purana, 10 Parnasavaras 4 were undoubtedly a tribe of the Savaras. Presumably this particular section of the Savaras used leaves of trees as their wearing apparel. A girdle of leaves serves as clothing of many aboriginal peoples of today and we have representations of such individuals in ancient Indian sculptures and paintings. The Parna 1 Pargiter, Markandeya Purana, p. 324 notes. 2 Bhisma parvan, IX, 362. 3 Karnaparvan, VI, 153. 4 Cf. Vayupurana, XLV, 117; Matsyapurana, CXIII, 42. 5 Sabhaparvan, XXX, 1164; Vanaparvan, CCLIII, 15246; Karnaparvan, XXXIII and XXXIV. $ Udyogaparvan, p. clxxvi, 6071. 7 Adiparvan, p. cxu, 4441 and 4460. 10 LVIII, 19. 8 Ibid., 4461-2. * Ibid., p. cxxxi, 5146.

Page #420
400 TRIBES IN ANCIENT INDIA savaras are incidentally mentioned in the early Bengali Caryapadas and evidently these were the people from whom was derived the conception of the goddess Parna-savari in Vajrayana-Buddhism. The Arbudas must have been the people dwelling on and around the Arbuda mountain which is generally Arbudas identified with modern Mt. Abu which is the southern end of the Aravalli hills. The Khasas are described in one place of the Markandeya Purana (LVII, 56) as 'parvatasrayinah' or dwelling Khasas along the mountains, and in another place as located in the middle of the tortoise along with the Salvas, Nipas, Sakas, Surasenas, etc. (LVIII, 6). Epic tradition as contained in the Mahabharata brands them as a rude half-civilised tribe along with the Sakas, Daradas, etc. (Sabhaparvan, LI, 1859), while the Harivamsa records the reason why they were considered as such. It says that the people were once defeated and degraded by King Sagara (XIV, 784) and were hence regarded as Mlecchas (XCV, 6440-1). Manu also says that they were originally Ksatriyas, but were later on degraded by the lapse of sacred rites and the absence of Brahmanas in their midst (X, 43-4). The Sabhaparvan of the Mahabharata places the people near the river Sailoda between the Meru and Mandara mountains (LI, 1858-9). If the river Sailoda is the same as Sailodaka of the Matsyapurana (CXX, 19-23), then the Khasas seem to have originally settled somewhere in Tibet or further north-west. Much later, in historical times, the Khasas are mentioned with some other tribes in the inscriptions of the Palas and Senas of Bengal in such a way as to suggest that they enlisted themselves as mercenary troops in the army of the kings of those dynasties.

Page #421
INDEX Abars, 14 Abastanoi, 97 Aberia, 80 Abhaya, 202, 3I9, 328, 329 Abhayadeva, 304 Abhidhanacintamani, 74, 93 Abhidharmakosa, 13 Abhimanyu, 25, 27, 105 Abhirupananda, 253 Abhinava, 74 Abiria, 63, 80 Abu Mt., 342, 400 Achalgarh, 342 Adarsana, 379 Addhakasi, 116 Adeisathron, 379 Adhisamakrsna, 145 Adisadra, 34 Adouphis, 154 Adraistai, 75 Adrijas, 75 Adrika, 46 Aelian, 187 Agalappulai, 193 Aganagora, 93 Agastya, 187 Aggidatta, 22, 129 Aghadip, 93 Agimitasa, 37 Agni Vaisvanara, 235 Agnimitra, 37 Agnisikha, 106 Agradvipa, 93 Agrammes, 160 Agriophagoi, 175 Ahicchatra, 33, 34, 37, 38, 44, 141 Ahiksetra, 34 Ahukas, 398. Aiksvakas, 125, 388 Aila race, 71 Aila, Rsi, 298 Ain-i-Akbari, 9 Aioi, 93 Airrhadoi, 282 Aitareya Brahmana, 19, 83, 96, 298 Aiyangar, S. K., 2, 9, 50 Ajamida dynasty, 33 Ajamidha, 11 26 Ajatasatru, 103, 110, 126, 127, 137, 139, 202, 239, 256, 305, 327, 328 Ajaya, 276 Ajita, I3I Akesines, 60, 61, 68, 82, 97 Akitti, 188 Alaka, 184 Alamvusa, 299 Alakanda, 92 Alasanda, 156 Alberuni, 83, 345 Alexander, 10, 14, 16, 58, 60, 61, 62, 68, 79, 88, 92, 97, 350 Alexander's Haven, 92 Alexandria, 156 Alhanadevi, 162 Alinas, 82 Allahabad, 20 Allakappa, 139 Allan, 331 Amarakantaka hill, 162 Amaravati, 51 Amba, 105 Ambalika, 105 Ambapali, 305, 321, 328 Ambasakkhara, 315 Ambastai, 97 Ambastha Kayasthas, 97 Ambasthas, 62, 66, 68, 73, 75, 91, 92, 96, 97 Ambattha, 97, 254 Ambika, 105 Amita-Tosala, 386 Amitraghata, 208 Amitratapana, 83 Amsuman, 123 Amurtarajas, 285 Ananta, 74 Anantapala, Dandanayaka, 65 Anaranya, 122 Anathapindika, 128, 130 Anavas, 77 Andara, 166 Andarae, 165, 166 Andhaka-venhu, 43 Andhakas, 42, 167, 390, 396 Andhas, 165 Andhra, 51, 164

Page #422
402 INDEX Andhrabhrtyas, 157, 165 Andhradesa, 165 Andhrapatha, 164, 166 Andhrarakas, 164 Andhras, 81, 157, 164, 165, 166 Andhravakas, 164 Andhra-Vainayika, 167 Anenah dynasty, 105 Anga, 22, 26, 31, IIO, 118, 138, 139, 140, 158, 159, 201, 204 Angas, 10, 11, 99, 158, 387 Angirasa, 238 Angulimala, I3, I3I Anipa, 389 Anitthigandhakumara, 131 Anjana-Vaniya, 320 Anuvinda, 337, 338 Anjanayasabha, 28 Annajas, 389 Antar-giri, 285 Antaragiryas, 388 Antiochus the Great, 80 Antiochus Theos, 155 An-to-lo, 166 Anu tribe, 77 Anula, 169 Anupanivrit, 389 Anupiya, 258 Anupas, 389 Anuradhapura, 115 Anuruddha, 52, 116 Anus, 399 Apacara, 47 Aparagoyana, 23 Aparanta, 67, 99, 159, 350, 389 Aparantaka, 79, 80 Aparantas, 391, 392 Aparantakas, 151 Aparantika, 392 Aparitas, 391 Apollonius of Tyana, 14 Arachosia, 155, 206 Arattai, 71 Aravalar, 189 Aravalli hills, 400 Arbuda Mt., 400 Arbudas, 63, 79, 89, 350, 400 Argaru, 188 Aria, 155, 206 Ariake, 392 Ariana, 206 Aristapura, 83 Aristobothra, 83 26B Aritthapura, 83 Arjuna, 5, 6, 12, 25, 26, 27, 49, 58, 70, 73, 75, 80, 95, 96, 119, 136, 138, 145, 337 Arkakshetra, 336 Arkalingas, 158, 383 Arkatos, 188 Arrian, 14, 40, 61, 62, 82, 97, 395 Art, Semi-Hellenistic, 45 Arthasastra, 4, 37, 57, 92, 96, 106 Artisans, 314 Arun, 283 Aruna, 159 Aruni, 140 Aryan, 78, 82 Asadisadana, 128 Asaka, 185 Asamanjas, 122, 123 Asanga, 13 Asela, 189 Ashtaka, 395 Asi, 102 Asii, 396 Asika, 185 Asikni, 30, 97 Asita, 249 Asitanjana, 43 Asoka, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 35, 55, 58, 103, 110, 137, 140, 155, 156, 160, 256, et passim Asokavadana, 287 Asmaka, 180, 181, 182, 183 Asmakas, 165, 180, 184 Assaka, 159, 167, 180, 181, 183, 184 Assakas, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184 Assakenoi, 180, 181 Assalayana, 154 Assapura, 47 Astakenoi, 395 Astadhyayi, 73 Astes, 14, 395 Asvaghosa, 145 Asvaka, 180 Asvakutas, 397 Asvamedha sacrifice, see Sacrifice Asvapati, 54, 58, 77 Asvasena, 105 Asvins, 46 Atali, 254 Atharvas, 158, 383 Athena, 155 Athens, 155, 156 Athens, Owls of, 155, 156

Page #423
INDEX 403 Atithi, 100 Atris, 151, 152 Atthakulaka, 311, 326 Attock, 9 Audradesa, 335 Audras, 335 Audumbaras, 90, 355 Augustus Caesar, 191 Aupamanyava, 54 Aupamanyava, 98 Aurasa, 86 Aurva, Rsi, 122 Avadanakalpalata, 256 Avantas, 158, 383 Avanti, 41, 60, 100, 134, 136, 137, 138, 140, 185, 337 Avantiputto, 41 Avantis, 63, 337, 387 Avantivarman, 74 Ayodhya, 38, 44, 119, 124, 125, 138, 146, 157, 237 Abhira country, 80 Abhiras, 63, 76, 79, 80, 81, 86, 95, 151, 159, 350 Adhakyas, 383 Adikot, 34 Adi-Raja, 34 Adityagotra, 248 Adityasena, 213 Agaraju, 141 Ahir, 79 Ahirs, 79, 81 ahukas, 398 Akara-Avanti, 185 Akaravanti, 185, 389 Alakamanda, 56 Alara-Kalama, 289 Alarka Saunati, 105 Ambasthya, 96 Amrapali, 308, 321 Ananda, 106, 116, 130, 132, 143, 148, 149, 309, 310 Anartta, 389 Anava Ksatriyas, 96 Andhra country, 159 Andhras, 165 Apastamba, II, 301 Apaya, 18, 21 Apisali, 60 Aptyas, 19 Aranyaka, Aitareya, 31 Aranyaka, Sankhyayana, 31, 195 Arattas, 71 Ariyacakkavatti, 170, 191 Arjunayanas, 44, 63, 75, 76, 90, 91, 95, 397 Aryaraksita, 106 Aryavarta, 63 Asana-pannapaka, 323 Astika, 28 Asvalayana Kausalya, 118 Atabyas, 81 Atavi, 383 Atavikas, 383 Atavyas, 383 Atreya, 152 Atreyas, 151 Atta-khandikas, 398 Ayar, 189 Ayudha-jivi-samgha, 75 Ayurveda, 104 Bactria, 155, 396 Bactrian King, 17 Bactrians, 187, 396 Badarika monastery, 148 Badarikarama, 147 Bahirgiras, 388 Bahu-Bhadras, 399 Baithan, 184 Baktria, 10 Baktriana, 282 Baktrioi, 71 Bala, 106 Baladatta, 136 Baladeva, 106 Balavarman, 286 Balhika Pratipiya, 20, 70 Bali, 158 Balkh, 70, 71 Bandhula, 261, 262 Banerjee, A. C., 62 Banerjee, R. D., 7, 8, 16, 17 Bangaladesa, 263 Barana, 102 Barbara, sea of, 92 Barbaras, 91, 92, 153

