Spiritual Discipline and Practices in Jainism

Author(s): Bhagchandra Jain
Publisher: Z_Vijyanandsuri_Swargarohan_Shatabdi_Granth_012023.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250318/1

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SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE AND PRACTICES IN JAINISH # Dr. Bhag Chand Jain Spirituality is the essence of spirit or self or ultimate reality in being which comprises of right knowledge and right conduct in its relation with the universe. It is beyond the physical or material world and therefore is immanent. It is called adhyatma (pertaining to self) in Sanskrit. Spiritual knowledge of the self or Atma requires its realization that one has capacity and aspiration to attain the highest and ultimate truth. Spirituality needs spirit in its purity which can be achieved only by an inwardness, intuition and mysticism. Ultimate reality is related to world until one reaches ultimate spiritual destiny. Therefore there is significant relationship between human and pure spiritual and natural and super-natural power. An empirical man is expected to follow the auspicious qualities or values and ethics and morality which are intimately related to the ultimate. Ethics is man's intellectual search for conceptual knowledge about the good' and morality is essentially merely a mode of personal and social conduct. Both these together help a man to reach ultimate reality. Spirituality, religion and philosophy are intimately connected with each other. The word "Religion" is derived from the latin verb "religare" i.e. to bind which means religion is to impose duties that bind and requires observance on the part of its adherents. It has a wide sphere for the Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth 60

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spiritual upliftment of the self and society. Its fundamental subject is to search ultimate truth with intuition but simultaneously it can also be a social dynamic and a subject for intellectualistic enterprise involving metaphysical and philosophical presuppositions. It is first subjective and then objective. When religion is considered for the sake of spiritual realization, it becomes a basic instrument for the welfare of mankind, and its society. Religion can be translated with the word "dharma" and dharma indicates the traditional values and universal truths. Acarya Kundakunda, a Jaina spiritualist is of view that the Caritra (conduct) is Dharma and dharma is equality and equanimity which are the parinamas of soul and which can be attained by destroying deluding karma (Mohaniyakarma). 2 Philosophy is essentially an intellectual pursuit which provides a man with a new sphere to ponder over religious and social problems with certain moral values and spiritual qualities. Religion is for self-valuation and philosophy stipulates the logical speculation. Specially in Indian philosophy, the knowledge is an instrument and spiritual salvation is the supreme goal. Philosophy is the base of religion. Philosophy is pervading and religion is pervaded. Religion stresses practical aspects of life while philosophy gives it the metaphysical and intellectual expression. Therefore both religion and philosophy are profoundly correlafed with each other. They uphold the supremacy and ultimacy of liberation from conditioned existence. Spiritual disciplines and practices are representative wings of religion and philosophy. Spirituality is immanent in human nature, religion is a moral force and philosophy is an intellectual instrument for achieving the spiritual and religious goals. Under this perspective Jainism originally preaches ideals for attaining spirituality. Its religious aspects enjoin discipline for social upliftment and philosophy justifies them for exemplary iour. We know the nature and ambit of the subject which is very wide and speculative and therefore only the gist of the traditional values, disciplines and practices is given here. . Spirituality relates to having belief in an independent existence of soul, its nature of innate purity, and the removal of ignorance through right means. To attain this spiritual goal a certain amount of diciplines and practices is prescribed by all the systems. Therefore there is no Spiritual Discipline And Practices in Jainism 61

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controversy over the spiritual goal but the controversy lies in framing the disciplines and practices leading to the goal. Here we shall have a bird's eye view of the concept of Jainism in this regard. Conception of Spirit and other categories The main aim and object of spiritual disciplines and practices is to enable a man to realize spiritual happiness and perennial peace. To obtain this goal of life, one is expected to believe first in the existence of spirit or soul which is said to possess qualities of consciousness, rememberance, desire for knowledge, desire for movement, doubt etc. The other substance is non-soul which is not endowed with consciousness. Matter, motion, station, space and time come under this category of non- soul (ajiva). Of these the soul and non-soul categories are the most important as their interaction results in the origin of the universe. Soul is, according to Jainism, the central point of spiritual disciplines and practices. Its distinctive characteristic is consciousness, the power of congnition (upayoga) which distinguisnes it from body or physical entity. It is infinite in number, is without beginning. It exists within the corporal shape whatsoever it may be. Soul is formless, agent, enjoyer of the fruits of karmas, and exists in the world. Its cognitive operation is generally ded into two types, viz. determinate (sakara) and indeterminate (anakara). Soul apprehends the object concerned first in specific form and then in a generic form. When one attains the state of complete development, one becomes capable of knowing and per-ceiving all at once. This is the highest spiritual point where one finds transcendence in extraordinary experience. Soul is of two types-one is worldly and the other is emancipated. The worldly soul attracts influx of karmic matter and gets mixed together with false notions, negligence and passions. As a result, soul becomes obscured. The state of mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas is the process of bondage which causes birth and rebirth. This transmigratory cycle remains with the soul until it is destroyed by anti-karmic forces. The true nature of soul is thus hidden behind the veil of evil karmas The veil has to be removed and this is done by spiritual disciplines and ractices. This is the core point where from the practical form of Jaina metaphysics commences. By means of observing code of conduct as laid down by Jaina scriptures, the spiritual aspirant gradually effects the cessation of the 62 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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inflow and the disruption of the karmic matter. Then the soul attains at last the state of complete annihilation of all karmic matter which is a called spiritual salvation, the state of permanent happiness. The living beings may be divided into two groups. The first group belongs to those who consider happiness in worldly enjoyments through external means confined to materialistic approach with lesser development. On the other hand, the second group comprises of those who believe in disentanglement from worldliness and attainment of meritorious spiritual qualifications and real happiness with right means alone. The first strives for economic possession and the second one observes the religious conduct for realization of the ultimate truth. As the Acaranga says, the soul indulges in actions, takes birth, dies and transmigrates, all in utter solitariness : I have always been solitary : 1 belong to none else; I behold no one whom I can say I belong to nor do I behold one whom I can designate as mine. The path of worldliness is nothing but disaster. Who, whose and where are one's kith and kin? Who, whose, and where are strangers, and viceversa. There comes a time when nobody remains as kith and kin and nobody a stranger. Ponder thus "I am all alone. Nobody was mine in the past, nor will ever be in the future. It is because of my karmas that I delude myself and consider others as mine. The truth is that I was alone in the past and will ever be all alone. According to Jainism, soul and God are identical, inasmuch as they are the two stages of same entity. Every soul is potentially divine and the manifestation of divinity is called Paramatmahood. It has three stages, the first stage Bahiratman engages itself in the external objects through the sense doors, confounds the self with the body. The second stage Antaratman repents for this indulging tendency of sense and determines to see the self within, and the third stage is the Paramatman, the Siddhahood, a soul that has freed itself from the bondage of karma and cycle of birth and death. Such a soul annuls even the vibratory activities but preserves infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite bliss. Before final departure from the world, some suc souls called Arihantas reinstate the religious order and become Tirthankaras." For spiritual realization, according to Jaina tradition, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct all three together conduct the path of spititual salvation termed as triple jewel (ratnatraya). The Uttaradhyayana Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 63

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clearly says that Nirvana cannot be attained without observing combinedly the ratnatrya. Bhatta Akalanka explained the trinity with the help of medicine which cures the diseases by following faith, knowledge and conduct accordingly.' Belief in the ascertainment of things in their true character is right faith (Samyagdarsana). It is of two kinds, saragsamyagdarsana (with attachment) and vitaragasamyagarsana or niscayasamyagdarsana (without attachment). The former is characterized by serenity, incessant fear of the miseries of transmigration (samvega), compassion, devotion and so on. The latter is concerned with the purity of soul alone. The samyagadarsana can be attained by intuition (nisarga) or by acquisition of knowledge (adhigama). It is the fundamental cause for achieving the salvation. 10 There are eight characteristics of Samyagdarsana, viz. nihsankita, ninkarksita, nirvicikitasa, mudhadrasti, upaguhana, sthitikarana, vatsalya and margaprabhavana. They can be retained by avoiding the five kinds of transgresstions, viz. doubt in the teachings of the Jina (sanka),2) desire for worldly enjoyment (kanksa),3) repugnance or disgust at the afflicted (vicikitsa),4) admiration for the knowledge and conduct of the wrong believers (anyadrastiprasamsa), and praise of the wrong believers (anyadrastisamstava)." One is also expected to be free from 25 types of faults or fallacies, viz. 3 Mudhatas, 8 madas, 6 anayatanas and 8 dosas. Samyagdarsana is the foundation for the attainment of Samyagjnana which is right knowledge of the substances as these actually are. The Samyagcaritra (right conduct) is the cessation of activity leading to removal of the causes of transmigration. Anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed are the passions which lead to endless worldly existences or transmigrations. Consequently on the fructification of karmas the soul wanders into different conditions of existence, creates passion, disbelieves in reality, non-cognition of objects arising from ignorance, non-restraint of per-fections. From destruction-cum-substance soul attains mixed type of right and wrong disposition of restraint and non-restraint. When the karmas are completely destroyed, the perfect knowledge, perfect perception, gift of fearlessness and infinite enjoyment are attained by the pruified soul. The process comes under the Samvara and nirjara tattvas. Samvara Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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means the obstruction of influx of karmic matter which is of two types, viz. bhavasamvara psychic stoppage or cessation of activities and dravyasamvara (material stoppage). The Nirjara connotes the separation of part of karmic matter from the soul. Stoppage and gradual dissociation are the chief causes of liberation. Pujyapada defines the moksa (liberation) as the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characteritized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering." The Samvara and nirjara tattva will be discussed in brief. With the sole intention of achieving the purified state of soul. Jainism prescribes some fundamental spiritual disciplines and practices. They can be observed partially and totally. Partial observation is prescribed for a householder as he is unable to desist from all sins completely whereas an ascetic is expected to observe the code of conduct totally as he practically does not stay at home. An ascetic is he who observes vows completely and is free from sting, the main root of pain and emotional arising from karmas. Sting is of three kinds, viz. deceit termed as maya, ii) desire for enjoyment termed as nidana, and iii) perverse attitude termed as mithyadarsana. The practice of these vows with vigilance dispels sufferings just as an excellent specific herb removes disease. 1. SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINE AND PRACTICES FOR HOUSEHOLDERS A vast literature over Sravakacara has been written in Sanskrit and Prakrit by Jainacaryas. It is also available in the Agamas. Here some of important Acaryas with their main works have been mentioned : Acaryas Granthas 1. Kundakunda (Ist century) -Caritrapahuda (Gathas-235-231) Rayanasara 2. Svami Kartikeya (2nd century) - Kattgeyannvekkha (Dharmabhavana) 3. Umasvati (2nd century) or - Tattvarthasutra (7th Chapter) Umasvamin 4. Samantabhadra (4th century) - Ratnakarandasravakacara Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 65

