Jainism and Mahavira

Author(s): Bhagchandra Jain Bhaskar
Publisher: Digambar Jain Sahitya Sanskriti Sanskaran Samiti
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001203/1

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B-0021
JAINISM
AND MAHAVIRA
Jain Elar. Rhag Chandra Bhaskar

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Jainism is an indigenous religion and philosophy which originated and developed with a profound progressive attitude and judicious understanding of special conductive and ethical requirements and philosophical indispensable necessities of the time. The Tirthankaras, Kulakaras and their loyal followers, believers and thinkers have been valuably contributing much to the evolution of Indian Culture in all significant fields of literature since its inception.
The book "JAINISM AND MAHAVIRA" consists of two chapters, one on Jainism and the other one on Mahavira. Dr. Jain, an eminent scholar of Jainism, Buddhism and Indian History and Culture has dealt here with the historical and cultural background of Jainism with a comparative perspective. It is a work of major importance that offers a deeper apprehension of non-violence and humanity in all its complexity and illuminates a new awakening of ecumenical conscious
ness.
Dr. Jain has videly travelled in India and abroad and delivered lectures in different Universities, Institutions and Assembly of World Religions held at New York, Florida, San Francisco, Delhi etc. He has to his credit over a score of books in both Hindi and English on literature, art, Jainism, Buddhism and on Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and Apabhramsa works.
Cover Photo: Images of First and Last Tirthankara Lord Rsabha and Mahavira

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JAINISM
AND
MAHAVIRA
BY DR. BHAGCHANDRA JAIN, “BHASKAR”
M.A. (Sanskrit, Pali, A. 1. H. & C.),
Acharya (Prakrit and Jainism)
D.Litt. (Pali-Prakrit); D.Litt. (Sanskrit). Professor and Head of the Deptt. of Pali and Prakrit
Nagpur University
SHREE DIGAMBER JAIN SAHITYA SANSKRITI
SANRAKSAN SAMITI
DELHI (INDIA)

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JAINISM
AND
MAHAVIRA
Published by Shikhar Chand Jain Shri Digamber Jain Sahitya Sanskriti Samrakshan Samiti D-302, Vivek Vihar, Delhi-110095 Phone No. 2202244, 2228444
First Edition October 1993
Price: Rs. 30.00
U.S. $ 1

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Contents

1.
2.
3. Jaina Scriptures
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. Spread of Jainism
15.
Art and Architecture
16.
Mahavira
17.
The Teachings of Mahavira 18. Philosophy of Mahavira
History of Jainism
Jaina Sects and Schools
Jaina Philosophy and Psychology
Theory of Anekantavada
Dravya or Tattvas
Ajiva Tattva
The Karma Theory
Classification of Knowledge
Jaina Ethics and Spirituality
Jaina Mendicant
Rites and Rituals
Jaina as a community

1-7
8-9
10-11
12
13-15
16-19
18
19
20
21-22
27-28
29-30
31-32
32-33
34-39
40-47
48-53
54-56

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FOREWORD
Jainism is a religion of self which prescribes the code of conduct for all the beings irrespective of creed, caste and colour. Non-violence, non-attachment, non-absolustic standpoint are its fundamental principles which should be followed by each and every person, if one intencis to keep oneself in quite and peaceful atmosphere.
We feel a great pleasure in publishing a booklet on "Jainism and Mahavira" written by Dr. Bhagchandra Jain, Professor and Head of the Department of Pali and Prakrit, Nagpur University with a view that it would be useful for those who cherish
know something about Jainism through English medium. Dr. Jain is a great scholar of Prakrit and Jainology and Pali and Buddhism who has widely travelled in India and abroad and has written so many books on Indology.
Although necessary diacritical marks could not be incorporated in the book due to certain reasons, I am sure, it would not creat much hinderances in understanding the termology and facts and the book will prove its utility for all types of readers.
We are very proud of the services rendered by Shri Shikhar Chand Jain, Delhi for the noble cause of Jainism.He played a great role for establishing the Samiti and iniatiated the publication of standard books on Jainology. We wish him great success in his mission.
Dt. 13.7.1993 Bina-Itava (Sagar), M.P.
Dr. Darb ari Lal Kothia President Shree Digamber Jain Sahitya Samrakshan Samiti D-302, Vivek Vihar Delhi (India)

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1. JAINISM
Jainism is one of the most ancient religions which came into existence as a result of the most non-violent approach and humanitarian viewpoint towards all creatures. It is an indigenous religion originated and developed on Indian soil with a profound progressive attitude and judicious understanding of special requirements and philosophical indispensable necessities of the time. The Tirthankaras, Kulakaras and their loyal followers and believers. have been contributing much to the evolution of Indian culture in all significant fields of literature since its inception. "Jinas", which means conquerors of self, have attained perfect knowledge and absolute freedom from the bondage of karmas. A Tirthankara is one who built a passage through the ocean of births and founded the four Tirthas, the orders of monks, nuns, male and female followers. Jinas, or Tirthankaras, are souls which have attained enlightment and dwell in eternal happiness and perfect knowledge: This religion is called Jainism and its followers are called Jainas, HISTORY OF JAINISM
Two types of Indian cultural systems are found in India, Brahmanic and Sramanic, or Non-Vedic. The early Brahmanic system is the civilization of those who subjugated the senses and materialistic empire. The Ksatriya class developed this system of Sramanology in early days. During the Upanisadic period even the well-versed Brahmnic sages went to Ksatriyas to acquire the spiritual knowledge. The Sramana tradition was based on equality and equanimity and self efforts leading to salvation. According to Sramanas, a being is himself responsible for his / her own deeds. Salvation, therefore, can be attained by anyone. Jainism is a very democratic religion. Ritual, in its opinion, is not a means of emancipation. The only means of escaping from the misery of Samsara, the cycle of birth and death, is the path of moral, mental and spiritual development based on complete non-violence and truth.
These characteristics of Sramana culture can be understood by the word "Sramana" itself which is derived from "Srama" to exert, effort, labour or to perform austerity, but is mixed in meaning with "Sama" to emancipate from Karma with observing "Sama" equality
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and equanimity.' One who performs acts of mortification or austerity is called "Sramana” (Sramati tapasyatiti Sramanah ?), which is very popular in both the Sramana traditions, Jainism and Buddhism. According to the definition, as earlier told, a being is himself responsible for his own deeds. Salvation, therefore, can be achieved by any-body irrespactive of caste, creed colour and culture. The cycle of rebirth to which every individual was subjected was viewed as the cause and substratum of misery. The goal of every person was to evolve a way to escape from the cycle of rebirth. Each school of Sramanas preached its own way of salvation. But they all agreed in one respect, namely in discounting ritual as a means of a emancipation and establishing from the misery of Samsara, through pious religious activities.
Contrary to this, the Brahmanas evolved a system of every elaborate animal sacrifices. Their rites and rituals were performed both to gain worldly enjoyment and to injure one's enemies. 1 social outlook and the goal of life of Vedic system were based on the caste system. The so called Sudras, the lower community were considered ineligible to perform spiritual rites. Brahmanic ritualism was represented by the priests who were the custodians of prayers, assumed a very progeny of Prajapati, the creator God.
Since both these classes were leaders in the societies, clashes between them ought to have taken place. Hence, considering the contravention, divergence, and antipathy, some of the scholars are of the view that the Sramana cultural system is a sequel to pretest the Brahmanic philosophy. But this conclusion cannot be accepted since Vedic literature itself contains several references to the Sramanas under the names of Vratyas, Arhatas, Vatarasanas, Asuras, etc. Its existence can even be proved earlier.
JAINISM is said to be a primitive religion which believes that all the particles of earth, water, fire, wind and plants are possessed of life. The Universe is eternal and indestructible and was not created by a God. The theory of atoms, six Dravyas (6 types of substance) and the worship of the nude form, compel us to recognise its traditional views which indicate the pre-historic period and 1. Panhavagarahai, 9.3.1; Nayadhammakahao, 1.19.32; Thananga, 9.62; 10.16;
Anguttaranikaya, 1.167; Dighanikaya, iii. 16; Samyuttanikaya, 1.45:
Dhammapada, 164, etc. 2. Sanskrit English Dictionary by Williams, S.V, Sramana, P... 1097 3. Rgveda, 10. 90. 12.
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the cultural evolution of creation.
According to Jaina tradition, the universe and its creation are eternal and infinite. It can be divided into two eras (Kalpas), viz.) 1) Avasarpini or descending era sub-divided into six ages,i) SusamaSusama (happy-happy),ii) Susama (happy),iii) Susama- Dusama (happy- unhappy),iv) Dusama-Susama (unhappy-happy), v) Dusama (unhappy), and vi) Dusama-Dusama (unhappy-unhappy), and 2) Utsarpini or ascending era sub-divided into six having the same names in reverse order. In the Avasarpini era people attain all the pleasure and happiness at the starting point which reduce gradually upto the last era. The Utsarpini era commences with utmost sorrowful condition and ends with most pleasant age. The first three of the Avasarpini era and the last three of the Utsarpini era are collectively called the Bhogbhumi (happy and contented) where the people achieve and fulfil their requirements from Kalpavrksas (wish-fulfilling trees). They used to inhabitate in forest and lead their lives on fruits and trees. Art and industries were also not known to them. From historic viewpoint this may be called the early and later stone age.
The remaining ages are called Karmabhumi (age of action) where the people learn to work, toil, write, trade, educate and express art etc. The inventors of this age are called Kulakaras (legislators and founders of civilisation) who are said to have appeared in the first of these last three ages or in the fourth age of the era, the transitional period of the age. The result of the phenomenal change compelled the Kulakaras to creat the revolutionary Karmabhumi period for welfare of the society. The number of Kulakaras are varied in ancient Jain literature, but ordinarily the number is fourteen. Nabhiraya, the father of Rsabhadeva is said to be the last one. These Kulakaras changed the old order and invented a number of new methods for evolving the civilization and educating the people in various ways. In those days life was very easy and simple. It changed gradually and, as a result, the Kulakaras are said to have adopted three types of Dandaniti (punishment), viz. admonition (Hakara ), warning (Makara ), and the reprimand (Dhikkara ). The first five Kulakaras found it enough to rebuke the wrong-doer with "Ha". The next five Kulakaras had the need of "Ma" to reinforce the effect of disapproved. "Ha" expressed the exclamation towards the misdoing while "Ma" signified regret, as if to say "I regret that you should have done such

