Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life

Author(s): Kamalchand Sogani
Publisher: Jain Vidya Samsthan
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006934/1

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Sarvodaya Pustaka Mala, Puspa-16 MAHAVIRA AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani sanurajoga JAINA VIDYA SANSTHANA DIGAMBARA JAINA ATISAYA KSETRA SRI MAHAVIRAJI RAJASTHAN For Personal & Private Use Only

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Sarvodaya Pustaka Mala, Puspa-16 MAHAVIRA HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE AND : By Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani Formerly Professor of Philosophy Published by JAINA VIDYA SANSTHANA DIGAMBARA JAINA ATISAYA KSETRA SRI MAHAVIRAJI * RAJASTHAN For Personal & Private Use Only

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. Publisher : : Jaina Vidya Samsthana . Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji Sri Mahaviraji-322 220 (Rajasthan) Copies from :: 1. Jaina Vidya Samsthana, Sri Mahaviraji : 2. Apabhramsa Sahitya Academy Digambara Jaina Nasiyam Savai Ramsingh Road Jaipur-302 004 First Edition : January 1998, 5000 copies Price : Rs. 15 per copy 5 $ Printed by : Jaipur Printers Pvt. Ltd. M.I. Road Jaipur-302 001 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Tirthankara Vardhamana Mahavira Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji Rajasthan For Personal & Private Use Only

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Vardhamana Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankara in a meditative posture, another illustration from the Calligraphed edition of the Constitution of India: Jainism is another stream of spiritual renaissance which seeks to refine and sublimate man's conduct and emphasises Ahimsa, non-violence, as the means to achieve it. This became a potent weapon in the hands of Mahatma Gandhi in his political struggle against the British Empire Published in the Indian Constitution For Personal & Private Use Only

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The Religion of Mahavira is styled 'Sarvodaya'. Acarya Samantabhadra (2nd cent. A.D.) To the precept of the Gospel, "Love thy neighbour as thyself' Gandhi adds, "And every living being is thy neighbour." Romain Rolland - Mahatma Gandhi For Personal & Private Use Only

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CONTENTS Page No. (vi) Prelusive Preface Diacritical Marks Pre-Mahavira Period Mahavira Metaphysics Pudgala Akasa Dharma and Adharma Kala Jiva (Self) Anekantavada, Nayavada and Syadvada The Goal of Human Pursuance Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) Right Knowledge (Samyagjnana) and Ethico-Spiritual Conduct (Samyakcaritra) (i) Spiritual Exercises (ii) Devotion (iii) Arahanta and Siddha : (iv) Morals Spiritual Welcome to Death (Sallekhana) Individual and Social Responsibility Social Values Holy Mantra Namokara and Pious Gathas Reference Books . For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUSIVE We feel great pleasure in placing 'Mahavira and His Philosophy of Life' written by Prof. Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani in the hands of the readers. The Jaina Vidya Samsthana (Institute of Jainology) established by Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra, Sri Mahaviraji is actively engaged in presenting the multidimensional perspectives of Lord Mahavira to the general public and scholar alike. It was being felt for long that the pilgrims coming to Sri Mahaviraji should get a book in English on the life and philosophy of Mahavira which may be in consonance with the spirit of the Atisaya Ksetra. We are happy to say that Prof. Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani who is the Samyojaka (Convener) of the Jaina Vidya Samsthana Samiti came to our help and wrote the present book, 'Mahavira and His Philosophy of Life' which goes a long way towards the fulfilment of a long-felt need of the Ksetra. We are grateful to him. We offer our thanks to the learned researchers of the Samsthana (Institute) and to M/s Jaipur Printers for their assistance in publishing this book. Balbhadra Kumar Jain Joint Secretary Managing Committee Digambara Jaina Atisaya Ksetra Sri Mahaviraji (vi) N.K. Sethi President For Personal & Private Use Only

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PREFACE In the tradition of Tirthankaras, Mahavira is the twentyfourth Tirthankara. His whole life illustrates the translation of the principle of Ahimsa into practice. The realisation of perfect Ahimsa is regarded by Mahavira as the ethical Summum Bonum of human life. In fact, Ahimsa is so central in Mahavira's philosophy of life that it may be incontrovertibly called the beginning and the end of his philosophy. This ideal of Ahimsa is realised progressively. He who is able to realise Ahimsa partially is called a householder, whereas he who is able to realise Ahimsa completely, though not perfectly, is called an ascetic or a Muni. It belies the allegation that ascetic flees from the world of action. Truly speaking, he recoils not from the world of action but from the world of Himsa. No doubt the ascetic life affords full ground for the realisation of Ahimsa, but its perfect realisation is possible only in the plenitude of mystical experience which is the Arhat state. Thus the householder and the ascetic are the two wheels on which the cart of Mahavira's preachings moves on quite smoothly. By developing the doctrine of Anuvrata for the householder, Mahavira has shown the way in which the householder should direct his course of life. There is no doubt that the doctrine of Anuvratas is the unique contribution of Mahavira to Indian thought. It is not idle to point out that the metaphysical position upheld by Mahavira is known as Anekantavada or non (vii) For Personal & Private Use Only

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absolutism. Mahavira does not subscribe to the absolutist approach to the unfoldment of the inner nature of reality. The preaching of Mahavira is that absolutism in philosophy is subversive of ethical speculation. In this regard the statement of Samantabhadra is that the concepts of bondage and liberation, Punya (virture) and Papa (vice) lose all their relevancy if we exclusively recognise either permanence or momentariness as constituting the.nature of substance. The declaration of Mahavira that the whole Acara (conduct) whether of the householder or of the Muni is out and out sterile without having Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening) as forming its background. Thus spiritualism pervades the entire Jaina Acara, since Mahavira lays persistent emphasis on the veritable achievement of Samyagdarsana (spiritual awakening). It should be borne in mind that in Mahavira's philosophy of life ethics (Acara) should lead to mystical realisation. It may be pointed out that in Mahavira's philosophy of life, there is the theoretical possibility of devotion without any inconsistency. It is true to say that Mahavira does not uphold the idea of God who can respond to the aspirations of the devotee but he undoubtedly recognises the Arhat and the Siddha as the divinity-realised souls who may be the objects of devotion. By our devotion to the Arhat or the Siddha, our thoughts and emotions are purified, which accumulate in the self the Punya of the highest kind, which brings about as a natural consequence material and spiritual benefits. According to Acarya Samantabhadra (2nd cent. A.D.), he who is devoted to Arhat or Siddha relishes prosperity and he who casts (viii) For Personal & Private Use Only

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aspersions sinks to perdition. Those who are devoted to him are automatically elevated. It will not be idle to point out that in Mahavira's philosophy of life both individual and society are properly reconciled. He seems to be aware of the fact that the emphasis on merely individual progress without taking note of social responsibility is derogatory both to the individual and society. After attaining supreme knowledge, he himself revolted against the economic exploitation and social oppression of man and introduced vigorous innovations in the then existing social law and order. I express my deep sense of gratitude to Acarya Vidyananda Muniraja, who inspired me to write a book in English on 'Mahavira and His Philosophy of Life' on the occasion of the Sahasrabdi Samaroha (millennial celebrations) at Sri Mahaviraji from 1st Feb. to 8th Feb. 1998. It is by virture of his holy blessings and guidance that I have been able to finish this work in time. Words are inadequate to express my gratefulness to Acarya Sri. It is hoped that the present book will give authentic information to the readers regarding the life and philosophy of Mahavira. We offer our thanks to the learned researchers of the Jaina Vidya Samsthana (Institute) and to. M/s Jaipur Printers for their assistance in publishing this book.. I should not forget to express my thanks to my wife, Srimati Kamla Devi Sogani, who has always helped me in my academic pursuits. Vira Nirvana Samvat 2524 01.01.98 Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani Samyojaka Jaina Vidya Samsthana Samiti For Personal & Private Use Only