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5. Haribhadrasuri (750 A.D.) - Sacayapannatti (?) Savayachammacvihi, Dharmalindu, Lalitavistara, Pahcasakaprakarana, Avasyakatika 6. Siddhasena Ganin (9th C. Y.Y.) - Tattvarthasutra Commentary 7. Jinasena (9th C.) - Adipurana, parva 40 8. Bhavasena (10th C.) - Bhavasangrana 9. Somadeva (959 A.D.) - Yasastilakacampu 10. Dhanapala (970 A.D.) - Sravakavidhi 11.Amitagati (993 A.D.) - Amitagati Sravakacara, Subhasitaratnasandoha 12.Camundarai (1000 A.D.) - Caritrasara 13. Devagupta (1016 A.D.) - Navapadaprakaranatika 14.Sahtisuri (11th C.) - Dharmaratnaprakarana 15.Abhayadeva (1060 A.D.) - Upasakadasa tika, Pancasakatika 16.Vasunandi (11th C.) - Casunandi Sravakacara 17.Nemicandra (11th C.) - Pravacanasaroddhara 18.Hemacandra (1089-1172 - Yogasastra A.D.) 19. Asadhara (1239 A.D.) - Sagaradharmamrta 20. Maghanandin (1260 A.D.) -Sravakacara 21.Jinesvarasuri (1256 A.D.) - Sravakadharmavidhi 22. Devendra (1270 A.D.) - Sraddhadinakrtya 23.Dharmaghosa (1270 A.D.) -Sraddhajitakalpa, Sanghacara 24.Gunabhusana (13th C.) - Sravacara 25.Devendrasuri (14th C.) - Saddhajiyakappa 26.Padmanandin (15th C.) - Sravakacara 27.Jinadatta (13th C.) - Caityavandanakulaka, Pujaprakarana 28. Caritrasundara (1430 A.D.) - Acaropadesa 29. Laxmicandra (15th C.) - Savayadhamma Doha 30.Jinamandanagani (15th C.) - Sraddhagunavivarana - Sanskrit 31. Ratnasekharasuri (1449 A.D.) - Saddhavihi 32. Vamadeva (15th C. ?) - Bhavasangraha 33.Sakalakirti (12-13th C.) - Prasnottarasravakacara 34. Medhavin (15th C.) - Dharmasangrahasravakacara. 66 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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- Dharmapiyusasravakacara 35.Brahmanemidatta (1530 A.D.) 36. Rajamalla (1584 A.D.) 37.Sivakoti (17th C. ?) 38.Somasena (1610 A.D.) 39. Kunthsagar (20th C.) - Latisamhita - Ratnamala - Traivarnikacara- Sravakadharmapradipa Sravaka (householder) is one who listens to the Dharma with full faith from the Acaryas." Asadhara is of view that he should be a devotee to the Pancaparamesthis, their worshiper, bhedavijnani, and observer of Mulagunas and Uttaragunas.26 Haribhadrasuri has devoted an entire chapter, the second one in the Dharmabindu which narrates the fundamental qualities of the householder. He is followed by Amitagati, Asadhara, Hemacandra and other Jainacaryas. Jinamandana compiled such qualities from these sources which are worth mentioning as follows. 1. Nyayasampanna vaibhava (possessed of honestly earned wealth), 2. Prasamsaka (admirer of the conduct of the virtuous), 3. Kulasilasamaih sardham anyagotrajaih krtodvaha (wedded to a spouse of the same caste and traditions but not of the same gotra), 4. Papabhiru (apprehensive of sin), 5. prasiddham desacaram samacaram (following the reputable custom of the country), 6. avarnavadi na kvapi rajadisu visesatah (not denegrating other people, particularly rulers), 7. anativyakte gupte shane suprativesmike anekanir gamadvar avivar jitaniketam (dwelling in a place which is not too exposed and not too enclosed, with good neighbours and few exits), 8. Sadacaraih krtasanga (attached to good moral standards), 9.matapitroh pujaka (honouring paents), 10. upaplutam sthanam tyajan (abstaining from a place of calamity), 11. grahtite pravrtta (not engaging in a reprehensible occupation), 12. vyayam ayocitam kurvam (spending in proportion to one's income), 13. vesma vittanusarato kurvam (dressing in accordance with one's income), 14. astabhir dhigunair yukta (endowed with the eight kinds of intelligence dharman anvaham srnvan (listening every day to the sacred doctrine), 16. ajirne bhojanatyagam (avoiding eating on a full stomach), 17. kale bhokta satmyatah (eating at the right time according to a dietary regimen), 18. anyonya pratibandhenatrivargam sadhyan (fulfilling the threefold aim of life Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 67

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without excluding any of its elements), 19. yathavad (diligent in succouring the ascetics, the righteous, and the needy, 20. sadanavihivista (always devoid of evil motives), 21. gunesu paksapatin (favourably inclined to virtues), 22. adesakalayoscaryam tyajan (avoiding action which is inappropriate to time and place), 23. balabalam janan (aware of one's own strength and weaknesses), 24. vrattasthajnanavrddnanam pujaka (venerating persons of high morality and discernment), 25. posyaposaka (supporting one's dependants), 26. dirgnadarsin (far-sighted), 27. visesajna (discriminating), 28. krtajna (grateful), 29. lokavallabha (well-liked), 30. salajja (actuted by a sense of humility), 31. sadaya (compassionate), 32. paropakrti karmatha (ready to render service to others), 33. Saumya (gentle in disposition), 34. antarangarisadvargapariharaparayana (intent on avoiding the six adversaries of the soul), and 35. vasikrtendriyagrama (victorious over the organs of sense). These qualities of the householders are summarised into 21 types in the Sraddhavidhi:- aksudra, rupavat, prakritisaumya, lokapriya, akrura, bhiru, asatha, sudaksinya, lajjalu, dayalu, madhyastha saumyadrsti, gunaragin, satkatha, supaksayukta, sudirghadarsin, visesajna, vaddhanuga, vinita, krtajna, parahitarthakarin, and labdhalaksa. Asadhara concised them further and prescribed the fourteen characteristics for a householder, 18 and Amitagati made them out to be eleven. 18 Classification of Sravakas The sravakas are classified and categorized into various ways in Jaina literature. They may be grouped in seven/ways. 1. On the basis of eleven Pratimas made by Kundakunda (caritra Prabhrta 22), Kavtikeya, Vasunandi etc. 2. On the basis of twelve vratas led by Umasvami, Samantabhadra, Haribhadra etc. 3. Vratas and Pratimas are combined in the Up adasanga 4. They are classified into three catogories viz, Paksika, Naisthika and Sadhaka made by Jinasena, Somadeva, Asadhara etc. 5. Four categories made by Camundaraya in the Caritrasara - 41.3) viz. Paksika, carya, naisthika, and sadhaka. Following Jinasena he also divided the householder into four asramas, viz. brahmacarin, grahastha, vanaprastha, and bhiksu. The brahmacarin is further divided into five, viz. i, 68 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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upanaya, ii) avalamba, iii) adiksa, iv) gudha, v) haisthika,. Vanaprastha is the Ksullaka and elaka stages in the view of Medhavin. The bhiksu carries four stages, viz. anagara, yati, muni and rsi. 6. They are classified into two categories, viz. samanya and visisa by Haribhadra. 21 7. On the basis of spirituality they are classified into three categories, viz. i) jaghanya or grhin - Ist to 6th pratimas, ii) madhyama or varnin - 7th to 9th pratimas, and iii) utkrsta or bhiksuka - 10th and 11th pratimas. The classification, as a matter of fact, was changed from time to time, according to the circumastances. But the fact is remarkable that no classification has violated the original principles of Jainism. On the contrary, the national integration and interreligious dialogue were kept in mind while classifying the householders. Of these classifications the fourth classification appears to be more useful and important and therefore it is adopted here in the discussion. It speaks of Paksika, Naisthika and Sadhaka. A house-holder, as a matter of fact, has to observe more responsibilities. First he prepares himself gradually and steadily to renounce the world with right faith by observing the rules prescribed and then fulfil the responsibilities for welfare of the family, ascetics, society, nation and mankind. Some of the important attributes of a householder may be mentioned as follows:- observation of non-violence, legitimate earning, hospitality, refraining from unnecessarily criticising the Government, keeping good company, paying respects to parents, service of people, following religious preachings, gratefulness, generority rosity, being afraid of sins, honesty, appreciating conduct, life and activities of spiritually advanced people, avoiding expenditure exceeding income and so on. Such rules make life pleasant. 1. PAKSIKA SRAVAKA This is the first spiritual status of a Jaina laity in which he first takes a vow with right faith not to eat meat, not to drink alcohal or wine, not to relish honey or any of the five kinds of figs containing souls, viz. i.) vata or nyagrodha, ii) pippala or asvattha, iii) udumbara, iv) plaksa, and v) kakombari. These plants contain anantakaya jivas. These are called Mulagunas. Then he desists from injury, (himsa), falsehood (asatya), stealing (caurya), unchastity (kusila) and attachment to wealth (parigraha). Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 69