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a thing as this". This was enough to curb the offences to set right the way for the future. The remaining Kularakaras added "Dhik" to the existing code of penalties to express their abhorrence of the evil deed. The regular laws were laid down by Tirthankara Rsabhadeva and his son Bharata.“
The human civilization has been divided into three parts, viz. paleolithic, Mesolithic and neolithic. Human beings got real entry into civilization in the third Neolithic age which may be namedKulakara or Utsarpini period in the light of Jaina tradition. Accordingly, the Fourth age is supposed to be the best in which the Tirthankaras and other Great personages take birth and enlighten the human beings for their spiritual development. We are at present living in the Fifth age of the Avasarpini which commenced a few years after Mahavira's Parinirvana (527 B.C.) and is of 21000 years duration. The teachings of precursors cause to degenerate the spiriluality in those who came after them. It may be mentioned here that the Kulakaras are also called Manu in the Adipurana (3:21112). The fourteen Manvantaras in Vedic tradition also carry out the same activities. The Visnupurana (3.2.45-47) describes the main functions of the Manvantaras.lt
After Kulakaras, the sixty three Great Personalities or men of mark (Salakapuruas) appeared in the current Avasarpini period, viz. i) 24 Tirthankaraś,ii) 12 Cakravartis,iii) 9 Balabhadras, iv) 9 Vasudevas or Narayanas, V) 9 Prativasudevas or Pratinarayanas. Rama, the hero of the Ramayana and Padmapurana of Jainas flourished in the age of Tirthankara Munisubrata. The impect of Nami's philosophical conceptions can be perceived on the Upanisadic mysticism. Lord Krisna, the apostle of Non-violence, was the cousin of Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara. Jacobi rightly pointed out that out of 63 Salakapurisas, 27 are related to Krsana legend. It amounts to come to the conclusion that an attempt for reconciliation between Brahmnaical and Sramanic systems was made during this period.
The problem of Aryans was a very controversial one. Taking into consideration all the views, it may be said, as Ramachandran opined that the Aryans began their historic migration circa 2500 B.C.from their original habitat in the South of the Circumpolar
4. Adipurana of Jinasena, Varanasi, 1951. 5. Suryasiddhanta, Calcutta, 1925, 1.18-19.
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region and to the North of the Caspian and Aral Seas covering the Northern parts of the mountainous Eurasian Steppes and the Southern part of the thick Siberian forests extending upto the estern sea-coast. This region was known to the post-Aryan ancients as Uttarakuru. They reached west Asia circa 2000 B.C. Greece circa 1500 B.C. and Bharat circa 1200 B.C. The Aryan hegemony in this region was firmly established by circa 1000 B.C. and in Egypt by circa 500 B.C. It has generally been held by the original scholars that the culture and civilization of the Aryans annihilated, was definitely far superior, both materially and spiritually than their own
There were three types of cultural groups in India: 1) the Northern group which was spiritual, non-violent, and who were idol worshippers is known as the "Aryans". 2) the Southern group which was well-versed in the arts and industries is called the "Dravidas" or "Vidyadharas", and 3) the North-western group which spread over Asia, Europe, Iran, etc. is known as the "Indo-Aryan". On the basis of new researches, scholars are of the view that the Aryan and Dravidian cultures originally belonged to the Jainas. Dravidas were definitely not the vedic Aryans and they are, therefore, called Anaryas. Dasas (slaves), Dasyus (thieves), Vra- tyas, and Asuras (demons) are referred to in Vedic literature as opponents of the Vedas. Jain culture has been refuting the idea that the Vedas were not composed by man (Apauruseyatva) since inception, therefore, the references must be connected with the Jainas.
Indus civilization is related with pre-Aryan Pre-Vedic culture. The people were there polytheustic. The nude figures excavated in Indus Valley and Lohanipur may be identified as the Jaina statues of Tirthankaras, most possibly of Rsabhadeva. Most of them are in yogic postures.
: The Vra tyas were the followers of Vratas or vows. They used to stay in a group form and were against the Brahmanas. The Vratyakanda of the Atharvaveda describes the characteristics of Vratyas, the Non-Vedic Aryans who used to practice austerities. Acarya Sayana has appreciated the Vratyas by calling the Vidvattama, Mahadhikara, Punyasila, Visvasammanya and Brahmanavisista in the Sayanabhasaya. The Rgveda refers to them
6. Muni Hazarimal Smriti Grantha, Vyavar, 1965, p. 12, 5th Chapter. 7. Sandya Brahmana, Tika on 17.1.5 8. Astadhyayi , 5.3.113; Katyayana Srautasutra, Tika on 20.4.3

