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________________ Some Early Jaina Temples In Western India M. A. DHAKY ESTERN India, not merely in a territorial sense but in its more vital, kinetic implication-the cultural aspect, and hence the Maru-Gurjara culture itself-owes much to Jainism, its Svetambara variety in particular. This is symbolized in and summed up by the gentle character of her people, vegetarianism, and, above all, a great tradition of architecture, to the sustenance of which Jainas contributed almost half the share; they even aided its survival in the late Middle Ages, until finally, they are left, today, almost the sole patrons of the traditional, ecclesiastical architecture in Rajasthan and Gujarat which form an indissociable cultural unit, the Western India. The vastusastras of Western India, composed for the most part by the anonymous Brahmanist architects, acknowledged (as early in Solanki times when the earliest of such books were compiled) their debt to the Jainas by according generous sections to Jaina iconography and architecture. And Jainas built their religious foundations that were legion, an extraordinary happening, had we not known the mediaeval epoch so intimately and so much in its completeness in relation to wwwwwwwww 1 Vide Section I of the author's Introduction to Prasadamanjari cover ing The Vastusastras of Western India (edited by PRABHASHANKAR O. SOMPURA).
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 291 Western India. For that, too, and now in our own turn and times, we are indebted to the sense of history and preservative quality of Jainism. This was possible--as we look back and try to collect and analyse the facts recorded in literature and thrown in relief through archaeological sources--by the circumstances which then prevailed, by the natural disposition of the people, and, above all, by the character of the Svetambara Jainism itself. Jainism was as anciently known, or perhaps a little lately, as Buddhism, particularly in Saurashtra region of the Gujarat sector of Western India. Girinagara (Junagadh), but more definitely Valabhi (Vala) in Saurashtra, even before it became the capital of the Maitrakas, was a stronghold of Jainism; a stronghold which persisted but secondary always to Buddhism until it got its chance later on to make its influence felt and, with some intensity to be sure. Against the vast, organized monastic settlements of the Buddhists, Jainas have not much to show between the fifth and the seventh century. Equally, there are not many, and these too not very sound, bits of facts, which can allow us to estimate the degree of munificence shown to Jainism by Maitraka monarchs and their relatives who, by an overwhelming testimony of their inscribed charters, are known for their unbounded enthusiasm for Buddhism. Its existence in the earlier half of the Maitraka Period in Gujarat territory is, doubtless, proved. Jaina bronzes of the sixth century at Valabhi itself?, again as old as the now world-famous Akota bronzes of which the oldest can be dated to the sixth century, the Digambara Jina image from Khedbrahma" and the rockcut relief images of the same religious affiliation and of the same age at Dhanks, together with a few but indisputable literary evidences so endorse. But Jainism could show its strength only when Buddhism faded from the scene. Buddhism was, by eighth century, tottering throughout the subcontinent. At Valabhi itself, it was dwindling in strength, when, at the same time, Jainism seems to be slowly gaining in stature and weight. But before it could take fuller advantage of the situation, Valabhi was devastated (783-84) by the marauding Arabs from Sind. The sacred Jaina images, just before the 2 Consult Shah, U. P., Akota Bronzes (Bombay 1959) for details. 3 lbid. SHAH, U. P., An Old Jaina Image from Khedbrahma, Journal of the Oriental Institute,' Baroda, Vol. X, No. 1, September 1960, Fig. 1. 5 This is the considered opinion of Dr. U. P. SHAH. 4 SH
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________________ 292 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME hot hours, were transferred, we are told by later Jaina prabandhas, to safer sanctuaries; to Devapattana (Prabhas Patan), to Vardhamana (Wadhwan), and to Bhillamala (Bhinmal). Jainism did not supplant Buddhism molecule by molecule, piece by piece, place by place; in expanse it covered many more sites (some of which later on grew to be its potential centres) where Buddhism never held sway, it would seem, at any date, early or late. Some of the well-known towns and cities of the mediaeval period were not even founded when Buddhism had its heyday in Gujarat. Anhilapataka (Patan) which came to be established in 746 (according to Jaina. tradition) by Vanaraja Capotkata, a little township, an humble capital to a principality, was to become a focal centre, a proud and prosperous metropolis of an empire in the twelfth century. There, Prince Vanaraja founded a temple to Parsvanatha of Pancasar. An immigrant from Rajasthan, Pragvata Ninnaya, the ancestor of Governor Vimala of Dilwara fame, built a temple to Jina Rsabha at the newly founded capital for the benefit of Vidyadhara Kula of the Svetambara Church. At the same moment, at Tharapadra (Tharad) in North-west Gujarat, Vatesarasuri of Candra Kula established Tharapadra Gaccha: at the centre of its emanation a temple to Jina Rsabha was in existence. Digambara Jainism, too, is known to be followed in a few centres in Gujarat area in this age. At Vardhamana it had a temple sacred to Parsvanatha (Nannaraja Vasati) where Jinasena wrote his Harivansa Purana in 783. This work was adored in the temple of Santinatha at Dostatika as mentioned in the same work. Yet another work composed at Vardhamana, now in 931-32, was the Brhatkathakosa of Harisena." Harivamsa Purana refers to Simhavahana Sasanadevi Ambika (atop Mt. Girnar) whose origin is associated with Kottinari (Kodinar) on the west coast of Saurashtra. By the end of eighth century, the sectaries 6 Prabandhacintamani (1305) of Merutunga, sarga 50; Satyapuratirthakalpa (1311) inside Vividhatirthakalpa of Jinaprabha; and Ms. P (1472) in Puratana Prabandha Samgraha edited by Muni Jinavijaya all published in Singhi series, Bombay. 7 SANDESARA, B. J., Wadhavan-mam racayela be Digambara Jaina grantho (Gujarati), Journal of the Saurashtra Research Society' Vol. I, No. 2, Sept. 1957. Both Jinasena and Harisena belonged to the Punnata Samgha of the Digambara Sect. 7a SHAH, U. P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Ambika, Journal of the University of Bombay', Vol. IX, pt. 2, Sept. 1940.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 293 of the Digambara Church had settled at Prabhasa; they had, like the Svetambarins, a temple to Jina Candraprabha there. A little later, along the same west coast, now eastwards, they founded a temple to Parsvanatha near Unnatapura (Una).8a At Stambhatirtha (Khambhat), too, they established their headquarters soon after. When we turn to Rajasthan, no centre of the stature of Valabhi is encountered at that age or earlier. A completely ruined brick temple of Jaina affiliation at Kesorapur near Bundi is supposed to be a fifth century erection.9 Next of note is the hoard of bronzes from Vatapura (Vasantgarh) in which the oldest inscribed document is the pair of handsome kayotsarga jina images dated to the year 688.9a The image of Mahavira in the temple at Nandiya with its two superb vahikas (chauri-bearers) 10 would come next. The image of Parsvanatha from Bhatewall is stylistically of the same age. Significant equally are the evidences furnished by the literary sources. It seems, by the end of seventh century, a Jaina temple existed at Bhillamala on the strength of Kuvalayamala (779) of Udyottanasuri who completed this work in the Astapada Prasada of Adinatha at Jabalipura (Jalor), a fane founded a little earlier by Friar Virabhadra to whom Udyottana refers very reverently. The Bhillamala temple could be one of a series founded in Gurjaradesa by Yaksadattagani (Yaksa Mahattara), one of the predecessors of Udyottanasuri. Jaina temples existed at Citrakuta (Chitor) in the time of Haribhadrasuri (8th cent.). Ninnaya of Anhilapataka, mentioned earlier, had founded a temple to some Jina at Candravati for the benefit of Jalihara Gaccha. At Nagapura (Nagaur) a Jaina temple 8 DHAKY, MADHUSUDAN and SHASTRI, HARISHANKAR PRABHASHANKAR, Prabhas-Patan-nan Pracina Jaina Mandiro (Gujarati) Svadhyaya', Vol. 3, No. III, V. S. 2023, Baroda. 8a A defaced image (in kayotsarga) of Parsvanatha datable to the ninth century has been found from this place and now preserved in Junagadh Museum. For its illustration, see NAWAB, SARABHAI, Bharat-nam Jaina tirtho ane temnum Silpa-sthapatya (1942), Fig. 12. 9 Consult JAINA KAILASCHAND, Jainism in Rajasthan. 9a U. P. SHAH has published this image in his Akota Bronzes as well as in Studies in Jaina Art. 10 KRAMRISCH, STELLA, The Art of India (1955), Fig. 54. 11 This, as informed by MUNI SHRI YASHOVIJAYAJI, is now in the Jaina temple of Chansma in North Gujarat.
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________________ 294 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME existed in 859 as reported by Jayasimhasuri in his Dharmopadesavivaranamala-v?tti. Jayasimhasuri's master, Krsnarsi, seems to have founded a temple in the fort of Nagaur.12 To the resurgent Jainism, from eighth century onwards, the kings, princes, and chieftains of various Western Indian dynasties were favourably disposed, some even extended positive patronage which included acceptance of Jainism as a personal faith. Vanaraja Capotkata we mentioned in the foregoing discussions. There was one Prince Raghusena of an unknown dynasty, who founded a Jina-bhavana at Ramasainyapura (Ramsen) in North-west Gujarat some time in the second quarter of tenth century. More important instances are known from the Imperial Caulukyas (Solankis) of Anhilapataka. King Mularaja I (942-995) founded, it would seem, Mulavasatika Prasada for the Digambara sect and a temple sacred to Mulanathajinadeva for the Svetambara Church at Anhilapataka. His successors Camundaraja as well as Durlabharaja respected Jainism. In the capacity of heir apparent, Camunda had made a grant to the Jaina temple at Varunasarmaka (Vadasama) in 977. Bhimadeva I (1022-64) held learned Jaina monks in high esteem. Suracarya and Santisuri rallied beside the throne in the battle of wits betwen Malava and Gujarat. Bhimadeva's son and successor Karnadeva (1064-95) was also generous to the Jainas. He granted land to the temple of Jina Sumatinatha at Takavavi or Takovi (Takodi) in 1084. His son and successor Jayasimha Siddharaja (1095-1144) made a further grant, presumably to the same Sumatinatha temple, in 1100. But Siddharaja did more than that for the Jainas. By about 1127 he founded Rajavihara at Anhilapataka and Siddhavihara (c. 1140) at Kristhala or Siddhapura (Sidpur). Out of all Solanki monarchs, Emperor Kumarapala (1144-74), under the influence of Hemacandra, showed the highest leanings to Jainism and displayed as much zeal in founding Jaina temples, each example being styled after him as Kumaravihara. The Kumaraviharas were erected at all important Jaina centres distributed between Jabalipura and Prabhasa. In Rajasthan, the facts almost compliment those known from Gujarat. The Imperial Gurjara-Pratiharas as well as the Pratiharas of Maddodara-Medantaka (Mandor-Medta) branch were zealous for Jainism. Pratihara Nagabhatta I founded Yaksavasati Prasada at Jabalipura, his capital, in honour of his guru Yaksadattagani whom we referred to a short while ago. The sanctuary of Mahavira 12 From Krsnarsi sprang a gaccha bearing his name.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 295 at Satyapura (Sanchor), so famous in the mediaeval epoch, as well as the temple to the same Jina at Koranta (Korta) are traditionally ascribed to him. To Vatsaraja Pratihara we shall have an occasion to refer to later. His successor Nagabhatta II was under the influence of Bappabhattisuri; while Nannasuri and Govindasuri, the two junior confreres of illustrious pontiff, were favourably received by his successor, the Pratihara emperor Mihirabhoja. The Jaina foundations by Nagabhatta II at Kanyakubja (Kanauj) and Gopagiri (Gwalior) lie outside the territorial limits of Western India. How early Pratiharas of the collateral branch in Marumandala reacted towards Jainism, we have no means to ascertain. Pratihara Kakkukaraja of Maddodara, a prince of some learning, founded a Jina Bhavana at Rohimsakupa (Ghatiyala) in 861. Guhila Bhartsbhatta I, Lord of Medapata (Mewar), built Guhilavihara in the second quarter of tenth century at the town founded by him after his name, Bhartrpadra (Bhatewar) in Mewar. The fane was consecrated by Budhagani of of Caitrapuriya Gaccha. His successor Allata is said to have erected a kirttistambha at Citrakuta.13 The relations between the early Cahamanas of Sakambhari (Sambhar) or Sapadalaksa and the Jaina Church are not clear. The later Cahamanas were of course generous to Jainism. Prthviraja I placed golden pinnacles on the Jaina temple at Ranathambhor. Similarly, his successor Ajayaraja placed golden pinnacles on the temple of Parsvanatha at his newly founded capital, Ajayameru (Ajmer). His son Arnoraja held Jinadatta suri in great respect. His son and successor Visaladeva Vigraharaja is said to have built Rajavihara at Ajmer. His successor Psthviraja II granted a village to the Digambara Jaina temple of Parsvanatha at Bijolya in 1169. Cahamana Somesvara, son of Arnoraja, granted a village to the temple of Parsvanatha at Rewa. Jainas had equally happy relations with the Cahamanas of Naddula (Nadol). How Laksmanadeva, the premier dynast of the Nadol branch, looked upon Jainism is not known with certainty. But his great-grandson Katukaraja, son of Asvaraja, made grants in 1110 and 1115 to the temple of Jina Mahavira at Samipati (Sewadi) with which we are to deal soon. Cahamana King Alhanadeva of Naddula promulgated a commandment of non-violence at Kiratakupa (Kiradu) in 1152. To the temple of Mahavira at Sanderaka (Sanderav) he 13 This one seems to have disappeared in antiquity.