Page #424
404 INDEX Barbarei, 92 Barbaricon, 92 Barbaricum, 92 Barbarika, 92 Bargaon grant, 286 Barua, B. M., 115 Barygaza, 175, 351 Basaronagas, 188 Basarh, 243 Basukund, 243 Baudhayana, 11, 82, 159, 301 Bahikas, 397 Bahiya, 169 Bahu, 365 Bahu-badhas, 399 Bahyas, 397 Balabhadras, 399 Baladitya, 59 Bal ya Brahmanas, 158 Baleya Ksatra, 158 Balika, 308 Balikachavi, 308 Balikarama, 308 Bana, 64 Baranasi, 102, 103, 106 Barhadratha dynasty, 47 Bargla, 263, Bavari, 129, 146 Beal, 13, 35, 55, 59, 83 Beas, 72, 74, 90 Bena, 327 Benares, 15, 16, 51, 106, 107, 108, 109, IIO, III, 112, 115 Besnagar, 386 Bettigoi, 97 Betwa, 386 Bhadda, 197 Bhadda Kapilani, 116 Bhaddavati, 139 Bhaddavatika, 148, 149 Bhaddiya, 254, 3I9 Bhadra, 106 Bhadrabahu, 295 Bhadrakas, 394 Bhadrakaras, 394 Bhadras, 394 Bhadrasrenya, 104 Bhagadatta, 282, 284, 285, 395 Bhagadattarajakulaja, 286 Bhagavadgita, 20, 40 Bhagavata, 12 Bhagavata religion, 42 Bhagavati, 304 Bhagavati Gostagi, 308 Bhagavatism, 42 Bhagga, 141, 147, 292, 293 Bhaggas, 99, 292, 293 Bhagiratha, 120, 123, 184 Bhagirathi, 33, 123 Bhalanasas, 82 Bhallika, 335 Bhandagara, 325 Bhandagarika, 324, 325 Bhandarkar, D. R., 3, 9, 15, 50, 62, 80 ff. Bhanna, 335 Bharadvaja, 104, 152 Bharadvajas, 151, 152 Bharandu-Kalama, 289 Bharata, 14, 77, 105, 124 Bharata war, 125, 151, 153, 395 Bharatas, 18 Bharatas, 106 Bharatavarsa, 39, 50 Bharga, 140, 141, 142 Bhargas, 73, 99, 292, 293 Bhargavas, 285, 293 Bhermasva, 32 Bharuch, 391 Bharukaccha, 175, 351, 391, 396 Bharukacchas, 391 Bharhut gateways, 141 Bhasa, 138, 140, 197, 204 Bhaskaravarman, 285 Bhattasvami, 184 Bhattiya, 200 Bhavacandra, 74 Bhavya, 10 Bhavayavya, 10 Bhesakalavana, 147 Bhilsa, 63, 64, 65, 386 Bhima, 49, 119 Bhimapala, 17 . Bhimasena, 24, 48, 66, 104, 119, 136 Bhirukaccha, 391 Bhiru-kacchas, 391 Bhisma, 26, 27, 40, 48, 57, 66, 73, 105 Bhogas, 388 Bhogavadham, 393 Bhogavardhanas, 165, 393 Bhoja, 37, 57 Bhojadeva II, 52 Bhojas, 35, 88, 391 Bhojavarman, 281 Bhrgu, 142 Bhrgukaccha, 64, 351, 391 Bhrgukacchas, 385, 391

Page #425
INDEX 405 Buddhacarita, 248 Buddhagaya, 44 Buddhaghosa, IIO, 118, 127, 142, 146, 230 Buddhamitra, 149 Buddhimitra, 149 Bulis, 287 Bunir, 10 Bur-Ganga, 34 Burgess, 100 Byas river, 90 Bhrguksetra, 351 Bhujyu Lahayani, 54 Bhulinga, 67 Bimbisara, I5, IOT, II0, 126, 137, I99 ff. Bindusara, 16, 188, 208 Birajakshetra, 336 Bodhas, 397 Bodhi, 147 Bodhis, 397 Bodhisattva, 13, 14, 16, 23, 28, 29, 40, 51, III Bolingai, 67 Boraita, 93 Brahma Ksatriyas, 97 Brahmadatta, 16, 34, 36, 106, 107, 108, 109, 112, 125, 126 ff. Brahmadeyya, 128 Brahmamitra, 44 BrahmanaAitareya, II, 20, 21, 31, 54, 68, 77, 84, 96, 98, 135, Gopatha, 66, 67, 133 Kausitaki, 98 Pancavimsa, 98 Samhitopanisad, 32 Satapatha, II, 19, 20, 30, 31, 54, 70, 77 Taittiriya, 31 Vamsa, I Brahmanas, 19, 98 Brahmi script, 44 Brahmanabad, 92 Brahmaputra river, 286 Brahmarsidesa, 39 Brahmarsis, 20, 33 Brahmatithi, 46 Brahmavaddhana, 102 Brahmavarta, 20, 33, 39 Brahmottaras, 285, 391 Braisioi, 160 Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 20 Brhadasva, 121 Brhadbala, 119, 120, 124, 246 BIhaddevata, 18 Brhadratha, 47, I97 Bihaspati, 104 Brhatmedha, 49 BIrdaban, 40 Broach, 175 Brown, 14, 17, 37, 44 Buddha, 3, 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 29, 35, 36, 41, 52, 58, 59, 68, 102, 106, 109, IIO, 114, 116 ff. Caidya rajas, 49 Caidyas, 49 Caidya-Uparicara, 47 Caitya Bahuputra, 308, 317 Capala 308, 317 Gautama, 308, 317 Kapinahya, 308, 317 Markata-hrada-tira, 308, 317 Saptamraka, 308, 317 Sarandada, 317 Cakkhupala, III, 130 Cakra, 145 Cakrayudha, 29, 35 Caksu river, 384, 385 Caksu stream, 92 Calingae, 163 Cambodia, 3 Cambyses, 3 Campa, 138, 201, 204 Campeyya, 201 Canda Pradyota, 137, 138 Candra dynasty, 269 Candragupta, 155, 160, 197, 206, 228, 347 Candragupta, II, 213, 349 Candragupta Vikramaditya, 228 Candras, 336 Candravarman, 70, 161 Candresvaras, 285 Carlyle, 37 Carmakhandikas, 398 Carmamandalas, 398 Carmanvati, 33, 338, 379, 393 Caryapadas, 400 Calukya dynasty, 266 Calukya Pulakesiraja, 346 Calukyas, 385 Catta-khandikas, 398 Cavotakas, 349 Caulyas, 382

Page #426
INDEX 406 Sanjan, 272 Sunderban, 280 Tarpanadighi, 280 Cucukas, 174 Culanipiya, 106 Culika, 385 Culikas, 152, 384 Cunda, 260, 261 Cundatthila, 115 Cunningham, 10, 14, 15, 17, 34, 37, 40, 42, 51, 55, 66, 74, 76, 77, 88, 90, 91, 93, 102, 115, 136 Curtius, 60, 61, 97, 160 Cyavana, 387 Cyrus, 16 Cave country, IO Cedi, 32, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 65, 89, 105 Cedi dynasty, 49, 52, 53 Cedirastra, 51 Cedis, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 87, 88, 89 Cellana, 327 Central Asia, 45 Ceran, 187 Cerobothra, 194 Ceta dynasty, 161 Cetaka, 327 Cetarattha, 51 Ceti, 47 Cetiya, Payana, 328 Chamba, 74 Chambal, 338, 379, 393 Chanda, R., 7, 44, 98 Chandana, 150 Chandra, 45, 70 Chandrabhaga, 82, 83 Chapadevi, 141 Charitrapura, 336 Chatta, 108, 133 Chaukundi mound, 115 Che-li-ta-lo, 336 Chenab, 55, 58, 60, 68, 82 Chen-shu-na, 240 Chera, 193 Cherand, 310 Cheras, 186, 193 Chicacole, 159 Chola country, 82 Chola ruling family, 85 Chrysei, 89 Cinas, 99, 395 Ciratadatta, 279 Citrangada, 24 Citta-Hatthisariputta, 115 Cleisobora, 40 Cola, 187 Cola dynasty, 187 Colas, 186, 187, 188, 189 Copper plate Anulia, 280 Asrafpur, 268 Belava, 276, 281 Damodarpur, 279 Edilpur, 280 Madhainagar, 272, 280 Naihati, 276 Paharpur, 279 Rampal, 281 Dabba, 260 Dabbasena, 127 Daddarapura, 47 Dadhivanana, 138 Dahala Mandala, 50 Dakhinabades, 382 Damaghosa, 48, 87 Damaghosasuta, 47 Damaghosatmaja, 47 Damayanti, 100 Damila, 168, 169, 188 Damilas, 168, 169, 170 Damirica, 188, 194 Damis, 14 Dandaka forest, 383 Dandakappaka, 132 Dandakas, 81, 174, 383 Dandapani, 137 Dandin, 197 Dantakura, 159 Dantapura, 159, 182 Dantapuranagara, 159 Dantavakra, 87 Daradas, 86, 152 Dardae, 86 Dardanoi, 86 Dardistan, 86 Dardo, 86 Daradrai, 86 Darsaka, 204, 205 Darva, 68 Darvas, 399 Dasakumaracaritam, 84 Dasamalikas, 397 Dasamanikas, 397 Dasanamakas, 397 Dasaratha, 77, 117, 124, 210

