Jinamanjari 2001 04 No 23

Author(s): Jinamanjari
Publisher: Canada Bramhi Jain Society Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/524023/1

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JINAMAÑJARI
International Journal of Contemporary Jaina Reflections
Volume 23 Number 1 April 2001 ISSN 1188-0287
REMEMBERING
ŚRĪMAD RĀJACHANDRA
(1867 - 1901) Jaina Spiritualist and Philosopher
With Theme Guest Editor Dr. Peter Flügel
SOSA University of London
United Kingdom
A bi-annual publication of BRÁMHI JAIN SOCIETY, Est. 1989
United States of America and Canada
privatisonal theory

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JAINISM TODAY
International Quarterly News Magazine in English
A Publication of Jain Friends
Editor Mahavir Sanglikar
Write to
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Chinchwad East Pune - 410019, INDIA
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IN THIS ISSUE
JINAMANJARI For de expansion and dission of Jama knowledge and reflection A bi-annual Journal published every April and October
Editor-in-Chid Dr. 9.A. Bhuvanendra Kumar
Associate Editor Dkt. Sushil Jain
Production Mikal Austin Radford
Sid P. Kumar
1 śrīmad Rājacandra on the Role of the
Sadguru for Self-Realization -- D.M. Shah and U.K. Pungaliya
AC
32 Unity and Diversity Amongst the Followers of Srīmad Rājacandra
-- Emma Salter
BASTONS
52 Amūlya Tattva Vicāra: An Early Poem by Srimad Rājachandra
-- Vinod Kapashi
Segons
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63 Rajachandra and His Influence on
Mahatma Gandhi -- Jagmohan Humar
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70 Book Review
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JAIN AGAM
जैन आगम No. 2, July-September 2000
“स्वाध्याय जीवन को स्वस्थ
INSIDE THIS ISSUE दृष्टिकोण प्रदान करता है। भ्रम
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|9 Forgiveness 22 अमृत पाथेय है। संजीवन
10The Art and Science of औषधि है।
____Forgiveness 24
11 What the Jains Say and (आचार्य विद्यानन्द)
What They Do 26 12 Silence 29 13 Jain Health 30
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ŚRĪMAD RĀJACANDRA ON THE ROLE OF THE SADGURU FOR SELF-REALIZATION
Jinamañjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
era.
INTRODUCTION
The present article aims at studying Śrīmad Rājacandra's concept of the sadguru and his significance in the attainment of self-realization on the basis of Śrīmad's works collected in the volume entitled Śrīmad Rājacandra. Śrīmad Rājacandra was one of the outstanding ethico-religious Indian philosophers who flourished in the latter half of the 19th century of the common
D. M. Shah and U. K. Pungaliya
As an interpreter of Jain philosophy, religion and mysticism in the light of his own experience, Śrīmad Rajacandra's contribution is unique. Though he sincerely and strongly believed in Jainism as preached and propagated by the Jain Tirthankaras such as Mahāvīra, his mind was open. Wherever it was possible, he examined the doctrines of Jainism in the light of his own spiritual experience and interpreted them rationally while comparing them with non-Jain philosophies like Vedānta, Samkhya-Yoga, etc., wherever he considered it
necessary.

Śrīmad Rajacandra was one of the great experimenters who did not blindly accept the doctrines inherited by tradition. On many occasions he raised genuine doubts and tried to interpret received doctrines non-traditional ways. At the same time, he was quite aware that there are certain doctrines in philosophy which can be a matter of experience only for a omniscient being (sarvajña) that is free from passion (vītarāga) and not for an imperfect human being, because ignorance and passions are the main obstacles for intuitively comprehending
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ultimate reality or the self.
to
In one of his writings he raises the question of the propriety of philosophy, or darśana, as opposed self-realization. He observes, "After reaching the goal of sarvajña and vitarāga I would aspire to preach the doctrine to the masses out of sheer compassion. In such a case, (the question is) whether to adhere to the system of philosophy or the actual mystic experience? If I take my experience of self-realization as the foundation for spreading the dharma, very few people would be able to comprehend it! Conversely, if I choose to build a system of philosophy, sect or sampradaya I may be able to get many followers." But alas! Before reaching the step of vitaraga and sarvajña, he was obliged to discard his body at the age of 33, leaving behind his unfulfilled dream.
In what follows, we intend to study critically Śrīmad's concept of the sadguru, or true teacher, and his role in leading an aspirant to his final emancipation (mokṣa) or to his self-realization (ätma sākṣātkāra). We will argue that the extraordinary emphasis on the role of the sadguru for self-realization in Śrīmad Rājacandra's philosophy is mainly due to the influence of non-Jain religious literature on his thinking. Let us first see what the place of the sadguru is in the Jain tradition prior to Śrīmad.
THE PLACE OF THE SADGURU IN THE JAIN TRADITION
It is a well known fact that every art, science, religious system or philosophy presupposes specific knowledge. This knowledge can be communicated through language from one person to another. Language and the art of communication co-originated with humanity itself. Moreover, the concept of master and disciple seems to have evolved from the dialogue of two persons, one being the giver and the other receiver. A student tries to learn a particular subject by closely following his teacher. He has to believe in the master's ability, his capacity to teach, and in his genuine will to guide his disciple. The systematic acquisition of knowledge requires a close living relationship between the teacher and the disciple.
In the olden days, in India, a student had to go to the

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teacher's home and study under him for several years. Hence, in Indian culture, the teacher occupies a status equal to parents, or even more. The term guru connotes something more than the concept of the teacher. A guru is regarded as god incarnate. Full faith in the guru, in his knowledge and in his ability to mould a disciple is considered to be essential for spiritual progress.
According to the Jain tradition, there have been 24 Tirthankaras in the present eon of time, the first being Rşabha and the last Mahāvīra. It is assumed that these prophets headed large and systematically organized groups of disciples which were practising religion under the guidance of their master. For example, Mahāvīra had 11 disciples, called ganadharas, among whom Gautama was the foremost one. It is believed that Gautama received spiritual knowledge or āgama from Mahāvīra. This knowledge was transferred from Gautama to his disciples and then by a succession of masters and disciples until it was compiled in the canons or āgamas which are said to be based on the teachings of Mahāvīra. However, the message of Mahāvīra is supposedly preserved through oral as well as written traditions.
The Panca Namaskāra Mantra of the Jain tradition pays homage to the arhats, siddhas, ācāryas, upādhyāyas and sādhus. The siddha, or liberated soul, remains an ideal of perfection only. The arhat or Tirthankara is a embodied liberated soul (jivana mukta) which is both omniscient and free from passions. Because for a mumukṣu, i.e. someone who desires liberation, a living arhat is more useful than a liberated siddha, he is given the first place in the Namaskāra Mantra. The arhat is considered to be in the penultimate spiritual stage, i.e. the 13th guṇasthāna, while the remaining categories of monks such as the acāryas etc. are said to be in the 6th or 7th stage of spiritual progress. Thus, the arhat is the supreme master or sadguru. His words are the supreme scripture (parama śruta). He is also regarded as the supreme deity (deva). In his absence, a self-realized sādhu of the 6th or 7th spiritual stage may assume the role of the master and guide the salvation seekers on the path of liberation.
Though in the Jain tradition we find an almost unbroken line of ācāryas or gurus up to today, unfortunately the mystic experience of self-realization and the ability to transfer it to a

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disciple seems to be a rare quality of these ācāryas. It is therefore very difficult to assess how far the method generating the original mystic experience of Mahāvīra is preserved by the tradition of these monks. Although in the history of Jainism after Mahāvīra many great ācāryas such as Ācārya Kundakunda, Siddhasena Divākara, Haribhadra, Hemacandra, Akalanka, Vidyānanda, Yaśovijaya, etc., enriched the heritage of Jainism through their compositions, the tradition of teaching actual spiritual experiences of self-realization seems to have almost vanished. The different schools and sects of monks have probably cared more for scriptural knowledge rather than actual experience of self-realization! śrīmad Rājacandra appears to be one of the few savants of Jainism who, though externally remaining a householder, acquired internally the rare state of a true monk of the 7th spiritual stage. This phenomenon was conspicuously absent for many centuries in the Jain tradition.
SOURCES AND METHOD OF STUDY
The primary source of our research, as pointed out above, is Śrīmad's work itself, particularly his letters, diaries and handwritten notes which have been compiled in the volume entitled śrīmad Rājacandra. We will select and analyse materials from these sources in two ways. First, we will examine śrīmnad's concept of the sadguru as reflected in his writings. Second, we will investigate the characteristics of śrīmad's personality and his state of mind during the time when he covertly played the role of the sadguru for his few chosen and worthy disciples. Following the structure of the book śrīmad Rājacandra, our study will chronologically trace the development of Srimad's concept of the sadguru at various stages of his life. Dr. Saryu Mahetā, in her survey of the spiritual evolution of śrīmad Rājacandra, has rightly identified the four principal stages in his spiritual development:
(1) The period of introspection (ātma manthana) (1868-1885).
(2) The period of growing indifference to the world (vītarāga) and of increasing faith in Jainism (1886-1890).

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(3) The period of the direct experience of the self (samyak darśana) and of merely involuntary involvement in worldly responsibilities, such as family or business (1891-1895). At this stage of his life, śrīmad experienced a paradoxical situation. Internally he was rapidly progressing on the path of spiritual evolution and headed towards a state corresponding to the 6th and 7th gunasthāna, which usually presupposes world-renunciation. At the same time, he was not in a position of renouncing the life of a householder and embracing monkhood, which according to him was necessary for his further spiritual advancement.
(4) In the last stage of his life Rājacandra's was prepared to renounce the world and to become a monk. Yet, he could not fulfil this ambition due to his premature death. However, internally he seems to have 'touched' the level of vītarāgata and kaivalya (1896-1901).
THE EVOLUTION OF ŚRĪMAD'S CONCEPT OF THE SADGURU
1. THE PERIOD OF INTROSPECTION (1868-1885)
In the first 17 years of his life, śrīmad composed several poems, a small work entitled Puspamālā which contains 108 instructions in prose and a number of didactic instructions published under the titles Bodhavacanā, Anuprekşā etc. In his work Puspamālā he observed, "If one has doubts regarding the nature of dharma, one should follow the path of the satpuruşa, i.e. sadguru." Similarly, he emphasized the importance of the religious assembly (satsanga) of a sadguru and of his preaching (satíruta). Thus, already at the earliest period of adolescence śrīmad realized the significance of the sadguru, satsanga and satśruta.
As we proceed further we will see that Srimad attached utmost importance to these three elements up to the end of his life. Śrīmad also firmly believed during his entire life that Jain preceptors are superior to non-Jain preceptors. Though he

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impartially studied various non-Jain schools of philosophy and paid respect to non-Jain works belonging to traditions such as Vedanta, Vaiṣṇavism etc., he did not seem to compromise his initial belief and loyalty to the doctrine and teaching of Jain prophets and saints.
2. THE PERIOD OF INDIFFERENCE TO THE WORLD
In the 18th-22nd year of his life, Śrīmad composed mainly a prose work called Mokṣamālā, containing 108 sections. At this stage we find Śrīmad to be a staunch follower of Jainism. He mentions three types of sadgurus: those who are (1) like a piece of wood, (2) those who are like a piece of paper, and (3) those who are like a stone. According to him, a preceptor who is like wood is capable himself of floating over and crossing the ocean of transmigration as well as helping his disciples to do so. A guru who is like paper is too light to carry the burden of disciples, while he who is like a stone drowns himself in the ocean of transmigration along with his disciples. Here we find Śrīmad's ability of employing poetic imagery for explaining philosophic truth.
In the same work, i.e. Mokṣamālā, he also refers to the importance of the sadguru, śāstra bodha, or understanding the scriptures, and the satsanga of the sadguru, as well as the company of co-aspirants (mumukṣu). Then we have a reference to the well-known salutations to the arhats, siddhas, ācāryas, upādhyāyas and sadhus in the Pañca Namaskāra Mantra. It is obvious in this passage that while attaching unparalleled significance to the sadguru, Śrīmad continues to accept the Pañca Namaskāra Mantra, according to which homage is paid first to the arhat or Jina, the supreme master, and only secondly to the sadguru in the form of different types of mendicants. In the Mokṣamālā one finds a very interesting statement which forecasts Śrīmad's own life as a householder. Here Śrīmad makes one of his Brāhmaṇ characters assert that a sadguru who is a householder and experiences a householder's problems himself, is more capable of becoming a householder's guru than a monk who has no experience of married life at all. From a

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practical point of view, he asserts, samyak darśana means having faith in saddeva, i.e. the arhat or Jina, sadguru and saddharma, i.e. the preaching of right conduct by a Jina or a monk. Here Śrīmad identifies dharma with satśāstra.
There are only a few pages in the volume, śrīmad Rājacandra, which illustrate śrīmad's thinking during this period
in greater detail. At the age of 18 śrīmad composed a small work called Bhāvanābodha which deals with the 12 anupreksās or bhāvanās, i.e. reflections on topics such as anitya (impermanence), ašarana (helplessness), samsāra (cycle of transmigration), bodhi durlabha (difficulty of enlightenment), or dharma durlabha, which here refers to the sadguru and his preaching. The work seems to be incomplete. In one of the statements included under the heading Vacanāmsta, a text that was written in the 20th year of his life, śrīmad defines dharma as the sadguru's conduct as well as his preaching. Similary, he contends that a sadguru's silence as reflected in the stillness on his face is itself a form of teaching. In the same year śrīmad made one of the most important declarations of his life. In a letter addressed to Mr. Catrabhuja Becara, he writes:
I am the second Mahāvīra. This I have realized through the power of my soul. ... I am omniscient, full of detachment. I am going to establish the supreme religion by following Mahāvīra. ... I have prepared disciples and a moral code of conduct for them. ... For propagating this religion I would renounce the world and make my disciples omniscient.
In the 22nd year of his life, śrīmad's ideas gained full maturity. This is reflected in his interpretation of the concept of the sadguru. He wrote:
In this world a soul has never before developed devotion (bhakti) towards satparamātmā; it never had an

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opportunity to get associated with a sadguru, satśāstra, satsanga, samyak dṛṣṭi and satyoga. In the absence of a sadguru's preaching and an ability or worth of a soul for receiving preaching from a sadguru this miserable condition emerged. By gaining access to such a sadguru and proving one's worth as a disciple, one can get relief from the torture of worldly life. Dharma is a secret
residing in one's ātman itself; it is futile to search for it outside oneself. He is a fortunate who realizes the self through an inner search with the blessing of a sadguru.
...

...
In this passage Śrīmad mentions many important factors associated with self-realization. By satparamātmā he means supreme reality, which is one and the same, although he calls it variably purusottama, parabrahma, hari, viṣṇu, īśvara, siddha, atman, sarvatmā, etc. He has explained this in a letter which clearly shows an influence of non-Jain systems such as Vedānta, Vaiṣṇavism etc. Śrīmad's reference to bhakti, or devotion, to satparamātmā also indicates non-Jain influence. The factors associated with the process of self-realization, such as satsanga and satśāstra, are intrinsically connected with the concept of the sadguru, and henceforth re-occur repeatedly in his writings. According to Śrimad, samyak dṛṣṭitva, or right faith or insight, is the minimum qualification of an aspirant. The term satyoga denotes both the right opportunity as well as the right application of the mind of an aspirant. Implicitly he also touches on the famous Jain doctrine of upādāna- and nimitta kāraṇa. According to Jainism, any event or occurrence is caused by two main causes, viz. the material or substantial cause (upādāna kāraṇa) and the auxiliary or subsidiary cause (nimitta kāraṇa). For example, substantial cause of an earthen pot is the earth, while a potter is the auxiliary cause of the same. Here, in the case of self-realization, the sadguru is an auxiliary cause, while the disciple's fitness or propriety to receive the preaching from a sadguru is the substantial case. Unless both causes are present, the desired result of self-realization will not take place.
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ŚRĪMAD'S SPIRITUAL STATE AND PARADOXICAL SITUATION At this stage of his life, the seeds of two inner conflicts are sown in Śrīmad's mind which gradually develop and remain in various forms up to the end of Śrīmad's life. Śrīmad faces several dilemmas:
(1) On the one hand, he shows his preference for Jainism as the supreme religion, while on other hand, his mind is broad enough to accept non-Jain religions such as Vedāntism, Vaisnavism, etc., as alternative means of liberation. Though Śrīmad finally chooses Jainism, he tries to universalize the path of liberation by finding a common denominator among all self-seeking aspirants. For example, in his later celebrated work Ātmasiddhi he finds a meeting ground for the followers of all systems of philosophy and religion in the doctrine of atma dharma and ātma anubhuti, i.e. in the doctrine of the self and self-realization which crosses the boundary of Jain and non-Jain systems.
(2) Even after confirming Jainism to be his chosen path, however, he faces a further difficulty in the form of the inner conflict between his external status as a householder and his internal state of a monk (nirgrantha or muni). He later writes that externally he is either a vowless householder of the 4th spiritual stage or a anuvratī śrävaka, i.e. a follower of the code of conduct of a householder of the 5th spiritual stage, while his inner spiritual state is not less than that of a monk belonging to the 6th or 7th guṇasthāna. Not only that, but he also claims to be a passionless (vītarāga) and omniscient being (kevalin) in the Vedāntic sense, i.e. to have reached the state of an embodied liberated being (jīvana mukta).
One fails to understand why there should be a difference of opinion regarding the same spiritual stage of experience. Perhaps it is due to his firm belief in the received Jain dogma that Śrīmad does not openly declare that though externally he is still a householder who experiences the fruits of his deeds in previous births (prärabdha karma), he is already liberated from

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future birth (jīvana mukta) and hence entitled to openly play the role of a second Mahāvīra. He would have done so himself only after formally embracing asceticism. However, destiny had planned otherwise. Due to his premature death, his dream of becoming a second Mahāvīra remained unfulfilled. However, in the last days of his life, he openly proclaimed to his few monk-disciples such as Lalluji and Devakaraṇajī that they should not distinguish between himself and Mahāvīra.
THE HOUSEHOLDER STATUS AND SELF-REALIZATION
The religious stage of a householder is lower than that of a monk, and unless the former becomes a monk there is no salvation for him. This is, of course, a generalized rule. There are exceptions. Some householders like King Bhārata or the merchant Sudarsana are supposed to have attained liberation in their householder's stage of life only. The Svetämbara Jain tradition theoretically as well as practically asserts fifteen types of liberated souls and include householders among them who are capable of attaining liberation without becoming a monk. While the Digambara Jain tradition, laying more emphasis on the nudity of a monk, rejects the householders' claim on liberation (the Vedic or Brāhmaṇic systems like Vedānta and Vaişnavism do not consider asceticism as a must for liberation.)
There is one more crucial point. Jainism applies the concept dravya or physical and bhāva or psychical to some philosophical categories. For example, dravya karma means physical karmic material and bhāva karma its corresponding psychic and karmic thought activity. In case of spiritual stages or gunasthānas of an aspirant, such as that of a householder or of a monk, this concept is also in usage. For example, a sheer dravya linga muni holds only external characteristics of a monk such as nudity etc. but his inner thought activities may not be pure. So, for becoming a real monk he should possess inner spiritual qualities or bhāva linga of a monk. Now a real problem arises. Is it possible for a householder to have a bhāva linga or inner purity of soul befitting a monk? If yes, then as a natural logical conclusion even though an aspirant is externally householder, by climbing all rungs of gunasthāna or ladder of spiritual
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evolution he can reach the final liberation. Thus, at least according to Vedic schools such as Vedānta etc. even a householder by practising the spiritual discipline can overcome intense attachment (râga) repulsion (dveśa) and ignorance (ajñāna) and attain liberation.
śrīmad Rājacandra's stand on this issue is rather dubious. He himself favours asceticism for his further spiritual progress, particularly in order to play a legitimate role of the master or the reformer of a Jainism. Even though he is a householder, he sometimes declares himself to be a vītarāga jñānī like Mahāvīra, while on other occasions, he admits to be only a householder of the 4th or 5th spiritual stage. In this respect, he mostly sticks to the traditional Jain dogma according to which monkhood is essential for final spiritual progress. The Digambara Jain tradition is rigid in this respect. However, its promoter Acārya Kundakunda makes a very significant comment at the end of his famous work on spiritualism named Samayasāra. He observes:
The ignorant persons say that the adoption of the external marks of ascetics or on a householders of many kinds is the only way to liberation. The mark is never the way to liberation, because the arhats who have given up an attachment to the body and ignored the mark, have realized right belief and knowledge and conduct. The marks of the householder and of the ascetic are never the path to liberation. The Jinas say so. Therefore, giving up the external marks adopted by the householders or ascetics, absorb the soul in right belief, knowledge and conduct which is the path of liberation.
To conclude, we may contend that Jainism laid down by Tirthankaras such as Mahāvíra, as a general rule (utsarga märga), lays equal emphasis on both the internal purity of soul and its external manifestation in a monk's discipline. However, as an exception (apavāda) a householder may attain liberation on the basis of internal purity. Here Śrīmad, perhaps, may agree with us!