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as Vratasaha (5.53.11) which is interpreted as Utsedhajivio. They were initiated by using the Bratyastoma for making them Aryanso. They are also called Anaryas and Magadhas
The subject matter of the Vratyakanda may be compared with the life of Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara who have been honoured by the Vedic Risis in several verses. The Vratyas were definitely against the Vedic idealogy. According to the Pancavimsa Brahmana, they were divided into two classes, i.e. the Arhatas and Yaudhas. As we know, the Arhathood is very popular in the Sramana culture in the sense of Vitaragatva. The Buddhist monks were also called Arhat. The word "Arhat" is used in the Rgveda in the sense of a leader of Sramanas".
The munis of the Rgveda were the followers of Tirthankara Rsabhadeva. The famous Kesisukta (Rv. X. 136) describes a Muni who bears long hair, clade in dirty, tawn-coloured garments, walks in the air or flies. He is delirious with the state of being a Muni. He enjoys friendship with Vayu and drank poison with Rudra. He follows the moving wind and attained the status of God. Mortal men could only see his body and no more. He treats the path of sylvan beasts, Gandharvas and Apsaras"
Corresponding to these references, the references to Vatarasana Sramana Rsis and their leader Rsabhadeva occurred in the Bhagavata Purana may be compared and said that Rsabhadeva, the First Tirthankara of Jainas is well-recognised by the Vedic sages. He was accepted as the incarnation of God even earlier to the incarnation of Rama and Krsna'4.
Like Munis, Yatis were also prevalent in the Vedic period. They were meditators belonged to Non-Aryan Group called Asuras. According to the Sayanabhasya. Asuras were killed by Indra'. The war between Devas and Danavas was the war held between Vedic Aryas and pre-Vedic Aryans (Sramanas). Asuras were not 9. Katyayana Srautasutra, Tika on 24.4.39, 26 & 30
Atharvaveda, XIV. 12.1-4. .. Arhan biharsi sayanani.........Rgveda, 2.4.33.10. Munayo vatarasanah pisangah yasate mala.
Vatasyanudhrajim yanti yaddevaso abiksata. Rgveda, 10.11.136.2-3. 13. Bahirsi tasminneva........Nabheh ..... Marudevam dharman darsayitu kama
Vatarasananam Sramananam risinam ......Bhagavat Purana, 5.3.20. 14. Sivapurana, 7.2.9.

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deleted at once. The Vedic Aryans could conquer them only after the moment they became slack in following the right conduct as revealed by the dialogue held between Laxmi and Indra. Then the leadership went to the hands of Indra who ruled over the Northern India and the Asuras centered in Southern India'. The Santiparva of the Mahabharata speaks of the spritualism of the Asuras who were the followers of Sraman idealogy''.
Likewise, the Panis were also the followers of Sramana tradition. They are called Dasyus (7.6.2), misers - Krpanas (1.124.10; 4.51.3) who do not donate any thing to the Purohitas or Devas (1.33.3; 1.83.2; 6.13.3 etc.) in the Rgveda. Naga clans may also have been somehow connected with the Sramanism. The Asuras, Vratyas, Yatis and Munis were also called Brahmacaris who used to control over sexual passions and followed Sramanology (Atharvaveda, 11.5.). They were also worshipper of nude figures which were not recognised by the Vedic Rsis who clearly prayed “Let not Sisnadevan enter our sacrifical Pandala 19.
These references compel us to be of view that the Sramana system was pravelent during the Vedic period. The Vedic Aryas were their opponent and therefore their antiquity goes definitely back to indus civilization and even earlier to that it was in existence. The cult of Rudra or Siva may be closely associated with the Sramana culture led by Jainas. The Buddhists joined this Sramana tradition afertwards. This fact can be understood through peeping into the history of Jainsim and Buddhism and their traditions in connection with creation of universe, and conception of soul and
god.
The first Tirthankara, Adinatha (or Rsabhadeva) of the Jaina, has also been referenced in vedic literature. The Roveda (4.58.3; 10.136.1) clearly refers to Rsabhadeva. The Vatarasanas, people surviving on air and not eating must be related to Digambara Jainas. They are also referred to in the Taitriya Aranyakas (1.23.2.1; 24.4.2.71). Kesi and Rsabhadeva mentioned in the Roveda (10.9.102-6.136) are one and the same personalities. The Bhagwat Purana submits his life in detail which is followed by Visnu, Siva, Agni, Kurma, Markandeya, Vayu, and other Puranas. The
17. Mahabharata, 225, 37 18. Ibid. 227. 17 19. Rgveda, 7.21.5

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Siva Purana (7.2.9.) refers to him as one of the twentyeight Avataras (incarnations), even prier to Rama and Krsna. The Rgveda, earliest Vedic Hym text (10.136.1), praises Kesi highly prior to the Vatarasanas which indicates that Kesi was their leader. On the basis of comparative study of the Rgveda and Bhagwat Purana, one may come to the conclusion that Siva and Rsabha are identical (10.9.102.6).
20
The historicity from the Second to the twenty first Tirthankaras is unknown to us, though they are somehow mentioned in the Pali literature. The twenty second Tirthankara, Aristanemi or Neminath is referred to in the Rgveda (7.32.20) and the Yajurveda (25.28). Tirthankara parsvanatha is undoubtedly a historic personage who flourished 250 years earlier than Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of the present evolutionary cycle, or Nigantha Nataputta of Pali literature. We have a long list of the followers of both the Tirthankaras and their concepts occurred therein which are dealt with in my book entitled "Jainsim in Buddhist Literature". Mahavira attained Parinirvana or emancipation of soul from Karmas at Pava in 527 B.C. He was the contemporary elder spiritual teacher to the Lord Budha. It may be mentioned here that the Vedic literature does not mention at all any sort of his activities. JAINA SECTS AND SCHOOLS
Arising new sects and schools in religious and philosophical spheres is a natural phenomenon. They came out of the main stream by expressing their unhappiness and unwillingness towards the existing norms and tenets. The schism usually occurs owing to social needs, personality cults and differences on some points which require the reconsideration over the dogmas in the light of social requirements. Jainism is not an exception. It is said that about a hundred years after Mahavira's Parinirvana, a terrible famine in the northern region took place for twelve years. Therefore, Bhadrabahu sent a part of the Sangha (Order) to Southern India, particularly Karnataka where Jainas were very powerful under the leadership of Visakhacarya, the Maurya emperor Chandragupta who followed the severe conduct of Mahavira in toto. Another group of the Church went to the Sindhu region under the leadership of 'Sthulabhadra who found the need to relax the traditional practices. Both the groups came back to Magadha as soon as the famine 20. See the author's book " Jainsim in Buddhist literature, pp. 23-24.

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came to an end. The former, who stuck strictly to the regulation of nudity and prescribed the methods of begging and eating food came to be known as “ Digambara" (the sky-robed). The latter, who continued to live under famine conditions and changed their ways became known as "Svetambara" (the white-robed). Thus, the main cause for the schism in Jaina order was the attitude to traditional norms of conduct.
Athird section of the order named Yapaniya reached Southern part of India via Mathura of the Surasena region and tried for centuries to reconcile between the two divergent sects, together, though without success in about third century B.C. (V.S.205). After spliting the Jaina order, this was the first attempt when one strived to combine both the sects Digambara and Svetambara. The yapaniyas preached the conduct of Digambaras and favoured the progressive attitude of Svetambaras. They used to live naked. worship nude images, adore Mayurapiccha, according to Digambara tradition, whereas they believed in Strimukti, Kevalikavalahara and Savastramukti which resemble to the Svetambara tradition. Both the traditions may have borrowed so many things from Yapaniyas. .
Digambara sect is said to have remained intact upto Lohacharya, 685 years after Mahavira's Nirvana and was not divided into Ganas, Kulas and Gacchas. Thereafter came into being the Aratiyas, the knowers of part of Anga-purvas. By that time some changes had naturally taken place in the order according to social needs and eventually new Sanghas arose up. Vanavasis became Caityavasis. The monks who were in favour of stern penance started new movements against the Caityavasis and other companions, the so called Jainabhasas by Devasena. The Aratiya and Sivagupta created Ganas and Sanghas at the time of monks' congragration held at Mahanamagiri with the view to avoid relaxation of norms in conduct.
The Digambara sect was afterwards divided into Ganas, Kulas and Sanghas. The Bhattaraka (saffron-robed) tradition was started by Vasatakirti in the 13th century A.D. at Mandapadurga (Rajasthan) who preached to keep one garment and worship Ksetrapalas and Jinas with their follower deities. The relaxation in conduct was not accepted by a section and ultimately Banarasidasa in the 17th century A.D. started a new sect called "Vidhimarga" or“ Adhyatmi" around Agara and Jaipur. In spiritual language it is called" Terapan