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These are the eight basic restraints (mulagunas) which are to be followed by even an ordinary Jaina layman. There is a difference of opinion amongst the Acaryas about the Mulagunas. The early Agamas do not specifically refer to the Mulagunas. Samantabhadra is perhaps the first who introduced them to the Sravakas, 22 who is supported by Sivakoti. They considered the Mulagunas in the form of five anuvratas and madya-mamsamadhu tyaga. Acarya Amrtacandra23 who is followed by Amitagati, Devasena, Rajamalla etc. replaced the anuvratas to udambara pancakas. Asadhara, though supported the view, considered some other types of Mulagunas, viz. aptanuti, daya, jalagalana, aratribhjana, udumbarapancakavirati, mamsavirati, madyavirati, and madhu virati.25 The Mulagunas have been discussed in detail in Jaina literature. The Paksika Sravaka also takes a vow not to indulge in seven types of obnoxious habits (vyasanas) which make the life disasterous. They are, i) gambling and racing (dyuta), ii) meat- eating (mamsabhaksana), ii) alcoholic drink (madyapana), iv) prostitution (vedyavrtti), v) hunting (akheta), vi) stealing (carya), and vii) sexual intercourse with other's wife or husband (parastr/ purusagamana26). it may be mentioned here that the vyasanas are discussed clearly in this regard only by Digambara Acaryas like Amitagati, Vasunadi, Asadhara etc. The Sravaka ponders over the consequences of man's indulgence in these vices. They are the cause of sin or demerit and those who are engaged in sinful activities are punished here by administrators and society members and are subjected to suffering in the next world. He also leads the life of a strict vegetarian, Acaryas also discussed what is not fit to be eaten (abhaksyas). Haribhadra is perhaps the first who instructed under caturvidhahara not to take such food which contains the anantakays. He is elucidated by Nemicandra in his Pravacanasaroddhara where abhaksyas are classsified into 21 kinds, viz. five udumbaras, four banned vikrtis, hima (snow), visa, karaka, bahubija, mrd, ratrbhojana, anantakayas, gholavataka, sandhana, vrtaka, ajnata puspa-phala, tucchaphala, and calitarasa. He is then followed by Hemacandra, 24 Asadhara,29 Amitagati30 and other Acaryas. Amitagati discussed them under anarthadandavrata while Asadhara described them under Mulagunas. The anantakayika 70 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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Sadharanavanaspatis are also prohibited to accpet as food which include mulabija, agmabija, parvabija, kandabija, bijaruha etc.31 Nemicandra listed 32 kinds of such vegetables in this respect.* The Jaina Sravaka is also expected not to indulge in violence-carrying professions, such as angarakarma, vana-sakatabhataka sphota-danta - laksa- rasa kesa-visa-yanta-noirlancanadevagni-sarahsosana-asatiposana karmas. Originally such trades were prohibited under the Anarthadanda categories, but Hemacandra and Asadhara made them more clear. The licit earning sources are asi, masi, krsi, vanijya, vidya and silpa, ofcourse, but a profession should be pursued in a pure way. 34 One point is remarkable here that restraint from injury etc. refers to restraint from injuring one' ownself. This extremity leads him to a pious life. Along with the observation of the Astamulagunas a Jaina householder must practise the six more activities for spiritual progress, which are called Avasyakas, They are as follows: 1. Worship of the Tirthankaras : This attribute has given rise to the contribution of huge Jaina images and temples all over India. It has developed an independent branch of art and architecture, painting etc. There is no priest system working as an intermediary in Jainism. The worship of the Tirthankaras sometimes assumes an unusual proportion with their Pancakalyanakas, vidhanas, visits to holy places and other religious ceremonies. This is called Jinapuja. 2. Serivce of spiritual teacher accordingly with obedience, reverence, food etc. (Guruseva) : The teacher preaches the laymen and laymen pay respects and service to teachers. They also keep themselves on guard against the conduct of each other. Therefore the relation between these two religious groups has never been lop-sided and fearful. 3. Studying scriptural texts every day (svadhyaya). Scriptural texts contain the sermons which save the people from decadence. 4. Practising some form of self restraint every day (samyama). 5. Doing some form of penance and austerity every day (tapa), and 6. Doing some kind of charitable act (dana)." Amitagati mentions somewhat different list of Avasyakas, viz. Samayika, stavana, vandana, pratikramana, pratyakhayana, and kayotsarga. The Svetambara sect also accepts these Avasyakas. Caityavandan, is, ofcourse, very popular amongt them which comprises Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 71

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samayika, caturvimsatistava and vandanaka, it is dealt with in detail by Haribhadrasuri and other Acaryas. This is an introduction to spiritual disciplines and practices of an ordinary householder. These observances create communal hormony and peace in society and the nation. 2. NAISTHIKA SRAVAKA (Allegiant layman) One who fullfils his religious duties with constant vigilance is a Naisthika sravaka (allegiant layman). In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life, the householder goes further to observe the eleven spiritual stages (pratimas). R. Williams compared the Svetambara and Digambara traditions in this regard as follows: Svetambara Digambara Avasyaka Curni 1. Darsana darsana darsna 2. vrata vrata vrata 3. samayika samayika samayika 4. posadha posadha posadha 5. kayotsarga sacittatyaga ratribhojanaparijna 6. abrahmavarjana ratribhakta sacittatyaga 7. sacittatyaga abrahsavarjana diva-brahmacarya 8. arambhatyaga arambhatyaga divoratri-brahmacarya 9. presyatyaga parigrahatyaga arambhatyaga 10.uddistatyaga anumatityaga presyatyaga 11.sramahabhuta uddistatyaga uddistatyaga-sramahabhuta The classification is made on the basis of Siksavrata. In the Digambara tradition Acarya Kundakunda included the Sallekhana into Siksavratas. Vasunandi accordingly accepted it as the third pratima. But Umasvami, Samantabhadra and other Acaryas did not agree to Kundakunda's view. Kundunda, Kartikeya, Samantabhadra etc. named the sixth pratima as ratribhuktityaga but in the later period, its meaning was slightly changed. Vasunandi and onwards, the eleventh pratima is divided into two viz. Ksullaka and Elaka. 1. Darsana Pratima: After observing introductory rules, layman enters into first spiritual Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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stage (darsana Pratima) in which true and unshakable falth in Jainism with firm conviction in the reality of seven fundamental principles (saptatattvas) of Jainism and devotion to Pancaparamesthins (arhanta, siddha, acarya, upadhyaya, and sadhu) is required. After a long practice, he becomes Samyagdrsti (possessing right vision, right knowledge, and right conduct). As a result there should be eight attributes (guna) in him at this stage, i) freedom from doubt in the teaching of the Jina (nihsankita), ii) freedom from desire for worldly enjoyment) nihkanksita), iii) freedom from care of body (nirvioikitsa), iv) following right path (amudhadrstittva) v) reinstatment of right belief (athitikarana), vi) edification (upaguhana), vii) love and affection for good people (vatsalya), and viii) respect for religious teachings with good deeds (prabhavana)." He should also not be proud of knowledge (jhana), worship (puja), family (kula), caste (jati), wealth (radhi), practices tapa), and beauty (vapu). Some more qualities of Samyagdarsana are : (spiritual craving) upasama (tranquillity), nirveda (disgust with mundane existence), devotion (bhakti), anukampa (compassion), ninda (remorse), garha (repentance ) and vatsalya (loving kindness).48 Hemacandra. Aticaras of Samyagdarsana are: sanka (doubt in the teachings of Jinas), kanksa (desire for worldly enjoyment), vicikitsa (disgust at the afflicted), anyadrstiprasamsa (admiration for the knowledge and conduct of the wrong believer and samstava (praise of wrong believers) A true follower of Jainism will ponder daily over twelve points of meditation to realize self or deep-reflection (dvadasanupreksa) as follows: transitoriness (anitya), helpessness (asurana), transmigration (samsara), loneliness (ekatva), distinctness (anyatva), impurity (asuci), influx(asrava), stoppage (samvara), dissociation (nirjara), the universe (loka), rarity of enlightement (bodhidurlabha), and the truth (dharma) proclaimed by religion. These refletions help the spiritual aspirants to practise moral virtues such as forbearance (sama), modesty (mardava), straightforwardness (arjava), purity (sauca)truthfulness (satya), self restraint austerity (tapa), renunciation (tyaga), non-attachment (akincanya), and celibacy (brahmacarya)." The realisation of self through these attributes generates tranquillity, disenchantment with meterialistic world, prosperity, supreme perfection, and final beatitude. Householders and mendicants can achieve these attributes through spiritual disciplines Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 73