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________________ 296 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME allowed a grant in 1171. Another Cahamana prince, a scion of the Naddula branch, Kirttipala, made a grant to the temple of Jina Mahavira at Nadduladagika (Nadlai), the twin to the city of Nadol, in 1160. The Rastrakutas of Hastikundi (Hathundi) had been ardent followers of Jainism. Vidagdharaja, son of Harivarman, founded a shrine to Jina Rsabha at Hastikundi in 917. His son Mammata gave a grant to the selfsame temple. Mammata's son and successor Dhavala renovated the temple and caused a well to be excavated for the temple. The queens of the princely households of the various dynasties in Rajasthan were also favourable to Jainism. Rajni Manaladevi, consort of Cahamana Rayapala of Naddula, together with her two sons, made a grant to the aforementioned temple of Mahavira at Nadduladagika in 1132. Queen Anhaladevi, consort of Alhanadeva, made a grant to the Sanderaka temple in 1169, two years previous to her husband's grant to the same temple. Queen Sangaradevi, consort of the Paramara Prince Dharavarsadeva of Candravati, granted some land to the temple at Jhadauli or Jhadavelli (Jhadoli) in 1197. Guhila Queen Jaitalladevi, mother of Maharana Samarasimha, founded a temple to Jina Parsvanatha in 1278 at Citrakuta. Side by side the royalties, the ministers and high officials, several of whom professed Jainism, were liberally munificent in founding Jaina temples, monasteries, and libraries. Dandanayaka Vimala raised a temple to Adinatha at Deulavadagrama (Delwada, Dilwara) on Mt. Abu in 1032. Poet Meha (1443) refers to two other works of Vimala, a Vimalavasati at Satrunjaya and one other at Arasana (Kumbharia). Santu, prime minister to Solanki potentate Karnadeva, built Santuvasatika at Anhilapataka as well as at Karsavati (Ahmedabad). Munjala, minister to Karnadeva and supposed afterwards to be a minister to Jayasimha Siddharaja as well, founded Munjalavasati at ANhilapataka before 1093. Minister Udayana founded Udayanavihara (1093) at Karsavati and Udayanavasati at Stambhatirtha. He also founded a temple to Jina Simandhara at Dhavalakakka (Dholka) in 1119. Mantri Solaka founded Solakavasati at Anhilapataka some time before 1112. Dandanayaka Kapardi built a shrine to some Jina in the same city in 1119. Sajjana, Dandanayaka of Sorath, built the famous sanctuary of Neminatha (Karnavihara) atop Mt. Girnar in 1129. Psthvipala, minister to Kumarapala, added mandapas to Vanarajavihara at Anhilapataka, Vimalavasati at Dilwara (1150), and Ninnaya's temple at Candravati.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA: 297 In addition, he founded a shrine sacred to Jina Santinatha at Sayanavadapura. Minister Vagbhatta, son of Udayana, replaced the old. temple of Adinatha on Satrunjaya by a new edifice between 1155 and 1157. He also extended Udayanavihara at Dholka in 1167. His brother Amrabhatta replaced the antiquated Sakuni caitya at Bhrgukaccha (Bharuch, Broach) by a magnificent new shrine in 1166. Excelling all, were the constructional works by the two illustrious brothers, Vastupala and Tejapala, the former being the Prime Minister to the Vaghela Regent Viradhavala. A statesman of extraordinary ability, Vastupala was an equally great literary figure and perhaps a still greater devotee of Jainism. Put together, the religious edifices founded by the two brothers go upward of fifty, a figure that would put to shame any emperor in the Middle Ages in India. Chief among these. were the Indramandapa and six other shrines in front of the great temple of Adinatha on Satrunjaya by Vastupala, the Vastupalavihara (1231) and temple to Paravanatha on Mt. Girnar, temple sacred to Adinatha at Dholka, and Astapada Prasada at Prabhasa. Tejapala founded Nandisvaradvipa caitya on Satrunjaya as well as in Karnavati, a temple to Neminatha at Dholka, on Mt. Girnar, as well as in Dilwara on Mt. Abu (1232), and to Adinatha at Prabhasa. He also founded. Asarajavihara at Aphilapataka in memory of his father and one temple. each at Darbhavati (Dabhoi) and Stambhatirtha to commemorate the name of his mother Kumaradevi. The late Vaghela times were, by comparison, less lustrous. A few works by the notables of this age, Jagadusa of Bhadravat! and Pethada of Mandavgarh, seem to be of some consequence. Jagadu founded temples at Dhanka (Dhank), Vardhamana, and Satrunjaya. Pethada's constructional activities were centered at Prabhasa, Dhavalakakka, Salaksanapura (Shankhalpur), and Satrunjaya. The recorded instances of foundations by ministers and other dignitaries in Rajasthan are relatively fewer when compared to what we know from Gujarat. The monuments erected between the eighth and the tenth centuries, that is to say when Pratiharas, Cahamanas and Guhilas were supreme, are more numerous in Rajasthan than in Gujarat. By eleventh century, the power of the Guhilas waned against the prowess of the Paramaras of Dhara; and the Paramaras of Abu and Cahamanas of Sakambhari and Naddula progressively lost ground against the imperial policy of the Solankis of Gujarat. Gujarat rose to heights in mid-eleventh century, all the more in the twelfth century when, under the aegis of Siddharaja and Kumarapala, it acquired the
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________________ 298 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME status of an empire. Consequently, the monuments of this age are more numerous in Gujarat territory of Western India. Thus, in our range within Rajasthan, we know three instances of Jaina erections by persons possessing ministerial office, out of whom two flourished in tenth century and one in the thirteenth century. Kunkana, a minister possibly to Paramara Aranyaraja of Abu, founded a temple to some Jina at Candravati in 954. A minister, unnamed, to Guhila King Allata, erected a temple to Jina Parsvanatha at Aghata (Ahar) some time during the latter half of tenth century. Bhandari Yasovira added a mandapa to the Astapada Prasada at Jabalipura. To think that the great ones alone maintained the hub of constructional force within Jaina Church, would be nothing short of a highly refracted image of what it actually was. The Jaina fraternity itself had become, by eleventh century, a very strong organization, automatic and self-sustained. The occasional royal patronage and the support by the high officials doubtless strengthened its structure. But its potency generated mainly through the contributions of the hundreds of lay followers of the Church. They were enlisted from the wealthy, commercial classes of Western India : the commerce was mainly controlled by certain Vanika (bania) communities. The Pragvatas (Porwadas) from the region east to Abu, Ukesavalas (Oswalas) from Ukesa (Osia), Srimalis from Srimala, i.e., Bhinnamala, Pallivalas from Pallika (Pali), and to a small extent Modhas from Mordheraka (Modhera) and Gurjaras professed Jainism. Pragvatas and Srimalis migrated into Gujarat, multiplied in number and spread throughout its length and breadth by twelfth century. These two communities have given not only the great tradesmen, but also statesmen and generals to whom Gujarat is indebted for her greatness in the Middle Ages. The Ukesavalas and Pallivalas contributed largely to the commercial prosperity of Western India. From literary records seconded as well as supplemented by inscriptional evidence, hundreds, nay, thousands, of Jaina images and, at the very least, three hundred Jaina temples existed in Western India before the close of the thirteenth century, Gujarat alone claimed two thirds of them. Several of these were vast complexes possessing clusters encircling chapels donated often by separate individuals, usually the relatives and descendants of the founder of the main shrine. Symbolic of opulence, but also of devotion, the Jaina sanctuaries of Western India, some of which had the most sumptuously decorated interiors, form the part of the rich, varied legacy of Indian architecture, and of the culture as a whole.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 299 But the moving spirit of the Church was undoubtedly the clergy. who, by their high ethical conduct, selflessness, piety, and profound learning kept the waters of Faith in motion; through their persistent efforts, from an incipient streamlet, a powerful riverine current emerged. The Svetambara clergy was, from Kusana days on, divided into ganas, sakhas, and kulas. Jainism, the waves of which passed on Rajasthan in post-Gupta Age, may have its epicentre in surasena country wherein Mathura seems to be their headquarters at least from Sunga days on. Between eighth and eleventh centuries, the four kulas-Nagendra, Candra, Nivstti and Vidyadhara-prevailed in Western India. Their ramifications into sub-orders-gacchas had already started, or at least foreshadowed in the eighth century itself. Eventually, kulas were lost and gacchas took their place.14 Several of these gacchas were the direct derivatives of the kulas15; but many new came to be established, some taking their names after their place of origin16, some after communities??, others after the founding preceptors18; still others came into existence on account of the schisms caused by differences of interpretation of scriptures, variances on ritualistic observances, and the like. The process of proliferation and branching was at its greatest intensity in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. There were also instances of parochial attitude, disputes, which culminated into prolonged hostilities in case of the later gacchas20, true. The normal human weaknesses also worked their way in a few sub-orders of the monk. But these were exceptions, which represent and reflect a biased attitude based on premises which to an outsider would appear most minor, flimsy, even insignificant and unjustifiably frivolous. These inconsistencies apart, the general attitude of the Jaina samaritans possessed many positive aspects, facilities, uncrippled by sectarian, 14 More definitely from late eleventh century. 15 All the four original kulas mentioned in the foregoing began to be called gacchas. Several others derived from these original ones during the mediaeval period. As for example, Upakesa or Ukesa gaccha from Ukesa, Brahmana gaccha from Brahmana (Varman), Nanakiya or Nanavala gaccha from Nanaka (Nana), Sanderaka gaccha from Sanderaka (Sande rav), and so forth. 17 Pallivala gaccha and Khanderavala gaccha for instance. 18 Krsnarsi gaccha, Bhavadacarya gaccha, Devacarya gaccha etc. 19 Ancala gaccha etc. 20 Between Kharatara gaccha and Tapa gaccha for instance.
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________________ 300 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME territorial or racial outlook. They were concerned more with the Faith and the Following, not so much with the linguistic, regnal and regional criteria. They treated Western India as a single unit. They moved freely from kingdom to kingdom and received the same honour from each quarter, although the political relations among the different Western Indian states were oftener very tense. Much do we owe to these travelling Jaina monks of the mediaeval period who fostered and forged the overall cultural unity of Western India. From the pattavalis21, prabandhas and epigraphic sources, we obtain detailed information on the various sub-orders, their internal organization and their inter-relationships, and, the pious deeds of the monks themselves. The number of followers initiated to the order of the monks was staggering. Spiritual quest apart, and the zeal for the propagation of the Faith apart, many among them had achieved distinction in the field of learning their literary pursuits have contributed substantially to the enrichment and preservation of the cultural heritage of Western India, and, established a tradition whose impact continues to be felt to this day. The great stalwarts of Jainism were important not only to the Sect; some of them were among the great sons of India, and worthy of her humanitarian, magnanimous civilization. To earlier ones including great Haribhadrasuri of Vidyadhara Kula, we made a brief reference in the foregoing pages. There were Silanka and Siddharsi of Nivrtti Kula, Nannasuri, Pradyumnasuri, Abhayadevasuri, Dhanesvarasuri and Dharmaghosasuri of Rajagachha23, Yasobhadrasuri of Sanderaka Gaccha, Abhayadevasuri and Vadidevasuri of Vada Gaccha, Jinesvarasuri, Jinavallabha and Jinadattasuri of Kharatara Gachha,25 and, towering above all, Hemacandra. of Purnatalla Gaccha whose names will be remembered in the annals of the religion and culture of India. The Svetambara Jainism possessed some inherent qualities, special features, which were equally instrumental in its luxuriant flowering as well as survival in Western India. Its philosophy, but also its high ethics, its peaceable disposition, but also its stoicism, its persuasive power, but above all its faculty of accommodation com 21 See Pattavali Samuccaya by Darsanavijaya. 22 Prabandha works mentioned under foot-note No. 6. 23 See Jaina parampara-no Itihasa by TRIPUTI MAHARAJA. 24 Ibid. 25 Ibid.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 301 manded respect, if not always won love from the votaries of Brahmanism, priests and princes alike. This should not delude us to believing that Jainism had no hard times or occasions to suffer humiliation; nor that all kings looked upon Jainism with equal reverence or sustained respect. Prabandhacintamani records that the flags of all the Jaina temples (together with those of non-Saivaite temples) at Siddhapura were ordered (by Jayasimha Siddharaja) to be lowered down whenever a (new) flag was hoisted on the great temple of Rudramahalaya there, in imitation of the custom observed at Ujjain in regard to the non-Saivaite temples vis-a-vis the temple of Mahakalesvara. Had Siddharaja foreseen the ominous course of destiny which had ordained that the flags of all the temples between sakambhari and Bhsgukaccha, whether Brahmanical or Jaina, would have rolled down in dust at the closing hours of the thirteenth century, he could have preferred humility and refrained from insulting the friendly, benevolent Jainas who had served, and were serving, the State with great competence and dedication. But more outrageous was the policy adopted by the tyrant Ajayapala, a nephew of and successor to Kumarapala. Like the eastern Sasamka of whom he was the western image, he displayed the same hostility, animosity and hatred, in his times, to Jainism. Not satisfied with the perfidious assassination of his Jaina prime minister Kapardi and minister Amrabhatta, he next went to lay his demonic hands on muni Ramacandra, disciple of Hemacandra, whose physical extermination he brought about so cruelly, by burning him on a red-hot copper-sheet. That was not all. Out he went to destroy Jaina temples, particularly those founded by Kumarapala and by ministers who supported the late King. The cathedral of Taranga, sacred to Ajitanatha, founded by Kumarapala in 1165, a colossal temple equalling in size to the great temple of Somanatha (built by the same monarch in 1169), was saved with difficulty, by putting the evil king to shame through allegoric histrionics. Ajayapala had some personal reasons for his wrath toward Jainism, though no moral justification for a flagrantly vindictive onslaught. In days of Kumarapala, the preaching of non-violence had gone to the other extreme which involved very subtle violence and disregard for certain basic humanistic values. The construction of Yukavihara by confiscating the property of a man who killed a flea, or Undiravihara in memory of a dead mouse, are, by all standards, examples of religious zeal which had lost the company of wisdom. And too much familiarity of the Jaina monks with the Court had its points of danger too. When Jainas planned to have a successor of Kumarapala who must likewise, respect Jainism, they invited a nemesis in