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In our opinion, Śrīmad's two dilemma remain unreconciled until the end of his life. We will try to substantiate this presumption in the following pages. For example in his wonderful letter to Jūṭhābhai Ujamśī in 1889 (V.S. 1945) Śrīmad
observes:
There are no two path-ways leading to liberation the path is one and the same in all times. Śrī Kṛṣṇa would attend liberation by following the same path that was adopted by Mahāvīra. An aspirant may attend 1 iberation by following the same path irrespective of geographical location, time, status (śreņi and yoga). Then he would experience non-sensory (atindriya) bliss of that eternal state. This path is universal ... what to say more? This path exists in the self itself. When a person or ätman, free from external and internal ties, realizes this, then all differences (such as sects, religions, philosophies, etc.) would be no more.
From the passage quoted above, it becomes quite obvious that here Śrīmad stands above all dogmatic and sectarian approaches. But unfortunately this spirit did not last long, and ultimately he turned to Jainism without challenging its dogmas. Though he raised doubts here and there, he finally accepts the authority of Tirthankaras such as Mahāvīra and the teachings which are ascribed to him. For example, in a letter written in the same year to Khimaji Devaji, he takes again recourse to one of the received dogmas of Jainism and asserts that in this age the highest type of meditation namely śukla dhyāna, leading to final liberation, is not possible, only dharma dhyāna, the lower form of meditation.
In our opinion, the inner conflict between his external

...
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status as a householder and his advanced internal spiritual status is also only a consequence of Śrīmad's ultimate surrender to dogmatic Jainism. In two letters, written in the same year to Mansukhram Suryarām and Jūṭhābhāi Ujamśī, Śrīmad expresses the same view. At the same time, he remains an undogmatic free spirit. This can be proved on the basis of an incomplete poem which he composed in the same year 1889. Here he maintains that the religion of the self (atma dharma) is the essence or root of all philosophies, and that even today we can realize the self through the mere acquisition of knowledge under the guidance of a worthy master.
3. THE PERIOD OF THE DIRECT EXPERIENCE OF THE SOUL
Śrīmad's emphasis on the role of the sadguru in self-realization appears to be a consequence of the influence of non-Jain Indian philosophy and religion such as Vedanta, Vaiṣṇavism etc. on him. His study of non-Jaina authors, such as Narasimha, Prātama, Kabir, and Ãkha and works such as the Yogavasistha, Bhagavadgītā, Bhāgavata, Dāsabodha etc. may have impressed the importance of the sadguru on his mind. Though in the Jain tradition, theoretically, the guru's role for one's self-realization is acknowledged, in actual practice it does not appear to be on par with that of non-Jain Indian traditions. When Śrīmad was 22-23 years old, there was exchange of about 9 letters between him and probably Mansukhram Suryarām, who was a Hindu. The two developed cordial and friendly relations. Śrīmad received non-Jain books such as the Yogavasiṣṭha from Mansukhrām and through his correspondence explained his views on philosophical matters in order to find a common ground between them.

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During the course of this discussion, śrīmad propounds that the doctrine of the self (ātman) which may be realized (ātma siddhi) under the guidance of a master offers such a common ground. Śrīmad remarks, "All philosophies aim at the summum bonum (self-realization). But the knowers (of self-realization) have not explicitly explained the pathway leading to mokṣa or self-realization. The secret of the same appears to a be as follows: "The self-conscious ātman can be realized through determination, finding a nirgrantha jñānī, or master, following his order and always remaining associated with him or in the company of good people."
Again, śrīmad contends, "Scriptures describe only the pathway leading to mokşa. But the secret of the same rests in the heart of the satpurusa (that is the master). For realizing god (prabhu) one should look upon the master as god (bhagavāna) himself! There is no distinction between god (puruşottama), master (sadguru) and saint (sant)." .
Surprisingly, śrīmad is using the terminology of Vedānta such as hari or brahman as being manifest in the world (jagat) and characterized by sat, cit and ananda, or being, consciousness and bliss. He expresses his firm belief in the Vendāntic schools of Suddhādvaita and Visiştādvaita and boldly supports the Vedāntic doctrine that consciousness is the substratum (adhişthāna) of this universe.
This particular monist concept of the universe is diametrically opposite to the Jain dualistic dogma that the universe is constituted of both sentient and insentient substances, i.e. jīva and ajīva. Srimad cannot and should not assert simultaneously these two mutually contradictory stances. That is why he is caught in a dilemma and, for a moment, lead to a kind of agnostic position as a result of which he loses faith

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in all philosophies and starts doubting the same. However, in the following years of his life he made a number of innovative attempts to reconcile both points of view.
MEANS OF SELF-REALIZATION: BHAKTI AND JNANA MĀRGA
śrīmad's writings in the year 1892 mainly deal with the following topics: (1) sadguru-satpuruşa-jñānī, (2) means of self-realization, such as devotion (bhakti mărga) and knowledge (jñāna mārga), (3) the qualities of the aspirant, or mumukṣu, (4) Śrimad's own spiritual stage and his paradoxical situation, and (5) śrīmad's description of the ultimate reality and the conflict between his dogmatic approach towards Jainism and his liberal approach towards Vedānta and Vaişņavism.
(1) Let us first consider Śrīmad's views on the concept of the sadguru-satpuruşa-jñānī. In a letter, perhaps written to Sobhāgyabhāi Lallubhāī, śrīmad advises, "Infinite scriptures are implicit in a satpuruşa's each and every word or sentence. ... One should search for him at any cost and after finding out one should fully surrender to him with one's body, mind and speech and by obeying him without doubt one can dispell all illusory desires. The passage to salvation is not outside. It exists in one's ārman only."
śrīmad identifies the term sadguru or satpuruşa with jñānī and associates both the bhakti mārga and the jñāna mārga with the sadguru in the following novel manner. In his letter to Manilal Sobhāgyabhāī, śrīmad states, "(1) All religions unanimously hold that the self has forgotten its own nature and consequently parted with true happiness or bliss. (2) To become oblivious of one's own nature is nothing but ignorance that can be dispelled through knowledge. (3) It is quite obvious that such
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knowledge may be obtained from none but a sadguru only. However, a person does not give up the company of an ignorant master out of shame or disrespect etc., this is the cause of error-feeding passions (anantānu bandhi kaṣāya). (4) According to all scriptures, whosoever seeks spiritual knowledge or wisdom must obey a competent or sagacious master. A self-willed or wanton soul wanders in the cycle of transmigration since beginningless time. (5) As long as one does not follow a jñānī master there is no possibility of the destruction of one's ignorance. (6) He who, after having renounced the attachment to his body, mind and wealth, dedicates himself to his master alone can follow his commands. (7) The master does not desire any devotion from the disciple, but for an aspirant without devotion to the master neither his preaching becomes effective nor does the disciple become able to ponder over and meditate upon it. So say the Venerable. (8) All scriptures unanimously promulgate this fact. (9) In the past, Rṣabha preached the same truth to his 99 sons for attaining liberation shortly. (10) Even if a soul attempts to gain knowledge or experience of the self or infinity on its own accord, it will not succeed. But by following its master it will attain omniscience within a very short span of time, called antara muhūrta. (11) The injunctions included in the scriptures enjoining on an aspirant to exert himself for liberation are indirect. (12) This is the path of knowledge (jñāna märga) leading [directly?] to liberation. There is no alternative to it. (13) He who follows this secret doctrine, will actually become fearless by obtaining immortality."
(2) In the passage quoted above, Śrīmad brings forth the importance of following a jñānī master for attaining self-realization in unequivocal terms. Just as the path of knowledge means following the commands of a sadguru, the

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path of devotion implies adherence to one's spiritual master. For example, in a letter addressed to Muni Lallujī, śrīmad urges him to adore the jñānī master as follows:
Practise ceaselessly detachment (of wordly matters); be absorbed in devotion to the satpuruşas. Reflect upon the biographies of the satpuruṣas. Ponder over the characteristics of the satpuruşas. Concentrate on the faces of the satpuruşas and perceive them through your inward eye. Brood upon their each and every mental, verbal and physical act repeatedly and accept whatever they hold. This supreme secret is to be believed in, to be repeatedly meditated upon and to be absorbed at every moment. This is an actual way of comprehending the purport of all scriptures, the core of the heart of all saints and the pathway to the abode of god.
Thus, śrīmad interprets jñāna mārga and bhakti mārga in unique manner in terms of following the orders of and being devoted to a jñānī master or satpuruşa or sadguru. In our opinion, Śrīmad's emphasis on the sadguru's role for self-realization was certainly the consequence of the impact of non-Jain philosophies and religions on him, such as Vedānta, Vaişnavism etc.; but in his opinion, it was also due to his memory of previous births in which he was guided by a sadguru in his own spiritual evolution (though he claimed to be almost self-awakened himself).
(3) In addition to the main qualities such as obeying the commands of the master and developing devotion to him, an aspirant must possess such characteristics as straightforwardness, indifference to worldly attachments or absence of desire (vairāgya), the desire of reaching the supreme reality, love for the company of righteous and upright persons (satsanga), studying scriptures including biographies of venerable individuals, purity of mind, freedom of doubt, fearlessness, modesty etc. The main defects to be avoided are self-willedness or wantonness (svacchanda), desire for worldly
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pleasure and attachment to the world, family and relatives, body etc. (pratibandha).
According to śrīmad, svacchanda or self-willedness is the most serious blemish inhibiting an individual from seeking self-realization. śrīmad uses the terms ātmārthi, or the one who is interested in the realization of his self, for the aspirant (mumukṣu) and matärthi, or the one who is interested in his own opinions, for the non-aspirant. He discusses their respective merits and de-merits in his famous work Ātmasiddhi. We shall deal with the same later on.
(4) It seems, at the time Śrimad played both roles, namely those of a master and of an aspirant. For example, in a letter to Sobhāgyabhāī Lallubhãi, he maintains with confidence that he has almost reached internal perfection. By renouncing his householder status, he will be in a position to experience final liberation or nirvikalpa samādhi within a short period of time. He will then be in a position to propagate spirituality just like the Tirthankaras (like Mahāvīra). Whatever a Tirthankara realized, it is possible to do so in this time. In the same letter he makes a contradictory statement. He observes, "Nirvikalpatā already exists in me, but there is no renunciation. Only after renunciation may one think of preaching spirituality to others. Therefore, one should renounce first and then make others to renounce the world and become a monk." In another letter written to Sobhāgyabhāī, śrīmad plainly remarks that he is knowledge incarnate (jñāna avatāra) and absolutely passionless (vītarāga), though he is still involved in mundane life (as a householder).
(5) In item No. 209 and 218 in the volume Srimad Rājacandra, śrīmad states that although the ultimate reality, i.e. paramasat, has been described by the sages in various ways, by employing different names such as puruṣottama, hari, siddha, iśvara, parabrahma, paramātmā etc., in experience, it is one and the same. Here, śrīmad uses both Jain and non-Jain terminologies while discussing the ultimate reality. He even formally accepts the non-Jain concept of the adhisthāna, that is the governing principle of the universe in the form of the cosmic conscious principle called hari, parabrahma, puruşottama etc.,

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as he has done before. But this time he attempts to reconcile the Jain and non-Jain conceptions of reality by adopting the theory of anekānta or manifold aspects and asserts that from the standpoint of adhisthäna there is only one universal soul, while from the standpoint of individuality there are many souls in the universe. However, he explains the Vedantic concept of adhisthāna in terms of the Jain concept of sattāsāmānya or universal existence constituted by origination, continuation and destruction.
Even then, Śrimad is not able to identify the Jain concept of sattāsāmānya with the Vendantic concept of all-pervading conscious sub-stratum of the universe. He simply expresses his doubts regarding the traditional Jain view of the nature of ultimate reality. Without challenging this dogma, he stops here by simply conjecturing that the omniscient Jain Tirthankaras must have known and accepted the adhisthāna of the universe, although later Jain traditions, regretfully, did preserve this fact. Thus, although Śrīmad personally believed in the Vendantic concept of adhisthana, he was not able to reconcile it with the traditional Jain position and was again caught in a dilemma.
UPADEŚA MĀRGA AND SIDDHĀNTA MĀRGA
Śrīmad's distinction between upadeśa bodha and siddhanta bodha is one more example of the influence of non-Jain philosophical literature on him. In his view, upadeśa bodha, that is the acquisition of scriptural knowledge through religious instruction, is preparatory to the acquisition of siddhanta bodha, or spiritual understanding. Through discriminative knowledge (viveka), detachment (vairāgya), suppression of the passions (upaśama) etc., the upadeśa bodha generates the basic purity of the self on the basis of which an aspirant can understand or experience the fundamental doctrines or siddhantas regarding the ultimate reality. A person which tries to change this sequence and attempts to ascertain the nature of the siddhantas without preliminary purification through the instruction received from a master, will not gain a true understanding of the real nature of the self. According to Śrīmad Rajacandra, the doctrine propounded by a vitarāga

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sarvajña jñānī alone can be designated as siddhanta. However, even the teachings that are contained in non-Jain religious works may also be useful as preparatory upadeśa bodha.
Although, in his opinion, the real path (vāstavika mārga) is different from the path of instruction (upadeśa mārga), Śrīmad boldly prescribes the study of literature of other philosophical schools to his disciples for developing detachment (vairāgya) etc. A devotee of Jainism may benefit from studying non-Jain literature, but he does not need to give up Jainism in order to do so. Srimad remarks, "I understand two ways or means namely upadeśa märga and vastavika märga. When I prescribe a Jain scripture to someone, I do not ask him to follow Jainism. Similarly, when I ask someone to study Vedāntic scripture, I do not ask him to follow Vedāntism. ... This prescription is meant only to know the purport of (my) preaching. You should give up sectarian bias. The ātman is beyond such sectarian distinctions."
At the end of 1894, that in his 27th year, Srimad appears to be well settled in Jainism. There is no more attempt of comparing Jainism with Vedānta etc. as in the past. He seems to have formally integrated non-Jain philosophical and religious works in his scheme of upadeśa bodha; and prescribed their study for developing basic qualities in his disciples, such as vairāgya, upaśama, samvega, nirveda, asthā etc.
In contrast to earlier pronouncements, śrīmad defines true scripture (satsõstra) in 1892 as the preaching of a sadguru and the satsanga as the association both with a sadguru or with co-aspirants. He emphasizes again that due to the memory of his past lifes he was able to realize himself that once he had attained the guidance of a sadguru and his satsanga in a past life. He says, "I have experienced significance of satsarga in my past life. I all the while remember it and this thought continuously remains present in my life."
While commenting on his own state of jīvana mukta jñānī he points out the difference between the jñāni and the bhakta. According to śrīmad, a jñānī does not depend on īśvara and īśvarecchā. He is niralamba, or self-reliant. He is in his natural state of the realised pure self (sahajsvarūpa). However, in a letter written perhaps to his disciple Muni Lallujī he states,
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"To be absorbed in devotion to god (prabhu) appears to be the foremost means of liberation." The two orientations are certainly contradictory. In the same letter Śrīmad asks Lalluji to develop qualities such as inner equilibrium (sama), craving for liberation (samvega), faith (asthā), compassion (anukampā) etc. which are required for an aspirant.
Lastly, he remarks that satsanga, satśāstra and sadvrata, that is true religious observance, are the best means of self-realization. Śrīmad seems to be uncertain regarding the order of precedence between jñāna and bhakti as a means of liberation. While explaining a verse by a Jain mystic poet Anandaghana to Sobhagyabhai Lallubhai Śrīmad contends that bhakti mārga is better than jñāna mārga for overcoming faults like self-willedness (svacchandata). Notwithstanding this vacillation, Śrīmad is certain on one point. According to him, devotion to the master and knowledge of his preaching surely serve as means of liberation for an aspirant.
Śrīmad specifies his own spiritual state as sahajsvarūp ātmastha jñānī, or the natural condition of the self-realized jñānī, who maintains equanimity in both desirable and undesirable situations. He does not depend upon iśvara but rather on the natural purity of the self. Due to his external householder state ordinary people may not be able to even imagine his spiritual status due to their imperfect knowledge or ignorance. That is why they cannot benefit from his presence.
In this respect the condition of the jñānī is similar to that of the sun. There is no actual rising or setting of the sun. When the sun moves beyond their horizon, the people think that the sun sets. In a letter to Sobhagyabhai Lalluji Śrīmad asserts that the present age is rightly called dușamā, or unhappy, because it is extremely difficult to find a self-realized sadguru as well as worthy aspirants. Most people have neither the desire to attain self-realization, nor a strong will, nor the discipline for attaining the same. However, those who are deserving are bound to be guided by none other than Śrīmad himself.
One of the most important characteristics of Śrīmad's writing in the year 1893 is his emphasis on atmadharma. This may be taken as the beginning of the formation of his