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and practices gradually. 2. VRATA PRATIMA (The stage of observing vows) In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life the house- holder goes ahead to observe the twelve vows (five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four siksavratas) for obtaining inner purity of the self. Firm conviction with right understanding in the reality of fundamental principles of Jainism generates benevolence towards all living beings, (maitri), joy at the sight of virtuous (pramoda), compassion and sympathy for afflicted (karunya), and tolerence towards the insolent and ill-behaved (madhsthya). He who conducts himself in this manner is able to practise non- violence, truth, non stealing, refraining from all illicit sexual activities and non-possession to perfection. Non-Violence Non-violence is the fundamental principle of Jainism. It rebuffs all complaints and humiliations made by small and big, if followed seriously. Its instinct percolates into the heart of a right ascetic and leads him to humanity by leaps and bounds. Here violence means severance of vitalities out of passion. Negligence is the main cause of violence. Even violence in thought in view of Jainism is a cause of injury. Dasavaikalika says that one who walks, stands, sits, sleeps, eats, and speaks with vigilance and non-violence, no sin accrues to him. The Acaranga discusses the cause of violance with the statement that a stupefied person lives constantly tormented by avidity he endevours to amass wcalth in season and out of season being desirous of sensual pleasures, he is avid for money, so much so that he becomes out and out a rogue committing theft or robbery. His mind is always engrossed in amassing wealth. Such a man repeatedly becomes a killer of living beings. He amasses physical power, power of kith and kin, power of allies, super mundane-power, deity-power, royal power, thief-power, guest-power, pauper-power, ascetic power. To accomplish these various tasks, he uses violence. Some person uses violence of his own accord and some other person does so out of fear. Considering that performance of sacrifices results in atonement of his sins, some person takes recourse to violence, and some other commits violence in the hope of obtaining the uhobtained. In the opinion of Jainacaryas avoidance of external violence is as necessary as the avoidance of feelings of attachment. Violence is mainly Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth 74

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three-fold, i.e. committed by himself (krta), ii) got committed by others (karita), iii) giving consent to violence done (anumodana). This violence should be avoided by all of the three agencies of mind, speech and body. In this way a layman starts his steps towards equality and equanimity. Others are intended in self guarding the vow of non-violence and humanity. The aforesaid nine-fold violence becomes twenty-seven fold as it has three stages : 1) thinking of violent action or intentional (samarambha or sankalpaja), 2. making preparation for violence (samarambha), and 3. actual committal (arambha). This twenty-seven-fold (3x3x3=27) violence becomes one hundred and eight-fold as it could be inspired by either of the four passionis.49 Violence is further divided into three, i.e. 1. udyami (professional), 2. arambhi (domestic), and 3. virodhi (defending). These kinds of violence are mostly connected with the activities of householders, who are supposed to keep themselves away from the deliberate commission of violence of the two-sensed to five-sensed beings. Jainism considers the violence to the last extent. Its well-known conception is to treat others as to treat himself. "The Dasavaikalika says :"Killing horrifies because all beings wish to live and not to be slain." Therefore non-violence should be observed strictly and it should not be broken at any cost. The Acaryas discussed as to how the 'bhangas' can be kept off.52 In this context the aticaras of the Ahimsavrata are given : The true house-holder should be kind to animals. He should not bind (bandha), beat (vadha), and mutilate their limbs (chaviccheda). He should not overload them (atibhararopana) withhold food and drink. (bhakta-panavyavaccheda). The severance of vitalities out of passion is injury (himsa). Pujyapada explains it by quoting a phrase from the Agama "arising from passionate activity" which indicates that for mere severance of life one is not stained with the sin of injury. Again it has been said in the scriptures, "When a monk goes on foot with carefulnes, sometimes small insects get crushed under his feet and die. Still there is not the slightest bondage of sin in his case. From the spiritual stand-point, infatuation is called attachment. "Now, has it not been admitted that mere passionate attitude even without the severance of vitalities constitutes violence?" He who acts with negligence commits injury whether death is caused to organisms or not. And he who Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 75

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proceeds with proper care does not contract bondage of karmas by mere injury". Yes, it is true. But there is no inconsistency in this. Even in the case of the person with negligence there is severance of life-principles at least in thought. It has been said thus in the scriptures: "He who has passions causes injury to himself by himself. Whether injury is then caused to other living beings or not, it is immaterial." Another point should also be cleared in this context. Jainism is very firm and says that one should not sacrifice animals for the adoration of gods, being dominated by the perverted notion of receiving benediction in return. It is inconceivable how the gods seek satisfaction and serenity from such inhuman deeds which cause unbearable pain to the animals. It must not be obligatory to kill the animals for the entertainment of guests, a pious design by impious means. Any injury whatsoever to the material or conscious vitalities caused Through passionate activity of mind, body, or speech is himsa, assuredly. 54 2. The Satya-vrata All the other vows are intended to safeguard the Ahimsavrata. Speaking what is not commendable is falseheed (asatya)." Amitagati classifies it into four types, i.e. bhutaninhava (denial of what is), ii) asad-udbhavana (assertion of what is not), iii) arthantara (describing the opposite form), and iv) nindya (reprehensible speech)." Somadeva proposed another division, i.e. i) satya-satya, ii) asatya-satya, iii) satyasatya, and iv) asatyasatya." The five aticaras are given as follows:1. mithyopadesa (perverted teaching), 2. rahobhyaknyana (divulging what is done in secret), 3. kutaleknakriya (forgery), It means preparing false records prompted by others in order to cheat others. 4. nyasapahara (misappropriation). It means taking for oneself gold and other things entrusted to one's care by another. and 5. sakaramantrabheda (proclaiming other's thoughts). This vow can be strengtheded by giving up anger, greed, cowardice or fearfulness, and jest, and speaking harmlessly. (krodha - lobha - bhirutva -hasya - pratyakhyana - anuvicibhasana)." 3. The asteya - vrata Asteya means not taking the property of others whether pledged or dropped or forgotten unless it has been given.59 It is connected with the sacitta and acitta objects. The aticaras of the vow are : 1. stena-prayoga (prompting another to steal), 2. stena-ahrtadana (receiving stolen things). 76 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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3. viruddha rajyatikrama (under- buying in a disordered state), 4. hinadhikamanonmana (using false weights and measures), and 5. pratirupakavyavahara (deceiving other with artificial or imitation goods) like gold, synthetic diamonds and so on). Samantabhadra accepted parivada and paisunya in place of first two aticaras while Somadeva added mudha-saksipadokti for replacing the first three aticaras. 62 Afterwards the viruddharajyatikrama is replaced by vilopa and vigrahe sangraho 'rthasya in the Ratnakarasasravakacara and Yasastilakacampu respectively. 4. The Brahmacarya vrat Copulation is unchastity. Samantabhadra defined the Brahmacaryanuvrata as paradaranivetti or svadarasantosavrata. The first is observed by the Paksika sravaka and the second is prescribed for the naisthika sravaka. This definition is accepted partially or completely by the later Jainacaryas. Amrtacandrasuri, Asadhara etc. defined the Brahmacaryanivrata in view of the naisthika sravaka while Somadeva considered it with the standpoint of paksiks sravaka. This sort of difference amongst the Acaryas is apparent for the reason that in the opinion of asunandi the observer of the first pratima renounces the saptavyasanas where the paradara and vesya, both have been included. Therefore at the time of observing the second pratima one is expected not to indulge in copulation with his own wife on the pious days. But Samantabhadra did not consider the renouncement of the saptavyasanas during first pratima and hence at the time of observing the second pratima his brahmacaryanvrata would be the same as described by other Acaryas. Hemacandra and Asadhara are also of the same opinion. None else has divided the vrata into two types. It is curious that Somadeva allowed the Bahmacaryanuvrati for vesyagamana. The aticaras of the Brahmacaryanuvrata are : 1. bringing about marriage (paravivahakarana), 2. intercourse with an unchaste married woman (itvarika parigrhitagamana), 3. cohabitation with a harlot (itvarika aparigrahitagamana), 4. perverted sexual practices (anangakrita), and 5. execssive passion (kamativrabhinivesa). There is not much difference with regard to aticaras. Samantabhadra, of course, accepted the itvarikagamana and vitatva in place of third and fourth vratas and Somadeva replaced them with the parastrisangama and ratikaitavya."66 Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism

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5. Parigraha-Parimanuvrata Infatuation (murcha) is attachment to possessions. The wealth is also included into the definition. Samantabhadra followed Kundakunda and defined the vrata including the both, internal and external attachments. Kasayas and no-kasayas are internal while ksetra, vastu, hiranya, suvarna, dhana, dhanya, dasi, dasa, kupya and saiyasanas etc. come under the external attachment. Samantabhadra replaced them with another five aticaras, i.e. atibahya, atisangraha, ativismaya, atilobha and atibharabahana.69 Hemacandra followed by Asadhara replaced them with another five aticaras, i.e. 1. yojanena ksetra-vastu-pramanatikrama, 2. pradanena hiranya-suvarna pramanatikrama, 3. bandhanena dhana-dhanya pramanatikrama, 4. karanena dvipada-catuspada pramanatikrama, and 5. bhaven pupya pramanatikrama." As the history reveals the fact, Jainacaryas were obliged to change the traditional aticaras to cope up with the circumastances under the frame of Jaina dogmas. However, some of the remarkable disciplines mentioned can be said to be an instrument for social and economic justice. These observances should be in practice to make justice for self and the justice for the sake of society to implement social justice and create congenial atmosphere and relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy. Ordering someone to bring something illegally from outside the country is also prohibited for house-holders. Gunavratas and Siksavratas Rendering help to one another is the basic formula of Jaina discipline (parasparopagraho jivanam). Some more supplementary vows are prescribed for house-holders which pave the way for their spiritual elevation with a view to having socio-econmic justice. For instance, to curb the mentality of master minding operations aimed at enlarging their welath or concentrating their economic power to achieve greater exploitative capacity, Jainism directs the householder to fix boundaries for business, not to pursue commerce activities causing injury to living beings, to limit consumable and non-consumable things, not to use honey, meat and wine, to extend hospitality by offering food, implements, medicine and shelter and to bestow one's possessions on another for mutual benefit. He should also observe compassion towards living beings in general and towards the devout in particular. He should practise charity, contemplation, 78 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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equanimity and freedom from greed. A true follower of Jainism is also expected not to give weapons of violence, or to take interest in other's dispute, supply poisons, fire, rope whips or other such objects as ma lead to violence. Gunavratas are of three types, i.e. Digvrata, desavrata and anarthadandavrata. According to Kundakunda, digvratas are somewhat different, i.e. dikparimana, anartha-dandavrata, and bhogopabhogaparimana. Kartikeya accepted them and divided the anarthadandavrata into five. Umasvami replaced the bhogopabhoga with desavrata. Samantabhadra is followed by Asadhara, Medhavin, Sakalakirti, Kartikeya etc. and Umasvami is imitated by Camundaraya, Amrtacandra, Somadeva, Amitagati etc. The Svetambara thinkers generally accept the gunavratas as digvrata, bhogopabhoga and anarthadanda. Siksavratas are of four types, according to Acarya Kundakunda, viz. Samayika, Prosadha, atithipuja, and sallekhana. In the Bhagawati Aradhana, the sallekhana has been replaced by bhogopabhogaparimanarata which is considered by Pujyapada as an independent vrata. Kartikeya accepted the desavakasika in place of sallekhana. Umasvami dividend it into four, viz. samayika, prosadhopavasa, upabhogaparibnoga parimana and atithisamvibhaga. Samantabhadra further changed and accepted desavakasika, samayika, vaiyavrtya, and atithisamvibhagavrata. Umaswami is followed by Jinasena, Amitagati and Asadhara, but Somadeva suggested dana in place of atithisamvibhaga. On the other hand, Vasunandi proposed somewhat different list, viz. bhogavirati, upabhogavirati, atithisamvibhaga and sallekhana. The Svetambara Acaryas generally accept the samayika, desavakasika, posadhopavasa and dana. The Samayika, posadhopavasa, ratribhojana will be dealt with the pratimas. The charity (dana) has been discussed in Jaina literature to a great length. It is the giving of one's wcalth to another for mutual benefit." Charity is the vow prescribed for layman mostly under atithisamvibhaga. The distinction with regard to the effect of a gift consists in the manner, the thing given, the nature of the giver, and the nature of the recipient. The superiority of the giver lies in his being free from envy and dejection. The presence of qualities which lead to salvation indicates the superiority of Spiritual Discipline And Practices in Jainism 79

