Rules Concerning Speech In Ayaranga And Dasaveyaliya Suttas

Author(s): Collette Caillat
Publisher: Collette Caillat
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269485/1

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THE RULES CONCERNING SPEECH (BHASA) IN THE AYARANGA-AND DASAVEYALIYA-SUTTAS Collette Caillat One of the major vows taken by the ascetics of ancient India, whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or Jaina, is "not to make any untrue statement1." In fact, this prescription applies to each and every individual, for (as is well known)", speech is assumed to exert extremely potent forces. It is therefore quite natural that the fastras lay down rules about what is or is not to be said, and where, when, how it should be uttered, not only on solemn occasions, but also in daily life. Such prescriptions are specified in the Scriptures of the Buddhists and the Jainas 1. For a general survey and appraisal, H. JACOBI, SBE 22 (London, 1884, repr. Delhi, 1964), Introduction, p. XXII ff. For general considerations on "oral rites", M. MAUSS, Theorie de la magie, reprinted in Sociologie et anthropologie, Paris, 1950, p. 48 ff.-As far as India is concerned, L. RENOU, Etudes vediques et panineennes, 1, Paris 1955 (Institut de Civilisation Indienne de 'Universite de Paris 1), p. 1-27; IDEM, Etudes sur le vocabulaire du Rgveda, Pondichery, 1958 (Institut Francais d'Indologie 5), on naman, p. 10-12 ("le nom n'est jamais" "pretexte, apparence" (oppose a "realite"); il est au contraire la realite meme, il touche a l'essence de l'etre....", p. 11). Moreover, see, e.g., many of J. Gonda's books and articles, among others, Jan GONDA, Die Religionen Indiens I, Veda und alterer Hinduismus (Die Religionen der Menschheit. Herausgegeben von C. M. Schroder, 11), Stuttgart, 1960, p. 21 ff. (Das Wort"). 3. Vag ghy evaitat sarvam || vaca hyevaitat sarvam aptam, "Everything here is speech // for by speech everything here is obtained", Satapatha Brahmana 10.5.1.3 (ed. A. Weber; Berlin-London, 1885 translation J. Eggeling SBE 43, Oxford, 1897, repr. Delhi, 1963); cf. ib, 14.3.2.20: 2. vacyarthah niyatah sarve, van-mala vag-nisritah "all things (have their nature) determined by speech; speech is their root, and from speech they proceed", Mn 4.256 (trsl. G. Buhler); van-mayaniha fastrani van-nisthani tathaiva ca tasmad vacah param nasti vag ghi sarvasya karanam, "the sastras are made up of words, and words are the source of everything", Natyasastra, 9.3 (ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, 1967, trsl. Id, Calcutta, 1951, BI 272).

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Collette Caillat as well as in the Dharmasastras; but, whereas in the last mentioned books, the rules concern all social categories, in the Buddhist Pali Tipitaka and in the Jaina Siddhanta, they are first and foremost meant for the members of the religious community. The Svetambara Jainas have expressed their views on bhasa (bhasa) in several passages of their canon'. The topic is investigated from different angles in various parts of Viyahapannatti, Vyakhya-prajnapti, and systematically treated in the eleventh chapter, called "bhasa-paya", of the Pannavana-a precious survey of which we owe to Pandit Dalsukh Malvania. Moreover, the first Anga and the second Mulasutra of the canon deal with bhasa from the point of view of discipline, in their famous chapters which I propose to consider here; they are Ayar (anga-sutta) 2.4.1-2 (in prose), Dasaveyaliya--sutta 7 (in verses). I shall not examine the interconnexions between both, they have been studied by Dr. Ghatage in NIA 1.2 (may 1938, p. 130-137). I only wish to show that a comparison between these developments and their old Brahmanic counterparts help to realize how the Jainas have succeeded in .1 References to canonical developments concerning bhasa in W. SCHUBRING, Die Lehre der Jainas...., Berlin u. Leipzig, 1935 (GIAPHA 3.7) p. 103-104 - IDEM, The Doctrine of the Jainas, Delhi...., 1962 $ 74. For Viyahapannatti, cf. J. DELEU, Viyahapannatti...., Brugge 1970 (Rijksuniv. te Gent, Werken uitgegeven door de Fac. van Letteren en Wijsbegeerte 151), Index of terms and topics, p. 345. Cf. Pannavanasuttam, Ed. PUNYAVIJAYA-MALVANIA-BHOJAK, Bombay 1971 (Jaina-Agama Series 9), Part 2, Introduction, p. 84-88 (translated into English by Dr. Nagin J. SHAH, p. 321-326,"on spoken language"). I had the good fortune to read this chapter with Pandit Dalsukh Malvania: I wish to seize this opportunity to express my affectionate gratitude to him, his family and circle of friends. The Jaina (and Buddhist) statements concerning addhama gahabhasa (magaha-bhasa, mula-bhasa), etc., will not be taken into consideration, as they would be irrelevant from the present point of view. 3. As noted by Schubring, the odd chapters of Dasav are concerned with special subjects (Dasav, Introduction, p. VI); in particular, different aspects of (right) conduct are examined therein. "Parallel passages in the Dasavaikalika and the Acaranga"; A. M. Ghatage's conclusion is that Dasav 7 is older than Ayar 2.4. Schubring's opinion, on the contrary, is that "Dasav is later than Ayar. If in its blokas it contains such padas as scattered in the prose of Ayarl-/ the latter represent an ancient stock...", Doctrine SS 74 n. 2. On the comparative antiquity of Gaut DhS, etc., and of Buddhist-J aina canonical scriptures, JACOBI, loc. cit., p. XXX ff, 5.