Page #427
INDEX 407 Dasarna, 159, 386 Dasarnas, IOI, 375, 376, 377 Daserakas, 151, 398 Dahala, 53 Dathika, 169 Dausyantas, 97 Deer-Park, 52, 114, 115, 143, 147 Delhi, 19, 21, 23 Demetrios, 17, 61, 210 Derdai, 86 Devabhuti, 197 Devadaha, 292 Devadatta, 24I Devagabbha, 43 Devagiri, 382 Devagupta, 64 Deva-ksetra, 21 Devapala, 7, 334, 336 Devapi Arstisena, 20 Devendrasundari, Sri, 65 Dey, N. L., 9, 10, 34, 50, 54, 74, 83, 84, 88 Dhamek, 115 Dhammapada-Commentary, 22, 28, 29 Dhammapala, 13, 29 Dhammarakkhita, 160 Dhamnakada, 166 Dhanabhuti, 141 Dhanaka, 51 Dhanakataka, 166 Dhananjaya, 28, 29, IIO Dhananjaya Korabba, 40 Dhananjayasetthi, 129 Dhanapalagama, 114 Dhanvantari, 104 Dhanvantariyanighantu, 92 Dhanya-kataka, 166 Dharasena, 81 Dharma-ksetra, 21 Dharma-mahamatras, 13 Dharmamitra, 167 Dharmapala, 59, 65 Dharmasagaragani, 65 Dharmavivardhana, 13 Dharmaveddha, 105 Dharur, 382 Dhatarattha, 106, 159 Dhrsta, 88 Dhrstadyumna, 26, 35 Dhrstaketu, 48, 49, 50, 78, 87, 89, 105 Dhrtarastra, II, 23, 24, 25, 28, 159 Dhrtarastra Vaicitravirya, 31 Dhsti, 12 Dhruva-madhyama dik, 135 Dhulla plate, 281 Dhundhu, Asura, 121 Dhundhumara, 121 Dighavu, 107 Dighayu, 107, 108 Dighiti, 107, 108 Dilipa, 119, 182 Diodoros, 61, 97 Diodotos, 16, 17, 155 Dionysius Periegetes, 14 Dionysus, 154 Dipamkara, 15 Dipavassa, 15, 21, 43 Dirghatamas, 105, 158 Dirghatapas, 105 Divakara, 124 Divodasa, 104, 105 Divyavadana, 13, 69, 107, 112, 210 Diyadata II, 16 Doab, 20 Douglas, R. O., 62 Draupadi, 25, 34, 48 Dravida, 334 Dravidas, 194 Drdhavarman, 139 Drona, 27, 32, 33, 34, 36 Drsadvati, 18, 21, 68 Druhyas, 398, 399 Druhyu, 12 Drupada, 5, 32, 33, 34, 35 Dubreuil, 78 Dudh-kosi, 283 Duspalasa, 243, 244 Dulva, 139 Dummukha, 36 Duppasaha, IIO Durdama, 105 Durmukha, 31, 36 Duryodhana, 5, 11, 12, 24, 25, 26, 36, 40, 58, 66, 73, 78, 84 Dusmanta, 32, 105 Dustaritu, 70 Dusyanta, 105 Dutthagamani, 149, 168, 169 Dvaitavana forest, 39 Dvaraka, 2, 48, 80 Dvaravati, 42, 66, 83 Dvimidha, 32 Dvimukha, 36 Dwarka, 99 Dynasty Andhra, 197

Page #428
INDEX 408 Anenah, 105 Barhadratha, 47 Candra, 269 Cola, 187 Gaharwar, 37 Haihaya, 51 Kalacuri, 51, 53, 162 Kanva, 197 Kirata, 283 Maurya, 197, 289 Nanda, 205 Pala, 162, 266 Pradyota, 196 Sena, 162, 267 Shahiya, 17 Sisunaga, 199 Solar, 246 Sunga, 197 Dyutiman, 49 Edict Kalinga I, 15 Kausambi Schism Pillar, 137 Minor Rock, 175 Rock XIII, 7, 155 Eggeling, Julius, 235 Ekamra, 334 Elara, 188 Eliot, Sir Charles, 3, 19, 37, 41, 45 Ephathalites, 304 EraGupta, 331 Kalacuri, 52 Keta, 63, 64 Licchavi, 331 Vikrama, 63 Erakapatta, 115 Eran Epigraph, 213 Eukratides, 187, 295 Eusofzai, 9 Euthydemos, 16, 17 Gabalas, 153, 398 Gahadavala Govindachandra, 334 Gaharwar dynasty, 37 Gajahvayas, 355, 399 Gajapura, 399 Gajasahvaya, 399 Gandak, 117 Gandarai, 10, 15 Gandarioi, 10 Gandhara, 9 ff., 26, 54, 59, 70, 86 Gandhara Art, 17 Gandhara, King, 15 Gandharan horses, 17 Gandharas, 3, 7, 9, 12, 13, 24, 92 Gandharis, 9, II Gangaikonda-Colapuram, 186 Gangaridae, 160, 162 Gangaridae-Calingae, 162 Gangaridai, 93, 160 Gangaridaes, 160 Gange, 160 Ganges, 20, 92, 93, 104, 113, 160 Ganges-Jumna Doab, I Garh, Raja Visal ka, 311 Gaud, 388 Gauda, 7, 52 Gaudas, 270 ff. Gautama, 153 Gautami Balasri, 389, 392 Gautamiputra, 389 Gavaccha the Less, 148 Gavampati, 115 Gaya-Karna, 162 Gandhari, 24 Gargeyadeva, 52, 53 Geiger, 156 Gerini, Col., 187 Ghatotkacha Gupta, 211 Ghazni, 17 Ghosita, 139, 146, 147, 149, 150 Ghositarama, 147, 148, 149 Ghotamukha, 115 Gijjhakuta, 215 Giriloka, 169 Girinagara, 156 Giriprastha, 100 Girivraja, 47, 77, 196 Giriya, 169 Girnar, 156 Giryak, 77 Godavari, 164, 167, 184, 383 Go-Langulas, 382 Goldstucker, 96 Fa Hien, 10, 13, 40, 84, 131, 143, et passim. Fatgarh, 34 Fausboll, 17, 28, 29, et passim Festival, Elephant, 113 Fick, 17, 99, 297 Fleet, 211, 331 Fo-li-shi, 240 Foucher, A., 3, 17 Fuhrer, 50

Page #429
INDEX 409 Gomati, 104 Gopala, 336 Gotra Aditya, 248 Bharadvaja, 152 Gotama, 248 Kasyapa, 298 Vasistha, 298 Govaddhamana, 43 Govinda III, 272 Govindaraja, 295, 296 Graeco-Baktrian monarchy, 14 Greece, 45 Grahavarman Maukhari, 64 Grant Amgachi, 279 Bangarh, 279 Barrackpur, 280 Bhagalpur, 334 Khalimpur, 279 Manhali, 280 Nalanda, 279 Sena, 280 Sonpur, 335 Grierson, Sir George, 2 Gudavamisra, 334 Guhas, 174 Gunabhara, 186 Guptas, 211, 399 Gurjara, 334 Gurjaratra, 65 Gurjara Pratiharas, 65, 272 Gurjaras, 349 Gutta, 168 Harsavardhana, 37, 52, 64 Harsavardhanas, 398 Harsavarman Pragjyotisa, 286 Haryasva, 32, 33, 104 Hashtnagar, 15 Hasti, 14, 395 Hastikasirsa, 247 Hastinapura, 23, 25, 26, 27, 57, 145 Hatthipura, 47 Harabhusikas, 364, 390 Hara-hunakas, 390 Haramurtikas, 390 Harapurikas, 390 Hekataios, 10 Hemachandra, 74, 263 Hephaestion, 395 Herakles, 82, 190 Herodotus, 10 Himavantam, 21 Hinayana, 35, 55, 115 Hinduism, 42 Hindukush, 2, 10, 80, 97 Hiranyakesi, II Hiranya-Kasipu, 47 Hiranyanabha Kausalya, 118, 124 Hiranyaparvata, 198 Hodgson, Capt., 35 Hoernle, 243, 244 Hoey, W., 310 Hopkins, 42 Horse-dealers, 17 Hoti Murdan, 9 Hradas, 399 Hsuan Tsang, 3, 10, 13, 14, 15, 34, 41, 55, 58, 64, 91, 115 Huna, 58, 96 Hunas, 4, 17, 65, 67. 77 Huviska, 41, 44 Hydaspes, 60, 61 Hydrakai, 60 Hydrakes, 394 Hydraotes, 60, 61, 394 Hyphasis, 394 Hwui-lih, 55 Hagamasha, 44 Hagana, 44 Haihaya race, 386, 393 Haihaya-Talajarghas, 365 Haihayas, 6, 122, 136, 392 Halla, 202 Hamsamargas, 398 Hamsavati, 167 Harikelas, 263 Hariscandra, 122 Harisena, 162, 165 Harisvamin, 144 Haritasva, 333 Harivamsa, 3, 4, 6, 42, 75, 77, 104, 105 Harjara, 286 Harsa, Sri, 162 Harsacarita, 64 Harsadeva, 162 Ibhyagrama, 20 Idavida, 185 Iksvaku, 87, IIO, 246 Iksvaku family, 56 Iksvakus, 78, 109 Ila, 24 Ila-Sudyumna, 333 Indapatta, 28

Page #430
410 INDEX Indapattana, 29 Indo-Aryan Culture, 19 Indo-Aryan Society, 39 Indo-Skythia, 351 Indo-Skythian Sus, 14 Indra, 19, 21, 46, 69 Indradatta, 81 Indraji, Bhagavanlal, 45 Indramitra, 44 Indrapat, 23 Indraprastha, 23, 25, 28, 137, 237 Indraraja, 59 Indies, five, 59 Indumati, 197 Indus, 9, 10, 14, 16, 17, 68, 70, 82, 86, 92 Inscription Aihole, 162 Ajanta, 176 Allahabad Iron Pillar, 81 Allahabad Pillar, 55, 63, 70, 76, 94, 95, 383 Allahabad Stone Pillar, 296 Apshad, 271 Arulala-Perumal, 373 Asokan, 155, 392 at Pabhosa, 140 Badal Pillar, 334 Banskhera, 64 Barhut, 144, 393 Bheraghat, of Alhanadevi, 162 Bhitari Stone Pillar, 296 Bhuvaneswar Stone, 334 Bihar Stone Pillar, 296 Bijayagadh, 63, 76 Bilsad Stone Pillar, 296 Brahmi, 38, 146 Central Indian, of the sixth century A.D., 94 Deo-Baranark, 214 Deopara, 273 Garuda Pillar, 272 Gaya copper plate, 296 Gunda, 80 Gwalior, 272 Haraha, of the Maukhari king, 165 Hathigumpha, 178 Hathigumph, Cave, 161 Jaunpur of Isvaravarman, 165 Jodhpur, 272 Junagadh Rock, 63, 76, 80, 99, 156, 392 Kanheri, 71 Mahakuta Pillar, 385 Mandasor, 63 Mathura naga Statuette, 44 Mathura stone, 296 Meharauli Iron Pillar, 70 Modern local, found at Masar, 88 Muttra (Mathura), 44 Mysore, 176 Nagpur Stone, 273 Nanaghat, 381 Nasik Cave, 63, 157, 389 Nepalese, 162 Nilgund, 272 of the Kalacuri or Haihaya dynasty of Cedi, 51 of Yasapala, 145 old Persian, 9 on the gateway on the fort of Kara, 141 Pithapuram, 273 Ranganatha, 373 Sagartal, 65 Sanchi, 393 Sarnath, 213 Shorkot, 83 Silimpur, 274 Sirur, 272 Susunia Rock, 70 Tewar Stone, 65 Tirumalai Rock, 336 Udayagiri Cave, 356 Usavadata's, 354 Ionians, 153 Iran, 71 Iravati, 83 Iravatim, 71 Jsanavarman, 165 Ishukara, 23 Isidatta, 340 Isipatana Migadava, I4, 15 Isvara, 35 Isvaradatta, 80 Isvaradeva, 252 Isvarasena, 80 Isuyara, 23 Ivory workers' Bazar, 112 Palj8 PL Jacobi, 297 Jagayyapeta stupa, 78 Jala, 103 Jalalabad, IO Jalalpur, 77 Jalandhara, 74, 90, 91 Jaliya, 149