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tha" (Thy way). The Bhattarakas accepted this nomenclature in a mocking spirit and called themselves Visapanthi, a little higher than Terapanthi. Another Pantha or sect named "Taranapantha" was also started by Taranaswami in the 15th-16th century A.D. who advocated worshipping only the Agamas (scriptures), and not the idols.
The Svetambara sect too was divided into Ganas, Kulas, Gacchas and Sakhas. Caityavasi sect stood up in 355 A.D. against the Vanavasis and preached that one can stay in the temples and accept donations for his protection. Haribhadrasuri may be considered representative of those who were against the Caityavasi's conduct. Jinapatisuri, Jinaballabha suri etc. followed Haribhadrasuri and exposed Caityavasi's conduct in their work like Sanghapattaka. Kharataragaccha was divided into nine types of Gacchas. In 1228 A.D., due to the observation of the Ayambila penance by Jagaccandrasuri. Jaitrasimha, the king of Mewar named the Sangha "Tapogaccha" which became a separate Sect. Afterwards his pupil Vijayacandrasuri preached that a monk can accept a number of clothes, ghrta, milk vegetable, fruits and meals brought by nuns.
Then Sthanakavasi sect was started against the Caityavasi tradition by Lokashah, a resident of Ahmedabad of Gujarat province who recognised 32 Agamas as the main source of his sect. Then Labaji made an improvement in the Lokashahagaccha tradition and started the Dhundhiya pantha in 1652 A.D. The Terapantha sect is derived from the Sthanakavasi sect. Bhikkana founded it in 1760 A.D. One who followed five Mahavratas, five Samitis and three Guptis is called Terapanthi. Acharya Tulasi, the founder of Jaina Vishva Bharati, is at present Head of the Terapantha. There was another sect named Samvegi started in the same province by Vijayadevasuri in Sak. Sam. 1682.
JAINA SCRIPTURES
Scripture is a synonym of the holy text which consists of religious dogmas and assertions of an authentic authority (Apta Purusa). The jainas have their own scriptures called Agamas or Srutas which are believed to be directly derived from the Tirthankaras. The Agamas are divided into two, viz. Sutragamas and Arthagamas. The sermons of the Tirthankaras are called Arthagamas and the Sutras written over them are named

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Sutragamas. The Agamas compiled by Pratyekabuddhas or Sthaviras are also valid. Like the Bauddha Pitakas, they are called Ganipitakas. Agamas are a composed form of Angas and Purvas. Puravas are no longer in existence. They might have established their own tradition which would have been absorbed in the Angas. The knower of fourteen Purvas is called Srutakevali. The Scripture that we have at present is derived from Tirthankara Mahavira. The Purvas are included into Drastivada which is briefly divided into five parts, viz. Parikarma, Sutra, Purvagata, Anuyoga and Culika. The Kasayapahuda and Satkhandagama texts are perhaps the earliest source of knowledge of the Drastivada. In course of time it was lost with obliteration of Kevalajnana gradually as can be understood by the posthumous spiritual titles of Caudasa, Dasa and Nava Puvvis.
The traditional way through hearsay has been the only means to preserve and protect the Scriptures for sometimes. In due course the addition and omission ought to take place in the texts which were used to examine by holding the Councils called Vacanas, like Buddhist Sangitis from time to time at Pataliputra, Mathura and Valabhi. The Third or Fourth Vacana was held at Valabhi 980 years after the Nirvana of Mahavira under the presidentship of Devardhigani Ksamasramana who compiled and written down the available Sciptures. It may be mentioned here that no referenc to these Councils is made in Digambara traditional literature. In its view the original form of Agamas went into oblivion and alienation upto 683 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. The Svetambara tradition does not refute the view but states that even if the original form of the Agamas is changed, its whole form cannot be completely rejected and ignored. Some cultural aspects and linguistic peculiarities prove its originality to a certain extent.
The Jaina Scriptures are divided into several ways. viz. Angapravista and Angabahya, in) Kalika and Utkalika ,iii) Anga, Upanga, Chedasutra, Mulasutra, Prakirnaka and Culika, iv) Krta and Niryuhana, v) Carananuyoga, Dharmakathanuyoga, Ganitanuyoga, and Dravyanuyoga, and vi) Prathamanuyoga, Karananuyoga, Charananuyoga, and Dravyanuyoga. The language of Purvas was Sanskrit and the present Agamas are found in Prakrit. It was spoken in a part of Magadha and was mingled with other dialects. Therefore it is called Ardhamagadhi in which the Svetambara Agmas are written. The Digambara Agamic literature is found in Sauraseni Prakrit. The Agamas can also be, therefore,
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divided into two ways, viz. Ardhamagadhi and Sauraseni. The Murtipujaka Svetambaras recognize only 45 or 84 Agamas while the Sthanakavasis and Terapanthis accept 32 Agamas. On the other hand, the Digambaras are of view that the original Agamas became extinct. In their place they recognise the works of Pushapadanta, Bhutavali, Kundakunda, Vattakera, Sivarya, Umaswami, Samantabhadra, Akalanka and other Acaryas as the Agamas.
The fact that the Digambara and the Svetambara traditions agree on fundamental features of the structure of the Jaina Scriptures establishes beyond doubt, i) that a Jaina Scripture had been compiled, arranged and recognized before the schism and ii) that the traditional divisions were remembered even after the Digambaras rejected the Svetambara Scriptures as a later innovation. Thus there is no controversy between Digambara and Svetambara traditions about the twelve Angas, (viz. Ayaranga, Suyagadanga Thananga, Samavayanga, Viyahapannatti, Nayadhammakahao, Uvasagadasao, Antagadadasao, Anuttarovavaiyadasao, Panhavanhagaranaim, Vivagasuyam and Ditthivaya). Due to lack of space it is not possible to go through the Scriptures in detail, but it may be pointed out that they are full of linguistic, cultural, historical, philosophical and spiritual material. Likewise, the Kasayapahuda of Gunadhara, Satkhandagama of Puspadanta and Bhutavali, Dhavalatika of Virasena, Samayasara, Pravacanasara etc. of Kundakunda, Mulacara of Vattakera, Bhagawatiaradhana of Sivarya, Kattigeyanuvekkha of Kartikeya, Tattvarthasutra of Umasvami, Ratnakarandasravakacara, Aptamimamsa etc. of Samantabhadra, Sanmatisutra etc. of Siddhasena, Tattvartha-rajavartika of Akalanka and some more texts are treated as the Scripture of Digambara tradition. JAINA PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Philosophy is the science of the general law of being and human thinking, which indicates the process of cognition and development led to the various aspects connected with ontology, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, psycholgy and sociology. It promotes man's self-awareness, his understanding of the nature of self or life and clarifies the content of problems that have been traditionally philosophical. It is also a speculum of life land thought which deals with the psychology of beings' activities that become Karma.
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Theory of Anekantavada
The Universe is a composite of groups consisting of adverse pairs like knowledge and ignorance, pleasure and sorrow, life and death and so on. Life depends on such adverse groups. All the groups have their own interests, which create clashes and conflicts in thinking among themselves. Religion is supposed to pacify these clashes through co-existence on socialistic pattern of society. The co-existence cannot be remained without relativity.
Jaina philosophy is based on the nature of reality which is considered through non-absolutism (Anekantavada). According to this view, reality possesses infinite characteristics which cannot be perceived or known at once by any ordinary man. Different people think about different aspects of the same reality and therefore their partial findings are contradictory to one another. Hence they indulge in debates claiming that each of them was completely true. The Jaina philosophers thought over this conflict and tried to reveal the whole truth. They established the theory of a Non-absolutistics standpoint Anekantavada with its two wings, Nayavada and Syadvada. Proper understanding of the co-existence of mutually opposing groups through these principles rescues one from conflicts. Mutual co-operation is the Law of Nature21.
Things are visible and invisible as well. We stand by visible objects and accept them as they surely are but do not recognise their invisible characteristics. Until and unless one does not recognise both these characters of an object, he cannot reach to the truth and justice. None is absolutely similar or dissimilar, friend or enemy, good or bad. As a matter of fact, every entity hides in itself the innumerable possiblities. Coal can be converted into the state of a diamond or coal is the first stage of diamond. This is the conception of Anekantavada. It should be remembered here that total impossibility of becoming is very rare,. Rational cannot be irrational and irrational cannot be rational. On the contrary, it can be converted into some thing else. One becomes desperate as he does not under-stand the theory of relativity. He forgets that the modes are not imperishable. They are to be changed. Sorrow can be converted into pleasure. Absoluteness has no meaning in any field. Substance cannot be fully explained without the assistance of Anekantavada. Life itself cannot be properly understood without 21. Parasparo pagrho jivanam - Tattvarthasutra, 5.21.