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________________ 302 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Ajayapala. The price was paid by the Church for meddling in the affairs of the temporal power. But it also disrupted, from within, the great harmony of faiths and sub-cultures in Western India, partially restored by Vastupala in the thirteenth century, just enough to hold the fort against the menace of the invading Muslims, till the collapse came at the end of the thirteenth century. Barring these unpleasant incidences, the overall picture for Jainism in the Middle Ages is colourful, bright, and vibrant with life indeed. The murmurs and mutterings of the jealous Brahmins at the courts were normally not heeded to or encouraged by the ruling kings. That was not the fate of the Digambara Jainas, for example, elsewhere in India of those times. In the South, Digambara Jainas were persecuted by the bigoted convert Pallava Mahendravarman and afterwards by Virasaivas in Karnata. In Central India there are instances of the destruction of Jaina sanctuaries by the Brahmanists.25a Here they also had to encounter the philistinism of Krsna Misra whose Prabodhacandrodaya (late 11th cent.) is a shameless document of religious intolerance wherein no holds are barred against those sects which did not conform to the tenets preached by author's own. These perversive impulses were anticipated in the sacred architecture as well. At Khajuraho they had materialized in some of the atrocious erotic sculptures on the walls of the Laksmana temple (954) and Jagadambi temple (early 11th cent.) where the Digambara Jaina saints are portrayed in actions that defy all sense of descency.26 Evidently, such sculptures have no sanction of the vastusastras. They are the impositions by corrupt, deformed, envious, frustrated minds of the fanatics who misused the holy sanctum walls for displaying their evil ego and destructive urges. The disfigurement and disgrace of such Khajuraho temples, unfortunately marked for ever, are as outspoken as their art is splendid. Digambara Jainism is, perhaps, on its side, partly responsible for what all had happened. The theory of niscaya naya-absolutismcentral to its philosophy, rejects all other systems of thought, and dismisses all other paths of salvation advocated by other religions in 25a Jaina temples at Dudahi, Padhavali, and perhaps Budhi-Chanderi for instance. 26 TRIPATHI, LAKSMI KANT, The Erotic Scenes of Khajuraho and their probable explanation, 'Bharati, Research Bulletin of the College of Indology' No. 3, Banaras Hindu University, 1959-60.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 303 India. This circumscribed attitude made, sometimes, compromise difficult with the societies wherein its followers lived, particularly in the mediaeval epoch. The sapience of Svetambara Jainism, guided by the spirit of syadvada (relativity), on the other hand, never allowed itself to be closeted in a totalitarian, chauvinistic ideology. Haribhadrasuri, as early as in the eighth century, was an open-minded thinker, a great conciliator, who harmonized different sophistical view-points and reduced them to the same common denominators, which, in their ultimate analysis showed that, after all, there existed no real conflict between different systems of thinking, approaches differed though, and were, on some score, bound to differ. Hemacandra, a great heir to this great tradition, did not hesitate to visit the temple of Somanatha and offer a magnificent hymn to Siva Mahadeva. That explains everything: why the royalty in Western India possessed catholicity of religious taste and outlook and were so favourable to Jainism; how Jainas, though never very numerous, could build numberless temples; and why the vastusastras of Western India held Jaina divinities on a high level of recognition. Compare this with the parochial attitude of Samarangana Sutradhara, otherwise a great work on architecture and iconography, from Central India. Its complete silence over Jaina iconography and architecture will be found no more intriguing if its injunction to outplace the temples of heretical sects (pakhandi) which mainly includes Jaina (since, besides the Brahmanists, the Jainas formed the major group of temple builders in Central India of those days), is given due regard. The distaste of the Paramara emperor Bhojadeva of Dhara for Jainism is known to us through the anecdotes of Dhanapala, a Jaina poet at the Malava court. This unsympathetic attitude towards Jainism had, in general, no place in Western India. The persuasive power of the Svetambara Jainism and the tactfulness of its adherents performed some miracles in the days of Muslim domination as well. Jinadattasuri was respected at the Tughlak court, and Samarasa could obtain permission from Sultan Gyasuddin of Delhi to renovate the great temple of Adinatha on Satrunjaya : similarly, in early sixteenth century, Karmasa obtained permission for renovating the same fane from the ruling sultan of Ahmedabad. Still later, Hiravijayasuri and Jainacandra were honoured at the Mughal court: they even received farmans from the Mughal Emperor Akbar promulgating non-violence for certain periods in the Empire. Akbar, and Jehangir as well, permitted Jainas to build the shrines. That was the
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________________ 304 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME character, clement but potential, of Svetambara Jainism : it is also the secret of its survival and the honourable existence it found in Western India. Before it could attain its full growth, the Svetambara Jainism had to overcome two obstacles, one purely internal, the other being the rivalry of the Digambara Church. By eighth century, as among Buddhists, some lapses in the institution of the clergymen of the Svetambara Jainism had become a regular, hardened, almost integral feature of the Church. A monastic (Caityavasi) order, which did not require the abbots to follow the severe ethical code (prescribed for the monks in scriptures) with any degree of strictness, had come into existence and had by then become very widespread in Western India. The laxities of the Caityavasis were exposed and condemned by Haribhadrasuri in no (uncertain) terms. The bishops of such abbeychurches, very learned to be sure, exercised powerful influence both in the State and in the society. They were hostile to the ascetics of the Vanavasi Gaccha-mendicants who practised rigorous austerities--and to the travelling monks of similar categories known as Viharuka, Samvegi, Suvihita, and Samvijnavihari who represented the ancient, original system of Svetambara Jainism. The Pancasar minister at Anhilapataka was the stronghold of Caityavasis in Gujarat. Since the days of its first archbishop, Silagunasuri, the State decreed that no Jaina monks of the orders other than those approbated by the Caityavasi authorities could stay in Anhilapataka. This ban was lifted in 1011 through the efforts of Jinesvarasuri, a head of the group of Suvihita order, who managed, for the purpose, the intervention of the Solanki monarch Durlabharaja. The gates of Gujarat were thus opened for the monks who followed the true Belief' or rather the right Code of the "vetambaras. The die-hard elements of the Caityavasi system must have offered persistent resistance, it seems, to the spread of the other aforementioned orders. We, for instance, hear of Kumaravihara at Kancanagiri of Jabalipura referred to as "Vidhi Caitya' which, by inference, indicates the existence of Caityavasi order with a firm footing as late as in 1166. A Caityavasi abbot Padmaprabha was defeated, we gather from literary sources, by Jinapatisuri at a still later date, in 1182; from which point on, the abbey-churches eventually declined in strength. Digambara Jainism, compared to its counterpart, the Svetambara one, did not prevail in Western India with the same intensity; though, it was known from the seventh century at the very least, in Saurashtra
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 305 region, as we already saw. Its bid to war with and oust the Svetambara belief, a war of talents, albeit, fought at the kingly courts through disputations, eventually put it in an ungainly, unenviable position. Three such instances, of historic significance and, those which throw most light on and proved fateful to the future development and spread of Svetambara Jainism, are recorded in the annals compiled by the chroniclers. Kamalakirtti, the 'space-clad', proceeded for a doctrinal collision with Pradyumnasuri, the 'white-clad', at Guhila King Allata's court at Aghatapura; he was defeated;27 Kumudacandra, a scholar suffering from acute pragmatism, blundered in challenging astute and erudite Devasuri at the court of the Solanki potentate Jayasimha Siddharaja where Queen mother Mayanalladevi herself had presided; Kumudacandra's defeat was as disastrous as his retreat was unceremonious : 28 Gunacandra encountered with Dharmaghosasuri at the court of Cahamana Ajayaraja at Ajayameru; Svetambara Jainas once more emerged victorious. But Digambara Jainism, despite these set-backs, did thrive and retained its hold on Western India, particularly in the eastern sector of Rajasthan. In point of fact, it had early beginnings, or at least the tangible evidences of its footings are known from a date not later than the Pratihara period. There are, for instance, Digambara Jaina caves near Srinagara (Ramgarh) assignable to eighth or ninth century. Padmanandi refers to the existence of Jaina temples at Bara (Baran) in the tenth century. The rock-cut shrine of Padmayati at Nagadssha (Nagda) is dated to 946. The torana of the Digambara Jaina temple at Sanganer is referable to 954. There are remains of Jaina temples of late eleventh century as well as of twelfth century at Atru, Arthuna and Kishanvilas. The Khandelvalas (originally from Khandela), Bagheravalas (from Baghera), and Humbata (Humbad) in Vagada locale were and are the chief Vanika communities supporting Digambara Jainism in Rajasthan. Mathura Samgha and Mula Samgha were dominantly represented in Rajasthan. Whence came Digambara Jainism in Eastern Rajasthan is a point not so easy to decide. Movements from Gujarat, 27 Allata is said to have erected a kiritistambha at Citrakuta mention ed earlier, to commemorate this victory. 28 The Rajavihara at Anhilapataka was founded from the money Siddharaja offered to Devasuri who, being an ascetic, refused to accept it; he asked the king, instead, to found the temple. GJ.V. 20
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________________ 306 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Mathura and Malava might all have their share. Central India in the tenth century possessed a fairly large number of Digambara centres in all its sub-divisions--Malava, which included a portion of the present day Mewad and Uparmal tracts of Rajasthan-Gopagiri, Jejakbhukti, and Dahala of the Cedis. The adjacent Rajasthan tracts where Digambara Jainism prevailed, remain united with the greater and more expansive and extensive movements of the Digambaras in Central India. Digambara Jainism seems to have suffered eclipse soon after twelfth century in Eastern Rajasthan as well as in Central India. It, however, prospered fervently during the fifteenth century when it penetrated into Idar area of Gujarat as well. But these are the times which lie outside the range of our discussion. Moving backward and forward along the vast space-time continuum in Western India with special reference to Jainism, we had a sweeping, very fleeting glimpse indeed, of an intricate drama of the people--Jainas in their historical setting, as well as their architectural undertakings interlaced, embedded and projected on it. The group of temples we pledged to discuss forms an infinitesimal fraction, a mere ripple in a colossal current of architecture that once surged without inhibition in Western India. It nevertheless can be significant for two facts : consider, for instance, that all the temples at Sakambhari and Candravati, Bhillamala and Ajayameru, Anhilapataka and Anandapura (Vadnagar), Karnavati and Stambhatirtha, Bhrgukaccha (Broach) Satrunjaya, and Prabhasa--the pivotal centres of the Jainas as well as, with the exception of Satrunjaya, of the Brahmanists-have been swept away, some places with no traces save literary references to give the barest idea of what they had been; what is more, with the only exception of the Adinatha temple at Anandapura, which preserves an original socle and the lower wall mouldings of late tenth century,29 Gujarat sector has no early Jaina temple of consequence now left with it: 30 second, the group under reference covers temples that fully represent the three different, major architectural styles which once prevailed in and are characteristical of Western India. It also helps to comprehend, to a limited extent though, the evolution of a western Indian Jaina temple plan. 29 DHAKY, M. A., The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat, "Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihasa Parishad' 1963, p. 22. 30 The small Ambika shrine near Than datable to late eighth or early ninth century is not of much consequence.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 307 We spoke of the three architectural styles, an acquaintance with which must forego the description of the monuments we have in mind. The first two styles--prevailing from the latter half of eighth century to the end of tenth century-precede in time to the third one; by their wedding, the first two acted as parents to the third style which was born at the dawn of eleventh century and which thenceforth became the legacy to and gained currency in the whole of Western India. With the awareness of the existence of these three styles, and their inter-relationships finding a broad but sure definition, there arises a problem of denomination of each single style in question. The vastusastras, those indispensable codes of structural rules, had little conception of regional styles; they were concerned, primarily and to the last, with the modes of temples and, at most, with their regional distribution. Hence, on this premise, no guidance is available through their agencies; hence we are obliged to look to other sources. That had been done, unconsciously, by scholars through half a century in India : to apply dynastic labels to art styles, a workable expedient, it was thought, in the domain particularly of the sculptural art. But that approach overemphasizes the role of political history, oversimplifies the cultural currents, and, underestimates, sometimes even ignores, the potential of the indigenous area elements' entrenched deeply in the soil of a given region. The causative factors of a style are, generally speaking, complex; it would be erroneous to reduce them to a few, watertight, rigid rudiments which tend to refer everything to the impact of and initiation by the ruling dynasties and their matrimonial relations. The words which can have a strong pertinence to what we said, have come, now, to us through an authority to whose august office all the information on the current researches on Indian art and archaeology pivots, and whose perception has the subtle facility of an electron microscope to penetrate. "It may be agreed that the dynastic appellations are more convenient stylistic labels to denote certain classes of art products. Even then, the inherent difficulties of dynastic groupings....will remain. Perhaps a more logical, if arduous, way would be to isolate the elements of individual dated art-products and thereafter examine the spatial and temporal spread of these elements. The groups that will emerge after this examination may then be named after the region and period of their currency. In such stylistic groupings, the groups should be given stylistic and not dynastic labels. " 31 31 GHOSH, A., Some Observations on Dynastic Appellations, Seminar on Indian Art', 1962, Lalit Kala Akademi, pp. 9-13.
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________________ 308 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The startling truth of these observations and the wisdom of and foresight behind these recommendations are not amiss, now, when we read and re-read the original proceedings where they are recorded. The application of these suggestions-suggestions so sincere in spirit and scientific in outlook-can, and will provide a sounder and yet elastic as well as easily manoeuvrable frame of reference. We are still not sure what terms we must coin to replace Maurya, or, for that matter, Andhra and Sungan names; those were the times when art and architecture, distinguishable doubtless from region to region to the eyes of an expert, were not so sharply differentiated in much of the outward look throughout the greater part of the subcontinent, or at least wherever such early examples. are known to be extant.31a But by Gupta, and more truly in post-Gupta period, the regional idioms had begun to materialize, to develop, and to attain distinctness of expression. From this time on, we can be positive in dissociating art and architecture from dynastic denominations and think of, say, regional terms colligated ineradicably but abstractly with the time factor, the chronological axis. Apply it, for instance, to Western India, with which we are immediately concerned the results are quite rewarding, satisfying. We begin with the Pratihara period. Two major styles, "concordant in certain aspects because of common age, but otherwise independent since their parental sources differed "2, existed in the last quarter of eighth century: Osian temples and their congeners in upper 31a After this paper was submitted, I came across an extension of Ghosh's original observation which answers my own remark. "The planning of the survey has necessarily been on a regional and chronological basis: it is only on this basis that the spatial and temporal developments of architectural elements can be brought out. This basis, it is admitted, may tend largely to coincide with a dynastic grouping-a tendency to avoid which precautions have to be taken, for art and architecture should reflect something less ephemeral than dynastic vagaries. At the same time, in cases where all or most of the monuments in a group are the direct outcome of the initiative and patronage of the rulers of a particular dynasty, a dynastic appellation of that group would doubtless be justified." Cave temples of the Pallavas (A. S. T. No. 1). 32 DHAKY, M. A., Brahmanasvami temple at Varman, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda', Vol. XIV, March-June 1965, Nos. 3-4, p. 381.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 309 Rajasthan33, and shrines at Roda in Northern Gujarat and their relatives in lower Rajasthan, represent two related but independent expressions of temple architecture. Which one of the two styles shall we call Pratihara? Again, the oldest temples at Citrakuta and Mahanala (Menal) are closely kindred to the temples of the Osia variety, with a few features and nuances that also connect the temples at Roda. Medopata, at this time and for several centuries afterwards, seems to be under the hegemony of the Guhilas, and not, for that matter, the Pratiharas. Let us follow the next case. The Paramaras of Arbudamandala (Abu), Bhillamala, and Jabalipura were ultimately of Malava extraction. But the styles of architecture that prevailed in the tenth and eleventh centuries in the territories ruled by them were related to those that were current in Medapata and Gujarat, and not the one that was followed in the Malava province under the aegis of the Paramaras of Dhara. Incidentally, several different dynasties governed over specific portions of Gujarat; while Medapata, as already stated, was ruled by the Guhilas. In Medapata itself two styles flourished, one akin to Osian as already stated, the other one, in lower territory, nursed a style which aligns with Arbuda and Gujarat. Take, again, the case of temples at Kiratakupa (Kiradu). Who the authors of these temples were, is still not certain. Agreed, Cahamanas as well as the Paramaras occupied this city in the latter half of twelfth century; but the temples in question were already in existence there, the latest being older by three generations than the known facts of history. Kiratakupa temples suggest stylistic affiliations with both upper Rajasthan as well as lower Rajasthan, even Gujarat. What dynastic label shall we attach to them? The examples can be multiplied to demonstrate the futility of the exclusive dependence on dynastic appellations. Instead, a regional classification regulated by a chronological yardstick in relation to historical facts must prove a much more versatile, precise instrument of reckoning. This implies, radically, new approaches to the old problems; alteration of methods, but also of interpretation by which to arrive at more comprehensive, more sensitive, more valid and perhaps more convincing solutions. Western India has figured so often in our discussions. The 33 The details are mentioned in my paper Old Temple at Lamba and Kamesvara temple at Auwa to appear in the Journal of Asiatic Society', Calcutta.