Page #431
INDEX 411 Jettuttara, 83 Jetuttaranagara, 51 Jeyyapura, 7. Jhelum, 55, 58 Jijnasa, 74 Jivaka, 109, IIO Jnatrkas, 243 Jneyamallakas, 285 Johiya Rajputs, 76 Johiyabar, 76 Johiyas, 76 Johnson, 74 Jolly, 296 Ju-lai, 310 Jumna, 20 Junnar, 382 Jyamagha, 49 Jambudipa, 23, 36, 43 James Fergusson, 17 Janaka, 20, 31, 236 Janakapura, 237 Janamejaya, 28, 119 Janamtapi Atyarati, 21 Jarasandha, 24, 42, 47, 48, 196, 199 ff. Jaratkaru, 28 Jarttika, 71 Jataka Asatarupa, 109 Bhojajaniya, 103 Bhuridatta, 7 Brahachatta, 133 Cetiya, 32, 47 Chaddanta, 57 Campeyya, 4, 201 Dutiyapalayi, 15 Gandhara, 13, 17 Gandatindu, 36 Gangamala, 107 Ghata, 43 Jayaddisa, 23 Kalinga-Bodhi, 57 Kumbhakara, II, 36 Kunala, 4 Kurudhamma, 28 Kusa, 56 Mahanaradakassapa, 69 Mabasilava, 108 Mahaummagga, 84 Mara, 113 Nimi, 69 Palayi, 16 Satapatta, III Sivi, 83 Tipalatthamiga, 148 Ummadanti, 83 Vedabbha, 51 Vessantara, I7, 51, 83 Jattararur, 83 Jatukarni, 103 Jaxartes, 396 Jayaddisa, 23 Jayaghosa, 106 Jayantipura, 382 Jayapala, 334 Jayapida, 271, 272 Jayasimhadeva, 65 Jayaswal, 60 Jenta, 321 Jenti, 321 Jetavana, I28 Kabul, 9, 10, 44, 93 Kaccayana, 41 Kacchadi-gana, 67 Kadambas, 166, 176 Kaikeyas, 49, 78 Kaikeyi, 77 Kaimur hills, 83 Kairatas, 151 Kaksivant, 158 Kakutstha, 121 Kalabu, IIO Kalacuri dynasty, 53, 162 Kalacuri era, 52 Kalhana, 74 Kalinga, 28, 51, 57, 159 Kalingae-Gangaridae, 161 Kalinganagara, 158, 159, 161 Kalingas, 5, 81, 90, 158, 174 Kalinga-visaya, I6I Kalmasapada, 24, 123, 180, 182 Ka-long-ka, 161 Kalyanapura, 53 Kamane, 351 Kamaniyabhojas, 2 Kamauli grant, 286 Kamboja horses, 4 Kambojadesa, 3 Kambujiya, 3 Kammasadamma, 22, 23 Kammasadhamma, 22, 23, 29 Kampil, 34 Kampilla, 36 Kamsa, 42, 48 Kanakavati, 149 Kanakhala, 69

Page #432
412 INDEX Kanauj, 29, 52, 141 Kandahar, 9 Kangoda, 161 Kangra, 74, 90 Kanharevata, 131 Kaniska, 10, 14, 41 Kanneti, 193 Kanta, 187, 188 Kaofu, 3 Kapila, 32, 246, 247 Kapilahvayapura, 248 Kapilavastu, 246 Kapisena, 152 Karandaka, 247 Karandu, 159 Kardameya, 71 Karikal, 189 Karmanasa, 88 Karna, 3, 6, II, 27, 35, 48, IOI Karnasuvarna, 336 Karoura, 194 Karukhdesa, 88 Karusa, 47, 88, 89, 105, 159 Karusadesa, 88. Karusas, 49, 50, 67, 73, 79, 87, 88, 89 Kasmiras, 67, 73, 86 Kaspapyros, 10 Kassapa II, I69 Kassapa Buddha, III Kassapa thera, 168 Kassapagotta, 133 Kathasaritsagara, 69 Katthavahanagara, 113 Kaurava, 5, 20, 27, 60, 86 Kauravas, 24, 46 Kauravya, 19, 20 Kaurayana, 19 Kausalika, 106 Kausalya, 119 Kausambeya, 144 Kausambi, 38, 40, 44, 47, 50, 89, 136 ff. Kausambi-mandala, 141, 144 Kausika, 49 Kausurubindu, Predi, or Proti, 144, 149" Kautilya, 4, 29, 37, 57, 322 Kakas, 76, 95, 356 Kakavarna Tissa, 169 Kala-ka-sarai, 15 Kalakavana, 379 Kalamas, 287, 289 Kalanjara, 50, 51 Kalanjarapura, 51 Kalasena, 125 Kali Sindhu, 379 Kalidasa, 4, 156 Kalinadi, 93 Kalindi river, 93, 146 Kaliya, naga, 44 Kaluvaki, 140 Kamakhya, 285 Kamarupa, 162, 282 Kamarupas, 99 Kamboja, 3 ff., 70 Kambojas, 1 ff., 13, 77, 92 Kampila, 33 Kampilya, 32, 33, 34 Kamsuvam, 64 Kanicanapura, 159 Kanchi, 186 Kanchipura, 171, 188, 191, 194 Kanyakubja, 35, 52, 55 Kapingalas, 355 Kapisa, 13, 14, 17, 334 Kardama, 71 Kardamaka Kings, 71 Kardamaka Vamsa, 71 Karkota Sankaravarman, 74 Kartavirya, 389 Karttaviryarjuna, 337 Kasa, 105 Kasara, 105 Kasi, 4, 49, 88, 89, 102 ff. Kasi-candana, 112 Kasi cloths, II2 Kasigama, 109 Kasika, 60, 67 Kasinagara, 102 Kasipura, 102 Kasis, 23, 50, 88, 102 ff., 158 Kasi-vilepana, 112 Kasmir, 15, 21 Kasya, 103, 105 Kasyapa, 298 Katyayana, 18, 60, 71 Kaveri, 84, 186, 187, 189, 379 Kaveripattana, 171, 188, 191 Kaviri-pattinam, 186, 188 Kavya Mimamsa, 70, 77 Keilhorn, 85 Keith, 18, 98, 102 Kekaya, 78, 84, 118 Kekayas, 66, 68, 77, 78, 84, 89 Kelydna, 93 Ken river, 88 Kerala, 93, 193 Keralas, 81, 89, 90, 186, 193 masyapa, 18, 60, 189, 379

Page #433
INDEX 413 Kern, 13, 55 Kerobothros, 194 Kesakalavana, 147 Kesaputta, 289 Kesin Dalbhya, 30 Kesins, 289 Ketalaputra, 193, 194 Ketalaputras, 188, 194 Kevala-jnana, 106 Kevalas, 193 Khalimpura, 35 Kharaparikas, 76, 95, 356 Kharavela, 161 Kharosthi characters, 45 Khasa, 5 Khasas, 65, 86, 285 Khatvanga, 123, 124 Khema, 133 Khemiyambavana, 115 Khiradhara, 132 Khoaspes, 10 Kiao-shang-mi, 145 Kien-to-lo, 10 Kiki, III Killi, 187 Kimpurusha, 333 K'in-lu-to, 91 Kirata dynasty, 283 Kiratas, 84, 92, 151, 153, 282, 283 Kirrhadoi, 282 Kirrhadia, 282 Kirrhodoeis, 282 Kisadyas, 397 Kisagotami, 131 Kisastas, 397 Kistna, 51 Kitagiri, 114 Kiu-lu-to, 90 Kling people, 163 Koch, 8 Koh-i-Mor, 154 Kokalladeva I, 52 Kokanada, III, 141 Kola, IIO, 290 Kola tree, 291 Kolakas, 167 Kolambalaka, 169 Kolanagara, 290 Kola-Pattana, 188 Koli, 247 Koliyas, 110, 247, 287, 290 ff. Kolkai, 190 Kollaga, 307 Koluka, 90 Koluta, 90, 91 Komarti grant, 161 Kondota, 93 Kongoda, 335 Kongu-desa, 193 Konkon, 351, 389, 392 Kophen, 154 Kophes, 10 Koravya, 20, 22 Koryagaza, 93 Kosala, 22, 26, 31, 49, 100, 103, 107, 108, 109, IIO, III, 202 Kosala country, Sapta, 100 Kosaladevi, 126 Kosala-Videhas, 23 Kosalas, 50, 89, IOI Kosam, 136, 143, 144, 146 Kosamba, 145 Kosambeyaka, 144 Kosambi, see Kausambi, Kosambika, 142 Kasar, 188 Kota, 62 Kotoch, 74 Kraivya Pancala, 30, 33 Kramadesvara, 345 Krimila, 32 Krivis, 30 Klki, III Krmila, 75 Krodhavasa group, 151 Krsna, 25, 26, 27, 34, 42, 44, 48, 50, 66, 80, 87, 105, 164 Ktsnagupta, 64 Krsnapur, 40 Krta era, 63, 64 Krtamala, 190 Krtavarma, 138 Ksatradeva, 36 Ksatradharma, 36 Ksatrapas, 80 Ksemadhanva, 5 Ksemaka, 104, 105, 137 Ksudraka, 61 Ksudrakas, 60, 61, 96 Kukkuta, 146, 149 Kukkutaka, 98 Kukkutarama, 147, 197 Kukura, 295, 389 Kukuras, 389 Kulacalas, 378, 379 Kulaparvatas, 378, 379

Page #434
INDEX 414 Kutagarasala, 308, 309 Kuvalayasva, 121 Kulasekhara, 170 Kulatas, 90 Kulikas, 65 Kulindas, 90, 91, 92 Kulindrine, 91 Kullu, 90 Kulluka, Bhatta, 295 Kulu, 90 Kulutas, 90, 91 Ku-lu-to, 90 Kumaradevi, 330 Kumaragupta, 64 Kumaragupta III, 165 Kumarakassapa, 132, 133 Kunar, 10 Kundadana, 254 Kunda-dhana, 128, 131 Kundapura, 307 Kunindas, 90, 91 Kuntala, 166, 176, 177 Kuntalas, 81, 90, 158, 176 Kunti, 57 Kuntila, 176 Kupaka, 193 Kuru, 6, II, 22, 24, 28, 32, 47, 56, 57, 68, 89, 103, 105 Kuru Army, 12, 27, 34 Kurudhamma, 28 Kurudipa, 21 Kuruksetra, 4, 5, 6, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 26, 27, 34 Kuruksetra War, 35, 40, 49, 57, 58, 60, 65, 68, 77, 78, 84, 89, 96, 100, 105 Kuru-Pancala, 19, 20 Kuru-Pancala land, 20, 23 Kuru-Pancalas, 20, 30, 31 Kuru people, 21 Kurumbar, 189 Kururattham, 22, 23 Kurus, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 68, 96 Kurutas, 90 Kuruvahyas, 355 Kurusravana, 18 Kusa, 56, 100, 124, 125, 144 Kusamba, 136, 144 Kusasthali, 124 Kusavati, 56 Kuserukas, 151, 152 Kushanas, 17 Kusinara, 133 Kusthalapura, 212 Kusumapura, 205 Lakkhanamantam, 114 Laksmana, 36, 124, 237, 305 Laksmanasena, 162 Laksmikarna, 162 Lalitavistara, 40, 43, 112, 113, 322 Lalliya, 17 Lambagae, 152 Lambatai, 86, 93 Lamghan, 10, 86, 93 Lampak, 86 Lampakas, 93, 151, 152 Lanka, 168, 171, 191 Lassen, 97, 100, 152, 399 Laufer, B., II Lauhitya, 286 Lava, 124 Lavana, 42 Law, B. C., 2, 103, 106, 114, 115 Lada, 352 Lala, 352 Laludayi, 131 Lar, sea of, 351 Lari, 351 Larika, 175 Larike, 175, 351 Lata, 175, 177, 351 Lata-desa, 60, 175, 351 Lata-visaya, 351, 352 Latas, 351, 352, 353 Latesvara, 352 Latika, 352 Lecchai, 294, 295 Lecchaki, 295 Lecchavi, 294, 296 Lefmann, 43, 113 Legge, 13, 14, 15, 41 Lhasa, 303 Licchavayah, 331 Licchavi, 119, 294, 297, 300 Licchavis, 125, 294 ff., 388 Licchavigana, 315 Licchavikula-ketu, 296 Licchivi, 294 Lichavi, 295 Li-ch'e-p'o, 296 Lomasa, 10 Lona-sobhika, 45 Long, 282 Lotus palace, 147 Lumbini Garden, 248