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DIACRITICAL MARKS Vowels a A i I e calco . R e ai o au . - Consonants wr 2 kh Fo :: - 6 lmr 15 - - w = ol 9 , bmr 0 My o - . . lm por o - 6 - F mr to bh h o m ___ ya ra la v > - - * A- - fy por d - : o. (anusvAra) . : (visarga) For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAHAVIRA AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAHAVIRA AND HIS PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE Pre-Mahavira Period Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world. It represents the continuation of indigenous Sramanic culture which is at least as old as the Vedas themselves, so far as the literary evidence goes, though the archaeological evidence takes Sramanism far back to Harappan civilization, which is regarded as non-Vedic in origin and outlook. It should be borne in mind that according to the Jaina tradition Jainism owes its origin to Rsabha, the first among the twenty-four Tirthankaras.* The Hindu Bhagavata Purana mentions certain facts about Rsabha which agree in a great measure with those * The rest of the Tirthankaras are : 2. Ajitanatha i 3. Sambhavanatha 4. Abhinandananatha 5. Sumatinatha 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsvanatha 8. Candraprabha 9. Puspadanta or Suvidhinatha 10. Sitalanatha 11. Sreyamsanatha 12. Vasupujya 13. Vimalanatha 14. Anantanatha 15. Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthunatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha 20. Munisuvrata 21. Naminatha 22. Neminatha 23. Parsvanatha 24. Mahavira or Vardhamana. It may be mentioned that the five Tirthankaras, namely, Rsabhadeva or Adinatha, Ajitanatha, Abhinandananatha, Sumatinatha and Anantanatha were born in Ayodhya. Again, Rsabhadeva attained Nirvana at Mt. Kailasa in Tibet, Vasupujya, at Campa in Bihar, Neminatha, at Mt. Giranara in Gujarat and Mahavira, at Pava in Bihar. The rest twenty Tirthankaras attained Nirvana at Mt. Sammedasikhara in Bihar. Five Tirthankaras, namely, Vasupujya, Mallinatha, Neminatha (Aristanemi), Parsvanatha and Mahavira did not marry. Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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mentioned in the Jaina scriptures. Dr. Radhakrishnan opines. "There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were worshipping Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara. There is no doubt Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamana or Parsvanatha. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirthankaras : Rsabha, Ajitanatha and Aristanemi. The Bhagavata Purana endorses the view that Rsabha was the founder of Jainism." Dr. Jacobi writes : "Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rsabha the first Tirthankara as its founder and there may be something historical in the tradition which makes him the first Tirthankara. "There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were worshipping Rsabhadeva. It has been recorded that King Kharavela of Kalinga in his second invasion of Magadha in 161 B.C. brought back treasures from Magadha and in'these treasures there was the statue of the first Jaina (Rsabhadeva) which had been carried away from Kalinga three centuries earlier by King Nanda I. This means that in the 5th Century B.C. Rsabhadeva was worshipped and his statue was highly valued by his followers." "We get in ancient inscriptions authentic historical references to the statues of Ksabhadeva, so it can be asserted that he must have been the founder of Jainism." Rsabha or Adinatha was born in Ayodhya. He attained Kevala Jnana (supreme knowledge) at Prayaga (Allahabad) and embraced Nirvana at Mount Kailasa (in Tibet). His eldest son, Bharata was the first Cakravartin, after whose name this country is known as Bharatavarsa. Rsabha is the first preacher of Ahimsa Dharma. The rest of the Tirthankaras propagated the Ahimsa Dharma for Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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the welfare of the Jivas and strengthened the Sramanic Dharma preached by Tirthankara Rsabha. It will not be idle to point out that the Tirthankara Nami, the 21st Tirthankara, who was born at Mithila in Videha seems to have given rise to the spiritualistic thought of the Upanisads. The twenty-second Tirthankara Aristanemi (Neminatha), who was the first cousin of Lord Krsna preached against killing animals not only for the sake of religion but also for food. "Krsna himself had great respect for this apostle of Ahimsa." "Aristanemi and Krsna, their contemporaries, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, and the Mahabharata War are generally assigned by modern scholars to about the 15th century B.C." It may be noted here that according to Dr. G.C. Pandey "the anti-ritualistic tendency, within the Vedic fold, is itself due to the impact of an asceticism which antedates the Vedas. It is recognised that "some of the relics, recovered from the excavations at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa, are related to Sramana or Jaina tradition. "The nude images in Kayotsarga, i.e., the standing posture lost in meditation, closely resemble the Jaina images of the Kusana period. Kayotsarga is generally supposed to belong to the Jaina tradition. There are some idols even in Padmasana pose". "Even after the destruction of the Indus civilization, the straggling. oulture of the Sramanas, most probably going back to pre-Vedic times, continued even during the Vedic period as is indicated by some such terms as Vatarasana, Muni, Yati, Sramana, Kesi, Vratya, Arhan and Sisnadeva". "There can hardly be any doubt that the Muni was to the Rgvedic culture an alien figure". "In the Rgveda, Arhan has been used for a Sramana leader." "The mention of Sisnadevas (naked gods) in the Rgveda is also Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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noteworthy." All this speaks of Jainism as a pre-Vedic religion and Rsabhadeva as its founder. It is significant to point out here that the twenty-third Tirthankara Parsvanatha who was born at Varanasi in 877 B.C. attained Nirvana at Mt. Sammedasikharaji (Parasanatha Hill in Bihar) "revived the teachings of the earlier Tirthankaras in a very forceful manner". His father was Visvasena, who was the king of Varanasi, and his mother was Vama. He spent 30 years of his life as a . householder, and afterwards he led a life of a monk. After following a strenuous life of austerities he attained perfection, and after completing hundred years of his life, he embraced final emancipation on the summit of mount Sammedasikhara (Parasanatha Hill) in Bihar 250 years before Mahavira attained Nirvana. Mahavira Mahavira is the twenty-fourth Tirthankara who attained Nirvana at Pava in Bihar at the age of 72 on Tuesday the 15th Oct. 527 B.C. This day is being celebrated as the Dipavali festival (festival of lamps) throughout India. Besides, Mahavira's Nirvana day marks the beginning of Vira Nirvana Samvat. This Samvat is the oldest Sasvat rampant in India. It should be borne in mind that Mahavira is one of those few towering personalities who fought for individual liberty in the context of social life. He revolted against the economic exploitation and social oppression of man and introduced vigorous innovations in the then existing social law and order. Mahavira regarded individual and his social responsibility as the key to the progress of both the individual and society. He seems to be aware of the fact that the emphasis on merely individual progress without Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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taking note of social responsibilities is derogatory both to the individual and society. Mahavira was neither merely individualistic nor merely socialistic. In his attitude both individual and society are properly reconciled. In fact, Mahavira did not confine himself to individual upliftment, but he dedicated himself to the development of a new creative social order for the healthiest orientation of the individual. Though he was a man of contemplative values, yet social values got his fullest attention. It should be borne in mind that contemplative and social values are not opposed to each other. They are not contradictory but complementary. Mahavira seems to have believed that the urge for the creation of a healthy social order should come as a consequence of spiritual perfection. The evidence to this is that Mahavira did not preach during his twelve years period of spiritual pursuance. He seems to be convinced of the fact that without the basis of spiritual experience, the talk of social reconstruction is vain and does not result in the effective transformation of society. In consequence, it is quite misleading to say that Mahavira did not care for society and resorted to a place of seclusion. An unbiased eye will find that the greater portion of his life was devoted to having such solutions as may give sound basis to social reconstruction. It is no doubt true that he did not involve himself in superficial struggles of life. This is because of the fact that he wanted to struggle with the fundamental issues of life in order to find an everlasting solution, so that social progress may take place in a right direction. This type of endeavour adhered to by Mahavira is like that of a scientist who, in order to contribute something to society, pursues his researches in a laboratory after withdrawing himself from all sorts of Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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disturbances whatsoever. Thus Mahavira may be said to be socio-centric like a scientist. After his spiritual culmination he moved on to social dimensions of life till his Nirvana. In this way he sought reconciliation between 'Individual' and 'Society', 'T' and 'Thou'. Those who regard Mahavira only as the apostle of spiritual message do great injustice to him. In fact, he serves as an illustration both of spiritual realisation and social reconstruction. Mahavira was born at Ksatriya Kundagrama. (Kundalapura) near Vaisali in Videha country on Monday the 27th March 598 B.C. Videha corresponds mostly to the modern Tirahuta Division of Bihar State. The capital of Videha was Vaisali, the modern Basadha in Hazipur sub-division of Muzaffarpur District. Ksatriya Kundagrama, adjacent to Vaisali is now known as Vasukunda or Vasukunda, 50 KM. to the North of Patna. It should be borne in mind that in the age of Mahavira there were many Ganarajyas (republics), out of which the Ganarajya of Videha* was very well-known. Vaisali was its capital. Cetaka was the Ganarajya Pramukha of Videha republic. He was known as the great Licchavi King of Vaisali. Trisala was the daughter of Cetaka, the great Licchavi King of Vaisali. Besides, Kundalapura was an important centre of the Jnatrka Ksatriyas and King Siddharatha was the Ganaraja of Kundalapura. It may be noted here that Trisala was married to King Siddharatha. At one night Trisala saw sixteen objects in a dream, some of which are : an elephant, a bull, a lion, the moon, the sun, an ocean, a throne, smokeless fire etc. King "The Videha Ganarajya was constituted by eight Rajas representing eight major Ksatriya clans, namely, 1. Licchavi 2. Vrji 3. jnatrka 4. Videha 5. Ugra 6. Bhoga 7. Iksavaku and 8. Kaurava." Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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Siddharatha on knowing these dreams predicted that Trisala will give birth to a Tirthankara and consequently after completing nine months, seven days and twelve hours, Tirthankara Mahavira was born on the 13th day of the bright fortnight of Caitra, i.e. on Monday, the 27th March 598 B.C. at Kundalapura in Bihar, as has been mentioned above. Since with the birth of Mahavira, prosperity increased, King Siddharatha called his son, Vardhamana'. Because of his Jnatr clan he was known as Unatrputra. Simply by seeing Vardhamana, the philosophical doubts of Sanjaya and Vijaya Munis were resolved. So he was given the name 'Sanmati' by the Munis. Because of controlling and pacifying an amuck elephant, the people of Kundalapura addressed him by the name 'Ativira'. By seeing the poisonous cobra, Vardhamana fearlessly played with it so the Sangama deva who assumed the form of a cobra, bestowed on him the honour of being 'Mahavira'. In the Buddhist text, he is referred to as the Niggantha Nataputta. Gradually Mahavira attained adulthood. In spite of this, worldly pleasures did not attract him. But his parents were desirous of marrying him with Yasodha, the daughter of Jitasatru, the King of Kalinga. Despite this, he exhibited aversion to mundane desires. His parents could not prevail upon him. In consequence, Mahavira led a celibate life. He became reflective. He finds that all the things of the world are transitory. Birth accompanies death. Youth is tied up with senility. Wealth and prosperity may disappear at any time and the body may fall victim to various kinds of ills and diseases. Thus impermanence of the state of things stares us in the face. Whatever form is born must necessarily perish. Attachment to ever transforming Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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modifications leads us astray and cloud the spiritual and veritable aspect of life. Friends, beauty, wife, children, wealth etc., - all these things which in general captivate man's mind and energy are fraught with transientness, these are not the eternal associates of the self. Beside, body, fame, pleasures of the senses and other things of Bhoga and Upabhoga are unstable in character like a bubble of water, or lump of ice, or rainbow,'or lightening. Mahavira thinks that death behaves equally and indiscriminately with the young and old, the rich and poor, the brave and coward, and the like. Nothing mundane, whatsoever, is capable of resisting the challenge of death. Neither earthly powers nor heavenly gods can save us from the clutches of death. Besides, there is no place where death can not stretch its wings. Every stratagem and contrivance is impotent in rescuing a living being who is breathing his last. Again, Mahavira sees that under the constraint of Karmic bondage the mundane soul falls an easy prey to repeated births and deaths. The four forms of bodily existence human, celestial, hellish and subhuman are fraught with numberless sufferings. Besides, Mahavira feels that the soul is all alone without any companion to suffer the consequences of his own good and evil deeds. Neither Kinsmen nor friends nor sons nor daughters share one's sufferings, one alone has to bear them. Apart from this, Mahavira finds that the self is permanently distinct from the body. When one is alien even to this body so nearest to self, the question of its distinction with other objects of the world does not arise. Mahavira thinks that the body is full of impurities, and is the root cause of birth, death, mental and physical sufferings. He is aware of the fact that these are formidable obstacles to spiritual realisation. Mahavira reflects on the Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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ways of stoppage and the shedding of Karmas and on the real nature of Dharma. At a result of the above types of reflections, Mahavira decided to lead a life of asceticism. After receiving the consent of his parents, he relinquished all mundane pleasures so as to attain Siddhahood and in consequence he assumed complete nudity and became a Nirgrantha. This is known as Mahavira's Abhiniskramana, that is, the great Renunciation of Mahavira. This renunciation took place on Monday the 29th December 569 B.C. at the age of 30 and from that time Mahavira moved as a Nirgrantha Muni i.e. a naked ascetic. It may be noted here that Mahavira gave utmost importance to the practice of Dhyana, since it is directly related to the actualisation of the divine potentialities. For this Mahavira regarded the subjugation of Parisahas (afflictions) and practice of Tapas (austerities) as falling within the compass of his obligations. He allows no compromise with anything entangling him in the mire of Samsara. His career is indicative of his complete detachment from mundane life and living. He holds the view that any thing which drags him down to breathe in the suffocating air of the profane world must needs be subdued, strangled and overthrown. He is convinced of the fact that if the Parisahas are not met with adequate attitude and disposition of mind, they would tend to mar the saintly life. On the contrary, if they are encountered with the inner conviction of truth, and invaded by the nonviolent army of fortitude, meditation and devotion, they will confer jubilation, and yield the joy of victory. And if the austerities are spiritedly practised, they would bring about the inner rejection of desire, which would be helpful in the Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 9