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this philosophical notion. Plurism, monotheism existence and nonexistence, eternality and non-eternality and so on go together. These characters of an entity can be comprehended with the help of real standpoint (Niscayanaya) and Practical standpoint (Vyavaharanaya).
The Jainas believe, unlike the Buddhists, that a substance is dynamic (Parinami) in character. It means a thing is eternal from real standpoint and momentary from practical standpoint. Causal efficiency, according to them, is possible neither in a thing which is of the static nature (Kutasthanitya)nor in a thing which is incongruous with the doctrine of momentariness (Ksanikavada), but it is possible only in a thing which is permanent-in-change. (Parinamanastila).
The controversial point in the philosophical system is mainly related with the nature of reality. Some systems of thought accept only the Universal (Samanya) character of reality. Advaitavadins and the Sankhyas are the typical representatives of this view. Some other schopis led by the Buddhists recognise only particular (Visesa) character of reality. The third school of thought belongs to Nyaya-Vaisesikas, who treat Universal and Particular as absolutely distinctive entities.
According to jainism, an entity has infinite characteristics which are divided into two categories, viz. Universal and Particular. Just as different colours can exist in a lustrous gem without conflicting with each other, so the universal and particular elements could abide in a reality. Thus each and every reality is universalized-cum-particularized along with substance with modes (Dravyaparyayatmaka). Here Dravya represents the Universal character and Paryaya represents the particular character of a thing. For example, a jar is made of gold which can be changed into several modes, while preserving gold as a permanent substance. They are mutually interdependent, identical and separate from each other.
The nature of reality, according to this theory, is permanent-inchange. It possesses three common characteristics, such as Utpada (origination), Vyaya(destruction) and Dhrauvya (permanence through birth and decay). It also possesses the attributes (Gunas) called Anvayi, which coexist with substance (Dravya) and modifications (Paryaya) called Vyatireki, which succeed each other.

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Productivity and destructivity constitute the synamic aspect of an entity and permanence is its enduring factor.
Nayavada (the theory of partial truth) is an integral part of the conception of Anekantavada, which is essential to conceive the sole nature of reality. It provides the scope for acceptance of different viewpoints on the basis that each reveals a partial truth about an object. It is, as a matter of fact, a way of approach and observation which is an imperative necessity to understand of one's different interests and inclinations in different lights on the basis that there could be a valid truth in each of them, and therefore requires their proper value and impartial estimation. Naya investigates analytically a particular standpoint of the problem in all respects in the context of the entire reality. But if anything is treated as the complete truth, it is not Naya, but Durnaya or Nayabhasa or Kunaya. For instance, "It is" is Naya, and “It is and is only" is Durnaya, while “It is relatively (Syat)" is an example of Syadvada.
Syadvada investigates them into a constant and comprehansive synthesis. The prefix "Syat" in the Syadvada represents the existence of these characteristics which, though not perceived at the moment, are present in reality. The word "Syat" is an indeclinable and stands for multiplicity or multiple character (Anekanta). It reveals certainly regarding any problem and not merely the possibility or probability. It is unique contribution of Jainism to Indian philosophy. There is a word Kathancit in Sanskrit literature which is used as a substitute for “Syat" by Jains as well as non-Jaina philosophers. In English it may be translated with the word "relatively".
Syadvada is connected with relative expression about the nature of reality. It makes an effort to respect other doctrines by warning us against allowing the use of "eva" or "only" to proceed beyond its prescribed limits and penetrates the truth patiently and non-violently. It is an humble attitude of tolerance and justice and to pay respect for other's views. This view can be understood by Saptabhangi or the theory of seven-fold prediction, which is a method of cognition to comprehend the correct nature of reality through a sevenfold relative dialectic method. It is treated as complementary to the Syadvada doctrine. Akalanka thinks of it as a way which considers reality in a positive (Vidhimukhena) and a negative (Nisedhamukhena) manner without incompatibility in a certain context. There is no violation of the Law of Contradiction
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here as dual character of entities exists in respect of its own individuality and does not exist apart from and outside this nature (Sarvamasti svarupena pararupena nasti ca). In relativistic standpoint, both being and non-being can exist together. The theory of Relativity which is also supported by Einstein is practically accepted by all as a perfect mathematical theory in the scientific world. DRAVYAS OR TATTVAS
Reality or substance in Jainism is distinguished from Dravya. Dravya means that which exists and possesses three fundamental characteristics, viz. origin (Utpada), destruction (Vyaya) and permanence (Dhrauvya). It maintains its identity through its several qualities and modes. The Dravya in its reality can neither be created nor destroyed; it has only permanent substantiality. But through its modes, it secures the triple qualities. There is neither quality without substance nor substance without quality. Hence these two are not incompatible in their nature.
Dravya in Jainism is of six kinds, namely, Jiva (soul), Ajiva (non-soul), Dharma (principle of motion), Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space), and Kala (time). The first five types of Dravyas are called Astikayas (those exist and have different pradesas or areas like a body) and the last is named Anastikaya. According to another classification it is of three kinds, viz. Sakriya (active), Niskriya (inactive) and Sakriya-Niskriya. The Sakriya Dravya, which have the capacity of moving from place to place, are Pudgalas or Jivas. Contrary to this, the Niskriya Dravyas are space and Kala, Sakriya-Niskriya Dravyas are those realities which move about without themselves undergoing changes or motion. Dharma and Adharma are Sakriya and Niskriya Dravyas respectively. Pudgala alone is Murta (having forms) which possesses the sense qualities of contact, taste, smell, sound and colour. In an other classification, the Dravyas or Tattvas are divided into seven categories, Viz. Jiva (Soul) Ajiva (non soul) Asrava (inflow of Karmic matter) into the soul, Bandha (bondage of soul by Karmic matter), Samvara (stoppage of the inflow of the Karmic matter), Nirjara (shedding of Karmic matter), and Moksa (liberation of soul from Karmic matter). Conception of Soul (jiva)
According to Jaina philosophy, soul is eternal and beginningless. It has life, consciousness, Upayoga (knowledge and
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perception) and is potent. It performs actions. and is affected by their results, is conditioned by its own body (characteristic of contraction and expansion), is incorporeal and is ordinarily found with Karma. In addition, it is capable of becoming free from the defect of Karma,gets to the highest point of the universe, knows all and perceives all and obtains the transcendental bliss ever-lasting?2. The nature of soul is considered dual in character. According to the realistic standpoint, it remains the same under all states, while according to the practical standpoint, it is transformed into modes and thus becomes different in number, place and form etc.
The souls are of two types, namely Samsaris (transmigrating beings) those who undergo or subjects to the cycle of wandering into births and experience the fruit of Karmas, and Muktas, the emancipated souls. The transmigrating souls are of two kinds, Trasas (mobiles) and Sthavaras (immobiles). The Sthavaras are further divided into five kinds, viz. earth, water, fire, air and plants possessing the touching sensation. The mobile beings are from two-sensed beings onwards. The senses are five, viz. touch, taste, smell, sight, and hearing. The senses are also of two kinds, the physical sense and psychic sense. Earth, water, plants etc. have one sense of touch and the warm, the ant, the bee, and man etc. have each one more sense than the preceding one. These living beings possess of some essential characteristics called Pranas, viz. Bala, Indriya, Ayu, and Ucchavasa (breathing). The means of birth of beings are also dicscussed. It is of three kinds, viz. i) spontaneous generation, Sammurchhana ii) birth from uterus (Garbhaja), and Upapadajanma (that is the seat to which the soul goes and in which it is born).
The existence of soul is proved from the word "Soul" itself. The very thought whether the soul exists or not proves its existence, because man can think whether something is a pillar or a person while an inanimate substance cannot. No one except the soul can raise doubt. Modern scientists are also realising the existence of soul. For instance, it is said that “This world is not a machine without soul. It has not come into existence by accident. Behind the veil of matter, is working a mind and consciousness. This force may be given any nomenclature."
22. Pancastikaya 27-8.