Page #435
INDEX 415 Lumbinigrama, 248 Maccha-Surasena, 135 Macchas, 39 Macchikasanda, 114 Macco-Calingae, 162 McCrindle, 3, 14, 15, 34, 35, 60, 61, 91, 92, 93, 97 Macdonell, 25, 98, 102 Macedonians, 82 Madayanti, 180, 182 Madda, 327 Madgurakas, 388 Madhainagar grant, 162 Madhu, 42 Madhura, 39, 40, 43, 341 Madhuvan, 64 Madhyadesa, 1, 20, 21, 33, 71, 84, 99 Madhyama dik, 31 Madhyamandala, 198 Madhyamika, 83 Modokalinga, 160 Madra, 1, 54, 55, 57, 59 Madragara Saungayani, 1, 54 Madraka, 84 Madrakas, 54, 75, 76, 80, 95, 153 Madrakara, 67 Madras, 9, 40, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 67, 84, IOI Maga, 198 Magadha, 16, 22, 24, 31, 42, 47, 59, 77, 88, 89, 103, 109, 110, 195 ff. Magadhas, 10, II, 195 ff., 397 Magaya, 62 Magojaya, 62 Mahabharata, 2, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 21, 24, 32, 34, 35, 39, 40, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 57, 58, 60, 62, 66, 69, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 83, 84, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, Mahakosala, 22, 109, 126, 129, 202 Mahakotthita, 115, 116 Mahaksatrapa, 80 Mahamandhata, 23 Mahamarga, 119 Mahamatra, 316, 320 Mahamaya, 249 Mahamoggallana, 116 Mahamucala, 239 Mahanama, 313 Mahanandin, 196, 205 Mahapadma Nanda, 160, 392 Mahapajapati Gotami, 130, IZI, 253 Mahapatapa, 238 Maharakkhita, 7, 156 Maharastra, 81, 159, 389, 392 Maharathis, 178 Mahasagara, 43 Mahasammata, 239, 246 Mahasanghika system, 167 Mahasenagupta, 64 Mahasilakantaga, 204 Mahasilava, 108 Mahasivagupta Yayati, 335 Mahasthan, 44, 278, 279 Mahasuvanna, 130 Mahatittha, 169 Mahavana, 312 ff. Mahavamsa, 57, 115 Mahavastu, 4, 248, 312, 317 Mahavira, 15, 106, 125, 150, 243, 244, 318 Mahal, 104, 105, 87, 90, 91 Mahabhasya, 60, 62, 79 Mahabhiseka, 19, 21 Mahabhojas, 178 Mahacunda, 52, 116 Mahadhanasetthi, 112 Mahaganga, 169 Mahagovinda, 106 Mahajanapadas, 3, 22, 36, 40, 50, 54, 60, 106, et passim Mahakaccayana, 22, 41, 116, 140, 148, 340 Mahakala, 341 Mahakamsa, 43 Mahayanism, 13 Mahendra, 56, 378 Mahendri, 51 Mahi river, 64, 65, 379 Mahidhara, 98 Mahinda, 342 Mahipala, 8, 90, 279, 363 Mahipaladeva, 52 Mahirakula, 59 Mahisasakas, 13 Mahisman, 105 Mahiyangana, 168, 169 Mahmud, Sultan, 17 Mahmud of Ghazni, 361 Maithilas, 392 Maitrakas, 64, 65, 345 Majumdar, R. C., 55 Majumdar, S. N., 83, 92, 97, 102 Majupa, 62 Makala Kokf, 198 Makata, 198

Page #436
416 INDEX Makhadeva, 239 Makran, 206 Makuta Bandhana, 259, 261 Malajas, 397 Malakas, 158, 397 Malalasekera, G. P., 103, 110, 114, et passim. Malanga, 188 Malapa, 380 Malayas, 63 Malcolm, 99 Maleus Mt., 335 Malla, 133, 135 Mallai, 60 Mallakis, 125 Mallas, 257 ff. Malli, 60, 160 Mallika, 125, 126, 128, 252 Mallikarama, 128 Malloi, 60, 61, 62 Mallus, 160 Malwa, 50 Mambarus, 392 Mandaei, 160 Mandara, 91 Mandasor, 63, 64, 380, 392 Mandavya, 142, 143 Mandhata region, 386 Mandissa, 149 Manoja, 127 Manorhita, 131, 132 Manu, 20, 24, 33, 39, 87, 97, 98, 100, 189, 265 Manu Samhita, 4, 33, 39, 265 Mapaya, 62 Maroundai, 93 Martin, 88 Maru, 49, 389 Marunda, 93 Marundai, 93 Marziana, 10 Masakavati, 180 Masar, 88 Massanoi, 350 Massaga, 180 Mas'udi, 351 Mathura, 33, 39, 40 ff., 87, 398 Matsya, 12, 25, 47, 87, 357 Matsyas, 20, 25, 31, 33, 35, 40, 49, 50, 66, 88, 89, 357 ff. Mauleyas, 383 Maulikas, 165, 383 Maunikas, 383 Maurya dynasty, 197, 206 Mauryas, 188, 210, 288 Mausikara, 384 Max Muller, 3, 37 Mayidavolu, 164 Mayojapa, 62 Mayuravyamsakadigana, 3 Madhavagupta, 64 Madhavavarman, 162, 165 Madhavi, 104 Magandiya, 139 Magha, 160 Maheyas, 391 Mahi river, 391 Mahikas, 391 Mahisakas, 159, 386 Mahisikas, 364, 386 Mahisiki, 386 Mahismakas, 386 Mahismati, 99, 194, 383, 386, 387, 392 Mahissati, 386 Makandika, 139 Maladas, 89, 388 Malaka, 380 Malava, 60, 62, 64, 65, 380 Malavakahara, 64 Malavanam Jayah, 62 Malavas, 60, 62 ff., 75, 76, 79, 86, 90, 91, 95, 96, 393, 397 Malavikagnimitra, 157 Malaya, 62, 63, 378 Malini, 199 Malukas, 380 Mamulanar, 188 Mana, 169 Managpha, 332 Manava, 298 Manavadharma Sastra, 39 Manava-vamsa, 24 Manadas, 388 Mandhata, 120, 121, 122 Manikyala tope, 15 Manusara, 197 Martikavata, 66 Marukas, 380 Matali, 69 Mathara family, 161 Matharas, 363, 390 Matsyanyaya, 336 Maya, 250 Mech, 8 Megasthenes, 40, 42, 207, 394 Meghasandhi, 199

Page #437
INDEX 417 Mekala country, 100 Mekala hill, 97, 374 Mekala Kalingas, 162 Mekaladri, 374 Mekalambastha, 97 Mekalas, 90, 97, IOI, 333, 374 Mekhalamusta, 97, 374 Menander, 44, 58 Mendakasetthi, 129 Meru Mt., 91, 379 Migadaya, 115 Mihirakula, 58 Milinda, 44, 58, 7I Milindapanho, 41, 55, 56, 265 Minnagar, 92 Minnagara, 392 Mithi, 238 Mithila, 52, 119, 237 ff., 321 Mitra, 37 Mitradeva, 103 Mitrasaha Saudasa, 123 Mitratithi, 18 Mitravarma, 36 Mittasena, 169 Mleccha country, 12 Mleccha tribes, 93 Modagiri, 388 Modo-Galingae, 173 Modubae, 173 Moggallana, 129 Moggaliputta Tissa, 41 Moha river, 64 Mo-hi-lo-kiu-lo, 59 Mahur, 188 Mokala, 99 Mo-ki-to, 198 Mo-la-po, 64, 65 Molindae, 89 Molini, 102 Monedes, 335 Mophis, 351 Moredes, 93 Moriya, 206, 287, 288 Moriyanagara, 256 Moriyar, 188 Morounda, 93 Moroundai, 93 Mote-Hall, 255 Mousikaroi, 350 Mousikenos, 384 Mrgavati, 138 Mrisikas, 384 Mrttikavati, 66 Mucala, 239 Muchipa, 384 Mucipas, 173 Muchiri, 193 Mucukunda, 386 Mudakaras, 388 Mudgalasrama, 388 Mudgagiri, 388 Mudgala, 32 Mudraraksasa, 206 Muir, 98, 99 Mujavants, 10 Muka-Kalingas, 163 Mukas, 397 Mukhalingam, 160, 161, 163 Mukhya Kalingah, 160 Mukula, 32 Mulaka, 123, 167, 184, 185, 383, 389 Mulakas, 184 ff. Munda, 197, 198, 205 Mundakas, 167, 396 Mundas, 93 Munika, 196 Muralas, 90 Murari, 53 Muru, 284 Murunda, 93 Murunda-Svamini, 94 Murundai, 93 Murundas, 93 Musakas, 384 Mushika, 173, 193 Musi, river, 173, 384 Musikanagara, 384 Musikas, 384 Mutibas, 164, 173 Muttra, 45 Muvipa, 384 Muvipas, 173 Muziris, 193 Nagarvinda, 129 Nagnajit, II Nahapana, 63, 392 Nahusa, 21, 24 Nahusa family, 105 Naimisiya sacrifice, 31 Nairnikas, 179 Naisikas, 165, 179 Nakula, 73, 96 Nala, 100, 389 Nalakapana, 132 Nanda, 131, 249 27