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practice of Dhyana. It may be pointed out in passing that the difference between Parisahas and austerities consists in the fact that the former occur against the will of the saint, who endures them or rather turns them to good account by contemplating them to be the means for spiritual conquest, while the latter are in concordance with the will of the saint to have the spiritual triumph. Secondly, most of the Parisahas may be the creations of vicious man, cruel nature and jealous gods, viewed from the common man's point of view, but austerities are the enunciations and resolutions of the aspirant's soul. Again, if Parisahas have enduring value, austerities have pursuing value. Thirdly, Parisahas which are obstacles to spiritual life represent themselves as the passing phase in the career of the aspirant, whereas the austerities form the indispensable part and parcel of the dicipline which is enjoined in order to escape from this distressed and sorrowful worldly life. Lastly, we may say that the performance of austerities subscribes to the endurance of Parisahas with equanimity and unruffled state of mind, and to the practice of Dhyana. As has been said above, Mahavira regarded Dhyana as the clear and single road by which the aspirant can move straight to the supreme good. He, therefore, selected isolated and lonely places such as forest, cremation ground, caves, and mountain tops for performing Dhyana (meditation). Besides, Mahavira conquered many Parisahas (afflictions). At one night Sthanu Rudra began to trouble Mahavira in many ways, but in vain. Thus Parisahas could not deviate Mahavira from the right path. He endured with the greatest equanimity all sorts of abuses, tortures inflicted on him by vicious persons. He 10 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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meditated day and night, undisturbed and unperturded and at last under the Sala tree on the banks of the river Rjukula outside the town, Jrmbhika, he attained supreme knowledge known as Kevalajnana and became Arhat on Sunday the 26th April 557 B.C. at the age of 42 years. It will not be amiss to point out that while undergoing a strenuous course of discipline for a period of 12 years, he observed complete silence i.e Mauna, thus he was styled Maha Mauni i.e. the great observer of silence. Besides, he exhibited least concern for sleep during the period of twelve years. After the attainment of omniscience (Kevalajnana), Mahavira remained silent and did not deliver any sermon for sixty-six days. One day Mahavira arrived at Vipulacala mountain outside the city of Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha. Here Samavasarana (religious assembly) was organised on Saturday the 1st July 557 B.C. Owing to the presence of a renowned Brahmin Scholar named Indrabhuti Gautama in the Samavasarana (who was regarded as having the capacity to record the truth revealed by Mahavira), Mahavira delivered his Ist Sermon at the Vipulacala mountain on Saturday the 1st July 557 B.C.. This day is celebrated as the Virasasana day. Indrabhuti Gautama was designated as the first Ganadhara (chief disciple) by Mahavira. Gradually Mahavira initiated more Gandharas into the ascetic order, so that the doctrine preached by him may be transmitted to the masses in an authentic manner in their own language which was Prakrta at that time. For full thirty years Mahavira visited different parts of the country especially the important centres in Eastern and Northern India, and promulgated the doctrine of Ahimsa Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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and Anekanta throughout. Owing to the magnetic personality of Mahavira and his metaphysical, ethical and spiritual teachings, number of kings, queens, princes, princesses, ministers and merchants accepted him as their teacher. Thus males and females of all casts and classes became the ardent followers of Mahavira, and a fourfold order of Sadhus (male ascetics), Sadhvis (female ascetics), Sravakas (male householders) and Sravikas (female householders) came into existence. In view of the all-embracing character of Mahavira's principles the Jaina Acarya Samantabhadra, as early as second century A.D. called the religion of Mahavira a 'Sarvodaya' Tirtha, which term is so commonly used now-a-days after Gandhiji. It should be borne in mind that the doctrines preached by Mahavira are fundamentally the doctrines of Jainism. Metaphysics In metaphysics Mahavira holds that the substance (Dravya) is that which exists or that which is characterised by simultaneous origination, destruction and persistence, or that which is the substratum of qualities and modifications (modes). It may be noted here that every one of these definitions is inclusive of the rest, since existence implies change and permanence. To be more clear, permanence signifies persistence of substance along with qualities, and change refers to fluctuating modes along with the emergence of the new modes and disappearance of the old ones at one and the same time. To illustrate, gold as a substance exists with its modifications and qualities. Now after making an ornament, gold as a substance is existent with its qualities and what changes is the mode, Thus existence which is Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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inseparably bound up with substance (gold) accompanied by its qualities and modes necessitates the production of a new form, the cessation of the old one, and continuation of gold as such simultaneously. In other words, substance, as inherently and essentially assoicated with endless qualities and modifications, is out and out inconceivable without at the same time implying existence which in turn is endowed with the trio of simultaneous origination, destruction and persistence. Thus substance as different from qualities (Guna) and modifications (Paryaya) is not worthy of being so called. Origination and destruction are applicable to modifications and persistence to qualities along with substance. Mahavira resolves the whole universe of being into two everlasting, uncreated, co-existing, but independent categories of Jiva and Ajiva. The Ajiva is further classified into Pudgala (matter), Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space) and Kala (time). All the substances except Pudgala are regarded as bereft of material qualities of touch, taste, smell and colour, and only Jiva is said to possess consciousness. Hence Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala are destitute of consciousness, and also of material qualities. Thus they should not be misapprehended as being comprised under the category of matter, but they come under a different category of non-sentiency-cum-non-materiality. As for Dharma, Adharma and Akasa, each of them is considered to be one, while Jiva and Pudgala are infinite and Kala is innumerable. Besides, Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala are by nature non-active, and the remaining two are active. Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 13 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Pudgala The principal forms in which Pudgala (matter) having the qualities of touch, taste, smell and colour exists, are Anu (atomha and Skandha (aggregate). Binary to infinite aggregates are included in Skandha. An atom consists of only one Pradesa, is the terminus of divisibility of matter, is by itself without beginning, end or middle, is destitute of sound and is coupled with the qualities of taste, touch, smell and colour. Besides. it is indestructible and eternal. It possesses any one colour, any one taste, any one smell, but a pair of such touches as are not of contradictory nature, namely, cold and viscous, or cold and dry, or hot and viscous, or hot and dry. The remaining touches, namely, soft and hard, light and heavy are only manifested in the Skandha state of matter, and thus are not present in its atomic state. The qualities of viscousness and dryness are responsible for atomic linking. It may be mentioned here that the activity of Pudgala is due to the external agency of Kala (time). Akasa That extent of space which is replete with matter, souls, time, principle of motion and principle of rest is labelled Lokakasa or world space. This distinguishes it from Alokakasa or empty space wherein none of the five substances abides. Thus the former is recognised as being capable of providing accommodation to Jivas, Pudgala and to the rest of the Dravyas. The principles of motion and rest are immanent in the entire physical space (Lokakasa) like the permeation of oil in the seed. Dharma And Adharma Dharma and Adharma are the indifferent conditions of movement and rest respectively. Dharma-dravya is itself Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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incapable of migration and of generating motion in other things, but is the sine qua non of the movement of Jivas and Pudgala by its mere existence, just as water assists in the spontaneous movement of fish by its mere presence and not as the wind which had the capability to develop activity in certain things. Similarly, Adharma-dravya does not persuade Jiva and Pudgala in motion to stand still, but becomes the passive condition when they of their own accord discontinue to move, just as the shadow of a tree does not persuade a traveller to take rest under it. Thus neither Dharma-dravya originates motion, nor Adharma-dravya stops it. Both of them are non-active conditions. Besides, these two principles are also responsible for the demarcation of Lokakasa and Alokakasa, inasmuch as they make possible the existence of Jiva and Pudagala only in Lokakasa. Kala Mahavira realisticaly confers an existential status on time, and calls it substance to answer for the experienced change, just as Dharma and Adharma and Akasa are calculated to throw light on what may be called motion, rest and the providing of room. Kala may be classified into real time (Paramartha Kala) and conditioned time (Vyavahara Kala). The former is the substance proper, and Samaya, Avali are conditioned varieties of time. The function of Paramartha Kala is Vartana, i.e., it passively helps the self-changing substances and the functions of conditioned time are change, motion and the feeling of one's being young and old. The Kala exists in the form of Kala Anus. These are innumerable, and exist separately on each Pradesa of Lokakasa without being mixed with one another. The unit of conditioned time is called Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 15 For Personal & Private Use Only

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'Samaya', which may be defined as the period required by the primary material atom to traverse with slow pace from one Pradesa of Akasa to the immediately next. It is practically inconceivable in life. It should be borne in mind that innumerable 'Samayas' lapse in the opening of an eyelid. Jiva (Self) The self is one of the six substances subsisting independently of anything else. The experience of knowing, feeling and willing immediately proves the existence of self. According to Jainism, consciousness is its essential and distinguishing feature. . Jainism deals with the nature of self from two perspectives, transcendental (Niscaya) and empirical (Vyavahara). The transcendental perspective represents the self in its unadulterated state of existence; whereas the empirical view describes the self in its defiled form. The former state is known as Siddha, while the latter one is called Samsari. It is to be borne in mind that these two states of self are metaphysically indistinguishable, though the Karmic adjuncts create distinctions between them. In other words, the empirical self is potentially transcendental, though this noumenal state of existence is not actualized at present, hence the distinction is undeniable. In view of the metaphysical position unheld by the Jaina there are infinite selves, and thus every mundane self is potentially Siddha, and this Siddhahood need be actualized in the interest of arriving at the supreme summit of religious experience. It is not idle to point out that though we are in the defiled form of existence from the beginningless past, the Niscaya-naya (transcendental view) reminds us of our spiritual magnificence and glory. It prompts the 16 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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sullied self to behold its spiritual heritage. When the self has ascended to the pinnacle of spiritual experience, the Vyavahara-naya (empirical view) is of no significance for the aspirant. The Vyavahara-naya which points to our slumbering state in the domain of spiritualism applies to our Sassari state, while the Niscaya-naya which indicates our transcendental spiritual nature is applicable to Siddha state in us. To say that every empirical self is potentially divine (Siddha) is to say that it is basically possessing infinite knowledge, infinite bliss and infinite energy. Thus spiritual realization consists in the full manifestation of the cognitive, affective and conative potencies inherent in the self. First, the Vyavahara-naya tells us that the empirical self owns at least four Pranas (one sense, one bala, life-limit and breathing) and at best ten Pranas (five senses, three balas, life-limit and breathing). The lowest in the grade of existence are the one-sensed souls. They possess four Pranas, namely, sense of touch, bala of body, life-limit and breathing, and they are of five kinds, namely, earthbodied, water-bodied, fire-bodied, air-bodied and vegetable-bodied selves. As we move higher on the ladder of biological existence, we have two-sensed to five-sensed selves having six, seven, eight, nine and ten Pranas respectively. We may point out in passing that it is only the five-sensed human selves who are capable of unfolding their potential divinity. In contradistinction to Vyavahara-naya, the Niscaya-naya points out that knowledge-consciousness (Jnana-cetana) is the real Prana of self. It is by virtue of this that the self is distinguished from other substances. The transcendental view does not take any note of the ten Pranas, but keeps Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 17 For Personal & Private Use Only

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its eyes fixed on the essential life of the self, namely, knowledge-consciousness. Secondly, the Vyavahara-naya recognizes empirical self as bound by material Karmas (Dravya-Karma) and psychical Karmas (Bhava-Karma). Owing to the effects of Karma the self transmigrates from one body to another, from one state of existence to the other. With Karmic associations from beginningless time, the self is affected by the material objects of the world and appears to possess material qualities of colour, touch, taste, and smell. But the Niscaya-naya which directs our attention to the real nature of the self proclaims that the self's intrinsic nature can not be destroyed by the Karmas and it is devoid of any of the material qualities. Thirdly, according to the Vyavahara-naya, the self extends up to the limits of bodily dimensions on account of its narrowing and dilating characteristics because of the effect of Karma, just as a lotus-hued ruby extends its lustre to the cup of milk, when placed in it, or just as a lamp throws its light to the extent of the space in which it is placed. The Niscaya-naya propounds that the self is capable of extending to the entire Lokakasa. Fourthly, the Vyavahara-naya tells us that the empirical self is the doer of material and psychical Karmas. These two are so interconnected that one gives rise to the other. Subha (auspicious) and Asubha (inauspicious) actions occasioned by Subha and Asubha psychical states are done by the empirical self. But the Niscaya-naya expounds that in whatever deeds the self may get itself engaged in the world, they are not the representatives of the self in its pure, undefiled and transcendental nature. The self in its real nature is not the doer of material and psychical 18 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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Karmas, but it is the doer of transcendental states of knowledge and the like. When the empirical self rises to the transcendental plane of experience, it becomes the doer of pure actions devoid of attachment and aversion. Fifthly, in the eyes of Vyavahara-naya, the empirical self is the enjoyer of pleasure and pain. These are the results of Karmic associations from beginningless time. But according to Niscaya-naya, the self is capable of enjoying such happiness as is transcendental, born of the self, supersensuous, incomparable, infinite and indestructible. Lastly, the Niscaya-naya regards the self as its own lord (Prabhu). It is its own enemy and friend. It is not dependent on any other agency for its salvation. It is called Svayambhu. It is a state of self-sufficiency which requires no other foreign assistance to sustain itself. It is itself the subject, the object, the means of its achievement, it achieves for itself, destroys the extraneous elements and is the support of its infinite potencies. Hence the self manifests its original nature by transforming itself into six cases. It is at once the nominative, the accusative, the instrumental, the dative, the ablative, and the locative case. Anekantavada, Nayavada and Syadvada According to Jainism, metaphysical reality embraces within its fold contradictions, but only in apparent fashion. It has been considered as existent and non-existent, one and many, permanent and changing etc. Thus all the objects of the world possess infinite characteristics which are apparently contradictory in nature. This is known as Anekantavada. The emphasis on the one characteristic and the cancellation of the other would irresistibly lead us to the biased estimation and Ekantic view of reality. Of Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 19