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________________ 310 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME geographic sense implicit in the term has to be more specific when cultural meaning is attached to it. For our purpose, it includes two provinces, Rajasthan and Gujarat only. Paranagar in the North34, Parol near Bombay35, Osia and Kiradu on the western-most and Badoli on the eastern extremity are its precise territorial limits as defined by the art-styles. Within the ambit of this definition, Maharashtra remains excluded from Western India. Some scholars include the Deccan in Western India. The Deccan itself, according to these authorities, include Kunkana (Konkan) as well as Kuntala. But Kuntala, along with Karnata, belong culturally with Southern India. If the Deccan means modern Maharashtra, and Maharashtra had, as its heart, the Seunadesa of the mediaeval period, it does not form, as judged from its art and architecture, the part of Western India but stands midway between Malava and Kuntala, possessing at most a few links with Gujarat. The linguistic and racial patterns together with historical happenings and geographical factors, plus the art and architecture draw Rajasthan and Gujarat very close, into one harmonious whole which corresponds with the western part of the subcontinent. Since half a century now, Gujarat has been changing its visage faster than Rajasthan, true. But in the times to which we refer, the bond of unity was much stronger, the equivocality of culture, much harmonical, than would seem on the surface today. Together Rajasthan and Gujarat cover a vast, extensive surface area; which precludes absolute homogeneity despite unity, of cultural expression, or for that matter, of the architectural style. There were, in fact, four distinct styles of temple architecture. The style, the examples of which are the oldest36_the Saurashtra style-was confined to lower Saurashtra and western Kutch exclusively : this severe style has its own independent story of evolution as well as of degeneration37 and has in fact contributed nothing to the development of the fourth style 34 As indicated by the old Siva temple there. 35 Parol is at present in Maharashtra State. The old temple here, of early eleventh century, is a perfect representative of the contem poraneous architectural style of Gujarat. 36 These have been discussed in details by J. M. NANAVATI and the present author in their monograph titled The Maitraka and the Saindhava Temples of Gujarat' now in press with 'Artibus Asiae'. 37 Ibid,
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA: 311 whose importance is paramount to the mediaeval architecture of Western India as we shall have noticed soon. The second style is represented by the temples erected between the latter half of the eighth. century to about the end of tenth century in Northern Gujarat, eastern Kutch, and upper Saurashtra, which, together form the Gujarat school followed by the Arbuda school covering as it does a circuit fifty miles wide around the Abu Hills" and the Medapata school which includes, for our purpose, the lower Mewar only. The third great style is represented by the temples in the heartland of the Pratiharas in Marumandala (Marwar) starting from Jabalipura to Ukesa and Medantaka on a two-pronged straight axis and from Ukesa to Sakambhari along the transverse axis. Sakambhari was governed by the early Cahamanas who had remained feudatory to the Pratiharas for a long span of time. The second style has been since some time past called by me as the Maha-Gurjara by reason of the fact that its oldest and the more numerous examples are found in Gujarat. The third style has been. termed Maha-Maru because most of its examples are known in the ancient Marumandala tract of Rajasthan. The prefix Maha, in each case, denotes that the prevalence did not confine to the territorial limits of their original homeland; they proliferated past their borders into. neighbouring tracts, or at least styles with very close kinship arose in such nearby tracts subsumable under the same general style, either the one or the other. The two styles-Maha-Gurjara and Maha-Maru-could not remain. insular, uninfluenced from each other for a longer time. Not all at once, but by a slow yet definitely progressing process of osmosis, the two exchanged at first the ideas and next went into deep nuptial. embrace' whereby each merged into the other and, by the dawning of eleventh century, a fully fused, potential, highly ornate, hybrid but. extraordinarily standardized style-the Maru-Gurjara-emerged. This typical new style, with a few local accents here and there suggestive of a stress either on Maha-Maru or Maha-Gurjara blood, spread otherwise homogeneously throughout the greater expanse of Western India. This particular style, the fourth one of our series, was previously known as 38 Possessing inner ambulatory around the cella. A complex miniature sikhara (turret) with andakas anywhere between five and twenty-five worked out in arithmetical progression.
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________________ 312 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Solanki style in honour of the dominant dynasty from Gujarat of the self-same denomination who held sway on the major portion of Western India at the height of its power. For reasons mentioned and the premises defined, we shall henceforth call it Maru-Gurjara. The validity of this new nomenclature has been borne out by the studies of U. P. Shah on Western Indian sculptural art; this great authority has arrived at and now favours the self-same threefold classification for the figural art of the Western India of eighth century and after. To the temples now we shall turn, equipped with our new definitions. All the three styles remain represented by the examples we will notice. The temples selected here for description are relatively more important and of these the author possesses firsthand knowledge. I. MAHAVIRA TEMPLE, OSIA Ancient Ukesa, present Osian or Osia, had been a town of some consequence in Pratihara times as well as in later Cahamana period. That is attested by the presence in this town of the now extant thirteen temples of the Pratihara period, being the largest group known at one place of that age in Western India, and by a few more of the later times. To the Jainas the site is of triple significance : it is the centre of nativity of the Ukesavala banias; a town from which Ukesavala Gaccha emanated; and, the oldest Jaina temple now extant in Western India, the sanctuary of Mahavira, exists at this place. Ukesa must have been a very powerful nerve-centre of the Brahmanical as well as Jaina religious activities in older days, bereft though of its original lustre now The celebrated temple of Mahavira is located at the west end of the town. The temple complex comprises a vast Jagati (Terrace) which supports the Main Temple and subsidiary shrines and structures. The Main Temple, northerly oriented, consists of: (1) Mulaprasada (Sanctum Proper) of the sandhara class connected by a kapili (buffer wall) to the (2) Gudhamandapa (Closed Hall) followed by the (3) Trika or Mukhamandapa (Vestibule) provided with a Mukhacatuski (Porch). At some distance in front of the Mukhamandapa is located the (4) Torana and a pair of (5-8) Devakulikas (chapels) to the right and left of the free space between the Mukhamandapa and the Torana. On either side as well as the back side of the Mulaprasada runs a (10) Bhramantika (Cloistered Corridor). Just in front of the Torana is the (11) Valanaka or Balanaka (Entryhall) which is also known as
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________________ SA GARBHA GRHA GUDHA MAN DAPA MUKHA MANDAPA MUKHA CATU.SKT 2 FEET FEET I N Tzz Tesz..CMS Plan of Mahavira temple, Osia
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________________ 314 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Nalamandapa by virtue of its construction above the principal stairway of the Jagati. A subsidiary entrance with an (12) Ubhayamukhi Catuski (Bifacial Porch) is located on the east, and just near the eastern extremity of the Valanaka. The Valanaka is connected with a (9) Devakulika at its eastern walling. (1) Mulaprasada The Mulaprasada, about is 7.77 M wide, is a square of tri anga on plan and thus has three proliferations-the bhadra (central offset), pratiratha (juxta-buttress), and karna (corner)-in the proportion of 4.4 1 2. The elevation (Figs. 1 and 2) covers three divisions: the pitha (socle), kati (wall face) and the sikhara (spire). The pitha comprises a sequence of six bold, heavy, and neatly cut mouldings commencing from a large bhitta (stylobate), a wide antarapatra or kandhara (fillet) followed by a kapota (cornice) decorated with closely set candrasalas (caitya arches) alternating with half lotuses. Next comes a second, less wide but likewise plain antarapatra: and finally tops the vasantapattika, that is, a band, carved in this instance, with what seems a degenerated acanthus scroll. The kati is made up of three parts: vedibandha (podium), jangha (entablature) and a dvistara varandika (bistriated principal cornice). The vedibandha possesses the normal sequence of five mouldingskhuraka (hoof), kumbha (pitcher), kalaka (torus), antarapatra, and kapota-where, however, the antarapatra is of meagre proportions. The kumbha of each of the bifacial karna on the rear is decorated with niched divinities such as two-armed Kubera, a two-armed Gajalaksmi (?), Vayu, and a mithuna (couple). The kapota shows kalikas (buds) in suspension, a feature adopted from wooden architecture, the parallels of which are known from the older temples in Bhubaneshwar in Orissa. and Roda in Northern Gujarat. The karna-jangha shelters the twoarmed Dikpalas (Regents of the Quarters)-Indra, Agni, Yama and Nirrti-in framed niches, each one topped by an archaic udgama (pediment). All the three bhadras (balconied windows) substantially project out. The vedibandha here is replaced by handsome, square vaseand-foliage pillars, the intervening space between which is occupied by a rajasenaka (deep fillet) decorated with perforated and grooved double axes followed by a vedika (balustrade) carved with rich, gracefully flowing vines and geometric patterns capped by an asana-pattaka (seat). The void above is blocked by the stone trellises thrown into boxes. The grille in the west bhadra, with a different motif in each.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 315 box (Fig. 3) is particularly pleasing. The upper end of the kati is marked by a padmapattika revealing a chain of half lotuses. This feature is known in several Brahmanical shrines at Osia itself and at Roda in the case of Temple I. Above this lotus band comes the varandika formed by two cornices in between which is a deep kantha (fillet) decorated with palmette design. The sikhara above the Mulaprasada, in the elaborate MaruGurjara style, is not the original one. It is constituted by karmas, stngas (turrets), urahsrngas (leaning half spires) and the central mulamanjari (main spire). The normally seen rathika (framed panel) in the bhadra portion of the sikhara is substituted here by a projected gavaksa (balcony) which seems a very early and so far known the only one precursor of that feature so commonly met in the fifteenth century examples in Western India.40 (2) Gudhamandapa The Gudhamandapa, which is 10.65 M wide, is likewise square but dvi anga on plan and hence possesses only two projections-bhadra and karna (Fig. 1). In elevation it shares the mouldings of the Mulaprasada upto varandika. The karna-kumbha on the front is ornamented with niched figures of the.pairs of Yaksa and Yaksi and on the west with Kubera. The jangha on the front karna shows niched figures of Sarasvati and (3) Parsva Yaksa41 on the left one and Acchupta and Apraticakra on the right one. The rear karna jangha of the Gudhamandapa has a sunk niche (now vacant) on either side. The superstructure of the Gudhamandapa is a tribhuma phamsana (three tiered pyramidical roof) of great beauty and consistency. Its prahara (base) is formed by a rupakantha (astragal with figures) which shows dancing vidyadharas and gandharvas playing musical instruments in discrete panels. The rupakantha is capped by a chadyaki (hood) followed by an antarapatra carved with chequer pattern. Each of the four corners of the phamsana at this stage is surmounted by a graceful 40 The study of the extant temples, strangely enough, does not reveal the presence of such gavaksas in the sikhara dating before the fifteenth century. In the late instances, however, the gavaksa is seen supported by madalas (struts) not found in the Osian antecedent. 41 The attributes of this two-armed Yaksa are missing; but his head is canopied by a seven-hooded cobra.
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________________ 316 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME arnga. Each of the two bhadra balconies is topped by a parikarma-yukta rathika harbouring Kubera on the west and an unidentified Yaksa on the east. A sikharika flanks on either side of the rathika.43 From the centre of the first tier of the phamsand projects the urahphamsand above. the eastern and western bhadra and it is flanked on either side by half simhakarna (pediment). An antarapatra decorated with a check pattern intervenes between the first and the second tier: The east, north, and the west face of the tier shows a simhakarna flanked on either side by its half replica. The framed panels locked in each of the three central simhakarnas contain a seated Jina figure on the east and west and Kubera on the north. Each of the four corners of this tier is decorated with a very elegant karna kata rendered as an aedicule of the complete shrine with a phamsand superstructure. Once more an antarapatra finds its place, now decorated with ratna (diamond) in panels. Next comes. the third tier with a single simhakarna projecting from the centre in each direction. A seated Jina figure is placed in each one in the middle of the mesh. Now comes a shorter, plain antarapatra and the skandha vedi (covering slab), a short grivd and the boldly fluted ghanta (bell) crowned by a kalasa (pitcher-finial) which may not be original. (3) Mukhamandapa The socle of the Mukhamandapa has suffered extensions in recent times, which mask the original contour completely. The free standing pillars over this pitha support the phamsana superstructure above, which harmonizes beautifully with the phamsand of the Gudhamandapa. It is two tiered and graced at the open corners by prasadikas (miniature temples). The figures in the three panels of the simhakarna on the east are obscured by plaster coatings. A Yaksi with a lion vehicle is. discernible in the central panel. The corresponding panels on north reveal the three Mahavidyas-Gauri, Vairotya and Manasirespectively. The western pharsand, on the north face, shows the seated figures of Yaksi Cakresvari, Mahavidya Mahakali, and Vagdevi. The west face shelters Mahavidya Manavi flanked on either side by a Yaksi which cannot be identified on the strength of the known texts. The two tiered phamsand of the Mukhacatuski is crowned by an unfluted ghanta; its corners are relieved by Nagara-kutas. The three panels in each of its three pediments likewise enshrine divinities. The 42 Framed panel. 43 At Roda, in Temple VII, we notice miniature phamsand instead.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 317 east face presents Mahavidyas Kali and Mahamanasi and (?) Varuna Yaksa; the north face has the figures of Yaksa Sarvanubhuti, Jina Rsabha, and Yaksi Ambika; the west face shows Mahavidya Rohini with an unidentified goddess on its either side. The kapili connecting the Sanctum Proper and the Closed Hall has the same elevational mouldings as the latter two. The kumbha here is figured with Sarya on the east side and an unidentified goddess on a corresponding position on the west. On its jangha stands Isa on the east and Varuna on the west. Above its varandika is placed a large Icarmi or prasada putra, the only early instance of that feature that was to be most popular in the fifteenth century and subsequent times in Western India. Turning now to the interior : the tri anga garbhaglha (cella) is plain and relieved by three large, principal niches which are now vacant. The details of its richly embellished doorframe are concealed under the recent layers of colours and glass inlay work. The engaged pillars on either side of the doorframe and the two free standing, in their alignment in the mukhalinda (antarala), are of the Bhadraka class. The ceiling of the mukhalinda as well as that over the bay joining the sala (nave) is masked by recent, shrill coloured inlay work. The niche in each of the two mukhalinda walls, is now vacant. The four pillars of the sala represent a variation of the Rucaka (square) class with cut-off corners. The vase-and-foliage members, nagapasa with a naga in half human form at the corners, and bold grasamukhas garnish these pillars. The pilasters of the bhadras in parsvalindas (aisles) are almost of the same type, but shorter and thinner. The ceiling above the sala is of the Nabhicchanda (concentric) order formed by archaic gajatalus. Inside the bhadra balconies are framed images of the Jinas installed during later Cahamana Period. In all, there are ten deep-sunk niches, now vacant except the two, in the walls of the Gudhamandapa. The last-noted two niches, one on each limb of the bisected south wall, contain respectively the Dikpala Kubera, and Vayu, thus completing the sequence of eight when counted along with the six carved on the outer wall of the temple. In fact, this interior northern wall seems the theoretical fourth wall complementing the three exterior walls as per the tenets of the Maha-Maru style. The complex surasenaka (bisected caitya arch) surmounting each niche in the Gudhamandapa, enshrines a divinity. Excepting the two niches (in east and west wall) where the figures are obscured by the carved and panelled walls of the cabinet-like khattakas, and the two
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________________ 318 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Dikpala niches in the south wall, which are narrow, the order of the images as one perambulates from north-east to north-west is Rohini, Vairotya, Mahamanasi, and Nirvani. The large panel above the architrave in each bhadra shelters an image of Jina Parsvanatha with attendants. A rupadhara (figural belt) bearing a series of figures in panels, such as, perhaps, Parents of Jina, run along the upper end of the walls of the Gudhamandapa. The broad trisakha doorframe of the Gudhamandapa has the bahyasakha (outer facia) decorated with lotus leaves; the central one, the khalvasekha, is decorated with jewelled buckles. The inner facia has been left plain. The pilasters flanking the doorway show respectively the figures of Ganga and Yamuna above the brackets. In a rathika above the door is enshrined the image of Jina Parsvanatha. A rupadhara is stretched along the upper edge of the wall. The pillars of the Mukhamandapa reveal the vase-and-foliage order at its finest. With slight variation, such as the presence of vidyadhara belt, their decoration broadly conforms to the one noticed on the pillars of the Gudhamandapa. They are six in number, four in one row plus two of the Mukhacatuski in front. The pair of pillars that confronts the door of the Gudhamandapa, possesses extra figural decoration on its upper portion. One cf the two, just above the kumara sirsa (atlantan bracket), shows Yaksa Sarvanubhuti; the other one, on the correspoding position, carries what could be a form of Parava Yaksa. The space between the four pillars of the Mukhamandapa and the wall of the Gudhamandapa is covered by a wide, prominently ribbed kola course simulating timber construction such as exactly paralleled in Harihara Temple No. 3 at this place. The form of the kola is, however, quite distinct from the one known in Maha-Gurjara temples. (4) Torana The Torana (Fig. 4) in front of the Mukhamandapa is a distylar monument erected, according to the epigraph on its lintel, in 1018. Each one of its two pillars stand on a mahapitha of the traditional Western Indian sequence of mouldings current during the Mediaeval period. It thus shows, after the bhita, a chajjika (rooflet), jadyakumbha (inverted cyma recta), once more a chajjika, followed by a grasapattika (band of kirttimukhas), gajapitha (elephant course), and narapitha (human course). The kumbha of the kumbhika (base) of the shaft shows seated and niched Jina figures on all its four faces. On its jangha
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 319 above, stands a figure of Jivantasyami Mahavira in a finely carved niche on all the four faces. The shaft proper starts with an octagonal belt containing eight panels, each one bearing a seated Jina figure. The belt with sixteen faces above shows crisply carved, flaming leaves with a vidyadhara bracket on each one of the four cardinal points. The circular section which now follows, shows a rupadhara (figural belt), a vine pattern, and the grasapattika followed by bharani (abacus) and taranga sirsa (roll bracket). The lintel above is featured with a vine design and a band of half lotuses. The kutacchadya (ribbed awning) covers the top of the lintel. A tilaka crowned by a ghanta is placed at each of its two extremities; while, in the centre, a large tilaka showing addorsed Jina figures serve the dedicatory purpose of the Torana. A large peacock turning its head to the back is placed on either side of the central tilaka; similar smaller ones occur at the extremities beside the tilakas there. Over the tilakas is thrown a graceful andola-malika in lieu of the illika-valana we commonly notice in Gujarat examples. (5-8) Devakulikas The two pairs of Devakulikas, one to the east (facing west) and the other to the west (facing east) seem at first sight exactly alike; the differences among them of details, despite the sameness of plan (a tri anga Latina-ekandaka-shrine with a mukhacatuski) and size, the shrine in each case being 3.048 M in diameter. The northern Devakulika (No. 1) of the eastern pair possesses a pitha with an almost ideally complete set of mouldings. Above the kharasila (foundation cap) carved on the face with half lotuses, comes bhitta decorated with half diamonds followed by jadyakumbha carved with simple lotus leaves; at each of the three bhadras is found an udgama motif soldered with jadyakumbha as found with the earlier temples at Nadol. Now comes karnika (knife-edged moulding) followed by grasapattika, chajjika, gajapitha, and ncrapikha. The northern Devakulika of the eastern pair possesses a pitha with an almost ideally complete set of mouldings. At each pratiratha, the kumbha of the vedibandha shows half lotus as in the earlier temple-of Navalakha Parsvanatha--at Pali. The kumbha at each bhadra shows a figure of a Vidyadevi; Rohini, Acchupta, and Vairoty, can be identified. Kumbha on one of the karnas shows figure of Ambika. Kumbha on the southern kapila shows Brahmasanti. Yaksa. The corresponding northern one shows Yaksi Cakresvari.