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the recipient. The excellence of the reward of gift is proportionate to these qualities, as a rich harvest is proportionate to the fertility of the soil, the quality of the seed and so on. Somadeva classifies the recipient (patra) into five categories, viz. i) ascetics and laymen who are the support of the faith (samyin) ii) astrologers and specialists in other sciences of practical utility (sadhaka), iii) orators, debaters and litterateurs, iv) ascetics and laymen who have accomplished austerities and observe the mulagunas and uttargunas, and v) leaders of the community in the field of religion." The qualiites of giver are: faith, devotion, contententment, zeal, discrimination, disinterestedness and forbearance. Charity is of four types, viz. food, medicaments, knowledge, and shelter to living beings in fear of death (abhayadana). This is called caturvidhadana. These twelve vratas have been also classified into two categories, namely Mulagunas and Uttaragunas or combinedly Silavratas, the term given to Gunavratas and Siksavratas by Pujyapada, Akalanka and other Acrayas." On the other hand, Samantabhadra and his followers termed the Mulagunas to renunciation of pancodambaras and madyamamsa-madhua, and Uttaragunas to twelve vratas. 7. Samayika pratima : It is one of the six Avasyakas. Samayika means meditation on self with the view to attainment of equanimity or tranquillity of mind. It may be performed in one's own house or temple twice or thrice uttering "Karemi bhante samayam savajjam......" which follows the pratikamana and alocana with svadhyaya. It is said that the householder who performs the samayika is like an ascetic. The aticaras of the samayika are: mano-dusparanidhana (misdirection of mind), vag-duspranidhana (misdirection of speech), kaya-duspranidhana (misdirection of body), smrtyakarana (forgetfulness of samayika), and anavasthitakarana (instability in the samayika).Samayika is also a part of Vandanaka. Pratyakhyana is also prescribed. Amitagati prescribed the three mudras for the purpose, i.e. jinamudra, yogamudra and mukti-sukti mudra. 81 Remaining Pratimas The fourth pratima is Posadhopavasa (observing fast on parvan days or astami, caturdasi, purnima and amavasi. On these days one is expected not to decorate his body by garlands, gold, jewels, etc. He should also be engaged in puja, vaiyavrtti etc. The other pratimas are : 5) 80 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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sacitta-tyaga (avoiding the use of animate articles), 6) ratribhuktityaga (abstaining from eating at night), 7) brahmacarya observing complete celibacy), 8) arambhatyaga (renouncing all worldly occupations and engagements), 9. parigrahatyaga (renouncing all worldly concern), 10) anumatityaga (renouncing approval of activities connected with household), and II) uddistatyaga (renouncing specially prepared food or lodging). The spiritual aspirant who reaches the eleventh stage is called ksullaka (junior) having three long pieces of clothes and a loin cover (langoata) broom and a water pot, and Elaka (senior) having only a water pot (kamandalu) and a broom and also a loin cover in Digambara tradition while in Svetambara tradition he is called Sramanabhuta po begging bowl and whisk broom. Sacittagrahana is first included into Bhogopabhogaparimana aticaras and then is accepted as a vrata. Upasakadasanga places this sacittatyaga on seventh preceding kayotsarga and brahmacarya. Ratribhuktityaga is also called divamaithunatyaga (to observe brahmacarya in day time). 82 Acarya Kundakunda, Samantabhadra and other thinkers regard it as ratribhuktityaga while Basunandi, Asadhara and others combined them together. The upasakadasana tradition does not recognise it as an independent pratima. It also proposes the svayam arambhavarjana, and bhrtaka presyarambhavarjana as eighth and ninth pratimas. The holder of uddistatyaga pratima is called utkrsta sravaka who renounces the house and stays in the temple or jungle. 84 Kundakunda, Kartikeya, Samantabhadra etc. have not divided this pratima. It is perhaps Vasunandi who has classified it into two types, vastradhari and kaupinadhari.85 They are named ksullaka and Elaka by Rajamalla(r) in the Latisamhita. Somadeva classified these sravakas into three, viz. i) jagnanya upto sixth pratimadharis who ar also called Grahastha, ii) madhyama, the seventh, eighth and ninth pratimadharis who are named also brahmacari, and varni. and iii) utkrsta sravaka, the eleventh pratimadhari whose bhiksa is of four types, anumanya, samuddesya, trisuddna and bhramani. Asadhara and onwards have accepted this division. In these stages jnanacara, darsanacara, caritracara, tapacara and viryavara become more and more intensified. 3. SADHAKA SRAVAKA The comprehension of philosophy of interaction between spirit or Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 81

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soul and death is the sole object of spirituality which causes disturance with materialistic perspectives Religion is to curb the very tendencies and curtail the mind from worldly affairs to scrapping or emaciating of the Kasayas (anger, conceit, intrigue, and greed). To conquer over the natural fear of death is itself a great art which is called in Jaina scripture the Mrtyu-mahotsava 36 Sallekhana, the spiritual death in Jaina tradition, is the third stage of a householder which is very close to an ascetic where the subjugation of senses is conducive to the removal of passions. It is making the physical body and the internal passions emaciated by abandoning their sources gradually at the approach of death with pleasure and not by force. Acarya Kundakunda included Sallekhana into the Siksavratas as the fourth one. He is followed by Sivarya, Devasena, Jinasena, Vasunandi etc. But Acarya Umaswami is followed by Samantabhadra, Pujapada, idyananda, Somadeva, Amitagati etc. who do not accept the view on the ground that the Siksavratas require the practice whereas the Sallekhana is to be accepted immediately on the eve of the death. Various reasons may decide a person to perform Sallekhana. According to the Bhagawati Aradhana, the old age, physical weakness, famine, incurable disease, calamities etc. are such reasons which render the performance of Avasyakas impossible. It should be performed at the Jain temple or one's own house or in the jungle on the eve of the death, so that one could achieve better prospects in the next birth. The Svetambara traditional scripture does not deal much with the Sallekhana. The Acaranga, the commentaries over the Thananga and the Nayadhammaahao explain, of course, the nature of the vrata." The Pravacna saroddhara refers to it as the procedure of Anasanavrata and the Nisithacurni accepts it as the means of getting rid of kasayas. The death is of two types, viz. Balamarana and panditamarana. The Bhagawatisutra (2.1) enumerates the balamarana of twelve kinds, viz. valaya, vasatta, attosalla, tabbhave, giripadana, tarupadana, jalappavesa, jalanappavesa, visabhakkhana, satthovadana, vehanasa, and giddapittha. The person who is full of sensual desires and kasayas gets the Balamarana. The other one panditamaran is of two types pavovagamana and bhattapaccakkhana. The 17 types of maranas are also referred to in the Samavayanga, viz. avicimarana, avadhimarana, atyantikamarana, 82 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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valamarana, panditamarana, balapanditamarana, chadmasthamarana, kevalimarana, vaihayasmarana, , grddhaprasthamarana, bhaktapratyakhyanamarana, inginimarana, and padapopagamanamarana. 94 The Acaranga indicates the ground of the sallekhana as to when it should be observed. It says : if a monk feels - "infirmity is forcing my body to cease functioning and I cannot do my duties at the right time, he should gradually reduce his diet, and through this reduction, try to chisel his passions. After attenuating his passions, a monk who has completely subdued his emotions and has his body attenuated and passions wellcurtailed through vigorous external and internal austerities, like a weal well chiselled and evened out, and having thus prepared himself for Death Sublime (samadhimarana), should become free from attachm activities of body. 95 Death is of three types, cyuta, cyavita and tyakta. The natural death is cyuta. The death occurred by taking poison etc. is eyavita yavita and the spiritual death by observing the samadhimarana is tyakta. It is of three kinds, viz. bhaksapratyakhyanamanrana, inginimarana and prayopagamanamarana. All these three have been explained in the Acaranga. The Pandlitamarana in the Bhagawatisutra (2.1) is divided into two kinds, viz. pavovagamana and bhattapaccakkhana. The Bhagawati Aradhana explains its three kinds, viz. i) bhaktapratyakhyana (to renounce food gradually), ii) Inginimarana (death at the decided place with renouncing food and services of others, and iii) the prayopagamana, the death which does not allow the services of oneself and others. The Svetambara tradition refers to the prayopagamana as the Padopagamanamarana, which is further divided into two, nirhari and anirhari, and savicari and avicari with different connotations in both the traditions. The Uttaradhyayanasutra also describes the death with its two kinds, sakamamarana and akamamarana. Akamamarana means the death without comprehension and sakamamarana means the death with comprehension and conduct. Sakamamarana is further divided into two, panditamarana and balapanditamarana." Sivarya classified the death into five, viz. balamarna, bala-balamarana, panditamarana, pandita-panditamarana, and Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 83