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the unfathomable characteristics, Naya chooses one at one moment but keeps in view the other characteristics also. Reality being the repository of infinite characteristics, the apprehension of it from a particular angle of vision i.e. Naya does not exhaust the whole of the multi-phased reality. So, in order to avoid possible misunderstanding that reality is exhausted by the employment of a particular Naya, every predication should be preceded by the word 'Syat' in order to make us aware of the possibility of other alternative predications. Hence it is known as the doctrine of Syadvada. Syadvada is no doubt the logical outcome of Anekantavada, the doctrine of the multiple nature of reality. It is simply the mode of predication or communication envisaged by the Jaina to convey the knowledge of the multi-phased reality. Thus Syadvada is the mode of expression, Anekantavada or Nayavada is the mode of cognition. Syadvada is the expression of Anekantavada in language. We can not do better than quote Prof. A.N. Upadhye for exposing the relation between Syadvada and Nayavada, "Syadvada is a corollary of Nayavada : the latter is analytical and primarily conceptual and the former is synthetical and mainly verbal. Syadvada will certainly look lame in the absence of Naya doctrine. Naya doctrine without Syadvada has no practical value. Syadvada in course of the process of assertion curbs down and harmonises the absolute views of individual Nayas." The Goal of Human Pursuance The goal is described as the attainment of Paramatman after one's passing through the state of Antaratman and renouncing the state of Bahiratman. The Paramatman is Parama Atman, the highest, infinite self. The Bahiratman Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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has awareness only of the physical body and its various accompaniments, the Antaratman has developed spiritual awareness, but the Paramatman attains to the highest realization of spiritual experience that passes understanding. In the state of Paramatman the empirical self becomes universal self in the sense that it is capable of intuiting all the objects of the world owing to the emergence of omniscience. In view of the fact of possessing omniscience, it will not be contradictory to say that the ominscient being is all-pervading, and that all the objects are within him, since he is the embodiment of knowledge and all the objects are the objects of knowledge. The omniscient being neither accepts nor abandons, nor transforms the external objectivity, but only witnesses and apprehends the world of objects without entering into them, just as the eye sees the object of sight. The Paramatman not only manifests infinite intuitive knowledge, but also experiences unalloyed bliss which is self-originated, supersensuous, unique, infinite and interminable. The correlate of infinite knowledge and bliss is infinite energy without which the former two can not be sustained. Thus we may say that the cognitive, conative and affective tendencies of the self find supreme satisfaction in the state of Paramatman. It is of capital importance to point out that Jainism gives credence to the infinite plurality of Paramatmans just as there is ontological pluralism of empirical selves. Every empirical self can become universal and there are as many universal selves as there are empirical selves without any contradiction. In Jaina terminology, every Jiva is potentially a Siddha and in Siddhahood self-individuation is sustained. Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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Doctrine of Karma and Transmigration We have said above that the goal of human pursuance consists in realizing the state of Paramatman. This means that the goal is not something situated in a distant land, but it is the self in its veritable, dignified and ontological nature. In spite of this basic oneness of nature, the empirical selves differ from one another in respect of knowledge, prosperity, status and bodily make up, etc. What is the cause of this difference ? How to account for these perceptible distinctions among empirical selves ? The answer of the Jaina is that it is the beginningless material subtle principle known as Karma that is responsible for the cause of differences in the empirical selves. This Karma has been exercising its limiting and crippling influence on the empirical conscious principles from the beginningless past. Thereby it has been obstructing the manifestation of their-inherent excellences. But it may be noted that however encumbered with Karmic matter a self may be, it can not obstruct the manifestation of consiousness to the full, just as even the most dense cloud can not interrupt the light of the sun to its farthest extreme. This material subtle principle known as Dravyakarma, and its psychical counterpart in terms of Raga and Dvesa is called Bhava-karma. Karmas are of varied nature, but the fundamental kinds of Karma are eight in number - namely, knowledgeobscuring, intuition-obscuring, feeling-producing, delusion-producing, longevity-determining, body-making, status-determining and obstruction-generating Karma. (1) Just as the curtain obstructs the knowledge of things inside the room, so also the knowledge-obscuring Karma obstructs the expression of knowledge. (2) Just as a 22 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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door-keeper does not allow persons to meet the king, etc. so also the intuition-obscuring Karma does not allow apprehension of things. (3) Just as on licking honey from the sharp edge of a sword, the person enjoys honey as well as suffers pain, so also the feeling-producing Karma produces pleasure and pain in man. (4) Just as wine stupefies a person, so also the delusion-producing Karma perverts the person. (5) Just as wooden fetters stop the movement of a person, so also the longevity-determining Karma obliges the soul to stay in a particular body. (6) Just as the painter produces different pictures, so also the body-making Karma makes different bodies. (7) Just as a potter makes earthen pots of different sizes, so alo the status-determining Karma determines status in society. (8) Just as a treasurer generates obstructions in giving money, etc. to others, so also the obstruction-generating Karma causes handicaps in charity, in gains and in selfpower. It is no doubt true that Karmas bind the self to mundane existence. Now the question that arises is this : How the self is bound by Karma ? What are the causes that create Karmic bondage in the self ? The answer of the Jaina is that its actions (mental, bodily and vocal) polluted by passions cause empirical bondage to the self. The passion-free actions do not bring about any mundane bondage whatsoever. Actions with passion are known as Jneyartha-parinamana Kriyas, since they are consequent upon transmuting the inherent meanings of the objects of the world and actions without passions are Jnapati-kriyas, since they arise in consequence of having supersensuous knowledge which knows things without any distortion and predilections. Bondage of Karmas presupposes influx of Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 23 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Karmas, i.e. Bandha presupposes Asrava. Any action of mind, body and speech is the cause of Karmic influx (Asrava). This Asrava becomes bondage in the presence of passion. When there are no passions, there is no bondage (Bandha) but, in the absence of passions, there is no doubt influx of Karma (Asrava) owing to actions, but this Asrava cannot adversely affect the self. Thus it is passions that mar the spiritual career of an aspirant. Now the question that confronts us is: Is there any way to end Asrava and Bandha ? The answer of the Jaina is that if the influx of Karmas is stopped and the accumulated Karmas are brushed aside, the self can be made free from all Karmic filth. Thus Moksa (emancipation from Karmic matter) is through Samvara (stoppage of Karmic matter) and Nirjara (shedding of Karmic matter). All these three have their psychical counterparts i.e., there is Bhavasamvara, Bhava-nirjara and Bhava-moksa. This shows that without psychical transformation nothing worthwhile can be achieved. He who makes himself free from passions following right course of conduct stops the influx of Karmas. To make oneself completely free from auspicious and inauspicious psychical states is possible only gradually. Thus Samvara is gradual. The life of Anuvratas and that of Mahavratas illustrate the gradual process of Samvara and consequently of Nirjara. In other words, the Acara of the householder and that of the Muni pave the way for realizing Samvara, Nirjara and Moksa. In the state of Moksa, the self experiencing infinite knowledge, infinite bliss and energy absolves itself from the perpetual rounds of birth and death, and it thus annuls the filth of Karmas in its entirety. Jainism recognises that in the person who is really involved in the world, the impure psychical states occur Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 24 For Personal & Private Use Only

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because of this involvement. From the impure psychical states the Karma (impure material particles) as such comes into being and from the Karma, his transmigration in the four grades of existence takes place. From the Jiva who has transmigrated to a grade of existence, the body arises and from the body senses come into being. By means of the senses, there is the seizing of the senseobjects. By reason of that attachment and aversion occur. Thus, during the transmigration of Jiva, arise in him psychical states of attachment and aversion, which are beginningless and endless or they are beginningless but having an end because of his developing spirtitual awakening (Samyagdarsana), Right knowledge (Samyagjnana) and ethico-spiritual conduct (Samyakcaritra). Spiritual Awakening (Samyagdarsana) Spiritual awakening is the beginning of spiritual pilgrimage, and it is the foundation of the magnificent edifice of liberation. Spiritual perversion acts as a barricade to soul's true life. It is at the root of all evils, the seed of the tree of Samsara. The person experiencing spiritual perversion becomes perverted in his attitude. It poisons all our activities, so as to check the realisation of the Summum Bonum of life. Moreover, it is responsible for the perversity of knowledge and conduct alike. So long as spiritual perversion is operative, all our efforts to witness the sun of self's glory are bound to fail. Thus it is to be rooted out in the interest of rendering its unwholesome function null and void. In other words, spiritual awakening is to be attained, which in turn will make knowledge and conduct conducive to the attainment of Paramatman. It is only after the acquisition of spiritual awakening that the person Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 25

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attains the primary qualification for even marching towards emancipation from the wheel of misery. If spiritual perversion is at the root of worldly life and living, spiritual awakening is at the root of liberation. Even performing very sever austerities, persons devoid of spiritual awakening do not attain spiritual wisdom even in thousands and crores of years. Just as a leaf of the lotus plant because of its own nature and constitution is not defiled by water, so also an awakened person because of his spiritual nature is not sullied by passions and sensuous attractions. Rightness in knowledge and conduct is acquired through spiritual awakening. The spiritually awakened self considers his own self as his genuine abode and regards the outward dwelling places as artificial. He renounces all identification with the animate and inanimate objects of the world, and properly weighs them in the balance of his awakened spirit. Thus he develops a unique attitude towards himself and the world, around him. Jainism deals with the nature of spiritual awakening (Samyagdarsana) from two points of view, namely Niscaya (transcendental) and Vyavahara (empirical). The former regards Smyagdarsana as awakening of the transcendental self, whereas the latter regards it as the belief in the seven Tattvas : (1) Jiva, (2) Ajiva, (3) Asrava, (4) Bandha, (5) Samvara, (6) Nirjara and (7) Moksa. Even in the belief in the seven Tattavas, the central principle is the self. So ultimately Vyavahara-Samyagdarsana will give rise to Niscaya-Samyagdarsana. The insight into the nature of these Tattvas is the sine qua non of the ethical and the spiritual life. THE unambiguous and graphic apprehension of the Tattvas is 26 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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indispensable for the deliverance of the self. The march towards the spiritual goal presupposes the faith in the Tattvas and their clear consciousness. The two lines of thought relating to the Tattvas and the Dravyas need not be confused with each other, but the purport of each is to be borne in mind. The Jaina philosophers have two purposes -metaphysical interpretation of the universe and the salvation of the soul-in view. The six Dravyas are the expressions of the metaphysical curiosity of the human mind, while the seven Tattvas are the manifestation of its ethical and religious inquisitiveness. The latter deal with the spiritual desease and its cause, as also with the means to cure it and the cured state i.e., they deal with Samsara and its cause, as also with Moksa and its cause. Thus the aspirant must know Bandha and its cause namely, Asrava, as well as Moksa and its causes namely Samvara and Nirjara. In addition to these five Tattvas it is necessary to have the knowledge of the self which is bound, but which is to be made free. The bound state of existence presupposes the recognition of non-conscious (Ajiva) principle, by which the self is bound from beginningless past. Thus the study of these seven Tattvas is of primary importance for a person longing for emancipation. Samyagjnana (Right Knowledge) and Samyakcaritra (Ethico-Spiritual Conduct) According to Jainism, that is right-knowledge by virtue of which spiritual principle is cognized, mind is curbed and soul is purified. Again, that is right-knowledge by which the person becomes free from attachment. As regard ethico-spiritual conduct, Jainism recognises that withdrawals from the immoral conduct and devoting Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 27