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________________ 320 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The jangha displays Dikpalas on the karnas and apsarases on the pratirathas as well as in salilantaras (recesses). The apsaras Sucismita (holding a mirror) on the northern pratiratha is a superb piece of chiseling. The salilantara beside shows apsaras Menaka with capa and dhanusa. The jangha on the either kapili shows the standing figure of Jivantasyami. The three principal niches in the bhadras harbour seated Jaina images with parikaras; that on the south (Fig. 5) is of Parsvanatha; the one on the east may be identified as Mahavira. Above the jangha of the wall comes the bharani (capital) followed by bistriated varandika and the kutacchadya. The superstructure of the shrine is formed by a Latina sikhara. The mukhacatuski of the Devakulika shows vase-and-foliage pillars and a Nabhicchanda ceiling. The trisakha doorframe shows patrasakha with undulating creeper, rupastambha flanked by bakulika followed by bahyasakha carved with lotus leaves. The rupastambha shows figures of Vidyadevis; among them Vajrasonkhala, Vajrankusi, Apraticakra, Acchupta and Kali may be identified. The uttaranga architrave of the doorframe shows Jina figure in the centre as well as at the extremities : in between the latter, once again, the images of Vidyadevis such as Naradatta, Kali, Gauri, and Gandhari may be discerned. Above the mukhacatuski is found samvarana (bellroof) now partly restored. The second Devakulika (No. 3) of the eastern pair is even more ornate than the last one. Its pitha is similar to the last one except that the jadyakumbha shows elaborately carved leaves such as at Somesvara temple at Kiradu. The narapitha here includes Jina-kalyanakas, and incidences and scenes showing marriage procession of Neminatha. The kumbha of the vedibandha is heavily ornamented showing a thin grasapattika with manibandha (jewel band) together with deeply carved ardharatna (half diamond) on pratirathas, and elsewhere figures of Vidyadevis. At the shoulder, the kumbha is decorated with indented asoka leaves. The Vidyadevis include Naradatta, Gauri, Rohini, Mahamanasi, Vajrankusi, Vijrasonkhala, and Gandhari : Heramba is spotted at one place in lieu of Vidyadevi. The bhadra niches of the jargha are vacant. The karnas as usual reveal Dikpala figures while pratirathas and salilantaras display a psaras figures. The pitha mouldings of the mukhacatuski of this temple show some variation. Above the chajjika comes ghantamala, rajasenaka, vedika, lattice, and pillars of the vase-and-foliage order such as are
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA: 321 known in the temples at Chohtan. The lintels supporting the ceiling betray typical diamond-and-double volute pattern such as known. from the porch of the Sun temple, Mudhera. The ceiling itself is of Nabhicchanda order. The pair of pillars shows finely carved camarabearers on their frontage. The pancasakha doorframe comprises patrasakha with a deeply carved foliate scroll, rupasakha, rupastambha, again rupasakka, and lastly the bahyasakha showing a variant foliate scroll. The rupastambha panel harbour Vidyadevis, four in either instance Rohini, Prajnapti, Vajrasrnkhala, Manasi: and, Acchupta, Vairotya, and Yaksi Nirvani etc. The uttaranga harbours Parsvanatha in the centre flanked by. three seated Vidyadevis on either side; among them Cakresvari, Rohini, Mahamanasi and Manavi may be discerned. Samvarana with three rathikas tops the porch. The northern Devakulika (No. 2) of the western pair (Fig. 7) is almost a duplicate of the Devakulika No. 1 in the eastern pair. The jadyakumbha of its pitha, however, does not show udgama motif on bhadra points; and, in mukhacatuski section, chajjika is followed by grasapattika. The Vidyadevis, Yaksis and other Jaina goddesses on the kumbha faces of the vedibandha include Sarasvati, Naradatta, Mahakali, Vairotya, Cakresvari, Acchupta, Ambika, Vajrasrnkhala aad others. The jangha shows the usual Dikpalas and apsarases. Jivantasvami too is found on the kapili parts. The bharani above the jangha is round and decorated with leaves in suspension. The pillars of the mukhacatuski show camara bearers as in the last-noted example. They support a Nabhicchanda vitana. The pancasakha doorframe displays a deeply carved creeper on its patrasakha; the latter is followed by a rupasakha, rupastambha, a rupasakha yet again, and bahyasakha with a beautiful creeper. The Vidyadevis on the rupastambha include Prajnapti, Vajrasrnkhala, Vajrankusi, Cakresvari, Nirvani, Acchupta, Vairotya and one more who cannot be identified. The Jina figure is as usual found in the central panel of the uttaranga. The Vidyadevis here include Mahamanasi, Mahakali, Rohini, Acchupta and others. The Silchara above the shrine proper is of the Latina class similar in details to that of No. 1. The rathikas of the sammvarana or the porch harbour seated Jina figures. G.J.V. 21
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________________ 322 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The neighbouring Devakulika (No. 4) has a pitha similar to the last-noted one. The kumbha of the vedibandha, as in the previous instances, shows Vidyadevis etc. on the faces. These include Mahamanasi, Manasi, Acchupta, Vairotya, Mahakali, Manavi, Cakresvari, Vajrasrnkhala, Prajnapti (?), Rohini, and Brahmasanti Yaksa. The jangha, besides the usual divinities, shows Sarasvati and Cakresvari on the corresponding positions at kapili parts. The bharani above the jangha is square with leaves in suspension. The mukhacatuski possesses the usual Nabhicchanda vitana. The doorframe is likewise of the normal pancasakha type. The Vidyadevis as usual grace the rupastambha and the uttaranga. On the former they are in order, Rohini, Vajrasrnkhala, Vajrankusa, Vairotya, Acchupta, Manasi, and others; on the latter are seen Cakresvari, Rohini, Mahamanasi and so forth. The samvarand above the mukhacatuski is the most perfect example of the kind. In its rathikas, in each of the three instances, a seated. Jina figure comes to view. (10) Bhramantika Behind the Main Temple runs a corridor with about eight pillars in its southern sector, which are, as suggested by their form and details of carving, akin to those known from the main Temple itself. The eastern and the western extensions are of later times; each one, almost in its middle part, possesses a Devakulika (No. 6 and 7) with a sikhara stylistically assignable to late eleventh century. (11) Valanaka A few meters north of the Torana is situated a large Pavilion built over the stairway and the subterranean chambers located on either side of the latter. Although this Hall suffered renovations in antiquity by causes yet unknown it still retains much of the original structure intact. Its dimensions are fairly generous for that age, a rectangle of about 15.85 M x 7.32 M with extensions to the north made at a later period. Its south face, which confronts the Torana, is semi-open with some fragments of the original mattavarana (seat-back) with a gajamunda (elephant head) found still in situ. There are twenty-six free-standing columns in the Hall arranged in four rows; except those of the central octagon which support a large karotaka (ceiling), the rest are original, contemporary with the Main Temple and probably undisturbed.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 323 The pillars of the central octagon are like those seen in Devakulika No. 4 here. Lintels supporting the central ceiling reveal a degenerated diamond-and-double volute pattern. Above the octagon comes a polygon of sixteen sides followed by karnadardarika (cyma reversa with arris), rupakantha (figural belt) with sixteen apsarases standing on large lumbikas (inverted bells) against the background of the three kola courses, the latter followed by four gajatalu courses, where each gajatalu is of the quadruple variety, and finally in the centre a small padmakesara (stamenal tube). Carved in the east part of the north wall are two old niches one of which bears an inscription declaring the renovation of the Hall by one Jindaka in 956. There are other large niches sunk in the east and west wall but of little consequence. A Devakulika (No. 5) attached to, and having its opening in the middle part of the east wall within the Hall deserves a closer examination. The tiny, faceted pillarets of its porch lie only slightly behind the alignment of the engaged pillars of the east wall. The Devakulika in question (Fig. 6) is smaller by about 25 cms in diameter than the four described in the foregoing pages. It also differs in some of its elevational features. Above the kharasila, the pitha is supported on a bhitta showing half diamond and thakarika decorations; it is followed by a chajjika, jadyakumbha, karnika, and vasantapattika sarved with a scroll. The kumbha of the vedibandha shows half lotuses and ardharatna motif carved in bold relief. The divinities on the jangha include Dikpalas, apsarases such as Sucismita and Putravallabha, Jina images in the three principal niches where Parsvanatha may be identified in the back one, and lastly, the standing image of Sarasvati in each of the two kapili faces, in a specially designed niche crowned by a phamsana pediment in lieu of the normal udgama. Vyalas are noticeable in the salilantaras. A part of the jangha on the east is badly damaged; at this place three images are missing. The Latina silchara, partly restored, is carved with the grooved jala work. (12) Ubhayamukhi catuski This double porch, opening inside as well as outside on the east near the eastern extremity of the Valanaka, possesses a pair of boldly carved, very old pillars on either side. The ceilings demonstrate a vigorous, full-blown, large lotus in each case.
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________________ 324 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The original date and the chronology of different structures associated with the temple of Osian Mahavira have so far remained in confusion. Jaina writers of the middle ages were themselves in darkness. The Upakesa gaccha pattavali postulating fifth century B. c. for the cult image and the town of Osia is nothing but mythical. On the strength of all available historical and archaeological evidences, Osia, it would seem, did not exist before eighth century. Kakkasuri in his Nabhinandana Jinoddhara (1337) mentions that the temple was founded in 961, a statement also paralleled in Oswal utpati." But that date is nearer to the one of the Jindaka's renovation of the Valanaka and not applicable to the foundation of the Main Temple. The writers of the present century are only a little more informed than the mediaeval chroniclers. BHANDARKAR'S observations, the earliest ones available, may be examined at the outset. "The temple is, like most ancient Jain temples, enclosed both at the sides and the back by a raw of subsidiary shrines, which, to judge from their style, are not contemporaneous with the temple but belong to tenth century. They were probably constructed at the time when the nal mandapa was repaired by Jindaka."45 The Devakulikas are doubtless late; but the matter is not so simple at that. None of them seems to be of Jindaka's time; they belong to different dates as we will have demonstrated Commenting on the sikhara of the Main Temple, BHANDARKAR observes: "The spire of the temple has obviously been rebuilt with the old materials. I gathered from the villagers that it was in ruins a hundred years ago, and was rebuilt of fallen pieces. This is also seen from the fact that under amalasara there is a human face on each of the four sides, a characteristic found in almost all modern temples in Gujarat and Rajasthan."46 A closer examination of the sikhara reveals facts which contradict BHANDARKAR'S deductions in their main part. The sikhara is for certain old, though not original. It is a replacement at some date in the early eleventh century for an eighth century superstructure. This is proven by the jala type, the andaka types (which include karmasrngas), gavaksas, etc. In fact KRISHNA DEVA who surveyed this temple very thoroughly in about 1959, had reached the same conclusion. 44 SHAH, AMBALAL PREMCHAND, Jaina Tirtha Sarva-Samgraha', Vol. I, pt. 2, (Gujarati; 1953), p. 173. 45 BHANDARKAR, D. R., Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India 1908-9, (Calcutta 1912), p. 108. 46 Ibid.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 325 We shall not dwell on OJHA's statements which follow BHANDARKAR and which are not very clear in contents. There is yet another authority who recorded his observations on this temple. PERCY BROWN thus writes: "It appears to have been first built at the end of eighth century, and then repaired and added to in the tenth century, so that it is a record of development over two periods. This is shown by the changes in style of the building throughout, but particularly in the character of the pillars, in which it is possible to compare those of the mandapa belonging to the original structure with the latter example in the second porch; this latter apartment or nal mandapa is so called because it was erected subsequently over the nal, or staircase, leading into the interior of the building. To add to the history of this temple, the torana or entrance archway appears to be even a still later addition, probably made in the eleventh century. In this one building alone, therefore, it is possible to follow the course of the style over a period of several centuries."47 TO PERCY BROWN's observations following corrections may be applied: the Main Shrine suffered no renovation except replacement of the sikhara in the eleventh century; there are thus no changes throughout the style of the building;48 the nala-mandapa still possesses considerable material that is original, of the eighth century and in situ. PERCY BROWN's complete silence on the Devakulikas is intriguing and unless these be added, it is not "possible to follow the course of the style over period of several centuries". The sequence of constructional activities in this complex can be visualized on the strength of the detailed style-critical analysis seconded, wherever known, by epigraphic evidences. Accordingly, following stages seem to have ensued. The Jagati with its eastern Ubhayamukhi Mukhacatuski, the Valanaka, the Main Temple with the Mukhamandapa, and the southern part of the Bhramantika were built at one time; that is when Vatsaraja Pratihara ruled according to Jindaka's inscription. All these structures follow the Maha-Maru style in its virginal purity. They are the oldest in this complex. Jindaka repaired the Valanaka in 956. Before his times, perhaps, the 47 BROWN, PERCY, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), Second Edition, p. 140. 48 SHRI KRISHNA DEVA has very carefully examined this temple. His own conclusions on this issue are exactly the same. He visited the Osia group of temples some years previous to my own visit.