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philosophy of atmadharma and ātmasiddhi which fully blossoms in the composition of his famous work Atmasiddhi three years later. He does not refer much to non-Jain conception of the ultimate reality anymore and has obviously turned firmly to Jainism.
The literature belonging to this year is slim. But in Item No. 422 of the compilation Śrīmad Rajacandra he describes, possibly for the first time, the concepts of kriyājaḍa and śuṣka jñānī. The former blindly follows rituals externally and lacks in ātma dhyāna, while the latter only talks about ātman, without developing essential qualities such as tyāga, vairāgya etc., but does not realize it.
In a letter to Kṛṣṇadāsa Śrīmad boldly and openly declares himself to be a jñānī purușa, i.e. sadguru, who has realized his ātman and hence is capable of guiding disciples in this respect. Śrīmad asks Kṛṣṇadāsa to secure the benefit of his company and when this is not possible to reflect upon his preaching. In a letter to Sobhagyabhāī Lallubhāi, Śrīmad again seriously advises to follow him closely; because Śrīmad is now atma anubhavi jñānī purușa, or the all-knowing person who abides in the experience of the true self, just like a kevalin or a Tirthankara. Dharma resides in ātman.
Śrīmad is the person who has achieved self-realization (ātmatva prāpta puruṣa) and therefore the most capable master to guide others to self-realization. Hence, one should give up vices such as the obstinacy about one's own opinions (kadāgraha mat-matāntara), self-willedness (svacchandată) etc., and fully surrender to him as a devoted disciple. Jñānī puruṣas of the past are just like the distant milk ocean (kṣīra samudra), but Śrīmad is like a jar full of sweet water capable of quenching the thirst of all thirsty persons. The quintessence of Śrīmad's knowledge given to Sobhagyabhāī in this year may be summarized in one sentence: atma bhāvanā bhāvatā, jīva lahe kevala jñāna re. It means, by reflecting upon the pure self one may attain omniscience.
In 1894, Śrīmad expresses again his firm faith in Jainism. For example, while replying to one of Mahātmā Gāndhiji's questions regarding ārya dharma and the origination of Indian

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philosophical systems or religions from the Vedas, Śrīmad frankly declares that the preaching of great persons such as the Tirthankaras contains a thousand times more knowledge than the Vedas, and he defines ārya dharma in terms of ātma dharma. He also comes out with the important doctrine of the six padas or statements of ātma dharma or ātma siddhi, such as the existence of the ātman, its eternity, its agency and the endurance of karmas by the atman, the liberation of the atman (from karmas), and the means of liberation. This philosophy of ātma dharma and ātma siddhi culminated in his well-known composition Ātmasiddhi in the year 1898, at the age of 29.
4. THE PERIOD OF PREPARATION FOR RENUNCIATION
The main outcome of the last period in Srīmad's life is his composition of his masterpiece, viz. the Ātmasiddhi in 1896 (V.S. 1952). It is the product of his deep philosophical thought and rich spiritual experience. Śrīmad builds his philosophy of ātma dharma and his spirituality of ātma siddhi on the foundation of the concept of the sadguru without whose guidance it is impossible for an aspirant to acquire self-knowledge and self-realization or liberation. Some important topics dealt by śrīmad in this year prior to the composition of the Atmasiddhi are the above mentioned six fundamental truths; his discussion regarding jñāna mārga, bhakti marga and karma mārga; his reference to the importance of the sadguru, satsanga, satśāstra; his mention of various possible defects in an aspirant such as kadāgraha, mithyātva, svacchandată etc.; his attempt to assert the unique place of the doctrine of ātma dharma and atma siddhi as preached by the Jain Tirthařkaras; Srimad's burning passion to renovate, reform and re-establish the 'original' Jainism; his usual confidence of playing the role of a sadguru and a Jain dharma pravartaka, on the one hand, and his hesitation to do so because of his householder's condition etc., on the other. In our opinion, Śrīmad's reflection on all these topics might have certainly led him to the composition of the Atmasiddhi which unifies and

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integrates all these factors in an unparallel manner.
We have already said that śrīmad's emphasis on the role of the sadguru in self-realization is mainly due to the influence of non-Jain religious literature on him. Although in the Jain tradition there are several references to the significance of the master-disciple-relationship for self-realization, it is not emphatically brought out. In non-Jain philosophical and religious traditions we get ample evidence in literatures where this relation becomes a cardinal point.
For example, there are many works in the Hindu tradition such as the Yogavasistha, the Bhagavadgītā, Gurugītā, Dāsabodha, etc. in which the master is supposed to enlighten his disciple by instructing in him the secret of self-realization. Even the literary form of composition such as a dialogue between the master and his disciple is very commonly found in this literature. We already know that śrīmad has studied this literature and recommended this also to his disciples. We have already seen that he labeled the non-Jain religious literature as upadeśa bodha and declared that by studying it the qualities of viveka and vairāgya can be developed among the aspirants and after purification of the mind, they may study the works of siddhānta bodha under the guidance of the self-realized and enlightened sadguru.
It is interesting to note that a few days before the composition of the Atmasiddhi, Srimad had sent a letter to Muni Lalluji in which he advised him to study a Gujarāti translation of the famous work Dasabodha written by the Hindu saint and poet, Śrī Rāmadāsa. This work is in the form of a dialogue between a sadguru and his disciple. There are chapters dealing with the nature of the relationship between sadguru-asadguru, satśisya-asatśisya, the importance of the sadguru, doubts raised by a disciple regarding the nature of the self and self-realization, the sadguru's reply to him, and after the removal of the doubts, the disciple's state of self-realization, his expression of gratitude towards the sadguru for his valuable guidance etc. In our opinion, śrīmad was influenced by the Dasabodha while composing the Atmasiddhi, the essence of which is the indispensible role of the sadguru in self-realization.
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In one passage śrīmad points out the superiority of bhakti märga, over jñāna mārga and kriyā märga. He affirms that it is very difficult to follow jñāna märga. There are all chances of downfall prior to self-realization: sandeha (doubt), vikalpa (indecision), svacchandatā (self-willedness), etc. are defects which certainly stand as obstacles in following jñāna mārga. Kriyā märga is also equally difficult. It involves superimposition of self on body and vice-versa. One attaches undue importance to rituals. Powers (siddhis), name, fame etc. are temptations that hinder or block the path of self-realization. Bhakti mārga is the best and safest one for an aspirant. It means a supreme devotion and loyalty to self-realized and enlightened sadguru.
śrīmad again expresses his strong and earnest urge to play the role of a second Mahāvīra and to revise Jain dharma in this age. He says, "By forgetting to recognize the present Mahāvīra (i.e. Śrīmad himself), how far it is possible for souls to have perception of the historical Mahāvīra who is physically no more?" By giving up this error the aspirant should take recourse to śrīmad. He has realized paramātmā, he is the second Rāma or Mahāvīra. In the salutary verse of the poem Ātmasiddhi śrīmad also pays homage to sadguru who, for him, is as holy as god.
Continuing, Srimad then deals with the two categories of aspirants viz. kriyājada and suşka jñānī; the former develops such qualities as renunciation, vairāgya etc. and performs austerities but he lacks in self-knowledge, while suşka jñāni either discards the concept of bondage and liberation or by only studying scriptures he boasts that he is jñāni. He does not believe in means of tapasyā, samyama, vairāgya etc. Thus, kriyājada and sușka jñāni may not be called ātmārthi or a real seeker who having given up his one-sided views, takes shelter in the sadguru (verse 9).
Then Srimad describes the characteristics of a sadguru such as self-knowledge, equanimity unprecedented nature of his preaching which is just like a scripture par excellence. Such a sadguru is even greater than a Jina or a Tirthankara for today's aspirants. Because, due to a sadguru only an aspirant can

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understand the secret of a Jina's preaching incorporated in the āgamas.
Svacchandata or self-willedness is the main obstacle on the part of an aspirant which keeps him away from the association with a sadguru. Due to the preaching based on self-realization of an enlightened sadguru, defects like svacchanda etc. are removed and a disciple under the guidance of such a master realizes salvation. Some times it so happens that a disciple may surpass his master in spiritual experience and attain perfection before him but even then he does not give up his loyalty to his master.
The true disciple is rightly designated as an ātmārthi who really seeks the realization of the self. Śrīmad very briefly illustrates the characteristics on ātmārthi such as pacification of passions, genuine desire for liberation, detachment towards worldly ties and compassion for all living beings. An ātmārthi with such a qualification becomes worthy to receive preaching from sadguru which ultimately leads him to self-realization.
. We contend that the main purpose of śrīmad's Ātmasiddhi is an emphasis on the role of the sadguru for self-realization, which can easily be proved by the fact that śrīmad has devoted about 31 of the 142 verses of the Ātmasiddhi to describing the nature of the sadguru and his significance in successfully leading a genuine aspirant on the path of self-realization.
In the 30th year of his life śrīmad is solely concentrating on and waiting for an unprecedented opportunity to proceed further on the path of total salvation by climbing each and every rung of the spiritual ladder called gunasthāna from the 4 or 5th stage of vowless perception or right faith onward. Now, Srimad firmly holds that unless he embraces asceticism, it is difficult to attain final emancipation. Even for re-establishing the original doctrine or dharma of the Tirthankaras, renunciation of family, business etc. is a must for him. This urge for becoming both externally and internally possessionless (bahyāntara nirgrantha) is a central theme of one of śrīmad's works called Apūrva Avasara Eo Kyāre Avaše?, or 'When would that unprecedented opportunity dawn upon me?, composed in this year. It has
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remained an unfulfilled dream of Srimad.
Srimad's insistence on sadguru, satsanga, satśāstra, sadācāra, saddharma etc. still persists in his writings of this year. śrīmad propounds that for right knowledge (samyak jñāna) the study of scriptures containing a Tirthankara's preaching (parama śruta) is a must. But a sadguru alone can reveal the secret of self-realization incorporated in satśāstra, based on the instructions given by Tirthankaras. A sadgurus words are like a canon. In his absence, the canonical literature based on the teaching of a Tirtharikara as well as a sadguru's (published) teachings are of paramount value for an aspirant.
Not much writing is available pertaining to the 31st and the 325 year of śrīmad's life. In item No. 816, 817, 824, 825 and 831 of the book śrīmad Rajacandra orly passing reference is made to the importance of the sadguru and satsästra, while in item No. 837 the characteristics of the sadguru such as self-knowledge (ātma jñāna), equanimity (samadarsitā), extraordinary language (apūrva vāṇī), supreme teaching (parama śruta) etc. are quoted, which are also mentioned in verse No. 10 of the Armasiddhi. Śrimad states that these qualities refer to a master belonging to the 6th and the 13th spiritual stage only. A person remaining in the 4th and the 5th stage of a householder is incapable of becoming a sadguru. The duration of the spiritual stages from the 7th (gth) to the 12th is too short to assume the role of the master, while there is absence of right perception and knowledge in the spiritual stages below the 4th one. A person belonging to these stages, being himself ignorant, cannot rightly act as a guide to the aspirants.
In the years 1900-1901 Śrīmad's literary activities are considerably slowed down. Out of the 60 items composed in these years, more than half are the letters written to the close devotees and disciples such as Muni Laghurāj (Lallubhāi), Ambālāl Lālcand, Mansukhlāl Kiratcand, Sukhlāl Chaganlāl, etc. Perhaps because of the fast deterioration of his health, śrīmad could not write more than a few lines in each letter. Also he frequently highlights the importance of the sadguru, satsāmagama, satśāstra, parama śruta etc., but nothing new is added to these concepts by him.
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CONCLUSION/RESUME
1. Though the significance of a sadguru or master in respect of disciples self-realization is acknowledged in the Jain tradition, śrīmad Rājacandras emphasis on the same is unique in the history of Jainism. It is probably due to the influence of non-Jain Indian schools of philosophy and religion such as Vedānta, Vaişnavism etc. on him. It is true that in this life he did not have any sadguru. He was a self-awakened and a self-enlightened mystic. However, he all the while stressed that he was able to realize his self mainly due to his extraordinary memory of his past life, in which he had a sadguru.
2. Śrīmad opines that a Jina or Tirthankara is the parama guru, or the supreme master. His teaching as embodied in the Jain canonical literature is parama śruta, or the supreme scripture. In the absence of a Jina the canonical literature serves the purpose of causing self-realization. A Jina belongs to the 13th spiritual stage, called sayoga kevali. This stage is equivalent to what is known as the jīvana mukta. The association with a Jina is called parama satsanga, or the supreme religious assembly. But in his absence a sadguru or a monk belonging to the 6th spiritual stage, called pramatta samyata, or restraint of carelessness, or the 7ti spiritual stage called apramatta samyata, can very well play the role of the sadguru. His preaching then assumes the role of sacred scripture. The association with him is designated as a satsanga.
3. śrīmad uses the terms jñānī and satpurusa as synonymous of the term sadguru.
4. The guidance of the sadguru is needed for disciples of the 4th spiritual stage of right faith or perception up to the 12ch stage of annihilated passions (kşīņa kasāya) only.
5. In his unique way, Srimad ascribes new meaning to well-known means of liberation such as jñāna mārga and bhakti mārga. According to him, devotion to a sadguru is bhakti märga and reflection on his preaching is vicāra mārga or jñāna mārga. śrīmad gives precedence to the bhakti mārga over the jñāna märga and karma mārga.
6. The sadguru is the nimitta käraņa, or auxiliary cause, for his disciple's ascension on the path of liberation, while a
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disciples devotion and surrender to the sadguru is the upādana kāraṇa, or principal cause, for his self-realization.
7. If we survey different stages of Śrīmad's life, we find that though there is a great influence of non-Jain schools of philosophy and religion, such as Vedanta and Vaiṣṇavism, he ultimately sticks to Jainism. However, he discovers the common philosophy of atma dharma and the spiritualism of ātma siddhi which may be termed as the common meeting ground of all the ātmavādin aspirants. Śrīmad propounds his philosophy of atma dharma ātma siddhi mainly in his marvellous work Ātmasiddhi, which is a unique and immortal contribution to human civilization.
8. Rājacandra identifies the ātman with the sadguru and briefly defines the principal characteristics of the sadguru, ku-guru, kriyājaḍa, śuṣka _jñāna, ātmārthī, matārthī etc. at various stages of his work, but mainly in the Atmasiddhi. Since we have discussed these matters in detail in the main body of this article, we need not repeat them here.
9. Śrīmad's concept of upadesa bodha and siddhānta bodha seems to be a specific device invented by him to accommodate non-Jain religious literature in the former category and Jainism in the latter one. This illustrates his firm faith in Jainism and his catholic attitude towards non-Jain philosophies and religions such as Vedānta or Vaisnavism.
10. Last but not least, we seriously contend that Śrīmad was caught in a paradoxical situation. There was a conflict in his mind regarding his role as a reformer of Jainism. Sometimes his spirit was so high that he declared himself to be the second Mahāvīra. But he was always aware of his externally low religious status as a householder and sincerely believed that unless he becomes a monk, he should not publicly assume the role of a master and vigorously propagate Jainism as laid down by Tirthankaras such as Mahāvīra. The conflict between this external state as householder and his internal stage of a renouncer remained up to the end of his life.
We sincerely feel that Śrīmad Rajacandra should have cast aside the Jain dogma that only a monk can be a sadguru. There are many examples of past and present sadgurus who

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were only householders in non-Jain Indian traditions. śrīmad Rājacandra was already shouldering the responsibility of a sadguru for his few chosen disciples. This certainly indicates the presence of a conflict in his mind. What prevented him to openly assuming the role of a master if not the impact of specific Jain dogmas on him? We may close this study by quoting an analogy. śrīmad had already vigorously left the shore of the Jain dogmas and was proceeding towards the other shore of an independent thinker, a profound mystic and a great master. He successfully reached there half way. Perhaps both his unshakable faith in Jainism and ill health stopped him midway and instead of trying to reach the other shore he turned back and returned again to his destined land of dogmatic Jainism.
Final Statement
Our main point in this discussion is to indicate that on the one hand, śrīmad was trying to critically examine and half-heartedly challenge the traditional Jain dogmas in the light of other philosophies like Vendānta etc. On the other hand, he did not dare to build his own philosophy based on his own spiritual experience and thus revive the Jain tradition though in our opinion he was capable of doing so. This has bearing upon his status as a sadguru. We deem that he was fully capable of playing the role of a sadguru and even of a reformer of Jainism; but he did not do so because of his utmost sincerity and loyalty to the dogmatic Jain tradition only.
ENDNOTES
1) In one of the letters addressed to Śrī Sobhāgyabhāī Lallubhăī Śrimad brings forth the significance of the sadguru or the satsanga, as follows: By reducing the worldly activities and attachment to them (arambha parigraha) one can reduce the strength of unwanted harmful company (asatsanga). Association with the master or co-aspirants also helps the aspirant to keep himself away from bad company. This leads to an inquiry into ātman (ātmavicāra). Atmavicāra in turn begets ātma jñāna and ātmajñāna or self-knowledge leads to liberation.
2) In another letter śrīmad contends that the Tirthankaras affirmed that an aspirant has to depend upon a master and his preaching until he perfectly
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attends knowledge of his self (ätma jñāna). From the 4th stage of right perception (samyaktva) up to the 12th or delusionless spiritual stage (kşina moha), an aspirant must take recourse to his master and the master's preaching. Otherwise he may fall down at any time. Without the support of a sadguru/satsanga /satsāstra, an aspirant may deviate from the path of liberation and get lost in the wilderness of transmigration.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
SRG = śrīmad Rajacandra. Volumes I and II. Second Gujarātī Edition. Agās: śrīmad Rājacandra Aśram, (1951) 1964.
SR = Ācārya Kundakunda. Samayasāra. English Translation by J. L. Jaini. Lucknow: Central Jaina Publishing House, 1930.
SJ = Saryubahen R. Mahetā, śrīmad ni Jivansiddhi. 3rd edition. Mumbai: Śreyas Pracārak Sabhā, (1970) 1987.
SRJ = Brahmacāri Govardhandās. śrīmad Rājacandra Jivankalā. Hindi Translation. Second Edition. Agās: Srimad Rājacandra Aśram, (1959) 1989.
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Jinamasjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
UNITY AND DIVERSITY AMONGST THE FOLLOWERS OF SRIMAD RĀJACANDRA
Emma Salter
Introduction
John Cort wrote that scholarship "needs to reach the point where statements of what Jains do or believe are understood for what they are, namely generalizations and abstractions which operate on the level of ideology rather than description." Following Cort's cue that to really begin to understand a religion we have to learn about its specifics, I hope to contribute to the broadening understanding of Jainism with a detailed investigation of one particular group of Jains, the followers of śrīmad Rājacandra. As well, this paper examines how śrīmad Rājacandra's followers are socially organised. It shows that although they are ideologically united by their devotion to Srimad, which leads to a common acceptance of his philosophical and religious teaching, their interpretation of his teachings, specifically guru bhakti, has resulted in a fragmented social organisation.
śrīmad Rājacandra (1867-1901) was a Gujarātī Jain householder who practised as a religious teacher and maintained a strict ascetic regime. Although he never took initiation as a mendicant, śrīmad claimed to have achieved samyak darśana and also to have enabled a number of his closest disciples to attain this state of self-realisation. He was originally called Lakşmīnandan Mahetā. His parents changed his name to Rãycandbhāi when he was four years old, the name by which Mohandas Gāndhi (1869-1949) refers to him. Later he