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga 3 . binding into an organic unity prescriptions which are also found, but more or less scattered, in different sections of the Dhs, and which have been somewhat differently elaborated in the Pali scriptures. In fact, as is natural, the Jainas' ethical teachings in this field are linked with their metaphysical tenets. Let me first sketch how the Dhs approach the subject. Sometimes-exceptionally-the approach is a general one; e. g., when ApDhS introduces the chapters on penance, it explains that "A wise man who has eradicated the (faults) which destroy creatures, obtains salvation". "(These are) anger exultation, grumbling, covetousness, perplexity, doing injury, hypocrisy, lying, gluttony, calumny, envy, lust, secret hatred, neglect to keep the senses in subjection, neglect to concentrate the mind...", krodho harso roso lobho moho dambho droho mssodyainalyasa-parivadivasaya kama-manyu anatmyam ayogas, tesam yoga-malo nirghatah (ApDhS 1.8.23.5) On the contrary, "freedom from anger (akrodha-)...., truthfulness (satyavacana-)..., silencing slander (a.paifuna-) uprightness, affability (arjava-mirdava-)...., peace with all created beings, concentration (of the mind on the contemplation of the Atman), regulation of one's conduct according to that of the Aryas (aryava-) - these (good qualities) have been settled by the agreement (of the wise) for all (the four) orders...."? Similar precepts are also ordained by Manu, who applies them to the snataka : satyadharmaryavrattesu sauce caivaramel sada vag-bahudara-sainyatah, "Let him always delight in truthfulness,...; let him keep his speech, his arms and his belly under control" (Mn 4.175)". As a matter of fact, Manu is in accordance with Gautama who, among the duties of the Snataka (ch. 9). prescribes : "He shall keep his organ, his stomach, his hands, his feet, his tongue, and his eyes under due restraint", further : satya-dharma (68), arya-vitlah (69)... syat (72), "He shall always speak the truth." "He shall conduct himself (as becomes) an Aryan." 1. 2. nirhriya bhuta dahiyan ksemam gacchati panditah, (trsl. Buhler). Ib 6. Cf. also 1.11.31.25 (trsl., SBE 1.11.31.23): krodhadiinica bhita-dahiyan dosan varjayet, "and let him (the snataka) avoid the faults that destroy the creatures, such as anger and the like." Buhler translates : "in truthfulness, (obedience to the sacred law ---"; but cf. Gaut Dhs, 9.68, infra. na fitnodara-pani-pada-vak-caksus capalani kuryat.

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Collettc Caillat Thus, rules regarding speech are, in fact, but the application to a particular case of general injuctions to keep one's organs (organs of sense, organs of action and manas) under complete control (cf. Mn 2.88) the organ of speech being the tenth in the list. Therefore, it would seem normal that, in the Dhs, general instructions should be given about the proper use of Vac. Nevertheless, most of the time, in the texts, the rules are laid down for specific categories of individuals : the householder, or, more often, the brahmacarin, the student who has returned home, the snataka.... Now, what are these rules? Two sets can be distinguished : (1) the rules connected with salutation; (2) the rules which might be termed apotropaic, whether the danger is visible or occult. (1) It is well known that "reverential salutation" is looked upon as strengthening vardhana. Conversely, as stressed in a floating stanza, "he who habitually salutes and constantly pays........ reverence to the aged obtains an increase of four (things), (namely) glory, length of life, fame, (and) strength". 3 abhivada-filasya nityam orddhopasevinah calvari sampravardhante, kirtir ayur yaso bulam (Mbh. 5.39.60). The same view is expressed among the Buddhists. With minor variants, Mn (2.121) applies the maxim to the brahmacarin : calvari tasya vardhante, ayuh prajnu yaso balam. As a matter of fact, in the Dhs, much importance is attached to terms of address and to saluting a topic to which the sixth chapter of the Gaut DhS is 1. vak caiva dasani smrta, Mn 2. 90 d. Compare Asoka, Rock Edict XII (C), recommending vaca- (vaci-) gutti and, infra, Uttarajjhayana 24. 22-23. 2. J. Gonda, IIJ 8 (1964), p. 14, quoting RV 6.51.8. For concordances, L. Sternbach, Maha-subhasita-samgraha 2, Hoshiarpur 1976 (Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, V. Indological Series 69, no 2336, compare 2337-8). Trsl. following Buhler, Mn 2.121. 4. abhivadana-silissa niccam vaddhapacagino cattaro dhamma vaddhanti : ayu vanno sukham balam, Dhp 109, of which the Gandhari Dharmapada rendering is : ahivadana-filisa nica oridhavayarino Calvari tasa dardhadi ayo kirta suha bala (ed. J. Brough, London ...., 1962, London Oriental Series, 7), 172. 5. Cf. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, 2.1, p. 333 ff., specially 336 ff., ubi alia.