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Ajiva Tattva
Ajiva Tattva is of five types, viz. Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala. Pudgala has form and the qualities, Rupa etc. While the rest are without form. Except Kala Dravya, all the Dravyas are called Pancastikayas. Functions of the media of motion and rest or steadiness are to assist motion and rest respectively, just as water facilitates the movement of fish and the earth gives support to object like the horse, are called Dharam and Adharma. Akasa (space) accommodates completely all Jivas and Pudgalas. Kala (time) denotes an existential fact.
Pudgala (Matter) connotes that which has accretion and depletion, addition and bifurcation, conjunction and reparation. It is characterised by touch, taste, smell and colour. Sound, union, fineness, grossness, shape, division, darkness, image, warmth, light, are also forms of matter. The divisions of matter are two, atoms and molecules. The atom is itself the beginning, the middle and the end. It cannot be perceived by the senses. Molecules are collections of atoms which are characterised by sound, union etc. Some of them are visible and some invisible. Combination of atoms takes place by virtue of greasy (Snigdha), and dry (rough) properties associated with them. in six ways; i) Very Gross-land, mountain etc. 2) Gross - water, oil, ghee etc.,3) Fine gross air and other gases, 4) Gross fine -light, shadows etc.5) Fine - matter of thought and speech etc. and 6) Very fine Skandhas composed of two, three etc. Paramanus. Science gives three physical states of matter, viz. solid, liquid and gaseous, and these correspond with the first three divisions given above. Philosophers knew the existence of three more divisions which can be compared with X-rays and Gamma rays. Jainologists have also of the view that sound can reach the other end of the universe, if strongly produced. Some believe that radio etc. have corroborated the statement.
The nature of universe is based on the nature of reality which possesses triple characteristics, origin, destruction and permanence. The things that exist cannot be originated from a realistic standpoint, but they get transformed into their own attributes and modes from a practical point of view. This system of realities results in the universe being infinite as well as eternal in character. The entire universe, according to Jainism, is a compendium of the six Dravyas which are a permutation and combination of atoms. It is not created by God.