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became known as śrīmad Rājacandra, and later still, his devotees gave him the honorific title of Param Kịpāļu Dev. He is conventionally referred to by devotees and biographers as śrīmad. śrīmad died when he was only thirty-three, yet a century after his death he is a revered saint, the object of devotion for followers who together form a distinct group within the broader tradition of modern Jainism.
Most of śrīmad's devotees are Indians originating from Gujarāt. Many still live in Gujarăt or Mumbaī, where there are a number of dedicated āśrams, temples, and living gurus operating within the śrīmad Rājacandra tradition. However, followers are likely to be found wherever there are pockets of Gujarātī speaking Jains, including communities in Europe, USA, and East Africa.
Much of the data for my continuing research on śrīmad's followers comes from field research carried out in India during October to February 1999/2000. Part of my time was divided between two communities. One is based at a dedicated āśram called śrīmad Rājacandra Adhyātmik Sādhanā Kendra at Kobā in Gujarāt. This āśram was established in 1975 by its guru Atmānand Mahārāj (Dr Mukund Sone, born 1931). Originally th e āśram was established in Ahmedabad, but relocated to its current site at Kobā in 1982. According to literature produced by the āśram, Atmānand attained self-realisation in 1969.
The second community, śrīmad Rājacandra Adhyātmik Satsang Sādhanā Kendra, is based in Mumbai. Its members are disciples of the guru Dr Rakeś Jhaverī, who during an interview said his first experience of samyak darśana had occurred when he was eight years old. This community has converted the top floor of a Mumbai apartment block into a prayer hall, with an anti-room serving as a library and administrative centre.
When I visited, plans to build a dedicated āśram were well underway. Members of both communities are organised around their chosen guru who is their spiritual guide and religious instructor, but, as this paper will explain, not all of śrīmad's followers are also disciples of a living guru. During my field study I received immense generosity and co-operation from

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Śrimad's followers. I was permitted to observe and participate in their religious activities, and my persistent questioning was met with tireless patience. For all this I am extremely grateful.
śrīmad's philosophy centres around samyak darśana, the individual's experience of their own soul. He teaches that this may be attained by practising guru bhakti, devotion to a religious instructor who has already experienced samyak darśana. Followers are initially divided by their decision whether or not to devote to a living guru. Those who choose to offer devotion to a living guru are sub-divided further into a collection of independent "guru-centred" communities. These factors have combined to produce a movement which consists of individual followers, and communities of followers. These are neither affiliated to each other, nor to any general overseeing administrative body, yet collectively they form a distinct group within modern Jainism. Śrīmad's followers are consolidated by their devotion to śrīmad and so may be justifiably referred to as a distinct religious movement within Jainism. However, this movement has a diverse pattern of social organisation.
UNITY IN THE ŚRĪMAD RĀJACANDRA MOVEMENT
Devotion to śrīmad is the integral factor that unites all his followers and defines the śrīmad Rajacandra movement. During his lifetime Srimad displayed extraordinary qualities, some personal, some religious, for which he was considered worthy of veneration. He continues to be venerated posthumously as the central religious icon of the movement. To avoid a lengthy biographical discourse the factors that culminate his venerable status are summarised here into five points.
1. Followers believe Śrīmad achieved samyak darśana. This is the most important reason why he is worshipped as a religious icon. Jains ideally perform worship for soteriological rather than material benefits. The objective is to eventually acquire the same state as the object worshipped, for example the omniscience of a Jina. Jains worship Srimad in the hope of achieving samyak darśana, which is regarded as the crucial first step towards a Jain's ultimate religious goal of mokșa. They are following his religious instruction that the surest way to achieve

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samyak darśana is through guru bhakti.
2. Long before he became a prominent religious figure Śrīmad had already gained a celebrity status in Gujarāt and Mumbai due to his exceptional intellectual and literary talents. As a young man he had become famous for his public performances of remarkable memory feats in which he attended to up to one hundred different activities simultaneously. He had also published a number of hymns, poems and didactic works that received much literary acclaim within the Gujarāti speaking community.
As well, śrīmad is said to have possessed some supernatural attributes including telepathy, premonition, future prediction, and famously, memory of his previous lives, jātismarana jñāna, which occurred when he was only seven years old. His followers reason that such intellectual proficiency and supernatural powers are discernible validation of śrīmad's advanced internal purity. However, they are by-products of his internal state and, as such, irrelevant to the soteriological process.
3. As an adult, śrīmad gave religious discourses which, according to his biographers, attracted hundreds of people. He appears to have been a charismatic orator. His eloquent poetic and literary expression and profound understanding of Jainism established śrīmad as a religious teacher for those who were inspired by his message.
4. Srimad gained acclaim via association. In his autobiographical accounts Mohandās Gāndhī professed to have benefited from a correspondence with śrīmad. Gāndhi's fame reached its height after śrīmad's death, so his endorsement is only posthumously applicable.
Lalluji Mahārāj (1854-1936) was an esteemed Sthānakavāsī muni. Lallu was amongst śrīmad's closest disciples, ranking Śrīmad's discourses above those of his own ācārya. The impact of Lallu prostrating himself before a 'mere householder' cannot be overstated, and lay Jains who honoured this muni would have automatically turned their gaze towards śrīmad.
5. Jains venerate extreme ascetic practise, religious effort
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a
and achievement. His followers believe that Śrīmad believed to have achieved an advanced religious state by practising harsh austerities and meditation. As well as displaying comprehensive understanding of the liberation process, he was seen to practise and benefit from this process. In death, Śrīmad has gained an even greater spiritual status, as it is generally believed that he is now experiencing his final embodied incarnation prior to liberation.
As stated, Śrīmad is worshipped by his followers principally because he achieved samyak darśana. However, the factors described here collectively contributed to his status as a religious icon by bringing him into the public eye and adding credibility to his claims of religious advancement. We must assume a disparity between devotees approaching Śrīmad now, as a religious icon, and those disciples who enjoyed a personal relationship with him. Today, followers cannot have direct contact with Śrīmad, but associate with him through the legacy of his life-work instead. In addition to his personal example, when Śrīmad died he also left his photographs and his writings. Śrīmad's photograph provides his followers with an image before which to worship. His writings provide a canon of scripture which expound his philosophy and religious teachings.
Photographs
Despite frequent requests from disciples, Śrīmad consistently declined to be photographed. Eventually he conceded. Two studio photographs were taken whilst he was recuperating from ill health at Vadhavan Camp in Gujarat. This turned out to be Śrīmad's final illness and he died in Rajkot on 9 April 1901 only a few weeks later. As a consequence, the photographs picture him in a highly emaciated condition, giving the images an almost ethereal quality. In each photograph he has adopted a meditative position: one standing, arms down, palms facing forward, in the kayotsarga position; the other sitting crossed legged in the lotus (padmāsana) position.
The originals of the two photographs are lost. The oldest copy of the photograph depicting Śrīmad in the standing position, blown up to a larger than life size, hangs in the prayer

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hall at the śrīmad Rājacandra Aśram at Agās in Gujarāt. My guide informed me that the enlargement was made in Paris by re-photographing the original. The paper of the enlargement is now so fragile it cannot be removed from the frame. Copies in current circulation have been made by re-photographing this enlargement. Both photographs are distributed from the Agās Aśram. Copies of these two photographs are widely available throughout the community of śrīmad's followers in a range of sizes and formats, from small laminated 'purse-size' copies to large framed portraits hanging in temples. Dedicated temples and prayer halls display either one or both of these two photographs. Households are likely to have a domestic shrine (often consecrated by a guru) which includes a photograph of śrīmad, ranging from a simple framed photograph, to an enlargement with an ornate 'templesque' marble surround.
When the āśram at Agās was built, a statue of Srimad was commissioned. The presence of a statue in addition to photographs is becoming increasingly normative within the devotional communities. Statues are generally crafted in marble, but in some cases images have been cast from an alloy of five metals to give them a golden appearance. At the highest point of the āśram at Agās stands a glorious, life size, 'golden' image of śrīmad, a similar image is also found at the highest point of the āśram at Uttara Sandā.
Images of Srimad, both statues and photographs, are not only memorials to the historical person they represent, they are also tools used by disciples during their religious practise. By finally allowing his photograph to be taken we can assume that śrīmad consented to the use of his physical form as an object of worship. Devotees perform bhakti and meditate before images of śrīmad. They believe that he achieved samyak darśana, so they worship his image in the hope that this religious practise will assist them towards reaching a similar state of self-realisation. In this way, his form has become a device, or tool, in the soteriological process of his followers.
Of course, followers also show devotion toward śrīmad because they love him as their guru. Ārati , a lamp waving ceremony, is sometimes performed before images of Srimad. At

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Agās, a 'golden' image of him is the object of a daily pūjā ritual performed by one designated member of the aśram community. Followers are divided in their opinion about the appropriateness of this because, unlike a Jina, śrīmad is not believed to have attained omniscience. Śrīmad's image has evolved in parallel with the growth of the followers movement from photographs to 'golden' effigies. This indicates an increase in the status of the person and the ideals that the image represents. It also indicates a gain in the momentum of the movement.
Writings
śrīmad left an extensive body of writing in the form of poetry, didactic texts, diary entries and letters. It can be surmised that he intended his letters to be kept and studied because he referred disciples to particular examples addressed either to themselves or their counterparts. Under his instruction copies of some letters were made and distributed amongst designated disciples.
. During his lifetime, with his consent and a degree of editing, a close disciple called Ambalāl Lālcand collated much of śrīmad's public and private writings into a single volume titled śrīmad Rājacandra. A second edition of Srimad Rājacandra was collated by Srimad's younger brother Mansukh Mahetā. This volume has undergone a number of reprints but it continues to represent a complete anthology of Śrīmad's extant literature. It is published by the āśram at Agās and sold at a subsidised cost. His letters and didactic texts emphasise Srimad's accomplishments as a religious philosopher and practitioner, traits which followers prioritise over his astonishing memory feats or other supernatural talents. The volume of śrīmados collected writings provides a precise record of his teaching in a closed canon, with no ambiguity about its origin or authenticity.
Since their compilation and publication, śrīmad's writings have become revered as scripture by his followers. Most households own a volume of śrīmad Rajacandra and the book, as an object, is treated with great respect. Srimad's writings figure highly in his followers' religious practise; extracts are read during individual religious study, collective bhakti, and

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svādhyāya. In addition to valuing the didactic nature of the texts, some of his works are also worshipped in their own right. For example, every November, on the anniversary of his birth, śrīmad's famous poem Atmasiddhi becomes the object of bhakti.
The publication of śrīmad's photographs and writings made a significant impact on the cohesion of the Srimad Rājacandra movement. Followers worship before the same image and refer to the same canon of scripture. These are the two physical characteristics that an outsider entering a śrīmad Rājacandra mandir would notice as distinctive. Followers are also united by a common doctrinal commitment, which is expressed as a shared belief in the method of liberation explained by Srimad in his writings. Devotion to śrīmad denotes a shared image, shared canon and shared belief system, and it is these factors that unite devotees into a movement. However, as this paper will now go on to explain, Śrīmad's religious instruction, and his followers' interpretation of it, has caused the movement to evolve with a fragmented social structure,
DIVERSITY IN THE ŚRĪMAD RĀJACANDRA MOVEMENT
Śrīmad was an independent, anti-sectarian religious practitioner. He was not associated with a particular established gaccha (monastic order) and his personal history holds no evidence of a living guru-disciple relationship. Disciples confirm his religious authority by the example of his own life, as described above. Śrīmad's independence gives his followers considerable freedom in their social organisation because they are not constrained by an existing organisational structure. Srimad offered instructions about religious practise, but because he had not intended to establish a new Jain sect he did not set down a code of administration.
śrīmad emphasises that the purpose of religion is liberation. At the centre of his philosophy is samyak darśana, self-realisation, which is the aspirant's first step onto the mokşa märg, the path to liberation. Samyak darśana is the immediate religious goal of the vast majority of śrīmad's followers. Śrīmad taught that guru bhakti is the surest way of attaining self-realisation during the current cosmic era. In accordance

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with this teaching, the veneration of a guru is the principal religious activity of the śrīmad Rājacandra movement. Together these factors have influenced the social organisation of the śrīmad Rājacandra movement into a collection of individual followers and independent communities that function autonomously without a central administration.
Samyak Darśana
Samyak darśana is a defining moment in the aspirant's religious development. The aspirant who has not experienced samyak darśana has a false view of reality (mithya drsți). Samyak darśana, translated by Jaini as "having the correct view", is conventionally considered as the aspirant's first understanding of true reality. It is the moment when "the soul for the first time glimpses its true nature". For this reason, samyak darśana is also described as 'self-realisation'. It is believed to occur when three events coincide within the aspirant's internal state. These are the activation of bhavyatva, the suppression of the state of mithya dssti, and the suppression of the ānantanubandhi passions.
Bhavyarva is the innate capability of a soul to become liberated from karmic bondage. It is a latent quality not common to all souls, but when activated in a soul that possesses it, liberation is inevitable at some point in the future (it may take many, many lifetimes or a mere forty-eight minutes). Mithya dịşti is caused by the deluding darśana mohaniya karmas. These karmas "prevent a soul's insight into its own nature" and must be suppressed to enable the aspirant's first experience of samyak darśana. Mithya drsti operates in conjunction with the ānantanubandhi passions in the form of "grasping and aggression" which are characteristic of unpurified human behaviour. The anantanubandhi passions must also be suppressed to allow samyak darśana to occur.
The aspirant achieves samyak darśana by suppressing the deluding karmas and the gross passions at the same time that bhavyarva becomes active in the soul. The experience of samyak darśana gives the aspirant a 'correct view of reality, in contrast to the 'deluded view of a non-self-realised person who has not experienced it. In Jain terms, a correct view of reality

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corresponds to a correct understanding of one's own soul. With the experience of samyak darśana, the nature of the soul is understood empirically rather than theoretically. For the first time, the aspirant genuinely comprehends that the soul is an entity separate to the physical body. This experience of non-attachment is considered to be very important in the process of liberation. Samyak darśana results in "an absolute undistorted view of reality".
Samyak darśana marks the beginning of the journey to mokşa. It is the fourth of the fourteen gurasthānas, the 'stages of purification which the soul has to encounter on its way to mokṣa. The gunasthānas are ascended according to the types and quantity of karma eradicated, and ascetic practises undertaken by the aspirant correlate with the level reached. For example the anuvratas, lay vows of partial renunciation, are the fifth gumasthāna; the mahāvratas, mendicant vows of full renunciation, are the sixth gunasthāna. Dr Rakeś Jhaverī explained to me that ascent occurs in direct relation to the increase in frequency and duration of soul experience. Samyak darśana is not irreversible however, and an aspirant may easily slip down the guņasthānas if religious vigilance is not pursued.
Samyak darśana is the crux of śrīmad's message. He claimed to have attained it when he was aged twenty-four. It is believed that in his capacity as a guru he also enabled some of his closest disciples to become self-realised. Whether samyak darśana is currently possible is a matter of hot debate amongst Śrīmad's devotees. Many followers believe that it is possible and ardently strive for it. A small number of followers affirm themselves as self-realised, some of whom practise as gurus in their own right within the Srimad Rājacandra movement.
The community at Agās believe that Brahmacāri Govardhandās, a disciple of Lallu and the last living guru at Agās Āśram, was the final person capable of achieving self-realisation. Other followers believe that no one since śrīmad has achieved it. Whilst the philosophy of samyak darśana is conventional within Jainism, any assertions that self-realisation is currently limited or unattainable are certainly unconventional. As stated, Jainism traditionally posits it as the fourth gunasthāna

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and a prerequisite to accepting lay and monastic vows. What is under scrutiny is whether śrīmad's, and hence his followers' conception of self-realisation differs from what Jains generally understand by the term.
According to śrīmad samyak darśana is an actual, personal experience of the soul as a phenomenon separate from the body. The empirical, infallible knowledge accompanying the experience of samyak darśana is the basis of religious authority. Although theoretical understanding has its place, it is open to misinterpretation which can lead to false beliefs and practises that will not assist the aspirants towards their initial goal of self-realisation, or their final goal of mokşa. Samyak darśana, as śrīmad perceived it, required a level of internal purity, not found in intellectual understanding, to overcome the deluding.
Initiated Jain ascetics are objects of worship and authorised to give religious discourses to the laity. Their religious authority is assured by samyak darśana which is the fourth guṇasthāna and the prerequisite to the initiation as an ascetic, which is the sixth gurasthāna. However, śrīmad feared that not all ascetics were self-realised according to his definition of it as an internal, empirical experience of the soul. His own disciple Lallu is an example. Lallu was a respected, senior muni who had physically renounced such things as wife, children, home, but who had not internally renounced these things, he still desired them. Śrīmad perceived that the external renunciatory exhibits of asceticism no longer guaranteed internal renunciation, that initiation did not guarantee an ascetic as self-realised. Samyak darśana had become an attribute coincidental with diksa, rather than a prerequisite internal state. The pure message of Mahāvīra was threatened. Jainism's religious authority was jeopardised and many aspirants were following, according to śrīmad's criteria, 'false' gurus because of the number of ascetics initiated before they had attained the required internal state of samyak darśana.
śrīmad's interpretation of samyak darśana as an internal process lead to his anti-sectarian attitude. 'Sectarian' refers to specific groups of Jains who are identified by beliefs or actions that are not unanimously shared by all Jains, such as the

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Digambara's nakedness, or the Sthānakavāsī's aversion to image worship. Śrīmad opposed religious practise that was not authorised by the experience of samyak darśana. To perform religious action, or follow a dress code, for traditional, rather than soteriological reasons was pointless. He criticised practise that was, in his opinion, soteriologically ineffective, but which had been legitimised by sectarian traditions. Religious practise had to be effective, not for effect.
In response to this an anti-sectarian ethic permeates the Srimad Rājacandra movement. Śrīmad's followers perform pūjā in either Digambara or svetambara temples because it is the effect of the ritual that is important, not the appearance of the image (in practise a devotee may have a personal preference but this is not a religious dictate). In dedication to Srimad's anti-sectarianism, Lallu had a Digambara and Svetāmbara temple, and a Sthānakavāsī prayer hall installed in the dedicated āśram which he founded at Agās. Gurus within the Srimad Rājacandra movement are not identified by an external sign, but their disciples recognise them by their behaviour, which they regard as the example of someone who is self-realised.
Srimad was not opposed to monasticism, he wanted to take dikşā, but died before he had the opportunity. However, his anti-sectarianism has caused a climate of aversion to monastic systems amongst the śrīmad Rājacandra movement, because members equate monasticism with sectarianism. Śrīmad's uninitiated state is also problematic. An initiated mendicant would not be permitted to worship śrīmad because he was a householder. This in itself prohibits śrīmad's followers from taking dīksā. Jainism has historically invested considerable effort in incorporating its laity within its social organisation. As a modern development, the Srimad Rājacandra movement has pushed this to its limit and become a lay organisation without monastic supervision.
Guru Bhakti
Srimad teaches that the safest, most direct route to samyak darśana is guru bhakti. The aspirant offers absolute devotion to a living preceptor who guides the aspirant's religious