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga wholly devoted. Actually, most Dhs give details on proper behaviour in this connexion, whether regarding the time and circumstances, the gestures, the words, intonation syntax......... Generally, though, saluting is not treated as an independent subject; Mn, for instance, includes the topic in the chapter dealing with studentship, where it is specified which words the young man must use according to the age, sex, learning, social status.... of the person whom he addresses (2-121129), and according to circumstances (2.49). Similarly, ApDhS inserts this special subject in one of the chapters about the general obligations of the Vedic student (1.2.5.15 ff.), his behaviour while begging (1.1.3.28.30, cf, Gaut DhS 2.36), or, again, the conduct of the student who has returned home (1.4.14.7 ff., particularly 1.4. 14. 26-31).... Thus, the matter is considered separately in several developments, where it is discussed with more or less detail : (2) The same remark would apply to the second set of rules, those which I proposed to term apotropaic. They seem to be given mainly for the snataka; and to remain comparatively unchanged. Before stressing that the snataka should abide by truth, satyadharma ...syat (9.61, supra), Gautama considers several utterances which are to be avoided. The same warnings recur in other Dhs, especially in ApDhs, the sutras of which can be conveniently examined (1.11.31. 5-16): 5. And he shall not speak evil of the gods or of the king, (parusam cobhagordevatanan rajnalca .... varjayet), 8. He shall not mention the blemishes of a cow, of sacrificial presents, or of a girl. 9. And he shall not announce it.... if a cow does damage,(by eating corn or grain in a field). 10. (Nor shall he call attention to it) if a cow is together with her calf.... 11-12. And of a cow which is not a milch-cow he shall not say 'She is not a milch-cow'. He must say 'This is a cow which will become a milch-cow'. (nadhenum adhenur iti bruyal, dhenu-bhavyetyeva bruyat), 16. 1. If he sees a rainbow, he must not say to others, 'Here is Indra's bow'.? For proper words, ApDhS 1.4.14.26-29; pluti of final vowel, ib 1.2.5.17, Vas 13.46, Mn 2.125, Pan8.2.83, quoted in Kane, ib, p. 340; syntax, GautDhS 2.36, ApDhS 1.1.3 28-30, Mn 2.69. gor daksinanam kumaryas ca parivadan varjayet (8) stranti ca gara nu caksita (9) samsrstam ca vatsenanimitte (10) nendradhanur iti parasmai prabruyat (18) 2.

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6 Collette Caillat Similarly, Gaut DhS 9.22 remarks: "....in speaking of) a rainbow (he shall use the word) mani-dhanus (the jewelled bow) instead of Indra-dhanus' "a prescription which is in agreement with Baudh DhS 2.3.6. 11-12, and Vas DhS 12.32.* The prohibitions and injunctions detailed above are likewise given in the other DhS. The implied justification can be deduced from the following observation, by ApDhS: nasau 'me sapatna' iti bruyat; yady 'asau me sapatna' iti bruyad dvisantam bhralrvyam janayet "In company) he shall not say, 'This person is my enemy'. If he says 'This person is my enemy', he will raise for himself an enemy, who will show his hatred" ApDhS 1.11.31.15). Now, these remarks are made in a khanda which warns against dangerous words and acts, and points to those which are conducive to welfare (1.11.31.6; 14, etc.); similarly, khanda 32 dissuades from visits to countries inhabited by inferior men, from mixing in assemblies and crowds (1.11.32. 18-19); it also advises the snataka not "to cross a river swimming" and not to use "ships of doubtful (solidity)" (26-27). To revert to speech: we can include in this review a rule laid down for both the snataka and the householder, who are advised not to "talk of a doubtful matter as if it were clear" (2.5.12.21, cf. 1.11.32.22). This last recommendation leads us back to the observance of truthfulness, which should not be interpreted as an encouragement to use cruel words. On the contrary, Manu stresses: hinanganatiriktanganvidya-hinanvayo-'dhikan rupa-dravina-hinansca jati-hinaca naksipet, 1. manidhanur itindradhanuh. 2. Compare, a little differently, Mn 4.59. On beliefs connected with rainbow, M. Mauss, Theorie de la magie", reprinted in Sociologie et anthropologie, Paris, 1950, p. 32; S. H. Webster, Le tabou, (French translation), Paris, 1952, p. 227 and n. 1.For the same warning, Prof, Gonda kindly refers me to several other texts: ParG 2.7.13, Vaikh Dh 3.2.12, Ath Paris 72.1.6, and to the old saying in The Netherlands, that it is a bridge for the deceased to go to heaven, (cf. H. Bachtold-Staubli, Handworterbuch des deutschen Abersglaubens. Berlin, 1927-1942, 6 vol., s. v. Regenbogen). 3. 1.11.31.17 in the text, but 15 in the translation. 4. bahubhyan ca nadi-taranam (scil. varjayet), (26); cf. 1.2.5.9; 1.5.15.11 (and the note SBE 2, p. 55): 1.11.32.26; also Mn 4.77. navam ca samfayikim (scil. varjayet), (27). na sambaye pratyaksavad bruyat. 5. 6.