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one's self to the moral conduct is styled conduct from the empirical standpoint. But according to the transcendental standpoint when the self is absorbed in his own self, then that absorption in the highest self is certainly transcendental conduct. The person who is devoid of all attachments and who is engrossed in the self apprehends and experiences the self in its basic nature. Such a person certainly pursues spiritual conduct. The person who is not disposed to the spiritual way of life but performs austerity and adopts vows acts unwisely. Having experienced the real self when the person translates into life the renouncement of virtue and vice, he, then, attains supreme peace. To be more clear, the vicious acts should be restrained through virtuous acts and the virtuous acts should be restrained through spiritual experience. The person should meditate on his own virtuous and spiritual nature in this successive order. It may be pointed out here that the aspirant devotes his energies to meditation, devotion and Svadhyaya alongwith the performance of other spiritual exercises. Before taking up these spiritual practices, he resorts to moral discipline in the form of Anuvratas and Mahavratas. Without moral observances, the spiritual practices can not be sustained. According to the Jaina faith, moral and spiritual discipline find their completion in the life of the Muni, since the life of the householder affords. only partial ground for them. The moral and spiritual practices of the Muni culminate in the attainment of the religious goal of Arhathood and Siddhahood. (i) Spiritual Exercises The Muni performs many types of spiritual exercises, such as (a) Guptis and Samitis, (b) control of the five senses, (c) sixfold essentials, and (d) Tapas (austerities). 28 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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(a) The ideal thing for a Muni is to control totally his physical, mental and vocal activities and to fix himself in the Atmanic experience. Such a sublime endeavour is termed Gupti. Thus from the stand-point of the highest ascent, signifies the withdrawal of mind, body and speech from virtue and vice, and from the auspicious and inauspicious activities, but from the stand-point of Subhopayogi Muni, it means the recoiling of the triple agencies merely from the inauspicious deeds. The observance of carefulness in moving, speaking, taking food, keeping and receiving things, evacuating bowels etc. is termed Samiti. It may be noted here that the Muni accepts food not for increasing strength, enhancing longevity, gratifying relish, and attaining bright look, but for performing spiritual study, pursuing self-control and meditation. (b) It is an evident fact that attachment to senses and sensuous pleasures creates enormous difficulties in the spiritual path. Hence a Muni controls the five senses from their attachment to colour, sound, smell, taste and touch. In order that the senses may be curbed a Muni should neither be attracted by beauty nor repulsed by the ugliness of things, the sense of hearing should not be led away by any tune whatsoever, the sense of smell should not be seduced by, the fragrance of things, the sense of taste should not be overcome by different kinds of juices, and lastly the sense of touch should not be led astray by different kinds of touch. (c) A Muni performs six essentials. (i) Samayika : He develops an equanimous state of mind in the midst of life and death, loss and gain, pleasant and unpleasant events, friends and foes, pleasure and pain. (ii) Vandana : He Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 29

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offers salutations to Arahanta and Siddha Pratimas and to those who excell in spiritual attainments. (iii) Stuti : He contemplates on the divine characteristics of the twentyfour Tirthankaras. (iv) Pratikramana : He purifies his own faults in spiritual living by resorting to self-criticism, and by confession in the presence of his Guru. (v) Pratyakhyana : It implies the determination of the Muni to renounce in future all that is inconsistent with his spiritual pursuit. Pratikramana has retrospective reference, while Pratyakhyana has prospective one. (vi) Kayotsarga : In it the Muni practises a formal nonattachment to the body for a prescribed period of time. (d) Tapa : The Muni eradicates desire from the texture of self, since it is the real enemy of self. Consequently, its extirpation is of paramount importance. The Tapas are of two kinds, viz. (i) external and (ii) internal. (i) External austerities (Tapas) are of six kinds. i. Anasana: It means fasting for a limited period of time, such as for one day, two days etc. ii. Avamaudarya : It means to take less than the normal quantity of food each day. iii. Vrttiparisamkhyana : It means the pre-determination of the Muni regarding the number of houses to be visited, the particular manner of taking food, the specific type of food, the giver of specific qualification, when he sets out to get food. If the things conform to his norm, he would accept food, otherwise he would go without it for that day, iv. Rasaparityaga : It implies the abstinence from one or more articles of food, namely, milk, curd, ghee, oil, sugar and salt and from one or more kinds of tastes, namely, pacrid, bitter, astringent, sour and sweet. v. Viviktasayyasana : It means that a Muni abandons the dwellings of depraved householders. He does not make 30 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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use of them for sitting, sleeping and standing. vi. Kayaklesa : In it the body is put to certain discomforts through uneasy and stern postures. These external austerities do not aim at the flagellation of the body, but contribute towards the inner advancement of a Muni. (ii) The internal austerities are also of six kinds. i. Prayascitta : When a Muni has committed certain transgressions, he resorts to repentance for the wrong done in order to purify himself. That is the real Prayascitta wherein the commission of fault in spiritual life is not repeated, ii. Vinaya : It means the expression of humbleness towards the spiritually superior. A Muni is not conceited in his attainments, and behaves modestly with all those who have attained to spiritual heights. iii. Vaiyavrttya : It means the rendering of service to other Munis through suitable means when they are overwhelmed by disease, affliction and any disturbance whatsoever, iv. Vyutsarga : It implies the relinquishment of internal and external Parigraha. v. Svadhyaya : The study of scriptures is Svadhyaya. Its purpose is to enrich the intellect, to refine moral and spiritual efforts, to infuse detachment and fear from mundane miseries, and to purify defects that may occur when one pursues the divine path. For those who are fickle-minded and intellectually unsteady, nothing is so potent to end such a state of mind as the pursuance of Svadhyaya. Without the acquisition of scriptual knowledge, there is always a danger of being led astray from the virtuous path, just as the tree full of flowers and leaves can not escape its deadening fate for want of the root. The man with Svadhyaya saves himself from being led astray, just as Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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the needle with thread is not lost. vi. Dhyana: It represents the concentration of mind on a particular object. The object of concentration may be profane or holy in character. The mind may concentrate either on the debasing object or on the object which is elevating. The former is Aprasasta-Dhyana and the latter is Prasasta. In dealing with Dhyana as Tapa, we are concerned with the Prasasta type of Dhyana, since it is only relevant to spiritual realization. It is the indispensable, integral constituent of right conduct, and consequently it is directly related to the actualization of the divine potentialities. It is the clear and single road by which the aspirant can move straight to the supreme good. All the disciplinary observances find their culmination in Dhyana, and they form an essential background for the performance of Dhyana. The practice of the fourfold virtue of Maitri (friendship with all creatures), Pramoda (appreciation of the merits of others), Karuna, (compassion for those who are in trouble) and Madhyastha (indifference to those who are irrational), constitute the mental pre-requisite conditions of Dhyana. The aspirant should avoid those places which are inhabited by the vicious, hypocrites, gamblers, drunkards, harlots and the like, and should choose a bank of river, an island, a cave, a summit of a mountain and other places of seclusion for practising spiritual concentration. For him, whose mind is immaculate, stable and detached, every posture, every place, and every time is fit for meditation. Many places in the body have been enumerated for mental concentration, namely, the two eyes, two ears, the foremost point of the nose, the forehead, the place between the two eye-brows etc. Prasasta-Dhyana is of two types, namely, Dharma and Sukla. The best kind of Dharma-Dhyana is to meditate - 32 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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upon the self by fixing one's mind in it after renouncing all other thoughts. After Dharma-Dhyana, Sukla-Dhyana is practised. In it the mind shortens its field of concentration to the effect that the Muni meditates upon one substance, an atom, and the like. In consequence, the Muni experiences infinite knowledge, bliss and energy. (ii) Devotion After dealing with these spiritual exercises, let us deal with devotion as one of the very important spiritual exercises for higher advancement of the self. Devotion implies sublime affection towards the perfected souls (Arhat and Siddha) or towards those who are much advanced on the path of divine realization. The Jaina devotional texts regard devotion as of great significance. Vadiraja says that in spite of deep intellectual attainments and great moral accomplishments, the aspirant can not achieve liberation without profound devotion. Samantabhadra points out that just as iron is turned into gold by a mere touch of the Parasa stone, so also the devotee is transformed into an effulgent personality, and what he speaks is regarded as of great importance. But here a question may be asked : Is devotion possible in Jainism ? Again, one may say that devotion in Jainism is a contradiction in terms, since devotion presupposes the existence of a being who can actively respond to the aspirations of the devotee, and in Jainism the conception of such a being is inadmissible. The reply is that in Jainism Arhat and Siddha are the objects of devotion. They are, no doubt, not affected by devotion, and remain quite indifferent to human weal and woe. They are beyond attachment and aversion. Why is, then, devotion directed to them? The answer is that by our devotion to the Arhat or the Siddha our thoughts and emotions are purified. A Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 33 For Personal & Private Use Only

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great heap of Punya is deposited in the self by devotion. By virtue of this there results spiritual advancement. This sort of change in the devotee can not result from worshipping a mere stone, hence the importance of devotion for Arhat or Siddha. Dr. A.N. Upadhye says, "neither Arhat nor Siddha has on him the responsibility of creating, supporting, and destroying the world. The aspirant receives no boons, no favours, and no curses from him by way of gifts from the divinity. The aspiring souls pray to him, worship him and meditate on him as an example, as a model, as an ideal that they too might reach the same status." But it should not be forgotten that unified, single-minded devotion to Arahantas (Arhats) or Siddhas accumulates in the self the Punya (auspicious Karma) of the highest kind, which, as a natural consequence, brings forth material and spiritual benefits. Thus the aspirant should not breathe in despondency for the aloofness of Arhat or Siddha. Those who are devoted to the Siddhas and Arhats are automatically elevated. Arahanta and Siddha In the philosophy of Mahavira, Arahanta and Siddha are the supreme objects of devotion. They are subsumed under the category of Deva (divine beings). Considered from the perspective of mystical realisation, Arahanta and Siddha stand at par. The former enjoys embodied liberation and the latter, disembodied one. There are two kinds of Arahantas, namely, Tirthankara and nonTirthankara. The distinction between the two is this that the former is capable of preaching and propagating religious doctrines in order to guide the mundane souls immersed in the life of illusion and his sermons are properly worded by the Ganadharas (chief disciples), Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 34 For Personal & Private Use Only