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progress. The un-self-realised aspirant is ignorant so cannot fully benefit from religious practise without the direction of a true guru. Śrīmad distinguishes between 'true' and 'false' gurus. A true guru has experienced samyak darśana, which, as discussed, is the root of religious authority according to his criteria. Only a true guru has the necessary knowledge and experience to effectively guide an aspirant towards samyak darśana. Śrīmad also warns that 'false' gurus, those who have not experienced samyak darśana, will devastate an aspirant's religious progression. If a true guru is not available to the aspirant, scriptural study, especially that pertaing to the nature of the soul, is recommened. This will help to prepare the aspirant for a future encounter with a guru.
The interpretation of Śrīmad's religious instruction of guru bhakti has fundamentally influenced the social organisation of the Śrīmad Rajacandra movement. When Śrīmad was alive, he was the guru around whom his followers were consolidated. Since his death followers have divided into two distinct groups: those who worship Śrīmad only and do not follow a living guru, and those who devote themselves to a living guru as well as to Śrīmad. The division occurs according to the followers' belief in the availability of a living guru. Some do not believe in the current existence of a true guru according to Śrīmad's criteria. Some followers do, and devote themselves to a living guru. They believe wholeheartedly that their guru has achieved samyak darśana and will assist them in their attempt to reach the same goal. A living guru is described as 'pratyakṣa', meaning 'perceptible' in the sense of something or someone being present.
Followers who cannot accept the idea of a pratyakṣa (present, living) guru follow Śrīmad only as a parokṣa guru. 'Parokṣa' means indirect or not living. Śrīmad makes these distinctions in the Atmasiddhi verse eleven, where he describes the present true guru as 'pratyakṣa' and the non-present Jina as 'parokṣa'. Since his death, Śrīmad has become a parokṣa guru to his followers. Some state that, although he is no longer alive, Śrīmad is accessible to them through his image and writings. His writings are regarded as scripture, so by studying them followers

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are also obeying his religious instruction. Disciples following a pratyaksa guru hold their living guru, alongside śrīmad, as the object of their devotion. The guru gives religious instruction which the disciples obediently follow, trusting that their guru will direct them towards samyak darśana. Followers who are not devoted to a living guru are not subjected to the discipline and religious instruction of a living guru, so belief and practise is based on the personal interpretation and application of śrīmad's teachings. Srimad's followers may be categorised as following either a pratyaksa or a parokşa guru, and this division is a major dichotomy in the social organisation of this movement.
It has been stated that a true guru is identified by their experience of samyak darśana. Śrīmad's self-realised status is not questioned because this is the basis of his followers' devotion to him, but how are other gurus within the movement authenticated? One method is guru lineage. It is believed that one self-realised person can accurately recognise another, so succession is a sure way for followers to know that a guru is true. An example of this is śrīmad's disciple Lallu, and Lallu's disciple and appointed successor Brahmacārī Govardhandās. However, authority through guru lineage is limited within the movement by śrīmad's lack of surviving disciples. Lallu was Srimad's only disciple who lived long enough to establish a guru lineage. This may explain why photographs of Lallu are so often found alongside photographs of Srimad.
Lallu founded the dedicated āśram and community at Agās approximately twenty years after Srimad's death. Initially this community followed a pratyakşa guru, first Lallu, then Brahmacārī Govardhandās. When Govardhandās died without nominating a successor the community at Agās stated that he was the last person of this cosmic era capable of attaining self-realisation. This altered their position from following a pratyakşa guru to following a parokşa guru. This amendment highlights the irreplaceable devotion disciples have for their guru. It also elevates the phenomenon of samyak darśana, within this community, to a state of superiority beyond the realms of immediate possibility, reminiscent of the claim that Mahāvīra's disciple Jambū was the last person able to achieve omniscience.
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The effect of proclaiming Brahmacāri Govardhandās as the last person capable of experiencing samyak darśana was to stop a guru lineage originating with śrīmad in its tracks. Agās may have brought guru lineage originating with Srimad to an end, but by publishing śrīmad's writings it created an opening for independent gurus who connect with śrīmad through his teachings. This is vital to the momentum of the movement, but also means that aspirants do not have the guarantee of guru lineage, they have to rely on their discretion to assess the religious authenticity of a guru. For some, recognition and commitment is instant, but for many there is a lengthy period of assessment before an aspirant becomes a disciple of a guru.
Independent gurus sometimes instigate their own lineage. For example Lādakcand Vorã (1903-1997), founder of the dedicated āśram at Sāylā in Gujarāt called Rāj Saubhāg Satsang Mandal, nominated not only his successors, but also their successors. By the time of his death Lādakcand had disciples in India, Kenya, Britain and the USA. His community of followers believe that he enabled some of his disciples to achieve samyak darśana. Prior to his death he appointed two disciples (Nalin Kothārī and Sadguņa Šāh), who he recognised as self-realised, as his successors. These two are now the spiritual heads of Sāylā āśram. Ladakcand Vorā also appointed Nalin Kothārī and Sadguṇa Säh's successors and so the community at Sãylā has its guru lineage preserved through the culture of nominating immediate and future successors. This custom protects the guru lineage for generations to come.
Dr Rakeś Jhaverī, now in his mid-thirties, is a guru based in Mumbai who has a following of several thousand disciples in India and abroad. I asked him how he had become a guru. He described a gradual process to me, a process during which he did not promote himself in the role of a guru. People were attracted to him because of the religious qualities he displayed. This was confirmed by Dr Jhaveri's long-term disciples. Since childhood he had shown profound religious insight and intellectual precocity. By 1978 a small group had gathered to listen to Dr Jhaveri's religious discourses and to perform bhakti towards Śrīmad. The group continued to grow in number and by

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1980 people started calling Dr Jhaverī 'guru', although he discouraged them at this time.
After finishing school, Dr Jhaverī spent two years in South India, returning to Mumbai in 1985. During the period between 1985 and 1990 the group, which we may now describe as his followers, grew to about five hundred in number, increasing to three thousand by 1997. By this time the centre, which I described towards the beginning of this paper, had been established to accommodate up to four hundred followers meeting for daily bhakti. At a separate venue about three thousand attend Dr Jhaverī's fortnightly satsang.
When I met Dr Jhaverī in January 2000 there were twenty-seven centres of disciples, five in America, one in Antwerp, one in Nairobi and the rest in India. Video and cassette recordings and transcripts of Dr Jhaverī's lectures are posted promptly to disciples who are unable to attend them. From a small group of people sharing bhakti has developed a large, highly organised community of followers who look to Dr Jhaveri as their pratyaksa guru, and through him to Srimad, who he regards as his guru.
One thing that is typical about this example is the way in which Dr Jhavenī's status as a guru was gradually established. The original, small gathering of followers expanded into an extensive, and still growing, community of disciples. Gurus are not self appointed. It appears that guru status in the Srimad Rājacandra movement can occur in two ways. Either as part of an established lineage, or by the interest shown towards someone who displays particular religious and charismatic qualities. Authenticity of the first is secured by guru lineage, authenticity of the second is assessed on a individual basis, by people who are attracted to the guru. If they reach the belief that the guru is authentic they go on to become a disciple and hence enforce their guru's guru status. It should also be noted that the guru receives no soteriological gain from being worshipped, but the benefit is reaped by the disciple.
Some gurus establish aśram communities. (Although not all āśrams are associated with gurus, and not all gurus operate through aśrams). An aśram provides a venue for concentrated

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numbers of followers to congregate in a social environment of religious discipline. It is a place where aspirants' religious practises are insulated from the distractions of normal society. Importantly, it offers disciples the opportunity to benefit from a more intimate relationship with their guru by sharing a closer proximity. Residents may be either permanent or temporary, an āśram offers temporary residents a sanctuary of spiritual rejuvenation.
For example I know of one retired couple living in London who spend four months every winter at their guru's āśram at Kobā. Residents may be retired people who have already raised a family, or younger people who have chosen, with their guru's approval, to remain unmarried. The daily programme of the āśram at Kobā, is representative of āśram activities within the Srimad Rājacandra movement:
5 am wake-up bell, 5.30-6.45 bhakti dedicated to Śrīmad, 7.30-8.00 breakfast, 8.45-9.45 pūjā dedicated in rotation to each of the Tirthankaras, 10.00-10.45 svādhyāya (religious/scriptural instruction) given by either by Atmānand (the guru) or a senior disciple, 12.00 lunch, 13.00-15.00 free period and tea break, 16.00-16.45 group readings of Jain scripture and śrīmad's writings, 16.45-17.15 meditation, 17.30-17.45 dinner before sunset (because eating is not permitted after dark), 18.00 opportunity for a more informal discussion with the guru during an evening walk outside the boundaries of the aśram, 19.15-19.30 ārati in the āśramos temple, 19.45-20.15 meditation, 20.15-21.15 bhakti dedicated to śrīmad.
Residents and visitors are expected to attend a minimum of four religious events daily, ātmānand's svādhyāya and at least one bhakti are compulsory.
By preaching guru bhakti śrīmad ensured the continuation of his tradition through the succession of living gurus that look to him as their authority and by the disciples who are attracted to these gurus. The śrīmad Räjacandra
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movement differs from most other Jain groups because its gurus, including śrīmad, are not initiated ascetics. Independent gurus have lead to independent pockets of administration. Disciples of living gurus form collections of guru-centred communities with their guru, alongside śrīmad, as the object of devotion. Each community is a discrete, autonomous group and disciples are subject to the authority of their guru only, not to a broader administrative body. Devotees who have chosen not to follow a living guru are either individual followers, or grouped into a community (for example the community of followers at Agās Āśram). Communities are not required to interact, although groups show mutual courtesy and respect towards each other.
There is no uniform initiation ritual required to gain entry to the movement as a whole, although some communities have their own initiation procedures. People, either as individual followers or independent communities, are members of the śrīmad Rājacandra movement because they are devoted to śrīmad. They follow his philosophy and religious instruction, which includes a commitment to guru bhakti, however it is implemented. A follower can be excluded from an independent community. For example, a dissenter can be evicted for failing to keep the rules of the aśram, but cannot be excluded from the Śrīmad Rājacandra movement, because belief in Srimad is the criterion for inclusion.
Each individual follower and independent community is a constituent part of the movement. The organisational structure of the movement is a pattem of how these constituent parts are arranged in relation to each other. The implementation of guru bhakti by Śrīmad's followers has influenced the fragmented social structure of the śrīmad Rājacandra movement, which consists of individual followers and independent groups of followers, some of whom are organised around a living guru.
CONCLUSION
The śrīmad Rājacandra movement is an ideological movement without a central administration. Membership is defined by devotion to śrīmad. This devotion is the ideology which unites followers of Srimad and consolidates them into a
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movement. It is expressed by the members' belief in śrīmad's philosophical teachings and religious instructions. Soteriology is central to śrīmad's teachings. The crucial first step to mokṣa is samyak darśana, interpreted by him as a personal experience of one's own soul. This experience is the immediate goal of the majority of his followers.
śrīmad was, unconventionally within Jainism, a lay person and a guru. This lack of an institutional endorsement of his religious status during his lifetime has allowed his followers a certain amount of freedom in their social organisation. Srimad died when he was still a young man. However, as an object of veneration, he has become accessible to a greater number of followers in death than in life, due to the distribution of his image and his writings. These are distinctive, material features of the Srimad Rājacandra movement. His following has been extended further by living gurus and their disciples, who are inspired by śrīmad. However, the movement is divided by the implementation of guru bhakti, which was śrīmad's principal religious instruction. Some followers offer their devotion to a living guru, whilst others confine their devotion to śrīmad. All these factors have contributed to śrīmad Rājacandra movement developing with a fragmented organisational structure, in the form of a network of autonomous communities and individual followers. In summary the śrīmad Rājacandra movement is unified by ideology but diverse in its social organisation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY]
Cort, J. E.
1991. "The Śvetambar Mūrtipūjak Jain Mendicant." Man (NS) 26, pp. 651-671.
Dundas, P.
1992. The Jains. London: Routledge.
Gandhi, M.
1940. The Story of My Experiments with Truth. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Press (first published 1927). 1944. Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Vol 32. New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (first published 1969).

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Govardhandas, Brahmachari
1991. Jeevankala. Translated by Shrimad Rajchandra Prabhavak Trust.
D.M.
Patel.
Banalore:
Jaini, Padmanabh S.
1998. The Jaina Path of Purification, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (first published 1979).
Kumarpal, Desai
2000. A Pinnacle Satsang Mandal.
of
Spirituality.
Sayla: Shree Raj Saubhag
Mehta, D.C.
1978. Self Realisation. (An English translation of śrīmad Rājacandra's Atma Siddhi.) Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
Pungaliya, U.K.
1996. Philosophy and Spirituality Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy.
of
Srimad
Rajchandra.
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Jinamasjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
AMŪLYA TATTVA VICĀRA AN EARLY POEM BY ŚRĪMAD
RĀJACANDRA
Vinod Kapashi
The cardinal Jaina principle of non-violence (ahimsā) was made popular by Mahātmā Gāndhī using this as his weapon of non-coperation to free India from the shackles of foreign rulers. However, the essence of Jain philosophy lies in the realisation of the soul and the path leading to mokşa. This can be achieved by following the path of renunciation. Renunciation of not just material objects or feelings of pleasure derived from them, but renunciation of worldly relations too. A renouncer is indifferent in his thinking about what the pleasures and pains, losses and gains in his life are. He neither cares for praises nor is he disturbed by any criticisms. He sees himself as the true self (ātmā) which is unsullied by any external forces and external feelings. This philosophy unfolds in a short poem by Srimad Rājacandra (1867-1901) which was composed when he was merely 16 years old.
Rājacandra or just Śrimad as he is usually refered to, is now considered not only as a great philosopher of the last century but as a great poet too. He was a guide and a guru of Mahātmā Gāndhī. His poem Amulya Tattva Vicāra is to be found in a book called Mokşamālā, which he wrote in 1883. The book was first published in 1887 from a printing press in Morvi in the state of Gujarāt. Srimad writes in the preface of the book that it is written to explain the philosophy of Jainism to young people and to prevent them being corrupted by false ideals. The book contains 108 short chapters or lessons. Srimad perhaps chose
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108 as the total number of lessons in the book because rosaries contain 108 beads and he may have thought that the chapters in this book are like beads on a rosary. The book itself has been considered an outstanding one by his followers and by others who appreciate good, philosophical poetry.
Mokṣamālā's 108 short but instructive lessons illustrate his thinking and interpretation about the path of renunciation and equanimity. The book tries to illustrated the validity and truthfulness of the principles taught by the enlightened beings, or tirthankaras.
Śrīmad Rājacandra writes in the preface of the book, "I am compiling this book as per the sayings of the one who are free from all bondages (nirgrantha). The book contains some element of divine to arouse desire to learn more about the tattvas. On constant and concentrated contemplation, the Mokṣamālā is bound to lead them to liberation." He then says: "Contemplate for a few minutes (half a ghaḍ)) after reading the lessons and then ask your inner self a question: What have you really understood and grasped? What is worth abandoning, what is worth knowing, and worth keeping. The real significance of the whole book will then be understood, the power of thinking will be developed and faith will be established in the essence of Jain philosophy (tattvas)."2
The subject matter of our discussion here is the poem Amulya Tattva Vicāra, the lesson No. 67 of the book Mokṣamālā. The original lesson No. 67 was written in prose but was smudged by an accidental spillage of ink. Śrīmad then decided to write something new in the form of verses and composed this poem. He named it as the Amulya Tattva Vicāra, or the 'thought of a priceless philosophy'. The root of the poem can be traced to Śrīmad's early writings. Śrīmad had written a few poems, articles and handnotes before writing the Mokṣamālā. His boyhood thinking and especially his thinking about renunciation can be traced to these writings. One such piece is an article called Puṣpamālā, a small collection of 108 thoughts written before he wrote the Mokṣamālā. In this collection we can trace the roots of the poem Amulya Tattva Vicāra. Śrīmad writes in the said article: "Endless time has elapsed, second after second is

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passing, but there is no achievement (liberation)."3 This thinking is the same as the very first line of the poem we are discussing here. In this same article Śrīmad also states, "Even if you are happy, because you have a wife, children, family, wealth, etc., this happiness does contain some misery. Think about this, and start your day with this consideration."4. This idea has been again put forward by Śrīmad in the Amulya Tattva Vicāra. Another example of similar thinking can be observed in a piece of writing consisting of 125 handnotes (hasta nomdh). This small collection of 125 instructions named Bodhavacana was also written before Amulya Tattva Vicāra. Here, Śrīmad says in handnote No. 94: "Where did I come from? Where will I go? What bondages have I? How can these bondages be broken? How can I release myself? These sentences should be kept in memory".5 This line of thinking is same as in the Amulya Tattva Vicăra.
Śrīmad starts the poem by stating a fundamental point of Jain karma theory, that we have realised this beautiful human form only after the accumulation of meritorious deeds (punya). But then alas! Not a single turn of this endless cycle of rebirths has been reduced. It is believed in classical Jainism that human birth is only possible for those living beings who do good deeds or punya. This is the theory of cause and effect. On the one hand, one receives the reward for doing good deeds and, on the other hand, one receives the punishment for doing bad deeds. To be born as a human being is a result of good karmas. The price paid and the sufferings undergone by the soul for achieving the birth as a human being is immeasurable. This point has been explained by Śrimad to stress the importance of the value of human birth. In the first verse, he says, please bear in mind that real happiness is destroyed when he strives for the material happiness. Why live in astate of feelings of fear of death (bhāva-maraṇa), which arises due to the accumulation of karmas. Śrīmad emphasizes that we get an opportunity of utilising our abilities and to realise our own pure self only in the human birth. Therefore, we must put in every effort for perfect liberation of the self, i.e. to attain mokṣa. Śrīmad has suggested the same in lesson No. 4 of the Mokṣamālā. The whole lesson

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deals with human birth and how difficult it is to obtain it. Śrīmad says, this human form can not be obtained very very easily. It can be achieved through the accumulation of good deeds only. Therefore one must hurry and try to realise one's own self. The Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, one of the scriptures of Svetāmbara sect of the Jains mentions four states, which are most difficult to achieve.
1. It is rare to obtain human birth. 2. After obtaining human birth, it is difficult to obtain or grasp the teachings of the great benefactor saints, 3. It is also very difficult to have faith in the teachings. 4. Finally, it is again extremely difficult to make proper efforts to follow those teachings and to adopt the religious discipline advised therein.
śrīmad wants us to know the true meaning and the true value of human life. Once this is understood, he presumes, one would not waste a single moment of one's life in futile activities. It is possible, however, to get rid of all karmas and to detach one's own soul by engaging in meritorious deeds. This way, one can make a steady progress in one's efforts of obtaining absolute knowledge of the soul. Śrīmad regretfully says in the very first verse that although one has achieved the birth as a human being, one is not able to free oneself from the bondage of the cycle of birth and rebirth. According to the karma theory, every soul goes round and round in the cycle of life and death, passing through four types of beings: hellish, animal, human and divine until it achieves mokşa, or the final liberation from this cycle of births and rebirths.
śrīmad asks a direct question in the second verse: "Tell me what has really been gained with the expansion of wealth and power? And take heed, what is achieved by expanding the family ? Real gain in the ocean of life (samsāra) lies in loosing the human form." But Alas!" Śrímad again regretfully says, "This thought never occurred to you for a single momentin The above point forms the basis of Jain philosophy. One of the five