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________________ 326 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME north face (confronting the town) of the Valanaka may be semi-open as its south face is. He closed it and caused the niches to be built in the wall so formed. A generation later, Devakulika No. 5 was erected and shunted to its eastern walling. It now followed the Maha-Gurjara style with a few features of late Maha-Maru, such as the jala of the sikhara. The pitha, the jangha with vyalas, are all after the Maha. Gurjara tradition. During the late tenth century, Maha-Gurjara style had crossed its traditional frontiers and entered into Marumandala via, perhaps, Pali to which we shall refer later. In fact in this Devakulika, the two styles meet but Maha-Gurjara tends to dominate. At the next stage, in 1018, the Torana was set up. It is precisely at this time that the present sikhara of the Mulaprasada of the Main Temple was built, and Devakulika No. 1 and, soon after, No. 2 (confronting each other) were erected. The figural carving on the Torana and that on the latter Devakulikas, particularly No. 1 closely agree. The style of all these structures is what we should call the early Maru-Gurjara, the more perfect example of which is Devakulika No. 3 erected possibly a decade hence. The Devakulika No. 4 was to be added as late, perhaps, as the end of eleventh century as suggested by its coarse carving when the Bhramantika was extended along east and west with its two embedded Devakulis (Nos. 7 and 8). At this time or perhaps a little later, the central twelve original pillars of the Valanaka were replaced by eight new ones in a different style for supporting a new great ceiling of the typical Maru-Gurjara tradition. The extensions of the Valanaka were also made during this time. The history of the temple thus covers three centuries of building activities. The contribution of this Osian complex to the study of Jaina art and architecture is significant as its initial landmark as well as for the wealth of information and artistry it reveals. The Main Temple, a fine piece of Maha-Maru architecture, reveals the oldest example of Jaina kind of Trika or mukhamandapa (chacauki). Its rich treasures of Jaina iconography are the earliest so far known in the context of temple decorations. The Devakulikas themselves are little masterpieces of architecture and demonstrate a further development of the Western style in the making; at the same time they are illustrative of progress made in Jaina iconography. The fact that they were absent in the eighth century and that they are fewer in number and placed discretelynot in coalescence-may indicate that the Jaina way of temple planning was unknown in eighth century and was not effected even in the early eleventh century since inconsistent with the original plan. The
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 327 rangamanqapa (dancing hall)-the glory of the Jaina temples-had not yet materialized. For noticing further development in Jaina way of temple planning, we must turn to Varman.49 II MAHAVIRA TEMPLE, VARMAN Varman, Brahmana of the mediaeval epoch is today famous for its ruined temple of the Sun. To the Jainas in the Middle Ages it well-known as a seat of the Brahmana gaccha and for the old sanctuary of Mahavira. The temple, unfortunately, 'had suffered repeated renovation as well as damages. Two at least can be discerned on epigraphic evidences, one in 1186 and the other in 1390. The Mulaprasada is original but relatively unpretentious and in elevation starts directly from the vedibandha. The ranga-mandapa, of no consequence, was added during the second renovation and restored more than once afterwards. The Bhramantika once possessed the traditional twentyfour Devakulikas with colonnade. The cells have disappeared but the basement of the corridor is still discerned in north and south section. Some of the old pillars of these have been re-erected (Figs. 8 & 9). The eastern corridor possessed two samatala ceilings, one carved with Ambika, the other-inscribed one-of similar workmanship is dated to 1186 and shows the figure of Gajalaksmi. Commenting on the latter, SUKTHANKAR averred that the original temple is probably not older than this sculpture.50 This is contrary to the facts revealed by the closer examination of the material in the temple. The mouldings of the Sanctum are certainly very old. The door frame mith its powerful rupastambha is likewise old. The image of Mahavira (smaller one) is a fine example of the Maha-Gurjara art of the late ninth century as ascertained by U. P. SHAH. The older pillars illustrated here, though smaller, are comparable in details and style to those in the Sun temple of the late ninth century in Varman itself.51 The importance of the Mahavira temple at Varman lies in its illustration of the earliest archaeological evidence for twenty-four Devakulikas which once it possessed contemporaneously with the Main 49 Literary sources speak of a Cauvisa jinalaya founded sometime in the ninth century at Denduanaka in Marumandala. 50 Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle', 1917, pp. 71-72. 51 Cf. DHAKY (1965), Fig. 2.
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________________ 328 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Temple. This agrees with the literary tradition of Yasobhadrasuri having founded Cauvisa Jinalaya at Denduanaka (Dinduana) in Marumandala at about the same time. III MAHAVIRA TEMPLE, GHANERAV Ghanerav is situated in the Gorwad area of Rajasthan. To the four miles east, south-east of the town is located the temple of Mahavira famed in local legend and well-known as an important Jaina centre of pilgrimage, one of the five holy tirthas, in this part of Rajasthan since the mediaeval times. The temple complex, as at Osia, faces north and comprises a Mulaprasada connected with a Gudhamandapa articulated with Mukhamandapa followed by a Rangamandapa surrounded by twentyfour Devakulikas. The whole complex is perched on a low Jagati which supports a Prakara (Enclosure) at its top where the Devakulikas end. The Main Temple is of a sandhara class and dvi anga on plan where karna and the bhadra proliferate. Each balconied bhadra of the Mulaprasada as well as of the Gudhamandapa is fitted with grille mixed with vyalas and heavenly minstrels. The Mulaprasada and the Gudhamandapa are of equal width which is 8.52 M and are connected through a narrow, recessed kapili (Fig. 2). The total length of the whole temple upto the stairway of the Mukhamandapa is 18.38 M, almost of the size of the Sun temple at Varman. In elevation, the temple has a basement that includes both the pitha as well as vedibandha as is known in the case of Somanatha Phase I Temple at Prabhas, Lakhesvara temple at Kerakot, Laksmana temple and two others at Khajuraho and still earlier temples such as Sonkansari No. 2 at Ghumali in Saurashtra and Brahmanasvami temple at Varman. The consecutive mouldings above the double course of bhitta are jadyakumbha, kumuda (torus), antarapatra, and pattika, all boldly shaped but undecorated. The vedibandha above is equally plain. The basement harbours a niche below the centre of each balconied window. Corresponding to the five balconies-two of the Gudhamandapa and three of the Mulaprasada--there are niches in equal number. They enshrine Jaina gods and goddesses. Perambulating from east to west, they are in order Padmavati, Cakresvari, Brahmasanti Yaksa, Nirvani, and Gomukha Yaksa.51 The jangha of the wall shows Dikpala figures, very boldly carved, on the karnas. They stand in framed niches uplifted by bharaputrakas as at Trinetresvara Temple near Than. . The ninth and the tenth
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________________ GARBHAS GRHA MUKHA LINDA GUDHA MANDAPA VS MUKHA MANDAPA -- MUKHA CATU ---- --- -- ABOVE BELOW Isanapattaka Asanapattaka FEET 2763 226MS Plan of Mahayira temple, Ghanerav
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________________ 330 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Dikpala-Brahma and Ananta-never depicted in a temple are, it is interesting to note, found here on wall pilasters in the Mukhamandapa that stand in the immediate vicinity of the karnas of the Gudha. mandapa. In the salilantaras stand vyalas on gajamunda brackets. Above each vyala is seen a gandharva figure. (Figs. 10 & 11) At the balconies, in lieu of jangha, is found a different set of mouldings: this commences from a rajasenaka showing figures in panels followed by vedika showing foliate scrolls and female attendant figures, topped by a double course of asanapattaka and next the kaksasana (seatback) most beautifully carved with figural motifs and vegetal creepers. Above this comes the lattice thrown in between simple dwarf pillars. The superstructure of the Mulaprasada as well as of the Gudhamandapa is not original. The varandika below the superstructures, though simple, seems old. The Mukhamandapa (Fig. 12) shares the basement upto the top of the pitha but above it is placed a broad and deep rajasenaka as high as the kumbha of the vedibandha of the Gudhamandapa. The level of the floor of the Mukhamandapa is thus lower than that of the Gudhamandapa. The rajasenaka here shows figures of Vidyadevis such as Vairoty, and gandharvas and a large kumbha-purusa on the north and the south side now replaced by a modern copy. The six free standing and four engaged pillars (barring those of recent extensions) are original and of Bhadraka class such as seen at Trinetresvara temple near Than. The staircase of this mukhacatuski bears a large panel on either side of the steps harbouring Vidyadevis, one of whom is Vajrankusa.52 The ceilings of the Mukhamandapa are very important for the varieties they reveal. That of the mukhacatuski is a lenticular Nabhicchanda type (Fig. 14): it is of the kind known at a similar location in such earlier temples as Brahmanasvami temple at Varman, Kamesvara temple at Auwa, and Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur, the last one in Central India. The ceiling immediately above the door of the Gudhamandapa is of the samatala kind showing figural work in boxed frame and a central medallion with divinities (Fig. 13). Variants of this type are known from Siva temple at Kotai and a few other places.53 52 As against the attributes prescribed in the texts, Gomukha Yaksa shows vara, padma, and kalasa. Brahmasanti Yaksa holds varada ksa, padma, chatra, and kalasa. 53 NANAVATI, J. M., and DHAKY, M. A., The Ceilings in the Temples of Gujarat, Bulletin of the Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda', Vols. XVI-XVII, Fig. 7, p. 45.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 331 The one on the right as well as the left bay is of the Nabhicchanda class with gajatalus in linkages (Fig. 15) and is a precursor of those known from the Sun temple (1027) at Modhera.54 On either side of the doorway of the Gudhamandapa is found a well-embellished khattaka showing bharaputrakas, gagarakas and kamarupa at its base and a double, deeply grooved udgama above. The engaged pillars on either side of the door show respectively a figure of Ganga and Yamuna above the base. The Doorframe comprises patrasakha carved with undulating creeper, followed by a rupasakha mixed with vyalas followed in turn by rupastambha, bahyasakha with lotus leaves, and ratnasakha with bakulika on the side and naga at the bottom. The rupastambha on either side bears six goddesses in panels; on the left are Rohini, a two-armed goddess bearing a trident, with peacock as her vehicle, Vajrasrnkhala, Vajrankusa, a divinity showing abhaya, pasa, ankusa and mudgara with tortoise as the vehicle and tricephalous snake above the head, and lastly Yaksi Nirvani or Mahalaksmi (since the lotuses in the hand show elephant); on the right are Mahalaksmi, Manasi, Acchupta, Vairoty, Vajrankusa and Yaksi Ambika. Those on the architrave seem more retouched than the ones on the jambs. Inside of the Gudhamandapa is sombre. Above the central octagon formed by faceted pillars is found a Sabhamarga vitana (Fig. 16). It starts with a karnadardarika decorated with indented leaves, followed by grasapattika, rupakantha, kolas ending in gagaraka or naga, two more courses of kola, followed by a gajatalu course, a dardarika, once more gajatalu course, and lastly a gajatalu with padmakesara in the centre. In the rupakantha are seen nayikas on elephant brackets in lieu of vidyadhara brackets, a convention known from several schools in Rajasthan but unknown in Gujarat.55 The diameter of the Ceiling is 4.10 M. The inner sanctum, dvi anga on plan and 3.35 M wide, has three niches on the central offsets, now vacant. The doorframe is similar to the one of the Gudhamandapa. The Vidyadevis and Yaksis on the 54 Ibid., Fig. 32. 55 In Gujarat, in most cases, the Vidyadhara is found; in a few cases, lumbika brackets are also known. The oldest example of the former is seen in the ceiling of the Rangamandapa of Muni Bawa temple near Than datable to the third quarter of tenth century.
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________________ 332 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME rupastambhas are: Rohini, an unidentified divinity (with trident, lotus, citron fruit, and peacock as its vehicle), Nirvani, Vajrankusa, Cakresvari, Mahamanasi, Manasi, a goddess with boar vehicle and shield, sword, etc. as her attributes, Vairotya, and Yaksi on bhadrasana with lotus in each of her two arms. Curiously, all the divinities on the two doorframes ride directly over their respective vehicle. The Rangamandapa of the temple is featureless. The Devakulikas, built at the close of tenth century, are almost uninteresting. Only those on the north face have a jangha decorated with Vidyadevis, Dikpalas and vyalas. As for the date of the Main Temple, BHANDARKAR thought that the wall mouldings are as old as eleventh century.56 In point of fact the original parts of the temple are still older, of the mid-tenth century as the comparison with the Ambika temple (961) at Jagat and other contemporaneous shrines doubtless indicate.57 The informed sources say that the image in the sanctum once had a pedestal bearing a date equivalent to 954 which supports the above-noted conclusion. The Mahavira temple, as we look back and estimate, is one of the notable examples of the Medapata school of the Maru-Gurjara style of architecture. Its rich iconography which includes the oldest known example of Brahmasanti Yaksa58 is equally significant. IV NAVALAKHA PARSVANATHA TEMPLE AT PALI Pali, Pallika of the mediaeval period, seems to be a town of some consequence, indicated by its monumental remains, but also by its being the germinal land of Pallivala brahmins as well as Pallivala banias and the Pallivala gaccha of the Svetambara Canon. To the architectural history of Western India Pali's contribution is of some significance, Pali being located on the crossroads of the two contemporaneous styles-Maha-Maru and Maha-Gurjara-and, the three out of its four extant temples are illustrative of three different stylistic 56 'Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle,' 1908, p. 59. 57 AGRAWAL, R. C., Khajuraho of Rajasthan, The Temple of Ambika at Jagat, 'Ars Asiatiques', Tome X, 1964, Fascicule 1; also DHAKY (1961), plates VII-VIII illustrating old temples at Kotai, in Kutch. 58 For detailed information on Brahmasanti Yaksa, consult SHAH, U. P., Brahmasanti and Kapardi Yaksas, 'Journal of the M. S. University of Baroda', Vol. VII, No. 1.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 333 landmarks perfectly bolstering the concept of the aforementioned two archetypal styles and the third style that resulted by their mating. The Anadakarana temple in the heart of the town represents the MahaMaru style of the mid-tenth century but still at its virginal purity; the Navalakha Paravanatha temple has a Mulaprasada that follows MahaGurjara style but the Gudhamandapa, curiously, is expressive of the Maha-Maru style; and finally the Somesvara temple, of late eleventh century, is a representative of the full-fledged Maru-Gurjara style. Our immediate concern is of course with the Navalakha temple to which now we shall turn. The Navalakha Parsvanatha temple was originally dedicated to Jina Mahavira since referred to as Viranatha maha-caitya and Mahavira caitya in the inscriptions of 1122 and 1145 respectively. The oldest inscriptions on the image-pedestals within this temple are datable to 1088 and 1095 respectively. The temple comprises a Mulaprasada, Gudhamandapa, Rangamandapa and the Devakulikas surrounding the major part of the temple-premise. The Devakulikas are not integrated with the Rangamandapa. They, together with the latter structure and the sikhara of the Mulaprasada, were added or replaced in 1629 when the previous cult image was substituted for that of the Paravanatha; our interest is, albeit, centred around the older portions only. The Mulaprasada is tri anga on plan with karna, pratiratha, and bhadra in the proportion of 1:0.75:2 respectively. The original diameter, inclusive of the pitha now hidden below a recently built platform, could, seemingly, be 6 M. The topmost part of the pitha exposed above the mask of the platform is a slanting cippika such as known at Trinetresvara temple at Than. The vedibandha of the wall, strangely enough, does not possess the usual antarapatra. The kumbha reveals interesting decorations; powerfully rendered, fully blown half lotus on the karna faces,59 hamsa yugma as well as kinnara yugma on the pratiratha faces," and surasenaka at the bhadras.61 The kapotapali is ornamented with 58a BHANDARKAR (1908), p. 45. As found on the kumbha of the Devakulika No. 5 in Mahavira temple group at Osia. This one, from Navalakha, has a little earlier look. 60 Such decorations are known at the identical positions at Ambika temple at Jagat and Siva temple, Kotai. 61 This is a Maha-Maru feature.