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balapanditamarana. The death of avirata samyagdrsti, mithyadrsti, samyagcaritredhari munis, Tirthankaras and desavarati sravakas is mentioned as their respective examples. Sallekhana and samadhimarana are synonymatic words. The utmost, middle and lower period of sallekhana is 12 years, one year and six months respectively. It should be observed through ayambila tapa, internal and external tapas, renunciation of worldly affairs, forgiveness, alocana, pratikramana, dhyana etc. with the view to attain purification of mind 100 There are five transgressions of sallekhana, viz. i) desire for long life, : ii) desire for speedy death in order to eacape from pain suffering, iii) recollection of affection for friends, iv) recollection of pleasures enjoyed in former times, and v) constant longing for enjoyment). This is an important and interesting feature of a Jaina house holder and spiritual aspirant's vows. Some scholars are of opinion that sallekhana is a sort of suicide, since there is voluntary severance of life etc. but this is not correct, as there is no passion. A person who kills himself by means of passion, weapon etc. swayed by attachment, aversion or infatuation etc. commits suicide. But he who practises holy death is free from desire, anger, and delusion. Hence it is not suicide. This is called sallekhana in Jain terminology which means to make the body and the passion thin. In modern days it is named "Euthanasia" or "Right to die". This has come into light the world over and has become a subject of debate because of the revolutionary changes in medical knowledge and life-supporting systems which could prolong human life even after the brain stopped functioning. The practice has been accepted in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and some other countries. Even the Vatican has accepted it in one case. The Karnataka advocate General Santosh Hegde from India has supported the view by referring to all these instances and said Acaray Vinoba Bhava had reportedly been allowed to refuse food and medicines during the last few days of his life so that he could die a quick death.102 The Mahabharata (Adiparva) refers to five types of marana, viz. Kalpaprapta, aniscita, pramada icchita, and vidhi, and Japanese Buddhism approves it as Harakiri. It is still today in practice in Jain society. Jainacarya 84 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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Santisagara's death in August, 1955 can also be cited as the well-known holy death fasting upto last moment. Thus the householder's stage is the prestage of Jaina ascetic. It is therefore but natural for him to observe the ascetic practices to a certain extent. His daily reoutine starts with reciting the mahamantra in brahmamuhurta thinking "who am I?" "What are my vows"? What is my dharma"? etc. He then meditates, studies the scriptures, worships the Jinas and then takes the meals. Avasyakas and pratikramana are also to be observed by the housedholder. Spiritual stages (Gunasthanas) 104 This is the third type of division of spiritual stages called Gunasthanas in the Jaina scriptures. It is fourteen in number stating the nature of the self in possession of the Ratnatraya (right vision, right knowledge and right conduct) on the path of purification as follows: 1. Mithyadrsti (This is the lowest one which involves gross ignorance where the self accepts wrong belief as a right and therefore the person cannot make a distinction between reality and unreality. It is of five types, viz. 1) ekantamithyatva (absolute attitude, for example, there is no existence of soul), 2. ajnana mithyatva (which does not believe in existence of svarga, naraka etc., 3. viparita mithyatva (salvation can be attained by wrong views), 4. samsaya mithyatva (attitude of uncertainty about the right faith), and 5. vinaya mithyatva (all gods, gurus and agamas are true). As soon as one gets rid of mithyatva, he reaches the fourth gunasthana and from there comes down to the first one. 2. Sasadana samyagdrsti in which the soul, though in transitory stage has a taste of right knowledge. But due to pungency of anantanubandhi kasayas, his downfall is bound to happen from the stage of samyagdrati. Here he stays upto six avalis and then reaches to the first gunasthana. 105 3. Samyagmithyadrsti or misra gunasthana indicates the mixed state of right and wrong belief. Its duration is antarmuhurta. He attains the fourth gunasthana if he becomes samyagdrati, otherwise slips to the first gunasthana. 10 4. It is Asamyata samyagdrsti where the soul achieves right vision but cannot perform the conduct. At the attainment of samyagdarsana, one makes upasama, ksaya and ksayopasama of the three prakrtis Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 85

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(mithyatva, samyagmithyatva and samyaktva) or darsana mohaniya karma and four prakritis of caritra mohaniya karma. Samyagdrati jiva tramsmigrates at the most for three bhavas where he stays without any attachment. 107 5. Desa samyata shows the trend of the soul for adopting partial vows prescribed for a layman. Here the soul observes the conduct and ends his life by sallekhana. 108 6. Pramattasamyata gunasthana onward relates to the ascetic order. Here the soul observes the ascetic conduct but mild passions make him impure. He thus becomes pramatta from apramatta and apramatta from pramatta. 109 7. Apramattasamyata makes the ascetic free from negligence and breach of vows. It is said that the ascetic cannot go beyond this stage in the present era as he does not possess that purity. It is of two types, svasthana apramatta and satisaya apramatta." 8. Apurvakarana, the eighth gunasthana indicates hightly pruified mind of the self who does not fall down. The practice of sukladhyana starts from this stage. Pride is also altogether destroyed in this stage. Here only ksayika and aupasamika bhava exist. From this stage the two srenis commences their work, i.e. upasamasreni (8th to 12th gunasthanas) and ksapakasreni (8th, 9th, 10th and 12th gunasthana). In these srenis the twentyone prakrits of caritra mohaniya karmas are subdued and destroyed. The tadbhavamoksagami, atadbhavamoksagami, aupasemika samyagdrsti and ksayika samyagdrsti jivas ascend the upasamasreni while the ksapakasreni can be utilized by only tadbhava and ava moksagami jivas. Upasamasenivarti jiva is bound to fall down from the 11th gunasthana to even first gunasthana but the ksapakasrenivarti jiva goes ahead to the 7th gunasthana. It is also called nivrtti gunasthana. Here only two causes of Karmabandha remain-ksaya and yoga. 9. Anivrttikarana : the soul here continues further the act of destroying the remaining part of caritra mohantya karma. The parinamas in this gunasthana are anivrtti (avisama). Deceit totally disappears here and the soul advances fruther to the next stage. 10. Sukamasamparaya. Samparaya means lobha. Here all passions are annihilated except slight greed. The duration of this 86 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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gunasthana is also antarmuhurta. 11. Upasantamoha. Here the remaining part of greed is destroyed and for a while the aspirant becomes vitaraga. But he definitely falls back to the lowest stage. 12. Ksinakasaya. In this gunasthana the soul becomes free from delusion and attains kaivalya (omniscience). The soul upto this stage is called chadmastha. 13. Sayogakevali. This is the stage where the aspirant enjoys the omniscience in its embodied state. Here only satyavacana, anubhayavacana and audarikakaya remain. The third kind of sukladhyana is attained here. This is called arihantavastha. 14. Ayogakevali is the last and most purified stage where all the passions and karmas are annihilated by the third and fourth stages of sukladhyana. This is called Siddhavastha. 114 This is a brief picture of the spiritual development in fourteen steps which can be comprehended by the three main divisions, viz. the external self (bahiratnan), internal self (antaratman) and the transcendental self (paramatman). Spiritual Disciplines and practices for Jain Mendicant. 112 Jaina scripture prescribes some code of conduct for a spiritual aspirant. It is called samacaro (right conduct) which is formulated in consonance with the spiritual vigilance for a mendicant. He stays in temples or woods with total renunciation and proper conduct. He must observe fully all the twelve vows prescribed for the householder. After observing the eleventh pratima he accepts initiation from the teacher and becomes mendicant pulling the hair with his own hands. He is now firm to arrest the karmic matter by controlling passions, careful movement, observing virtues, engaging himself in contemplation and conquering the sufferings by endurance and conduct. He follows in toto the twelve vows prescribed for layman. For curbing the threefold activity of body, speech and mind an ascetic takes every care in walking, speaking, eating, lifting and lying down and depositing waste products for avoiding injury to organisms. (iryabhasaisanadananiksepotsargeh samitayeh). Besides, he observes in toto the ten virtues and meditates over the anupreksa as Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 87