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The Karma theory
The theory of Karma is considered under the purview of Pudgala (matter), karma in Jaina philosophy emphasizes that one has its pivotal stand for deciding the fruits of one's activities on an individual basis. The so called God cannot exercise its power as a middle man. One will have to bear the result of ones own deeds. The vibration (Yoga) and the passions (Kasaya) of soul attract Karmic matter and transform it into Karmic body. Yoga is the action of mind, speech and body due to desire, aversion and cognition. Soul is pure in its intrinsic nature. The relation of Karma is a cause that makes it a subject to the cycle of birth and death. There are two distinct causal agencies, viz. Nimittakarana or Dravyakarma (remote or distant cause) and Upadanakarana or Bhavakarma (substantial cause). Soul is the substantial cause of the passions while Karmic matter is the remote cause. Acarya Kundakunda has discussed in detail about the interrelation between soul and body. That can be summed up with the words that the soul and body are capable of causal interrelation and a change in one always involves two antecedents, one physical and the other psychic. If causal interrelation is not admitted, certainly ethical values will remain unexplained and unintelligible.
On the basis of nature the Karmas are of eight kinds, viz.) Jnanavarana which conceals the light of knowledge,2) Darsnavarana which obscures right intuition,3) Vedaniya karma which obscures the pleasant feeling and unpleasant feeling, 4) Mohaniyakarma, the Karma which deludes faith, conduct, etc. This is the greatest powerful Karma which covers the powers of the soul like wine. All the karmas proceed the Mohaniya Karma. As long as the Mohaniyakarma is powerful, all the karmas remain powerful and as soon as it gets weaker, all the karmas lose their strength.5) Ayukarma that which determines the quantum of life in the states of existence as internal beings, plants and animals, human beings and celestial beings, 6) Namakarma, the karma due to which the soul acquires Nama-rupa etc. that is body 7) Gotrakarma (status determining Karmas) are of two types, high and low, and Antarayakarma that obstructs in making gifts, gain, enjoyment, effort etc. Of these, Jnanavarana, Darsanavarana, Mohaniya and Antaraya Karmas are called Ghatiya Karmas which destroy the four main characteristics of soul- knowledge, perception, pleasure and effort, and ii) the remaining four Karmas are called Aghatiyakarmas
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which do not destroy the virtues of soul. On destruction of Ghatikarmas, one attains Kevalajnana and on destruction of remaining four Karmas he achieves salvation. Karmas are also divided into another two divisions, viz. Subha (virtuous), and Asubha (wicked activities). Just as water flows into the lake by means of streams, so also karmic matter flows into the soul through the channel or medium of activity. All the eight types of Karmas have the causes of the influx.
Theory of Karma, as in Buddhism rejects the theory of God as creator, supporter and destroyer of the world. Jainism does not believe in the principles of reward, judgement, incarnation and forgiveness. One will have to bear the result of his own deeds. They cannot be extinguished simply by the mercy of God. Jainism, of course, unlike Buddhism believes in Godhood, the Paramatman stage of soul itself and in innumerable gods. Karma stands to reincarnate the soul as cause to effect. It can be purged through the trinity, right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. Every soul is potentially divine and the manifestation of divinity is called Paramatma. It has three stages,i) Bahiratman that engages itself in the external objects through the senses and is endowed with wrong views, 2) Antarataman, the stage which moves towards the real of soul, repents for indulging tendency of senses. 3) The third stage is the Paramatma, the Sidha, a soul that is freed itself from bondage of Karma and cycle of birth and death. This is the most purified stage of soul. Such a soul is bereft of the bodies produced by eight Kinds of karmas, preserves infinite perception, infinite knowledge and infinite bliss and stays at the summit of the universe. This is called the stage of Nirvana (emancipation from Karmas). Classification of knowledge
Jainism classifies Knowledge in two ways;i) Canonical (Agamika), and ii) Philosophical (Darsanika). The five kinds of knowledge based on the former are;;) Matijhana (sensitive knowledge),ii) Srutajnana (Scriptural knowledge),iii) Avadhijnana (Visual knowledge), iv) Manahparyayajnana (mental knowledge), and v) Kevalajnana (perfect knowledge); while Pratyaksa (direct knowledge) and Paroksa (indirect knowledge) are developments of the latter. The Pratyaksa is defined as knowledge obtained by self without the assistance of an external instrument. It is only to the Jainas that "aksa" means "soul". Thus Pratyaksa in Jaina
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Agamika tradition does not mean empirical perception, i.e. Knowledge obtained through sense organs. According to this definition, the Avadhijnana, Manahparyayajnana and Kevalajnana are comprised in Pratyaksa and Matijnana, and Srutajnana in Paroksa.
The Jaina definition of Pratyaksa was quite different from those of other philosophical systems. According to the latter, Pratyaksa is an acknowledgement gained through sense organs. It created a serious difficulty for Jaina philosophers. The rivals began to question their standpoint. Having examined their arguments, the later Jaina philosophers accepted Pratyaksa as the knowledge produced by sense organs also. Jinabhadra and Akalanka however, analysed it as Samvyavaharika Pratyaksa (empirical perception), while the real Pratyaksa of Agamika tradition was called Paramarthika Pratyaksa (transcendental perception). Thus Matijnana which was put under Paroksa in the Agamika tradition, came under the category of Pratyaksa in philosophical tradition. JAINA ETHICS AND SPIRITUALITY
Spiritual disciplines and practices are representative wings of religion and philosophy. Spirituality is immanent in human nature, religion is a moral force and philosophy is an intellectual instrument for achieving the spiritual and religious goals. Under this perspective, Jainism originally preaches ideals for attaining spirituality. Its religious aspects enjoin discipline for social upliftment and philosophy justifies them for exemplary behaviors. Spirituality relates to having belief in an independent existence of soul, its nature of innate purity, and the removal of ignorance through right mea To attain this spiritual goal a certain amount of disciplines and practices are prescribed by all the systems. Therefore there is no controversy over the spiritual goal but controversy lies in framing the disciplines and practices leading to the goal. Here we shall have a bird's view of the concept of Jainism in this regard.
For spiritual realization, according to Jaina tradition, right faith (Samyagdarsana), right knowledge (Samyagjnana), and right conduct (Samyagcaritra) constitute path of spiritual salvation termed
23. Tattvartharajavartika, 1.47-8.
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as triple jewel (Ratnatraya). Bhatta Akalanka explained the trinity with the help of medicine which cures the diseases by following faith, knowledge and conduct accordingly23. Belief in the ascertainment of things in their true character is right faith. It can be achieved by avoiding doubts in the teaching of Jina, desire for worldly enjoyment, admiration for the knowledge and conduct of the wrong believers and so on. Anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed are the passions which lead to endless worldly existences or transmigrations. Consequently on the fruition of Karmas, the soul wanders into different conditions of existence. When the infinite Karmas are completely destroyed, the perfect knowledge, perfect perception, fearlessness and infinite enjoyment are attained by the purified soul. This process comes under the Samvara and Nirjara Tattvas. Samvara means the obstruction of influx of Karmic matter and the Nirjara connotes the separation of part of Karmic matter from the soul. Stoppage and gradual dissociation are the chief causes of liberation. Puiayapda defines the Moksa (liberation) as the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul on the removal of all the impurities of Karmic matter and the body, characteritized by the inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and sufferi
With the sole intention of achieving the purified state of soul Jainism prescribes some fundamental spiritual disciplines and practices. They can be observed partially and totally. Partial observation is prescribed for a householder as he is unable to desist from all sins completely whereas an ascetic is expected to observe the code of conduct totally as he practically does not stay at home. An ascetic is he who observes vows completely (Mahavrati) and is free from sting, the main root of pain and emotion arising from Karmas. Sting is of three kinds, viz. deceit termed as Maya, ii) desire for enjoyment termed as Nidana, and iii) perverse attitude termed as Mithyadarsana. The practice of these four with vigilence dispels sufferings and strings just as an excellent specific herb removes disease. A LAY ADHERENT
The Householder or Sravaka is one who listens the Dharma with full faith from Acarayas and Paramesthis. He prepares himself gradually and steadily to renounce the world with right faith by 24. Sarvarthasiddhi,p.i.
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observing the rules prescribed and then fulfils the responsibilities for the welfare of the family, ascetics, society, nation and mankind. Some of the important attributes of a householder may be mentioned as follows:- observation of non- violence, legitimate earning, hospitality, refraining from unnecessary criticism of Government, keeping good accompany,paying respect to parents, service of people, following religious preachings, gratefulness, generocity, being afraid of sin, honesty, appreciating conduct, life and activities of spiritually advanced people, avoiding expenditures exceeding income and so on. Such rules make life pleasent (Dharmabinduprakarana, Sagaradnarmamrta,i.ii). These altributes consider the ecology an indispensable part of spirituality and life as well. The spiritual status of a Householder is decided on his performence as follows:1. Pakshika Sravaka
This is the first spiritual status of a Jaina laity in which he first takes a vow with right faith not to eat meat, not to drink alcohol or wine and not to relish horey or any of the five kinds of figs containing souls. These are called Mulagunas. Then he desists from injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity, and attachment to wealth. The Paksika Sravaka also takes a vow not to indulge in seven types of obnoxious habits (Vyasanas) which make the life disastrous. They are gambling and betting, meateating, alchohelic drink, prostitution, hunting, stealing, and sexual intercourse with another's wife or husband. He is also expected not to be indulged in violence-carrying professions. The licit earning sources are agriculture, study and teaching, and art profession, of course, but the pursuit of a profession should be positively in a pure way. Along with these practices he should also practice some more activities called Avasyakas namely i) worship of the Tirthankaras, ii) Service to spiritual teacher iii) studying Spriptual texts every day, iv) practicing some form of self restraint every day, v) doing some form of penance daily, and vi) doing some kind of charitable actas. This is an introduction to spiritual discipline of an ordinary householder. These