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7 The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga "Let him (the snataka) not insult those who have redundant limbs or are deficient in limbs, nor those destitute of knowledge, nor very aged men, nor those who have no beauty or wealth, nor those who are of low birth." As a matter of fact, avoiding lies and avoiding harshness are both combined in the fourfold prescription emphasized by Mn (4.138): satyam bruyat, priyam hriyanna briyatsatyamapriyam, priyam ca nanrtam brayad efa dharmah sanatanah, "Let him (the snataka) say what is true, let him say what is pleasing, let him utter no disagreable truth, and let him utter no pleasant falsehood; that is the eternal law"." Parallels for this aphorism are quoted from Visnu- and Yajnavalkya-DhS, from the epics.... More could be adduced from Buddhist and Jaina scriptures. Let us now turn to the Jainas. First of all, one fact is remarkable: that two old canonical texts each devote one whole chapter completely to the examination of the different species of bhasa ("bhasa-jaya"), and to right conduct with regard to speech. This proves the very great importance attached to the subject by the Jaina teachers, and by the Jaina tradition. No less remarkable is the endeavour of Ayar and Dasav to explain what their guiding principles are; they can be summarized as follows: on the one hand, it is imperative to respect truth-an effort which involves the constant observance of self-control, samyama- (Amg samjama); on the other hand, it is necessary to combine respect for truth with respect for ahimsa. Such is the complex behaviour advo 1. Mn 4.141. 2. sukta ruksah parusa vaco na bruyat, Baudh DhS 2.3,20, "let him (the snataka) not make empty, ill-sounding, or harsh speeches" (Buhler's trsl.) 3. ... nakasmad apriyam vadet, nahitam nanrtam caiva........, Yajnavalkya DhS (ed. Stenzler BerlinLondon, 1849), 1.132, "on no account should he say (anything) disagreeable, noxious, or, again, untrue...."; naflilam kirtayet (72) nonrtam (73) napriyam (74), Visnusmrti, ch. 71 (ed. J. Jolly, Calcutta 1881, repr. 1962); satyam vaded vyahrtam tad dvitiyam, dharmam vaded vyahrtam tat trtiyam, priyam vaded vyahrtam tac caturtham. MBh (Bh) 12.288.38, (similar to Mn, loc. cit.; compare, infra, the Buddhist definition of subhasita). Of Rama, it is said that, even if spoken to harshly, he never gave a harsh answer, Ram 2.1.10 (on which Gonda, Selected Studies, Leiden, 1975, p. 514).