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while the latter is not the propounder of religious faith or principles, but silently enjoys simply the sublimity of mystical experience. It should be borne in mind that Mahavira is the Tirthankara-Arahanta. Owing to the delivering of sermons for general beneficence, he is the perfect Guru and also the perfect Deva on account of the complete actualisation of the divinity potential in himself. It is through the medium of Tirthankara-Arahantas that mystical life has been possible on earth. In the Jaina texts though Arahanta and Siddha are styled 'God', yet the ultimate responsibility of emancipating oneself from the turmoils of the world falls upon one's own undivided efforts, upon the integral consecration of energies to the attainment of divine life. Thus every soul has the right to become Paramatman (supreme self) who has been conceived to be the consummate realisation of the divine potentialities. Arahantas are consummate mystics. They lead a life of super-moralism, but not of a-moralism. It is inconceivable that the Arahantas who have attained supremacy on account of the realisation of perfect Ahimsa may in the least pursue an ignoble life of Himsa, a life of vice. He is no doubt beyond the category of virtue and vice, good and evil, Punya and Papa, auspicious and inauspicious psychical states, yet he may be pronounced to be the most virtuous soul, though the pursuit of virtuous life is incapable of binding him to the cycle of life and death. Samantabhadra ascribes inconceivability to the mental, vocal and physical actions of Arahanta, since they are neither impelled by desire nor born of ignorance. Whatever issues from him is potent enough to abrogate the miseries of the tormented humanity. Hundreds of souls get Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 35 For Personal & Private Use Only

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spiritually converted by his mere sight, forsaking their perverted attitude towards life. His presence is supremely enlightening. Since he has transcended the limited human nature and is revered and worshipped even by celestial beings, he is the supreme Atman. Thus he is the embodiment of mystical virtues, and is the spiritual leader of society. He is beyond attachment, aversion and infatuation, and consequently, he is absolutely dispassionate. By virtue of his intuitively apprehending the nature of reality, all his doubts have been resolved.: By reason of his self-realisation, he has transcended the dualities of friends and enemies, pleasure and pain, praise and censure, life and death, sand and gold. The Arahanta is the omniscient being. He, therefore, neither accepts nor abandons, nor transforms the external objectivity, but only witnesses and apprehends the world of objects without entering into them, just as the eyes see objects of sight. The knowledge which is independent, perfect, immaculate, intuitive and extended to infinite things of the universe may be identified with bliss on account of the absence of discomposure arising from the knowledge which is dependent, imperfect, maculate, mediate and extended to limited things. In other words, the consciousness of the Arahanta is not only omnipotent and intuitive but also blissful. Bliss is naturally consequent upon the destruction of the undesirable and accomplishment of the desirable. Thus the Arahanta experiences unprecedented bliss which originates from the innermost beings of self and which is supersensuous, unique, infinite and interminable. We may conclude by saying that the cognitive, conative and affective 36 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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tendencies of the Arahanta reveal their original manifestation in his supreme mystical experience, which is ineffable and transcends all the similies of the world. (ii) Morals As we have said, the performance of spiritual exercises presupposes the practice of morals. Without moral observances spiritual progress is inconceivable. The conviction of the Jaina is that for the man who is spiritually awakened, morality serves as a means to spiritual living, but for the ordinary man, it is an end in itself. The realm of morality is auspicious psychical states resulting in auspicious activities. The obstacles to the achievement of morals are inauspicious activities emanating from inauspicious psychical states. Thus in order to stamp out the inauspicious psychical states from the texture of self, the individual must abstain himself root and branch from violence, falsehood, theft, unchastity and acquisitions. This negative process of purifying the self necessarily requires the pursuance of the positive process of nonviolence (Ahimsa), truthfulness (Satya), non-thieving (Asteya), chastity (Brahmacarya) and non-acquisition (Aparigraha). These five virtues replace the five vices. It may be noted here that Ahimsa is the central and fundamental of these virtues. All the rest are regarded as the means for its proper sustenance, just as the field of corn requires adequate fencing for its protection. When the replacement of vices by virtues is total, we are said to observe complete (Sakala) morality and when it is partial, we have partial (Vikala) morality. He who observes complete morality is called a Muni, while he who observes partial morality is called a householder. The life of Anuvratas represents partial morality of the householder, Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 37

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whereas the life of Mahavratas represents complete morality of the Muni. The Anuvratas and the Mahavratas are the ways of overcoming the vices of Himsa, Steya, Asatya, Abrahmacarya and Parigraha. Let us deal with the nature of these vices which will help us in deriving the scope of Anuvratas and Mahavratas. Himsa may be defined as the committing of injury to the physical and psychical aspects of oneself and others through the operation of passion-infected activities of mind, body and speech. This means that if, in spite of the dispassionate activities of mind, body and speech any living being is injured, it can not be called Himsa, since the infecting element of passion is missing. On the contrary, even if the activities of mind, body and speech are passion-infected, and no living being is oppressed, even then the actions are called Himsa. Here though the soul has not injured others, yet it has injured itself by defiling its own natural constitution. Thus we may say that it is only on the basis of the internal state of mind that the acts of Himsa and Ahimsa are to be judged. This should not be taken to understand that external behaviour is of no significance, since in human life the outward commission of Hissa without the pursuance of internal corruption can not be vindicated. He who exclusively emphasizes the internal at the expense of the external forgets the significance of outward behaviour. Thus both . the internal and external aspects should occupy their due places. Hissa is of two kinds : intentional and non-intentional. The latter has again been divided into Udyami, Arambhi and Virodhi. Intentional Himsa implies the voluntary commitment of Himsa by one's own self along with the 38 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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provocation and endorsement of the acts of Himsa. Besides, Himsa which is unavoidably committed by reason of one's own profession, by the performance of domestic activities, and by defending oneself, one's neighbour, one's country, one's belonging, and the like from one's foes is called Udyami, Arambhi and Virodhi Himsa respectively. Ahimsa (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Now the householder is incapable of turning away completely from Hissa, hence he should keep himself away from the intentional commission of Himsa of the two-sensed to five-sensed beings. Himsa owing to profession, domestic activities, and defensive measures can not be counteracted by him. Thus he commits non-intentional injury to one-sensed Jivas, namely, the vegetable-bodied, the air-bodied, the fire-bodied, etc. Even in the realm of one-sensed Jivas and in the realm of non-intentional injury he should so manage to confine his operations as may affect the life and existence of a very limited number of Jivas. In these two provinces the point to note is that of reducing the amount of injury that is apt to be caused and not that of total relinquishment which is not possible without endangering the survival of man. If we reflect a little, we shall find that man is subject to Himsa by the very condition of his existence. Yet instead of aggravating the natural weight of Himsa by falling foul upon one another and by our cruel treatment with the animal and vegetable kingdoms we should endeavour to reduce this general curse to the extent it is possible. The observer of Ahimsanuvrata should avoid gambling, hunting, drinking, meat-eating, and the like. The Muni extends active friendship to all living beings from the one-sensed to the five-sensed without any Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 39 For Personal & Private Use Only

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exception, and consequently all forms of intentional Himsa are shunned and the question of Udyami, Arambhi, and Virodhi Himsa does not arise in his case. The Muni is a world citizen. He, therefore, draws the attention of men to the inefficacy of Himsa for solving social, national and international disputes. He himself is the embodiment of Ahimsa and exhorts others to develop reverence for life as such. Satya (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Let us begin with the meaning of falsehood (Asatya). It implies the making of wrong and improper statement by one who is overwhelmed by passions such as anger, greed, conceit, deceit and the like. Falsehood is of four kinds. The first kind of falsehood refers to the affirmation of the existent as non-existent, the second refers to the declaration of the non-existent as existent, the third refers to the representation of the existing nature of things as different from what they are, and the fourth is indicative of speech which is disagreeable to others. The Muni avoids all these four forms of falsehood, and therefore, he is said to observe Satya-Mahavrata. But the householder has to speak harsh, unpleasant, violent words for defense, for running the household and doing professional management, therefore, he observes Satyanuvrata. The observer of Satyanuvrata does use words which are soothing, gentle and ennobling. If any speech causes Himsa, it should be with held. Ultimately the criterion of Satya and Asatya is Ahimsa and Himsa respectively. Thus Satya speech should lead to Ahimsa. Asteya (Anuvrata-Mahavrata): Steya means the taking of things under the constraint of passions without their being given by the owner. It may be noted here that things Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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constitute the external Pranas of a man and he who thieves and plunders them is said to deprive a man of his Pranas. This is not other than Hissa. The Muni who observes Mahavrata does not take anything whatsoever without the permission of others, but the householder uses such things freely as are of common use without their being given, such as well-water, and the like. Thus he is observing Asteyanuvrata. It may be noted here that the Muni does not use even the common things without their being given by others. The householder does neither take those things which are forgotten and dropped by others nor give them to any one else. Purchasing of costly things at reduced prices is stealing, which is probably due to the fact that one may sell a thing after getting it by improper methods. Adulteration, abetment of theft, receiving stolen property, use of false weights and measures, smuggling, and the like come under stealing. Brahmacarya (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Sex-passion is Abrahma. He who frees himself completely from sexual inclination is observing Brahmacarya-Mahavrata. But the householder who abstains himself from the sexual contacts with all other women except his nuptial partner is observing Brahmacaryanuvrata. Sex-passion is Himsa and Brahmacarya is Ahimsa. The householder keeps himself away from adultery, prostitution, unnatural methods of sexual enjoyment and the like. Aparigraha (Anuvrata-Mahavrata) : Attachment to things is Parigraha. Those who have a feeling of attachment to things in spite of their external renunciation are far from Aparigraha and those who have external things are not free from internal attachment. Thus if one is prone to remove internal attachment, one should correspondingly Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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throw aside external possessions also. Attachment is a form of Himsa and those who wish to practise Ahimsa should avoid attachment. The householder is incapable of renouncing all Parigraha, therefore, he should limit the Parigraha of wealth, cattle, corn, buildings etc. This is Parigraha-Parimananuvrata. The Muni renounces all Parigraha of worldly things. Thus he follows AparigrahaMahavrata. Apart from the Anuvratas, the Sravaka (the householder) has to observe the three Gunavratas and four Siksavratas known as seven Silavratas. These Silavratas serve the useful purpose of guarding the Anuvratas. They effect a positive improvement in the observance of Anuvratas.. That which is refrainment from unlimited movement in any direction is Digvrata; that which is refrainment from going to some region is Desavrata; that which is refrainment from wanton activity is Anarthadandavrata. All these three are styled Gunavratas (vows of withdrawal). The setting of limits in the upward, downward and horizontal directions has been proclaimed to be the first Gunavrata (vow of withdrawal) known as Digvrata. In the region where there is present the cause of the breach of Vows, when the refrainment from resorting to that region is practised as a rule, then, that (refrainment) has been proclaimed to be the second Gunavrata (vow of withdrawal) known as Desavrata. To refrain from wanton activity is the third Gunavrata (vow of withdrawal) known as Anarthadandavrata. Wanton activities are : harboring ill-reflections, perpetrating random actions, delivering instruments of violence to others, imparting evil instructions, etc. To refrain from these wanton activities and the like is the third Gunavrata (vow of withdrawal). 42 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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Keeping limited things of use (Bhogopabhogaparimanavrata); pursuing self-meditation (Samayikavrata); observing fast in a specific way (Prosadhopavasavrata) and offering food etc. (Atithisamvibhagavrata) to a nonhouseholder guest who observes self-restraint and propagates ethico-spiritual values -- all these four have been proclaimed to be Siksavratas (vows of pursuance). From the perspective of things of use what has been said is this that one should keep clothes, ornaments etc. in a limited number and avoid the use of vegetables having infinite lives. Besides, other things of daily use should also be limited. And again, one should eschew work as is causing injury to many lives. In order to refrain from unethical actions Samayika (self-meditation) alone is paramount. In this way having recognised Samayika (selfmeditation) as supreme among all the ethical activities of the householder, the wise person should remain occupied with his own ethico-spiritual unfoldment for realising the highest (state of life). That is Prosadhopavasavrata in which the renouncement of food and bodily embellishment is effected partially or completely and in which the nonperformance of householder's business and the study of spiritual values for comprehending the significance of equanimity are effected partially or completely. Besides, in the Prosadhopavasavrata Samayika (self-meditation) is performed as a rule. When the systematic offering of food which is pure, fit to be consumed and which is associated with region and season is made to saints, then, that systematic offering has been proclaimed to be householder's Siksavrata (vow of pursuance) known as Atithisamvibhagavrata. The gift is regarded as of four kinds. The division of which lies in food, medicine, books Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 43 For Personal & Private Use Only