Page #438
418 INDEX Nanda, 253 Nanda Dynasty, 176 Nandagopa, 43 Nandaka, 130, 320 Nandana, 106 Nandas, 137, 188, 197 Nandisena, 182, 183, 202 Nandivardhana, 137, 205 Nandupananda, 254 Nanduttara, 22 Naraka, 284 Narakasura, 285 Narasimha I, 334 Narasimhagarh, 95 Narasimhapur, 95 Naravarman, 63 Narmada, 97, 175, 351, 392 Nasik, 179, 392 Nasik Prasasti, 380 Nausari, 351 Nausaripa, 351 Navasarika, 351 Nabhaga, 87, 88 Nabhanedistha, 88 Naga, 34 Naga Dasaka, 205 Nagahva, 399 Nagamunda, 251 Nagapura, 399 Nagar, 63 Naga-raja, 35 Nagari, 64, 83 Nagarjunikonda, 78 Nagas, 392 Nagasahvaya, 399 Nalanda, 230, 231, 232 Nama-Vasakas, 382 Narada, 69, 197 Narayanapala, 334 Narayanapaladeva, 167 Narikavaca, 123 Nasikyas, 179 Nasikyavas, 179 Natha clan, 243, 244 Naya clan, 243, 307 Nayaka, 324 Nedungilli, 187 Nedun-jeliyan, 192 Nemicakra, 145 Neru, 239 Nesada, 113 Nicaksu, 136, 137, 145 Nicchivi, 295, 303 27B Nigantha Nataputta, 23I Nigrodharama, 254 NikayaArguttara, 22, 29, 36, 41, 50, 52, 60, 103, 109, 114, 115 Digha, 22, 52, 103, IIO, 114 Majjhima, 22, 29, 4I, II, II5 Samyutta, 29, 36 Nila range, 379 Niliya, 169 Nilkantha, 362 Nimi, 159 Nineveh, 14 Nipa, 33 Nipura, 247 Niramitra, 137 Nirukta, I, 20, 98 Nirvakta, 145 Nisada, 98 Nisada, 98 Nisadas, 98, 99, 100 Nisadha range, 379 Nisadhas, 97, 100, IOI Nisibis, 303, 304 Nitisara, 206 Nrga, 88 Nysa, 154, 155 Nysaeans, 154, 155 Odantapuri, 232 Odda country, 336 Odda-visaya, 336 Odivisa, 336 Odra, 161, 162, 335 Odra, 335 Odras, 335 Odra-visaya, 336 Ohind, 15, 17 Okkaka, 56, IIO, 246 Okkalas, 335 Oldenberg, 43, 69, 135, 297 Oligarchy, 321 Oliyar, 189 Opura, 247 Oretes, 335 Orissa, 335 Orosius, 97 Otantapuri, 232 Ouindion, 379 Ouxenton, 379 Oxus river, 282, 385 Oxydrakai, 60, 61, 62, 394 Ozene, 175, 351

Page #439
INDEX 419 Pabhavati, 56 Pabhosa, 140, 141, 150 Pacceka-Buddha, 36 Padmavati, 139, 197 Pahlavas, 3, 6, 382 Paithan, I8I, 38I, 389 Paithanikas, 381 Pakidare, 351 Pakhtu, 304 Palaiyur, 193 Palasavana, 132 Palia, 8 Palibothra, 160 Palidas, 165, 364 Pallava dynasty, 164 Panayamara, 169 Pancala, 23, 25, 30, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 59, 84, 103 Pancala-canda, 31 Pancala mudra, 37 Pancalas, 19, 24, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 49, 50, 66, 68, Pancanadas, 363 Pandaia, 190 Pandion, 191 Pandoovoi, 190 Pandu kingdom, 170 Parkadha, 132, 133 Paosni river, 398 Papancasudani, 22, 23 Para-atnara Hiranyanabha, 118 Paradene, 3 Parakkama, 170 Parakkamabahu, 170 Paramabhattaraka, 213 Paramara dynasty, 342 Paramatthadipani, 22 Paranjaya, 121 Parantapa, 138 Parasara, 198 Parasii, 160 Parasurama, 123 Para-tanganas, 388 Paricakra, 33 Pariksit, 19, 27, 28, 56 Parimdas, 165 Parivakra, 33 Pariyatra, 63, 99 Pargiter, 32 ff. Parna-savari, 400 Parnasa, 379 Paropanisadai, 206 Parthalis, 160 Parusni, 30 Pasenadi, 22, I26, 27, I28, 129, 132, 133, 137, 251 ff., 328 Pasiani, 396 Pasura, 131 Patacara, 131 Pataccara, 398 Patancala Kapya, 54 Patanjali, 60, 71, 79, 83 Patapa, 238 Patitthana, 146, 181 Paudanya, 180 Paundraka, 277 Paundras, 158, 264, 278 Paunikas, 383 Paurava, 46, 49 Paurava dynasty, 24 Pauravas, 5, 49, 87 Paurikas, 383 Pavenipotthaka, 326 Pavenirajja, 138 Payalasa, 141 Pacinavamsa, 52 Pala dynasty, 162, 166, 266 Palada, 364 Paladas, 165 Palas, 280 Pandava army, 27, 49 Pandavas, 23, 25, 27, 35, 39, 46, 48, 49, 66, 73, 87, 89, IOI, 105, 264 Pandu, 24, 25, 34, 56, 57, 87 Pandus, 23 Pandu's fort, 35 Parduya, 388 Pandya, 171, 187, 190, 191 Pandyas, 170, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190 ff. Panini, 13, 55, 60, 68, 71, 75, 82, 88 Paradas, 3, 165, 364 Parasika, 54, 71 Paraskaras, 195 Parasavas, 364 Parileyyaka forest, 149 Parimda, 364 Paripatra, 79, 89, 99, 379 Paripatras, 378 Pariyatra, 379 Pariyatras, 378 ff. Parsva, 231 Parsvanatha, 243 Partha, 5 Pasupatas, 35 Pataligama, 197, 329

Page #440
420 INDEX Pataliputra, 140, 160, 188, 205, 287, 295, 331 Patharghata, 232 Pava, 257 ff. Pavarika, 146, 147, 149 Pawapuri, 258 Payasi, 133 Peithon, 61 Pennar river, 172, 175 Perdikas, 61 Perimuda, 187 Periplus, 63, 71, 79, 80, 92, et passim Periyar river, 193 Persia, 38, 45, 71, 303 Peru-nar-Killi, 189 Peshawar, 9, 14 Petavatthu, 2 Petavatthu Commentary, 43 Petenikas, 381 Pettanika, 382 Peukalei, 14 Peukelaotis, 14, 15, 394, 395 Pidikas, 384 Pilakkhaguha, 149 Pilayamara, 169 P'i-lo-tu-lo, 13 Pindola Bharadvaja, 139 Ping-ki-lo, 166 Pipphalivana, 206, 288 Piprawa, 248 Pistapura, 161, 162 Pithapuram, 161 Pithiya, 169 Pitinikas, 382 Pliny, 14, 15, 160, et passim Plutarch, 61, 160, 206, et passim Pokhrana, 265, 266 Pokkharasadi, 128 Pokkharasati, 128 Polamuru plates, 165 Po-lu-sha-pu-lo, 13 Posada, 125 Poshadha, 297 Po-shih-po, 279 Potali, 159, 181 Potana, 181 Potthapada, 128 Poulipoula, 351 Prabhakara, Rsi, 152 Prabhakaravardhana, 64 Prabhasa, 354, 390, 397 Praceta, 12 Pradyota, 137, 138, 196 Prajapati, 21 Pramaganda, 387 Prasenajit, 131, 137 Prasthalas, 394 Pratihara, 141 Pratihara dynasty, 363 Pratipa, 24 Pratisthana, 381 Pratyagraha, 49 Pratyekabuddha, 36 Pravahana Jaivali, 31 Pravangas, 387 Pravijayas, 285 Pravira, 32 Prayaga, 20, 142, 144 Pracya Pancalas, 32 Pragjyotisa, 282, 284, 285 Pragjyotisapura, 285 Pragjyotisas, 284 ff. Pragjyotisesa, 286 Pralamba, 286 Pratibodhi, 195 Pravsseyas, 285 Priyadarsika, 139 Privalaukikas, 398 Proklais, 15 Proti Kausurubindi, 149 Prthivisena, I, 177, 267 Prthu, 195, 327 Prthvicandra, 74 Ptolemy, 15, 34, 40, 71, 75, 79, 80, 86, 91, 93, 97, et passim Pubbavideha, 23 Pukkalaoti, 394 Pukkusas, 174 Pukkusati, 16 Pulahattha, 169 Pulakesin II, 162, 187 Pulika, 196 Pulindakas, 174 Pulindas, 152, 159, 165, 174 ff., 388 Pulkusa, 98 Pulkusas, 174 Punach, 3 Punavadhana, 279 Pundra, 158, 264, 267 Pundras, 158, 277 ff. Pundravardhana, 263, 267, 277 ff. Pundravardhanabhukti, 263, 269, 279 ff. Pun-na-fa-tan-na, 278 Punnaka Yakkha, 40 Pupphavati, 102 Purana Kassapa, 320

Page #441
INDEX 421 Purandharas, 391 Puri, 336 Purika, 383 Puru dynasty, 35 Purukutsa, 122 Pururava, 24 Purus, 18, 42, 52, 109 Purusapura, 13, 14 Purusottama, 280, 336 Purvasthalis, 160 Puskalas, 151, 152, 394 Puskalavati, 14, 15, 394 Puskara, 14, 63, 392 Puskaravati, 14, 15, 124, 394 Pusya, 124 Pusyamitra, 197 Quilandi, 193 Quorum, 324 Raja-raja, 336 Raja-sabda-upajivinah, 29, 37, 57, 295, 322 Rajasekhara, 70, 77, 90 Rajasuya Sacrifice, 2, 31, 40, 48 Rajatarangini, 74, 86 Rajayatana tree, 335 Rajendra Cola, 336 Rajuvula, 44 Rajyamati, 286 Rajyavardhana, 64 Rama, 14, 110, 119, 124, 237, 397 Rama Jamadagnya, 66 Ramagama, 287, 292 Ramapala, 335 Ramas, 363 Ramayana, 6, 34, 39, 63, 71, 77, 89, 90, 99, 100, 103, 134, et passim Ramnagar, 34, 38 Rapti, 235 Rastrakuta Govinda, III, 65 Rastrikas, 178 Ravana, 122 Ravi, 55, 60, 71, 74 Rennell, 10 Renu, 106 Republic, 321 Reva river, 380 Revata, II6 Rhys Davids, 2, 9, 39, 41, 50, 102, 133 Ripunjaya, 196, 199 Risikas, 384 Rksa Mt., 32, 100, 379 Rohita hill, 269 Ruci, 238 Rudra Simha, 80 Rudradaman, 63, 76, 80, 99, 156, 392 Rummindei Pillar, 248 Raddha-Katakas, 399 Raghu, 4, 120, 124, 266 Raghunandan, 3 Raghuvamsa, 4 Ramanas, 363 Ramatas, 363, 391 Ramathas, 90, 363, 390, 391 Rargeyas, 387 Rapson, 9, 10, 14, 16 ff., 20, 33, 44, 45, 50, 52, 58, 76, 80, et passim Ratanapura, 7 Ra(t)hamusala, 204 Rathikas, 364 Ratnacuda, 113 Ratnapala, 386 Ratnaranjaka, 232 Ratnasagara, 232 Ratnasikhi, 113 Ratnodadhi, 232 Ratthapala, 22 Rawalpindi, 9 Ray, N., 64 Ray, H. C., 54 Raychaudhuri, H. C., 3, 42, 61, 69, 75, 76, 85, 95, 97, 100, et passim Radha, 263 * Rahula, II6, 125, I483 Rajagrha, 24, 77, 112, 146, 387 Rajahamsa, 197 Rajamahendri, 51 Rajanighantu, 92 Rajanya-bandhu, II Rajapura, 3, 159 Sabagrae, 97 Sabaras, 81, 172 Sabarcae, 97 Sabarnas, 97 Sabbaratticaro, 315 Sabbarattivaro, 315 Sacae, 396 Sacarauli, 396 Sacrifice Asvamedha, 30, 33, 47, 118, 120, 122 Govinata, 103 Rajasuya, 40, 48, 119, 120, 122, 237 Visvajit, 98 Sadanira, 117, 235