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already discussed in the context of disciplines for house-holders. He has also to endure twenty two types of afflictions (parisahas), viz. hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect bites, nakedness, absense of pleasures, women, pain arising from roaming, discomfort of postures, uncomfortable couch, scolding, injury, begging, lack of gain, illness, pain, inflicted by blades of grass, dirt, reverence and honour (good as well as bad reception), conceit of learning, despair or uneasiness arising from ignorance and lack of faith. These afflictions are to be endured so as not to swerve from the path of stoppege of karmas and for the sake of dissociation from karmas." Thus the ascetic constitutes the conduct by observing five causes of stoppage, namely control (gupti), regulation (samiti), moral virtues (dharma), reflections or contemplations (anupreksa), and conquest of afflictions (parisahajaya) and conduct (caritra). He follows 28 mulagunas completely, viz. 5 mahavratas, 5 samitis, 5 pancendriyavijayata (conquest over five senses), 6 avasyakas (samayika, caturvimsatistava, vandana, pratikramana, pratyakhyana, and kayotsarga), = 21, 22. Kesaluncanata, 23. acelakata (nudity), 24. asnanata, 25. bhusayana, 26. sthitibhojana, 27. adantadhavana, and 28. ekabhuktavrats. Samayika or samata means equanimity in mind. He does not differentiate between a friend and enemy or gold and stone. Vandana (paying respect to the preceptor and superiors) is to remember the Tirthankaras. Pratikramana is self criticism and confession of the moral transgressions before the teacher. Pratyakhyana is a determination to avoid sinful activities of mind, speech and body for future. Kayotsarga is devotion to auspicious meditation in different poses. The Avasyakaniryukti refers to its nine kinds, viz. utsrta-utsrta, utsrta, utsrta-nisanna, utsrta, nisana, nisanna-nisanna, nisanna-utsrta, nisanna-nisanna. The result of kayotsarga are :- dehajadyasuudhi, matijadya suddhi, sukha-duhkha titiksa, anupraksa and dhyana."14 There are some faults also mentioned in the literature. 115 The Uttaradhyayana refers to several kinds and results of pratyakhyana, viz. sambhoga, upadhi, ahara, yoga, sadbhava, sarira, sahaya and kasaya." The anuyogadvara mentions some other names of sadavasyakas, viz. Savadyayogavirati, utkirtana, gunavatpratipatti, skhalitanindana, vranacikilsa, and gunadharana. Kesaluncana is a symbol of vairagya, parisahajaya and samyama. It 88 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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is also included into kayaklesatapa. It is inevitable for ascetics with the view to have adinata, nisparigrahata, vairagya and parisaha. 18 Acelakata of nakedness is a requisite characteristic of the ascetics. Mahavira is called Nigantha Nataputts in the Pali literature. It reveals the qualities such as tyaga, akincanya, samyama, laghavata, nirmalata, nirbhayata etc.'19 The Svetambara tradition, though agrees and pays an honour to the nakedness, does not make it requisite. This is the result of the later development. It allowed afterwards the mukhavastrika, avamacelae (a piece of cloth), padakambala rajoharana, patra, pitha, patrabandha, patrasthapana, phalaka, sayya, samstaraka, patrapramarjanika, patals, rajastrana, colapattaka etc. Self-restraint or discipline is the conduct which is direct cause of liberation. It is of five types, viz. 1. samayika (equanimity), 2. Chedopasthapana (reinitiation) or reinstalation in his vows, according to rules. It removes the mental impurity, after committing any violation of rules, iii) pariharavisuddhi is purity of conduct or refraining from injury. iv) Sukamasamparays is a conduct with slight passion, and v) Yathakhyata caritra connotes the perfect conduct, which is the nature of the self. This may be said as the five gradual stages of spiritual development in realizing and achieving the nature of the self (atma). 2 Self control over physical, mental and vocal activities and vigilance in conduct like moving, speaking, taking and keeping food and evacuating bowels are the essentials for a Jaina monk. These essentials protect him from sin. He is also expected to be free from impure thoughts, impure talking and impure and violent actions, constant vigilance in behaviour cultivates in him ten cardinal qualities like forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, contentment, truth, restraint, penance, renunciation, detachment and celibacy. 122 In this respect we should also understand the penance or religious austerity which is a chief cause of stoppage of influx and dissociation of karmas. It is of course self-imposed. Tapa is of two types, namely bahyatapa (external penance) and abhyantara tapa (internal penance). yatapa is of six types, viz. anasana (fasting) avamaudarya (reduced diet), vrttiparisankhyana (special restrictions for begging food), rasaparityaga (giving up stimulating and delicious dishes), viviktasayyasana (lonely habitation), and kayakless (mortification of body). Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 89

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Anasana is of six kinds, srenitapa, prataratapa (16 fasts), ghanatapa (16 x 4 64 fasts), vargatapa (64 x 64 4096), vargavargatapa (4096x4096 = 16777216 fasts), and prakiratapa Vrtliparisankhyana in the Uttaradhyayana is classified into three, gocari, mrgacarya and kapotavrtti. The main object behind the external austerity is to cultivate patient endurance of bodily pain and suffering in order to remove attachment to pleasure and to proclaim the glory of the teaching of the Jinas. The internal austerities are also of six types, viz. 1. prayascitta (expiation over negligence of duties, it is of nine kinds, i.e. alocana, pratikramana, tadubhaya, viveka, vyutsarga, tapa, cheda, parihara and upasthapana. 23 The Uttaradhyayana mentions another kind, i) parancika which is prescribed for the most henious karama.124 ii) vonaya (reverence to the holy personages), ii) vaiyavrtti services to the saints in difficulty iv) svadhyayatapa) study of the scriptures with giving up idleness, anger, pride etc. and vi) dhyana (meditation) for checking the ramblings of the mind. Vinaya is described with its four kinds, namely jnana, caritra, darsana and upacara (abhythsna, anjalikarana, asanadana, gurubhakti and bhavasusrusa. Svadhyaya is of five types, i) vacana (teaching), ii) prchana (questioning), iii) anuprekaa (reflection), amnaya (recitation), and v) dharmopadesa (preaching). We now come to the medittation, the last point of internal austerity. Concentration of thought on one particular object is meditation. The mind must be abstracted from all worldly desires and passions and these causes can be detected through introspection which prepare the mind to overcome them. This attitide of mind having right path of prification is called spirituality. For realization of this spirituality, Jainism has prescribed some spiritual disciplines and practices for meditation which require considerable purification of the self. The auspicious meditation for attainment of spiritual goal is of two types, viz. virtuous or righteous meditation (dharmadhyana) and pure meditation (sukladhyana). After removal of sorrowful concentrations (arta-raudra dhyana), the sadhaka in the third stage (dharma-dhyana) contemplates on the objects of revelation, misfortune or calamity, ructitication of karmas and the structare of the universer (ajnavicaya, apayavicaya, vipakavicaya and samsthanavicaya). According to Digambara tradition dharmadhyana is possible only in the four 90 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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gunasthanas from the 4th to 7th. On the otherhand, the Svetambara tradition is of view that it can be in the six Gunasthanas from 7th to 12th. The Sukladhyana is of four types, viz. prthaktva-vitarka aavicari, ii) ekatva-vitarka-avicari, iii) suksmakriyaniyrtti, and iv) samucchinna kriya pratipati, or vuparatakriys nivrtti. Vitarka is srutajnana. Vicara is moving. During first two types of sukladhyana an aspirant attains various types of transcendental power (rddhis). Ghatikarmas are destroyed by ekatvavitarka sukladhyana and as a result the aspirant attains kevalajnana in the third sukladhyana suksmakriya-pratipati where the subtle activity of body remains and all other activites cease. It can be attained in the 13th gunasthana. The last fourth type of sukladhyana is attained by the aspirant when all the karmas are annihilated. This is called sailesi avastha. It is the fourteenth stage of gunasthana, the most purified stage of soul. The dharmasdhyana and sukladhyana yogis are called dhyata who are endowed with prajnaparamita, buddhibala, jitendriya, sutrarthavalambi, dhira, yira, parisahajayi, viragi, ratnatrayadhari. 25 The object of meditation is to contemplate over the tattvas, paramesthis, nature of soul, ratnatraya, bhavanas etc. and attain salvation. Yoga connotes the spiritual and religious activities that lead to nirvana. It is dhyana which carries an object to attain samyagdarsana. It is of four types, namely pindastha, padastha rupastha and rupatita. Like Sravaka pratimas, the bhiksu pratimas are also discussed in the Dasasrutaskandha and other granthas. They are twelve in number, i.e. 1. masiki, dvimasiki, 3.-7. upto sapta masiki, 8-10. prathama, dvitiya, trtiya saptaratrindama, 11. aho ratri bhiksu pratima, 12. eka ratriki bhiksu pratima. The Jaina aspirant practises the anasana and unodara tapas through these bhiksu pratimas. The tapas and parisahas are to be endured so as not to swerve from the path of stoppage of karmas and for the sake of dissociation of karmas. The Pali literature also refers to these tapas of Niganthas which were also practised by the Buddha before he reached the Bodhi. 126 The mulagunas and uttaragunas are discussed in the Dasavaikalika, Sutrakrtanga, Acaranga, and other agamic literature. A Jaina monk is endowed with eight types of Ganisampadas, viz. acarasampada, srutasampada, sarira sampada, vacana sampada, matisampada, vacana sampada, prayoga matisampada, and sangraha parijna sampada. Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 91