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Collette Caillat cated in the introduction and conclusion of Ayar 2.4", where it is recommended (1) to vomit" the four passions involving iviolence (vanta koham ca manam ca mayam ca loham ca), (2) to speak only after due reflection and with constant circumspection? To help attain this ideal aim, bhasa is analysed into four species (with subdivisions): two of them are absolutely condemned and prohibited, because they are either totally or partly wrong and false; as for the other two, the monk should be educated to use them with discrimination : Dasay 7.1 proclaims : caunham thalu bhasanam parisamkhaya pangavam donham tu vinayan sikkhe, do na bhasejja savaso. Ayar also distinguishes four bhasi-jayi, somewhat emphatically: bhikkha janejja cattari bkasa-jayain, tam-jaha : saccam egam padhamam bhasa-jayam blyam mosam taiyan, sccca-mosam, jam n'eva saccam n'eva mosam neda saccamosam asaccamosam tam cauttham bhasa-jayam, se bemi... (2.4.1.4). Thus the bhikkhu is invited, trained to recognize: (1) truth, (2) untruth, (3) truth mixed with untruth, (4) "what is neither truth, nor untruth, nor truth mixed with untruth ...."4. Consequently, Dasav 7 immediately 1. se bhikkha di bhikkhuni di vanta koham ca manam ca mayam ca loham ca, anubii nitthabhasi nisamma-bhasi aturiya-bhasi vivega-bhasi samiyae samjac bhasam bhasejja. "a monk or a nun, putting aside wrath, pride, deceit, and greed, considering well, speaking with precision, what one has heard, not too quick, with discrimination, should employ language in moderation and res. traint", (Ayar 2.4.2.19 tisl, Jacobi). Compare Dasav 7. 54-57 : chasu samjae, samanie saya jae, vaejja buddhe hiyam amulomiyam, "controlled (in his conduct) towards the six (groups of souls), (and) always restrained in monkhood the wise one shall speak good (and) kind (words)" (56 c-d, trsl. W. Schubring). "Of the four kinds of speech, the thoughtful (monk) should, after consideration, learn the training in two, (but) should not use the other two ones at any occasion." Cf. Vivahapannatti, ch. 13, Ed Suttagame, Gurgaon, 1953. vol. 1, 692, 15; Pannavana, ed. Punyavijaya, etc. (Jaina-Agama-Series 9.1), p. 215, $$ 870-876; Thananga ch. 4.1, ed. Suttagame, 223,8 (cattari bhasa-jaya....). See the same fourfold division "truth, untruth, ..." in relation with the first and second guttis (gupti- : mana-gutti, vai-g.), in Uttarajjhaya 24. 20-23 (ed. J. Charpentier, Upsala, 1921, Archives d'Etudes orientales, 18), i.e. in the chapter concerning the eight padayana-maya ("matrices of the Doctrine"). Here, the analysis of the three guttis follows that of the five samitis : the second of these is the bhasa-samiti, "care in speaking"

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga proclaims an interdiction "the thoughtful (monk) should not use" "that (form of speech) which is true (but) not to be uttered, that which is half-true, that which is (quite) untrue, none (of which is) practised by the Jinas". The positive recommendation is formulated in the next eloka "(But) he should, after deliberation (samuppeham), use a speech not exposed to doubt (asamdiddham giram bhasejja), that is (a speech) which is neither true nor untrue and (a speech) which is true, provided that it is not to be blamed or rough" asaccamosam, saccam ca anavajjam akakkasam (Dasav 7.2-3) 2. Thus, the conceptual frame is firmly set for a discussion on bhasa to take place. The adduced definitions aim at being both clear and exact (in agreement with the complexity of reality); moreover, they expressly recognize the heterogeneity of charity and truth: further whereas, as we have just seen, Manu merely combined both virtues in, so to say, a formal fourfold pattern, the Jainas strive for complete integration and try to reconcile these sometimes contradictory requirements in a higher synthesis. Their effort can also be evaluated if compared with the 2 1. 9 2. (ib 9-10), which stresses the necessity to expel all passions (compare, supra, ApDhS 1.8.23.5): kohe mane ya miyae lo(b)he ya uvanttay a hase bhae moharie vikahasu tah'eva ca eyaim attha thanaim parivajjitu simjae asavajjam miyam kale bhisam bhasejja pannavam "To give way to anger, pride, deceit and greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander; these eight faults should a well-disciplined monk avoid; he should use blameless and concise speech at the proper time" (transl. H. Jacobi, SBE 45, Oxford, 1895, repr. Delhi, 1964, p. 131, and n. 2). For other references, cf. W. Schubring, Doctrine SS 173; P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification, Berkeley. ... 1979, 247-8); etc. Dasav 7.2: ja ya sacca avattavva, saccamosa ya ja, musa ja ya, buddhehi 'nainna, na tam bhasejja pannavam, Cp. Ayar 2.4.1.6: se bhikkhu va ja ya bhasa sacca, ja ya bhasa mosa, ja ya, bh. sacca-mosa, taha-ppagaram bhasam savajjam sa-kiriyam kakkasam sa-kaduyam nitthuram pharusam anhaya-karim cheda-karim bheda-karim pariyavanakarim uddavana-karim bhiovaghaiyam abhikamkha no bhasam bhasejja, "a monk or a nun, having well considered, should not use speech-truth, or untruth, or truth mixed with untruth-that is blamable, (speech which is) sinful, rough, stinging, coarse, hard, leading to sins, to discord and factions, to grief and outrage, to destruction of living beings" (trsl. partly following Jacobi).