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precepts of Jainism is the principle of Non-possessiveness (aparigraha), or gradual renunciation of material pleasures and accumulations. One only increases one's karmas by acquiring wealth and authority or a large family, and thereby misses the precious opportunity to do some good for the liberation of one's soul. We usually do not think about such things and are deeply immersed in the material world and its pleasures (or pains), but Śrīmad advises us to detach ourselves for a moment and think about the futility of material gains. This point is explained by śrīmad in lesson No. 65 of this same book.
No one would deny the value of joy and happiness but it has to come from a moral source that is pure and innocent. He explained in the poem: You can derive guiltless happiness and pure joy from any source available to you but the end result of this joyful state should be the freedom of the all-powerful and divine soul within, which is bound by the karmic particles. This is not the true nature or abode of the soul. And while the soul remains bound by the external karmic bondage a person cannot differentiate between true and false. It cannot realise the lasting and true happiness either. Any feelings of happiness, if followed by unhappiness afterwards, is not real happiness. The question then would be: How can one get real and lasting happiness?
Srimad Rājacandra tries to explain how one can distinguish between real and illusory happiness and advises that one must try to obtain it by studying the scriptures. Only in this way can one's soul secure freedom from the deadly fetters and can enjoy perfect happiness and perfect joy. Śrīmad says that he pitied those who can not distinguish between what is and what is not in one's own nature and one's own 'possession'. One is always confused and takes for granted that all worldly thoughts, possessions and relations are one's own, but as far as the self is concerned these things are purely 'external'. This is not the nature of the true and pure self. A pure self has no such attachments. But we are confused and believe that those external things belong to our true nature.
śrīmad then takes us to another set of questions. They require deep thinking before any answers are provided. The questions are: Who am I ? Where did I come from? What is my
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real identity or form? To whom I am bound by worldly relations? Shall I keep or abandon them? If one contemplates these questions with peacefulness of mind, according to śrīmad, all the principles of self-knowledge are as good as experienced. śrīmad first told us what deserves to be abandoned but now he asks us to think about what deserves to be accepted and adopted. This forms his real and invaluable philosophical contribution. (1) Ask yourself, who am I and try to find the correct answer after thinking about and then eliminating the wrong answers. The correct answer is that you are a pure self. (2) Ask how are you born? Realise that you are eternal, you are not born at all, only your body is born. You are beginningless and endless and so you are eternal. (3) Ask what is your pure form? The answer is that you are a pure soul and that this body is not yours. (4) Ask why are there attachments and bondages? Here think of your actions and worldly ties with your kith and kin. (5) Ask whether you should keep these adjuncts or abandon them for ever? Here, think of the means to liberate the soul from its fetters. śrīmad advises us to think about these questions with a peaceful mind. Only then, he says, one can experience the philosophical truth of self-knowledge. 10
In the final and fifth verse Śrīmad asks us: "Whose words are to be taken as absolutely true to achieve this (self-knowledge)?" He immediately answers by saying, "Believe the saying of an innocent person who has experienced 'that. Oh your self ! Your self ! Recognise it quickly. See all souls as equals. Write this word in your heart." All the answers relating to the above mentioned questions should be properly reflected upon as they are not easily understood and form a part of deep spiritual thinking. Śrīmad therefore advises us to write these down in our hearts. He writes in letter No. 89, "At the young age of 22, I have experienced much about the the nature of the soul, mind, speech, body and wealth. I have experienced many kinds of worldly ups and downs, many kinds of waves of this ocean of existence and the causes of interminable misery. ... I had no attachment towards wearing clothes, keeping clean, eating and drinking or comfortable beds and seatings. From the age of seven to eleven, I devoted myself to study ... At that time I

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remembered all what I once saw or read but I did not care for fame. My mind was filled with love and straightforward affection."12 The teaching of saintly persons is to be believed and followed. Only then can one realise one's self or ātmā. What does a true guru or preceptor say? If a person realises that all selves are equal, then that person will not be attached to love and hate. Every person who realises his own self will easily recognise similar selves in all living beings. Then there will not remain any love or hate, attachment or aversion.
Srimad advises all readers to keep this saying engraved on their heart so that it can never be forgotten or lost. According to Srimad, one should believe the sayings of a self-realised preceptor only. The whole poem reflects Srimad's attitude towards life and all that surrounds it. He is indifferent to feelings of pain and pleasure, indifferent to worldly gains and losses and behaves with equanimity towards all. This is his total renunciation. Renouncing the ego was not enough for śrīmad, he went further than that and abandoned all interest in the material world. He did work as a jeweller, but managed to maintain his spirituality. His indifference can best be compared to a lotus flower which grows in and is surrounded by muddy water but remains unstained and clean.
Srimad's early thinking and his interpretation of Jain philosophy is explained in a concise manner in this poem. Śrīmad's writings have gained more popularity in recent years and the number of his followers are increasing. It is true to say that most of his followers are Gujarāti speaking people, because Srimad's writings and indeed the poem Amulya Tattva Vicăra is also written in the Gujarāti language. This is perhaps one reason why Śrīmad Rājacandra is more famous amongst Gujarātī speaking people. However, it is fair to say that his style of explaining the philosphy of ātmā, samsāra and karma in a form of verse which can be sung in any congregation is the reason behind the popularity of such poems. This poem is usually sung in a melodious way, which itself helps to create a certain 'religious' atmosphere. Most ordinary people who do not understand the high language of śrīmad's writings, are attracted to his poems such as the Amulya Tattva Vicāra and the

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Armasiddhi Sāśtra. They sing poems with great ease and deep devotion and resort to a path of bhakti rather than the difficult path of attaining enlightenment through knowledge. The other reason for the popularity and importance of this poem lies in the fact that śrīmad himself had lived his life in the manner and spirit described in this poem. He did not care for his physical well being and perhaps that is the reason he suffered from incurable disease and died when he was only 33 years old.
THE POEM IN ITS ORIGINAL FORM WITH TRANSLATION
It is hard to find English translations of this poem. Dr. Saryu Mehta's book Shrimad Rajchandra, A Great Seer provides a translation on page No. 146. Another translation by J. L. Jaini, which can be seen on the Internet, is not literal and resembles more explanatory notes rather than a translation. Here is the original version with my own attempt at a translation.
bahu punya keră punja thi śubha deha mänava no malyo; toye are! bhava-cakra no āňto nahi ekke ţalyo; sukha prāpta kartam sukha tale che leśa e lakse laho, kşaņa kșana bhayankara bhāva-marane kim aho rācī raho? (1)
This auspicious human body has been realised after doing many meritorious deeds (in previous lives), but alas not a single turn of the cycle (of birth and rebirth) is reduced. Bear in mind that (real) happiness goes away on achieving (material) happiness. Why then are you engulfed inthe terrible mental death every moment? (1)
lakşmi ane adhikära vadhatām, śum vadhyum te to kaho? śum kuoumba ke parivära thi vadhavāpaņum, e naya graho; vadhavāpaņum samsāranum nara deha ne hārī javo, eno vicāra nahīm ahoho! eka pala tama ne havo! (2)
Tell me what has really been gained with the expansion of wealth and power? And take heed, what is achieved by expanding the family ? Real gain in the ocean of life (samsāra) lies in loosing the

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human form,ut this thought never occurred to you for a single moment! (2)
nirdosa sukha nirdoņa ānanda, lyo game tyām thi bhale, e divya Śaktimāna jethi jaijire thi nikale; paravastu mām nahi mūñjhavo, eni dayā mujane rahi, e tygavā siddhānta ke paícat dukha te sukha nahīm (3)
You can derive innocent happiness and joy from whatever source (you like) so that the divine and powerful (soul) will be released from its fetters. Do not be confused by what is not yours. I feel sympathy with you. This view is to be abandoned. If unhappiness follows (so called) happiness) then this was not (real) happiness. (3)
hum koņa chum? kyāmthi thayo? śum svarūp che mārum kharum? kona sambandhe valagaņā che? rākhum ke e paraharum? ena vicära vivekapūrvaka santa bhāve jo karya, to sarva ātmika jñānanām siddhānta tattva anubhavyäm. (4)
Who am I ? Where I am coming from? What is my real form? To whom I am bound by relationships? Shall I keep them or abandon them? If you have thought about this calmly and with balanced mind, then only you have experienced the doctrinal essence of all self-knowledge. (4)
te prāpta karavā vacana konum satya kevala mānavum? nirdosa naranum kathana māno 'teha' jene anabhavyum; re! ātma tāro! ātma tāro! śīghra ene olakho, sarvātma māņ samadrstī dhyo ā vacana ne hsdaye lakho. (5)
Whose words are to be taken as absolutely true to achieve this (self-knowledge)? Believe the saying of an innocent person who has experienced 'that'. Oh your self ! Your self ! Recognise it quickly. See all souls as equals. Write this word in your heart. (5)

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ENDNOTES
1. nirgrantha pravacan ne anukül thai svalpatā thi ā grantha ... a grantha tattva pärvāni jijñāsā utpannakari sake erum emam ... daivat rahyum che. SR 17, Mokşamālā, Upodghāt, p. 57f.
2. Ibid., p. 58.
3. kșana kşaņa jatām ananta kāl vyatīt thayo, chatām siddhi thai nahim... SR 2.4, p. 3.
4. strī, putra, kutumb, lakşmi ityādi badhām sukh täre gher hoy to pan e sukhmām gaunatāe dukh rahvum che. SR 4.52, p. 5.
5. 'hum kym thī āvyo?', 'hum kyām jais?', 'sum mane bandhan che?', 'sum karavā thi bandhan jāy?', 'kem chutavum thay?' ā vākyo smrti mām rākhvām. SR 5.94, p. 12.
6. Cf. SR 17.4, p. 60: ... mānavdeh ne bijā saghaļā deh kartām uttam.
sui saờhhā,
7. cattāri param amgåņi dullahāniha jantuno, mänsuttam samjamammi ya viriyam. UtS 3.1, in: Candană 1997: 29.
8. SR 17.67.2, p. 107.
9. Lakşmi, strī, putra ke kuțumb e vade sukha nathi.... SR 65.5, p. 105.
10. Cf. http://members.nbci.com/rajchandra/Mokshamalabook3.htm.
11. SR 17.67.5, p. 107.
12. bāvis varsa ni alpa vaya mām mem anek ranga ātmā sambandha mām, mana sambandha mām, vacana sambandha mām, tana sambandha mām, ane dhana sambandha mām, dithā che nänā prakara ni srsti racană, nānā prakāra nå samsāri mojām, ananta duhkh num mül, e badhām no anek prakāre mane anubhav thayo che ... vastra paheravā nī, svaccha räkhvā nī, khāvāpīvā nī, sīvābesavā nī, badhi videhī dašā hati ... sát varsa thi agiyāra varsa sudhi no
i mám hato.... te kale niraparadhi smrti hoväthi ekaj var path num avalokan karavum padatum hatum; chatām khyāti no hetu nahoto, ... te veļā prīti - saraļ vātsalyatā - mārā mām bahu hatī; ... SR 89, p. 203f.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Candanā, Ācāryā Sādhvī. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra. Original with Hindi Translation. Agra: Sanmati Gyan Peeth, Jain Bhavan, 1997.

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Mehta, Saryu. Shrimad Rajchandra - A Great Seer. Published by Rajibhai Desai, Agas: Shrimad Rajchandra Ashram, 1971.
Śrīmad Rajcandra. Published by RavjibhāÌ Desal. Agās: Śrīmad Rajacandra Aśram, (1951) 1976.
SR
=
Uttarādhyayana Sñtra. Translated by Hermann Jacobi. Delhi: Motilal (1884) 1989.
UtS = Banarasidas
Internet sites:
>
http://members.nbci.com/_XMCM/rajchandra
http://members.nbci.com/rajchandra/Mokshamalabook3.htm

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Jinamañjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
RAJACHANDRA AND HIS INFLUENCE ON MAHATMA GANDHI
Dr. Jagmoban Humar Carleton University Ottawa, Canada
The life of Mahatma Gandhi and his message have left an indelible mark on our civilisation. In fact, there are few others whose life has been so closely scrutinized, analysed and reported on. Many question the relevance of his message in the modem world, but if one reflects on the causes of violence, bigotry and intolerance that pervade our society, and for the moral decadence and degeneration that is taking hold of our civilisation, one soon realises that the message of Gandhi has never been more relevant than in the present.
Throughout his life Gandhi dedicated himself to the exploration of truth. He sought it in the writings, and the experience of thinkers, and in their many religious beliefs. Hinduism had a marked influence on his thinking and his action. It is also well known that he drew a great deal of inspiration from the Gita. What is perhaps not as well known is that Jainism, its principles and its philosophy, made an equally profound impression on him.
Gandhi was born and lived in Gujarat where the Jaina tradition still has a pervading influence. However, his first real exposure to Jaina religious thought came in 189 1. In the month of June that year Gandhi returned to India after having spent three years in England earning his law degree. On arriving at the Bombay docks, Gandhi was met by his brother Lakshmandas. It was then that Gandhi learned that while he was in England his beloved mother had passed away. he was told that the news had been kept from him to spare him the sorrow.

Gandhi was grief-stricken. It was at such a sombre time that his friend Dr. P.J. Mehta, with whom he was staying in Bombay, introduced Gandhi to a person who could provide him with solace and spiritual sustenance. This person was Raichandbhai, also called
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Rajacandra, who was about the same age as Gandhi and was a very successful dealer of gems. He had a sharp intellect and a prodigious memory. In fact, he was reputed to be a shatavadhami; that is, someone who could attend to a hundred things at the same time. On learning of Raichand's special talent, Gandhi, with some trace of vanity in his English education, challenged Raichand to take a test. Gandhi compiled a list of words that he knew from various European languages and recited the list just once. Without a moment of hesitation, Raichand repeated the words exactly in the order in which Gandhi had recited.
As Gandhi came to know Raichand better, he discovered other special and unique attributes that this spiritual person. The sharp intellect of Raichand, his brilliant mind and prodigious memory alone could have easily inspired respect, but it was his deep spirituality that most inspired Gandhi. Raichand, himself a Jain, had a profound knowledge of not only the Jaina scriptures but also Veda, the Gita and the Bhagwat Purana. In addition, he had studied Christianity, Buddhism and Islam. He had a deep rooted respect for all religions. This is reflected in a letter by Rajacandra to Gandhi in which he wrote, "The Jaina system of thought does not insist on conformity to any formal religious dogma or creed and only sets forth an ideal, the ideal of the Jina, the one who conquered the self."
Although a person of great business acumen and a connoisseur of gems, Raichandbhai was truthful and honest to a fault. He was simple in his habits with a rare sense of detachment, serenity and contentment. He reflected an aura of purity and his voice had an unmatchable charm. His self-discipline, dignity and striving for spiritual perfection made a lasting impression on Gandhi. The life of Raichand has continued to inspire his many followers.
Gandhi's meeting with Raichandbhai was the beginning of a long association, but ended with the premature death of Raichånd at the young age of thirty-three. During the two years he spent in India before moving to South Africa, Gandhi eagerly sought the company of Raichand, not only to find a certain sense of fulfilment in his spirituality but also to leam from him the uplifting message of Jaina thought and religion. On moving to South Africa, Gandhi continued regular correspondence with Raichand who, from time to time, sent Gandhi books to read on religious thought.
Perhaps Gandhi's greatest assets was his open-mindedness and his constant struggle to find truth. These virtues propelled him towards Raichandbhai and helped him imbibe much of the distilled wisdom of this person and his singular qualities. On his association with

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Raichand, Gandhi once wrote:
During my life I have tried to meet the heads of various faiths, but I must say that no one else has ever made an impression on me that Raichandbhai did. In my moments of spiritual crisis, he was my refuge.
Gandhi bracketed Raichand with Tolstoy and Ruskin as the three persons who most influenced him. In his autobiography he wrote:
Three moderns have left a deep impression on my life and captivated me, Raichandbhai by his living contact, Tolstoy by his book, "The Kingdom of God is within You" and Ruskin by his "Unto the Last'.
The Jaina religious philosophy, its theory of knowledge and the Jaina path all made a profound impression on Gandhi and moulded his actions in life. In order to appreciate these influences let us take a brief look at the Jaina principle.
In accordance with the Jaina philosophy, the universe is eternal, everlasting and uncreated without a beginning or an end. There is no creator or supreme being. The cosmic constituents are the animate and the inanimate. The animate comprise an infinite number of souls. The true nature of the soul is that of eternal bliss and beatitude. When the soul is liberated it attains its true nature. If being liberated is being divine, the divinity is inherent in all of us, in all life forms, irrespective of whether it is animal or human. In its mundane existence the soul is attached to the body by the karmic bonds that arise from its passions and emotion. We can detach our soul from these bonding passions through our own effort, not through the intervention of any external entity or Supreme Being. In fact, the closest thing to a divine entity in the Jain religion is the siddha, or liberated soul. By definition, such a divine entity is vitaraga; that is, free of all attachment and aversion. He does not meddle in the affairs of the world. He does not reward anyone with prosperity or happiness when pleased, or punish them when offended. This dual concept of the oneness of life and self-reliance for achieving salvation is the foundation of Jaina philosophy.
It was in conjunction with the Jaina philosophy that Gandhi acquired his belief that knowledge was the intrinsic property of the soul or atman. In it pristine condition the soul was pure knowledge

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and pure intuition. The purity of the soul and its knowledge was only obscured by the impediments of the passions and emotion. Gandhi believed the Jaina thought that a person whose mind was undisturbed by the sense's storms and was completely emptied of attachment, developed an unerring intuition. All of the foregoing may sound academic and abstract, but on this philosophy are based the most profound of Jaina contributions to human thought and human action.
Let us first deal with the Jaina contribution to human thought that guided Gandhi's entire life actions. This is the concept of anekantavada, or pluralism. It is a concept which recognises that reality is manifold, highly complex and pluralistic. Our view of reality is but one aspect of it, based on our own beliefs and experiences. There may exist other views and other experiences. The whole truth is a synthesis of these experiences. Therefore, truth is relative. It may appear to be different from different perspectives and different standpoints. To an observer in a moving train, the trees appear to be moving in the opposite direction. To one outside the train, they are stationary. Because of this relativity of truth, the concept of anekantavada is also known as syadvada, or the notion of may be.
The idea of anekantavada is very well illustrated by a Jaina parable of six blind men and the elephant. They all touched the elephant and then tried to describe their perception of the elephant. The one who felt its side believed it to be like a wall, the one who touched the leg thought it was like a pillar, the one who touched the ear thought it was like a fan, the one who touched the trunk said it was like the branch of a tree, the one who held the tail said it was like a thick rope and the one who touched the tusk said it had the shape of a spear. They quarrelled with each other until a man who could see passed by and pointed out that each of them was right, but that their own experience was but one aspect of the whole reality. The truth, in fact, was the synthesis of their individual experiences.
The idea of anekantavada is Jainism's greatest contribution to human thought. It fosters tolerance, respect for another point of view and a healthy spirit of sympathetic understanding, reconciliation, cooperation, coexistence, and freedom from cultural regimentation and dogma. For Gandhi, the concept of anekantavada gave rise to an extreme catholicity of views in which it was not sufficient to merely tolerate or accept another religious viewpoint but rather, to approach it with a spirit of understanding, respect and appreciation. Speaking on anekantavada Gandhi once observed:

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I very much like the doctrine of many-sidedness of reality. It is this doctrine that has taught me to judge a Muslim from his own viewpoint and a Christian from his. Formerly, I use to resent the ignorance of my opponents. Today, I can live with them because I am gifted with the eyes to see myself as others see me and vice versa. My anekantavada is the result of the twin doctrines of satya and ahimsa.
It is written throughout the Jain scripture that the path one should follow to realise the true nature of the atman and to free it from the bondage of karma is the path of non-violence, truth, ahimsa and satya. These were the essential pillars that supported the grand edifice of Gandhi's life and merit closer examination.
If anekantavada is Jainism's greatest contribution to human thought, ahimsa or non-violence is its most sublime gift. Jainism recognises the sanctity of all life. This principle is a natural outcome of its philosophy of oneness of life based on the concept that all life is a manifestation of the soul and that the nature of each soul is the same pure, blissful and serene. The Jaina concept of non-violence, which was espoused and practised by Gandhi, is not a mere passive abstention from injury to others, but a positive quality based on love for all. Jaina philosophy is perhaps unique in embracing in the fold of this relationship of love and oneness of life all living beings including non-human beings. The doctrine of non-violence, is defined in Jainism: "it is not an instrument of the weak or the timid, but a path of courage and fortitude. " Gandhi not only demonstrated but lived in this Jaina doctrine of ahimsa.
----
At the core of Gandhi's life was a passion for truth. He equated truth to God. His concept of truth was squarely based on the Jaina principle of anekantavada. Truth for him was relative and manysided. All realities were and are correct. To Gandhi truth and nonviolence were not abstract ideals reserved merely for intellectual discussion, but concepts to be realized in life. The practice of nonviolence translated to love for all beings. Truth was something to be lived so that one practised what one professed. Throughout his life Gandhi strove to achieve this ideal.
Gandhi's unique idea of satyagraha was based on the twin concepts of non-violence and truth. Satyagraha to Gandhi was not coercion, as some suggest, but a vindication of truth through suffering. The satyagrahi had to believe in truth and non-violence. His love had to embrace the opponent because only when such love existed could one suffer willingly so that the opponent could be persuaded to see

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truth from the perspective of the satyagrahi. It is obvious that a true satyagrahi had to have courage and conviction to follow this path.
Just as the Jaina thought of anekantavada and the Jaina ideal of ahimsa influenced Gandhi, so did the Jaina path for the realization of the true nature of atman. The tradition of vows, or vrata is central to the Jaina path to salvation. Gandhi's attachment to this tradition began with the vows he made to his mother prior to his departure for England. The vows were, in fact made in the presence of Jain monk, Becharji Swami, and Gandhi scrupulously adhered to them throughout his stay in England.
The tradition of vows took a deeper meaning for Gandhi following his association with Raichandbhai. To Gandhi, vows were not a formalistic framework but a way of entering more deeply into truth, not simply a renunciation, but a resolution. Vows formed the cornerstones of daily life in Gandhi's asrams and those who lived in these communes soon found that the vows became for them a source of strength, happiness and mewing.
The Jaina path for a layperson embraces the fivefold vows or the panch anuvrata. Anu means minor and the vows are minor only in the sense that they are much less rigorous than those practised by Jaina nuns and monks. The first two of the five vows are ahimsa and satya. The third amvrata is acaurya or non-stealing, a concept which is derived directly from the concepts of truth and non-violence. The fourth anuvrata is chastity or brahmacharya. The word brahmacharya literally means to walk on the Lord's way and implies a complete dedication of the body, mind and soul to the goal. Chastity promotes self-discipline and self- control and helps the seeker to bestow their undivided allegiance to the path of liberation.
In the Jaina code of ethics for the layperson, brahmacharya implies abstention from wanton indulgence in carnal desires.. In his own life, Gandhi aimed at an even higher goal. To him brahmacharya was the essential attribute of a satyagrahi. As he stated in his autobiography:
Without brahmacharya the satyagrahi will have no lustre, no inner strength to stand unarmed against the whole world.... His strength will fall him at the right moment.
The fifth and final anuvrata in the Jaina code of ethics is parigraha parimana or limits on possessions. This Jaina ethic is based on the realization that the very existence of the soul in its mundane, unliberated form entails an association to possessions. It is the

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indulgence in them that breeds avarice and greed and therefore contributes to non-truths and violence. A self-imposed limit on possessions helps free the seeker from these passions and imparts on them a rare sense of tranquillity and contentment. Gandhi's life is a model of the practice of aparigraha.
Gandhi was a doer as much as a thinker. To him the code of ethics that he followed were not merely something to he studied for intellectual curiosity, but a code, that must be put into practice. It was a measure of his inner strength and his absolute integrity and honesty that on those occasions that his self-discipline failed him, he was the first to admit it to both himself and the world and then strive to adhere to his code of ethics with a renewed vigour. The panch anuvrata, along with Gandhi's own vows of love for swadeshi, fearlessness and the elimination of untouchability, became a way of life for all those lived in his asrams. The practice of the vows was not viewed as a deprivation or sacrifice, but a source of strength and joy.
Gandhi's message, inspired by the Jaina tenets of anekantavada, truth, and non-violence, were grounded in the philosophy of the oneness of life and timeless universal love, a message that now more than ever before is so important to understand and put into practice. If we pause to reflect, we find ourselves living in a society burdened with dogma and intolerance, violence and strife, where the perversion of religious passions stalk our civilisation and fan the fires of bigotry, intolerance, bloodshed and war. The tragedy of our civilisation is reflected in the words of child psychiatrist Morris Frazer when he spoke of the legacy of the war in Ireland, "a generation of children who from infancy have lived with fear, have (also] been taught to hate and now aspire to kill."
If we pay heed to the essential message of religion, of the oneness of life and universal love, how is it that some in the name of religion have inspired violence and hatred? They have forgotten what Gandhi discovered through Rajachandra and the Jaina tradition, the principle of anekantavada.
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Jinamañjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
BOOK REVIEW
The Universe as Audience: Metaphor and Community among the Jains of North India. By Ravindra K. Jain. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1999. pp. 122. ISBN: 81-85952-64-7
The title of this interesting anthropological study of North Indian Digambara Jains alludes to the metaphor of the samavasarana, the legendary assembly surrounding the Jain Tirthankaras, which informed the volume The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society (Cambridge University Press, 1991) edited by Michael Carrithers and Caroline Humphrey. In their position paper 'Jains as a community, Carrithers and Humphrey had recognised that "India is not just a society of castes or of classes, but also a society of communities". Without mentioning the problems of communalism in India at all, maybe politically naive, they argued that the Jains should be studied as a (imagined) community (which they define in quasi-ethnic terms) that is "not part of, the Hindu mainstream" (12). In his new book, R. K. Jain takes issue with certain aspects of the Weberian sociology which inspires this analysis and contends that Carrithers and Humphrey depicted the samavasaraña merely "from the outside" (7), whereas his objective is to use "the same metaphor of samavasarana internally" and to build the analysis "from bottom up, rather than in terms of external factors of communalism, regionalism and nationalism" (82). Being a Digambara Jain himself, the author intends to dispell the stereotype that Jains "constitute a homogenous and uniformly affluent group" (9) by analysing the "alignment between social stratification and religious following among the
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Jains of North India" (8). For this purpose he adopts a alternative theoretical perspective, losely following Bourdieu's model of "a field of forces with structured interests for the legitimation of religion" (8). The study is comparative in outlook and in seven parts.
The first Chapter ("Atheistic' Jainism') provides a short introduction into key characteristics of Jainism by comparing it to Hinduism and Buddhism. Chapter two (Textual Sources and Ethnographic Literature) begins with a brief overview of the principal sectarian divisions of contemporay Jainism (with the help of a diagram which incorrectly indicates that the Svetāmbara Terāpanthīs split from the Mūrtipūjaks) and two medieval Digambara Epics, the âdipuràõa of Jinasena and the Yaśastilaka-campū of Somadeva. It outlines the main differences between what the author perceives to be an ascetic or 'vaisya model' underlying the relationship between monks and laity within the Svetāmbara 'church' and a 'kingly model' informing the less organised Digambara 'sects', whose ascetics, the author argues, following Dundas (1992), once played a vital role "in practical affairs of state polity in [medieval) South India" (22): "To anticipate somewhat our later analysis, it will be argued that in the ancient and medieval periods of Jainism the stress on vegetarianism and no harm to even the smallest creatures was manifestly lacking; it was a development connected with the overall transition from a kshatriya to a vaishya model and a progression, to follow Weber, from the overall character of Jainism changing from a sect to a church" (22).
Chapter three (The Grand Transition in Jainism: Digambar and Shvetambar as Continuity and Change') sketches the differences between Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions in terms of three further dichotomies which are interpreted as competitive cultural blueprints: individual patronage vs. organised lay following, charismatic prophets vs. routinised priesthood, fluid individualist sect vs. rigid group-bound church. The author goes on to criticise Michael Carrithers (1989), on whose work his own first three chapters strongly rely, for the neglect of

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investigating social 'stratification' in favour of 'community and 'leadership' (32) and for constructing a artificial contradiction between the radical individualism of the monk (muni) in Digambara doctrine and the 'deviations' of observable practice. Using Bourdieu's Durkheimian criticism of Weber's theory of charisma, which Carrithers had adopted, R. K. Jain argues, somewhat unfairly, that Carrithers failed "to locate the Digamber muni as an agent in the religious field" (31) because he did not recognise his essentially 'totemic' or symbolic role for the constitution of social relations, nor the supplementary role of monastic institutions governed by bhattărakas for the munis: "The connection between monks and the laity hinge, to our way of thinking, crucially on the facts that in the present age according to Jain cosmography none may attain liberation and also that (as elaborated previously) there is, in the repetitive creation of the samavasarana, the Jain community, as an 'assembly of listeners' ever present in the Jain religious practice. These essential (and not historically contingent) compromises with the doctrinal individualism of the Digambar Jain muni elude Carrithers" (31).
Chapter four (The Shvetambar 'Church") summarizes some of the currently available informations on the correlation between the internal hierarchical structures of Svetāmbara orders (gaccha) and castes (jāti), and on the prominent role of Svetāmbara monks in the creation of castes and communities (citing the work of Folkert, Cort, Banks, Reynell, Babb, Humphrey, Laidlaw, and Dundas). The author adopts. John Cort's (1991: 663] observation that "the principal hierarchical differentiation among Digambars occurs before full initiation as a muni, in the levels of advanced householdership of brahmacari, ksullak, and ailak, while the mendicants consist mainly of the single level of munis, with hierarchy determined by seniority of initiation. The Shvetambars, on the other hand, exhibit a uniformity among the laity - they are all just shravaks (men) and shravikas (women) - but (as we have seen) a graduated hierarchy of initiatory ranks among the mendicants" (p. 38, reproduced from Cort without quotation marks). After the

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demise of the bhaṭṭārakas, the author concludes, with Cort, that routinization of charisma took place largely among the Digambar laity, but not amongst the monks (39).
Chapter five ("The Digambara Case reconsidered: Contemporary Period') is by far the longest, and least organised, chapter of the book (32 pages). It consists of a summary and interpretation of the 700 page Hindi autobiography of the lay-ascetic (brahmacari/brahmacāriņī) and later novice (kṣullaka) G. P. Varni (born 1877) from Bundelkhand which was first published in 1949 and partially serialised in the journal The Voice of Ahinsa (which the author does not mention). The chapter focuses on the "close tie-up between religious ideology and practice and the formal social organization" (59). This point is illustrated with reference to the competitive role of the lay renouncer, the "tyagi-cum-social activist" (57) for the creation of community and social mediation between castes. The author again stresses that the continuum between householder and monk amongst the Digambaras cannot be found in Śvetambara traditions, and quotes the following typology of G. P. Varni in support. Varni distinguishes between the common people (samanya janata), the wealthy (dhanik varga), the knowledgeable (pandit and tyāgi), and the 'priests' (bhaṭṭāraka) (68). R. K. Jain interprets the distinction between pandits and tyāgis as one between a 'proletaroid local intellectual' who follows the jñāna mārga and "conceives of the world as a problem of meaning" (81) and regionally respected religious agents which are "intermediate between the systematising intellectual and the clergy" (80) and whose austerities "provide actual models for the laity" (81). In contrast to the pandits and tyāgis, who are influential on the level of "routinized participation in organizations of local or regional scope", the munis, he argues, act as the living equivalents of the prophets or Tirthankaras and rise to the national level to communicate with 'super patrons' (67) such as Hukumcand or Sahu Prasad Jain. R. K. Jain argues that because of their intermediate position within the religious field, the pandits and tyāgis become pillars of the local and regional status quo and represent a uniformity of lay doctrine and practice

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which cannot be found among the Svetārbaras: "They represent ideologically (in terms of doctrine) and in practice (through austerities and ethicization in general) a uniform model of religious life both for the dhanik varga and the samanya janata" (82). R. K. Jain concludes that in the case of Digambara lay ascetics there is a "convergence rather than separation or even encompassment between what Laidlaw (1985: 50-70] has called the moksa and punya discourses" (71).
Chapter six ("The Digambar Jains of North India: Society and Religion in Baraut, Uttar Pradesh') is based on fieldwork conducted by the author himself in 1994 on the social organisation of the predominantly Terāpanth Digambara Jains in Baraut near Meerut in Uttar Pradesh. In this chapter he acknowledges the difference between doctrine and practice with regard to the observance of caste (and sect) taboos, and the efforts of different reformers favouring (a) the unifying practice of intra-religious (Jain) marriages disregarding caste membership, or (b) the abolishment of received rules of gotra exogamy (83f.). He further explores the dominant cleavages in the Jain community in Baraut: Jats vs. Jains, Delhi-Meerut vs. Baraut, old City vs. new Market, Digambara vs. Svetāmbara, and Bisapanthi Digambara vs. Terāpanthi Digambara (the large majority). The most significant cleavage being the one between the supporters of Kānji Svāmī, who was favoured by the poorer and lower caste Digambaras and the national 'super-patrons' of the Mahāsamiti, on the one hand, and Āryikā Jñanamātā, which was supported by the conservative All India Digambara Jain Mahāsabhā and the associated All India Digambara Jain Tirtha Raksa Trust, on the other (89f.). The chapter also offers observations on the more 'flexible' Sthānakavāsī attitudes towards caste differences.
The final chapter of the book (The Kanji Swami Panth: Contestation, Cosmology and Confrontation') is the most interesting one, because it does not merely compile background information, but describes a series of dramatic events. On seventeen fascinating pages it documents the dispute between

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as
the followers of Kānjī Svāmī and their opponents, the majority, within the fold of the Terapanth Digambaras in Baraut and in North India in general. The chapter is based on a book written in Hindi by Neeraj Jain in 1988 (no precise reference is given) and on a general account of the Kanja Panth by Paul Dundas (1992) from which R. K. Jain reproduced whole sections verbatim without using quotation marks. It describes how in 1983 the Kundakunda-Kahnā Tirtha Rakṣā Trust was founded in order to promote the worship of Kanji Svāmī (who declared himself to be a Digambara Terapanthi) in his reincarnated form Tirthankara Suryakīrti. This was vigorously opposed in 1985 by the Mahāsabhā, whose patron saints were Muni Dharmasāgara and Āryikā Jñānamātā in Hastinapur, and by the Mahāsamiti, whose patron saint was Muni Vidyananda. However, the main representatives of the Mahasamiti, the Sahu Jain family (Times of India) and Premcand Jain (Jayna Watch Co.) in Delhi, had once supported Kānjī Svāmī and failed to join the united front against the Kanji Panth supporters at Songadh. At this point, the study abruptly comes to an end: "To sum up this section, we should note how the Digambar Jain wealthy elites all over India, but based particularly in Delhi and Bombay, participated in formenting the rift between pro- and anti-KSP factions. Although in the present state of our knowledge the fact could only be hinted at, there seem to be quite substantial material interests involved in the confrontation between the leaders of this fight. The supporters in this factional fight are mainly the pandits; each group of pandits stands to gain materially at the cost of the other. There are also, as we noticed in the earlier narrative, patron-saints in the form of one prominent muni blessing each faction" (117).
The book under review is certainly not the first "ethnographic" study of the "Northern India Digambara Jains", as claimed by the author (50), who may have been unaware of Mahias' (1985) and Shanta's (1985) work. Nor is it very original, as its lack of new empirical data, its over-reliance on secondary sources, and on interpretations imported particularly from Williams, Carrithers, Cort and Dundas testifies. However, somewhat surprisingly, this

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extremely slopply produced book is still a very useful contribution to our understanding of contemporary Jainism. The most interesting parts of the book are small ethnographic sections and the summaries of G.P. Varni's and N. Jain's works which are not easily accessible. Although methodological issues are not discussed, this essay also opens up avenues for a new style of sociological study of Jainism, which is still in its infancy. R. K. Jain has been trained under Max Gluckman in Manchester and his familiarity with the extended case method clearly shows in this skillfully constructed essay. Some of his criticisms of Carrithers and Humphrey's theoretical models and isolated observations of others scholars are well taken, although, in my opinion, they do not go far enough, since the author often merely replicates points emphasised elsewhere by the criticised authors themselves. Moreover, he continues to uphold an idealistic image of the Digambara munis, whose partisanship with various lay factions is not sufficiently explored.
The main flaw of this exploratory study is, in my view, the lack of empirical support for one of its basic hypotheses, namely that Digambaras and svetambaras utilise two entirely different models of social organisation and that the principal hierarchical differentiation of initiatory ranks occurs among Digambaras at the level of lay asceticism and among the Svetāmbaras among the mendicants. In might be argued that this depiction also represents a "view from the outside", since there is no proof that there are more initiatory statuses within Svetāmbara mendicant groups than amongst Digambara groups, which even today often distinguish between munis, upādhyāyas, and ācāryas of different categories (S.K.Jain does not strictly distinguish between the two main Digambara traditions in this context). Moreover, there is enough evidence for the differentiation of religious statuses amongst Svetāmbara laity. It is not even necessary to point to Ācārya Tulsi's anuvrata movement, and other modern concepts such as the brahmacārī sangha and the fivefold community (pañcavidha sangha) among the Sthānakavāsīs, or the role of brahmacārīs amongst the Srimad Rājacandra movement. The formalisation of intermediary statuses between householder and
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monks is not something new amongst the Svetāmbaras, as Dundas' (1999) recent study of the Kaduā Gaccha has shown. Svetāmbara laity have always performed brahmacarya and other special vows, which are often accepted in public from a monk or a nun. Of late, differences in learning also become increasingly formalised amongst Svetāmbaras in particular through the proliferation examinations and degrees from religious and secular schools and universities. The institution of the novice or similar pre-monastic categories is common to both Bīsapanthi Digambara and Śvetāmbara traditions. It may be argued that the Bisapanthi Digambara kşullaka, for instance, is not really a advanced layman, as Jain maintains, but rather a novice, since he has left his household and wanders together with the munis.
References
Carrithers, Michael. "Naked Ascetics in Southern Digambar Jainism." Man (N.S.) 24 (1989) 219-235. ------, "The foundations of community among southern Digambar Jains: An essay on rhetoric and experience." The Assembly of Listeners. Ed. M.Carrithers & C.Humphrey, 261-286. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Carrithers, Michael & Caroline Humphrey. "Jains as a community: a position paper." The Assembly of Listeners: Jains in Society. Ed. M.Carrithers & C.Humphrey, 5-12. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991a.
Cort, John E. "The Svetambar Mūrtipūjak Jain Mendicant." Man (N.S.) 26 (1991) 651-671.
Dundas, Paul. The Jains. London: Routledge, 1992. -----. "Jainism without monks? The Case of Kaļuā Sāh." Approaches to Jain Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals and Symbols. Ed. N.K.Wagle & o. Qvarnström, 19-35. University of Toronto: Center for South Asian Studies, 1999.
Flügel, Peter. "Protestantische und Post-Protestantische Jaina Reformbewegungen: Zur Geschichte und Organisation der Sthānakavási I." Berliner Indologische Studien 13-14 (2000) 37-103.
Laidlaw, James. "Profit, Salvation and Profitable Saints." Cambridge Anthropology 9, 3 (1985) 50-70.
Mahias, M.C. Delivrance et convivialite: Le système culinaire des Jaina. Paris:

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The Original Language of Jaina Canonical Texts. Editors: Acārya Vijayashilachandra Suri and Dr. K.R. Chandra. Prakrit Texts Society, 375 Saraswati Nagar, Ahmedabad 380015, 1999.
The book is a collection of seminar papers on the theme: “Original Language of the Jain Canonical Texts" held at Ahmedabad, India, 27-28 April 1997. Six papers in English in it deal with history and development of MIA languages and dialects. Problems of Editing Agama texts (S.R. Benarjee), Reason and Cause for Mahārāștri Prākrit (R.P. Poddar), Ardhamāgadhi and Sauraseni Prākrits of Jain canonical works in the evolution of MIA languages (K.R. Chandra) are quite interesting. N.M. Kansara's paper appears to argue against generalizing Hemacandra's Prakştih Saṁsksatam. Dinanath Sharma suggests that senior canonical works preserve a good number of forms which are archaic in comparison to Sauraseni and Mahārāștrī. To him, Sauraseni neither reveals trait nor phonology or morphology like in Ardhamāgadhi.
The book focuses on to present anteriority of Ardhamāgadhi in relation to Sauraseni, but not much of a case is made on the issue.
Samaņ Suttam. Jinendra Varni. Trans. T.K. Tukol and K.K. Dixit. B. M. M, S., Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi-110021.
It is a compilation of Prākrit 756 sūttas, from ancient Jain texts, deals with various Jaina precepts divided into four sub-texts: Source of Illumination, Path of Liberation, Metaphysics and Theory of Relativity. There are sūttas (s.13-15; 18-24) on hagiography of Tirthankaras and their basic teachings which they continuously upheld and rejuvenated from time to time; on karma (s.58-66); and on Jaina characteristics of soul (s.183-190). The book provides a glimpse into the essentials of philosophy and principle of Jain religion, but fails by not providing source information.
Jaina Theory of Multiple Facets of Reality and Truth. Edited: Nagin J. Shah. B.L. Institute of Indology, Delhi 110036, 2000. ISBN 81-208-1707-9.
This is a collection of papers from a Seminar on Jain Logic and Epistemology held at New Delhi in 1990. It consists
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of eleven papers by distinguished scholars, and of interest, it may be easily noted that papers of scholars like Profs. D.S. Kothari (The Complementarity Principle and Jaina Theory of Syādvāda), K.C. Bhattacharya (The Jaina Theory of Anekānta), Atsushi Uno (A Study of Syādvāda), V.M. Kulakarni (Relativity and Absolutism), P.P. Gokhale (The Logical Structure of Syādvāda), V. Vekatachalam (The Seven-Plank Epistemological Frame: A Search for its Rationale) and B.K. Matilal (Anekānta: Both Yes and No?) bring out new venues for the understanding of this Jaina doctrine of Anekānta. Dr. Nagin J. Shah in the 'Introduction' to the book has aptly defined this doctrine as that which "synthesizes conflicting views to arrive at the whole truth
the harmony of conflicting views “ A refreshing addition to the study of Jain Logic and Epistemology.
Biology in Jaina Treatise on Reals. Dr. N.L. Jain. P.V. Institute, Varanasi and Digambar Jaina Samaj, Chennai 600079, 1999. Pp. 204 with appendix and index. ISBN 81-86715-44-4.
In the history of Indian literature, TattvārthādhigamaSūtra of Umāswāmin, also called Umāsvāti, is one the important texts. The technical terms employed in it belong exclusively to Jainism. There are about ten known commentaries on this text, dated from 450 C.E to 1688 C.E. Sarvārthasiddhi of Pūjyapāda (450-530 C.E.) and Tattvātika Rājvārtika of Akalanka (720-780 C.E.) are important ones.
Biology in Jaina Treatise on Reals is the English translation of Tattvātika Rājvārtika, Hindi edition published in 1957. Based on reconciliation of different treatises on Tattvārthādhigama-Sūtra, the author has selected 53 aphorisms, which, according to him, deal mainly on biological definitions and explanations of living beings based on volitional character, gender and transmigration.
The book points out scientific aspects of Jain religion, in particular that of the biologic nature, which in large part is grounded in Jaina religious philosophy with abundant technical terms. However, the English translation appears to be constrained by repetitive and fluid phrases. Had the author maintained all technical terms in Prākrit with English equivalents in parentheses or provided a glossary and be less
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verbose, readers could have had a better chance of appreciating what has been presented. Nevertheless, it is an addition to the study of Jain religion and the treatment of its philosophy on the basis of biological sciences.
Jaina System of Education. D.C. Dasgupta. Motilal Banarsidass, 1999 (1979). Pp. 128. ISBN 81-208-1576-9.
The monograph is a collection of lectures based exclusively on Jain literature. The earliest reference to Jaina education is found from the times, life and teachings of Rşabha, the first tirthankara, who imparted art and arithmetic to his daughters Sundari and Brāmhi. As such Jainism has prescribed four sikşavratas - sāmāyika (meditation), deśāvakāśika (nonwandering), poșadha (periodic fasting) dāna (charity) which are fundamental and essential for character building.
Jaina System of Education by Debendra Chandra Dasgupta was the result of his investigations into the field of ancient Indian education and his ten lectures, of which, only eight could be categorized to deal with the topic.
Interestingly, the book brings to light very salient and significant information on Jaina education system in ancient India. It discloses that monasteries in India were first organized by the Jains whom the Buddhists later followed. The operation of the Jaina monastic university was conducted under three important and distinct departments - Jaina scripture, Vedic study and Art. All the twelve Jaina Āngas scripture, as has been pointed out on the basis of Anuyogadvāra text, were taught in well known monasteries situated at Campā, Rājgsha, Vaiśālī, Benares, Srāvastī, Manicaiya, Bāravai (Dwārakā), Polāsapura and only eleven Argas were taught at Kșitipratişthā monastery situated on the bank of river Godāvarī. Higher academic excellence as in modern doctoral degree was in place with a requisite of originality and research into primary sources of materials at State library or libraries attached to the institutions. According to Dasgupta, “Acārya Kundakunda composed his thesis in the State library.” Admission to the university had no caste or sex restrictions. Nuns, lay women and princes were also studied in the same institution. Principal objective was to equip students with required
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education and skill whether for the states or for different branches of trade. Records show that Jain educational institutions have had their continuing existence in India up to thirteenth century.
The book as a matter of fact richly and interestingly provides authoritative information on the whole Jaina education system, from ancient times of Jaina India up to thirteenth century. Hardly one can genuinely disagree with Dasgupta's view that "there existed modern type of educational innovations under the fostering care of the Jaina educationists.” Rightly, it merits the attention of scholars and students of ancient Indian history, social anthropology and Jainalogical studies.
A Jaina Perspective on the Philosophy of Religion. Arvind Sharma. Motilal Banarsidass, 2001. ISBN 81-208-1760-5.
Dr. Sharma has made an attempt to approach Jain religion and its philosophy from a Western academic perspective, based mainly on the template of John H. Hick's approach to the study of philosophy of religion. Mainly on three Jain philosophical doctrinal topics, [1] Jina as God or paramātman who plays no role in creation as against “God creates out of nothing ... [and] there is a firm dividing line between the creation and its creator; [2] "Samyak darśana (faith) and samyak-jñāna (knowledge), two of the three ratnatrayas (jewels), and [3] Anekānta, he approaches to present a Jaina Perspective on its philosophy. Although, it is refreshing as far as the study of Jain religion, his presentation loses grip from the standpoint of view that he purports to explain Jain philosophical doctrines from quotes of not so great scholarship but are of marginal quality.
History of the Rāştrakūtas and Jainism. Nagarajaiah, Hampa. Ankita Pustaka, 53 Gandhi Bazar Main, Bangalore 560004, 1999. ISBN 81-87321-37-7.
This is an exhaustive work on the history of the Rāştrakūtas and the growth and development of Jain religion. Of the eight chapters, first two present the Rāştrakūta monarchs. Govindarāja (C. 611 C.E.), a loyal fief of Cālukya
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kings of Bādāmi and progenitor of Rāştrakūta dynasty, moved south from Ellorā. Subhatunga Indra during his time had commissioned famous Jain center at Vātgrāma. He was the father of Dantidurga who in fact along with his uncle Krishna-I had upstaged the Cālukya king Kirtivarma-II in 753 C.E. and firmly had established Rāștrakūta supremacy over southern India. In subsequent years, fine Vāțgrāma Jain university came into existence and extensive research was done there on Āgamic works by notable scholars like Virasena and Jinasena produced stupendous commentary on the Șatkhandāgama. By the time of Amõghavarşa (814-78 C.E.) an independent Rāştrakūța principality was established in Gujrat, and the ascendancy of Jaina religion under the Rāştrakūțas was fast drawn to its zenith. Thus, "the Râştrakūța monarchs carried further the chariot of Jinadharma from where the Gangas and Bādāmi Cālukyas had left it." Chapters on feudatories, Sankrit and Prākrit literature, Sangha and Art and Architecture further present the depth and intensity of the growth of Jain religion under feudatory rulers and general public
This is a valuable contribution to the study of the history of the Rāştrakūtas, and also of Jain religion in the annals of Indian history.
Springs of Jaina Wisdom. By Dulichand Jain. S.C.P.J.S.Mandir, Bhupatwala, Haridwar, UP - 241410, 1999.
The booklet contains a collection of 230 aphorisms selected from Jain Agamic texts. They deal about soul, knowledge, conduct, liberation, passions, mind, karma, reflections, faith, and so on. But aphorism selection appears to be from non-Prākrit editions. No source reference is given.
Jain Agam. A Quarterly Ed. Dr. Jagdish Prasad Jain. A Publication of Jain Mission E-155 Kalkaji, New Delhi-110019.
Papers and articles and News /Views /Reviews related to Jainism are published both in Hindi and English. It appears to be a new launch. Jinamañjari cordially welcomes its arrival. Review by Siri Kumar is an Honors Graduate in Mass Communication from York University, Canada.
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Jinamasjari, Volume 23, No.1, April 2001
NEWS DIGEST
NATIONAL PREPARATIONS TO CELEBRATE 2,600 BIRTHDAY OF LORD MAHAVIRA (599 B.C.E. - 527 B.C.E.). Earlier this year, the government of India agreed to observe April 6, 2001 as "Meatless Day" to commemorate the launce of the 2,600 anniversary of the birth of Lord Mahavira Following a meeting chaired by Prime Minister Vajpayee in New Delhi, 63 of the 67 members -- including the chief ministers of Rajasthan and Maharashtra, the Gujarat Governor, Union Ministers Advani, Ananth Kumar and Ram Vilas -- agreed that RS 100 Crore would be allocated as ‘seed money' for programmes established by both NGOs and Celebration Associations.
An implementation committee has been set up to plan and monitor the celebration, and state-level committees will be set up to plan specific programmes and projects. The emphasis, as spelt out by Prime Minister Vajpayee at the meeting, would be on the creation of permanent assets and building institutions. Mrs. Indu Jain, the Times of India group chairperson, suggested that the 25-acre Mahavir Vanasthali on Sardar Patel Marg in New Delhi be handed over to Jains, and the remaining area of 150 acres of forest land be developed into a park. The suggestion was accepted.
As well, the meeting also resulted in the release of a commemorative stamp and coin, the establishment of an Institute of Prakrit Studies in Vaishali, and projects which will compile an inventory of Jain monuments and manuscripts, and take steps towards their conservation, was
Mrs. Indu Jain, acting on a suggestion that organisations should adopt villages and contribute to their development, offered on behalf of the Jain Samaj to adopt 1,000villages and develop them into 'model villages' with roads and water, and facilities for environmental conservation, education, and health car. Other activities suggested at the New Delhi meeting included the establishment of Mahavira chairs, a Mahavira Foundation, a Mahavira IT Foundation, and international seminar, and several welfare activities.
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JAINS MAKE HISTORY IN THE U. S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. Washington D.C. May 2001. Jains of North America made history when a Jain spiritual Leader, Gurudev Chitrabhanuji, became the first Jain Guru to offer the opening prayer in the House of Representative in celebration of 2600th birth anniversary of Lord Mahavir. On behalf of Federation of Jain Associations In North America (JAINA), Gurudev Chitrabhanuji of International Meditation center in New York was invited by Representative Frank Pallone, Jr., a founding Chairman of India Caucus and strong supporter of India. In over two hundred years old history of House of Representative, this was the third time that a nonJudeo Christian delivered the prayer. A Hindu priest from Ohio delivered the prayer last year.
After the prayer, Congressman Pallone paid tributes to the Jain philosophy of non-violence and to the Jain community in North America for organizing this event. He Stated " Jains all around the world celebrated the 2600th Birth Anniversary of Lord Mahavir, the last of the revered 24 Jinas who spread the Jain message. I guess you could say in a way, Lord Mahavir was ahead of his times, once proclaiming all human beings are equal whether male or female, rich or poor. The Jain religion, which places emphasis on personal and societal non-violence in thoughts, speech and actions, has flourished in India for over 3500 years”. He congratulated Dr. Sushil Jain for organizing and thanked House Chaplain Coughlin for allowing Jains the opportunity to celebrate the Jain spirit on the House floor.
The prayer was delivered in English and said, “Let us all join our hands, heads and hearts together and bow to all perfect and liberated souls, and to all spiritual teachers. Let us pray that all elected representatives of the people of this Nation be guided in their thoughts, words and actions to achieve the greatest good for all. Let them have a high sense of responsibility and be free from temptations of selfish interests". The prayer ended with "May the entire universe attain bliss. May all beings be interested in one another's well being. May al faults be eliminated. May people be happy everywhere. Om Shanti! Shantil Shanti!”.
Present in the house Gallery were current President of JAINA, Dr. Mahendra Pandya, accompanied by all the past presidents of JAINA (Drs. Manoj Dharamsi, Tansukh Salgia, Sulekh Jain, Jagat Jain, Manibhai Mehta, and Dhiraj Shah), and over 140 delegates from all over USA, Canada, and representatives from Indian Embassy.
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JAINA as an Umbrella organization consisting of 57 Jain organizations in North America was established in 1981.
In North America there are nearly 40 Jain temples and more than 80,000 Jains. JAINA will be holding its 11th Biennial Convention in Chicago from July 5-8, 2001. Nearly 10,000 Jains are expected to participate. The theme of this convention is Practicing Jainism in 21st Century.
This big event was initiated and guided by Dr. Sushil Jain, Medical Consultant to The White House, also JAINA's Public Affairs Council Chairman and Dr. Manoj Dharamsi, Chairman of the 2600th Birth Anniversary Celebrations of Lord Mahavir. A similar prayer is being planned in later part of this year in the US Senate.
After the ceremonies, Congressman Frank Pallone held a reception for all the attendees. Father Daniel Coughlin, Chaplain for the House also participated in the reception and thanked the Jain community for taking the initiative. JAINA representatives also presented a set of books on Jainism to Mr. Pallone, Chaplain Coughlin and their staff.
The day before, the Jain Center of Metropolitan Washington, D.C. held a reception at the Jain Center in honor of all the out of town visiting dignitaries.
After the prayers, the Jain Delegation met with Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton to follow-up on the invitation for 11th Biannual JAINA convention as Chief Guest. She expressed a strong desire to accept the invitation. The delegation also met with Senator George Voinovich to co-sponsor similar prayer in Senate.
As part of the yearlong celebrations of the 2600th Janma Kalyanak of Lord Mahavir, a big event is being planned in September 2001 in New York. Bhartiya Vidya Bhawan and the Jain Community will organize these celebrations. This function is expected to be presided over by the Prime Minister of India Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Similarly, all the Jain organizations in North America (nearly 80) have been holding many such programs throughout the year in 2001. Several mayors and Governors have declared year 2001 as the year of Non -Violence to commemorate these celebrations. In Maryland, the State assembly also conducted prayer earlier this year. A Senior Staff member of Representative Pallone also gave an extensive tour of the Capitol Buildings to all attendees.

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One of the Great Contributors to Jaina Studies and Practice Passed Away, Kurt Titze (1922-2001) "In 1988, in Shravanbelagola, south India, as our former conveyor-belt worker and his travelling companion (who in the meantime had become his spouse), sat at the feet of a naked Jaina-Monk and watched him as he plucked out his beard and the hair of his head (which was something that these monks do about three times a year) without any expression, he knew that he would have to occupy himself with this unjustly ignored religion of non-violence - Jainism. If for no other reason than to do something against the actual violence which was being propagated by the media and becoming normality."
(Extract from Kurt Titze's self-portrait: Kurt Titze - A Portrait of the Author.)
http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/titze.htm [Kurt Titze - ein Portrait des Autors. http://www.here-now4u.de/aut_kurt_titze.htm]),
PUBLICATIONS ON JAINISM 1993. Keine Gewalt gegen Mensch, Tier, Pflanze. Worte des Furtbereiters Mahavira. Berlin: Clemens Zerling. [No Violence against Man, Animal, Plant. Words of the Fordmaker Mahavira).
1997. An Open Letter from the Blue Planet to its Penultimate Inhabitants. http://www.here-now4u.de/eng/an_open_letter_from_the_blue
p.htm#fnote1[Unverschlüsselter Brief des blauen Planeten an seine vorletzten
Bewohner. http://www.here-now4u.de/unverschlusselter_brief des_bl.htm
1998. Jainism. A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1998. [selected reviews: Svami Bhasvatananda in Prabuddha Bharata 104 (1999) 834f.; Peter Flügel in Internationales Asienforum 30, 3-4 (1999) 403-405, republished on-line: www.here-now4u.de/eng/jainism - a pictorial_guide_to.htm]

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JAIN JOURNAL
International Quarterly Research Publication on Jainalogy A Publication of Jain Bhavan

Editor
Dr. S.R. Benerjee
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Write to Jain Bhavan
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Calcutta - 700007, INDIA
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ARHAT VACAN International Quarterly Journal of Jainalogy in Hindi and English A Publication of Kundakunda Jnanpith Editor Dr. Anupam Jain Write to Kundakunda Jnanpith 584, M.G. Road, Tukoganj Indore - 452001, INDIA Annual Subsription US $ 15 . INDIA Bramhi Jain Society 1331 Clinton Street Buffalo, NY 14206 SARDAREVALLABHRA PATEL 200 सरदार वल्लभभाई पटेल DR LALIT SHAH 21 SAUMYA APTS AHMEDABAD-380014 INDIA