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There is a code of conduct for those monks who stay with the monks in the upasraya. It is of two types, viz. avasyaki, naisedhiki, aprcchana, pratiprcchana, chandana, icchakara, mithyakara, tathakara, abhyutthana, and upasampads. It is also inevitable for a monk to divide his day and night time into four parts for observing svadhyaya, dhyana, nidra, svadhya during night time and svadhya, dhyana, bhiksacarya and svadhyaya during day time. This is called samacarita. Margana connotes the search for original nature of soul. It is of 14 types, viz. 1) gati- 4; 2) indriya - 5; 3) kaya 2-trasa and sthavara ; 4) yoga 3- mana, vacana, and kaya: 5) veda 3- stri-purusa-napumsaka; 6) kasaya 4- krodha-mana-maya-lobh; 7) inana 8-mati-sruta-avadhi-manahparyayakevala- kumati-kusruta-kuavadhijna ns. 9) lesya 6-krsna-nila-kapota-pitapadma-sukla: 11) bhavya 2- bhavya and abhavya; 12) samyaktva 5mithyatva, samyakmithyatva, ksayopasama samyaktva, upasama samyaktva and ksayika samyaktva; 13) samjni 2 - sanjni and asanjni ; and 14) ahara 2 - shara and anahara. The Prarupna connotes the search through paryapta and aparyapta visesanas. It is of 20 types, viz. gunasthna 14, javasamasa, paryapta, prana, samjna, marganas and upayoga. Moksa (liberation) Acarya defined the moksa as "Owing to the absense of the cause of bondage and with the functioning of the dissociation of karmas, the annihilation of all karmas is moksa."127 Puiapada explained it "Moksa is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, on the removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characterized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and suffering. immediately after attaining release from all karmas, the soul goes up to the end of the universe. The reasons have been given, as the soul previously impelled, as it is free from ties or attachment, as the bondage has been snapped and as it is of the nature of darting upwards. The examples in this regard have been given, like the potter's wheel, the gourd devoid of mud, the shell of the castor-seed and the flame of the candle respectively. 129 This is the brief survey of the spiritual disciplines and practices as laid down in Jainism for day to day life. Jainism is a religion of religions 92 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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and philosophy of philosophies in the eyes of Anekantavada. It believes that proper religious observances prepare a man to possess a non-sectarian attitude towards religious disciplines and practices culminating in spiritual enlightenment or achieving consciousness of ultimate reality. It is also of the opinion that a noble social conduct of self restraint and highmindedness, benevolence and compassion, sympathy and tolerance is a moral instrument for building a just society. There is no difficulty at all to develop gradually the religious disciplines in every day life, though the ultimate reality is immanent. As a matter of fact, spirituality cannot and should not be limited to the absolute or direct spiritual experience of mystics. It considers in its ambit the humanism and humanitarianism also with metaphysical, religious, philosophical and moral consciousness. Moral values may not be a constitutive part of the religious life but at best it may be certainly instrumental in securing the realization of ultimate truth. Notes SPIRITUAL DISCIPLINES AND PRACTICES IN JAINISM 1. Ethics has been defined as "the stydy of what is right or good in conduct" - Mackenzie, John S. A. Manual of Ethics, London, 1929, p. 2. Pravacanasara, 1.7. 3. Ayaro, 4.32 Curni 4. Mokkhapahud, 4; Kartikeyanupreksa, 192; Ratnakaranda Sravakacara 3. 5. Tattvarthasutra, 1.1 6. Uttaradhyayana, 28-30. 7. Tattvartharajavartika, 1.4748. 8. Rayanasara, 4; Dhavala, Vol. 1,1.1.4; Niyamasara, 5 9. Tattvarthasutra, 1.3 10. Upasakadhyayana, 49-50; Astasati-Astasahasri, p. 236. 11. Tittvarthasutra, 7.23, Ratnakaranda Sravakacara, 21 12. Dravyasangraha Tika, 41. 13. Sarvarthasiddhi, p. 1 14. Tattvathasutra, 7.19-20 15. See the author's book "Jaina Darsana aura Sanskriti ka Itihasa, p. 255 fn. 1 16. Sagaradharmamrta, 1.15 17. Sraddhaguna vivarana, pp. 7; Jaina Yoga, pp. 257 18. Sagaradharmamrta, 1.11 Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 93

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19. Amitagati Sravakacara, 6. 9-11 20. Caritrasara, p. 22 21. Dharmabinduprakarana, 11 22. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 66 23. Purusarthasidhyupaya, 61 24. Sagaradharmamrta, 2.2-16. 25. ibid. 2.2-3 26. Latisamhita, 2.47-49 27. Pravacanasaroddhara, 245-6 28. Yogasastra, 3. 6-7 29. Sagaradharmamrta, 3. 11-18 30. Amitagatisravakacara, 5. 84-85 31. Mulacara, 213 32. Pravacanasaroddhara, 236-41 33. Sagaradharmamrta, 5. 21-23 34. Caritrasara, p. 20; Adipurana, 38-125; Sraddhavidhi, p. 90. 35. Padmanandipancavimsika, 6.7 36. Amitagatisravakacara, 8.29 37. Sraddhavidhi, p. 158. 38. Lalitavistara; See the author's paper on the Caityavanda na B. L. Institute of Indology. 1987 (Delhi). 39. Jaina Yoga, London, 1963, p. 173 40. Ratnakarandsravakacara, 137 41. Mulacara,201; Tattvartharajavartika, 6.24.1 42. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 25 43. Amitagatisravakacara, 2.74-77 Caritrasara,6.2; Vasunandi.49 44. Sarvarthasiddhi, 9.23 45. Tattvarthasutra, 9.7 46. ibid. 9.6 47. ibid. 7.11. 48. Ayaro, 2. 40-46 49. Amitagatisravakacara, 6. 12-3 50. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 53 51. Dasavaikalikasutra, 219 52. Amitagatisravakacara, 6. 12-3 Yogasastra, 2. 18 53. Sarvarthasiddhi, 7.13 54. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 79-81, 43 55. Tattvarthasutra, 7.14 56. Amitagatisravakacara, 6. 49-54; Purusarthasiddhypaya, 91-93 57. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, K.K. Handique, p. 265 58. Tattvarthasutra, 7.25; 7.5 94 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth

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59. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 52 60. Tattvarthasutra, 7.27 61. Ratnakarandasravacara, 56 62. Upasakadhyayana, 381 63. Ratnakarandasravacara, 59 64. Upasakadhyayana, 405-6 65. Tattvartasutra, 7.28; Upasakadasahga, adhyaya 1 66. Upasakadhyayana, 418 67. Tattvarthasutra, 7.17 68. ibid. 7.29 69. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 62 Yogasastra; etc. 70. Sagaradharmamrta, 4.64 71. Ratnaka. 67; Sagaradh 5.1 72. Sarvarthasiddhia, 7.38-39; 73. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, Handiqu, p. 284 74. Caritrasara, 1. 14; Amitagati Sravakacara. 9. 310 75. Vasunandi Sravakacara, 233-38 76. Sarvarthasiddhi, 7.24; Tattvartharajavartika, 7.24 Caritrasara, 13.6 77. Ratnakarandasravakacara, 66; Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 61; Upasakakadhyayana, 270-314 78. Tattvarthasutrabhasya, 7.16; Jnanarnava, 27. 13-14 79. Avasyakacurni of Haribhadra, p. 8; Caritrasara, 19.1; Mulacara, 531 80. Tattvarthasutra Bhasya of Siddhasenaganin, 7.28 81. Amitagatisravakacara, 8. 51-56 82. Acarasara, 570-71, Ratnaka, 142 83. Vasunandi Sravakacara, 296; Caritrasara, p. 38 84. Amitagati Sravakacara, 7.77 85. Vasunandi Sravakacara, 30 86. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara, 123-30; Sarvartha. 7.22; Vasu. Sravaka, 272 87. Sarvarthasiddhi, 7.22 Ratnakarandasravakacara, 122-29 88. Caritrapahud, 26 89. Bhagawati Aradhana, 271-74; Ratnakara, 122 90. Sagaradharmamrta, 8.16 91. Acaranga, Vimoksa Adhyayana; Thananga Vrtti, 2; Nayadha vrtti, 1.1 92. 92. Pravacanasaroddhara, 135 93. Nisitha Curni, Vrhad Vrtti; Mularadhana, 3. 108 94. Samavayanga, 17.9 95. Ayaro, Vimoksa Adhyayana, 105 96. ibid. Vimoksa 106, 125 97. Bhagawati Aradhana, 155; Dhavala, 1.1.1.23 98. Uttaradhyayana, 5.3-4 Spiritual Discipline And Practices In Jainism 95

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99. Vyavaharabhasya, 203 100. Pravacanasaroddhara, 982-3; Bhagawati Aradhana, 253-4. 101. Tattvarthasutra, 7.37 102. Rajasthan Patrika, Jaipur, Jan. 30. 1985 103. Dharmabindu. 3.46; Yogasastra, 3.122-32; Sagaradhar. 5. 1-9 etc. 104. Pancasangraha, 1.3: Gomattasara Jivakanda, 8.29 105. Pancasangraha, 109 106 Tattvartharajavartika, 9.1.14 107. ibid. 9.1.16; Pancasan. 11 108. Dhavala, 1.1.1.13; Gomattasara Jivakanda, 476 109. Pancasan 1.1.4; Dhavala, 1.1.13 110. Pancasangraha, 1.11; Tattvarthasara, 2.25 111. Pancasangraha, 1. 11-50; Tattvarthanajavartika, 9.1.21; Dhavala 1.1. 13-14 112. Tattvarthasutra, 9. 4-9 112B.Dharmabindu, Adhyaya 4 113. Tattvarthasutra, 9.2 114. Avasyaka Niryukti, 1459-62 115. Pravacanasaroddhara, 243-262; Yogasastra, 3 116. Uttaradhyayana, 29. 31-41 117. ibid. 20.10; Nimicandra Vrtti, p. 341; Pravacanasara, 389 118. Upasakadhyayana, 135 119. Bhagawati Aradhana, 421; Upasakadhyayana, 131-132 120. Uttaradhyayana, 26. 21-23; 121. Tattvarthasutra, 9.18 122. ibid. 9.6. 123. ibid 9.22. 124. Uttaradhyayana, 30.31; 125. Mahapurana, 21. 86-88 126. Uttaradhyayana, 30.31; Vyavahara Vivarana (Malayagiri Vrtti), p. 19 127. Tattvarthasutra, 10.2; 128. See the author's book "Jainism in Buddhist Literature,p. 116 129. Tattvarthasutra, 10. 6-7 96 Shri Vijyanand Suri Swargarohan Shatabdi Granth