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10 Collette Caillat Buddhist fourfold definition of subhasita vaca', and fourfold analysis of anariyavohara". Now, though the Jaina analysis of bhasa can be said to be comparatively clear-cut, the attached developments are not always plain to understand. Two points, nevertheless, are manifest: (1) all the prohibitions and injunctions included in the two relevant lessons of Ayar and Dasav can be shown to proceed from the above two fundamental principles, observance of truth based on samjama, and observance of ahimsa; (2) the various particular prescriptions are, in many cases, akin or similar to those which are laid down in the DhS; but, precisely because the Jaina chapters concentrate on bhasa exclusively, all the minute rules can easily be recognized as special applications of an underlying theoretical scheme (applied examples of which are evidently liable to be multiplied); moreover, though they start from a multiplicity of particular consideration (most of which are formulated in all Indian Aastras), the Jainas obviously connect them with their own metaphysical system and their doctrine of jiva-nikayas, infra), therefore promote a more consistent and general outlook; finally, they tend to include in the bhasa-chapter remarks which, in the DhS (also : in the Jaina suttas) mainly concern behaviour : Just as bad behaviour should be shunned, words also must clearly, though not aggressively, help discriminate between good and reprehensible conduct; in all possible ways, speech shall conform to the correct norm. Thus, from the Dasav and Ayar point of view, the scope of bhasa seems almost unlimited. 1. Idha bhikkhave bhikku subhasita myeva bhasali no dubbhisitam; dhamma yeva bh. no addomma; piyam yeva bh. no appiyam; saccam yeva bh. no alikam. Imehi kho 1. cutahi angehi samannagali vaca subhasita hoti no dubbhasita; ana vajja ca ananuvajja ca vinnunam, if a bh. "speak well and not badly, speak righteously and not unrighteously, speak affectionately and not unkindly speak truth and not falsehood, his speech having these four qualities, is well spoken, faultless, and not blamable by the wise". S 1.188.33-189.4 (C. Rhys Davids trsl.). With the "subhasita-sutta" in S, compare the "subhasita-sutta" in Sn. 78,5 ff., stanzas 450-454 (cf. infra). Cattaro anariya-vohara. Musa vado, pisuna vaca, pharusa vaca, samphappalapo, "four are the ignoble modes of speech : lying speech, slandering speech, rough speech, frivolous speech", D 3.232. 5-6, etc., cp. M 1.42.10 ff. 3. Cf. ApDhS 1.11.32, supra. 4. Including the grammatical norm. infra. Cf. the conclusion of Dasav 7 stanza 57 : parikkha-bhasi susamah' indie cauk-kasayavagae anissie sa niddhune dhulta-malam pure-kadam arahae logam imamtaha param-Ili bemi, 5.

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayuranga Let us consider some of the examples adduced by the texts. In Pannavana, all speech inspired by the four kasayas, koha mana......, is assimilated to lie, mosa1. On the other hand, according to Ayar, anger etc. are conducive to harsh words (2.4.1.1) that hurt (ib 6). As such, they are prohibited. For its part, Dasav explains, so to say, the sloka 7.11-35 by emphasizing twice, at the beginning, and towards the end of the development, that a wise monk must (even if it is true) avoid all "rough speech which does harm to living beings : .........pharusa bhasa guru-bhuovagkaini sacca vi sa na vattavva... (7.11, cf. 29 c-d). Without going into all the details and possible digressions, it is interesting to review what is prescribed and what is prohibited in the aforesaid passage. Various recommendations are met with which have been seen to be addressed either to the brahmacarin or the snataka in the DhS. In Dasav 7.12, it is stressed that defect and mutilations should not be pointed to2; that various personal remarks are unacceptable (though they might be true literally speaking) for they might lead to faults of feeling and of conduct. In this connexion, prescribed and recommended terms of address are specified, and detailed in six slokas (14-19). But it is not enough to observe circumspection when addressing mankind: circumspection is necessary also when speaking of all other five sense creatures, pancediya-pana, and, in particular, no himsa should be suggested against them, whatever their species. Cows, especially, should not be referred to foolishly: 1. 2. 3. 4. 11 5. "(he who) speaks after consideration, controls his senses well, has overthrown the four passions, (and) is without (worldly) support purges (his soul) of the dirt resulting from previous evil deeds (and) is sanctified in this world and the next. Thus I say "trsl. Schubring). Compare Pannav chap. 11 SS 830-1, the fourfold oharani-bhasa: the sacca form is arahani. Cf. chap. 11 SS 963. tah' eva kanam'kane' tti... no vae, "...a monk should not call a one-eyed man...." by this name; cf. Ayar 2.4.2.1. een 'annena atthena paro jen' uvahammai, ayara-bhava-dosa-nnu, na tam bhasejja pannavam, "because the person concerned would be hurt by this or similar statement, a thoughtful (monk) should not utter such speech, as he knows (that) faults of conduct and of feeling (would result from it). trsl. cf. Schubring. cf. Ayar 2.4.2.1-2. tah' eva "hole" "gole" tti.... na tam bhasejja pannavam, 7.14. etc. Cf. Ayar 2.4.1. 8-11 (on how to address or not to address a man, a woman). Compare Chandogya Upanisad 7.15.2. Dasav 7.22.