Page #442
422 INDEX Sagara, 6, 43, 120, 122, 364, 385 Sahadeva, 27, 40, 136 Sahaja, 49 Sahajati, 52 Sahancanika, 52 Sahasranika, 138 Saheth-Maheth, 130 Sahya, 378 Sailoda river, 91, 364 Sailalaya, 285 Sailusas, 382 Saindhavas, 67, 344 Sainikas, 384 Saint-Martin, M. Vivien de, 91, 93, 310 Saisunagas, 392 Saivya, 105 Sajjanela, 292 Saka, 14 Saka-Murundas, 94 Sakas, 3, 4, 5, 6, 77, 84, 92, 157 Sakkara, 249 Sakuni, II, 12, 25, 27, 120 Sakuntala, 105 Salaka-gahapaka, 323 Salya, 5, 27, 57, 58 Samankara, IIO Samarkhand, 398 Samatata, 3, 263 Sambarana, 35 Sambastai, 97 Samhita-- BIhat, 55, 74, 75, 85, 92, 95, I36 Gargi, 37 Kathaka, 30, 98 Maitrayani, 98 Taittiriya, 98 Vajasaneyi, 31 Varaha, 91, 96 Yajurveda, 33 Samhitas, Vedic, 30, 54 Sammatiya school, 249 Sammatiyas, 132 Samprati, 200 Samudragupta, 58, 60, 62, 63, 70, 76, 81, 94, 147, 296, 383 Samvarana, 24 Sanakanikas, 95, 356 Sandaka, 149 Sandhyakara Nandi, 334 Sanjaya, 32, 69 Sankaravarman, 74 Sankassa, 41 Santhagara, 254, 323 Sarabha, 49 Saradatta, 67 Saraikala, 9 Sarajas, 393 Sarasvati, 18, 19, 21, 71, 79, 99, 124, 151, 235, 350, 397 Sarkaraksa, I Sarmistha, 24 Sarvanukramani, 18 Saryati, 88 Sasarka, 270, 271 Satadhanu, 239 Satadru, 71, 91, 158 Satadrujas, 398 Satanika, 103, 137, 138 Satapatha, 398 Sateraka, 71 Satipatthana, 22 Satpura range, 378 Satrajita, 103 Satrughna, 42, 124 Satrunjaya, 345 Sattabhu, 159 Satvats, 48 Satyavan, 6, 58 Satyavati, 46, 47 Satyavrata, 122 Saubhaganagara, 66 Saudyumnas, 333 Saundarananda Kavya, 145 Sauudikeras, 386 Saungayani, 54 Saunihotra, 104 Saurastra, 380 Sauviras, 66, 67, 84, 151, 153, 344ff. Savadhanas, 151 Savaras, 93, 159, 172, 399 Savati, 2 Sadhina, 43, 239 Sadhyas, 19 Sagala, 55, 57 Sagaradeva, 238 Sagarika, 139 Sakala, 54, 55, 58, 59, 71 Saketa, 117, 125, 129, 132, 133, 146 246, 247 Sakotavana, 247 Sakya-parisad, 254 Sakyaraksita, 334 Sakyas, IIO, 128, 245 ff.

Page #443
INDEX 423 Salivahana, 381 Salho, 319 Salvajanapada, 67 Salvapura, 66 Salvas, 31, 39, 66, 67, 73 Salvavayava, 67 Samagama, 249 Samasrami, Satyavrata, I Samba, I Santanu, 20, 24, 47 Sapuga, 292 Sarnath, 115, 144 Sariputta, I5, I30, I3I, I48, 292 Sarvaseni, 105 Sasanavamsa, 7, 13, 21 Sasvatas, 397 Satakarni, Gautamiputra, 157 Satavahanas, 80, 81, 157, 165 Satyaki, 6 Savattha, I29 Savatthi, IOS, II7, I29, I30, 31, 32, 133 Savitri, 58, 301 Sayana, 30 Schwanbeck, 207 Schroeder, Von, 98 Script, Brahmi, 44 Scythians, 3 Seleucuos, 155 SeleukoS, 206 Sembiyan, 187 Sena dynasty, 162, 267 Senas, 280 Seniya, 200 Serpent worship, 44 Setavya, 132 Setukas, 382 Seyaviya, 78 Shah-Dheri, 15 Shahiya dynasty, 17 Shah Jahan I, 343 Shama-Shastri, 29. 37 She-ki-lo, 55 Shi-shi-ch'eng, 14 Shor, 83 Shrine, see Caitya Sialkot, 71 Siaura, 83 Sibai, 82 Sibipura, 83 Sibis, 68, 75, 82, 83, 84, 345 Siboi, 68, 82 Siddhartha, 244, 248, 250 ff. Sigloi, Persian, 156 Siha, 321 Siha, 321 Sihapura, 47 Sikhandi, 36 Silabhadra, 232 Silavat, 202 Silavati, 250 Simhapura, 159 Sin river, 13 Sindhu, 10, 13, 24, 26, 30, 35, 86, 157 Sindhu-Pulindaka, 175 Sindhu-Sauvira, 344, 382, 389 Sindhu-Sauviras, 80, 99, 153, 344 ff. Sindhus, 174, 344 Singupuram, 159 Sipra, 379 Sipraka, 197 Sirihamsya, 7 Sirimeghavanna, 159 Sisirayani, 74 Sisunaga, 140, 200 Sisunagas, 199 Sisupala, 47, 48, 50 Sita, 39, 54, 100, 119 Sivadatta, 81 Sivapura, 68, 75, 78, 83, 84, 86 Sivas, 82, 83, 84 Sivaskandavarman, 164, 166 Sivi, 51, 78, 84, 85 Sivi Ausinara, 68, 75, 84 Sivi country, 85 Sividas, 151 Sivis, 62, 68, 78, 83, 84, 85, 96 Si-yu-ki, 140, 145 Skyrites, 282 Smith, V. A., 2, 7 ff., 15, 17, 29, 34, 41, 45, 52, 55, 59, 60, 62, 92, 95, et passim Sodasa, Mahaksatrapa, 44. Sodrai, 79, 350 Sogdiana, 282 Sogdiani, 396 Sogdoi, 79 Solariki, 385 Solar dynasty, 136, 247 Soma Cult, II Somesvaradeva, 53 Somnath, 390, 397 Son river, 88

Page #444
INDEX 424 Sona Satrasaha, 31 Suketu, 49 Sukti, 49, 50 Sonadanda, 201 Suktimat, 378 Sonestane, 86 Suktimati, 47, 50 Sopara, 354, 392 Sulakaras, 152, 385 Soras, 187 Sorensen, 75 Sulikas, 384, 385 Sotthivatinagara, 47 Sumana, 131 Spooner, D. B., 17 Sumangalavilasini, 4, 110, et passim Sravasta, 121, 130 Sumantra, 104 Sumsumaragira, 147 Sravasti, 108, 109, 112, 117, 121, 124, Sumsumaragiri, 141 125, 127, 128, 129, 131 ff., 139, 146, Sumsumara Hill, 293 149 Sribhadra, 327 Sunaka, 196 Sri Harsa, 162 Sunga dynasty, 38 Srideva, 49 Sunga-mitra family, 141 Sridhara, 387 Surgas, 141 Srighanta lake, 92 Sunahsepa, 122 Srikshetra, 336 Sunidha, 204 Supparaka, 354 Srimati Mahanadi river, 119 Suppavasa, 292 Sragaverapura, 119 Supriya, 112 Stnjayas, 70 Suradeva, 106 Srotasi river, 92 Suras, 63 Srutadevi, 87 Srutasrava, 48 Surasena, 40, 42, 56, 140 Srutaya, 125 Surasenas, 39, 40, 42, 43, 66, 135 Stein, 74 Surastra, 80, 94, 99, 347 ff., 389, 398 Surastras, 63, 79, 80, 159, 347 ff. Sten Konow, 94 Suratha, 389 Stevenson, Mrs. Sinclair, 15, 106 Surparaka, 354, 392 Stosalas, 385 Surparakas, 354, 390 Strabo, 10, 14, 86, 155, 207, 394, 396 Suari, 335 Suruci, 238 Suars, 335 Surundhana, 102, 103 Subahu, 115 Suryarakas, 354, 390 Subbhabhumi, 275 Suryavamsi family, 332 Subhagiri, 170 Susarma, 73 Sucirata, 28 Susarman, 197 Sudaksina, 5, 197 Susima, 160 Sudarsana, 56 Susobhana, 49 Sudas, 30, 82 Susunia Hill, 266 Sudasa, 123 Sutra-- Sudassana, 102, 239 Baudhayana Srauta, 82, 103 Suddhodana, 125, 248 ff. Bhagavati, 50, 60 Sudesna, 158 Gautama-Dharma, 96 Sudras, 4, 6, 79, 350 Hasti, 113 Sudracae, 60 Katyayana Srauta, 98 Sugriva, 6, 39, 54, 104, 153 Latyayana thrauta, 98 Suhmas, 275 Sankhayana Srauta, 103, 135 Suhmotkalas, 391 Uttaradhyayana, 4, 23, 36 Suhmottaras, 285, 391 Suttanipata Commentary, 17, IIO Sujarakas, 388 Suvahu, 43, 105 Sujata, 183, 246, 247 Suvala, II, 24