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(scriptures) and fearlessness. The gift of these should be offered. Spiritual Welcome to Death (Sallekhana) . It implies the enervation of external body and internal passions in a legitimate way by the gradual removal of the causes of their nourishment, so that one may renounce the present body with a view to having a new bodily modification. To be more clear, the abandonment of the bodily frame on being confronted with the uneschewable calamity, famine, senility, and disease for the sustenance of spiritual practices has been regarded as Sallekhana. This signifies that the process of Sallekhana is to be adopted either in special circumstances when the religious observances are being endangered on account of unavoidable bodily infirmities and the like, or on the occasion when the time of natural death has been known in all probability. No doubt, the body which is the medium of the upliftment of the soul is to be properly nourished and cared for and the diseases are to be seriously met with without any retreat. But if the body refuses to respond to our earnest endeavours, we should not falter to forsake it like a villain in the interest of saving the peace of mind. Thus if one is encountered with the causes of the termination of duration of the present life one should resort to the performance of the process of Sallekhana, which is not other than the spiritual welcome to death. This is not yielding to death, but a way of meeting the challenge of death undauntedly and adequately. It is to be remembered that the mere loss of the strength of the body is of no consequence if it does not lead to the conquest of passions. The flagellation of the body must issue in the denial of passions. It is on account of this 44 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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insistence on the abnegation of passions that the process of Sallekhana must needs be distinguished from suicide which is perpetrated by the cruel dominance of passions through the mal-agency of water, fire, poison, inhibition of breath and the like. Suicide is easy when compared with the adequate performance of Sallekhana. The latter is undertaken only when the body fails to answer to the spiritual needs of the individual and when the inevitability of death is a matter of undisputed certainty, while suicide may be committed at any time in the life time under the spell of emotional disturbance or passionate attitude of mind. Individual and Social Responsibility In Mahavira's philosophy of life, if individual liberty is to be sought, social responsibilities can not be dispensed with. In order that an individual may acquire firm footing in life, Mahavira advised the individual to be without any doubt in the various spheres of thought and in its multiple approaches. Doubt kills decision and without an act of decision individual does not muster courage to go forward. Now the question is: How to acquire the state of doubtlessness? The answer can be given by saying that either the individual should stop thinking and resort to a sort of mental slavery or he should employ himself in the task of vigorous thinking. Mental slavery is the path of blind faith, but vigorous thinking is the path of awakened mind. Mahavira must have subscribed to the latter view. In man many kinds of experiences find their place and reason should be freely allowed to play upon every aspect of experience, so as to arrive at rational decisions in every department of life. Mahavira never threatened the Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 45

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critical faculty in man, inasmuch as he seems to be aware of the fact that by paralysing the critical faculty in man, he will be cut at its roots. Mahavira is convinced of the fact that in the philosophy of art, education, social science, history, religion, etc. no one point of view can be absolute. There will always be alternative possibilities open. Freedom in thinking can not be curtailed. No one philosophical view can be final. So long as man is alive and free to think, different philosophical views will continue to appear. Thus gradually faith in Anekanta will emerge. This faith is rational and not blind. it has emerged from the very process of rational thinking. When the very nature of thinking is understood, the individual will be free from doubt regarding the possibility of alternative points of view emerging in the sphere of thought. Thus Mahavira wishes an individual to be Nihsankita (doubtless). Besides, adherence to rational thinking may lead us in a different direction. When limitations of thinking are made intelligible, a state of frustration may set in. In certain individuals, there may be witnessed a tendency to transcend reason. There may be moments in life, when the transcendence of reason is very much satisfying. Here an individual comes across a new type of awakening which may be called supra-rational awakening. The individual thereby acquires faith in supra-rational existence. The emergence of faith in Anekanta and supra-rational existence makes an individual free from pride and fear and by virtue of this faith, he attains a sort of mental equilibrium, and consequently he does not fear death, pain, censure, insecurity etc. he becomes modest, forsakes all pride of learning, honour, family, affluence etc. 46 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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After the individual attains clarity in cognitive functioning, he is required to impose upon himself restraint in the realm of desire. Man is a bundle of desires. Desires may admit of two kinds, namely, possessive and creative corresponding to two kinds of goods, namely material and creative. The difference between the two kinds of goods is that the former admits of exclusive individual possession, while the latter can be shared by all alike. Thus the possessive impulses aim at acquiring private goods, whereas the creative ones aim at producing goods that can be enjoyed by all without any conflict. 'Material possessions can be taken by force', but "creative possessions can not be taken in this way". The desire for material goods makes man's personality ego-centric which is the cause of social tensions and frustration. Creative desires lead the individual towards self-satisfaction and social progress. When Mahavira advised men to be free from desires (Nihkamksita) he seems to be referring to possessive desires. Bertrand Russell rightly remarks, "The best life is one in which creative impulses play the largest part and the possessive impulses the smallest". If we reflect a little we shall find that it is the possessive impulses that give rise to Himsa. The society which encourages possessive individuals encourages the acts of Himsa. So Mahavira made it obligatory for the individual to make himself free from the desires for material possessions. The history of social thought reveals that with the advancement of knowledge social beliefs of a particular age are replaced by new beliefs. Many religious superstitions, social paths of life and other forms of follies and falsities are derogatory to individual progress, therefore they are condemned in every age of history. But Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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the change is met with great resistence. The reason for this is that change is looked by individuals with doubt and uncertainty. Besides, love for conventionality and vested interests run counter to the acceptance of novelties in thought. All these obstacles mar individual dynamism. The individual who is a slave to customary beliefs, however false they have been declared to be, can not develop his own personality and his actions are just like machines. Mahavira, therefore, preaches that an individual should be free from follies (Amudhatas). It is only through such individuals that society progresses and a scientific outlook gains ground. Such individuals are forward looking, and are free from the pressures of narrow traditionalism. They are always open-minded and are ever eager to learn from history and experience. It is no doubt true that cognitive and conative clarities are essential to individual progress. If man's mind is prejudiced and his actions are stereotyped and wrongly directed, nothing worthwhile can be achieved. In order that an individual becomes an embodiment of noble thought and actions, virtues, virtuous dispositions are to be cultivated. This prepares the individual to do certain kinds of actions in certain kinds of situations. This is not just to think or feel in certain ways. There may be individuals who can think clearly and not act virtuously when required to do so. Consequently, Mahavira preached that an individual should develop virtuous dispositions of honesty, gratitude, Ahimsa, forgiveness, modesty, straightforwardness etc. This individual characteristic is known as Upavrhana. It can not be gainsaid that noble thoughts can be translated into action through the medium of character. No doubt, mere thought is important to bring about any individual 48 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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transformation. But it is only virtues in addition to thought that can effect transformation in the life of an individual and transmute existing state of affairs. Mahavira, no doubt, greatly emphasized the development of the individuals, inasmuch as he was convinced of the fact that there is nothing over and above the good of the individuals who compose the world. But he did not lose sight of the fact that the individual develops not in isolation but among other individuals. The proper adjustment of 'l'. and 'thou' leads to the healthiest development of both l' and 'thou'. 'Thou' may represent social and political institutions. Social and political institutions must exist for the good of the individuals. All individuals should live together in such a way that each individual may be able to acquire as much good as possible. Thus every individual, therefore, shall have certain responsibilities towards one another. This is the same as saying that an individual has certain social responsibilities. Therefore, social and individual morality are equally necessary to a good world. Mahavira unequivocally says that the 'other' is like our own. This does not mean that there are no individual. differences. Rather it means that an individual should be allowed freedom to develop his own individualities. There should not be any distinction between man and man on the basis of religion, race, nationality. To create differences between one individual and the other on these factors is derogatory, therefore, should be condemned ruthlessly. Consequently, Mahavira exhorted us not to hate individuals on these accounts (Nirvicikitsa). These are irrelevant inequalities. Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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These negative conditions of not hating others is not sufficient, but the positive condition of loving them (Vatsalya) is very much necessary. To love is to see that equal opportunities of education, earning and the like are received by every individual without any distinction of race, religion, sex and nationality. In his own times Mahavira fought for the equality of all men, and he revered individual dignity. Where there is love there is no exploitation. To treat other individuals as mere means is decried and denied. Where there is Vatsalya, all our dealings with others will be inspired by reverence and the role of force and domination will be minimised. It is likely that individuals may deviate from the path of righteousness. In dealing with persons they may become so selfish as not to allow others their due share of liberty, they may become very possessive. Pride of power, use of force, and exploitation of the weak may look to them normal ways of life. Creative impulses in man may suffer owing to their destructive attitude. When individuals behave fanatically with one another, the real good will be served if they are convinced to deal with others rationally. To re-establish them on the path of righteousness is 'Sthitikarana'. This is very much necessary in a society where the rule of creative impulses is to be established. Lastly, the good ways of life, of thinking and doing things should be made widely known to people at large, so that they may feel obliged to mould their lives on that pattern. For this psychological methods of transmitting knowledge are required to be followed in all earnestness. The scientific techniques of radio, television and the like are to be utilised for propagating good ways of life. If the researches in the laboratories are not taken to and utilised 50 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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in the fields, they will serve no significant purpose. They will be like doing things in seclusion. Similarly, if the findings of the human laboratory in the realm of values are not taken to human beings in general, things will deteriorate and conditions will not change. Mahavira, therefore, advises us to propagate values of life (Prabhavana). Social Values The social values which were regarded by Mahavira as basic are Ahimsa, Aparigraha and Anekanta. What this shows is that Mahavira did not neglect adherence to social values, being overwhelmed by spiritual realisation. Ahimsa begins with the awareness of the 'other'. Like one's own existence, it recognises the existence of other beings. In fact, to negate the existence of other beings is tantamount to negating one's own existence. Since one's own existence can not be negated, the existence of other beings also can not be negated. Thus there exists the universe of beings in general and that of human beings in particular. The basic characterisation of these beings is : life is dear to all and any kind of suffering is painful to all of them. Now for the progress and development of these beings, Ahimsa ought to be the basic value guiding the behaviour of human beings. For a healthy living, it represents and includes all the values directed to the 'other' without overemphasizing the values directed to one's own self. Thus it is the pervasive principle of all the values. Posit Ahimsa, all the values are posited. Negate Ahimsa, all the values are negated. Ahinsa purifies our action in relation to the self and other beings. This purification consists in our refraining from certain actions and also in our performing Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 51 For Personal & Private Use Only