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12 tah' eva gao dujjhao damma So, "a thoughtful (monk) should not say tamed...'. He should say: 'this is a young bull', 'this is a milk cow', juvam-gave tti nam buya, dhenum rasa-daya ili va2. Collette Caillat ********* There can be little doubt that all these rules more or less echo what is to be found in the different sections of the DhS. But the Jainas adapt them and expatiate further. After they have mentioned the highest beings, the pancendiya-panas, they jump to the other extremity of the animate world of the chajjiva-nikayas--to the immobile jivas, viz, trees (and their fruit), plants, etc. 3, which naturally must also be respected, as prescribed in ten slokas (7,26-35) in fact, all the jivas come to be protected thanks to the warnings against and condemnation of bhovaghaini bhasa. 1. 2. n'evam bhasejja pannavam1 Thus, following the thread offered by the first part of Dasav 7 and (though perhaps not so clearly) by Ayar 2.4, we have encountered many of the prescriptions found in the DhS; it is obvious, nevertheless, that, in the Jaina suttas, they are integrated in a comparatively well-defined general structure. 3. The second part of Dasav 7 warns against colloquial expressions which, in fact, are misleading, as they confuse right and wrong. Some concern, for instance, festive entertainments, (crossing, etc., of) rivers... (36-39), in short, precisely those actions which are criticised in the above quoted khandas of ApDhS (1.11.3132) and connected brahmanic texts: the Jainas retain most of the circumstances detailed in the DhS chapter(s), but, in the present development, they focus the attention on what is commonly-lightly said about them. Caution is also required if the monk should mention actions or preparations which are usually said to be "well done", "well cooked", 4567 su-kade tti su-pakke tti...., though they actually imply injury to living beings! further, he should not issue orders and assertions which might be inconsiderate. Thus, in all the above circumstances, the monk is warned against rashness and lack of self-control": tah' evasamjayam.... n' evam bhasejja pannavam." (these) cows should be milked, 6. 7. Cf. Ayar 2.4.2.9. Dasav 7.24-25, cf. Ayar 2.4.2.7-10. Compare supra, ApDhS, etc. 4. 5. Dasav 7.41-42., cf. Ayar 2.4.2.3-6. Cf. Ayar 2.4.11-16. Cf. the "lesson" on the six jiva-nikayas, at the beginning of Dasav 4, ed. Leumann, p. 614-5. Cf. Dasav 7. 48-49. Dasav 7. 43-47. Dasav 7.47; (= 29 d; on the contrary evam bh. p., 39d=44d).

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13 The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Dyaranga Self-control is further required when speaking of atmospheric phenomena. It will be remembered, in this connection, that Gaut DhS, etc. specify, in particular, how to mention the rain-bow (supra). But, whereas the DhS seem to express some form of taboo, the Jainas aim at being accurate and consistent; the words chosen by the religious person should nct contradict with the objective truths attained by the (Jaina) scientists; therefore, "he should not say that a cloud, the sky, or a man is a god, (but) he should (simply) state (the fact) that a cloud has formed itself or has risen high, or that a thunder-cloud has sent down rain": tah' eva meham va naham va manavam na deva deva tti giram vaejja; *sammucchie unnae va paoe' vaejja va "vutthe balahae' tti (Dasav 7.52).2 Moreover, the monk will naturally accept seasons equanimity, Self-control, samjaya, is all the more advocated as it often happens that false appearances are confused with truth, and hence, are conducive to lies and to sin. Therefore, one should be careful when speaking of doubtful matters--an advice which is also given by ApDhS, as we have seen. Dasav and Ayar apply this consideration to trivial remarks, especially to those concerning future events, which, by nature, are uncertain; and, also, to those that concern the 'sex of various animals." Consequently, attention must also be paid to grammar and grammatical correction, of which Ayar recalls the fundamental constituents (2.4.1.3). Thus, 1. Cf. ApDhS 1.11.31.16, etc. supra. 2. Cf. ib 53; Ayar 2.4.1.12-13. Dasav 7.50-51; Ayar 2.4.1.12-13. Dasav 7.5: 3. 4. and events with due 5. 6. 7. 8. vitaham pi taha-mottim jam giram bhasae naro tamha so puttho pavenam......... "by a speech which has the appearance of truth though it is untrue, a man is touched by sin" (trsl. Schubring). Cf. Ayar 2.4.1.2. Dasav 7.6-10 (compare Ayar 2.4.1.2): jam attham tu na janejja "evam eyam" ti no vae, jattha sanka bhave jam tu "evam eyam" ti no vae, "if (a monk) does not know (or) has some doubt.... he should not say "it is thus" (Dasav 7. 8-9 (trsl. Schubring). Dasav 7.21. Cf. Pannav SS 896 (for a discussion on empirical truths, ib SS 862).