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________________ 334 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME ardharatna alternated with thakarika, a feature fairly common with the Western Indian temples of that age and earlier. On the jangha of the wall, the three principal niches are today found vacant. Each pratiratha face, and that which is on the same directional plane as the bhadra niche, shows a standing figure of a Kayotsarga Jina with maladharas hovering above; whilst the face on a plane at the right angle shows an apsaras in each case. The Dikpalas, as usual, take their position on the karnas. The salilantaras are filled with vyala figures, those of gaja- and simha- are clearly discernible. Above each vyala is carved a bold visage of a grasa. The bistriated varandika above the jangha is simply treated. The rathika above each bhadra harbours a Jina image. The Gudhamandapa has a featureless exterior. The large, fluted vase-and-foliage pillars of the octagon are doubtless original, though, the great ceiling they support is a substitution of a later date. The kola courses in the four vikarna (corner) vitanas are, however, original. The patrasakha of the saptasakha doorframe of the sanctum has suffered from the recent mirror inlay. Next follow in sequence the vyalasakha, gandharvasakha, rupastambha with Jina matska figures in panels, gandharvasakha yet again, followed by vyalasakha, the bahyasakha (disfigured now with mirror setting) and the eighth adventitious maladharasakha. The entire Gudhamandapa inclusive of pillars, ceilings and the doorframe is under thick coating of paints. The Mulaprasada, on the other hand, has suffered both from plaster-coating and gaudy paints. The temple, though preserving old fabric, has lamentably lost its photogenic qualities. Commenting on this temple, BHANDARKAR wrote: "The temple of Naulakha is in plan like many Jain temples, and there is nothing particular here that calls for any notice. It is doubtless an old building that has undergone repairs. The most ancient part of the temple is the gudha-mandapa or closed hall, the pillars of which cannot be later than the 10th century. They are, however, vulgarly bedaubed with different paints.... and are thus deprived of their original beauty."62 As observed in the foregoing, only the interior of the Gudhamandapa (save its central ceiling) is original. Although BHANDARKAR is silent on the doorframe of the sanctum, it, too, is original. At the same time BHANDARKAR's utter non-reference to the Mulaprasada is difficult to 62 BHANDARKAR (1908), p. 45.
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 335 explain since it is, even as a casual examination reveals, old and original upto the cornice. In style, the Mulaprasada comes very close to the Mahavira temple at Ghanerao (c. 954), Ambika temple (961) at Jagat, Lakhesvara temple at Kerakot, Siva temple at Kotai---both of mid-tenth century-, in short to all such temples of the different schools of Maha-Gurjara style with a central date of mid-tenth century. At the same time it differs sharply from the contemporaneous Nilakanthesvara temple at Kekind, a most representative example of the Maha-Maru tradition in its late maturity. The fluted vase-and-foliage class of pillars in the Gudhamandapa seem to be derivative of those seen in the well-known Sun temple at Osia, while the doorframe shows general relationship with the doorframe of Kamesvara temple at Auwa. The figures in the doorframe reveal nuances of the tenth century despite the thick coating of painting. It seems, a different guild altogether, the one which followed Maha-Maru tradition, had worked on the Gudhamandapa. V THE TEMPLE OF MAHAVIRA, SEWADI Sewadi was known in the early second millenium as samipati according to the inscription of 1115 in the Mahavira temple. The temple itself is of the usual Jaina plan with a Mulaprasada, Gudhamandapa, Trika, Rangamandapa, and the surrounding Devakulikas. The Mulaprasada, some 6.8 M in width, is tri anga on plan where karna and pratiratha are not only samadala (equilateral) but also of the same proportions. The mouldings of undecorated karna-pitha are otherwise bold. The lotuses on the kumbha of the vedibandha are also powerfully rendered. The mandovara is simple and its bhadra-niches are vacant. Above the sanctum comes the sikhara which is in Bhumija mode. It is a brick and plaster structure. The plaster is naturally oft-renovated since the temple is a living monument. That perhaps misled BHANDARKAR who wrote that the "spire....is a later work, but resembles the Dekkan style of sikhara."63 The spire is certainly not late. There is a complete accord between the Mulaprasada and the spire both in proportions as well as details not possible had the spire been late. The absence of kutacchadya, the bold surasenaka at the root of the lata (spine) and the beautiful regression of its kutastambhas differentiate it from later examples such as known from Rankpur (Sun temple: mid 15th-cent.) and Chittor (Adbhutanathaji temple : late 15th 63 Ibid., p. 53.
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________________ GARBHA GRHA .: CRHA MUKHA LINDA GUDHA MANDAPA AL MUKHA MANDAPA fythyh FEET 6 22' 165 27.CMS Plan of Mahavira temple, Sewadi
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________________ 2 Fig. 1 Back view, south, Mulaprasada, Mahavira temple, Osia
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________________
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________________ S Jan Education International 121 Fig. 3 The Western Bhadra balcony, Mahavira temple, Osia Fig. 2 The Sikhara and the Phamsana, Mahavira temple Osia
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________________ Fig. 4 Torona Mahavira temple, Osia
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________________ 1J6 FILOF Je 30 Je 07 06 DTUTTE Fig. 5 South facade, Devakulika No. 1, Mahavira temple, Osia R IMG
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________________ WHA AM Fig. 6 De vakulika No. 5 Mahavira temple, Osia For Private & Personal Use Fig. 7 Devakulika Nos. 2 and 4 Mahavira temple, Osia 000
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________________ Fig. 8 A pillar, bhramantika, Mahavira temple, Varman SS Fig. 9 Pilasters, bhramantika, Mahavira temple, Varman Jan Education Internage
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________________ Fig. 10 East face, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav 5 TE METTETSMES Fig. 11 South face, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav Je@om ry.org
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________________ Fig. 11A South side, Mulaprasada, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav YEN Fig. 12 Mukhamandapa, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav Sons Only
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________________ Nowe Zegna SOVEROSOBAYO 68 JOIOIOS Fig. 13 Samatala Vitana, Mukhamandapa, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav
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________________ th Fig. 14 A Ksipta Vitana of Nabhicchanda order, Mahayira temple, Ghaner av For Private Personal Use Only A Ksipta Vitana Order, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav
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________________ Fig. 16 A Ksipta Vitana of Sabhamarga Order, Mahavira temple, Ghanerav ain Education International
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________________ Fig. 17 Gudhamandapa, Mahavira temple, Sewadi
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________________ EL ERLEULE Fig. 18 Bhumija sikhara of the Mahavira temple, Sewadi
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________________ Bise Fig. 19 Back view, Neminatha temple, Nadol Www.jainelibrary.org
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________________ Fig. 20 Back view, Mulaprasada, Parsvanatha temple, Sadri
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________________ Fig. 21 Back view of the sikhara, Parsvanatha temple, Sadri
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________________ Fig. 22 Gudhamancapa, West face, Parsvanatha temple, Sadri
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________________ nafenenenaa 'anedenatene 'eyaafe sedesete (gene 'enaa Fig. 23 Mulaprasada, temple of Padmaprabha, Nadol www.jainelibrary.or
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________________ Fig. 24 Mulaprasada with Gudhamandapa, temple of Padmaprabha, Nadol 8000
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 337 cent). The absence of gavaksas typical of the later age further strengthens this view. In fact the entire appearance of the sikhara is more archaic than the two dated and the oldest known examples of Bhumija class, the Ambarnatha temple (1060) near Bombay and Udayesvara temple (1080) at Udayapur in Madhya Pradesh. What BHANDARKAR calls "Dekkan style" is now what we know as Bhumija on the strength of Samaranganasutradhara (1035-55) and Aparajitaprccha (3rd quarter of 12th century) 64, The Gudhamandapa, some 8.9 M wide, is likewise tri anga but bhagava on plan. Its balconied windows once had grilles (Fig. 17) of the kind known at Modhera. The confronting face of the karna of the jangha here, unlike the Mulaprasada, bears figure sculptures; so also the middle part of each of the two bhadra-lattices. Commenting on these figures, BHANDARKAR thus writes : "The figures on these walls are not profuse, but are artistically carved, and cannot be later, in my opinion, than the tenth century. On the south are three, the first of which is a Naga female with ear-lobes perforated and bearing earrings. She has two hands, the left one of which holds a shield and the right a scimitar now broken off. Her head is canopied with the hood of a snake, whose coils come down to her left foot. The second figure is in a niche decorated with side pilasters, the tops of which are surmounted by two seated Jinas. In the niche itself, the figure wears a crown, necklace and waste band, and stands in the attitude of kayotsarga. The third figure is that of Ksetrapala, altogether nude, and with two hands, one holding a club and the other upraised but bearing a snake. On the north side also there are only three figures, the central one of which is in a niche, and is almost exactly the same as that on the south side. Of the remaining two, one is a female figure with two hands, of which the left is broken off but the right bears a discus. Below near her right foot is 'her vahana, the man. Her ears are perforated, and she wears earrings. The other figure is of Brahma, standing with two hands, the right one of which is raised up and bears a rosary while the left holds a pitcher. He has a beard and wears khadavs or wooden sandals. His ears are also perforated, and behind his head is shewn a 64 STELLA KRAMRISCH was the first scholar to identify the Bhumija mode. KRISHNA DEVA has discussed the morphological features of this mode at some length in his presidential address (Fine Arts and Technical Science Section) at All India Oriental Conference, Srinagar, 1961. G.J.V. 22
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________________ 338 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME creeper."65 These images are of singular iconographic interest. What BHANDARKAR called "Naga female" is in reality Vidyadevi Vairotya. The niched figure applied on the middle part of the grille, which wears ornaments and stands in kayotsarga pose, is none else but Jivantasvami Mahavira. His identification of the nude image may, if correct, be an unusual form of Ksetrapala, or perhaps it may be an hitherto unknown form of Parsva Yaksa. Tlie central figure on the grille on the south side was, as against the assertion of BHANDARKAR, not the same as the one on the corresponding position on the south. It was a standing figure of Jina Mahavira and not of Jivantasvami.65a The female figure bearing a discus is of course Yaksi Cakresvari. And what BHANDARKAR calls Brahma must be identified as Brahmasanti Yaksa. A mediaeval iconographer would have been simply displeased with the sculptor who indicated the presence of the divinities with such an economy of arms and attributes. He would even have dismissed the mount altogether in most cases. That gave his chisel a freedom, often denied, to turn his figures into living, pulsating, smoothly swaying male and female bodies of extraordinary beauty with round, finely formed faces radiating an inner glow of bliss and compassion. They are, or rather they were66, the greatest masterpieces of chiseling of their age in all Western India. Sculptors of the stature and vision of the Sewadi class are rare to meet in the Middle Ages in India. The superstructure of the Gudhamandapa, if it ever existed, has disappeared in antiquity. BHANDARKAR thought that "....the outside walls of the gudha-mandapa or closed hall and the garbhag?ha or sanctum, though old, are evidently rebuilt.967 This deduction does not stand scrutiny since both the structures are original, retouched though here and there. The Trika possesses eight free standing pillars, octagonal below and polygonal and round above. They are sparsely decorated. The hamsa-yugmas shown on the jalya-kumbha of the base of the pillars at once remind us of a similar decoration on the kumbha of the mandovara of the tenth century temples in Mewad, Navalakha Parsvanatha temple at Pali, and Siva temple at Kotai in Kutch. The pillars themselves 65 BHANDARKAR (1908), p. 53. 65a These grilled balconies have been very recently replaced by pillared porticos. 66 Of late they were coloured, and retouched also. 67 BHANDARKAR (1908), p. 53.
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________________ SOME FARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 339 bear affinities to those known from Ambika temple at Jagat and Arunesvara temple (mid tenth cent.) at Kasindra near Abu Road. The Trika is provided with lateral staircases, a feature unknown with any other Jaina temple with trika in Western India. The ceilings of the Trika are all plain. But the two niches carved on either side of the doorframe of the Gudhamandapa are little masterpieces of khattaka carving. On their round pilasters are shown gracefully swaying kalasa-dharinis, a feature also paralleled Somanatha Phase II temple (1027-30) at Prabhasa. The pediments in the shape of udgamas in series are both rich for the patterning and bold in delineation. The tri-sakha doorframe of the Gudhamandapa comprises a patrasakhi with undulating creeper, rupastambha with Yaksis and Vidyadevis, and lastly the bahyasakha with bold lotus leaves. On the rupastambha, such figures as of Padmavati, Nirvani and Cakresvari can be culled out; the attributes of the rest have become indistinct under the thick coating of painting. In the uttaranga panels are found: the figure of Jina Mahavira in the centre flanked on either side by a figure of the goat-headed god Harinegamesi and two goddesses on the left and right side. The Gudhamangapa from within is plain. Its pillars, out of the normal axes, are not unlike those in the Trika. The lintels resting above show a vigorously carved diamond motif on their faces as is known with the temples in Nadol. The ceilings are flat and undecorated. The trisakha doorframe of the garbhaglha is almost similar in form to that of the Gudhamandapa. The rupastambha is likewise graced with the figures of Vidyadevis and Yaksis. Rohini, Vajrankusa, Gandhari, Vairotya, Acchupta, Prajnapti, and Mahamanasi can be easily identi. fied. On the uttaranga is seen Jina figure in the centre flanked by goddesses in panels on either side. Purusadatta, Cakresvari, and Kali can be recognized without difficulty; for the rest, although attributes and vehicles are more or less clear, their textual parallels are wanting to permit correct identification.68 The Rangamandapa is too simple to deserve much notice over and above the fact that, to all seeming, it is an addition of the fifteenth century. The Devakulikas seem to reveal two different phases of 68 A Yaksi with pustaka, pustaka, and naravahana; another with naga as mount and patra and danda in hands; a third one with ram as a vehicle and sword and shield in hands.