Page #445
INDEX 425 Suvarnabhumi, 131 Suvarnarekha, 334 Suviras, 68, 78, 84 Suvrata, 68, 96 Svabhra, 389 Svapnavasavadatta, 138, 197 Svarjit-Nagnajita, II Svayambara, 48, 57, 197 Svetaketu Aruneya, 31 Swat hill, 10 Swat river, 86, 395 Syandika, 119 Sydracae, 60 Syrakusoi, 61 Syrastrene, 80, 348 Syria, 80, 155 Tiru-Vanjikkalam, 193 Tissa, 160, 169 Tissa, 253 Tissathera, 148 Tivala, 140 Tochari, 396 Tod, 50 Togara, 385 Tokeroi, 396 Tokhari, 93 Tomara, 307, 321 Toranavatthu, 133 Tosala, 385, 386 Tosalei, 386 Tosi, river, 17 Traikutaka era, 52, 80 Trasadasyava, 18 Trasadasyu, 18, 122 Trigarta, 394 Trigartaka Mulk, 74 Trigarttas, 62, 66, 73, 74, 75, 86, 96, Tri-Kalinga, 51, 162, 163 Trikandasesa, 145 Trilocanapala, 17 Tripura, 399 Tripuri, 50, 399 Tripuri-visaya, 399 Trisala, 244 Trnabindu, 299 Trogus, 155 Trisanku, 122 Trtsu-Bharatas, 18 Tukharas, 396, 398 Tundikeras, 386, 392 Turuskas, 99 Tusaras, 396 Tushaspha, 156 Tusita heaven, 40, 143, 245, 309 Tustikaras, 386 Tagara, 382 Takkhasila, 15 Taksaka, 27, 28 Taksasila, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 112, 124 Talaing, 163 Tamaras, 398 Tamasa, 119 Tamils, 168 Tamluk, 263 Tanganas, 364, 388 Tapati, 24 Tapussa, 335 Taxila, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 28, 29, 45, 113, 114, 133, 314 Talajanghas, 122, 392 Tamalinda, 7 Tamralipta, 263 Tamraparni, 190 Taranath, 14 Tendukhera, 386 Te-na-ka-che-ka, 166 Tezpur Plates, 286 Thakuri family, 332 Theragatha, 22 Therigatha Commentary, 22, 116 Thomas, F. W., 96 Thullakotthika, 22 Thullatissa, 130 Thuna, 379 Tibet, 3, 398 Tilangas, 383 Tilokasundari, 160 Tirabhukti, 311 Tiraiyar, 187 Tirhut, 311 Tiru-karur, 193 399 U-cha, 336 Ucchedavadin, 143 Udaya, 110 Udaya Bhadda, 103 Udayana, 137, 138, 139, 140, 144, 148, 149, 150 Uddalaka Aruni, 54, 144 Udayi Bhadda, 204, 205 Udena, 115, 135, 136 Udra, 333, 335 Udra, 335 Udumbarapura, 355 28

Page #446
426 INDEX Udumbaras, 91, 355, 397 Udumbaravati, 355 Udyana, 84 Uggas, 388 Uggasena, 110 Ujjain, 94, 143, 175, 398 Ujjayini, 41, 63, 64, 65, 140 Ujjeni, 137 Ukkala, 335 Ukkatthanagara, 128 Ulkamukha, 247 Ulumpa, 249 Umavarman, 161 Upacara, 47 Upa-giri, 285 Upakamsa, 43 Upali, 116, 249, 254 Upamanyu, 1 Upamasravas, 18 Upanisad Brhadaranyaka, 31, 103 Chandogya, II, 20, 31, 77 Jaiminiya, 31 Kausitaki, 31, 68, 103 Upaplavya, 105 Uparicara, 46, 49, 50 Uparicara Vasu, 46, 47, 144 Upasagara, 43 Uragapura, 186, 188 Uraiyur, 186 Urjas, 92 Urn, 288 Urnadesa, 399 Urnas, 399 Urudhammarakkhita, 149 Uruvela, 114, 335 Usasti Cakrayana, 20 Usavadata, 63 Usinara, 68, 69, 75, 78, 82, 84, 96 Usinaragiri, 69 Usiraddhaja, 69 Usiragiri, 69 Utanka, Rsi, 121 Utkala, 161, 162, 333 Utkaladesa, 334 Utkalas, 89, 333, 335 Utkalavisaya, 334 U-to-yen-na, 140 Uttamabhadras, 63, 90, 91, 394 Uttaradvipa, 22 Uttara-Kuru, 21, 23, 56 Uttara-Madhura, 43 Uttara-Pancala, 32, 33, 34, 36, 47 Uttarapatha, 6, 52, 79, 83, 92 Vacchas, 136 Vacchiputa, 141 Vadanagara, 389 Vahi, 72 Vahinara, 137 Vahir-giri, 285 Vaidarbhas, 81, 174 Vaidehi, 241 Vaidehiputra, 138, 239 Vaidisas, 386 Vaijayantipura, 382 Vaikarna people, 30 Vaikkarai, 193 Vaisali, 36, 202, 304, 388 Vaisikyas, 159 Vaitarani river, 159, 336 Vajji, I35, 388 Vajrayana-Buddhism, 400 Vajranabha, 42 Vaka-Dalbhya, 31 Valabhi, 64, 65 Valavan, 187 Valhika, 70 Vamsa, 50 Vamsadhara river, 159 Vamsas, 135, 136, 143 Vanamala, 286 Vanavasakas, 382 Vanavasi, 382 Vanga, 26, 158, 162, 263, 387 Vangas, 158, 263, 387 Vangeyas, 387 Vanka, 109 Vankapabbata, 51 Vanksu, 4 Vapusman, 49 Varahamihira, 55, 85, 198 Varahotra, 393 Varana, 102 Varanavati, 102 Varendra, 336 Varnasa, 379 Varsakara, 204 Varuna, 122 Vasa Asvya, 135 Vasas, 19, 68, 84, 135 Vasatis, 84 Vasistha, 6, 24, 104, 122, 196 Vassa, 335 Vassakara, 204, 329, 330 Vasu, 46, 47, 49, 50, 89, 145

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INDEX 427 168 Vasubandhu, 13, 132 Videha Mathava, 235 Vasumitra, 157 Videhadatta, 239 Vasudeva, 25, 26, 48 Videhas, 117, 225 ff. Vatika, 125 Vidhurapandita, 29 Vatsa, 40, 50, 103, 109, 137, 138, 140, Vidisa, 140, 141, 386 141, 143 ff., 149 Vidudabha, 249, 256, 288 Vatsapattana, 145 Vihalla, 202 Vattagamani, 169 Vijaya, 170 Vatuka, 169 Vijayabahu I, 160 Vahikas, 71, 72 Vijayapura, 7 Vahlikas, 70, 77, 79, 151 Vijayasena, 162 Vaji-Vasikas, 382 Vijitanagara, 169 Valhi, 71 Vijitapura, 169 Valhika, 70, 71 Vikrama era, 63 Valika, 123 Vikramaditya, IZI Vanagarh, 7 Vikramasila, 232, 233 Varanasi, 102 Vikuksi, 120, 121 Vartasastropajivin, 4 Vimala-Kondanna, 202, 328 Varttikas, 71 Vimanavatthu Commentary, 41 Vasabhakhattiya, 251, 252 ff. Vimativinodani (Vinaya Commentary), Vasabhagama, 114 Vasavadatta, 138, 141 Vinasana, 350 Vasistha Satyahavya, 21 Vinata, IO4 Vasuladatta, 138, 139, 141 Vinatasva, 333 Vasudeva, 41, 43, 44, 86, 87, 105, 158 Vinda, 337 Vatadhana-dvijas, 151 Vindhya-Mauleyas, 393 Vatadhanas, 79, 151 Vindhyamulikas, 393 Vatsyayana, 64 Vindhya-pusikas, 393 Veda Vindhyas, 174 Atharva, 19, 102, et passim Vipasa, 72, 91 Rg, 30, 32, 39, 68, 82, 84, et passim Vipracitti, 199 Sama, 19, 20, 54, et passim Vira, 131 Vedabbha, 51 Virahotras, 393 Vedagarbhapuri, 88 Virata, 25, 66, 87, 105 Vedasmrta, 379 Viratanagara, 39 Vedasmrti, 379 Visakha, 36, 130 Vedasruti, 119 Visakhadatta, 289 Vehalla, 202 Visakhavarman, I6I Vejayanti, 383 Visala, 237 Vellar, 186 Visayha, 113 Velusumano, 169 Visnudharmottara Mahapurana, 50 Venagapura, 129 Visnukundin, 162, 165 Venkatagiri, 186 Visnuvardhana, 380 Venuvana, 225 Vissasena, 110 Vessabhu, 387 Visvadeva, 141 Vessantara, 5I Visvamitra, 237, 355, 397 Vethadipa, 290 Vitahavyas, 104, 393 Vetravati, 386 Vitaratha, 49 Vibhasasastra, 131 Vitihotras, 392, 393 Vicitravirya, 24, 25, 105 Vivaksu, 130 Vidarbha, 49, 100, 123, 174, 389 Vogel, J. Ph., 17 Videgha Mathava, 235 Voharikas, 325 Videha, 17, 20, 26, 31, 84, 131, 138, 235 | Vrajamandala, 336

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428 INDEX Vratya, 195 VIddhasarman, 87 Vihadisu, 32 Vrsabha, 196 Vrsabhapura, 196 Vrsadarbhas, 68, 78, 84 Vrsnikas, 390 Vrsnis, 27, 42 Vyaghrasena, 81 War of the ten kings, 82 Warangal, 51 Watters, 41, 59, 90, 102 Weber, 31, 33, 60, 65, 98, 235 Whitehead, 16 Wilford, Col., 96 Whitney, 303 Wilson, 10, 14, 18, 30, 79, 86, 100 Wu-t'u, 336 Yasodhara, 251 Vaudheya, 68, 75, 76, 95 Vaudheyas, 55, 63, 68, 73, 75, 76, 78, 90, 91, 95, 96, 397 Yaudheyavara, 76 Yaunas, 92, 153 Yavana, 54, 153, 154, 155 Yavanani, 154 Yavanas, 3, 4, 6, 7, 35, 84, 86, 153, 155, 156, 157, 170, 398 Yavinara, 32 Yayati, 11, 12, 21, 24, 47, 103 Vadava, 47, 48, 89 Vadava tribe, 391 Yadavas, 25, 80, 87, 390 Yajnavalkya, 54, 124, 236 Yaska, 1, 2, 20, 98 Yogacara,.13 Vonakas, 55 Yonas, 153, 154, 155, 156 Yuan Chwang, 90 Yudhisthira, 2, 6, 25, 27, 29, 42, 48, 57, 73, 75, 76, 95, 96, 105, 119, 120, 136 Yue-chi, 304 Yugandhara, 67 Yule, 175 Yuvanasva, 121 Xandrammes, 160 Yadu, II, 39, 105 Yadus, 35, 39 Yajnasri Satakarni, 81 Yajurveda, White, 19 Yama, 246 Yami, 246 Yamuna, 91, 146 Yasa, 148 Yasadatta, 13 Zeus, 154 Zimmer, 1, 21, 30, 33, 54, 68 Published by Dr. R. N. Dandekar, Secretary, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 4 (India), and Printed by G. E. Bingham, Baptist Mission Press, 41A Lower Circular Road, Calcutta.

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ERRATA Page 10 Read Lamghati instead of Laghiman 23 : : : : 160 Gangaridai instead of Gangridai 213 . Paramabhattaraka instead of Paramabhattakara of instead of or kingdoms instead of kingdom constitute .. . constitutes 349 . Satrapy . . Satrapa 350. Pahlavas . .. Pallavas .. 382 . Pallavas . .. Pahlavas Read the before the titles of Chapters XLIII-XLV. : :