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14 Collette Caillat the Jainas seem to advocate purism, at least as far as possible, and their attitude is noteworthy, as the Buddhists apparently deny that any fundamental connection exists between chaste speech and spiritual achievement. In this case, then, as in several others, the Jainas probably follow the Brahmanic trend more closely than the Buddhists do. Be that as it may, it is obvious that the Jainas were well aware of the prescriptions concerning speech which are registered in the Dharmasastras; moreover, in the above quoted Dasav and Ayar chapters, they appear to have added several new bhasa rules which almost certainly stem from the same common sources, though they seem to have been suggested not so much by the actual wording (in the DhS they concern deeds) as by their location, (in the DhS, they are in the immediate context of the rules about speech). On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the Jainas unweariedly strive to be explicit about the conceptual basis of, and reasons for, the rules they ordain. This, possibly, helped them to consider floating precepts with fresh eyes, to group them and integrate them in an organic unity. In this respect, whatever their actual sources, the Jainas can be said to have achieved a perfectly original work. Nowhere, in the Ayar and Dasav chapters, is there any mention of retaliation, or any trace of obscure fear of occult forces; on the contrary, all the percepts are wellgrounded on objective considerations-whether scientific, metaphysical and/or ethical. To a certain extent, thanks to these lessons on bhasa, we can witness how the Jainas have reconsidered generally accepted rules of conduct and recast them to build a really new, and comparatively systematic, code. Cf. the commentary on the (Sn) Subhasita-sutta, in Paramatthajotika 2.2 (ed. Helmer Smith, London, Pali Text Society, 1917), 397.7-398.7: yad annenamadihi padehi, lingavacana-vibhatti-kalakaradihi sampattihi ca camannagatam vacam subhasita' ti mannanti, tam dhammato patisedheti, "what some believe, that 'subhasita' means speech composed with wordsnames, etc.-possessed of gender, inflection, tense marker...., One lawfully rightly, rejects this view-To avoid dubbhasita means avoiding pesunna, etc. (supra). Cf. the whole discussion, Pj 2.2.3966 14-398.12, and Saratthapakasini (ed. F. L. Woodward, London 19... PTS) 1.272.8-274.22. 2. Cf. JACOBI, SBE 22, Introduction, p. xxix. 1.

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga $ Abbreviations Amg = Ardhamagadhi; ApDhS = Apastambiya Dharma Sutra (ed. G. Buhler, Bombay, 1968; translation G. Buhler, SBE 2, Oxford, 1879; repr. Delhi, 1965); Ayar=Ayararga-sutta (ed. H. Jacobi, London PTS 2) 1882; (Agamodaya Samiti), samvat 1936 = A.D. 1880, repr. Delhi 1978; ed. Muni Jambuvijaya, Bombay, 1976 (Jaina-Agama-Series 2. I); transl. H. Jacobi, SBE 22, Oxford, 1884); Baudh (DhS) = Baudhayana Dharma Sastra (ed. E. Hultzsch, Leipzig 1884 + Id, Leipzig 1922 (Abhandlungen fur die Kunde des Morgen-landes 8.4 and 16.2); transl. G. Buhler, SBE 14, Oxford, 1882, repr, Delhi 1965). BI = Bibliotheca Indica; D=Digha Nikaya (ed. T. W. Rhys Davids, London (PTS) ); Dasav=Dasaveyaliya-sutta (ed. Ernst Leumann, ZDMG 46 (1982), 581-663; Punyavijaya and A.m. Bhojak, Bombay, 1977 (Jaina-Agama-Series 15); transl., cf. Dasaveyaliya Sutta, ed by Ernst Leumann and translated by Walther Schubring, Ahmedabad, 1932; repr. in Walther Schubring, Kleine Schriften, herausgegeben von Klaus Bruhn, Wiesbaden, 1977 (Glasenapp-Stiftung, 13), p. 111-248); DhS = Dharma Sutra Sastra; Gaut (DhS)=Gautama DhS (ed. F. Stenzler, London, 1876 (Sanskrit Text Society); transl. G. Buhler, SBE 2, Oxford, 1879; repr. Delhi, 1965); M=Majjhima Nikaya (ed. V. Trenckner; R. Chalmers, London (PTS) ); MBh=Mahabharata (ed. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona) Mn=Manava DhS (ed. J. Jolly, London 1887 (Trubner's Oriental Series; transl. G, Buhler, SBE 25, Oxford, 1886); PTS=Pali Text Society, Lordon; RV=Rgveda; S=Samyutta Nikaya (ed. L. Feer, London (PTS) ); Sn=Suttanipata (ed. D. Andersen-H. Smith, London (PTS)); . Vas=Vasistha DhS (ed. A. A. Fuhrer, 1883; transl. G. Buhler, SBE 14, Oxford, 1882).