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________________ 340 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME construction. Those on the east, and running upto the Trika along the north and the south were built contemporaneously with the Main Shrine. Those extending further and merging with the western row were added during the later part of the eleventh century. The temple was thus originally intended to be a caturvimsati jinalaya and not bavana jinalayi as it stands today with later accretions. There is nothing particular about the Devakulikas, most of which have a simple doorframe. The dvarapalas of the eastern ones are exceptionally fine, as exquisitely postured as those of the doorframe of the garbhagTha. On the re-entrant wall of the two Devakulikas in the eastern corridor are carved two niches, each facing the other and enshrining an identical image of Sarasvati of about the end of eleventh century. The kati mekhala of each one with its jhallari (festoon) is the most elaborate of its kind known in Western India. The pillars of the entryway in the eastern corridor with their sur-capitals and grille work and apsarases are of the same date as the temple. The date of the older parts of the temple requires careful examination. The inscription of 1116 within the temple declares a donation for the worship of santinatha installed by General Yasodeva, grandfather of Ghalluka, the contemporary of Prince Kattukaraja, the donor. Assuming Yasodeva installed the image about forty years before the date of the inscription, the temple must be in existence in 1076. But more precise evidences are supplied by the style of sculpture and the form of mouldings which are very near to those of the Sun temple at Modhera. BHANDARKAR dates the sculptures to tenth century as we have already noticed. They are, doubtless, a little earlier than those at Modhera but, at the same time, unquestionably later than those of the typical tenth century examples. A few vestigial architectural and decorative features of late tenth century are there, true : but those of early eleventh century are predominant. The temple, very possibly, is the foundation of the years soon after 1000. The stylistic affiliations of the shrine are with Medapata and Arbuda rather than Nadqula. That, incidentally, leads to the question of the authorship of the temple. Sewadi stands on the crossroads of four mediaeval kingdoms: Abu, Nadol, Mewad, and Hathundi. Of these the last one is the nearest geographically. Although a principality, Hastikundi was powerful enough to give sanctuary to Cahamana Mahendra of Nadol and Mularaja Caulukya of Anhilapataka against Paramara Munja of Malava, and to Paramara Dharanivaraha of Abu against Mularaja Caulukya. The Rastrakutas of Hastikunoi were
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 341 ardent patrons of Jainism as we have noticed earlier. Hathundi is hardly 15 kms. south of Sewadi as against the distance of some 50 kms. of Nadol to its north. Sewadi, for certain, went in the hands of Cahamanas of Nadol. But that must have happened in the latter half of the eleventh century on the strength of the inscription of 1116. When Sewadi temple was founded, a little after 1000, it was very probably in the hands of Hathundi rulers who just two decades back gave protection of the aforementioned royalties. Judging from the size of the temple a royal founder is within the range of probability. Could Rastrakuta Mammata of Hastikundi have his hands in its erection particularly when the stylistic influence of Naddula on this temple is merely marginal ? VI ADINATHA TEMPLE, NADLAI : Nadlai was a twin to Nadol, the capital of the Cahamanas who branched off from the main line of the Cahamanas of Sakambhari sometime in the middle of tenth century. Nadlai seems to have derived from Nadqulanagika mentioned in the inscription of 1137 in the Adinatha temple. With its picturesque tors and valley, dotted and capped by six Jaina temples and a few others in the town nestled beside the main hill which includes the largest one-the Adinatha templeNadlai unfolds to the visitor one of the finest scenic views known in Western India. The Adinatha temple, originally dedicated to Mahavira as attested by older inscriptions in the temple, has, behind its erection, a not very happy legend, one that reveals an unhealthy rivalry between the Brahmanists and the Jainas.69 The rival Brahmanical shrine of Tapesvara and the Jaina temple in question do certainly betray strong similarity of style, so much so that the guilds which built the two shrines--the oldest in the town--must have come from the same style-area which, incidentally, does not seem to be Nadol but Khetaka or Khed in Marumandala as recorded in tradition and endorsed by the style of old monumental relics at Khed itself. The Adinatha temple seems to have been built in great haste as apparent by the slipshod chiseling, stunted pillars, almost unadorned walls and artless articulation of its component parts. Lavanyasamaya 69 SHAH, AMBALAL PREMCHAND (1953), -pp. 222-23. BHANDARKAR too takes note of the legend (vide 'Progress Report of the Archaeolo: gical Survey of India, Western Circle' 1909, p. 42)...
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________________ 342 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME (early 16th cent.) in his Tirthamala and the inscription of 1541 in the temple attribute the authorship of the temple to Yasodevasuri and the. date given for the erection of the temple is 908 by both the sources. The bardic tradition prefers 954. Stylistically, however, the temple does not seem to be older than the end of tenth century, or at most a couple of decades earlier than the Sun temple at Modhera, the date of which is known to be 1027. The temple comprises a sandhara Mulaprasada connected with a Gudhamandapa (which does not possess balconied windows) followed by the Trika. The Rangamandapa and the surrounding Devakulikas are of later age, possibly of 1541 as gleaned from an inscription. In its elevational aspect, the temple has no pitha, a feature peculiar to the majority of Maha-Maru temples, early or late. The elevation starts with the vedibandha which remained unaltered during later repairs; but the wall above seems to have been considerably restored. The diameter of the Mulaprasada is about 9.08 M; while the garbhagTha is about 4.37 M wide. The kumbha of the vedibandha of the garbhagrha is carved with half diamonds and lotuses. A bold padmapatrika tops the wall. The treatment of the decorative motifs here is more vigorous than for the same motifs at Modhera. The doorsill shows figures of Yaksa Sarvanubhuti and Yaksi Ambika. The upper portion of the frame has undergone repairs. The sikhara above the Mulaprasada is not original. The Gudhamandapa possesses within a double row of columns; those four of the sala are of the ghatapallava order. The four free standing pillars of the Trika are also of the same class, all unfortunately under very thick coat of shrill colours. Compared to the size of the temple--the overall length with the Trika being 16.8 M-the columns are stunted and slender. A small, black image of a Jina in a niche in the Gudhamandapa may be contemporaneous with the original, older parts of the shrine. The Jaina temples next in date at Nadlai, erected possibly a generation later, are those of the Neminatha atop the southern hill and of Parsvanatha on the slope of the opposite hill, The Neminatha temple is a simple Latina shrine with an equally plain Gudhamandapa attached to which is a plain Latina Devakulika. The Parsvanatha temple seems stylistically to be contemporaneous with the Sun temple at Modhera with no figural carving, however, to decorate its walls. A still later temple, that of Santinatha and of late eleventh century, lies some
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 343 distance to the south of the last one. Its pitha shows the usual Maru-Gurjara mouldings, though its mandovara (wall) bears no images except on kumbha. These two temples were extensively repaired during later times. The remaining Jaina temples are later bearing and thus are not pertinent to our discussions. VII JAINA TEMPLES AT NADOL Nadol or Naddula as it was known in the mediaeval period was the seat of the powerful Cahamana principality from the middle of tenth century as already alluded to in the foregoing pages. The late tenth century seems to be a period of considerable prosperity and as much architectural magnificence for Nadol as attested by a number of monuments--theistic and secular-still found at Nadol in varying degrees of preservation. To this phase of architectural activities belong the famed temple of Neminatha the jagati of which is old, the shrine proper being a replacement in the second quarter of eleventh century as suggested by its mouldings and the typology and jala work of the sikhara. In the later reconstruction a few older fragments of the original tenth century shrine bearing Dikpalas and vyalas were reutilized. Some are seen fixed in the compound wall also. The back view illustrated here gives the idea of how it looks like (Fig. 19). The Mulaprasada is not large, only 4.57 M in width. It is built according to the tenets of the Maru-Gurjara style of temple architecture. In the sikhara the rathikas preserve the original images of Yaksis, Cakresvari in the south and Nirvani in the west can be seen in their original position. The Gudhamandapa, some 6.8 M in width, shows the mouldings as undecorated as those of the Mulaprasada and its interior deserves little comment. The Trika too is not interesting. Originally the shrine possessed the usual twenty-four Devakulikas that have diappeared in antiquity. The Valanaka is old but plain. The second Jaina temple, of Santinatha, which faces east, seems to have been erected in the middle of eleventh century; but the present fabric is a haphazard rebuilding at some date, possibly in the seventeenth century. The principal niches of the sanctum are vacant; but on the karnas are found, curiously enough, the female forms of the Dikpalas. On the pratirathas are seen Vidyadevis, Gauri among them is clearly identifiable.70 The Gudhamandapa is plain. One 70 A Yaksi with vara, parasu, mudgara and kunnika with gaja as the vehicle and another one with varadaksa, trieula, naga and bijapuraka are not traceable in the texts.
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________________ 344 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME of the Jina images in the inside niches here is stylistically of the tenth century. The largest Jaina temple at Nadol is that of Jina Padmaprabha which like the Neminatha temple, faces north. BHANDARKAR does not mention the former two Jaina temples though he does take notice of this latter one, and thus commented: "Of the Jaina temples in Nadol, there is only one that deserves to be noticed. It is the one dedicated to Padmaprabha, the sixth Tirthamkara.":71 The Mulaprasada as well as the Gudhamandapa are fully decorated, of the Maru-Gurjara style of the third quarter of eleventh century with which we are familiar from a number of temples in north Gujarat?? and the Somesvara temple at Pali.73 In fact it is the largest extant temple of that age in all Western India. The Mulaprasada, about 12 M wide, is fully decorated and possesses all the mouldings except asvathara in the pitha (Fig. 23). It is tri anga on plan and, following the tradition of the third quarter of eleventh century, is broken up into a large number of vertical chases. The mandovara is also fully decorated in confirmance with the architectural taste of the age. The jangha shows Jina figures in the bhadra niches, Dikpalas on the karnas, and apsarases on the pratirathas of the mandovara of the Mulaprasada. The bifacial karna of the Gudhamanqapa possesses deep sunk niches (Fig. 24). Deep sunk niches appear for the first time in the third quarter of eleventh century as attested by Maru-Gurjara temples both in Gujarat as well as in Rajasthan. Such are found here in connection with the Mulaprasada. But to find it in association with the karna of the Gudhamandapa is certainly unusual but not an unappealing feature. Here they harbour Vidyadevis among whom Vajrankusa, Vajrairnkhala and a finely rendered figure of Rohini may be discerned. The Gudhamandapa, save for its lateral porticos, is a little less than half meter wider than the Mulaprasada. 71 Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, Western Circle', 1909, p. 46. . 72 For example, the Nilakanthesvara temple at Sunak, and Dugdhesvara Mahadeva temple at Mandropur.. 73 The red stone Somesvara temple at Pali is larger than the Gujarat temples cited in the preceding footnote, though not as much ornate, and similar on plan. Its Mulaprasada is 7.11 M wide; Rangamandapa is 8.63 M, wide and the total length is 14.6 M. It is a pancayatana shrine,
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 345 The sikhara of the Mulaprasada is a seventeenth century reconstruction. The Gudhamandapa has lost its external covering since long ago. The Trika and the attendant shrines with Valanaka are of little interest. Judging from the size and ornateness of the Main Temple, it is not unlikely that a Cahamana prince could have his hands in its founding. VIJI PARSVANATHA TEMPLE, SADRI Sadri is a midway station for the pilgrims and tourists proceeding to the world-famous Ranakpur. Very few, however, are aware of the wonderful little shrine of Parsvanatha located in the town. It is difficult to comprehend how BHANDARKAR missed this temple. This splendid temple is almost a smaller replica of the Padmaprabha temple at Nadol and built likewise of Sonana stone of white, dry complexion. On plan it is tri anga with the usual bhadra, karna and pratiratha proliferations. * Unlike the Nadol temple, however, the pitha omits the upper, figural courses. An udgama is found on bhadra points on the jadyakumbha as in Nadol temples and the Parsvanatha temple at Sanderav. This feature is absent in the contemporary temples in Gujarat. It is a legacy of the Maha-Maru tradition preserved by the Maru-Gurjara temples in this tract of Rajasthan. The jangha of the mandovara of the temple displays as usual the Dikpalas and apsarases (Fig. 20). The sikhara above the Mulaprasada (Fig. 21) is a masterpiece of the Maru-Gurjara style and except for the stunted pitha, the Mulaprasada with its sikhara reveals extremely good proportions, beauty of form and excellence of details. The rathika on the east shelters an image of Vagdevi : that on the west, Vidyadevi Mahamanasi. The diameter of the Mulaprasada is about 6.1 M. The superbiy proportioned Gudhamandapa thoroughly harmonizes with the Mulaprasada despite the fact that the superstructure is missing. On the jangha, at all karna faces, deep sunk niches sheltering Yaksis and Vidyadevis are there as we saw at the Padmaprabha temple at Nadol. The Vidyadevis figure on pratirathas as well; while apsarases and Dikpalas here occupy subsidiary positions. : On the east wall of the Gudhamandapa are found Apraticakra, Nirvani, Mahakali, Mahamanasi, Vairotya, Rohini, and Vajrankusa. Those on the corresponding west face are Vairotya, Kali (?), Vajrankusi, Purusadatta, an unidentified goddess, Rohini, and Kali. The bhadra niches are vacant. : The width of the Gudhamandapa is 7.92 M approximately. The Trika has no special feature to detain us. The Rangamandapa is in the Ranakpur
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________________ 346 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME style, of the fifteenth century. The devakulikas have been recently substituted by new ones. We have discussed, in this survey, the more notable examples of Jaina temples ranging in date between the late eighth and late eleventh century. For limitations of space, Dilwara temples and the temples at Kumbharia have been excluded from the survey. They need independent monographs.74 There are quite a few other interesting temples on which we could not dwell but the nature of which may be alluded here for completing information, if not comparing the detailed aspects. A portion of the Jaina temple-founded by Pratihara Kakkukaraja at Ghatiyala-is still standing but of not much usefulness since severely plain in treatment.75 The Jaina temple at Mandor preserves a few pillars of the tenth century. Temples at Taranagar in Bikaner area and the Jaina temple at Rani possess an older fabric datable to the tenth century. The Jaina temple at Kekind reconstructed in the middle of fifteenth century preserves three door-frames of the original tenth century fane. The temples just mentioned followed the Maha-Maru style of architecture. There were contemporaneous temples in Maha-Gurjara style as well. The temple of Mahavira (960) at Nana preserves plain but older mouldings in the elevation of the sanctum. The image of Mahavira at Diyana was consecrated in 967 in the time of Paramara Krsnaraja of Abu though the temple in which it was enshrined is no more extant. There are likewise a few temples in Maha-Gurjara style, of the early eleventh century. The Parsvanatha temple at Sanderav, of Nadol idiom and the Jaina temple at Barlu of the Arbuda idiom are Latina shrines with a fine jala work on the sikhara but simpler socle and wall. The Mahavira temple at Mungthala, Kasindra temple and the Jaina temple at Jhadoli of the same age are likewise plain. The survey of the Jaina temples erected particularly between the eighth and early eleventh century in Rajasthan, whether recorded in literary sources, inscriptions, some still extant, reveals a curious fact that a large majority of them were sacred to Jina Mahavira. The Astottari 74 My monograph on the Dilwara temples is in press. A long paper on Kumbharia temples is being published by the Department of Archaeology, Government of Gujarat: 75 R. C. AGRAWAL has published its details in the Journal of the : Oriental Institute, Baroda', Vol. XVI, No. (1963)...
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________________ SOME EARLY JAINA TEMPLES IN WESTERN INDIA : 347 Tirthamata (1244) of Mahendrasuri, Bhinmal inscription of 1277, the inscription in the Mahavira temple (dated 1370) at Mungthala, and Vastupala-caritra (1444) of Jinaharsa aver that Mahavira Himself had visited Marubhumi or western Rajasthan. The tradition, the earliest record of which is available in the thirteenth century as mentioned above, was possibly, still older, current perhaps in the Pratihara period as well, which actuated the founding of so many temples dedicated to Mahavira. There is, albeit, no support to this tradition in Jaina agama texts. We are, today, indebted to this tradition, parenthetically, for the fillip it gave to the intensive art and architectural activities by the Jainas in Western India.