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certain actions by keeping in view the existence of human and sub-human beings. On the one hand, Mahavira advises us to refrain from killing, governing, enslaving, tormenting and provoking human and sub-human beings, while, on the other hand, he inspires us to promote mental equanimity, social and economic justice. It is of capital importance to note that Ahimsa can be both an extrinsic and intrinsic value, i.e. both value as a means and value as an end. This means that both the means and the ends are to be tested by the criterion of Ahimsa. Thus the principle that "the end justifies the means" need not be rejected as immoral, if the means and ends are judged through the criterion of Ahimsa. In fact, there is no inconsistency in saying that Ahimsa is both an end as well as a means. It may be asked what is in us on account of which we consciously lead a life of values based on Ahimsa ? The answer is : it is Karuna which makes one move in the direction of adopting Ahimsa-values. It may be noted that the degree of Karuna in a person is directly proportionate to the development of sensibility in him. The greatness of a person lies in the expression of sensibility beyond ordinary limits. This should be borne in mind that the emotional life of a person plays a decisive role in the development of healthy personality and Karuna is at the core of healthy emotions. Attachment and aversion bind the human personality to mundane existence, but Karuna liberates the individual from Karmic enslavement. The Dhavala, the celebrated commenary on the Satkhandagama, remarkably pronounces that Karuna is the nature of soul. To make it clear, just as infinite knowledge is the nature of soul, so also is Karuna. This 52 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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implies that Karuna is potentially present in every being although its full manifestation takes place in the life of the Arhat, the perfect being. Infinite Karuna goes with infinite knowledge. Finite Karuna goes with finite knowledge. Thus if Karuna which is operative on the perception of the sufferings of the human and sub-human beings plunges into action in order to remove the sufferings of these beings, we regard that action as Seva. Truely speaking, all Ahimsa-values are meant for the removal of varied sufferings in which the human and sub-human beings are involved. Sufferings may be physical and mental, individual and social, moral and spiritual. To alleviate, nay, to uproot these diverse sufferings is Seva. In fact, the performance of Seva is the verification of our holding Ahimsa-values. It is understandable that physical, mental and economic sufferings block all types of progress of the individual and make his life miserable. There are individuals who are deeply moved by these sufferings and consequently they dedicate themselves to putting an end to these sufferings. Thus their Karuna results in Seva. Thus Ahimsa, Karuna and Seva are interrelated and are conducive both to individual and social progress. It is significant to point out that Mahavira's social mind exhorted that Ahimsa consists in recognising the dignity of man irrespective of caste, colour and creed. Man is man and should be recognised as such without any hesitation. The dignity of man is sacred and it is our duty to honour this dignity. Every individual, whether man or woman, should enjoy religious freedom without any distinction. A non-violent society can not subscribe to class exploitation and social oppression of man. Mahavira bestowed social prestige upon the down-trodden Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 53 For Personal & Private Use Only

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individuals. This led to the development of self-respect.in them. Thus he showed that no man or woman should be deprived of availing himself of the opportunities of advancement. It is not idle to point out that in the present state of affairs the significance of Ahimsa can not be dispensed with. The easing of tensions and cessation of conflicts among states, the maintenance of universal peace and the promotion of human welfare can only be effected by suffusing world's atmosphere with the spirit of Ahimsa. Mahavira's use of Ahimsa saw its culmination when he used Prakrta, the language of the masses as the medium of expression for his religious preachings. This indicates his democratic spirit. He was well aware of the fact that language is as dear to man as own life. Therefore he preached in Prakrta, the language used by the common man. This Ahimsite spirit of Mahavira extended itself even to the lowest scale of life and he promulgated that life as such is basically identical. Hence no living being should be hurt, enslaved and excited. Mahavira was well aware of the fact that economic inequality and the hoarding of essential commodities very much disturb social life and living. These acts lead to the exploitation and enslavement of man. Owing to this, the life of society is endangered. Consequently, Mahavira pronounced that the remedy for the ill of economic inequality is Aparigraha. All the means of illegitimate Parigraha bring about social hatred, bitterness, and exploitation. The method of Aparigraha tells us that one should keep with oneself that which is necessary for one's living, and the rest should be returned to society for its well-being. Limit of wealth, limit of essential commodities - all these are indispensable for the 54 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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development of healthy social life. In a way, wealth is the basis of our social structure and if its flow is obstructed because of its accumulation in few hands, large portion of society will remain undeveloped. The hoarding of essential commodities creates a situation of social scarcity which perils social life. In order to resist such inhuman tendency, Mahavira incessantly endeavoured to establish the social value of Aparigraha. It should be borne in mind that along with human and economic inequality, differences in outlook create a situation of conflict in society. The result is that constructive tendencies in man suffer a great deal. If we take things in right perspective, we shall find that differences in outlook appear as a result of the use of creative faculties inherent in man. If this fact is not adhered to, these differences become the cause of conflict between man and man, the consequence of which is that social unity is disrupted. Mahavira by his deep insight could see the waste of social energy on account of the wrong understanding of the nature of things. Consequently, he preached that differences in outlook are in fact differences in the nature of things. These are different aspects of things. In this way different outlooks are not to be condemned but are to be understood as the different aspects of truth. In fact, difference in outlook should be treated as difference in stand-points. Thus dissensions disappear and social solidarity sets in. Mahavira's doctrine of stand-points can be called Nayavada which is a corollary of Anekantavada, the doctrine of multiple aspects of truth. By virtue of the promulgation of this social value, man started thinking that along with his own stand-point, the stand-point of the 'other' is also significant. This gave Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only 55

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rise to social adjustment and progress. This led to the conclusion that truth can not be monopolised and every man in society can subscribe to the discovery of a new aspect of truth. This Anekanta is the dynamic principle of social life, by virtue of which life is saved from being stagnant. In conclusion, we may say that Mahavira after selfrealisation dedicated himself to the creation of healthy social values. In this way he is regarded as one of the greatest leaders of mankind. 56 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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HOLY NAMOKARA MANTRA AND PIOUS GATHAS 1 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 57 For Personal & Private Use Only

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1. Namo arihNtaannN| Namo siddhaannN| Namo aairiyaannN| Namo uvjjhaayaannN| Namo loe svvsaahuunnN|| Obeisance to Arihantas (embodied spiritually perfect personalities). Obeisance to Siddhas (disembodied spiritually perfect souls). Obeisance to Acaryas (propagators of eithico-spiritual values). Obeisance to Upadhyayas (teachers of ethico-spiritual values). Obeisance to all the Sadhus (pious personalities) in the world. 2. jhAyahi paMca vi gurave, mNglcusrnnloypriyrie| Nara - sura - kheyara - mahie, ArAhaNaNAyage viire|| Meditate on the five holy teachers (spiritual pillars) who are permeated with spiritual energy, who are auspicious, who are the shelters in the four grades of existence, who have adorned the world, who are the supreme objects of devotion, and who have been adored by the human and celestial beings along with the Vidyadharas (human beings moving in the sky by means of supernormal powers). 3. ghaNaghAikammamahaNA, tihuvnnvrbhvv-kmlmttNddaa| arihA aNaMtaNANI, aNuvamasokkhA jayaMtu je|| May the Arahantas who are the annihilators of the dense obscuring Karmas (psycho-physical impurities), who are like the sun for the lotus of releasable souls existent in the three worlds, who possess infinite knowledge and also experience unique bliss, be victorious in the world. 4. aTThavihakammaviyalA, NiTThiyakajjA pnntttthsNsaaraa| diTThasayalatthasArA, siddhA siddhiM mama disNtu|| May the Siddhas who are devoid of eight Karmas . (psycho-physical impurities), by whom all the purposes 58 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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have been accomplished, by whom (their own) reincarnations in the world have been put to an end, by whom the essence of all the substances has been known, show me the path to liberation. 5. paMcamahavvayatuMgA, tkkaaliy-sprsmy-suddhaaraa| NANAguNagaNabhariyA, AiriyA mama psiidNtu|| May the Acaryas who have acquired exalted position by observing five Mahavratas (complete vows), who possess contemporary knowledge of their own faith and that of others and who have been saturated with diverse clusters of virtues, do good to me. 6. aNNANaghoratimire, duraMtatIramhi hiNddmaannaannN| bhaviyANujjoyayarA, uvajjhAyA varamadiM deNtu|| May the Upadhyayas who are the illuminators of the mundane souls wandering in the dense darkness of ignorance which is difficult to cross, impart supreme understanding (to me). 7. thiradhariyasIlamAlA, vavagayarAyA jsohpddihtthaa| bahuviNayabhUsiyaMgA, suhAiM sAhU pycchNtu|| May the Sadhus who abound in glory, by whom the garland of virtues has been steadily sustained, by whom attachment has been cast aside and by whom the parts of the body have been adorned with immense modesty, bestow happiness on one. 8. arahaMtabhAsiyatthaM gaNaharadevehiM gaMthiyaM smm| paNamAmi bhattijutto, sudaNANamahodahiM sirsaa|| The meaning revealed by the Arahanta (embodied spiritually perfect personality) has been properly worded by the Ganadharas (chief disciples of the Arahanta). So by bowing my head with devotion, I Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life 59 . For Personal & Private Use Only

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make obeisance to the ocean of (worded) scriptural knowledge. 9. dhammo maMgalamukkiTheM, ahiMsA saMjamo tvo| devA vi taM namasaMti jassa dhamme sayA mnno|| That which is Ahimsa (non-violence), self-restraint and austerity is Dharma (spiritual value). It is by virtue of the Dharma (spiritual value) that supreme spiritual beneficence results. To him whose mind is (absorbed) in the Dharma (spiritual values) even gods pay homage. 10. dhammo vatthusahAvo, khamAdibhAvo ya dasaviho dhmmo| rayaNattayaM ca dhammo, jIvANaM rakkhaNaM dhmmo|| The basic nature of a (sentient) thing is known as Dharma (spiritual value); the mental states of forgiveness etc. are ten kinds of Dharma (spiritual values); the togetherness of three Jewels is also Dharma (spiritual value); and again the protection of Jivas (beings) is Dharma (spiritual value). 11. jeNa viNA logassa vi, vavahAro savvA na nivvi| tassa bhuvaNekkaguruNo, Namo annegNtvaayss|| Salutation to the Anekantavada which is the singular teacher of mankind, without which even the transaction of the world does not at all go on. Translated by : Dr. Kamal Chand Sogani Formerly Prof. of Philosophy 60 Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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REFERENCE BOOKS 1. Ethical Doctrines in Jainism by Dr. K.C. Sogani (Jaina Samskrti Samraksaka Sangha, Sholapur). 2. Jainism edited by Gurbachan Singh Talib, (Punjabi Univer sity, Patiala). 3. Life and Legacy of Mahavira : A Social Study by Dr. Vilas Adinath Sangave (Vira Nirvana Bharati, Meerut). 4. Lord Mahavira and his Times by Dr. Kailash Chand Jain (Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi). 5. Mahavira and his teachings edited by Dr. A.N. Upadhye etc. (Bhagavan Mahavira 2500th Nirvana Mahotsava Samiti, Mumbai). 6. Religion and Culture of the Jains by Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain (Bharatiya Jnanapitha, New Delhi. 7. Samanasuttam Vol. I Trans. by Dr. K.C. Sogani (Prakrta Bharati Academy, Jaipur. Mahavira and his Philosophy of Life For Personal & Private Use Only

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