ervations create communal harmony and peace in society
25. Padmanandipancavimsatika, 6.7. 26. Ratankaranda kasrvakacara, 25.
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and in the nation. 2. Naisthika Sravaka (Allegiant layman)
One who fulfils his religious duties with constant vigilence is a Naisthika Sravaka. In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life the householder goes further to observe the eleven spiritual stages (Pratimas). They are;- i) Darasana Pratima;- it requires true and unshakable faith in Jainism with firm conviction in the reality of seven fundamental principles of Jainism and devotion to Pancaparameshthis. After a long practice he becomes Samyagdristi. He should also not be proud of knowledge, worship family, caste, wealth, practices, and beauty26. He will ponder daily over twelve points of meditation to realize selt or deep-reflection vadasanupreksas as follows;- transitoriness, helplessness, transmigration, loneliness, distinctness, impurity, influx, stoppage, dissociation, universe, rarity of enlightenment and the truth. These reflections help the spiritual aspirants to practice ten moral virtues, such as forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment and celibacy. The realization of self through these attributes generates tranquillity, disenchantment with the materialistic world, prosperity, supreme perfection, and final beutitude.2) Vrata Pratima (the stage of observing vows);- In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life the householder goes ahead to observe the twelve vows for obtaining inner purity of the self. Firm conviction with right understanding in the reality of fundamental principles of Jainism generates benevolence towards all living beings (Maitri), joy at the sight of virtuous (Pramoda), compassion and sympathy for afflicted (Karuna), and tolerence towards the insolent and ill-behaved (Madhyasthya). He who conducts himself in this manner is able to practise non-violence, truth, not stealing, refraining from all illicit sexual activities and non-possession to perfection. Non-violence is the fundamental principle of Jainism. Here violence means severance of vitalities out of passion. Negligence is the main cause of violence. Even violence in the thought in view of Jainism is a cause of injury. It is said that when a monk goes on foot with carefulness sometimes small insects get crushed under his feet and die. Still there is not the slightest bondage of sin in his cause. From the spiritual standpoint, infatuation is called attachment.
27. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 79-81.
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Violence is mainly of three-fold, i.e.i) committed by himself (Krta), ii) that which is committed by others (Karita), and iii) giving consent to violence done (Anumodana). This violence should be avoided by either of the three agencies of mind, speech and body. By this way a layman starts his steps towards equality and equanimity. The true householder should be kind to animals. He should not bind, beat and mutilate their limbs. He should not overload them and withhold food and drink. Another point should also be cleared in this respect. Jainism is very firm and says that one should not sacrifice animals for the adoration of gods, being dominated by the perverted notion of receiving benediction in return. It is inconceivable how the gods seek satisfaction and serenity from such inhuman deeds which cause unbearable pain to the animals. It must
ot be obligatory to kill the animals for the entertainment of guests, a pious design by impious means".
All the other vows are intended to safeguard non-violence, speaking what is not commendable is falsehood. Preparing false records prompted by others in order to cheat others, misappropriation, proclaiming other's thoughts etc. are included into the ambit of falsehood which should be avoided in practice. Asteya means not taking the property of others whether pledged or dropped or forgotten unless it has been given. He again should not be indulged in activities like receiving stolen things, using false weights and measures, deceiving others with artificial or imitation goods. Unchastity and excess accumulation of wealth etc. are also prohibited to the Jaina householder. These observations should be in practice to make justice and create congenial atmosphere and relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy. Ordering someone to bring something illegally from outside the country is also prohibited for householders.
Rendering help to one another is the basis to the formula of Jaina discipline. Some more supplementary vows are prescribed for householders which pave the way for their spiritual elevation with a view to having socio-economic justice. For instance, to curb the mentality of master-minding operations aimed at enlarging one's wealth or concentrating their economic power to achieve greater exploitative capacity Jainism directs the householder to fix boundaries for business, not to pursue commercial activities causing injury to living beings, to extend hospitality by offering food, implements, medicine and shelter and to bestow one's posses
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sions upon one another for mutual benefit. He should also observe compassion towards living beings in general and towards the devout in particular. He should practise charity, contemplation, equanimity and freedom from greed. (See, Ratnakaranda., Sagaraharmamrta, Upaskadhyayana etc.). Other Pratimas like meditation, fast, renouncing eating after sun set etc. should also be observed, for attainment of gradual renunciation from worldly concern and becoming prone to monkhood. The spiritual aspirant who reaches the eleventh stage is called Ksullaka (junior) having three long pieces of clothes and a loin Cover (Langota), a Kamandalu and a broom in Digambara tradition. In Svetambara tradition he is called Sramanabhuta possessing a begging bowl and whisk broom. 3) Sadhaka Sravaka
Sallekhana, the spiritual death in Jaina tradition, is the third stage of a house-holder which is very close to that of an ascetic where the subjugation of the senses is conducive to the removal of passions. It is defined as making the physical body and the internal passions emaciated by abandoning their sources gradually at the approach of death with pleasure and not by forces. For various reasons one decides to perform Sallekhana. According to the Bhagawati Aradhana, the old age, physical weakness, famine, incurable disease, calamities etc. are such reasons which render the performence of Avasyakas impossible. It should be performed at the Jaina temple or one's own house or in jungle at the eve of the death, so that one could achieve better prospects in the next birth. Sallekhana is also called Samadhimarana. It should be observed through Ayambils, Penances, Internal and external Tapas, renunciation of worldly affairs, forgiveness, Alocana, Pratikramana, Dhyana etc. with the view to attain purification of mind. (Pravacanasaroddhara, 902-3; Bhagawati Aradhana, 253-4).
This is an important and interesting feature of the Jaina householder and spiritual aspirants. Some scholars are of opinion that Sallekhana is a sort of suicide, since there is voluntary severence of life etc. but this is not correct, as there is no passion A person who kills himself by means of passion, weapon etc. swayed by attachment, aversion or infatuation etc. commits suicide. But he who practises holy death is free from desire, anger, and delusion. Hence, it is not suicide. This is called Sallekhana in 28. Sarvarthasiddi. 7.22. Acaranga
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Jaina terminology which means to make the body and the passion thin.
In modern days it is named "Euthanasia" or teacher "Right to die" which is a sort of suicide and not the spiritual death. This has come into light the world over and became a subject of debate because of the revolutionary changes in medical knowledge and life-supporting systems which could prolong human life even after the brain stopped functioning. The practice, has, of course been accepted in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom and some other countries. But it should be treated as the case of suicide if it does not follow the line of spiritual death.
Thus the householder's stage is the pre-stage of a Jaina ascetic. It is, therefore, simply natural for him to observe the ascetic practices to certain extent. The daily routine of a Jaina lay disciple starts with reciting the Mahamantra "NAMO ARIHANTANAM, NAMO SIDDHANAM, NAMO AYARIYANAM, NAMO UVAJJHAYANAM, NAMO LOE SABBASAHUNAM” in Brahmamuhurta (early morning) thinking" who am I?" What are my vows"? "What is my Dharma"? etc. He then meditates, studies the Scriptures, worships the Jinas and then takes the meals. Avasyakas and Pratikramana are also to be observed by the householder 9.
Another type of division of spiritual stages is called Gunasthanas in the Jaina scritpture. They are fourteen in number stating the nature of the self in possession of the Ratnatraya on the path of purification. It starts with Mithyadrsti, the lowest one which involves gross ignorence where the self accepts wrong belief as a right, and therefore, the person cannot make a distinction between reality and unreality, and ends with Ayogakevali, the last one and most purified stage where all the passions and karmas are annihilated by the third and fourth stage of Sukladhyayana. This is called Siddhavastha. The spiritual development in fourteen steps can be comprehended by the three main divisions, viz. the external self (Bahiratmana), internal self (Antaratman) and the transcendental self (Paramatman) Jaina Mendicant
Jain scripture prescribes a code of conduct for a spiritual aspirant. It is called Samacaro (Right conduct) which is formulated 29. Dharmabindu, 3.46; Sagaradharmamrta, 5.1-9.
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in consonance with the spiritual vigilance for a mendicant. He stays in temples of woods with total renunciation and proper conduct. He must observe fully all the twelve vows prescribed to the householder. After observing the eleventh Pratima he accepts initiation from the teacher and becomes a mendicant by pulling the hair out from his head with his own hands. He proceeds to arrest the karmic matter by controlling passions, careful movement, observing virtues, engaging himself in contemplation and conquering the sufferings by endurance and conduct. For curbing the threefold activity of body, speech and mind an ascetic takes every care in walking, speaking, eating, lifting and lying down and depositing waste products for avoiding injury to organisms. Besides, he has also to Endure twenty-two types of afflictions (Parisahas), such as hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect bites, nakedness, abstinence of pleasures, women, pain, discomfort of postures, uncomfortable couch, scolding, injury, begging, lack of gain, illness, pain, inflicted by blades grass, dirt, reverence and honour, conceive of learning, despair or uneasiness arising from ignorance and lack of faith. These afflictions are to be endured so as not to swerve the path of stoppage of Karmas and for the sake of dissociation from Karma. He follows 28 Mulagunas completely.
Acelakata or nakedness is a requisite characteristic of the ascetics. Mahavira is called Nigantha Nataputta in the Pali Literature. The term Nigantha reveals the qualities such as renunciation, purity, restraint, etc. As a result of the later development, the Scripture also allowed afterwards in the Svetambara tradition the mask for preventing the death of micro-organisms normally entering the mouth (Mukhavastrika), a piece of cloth (Avamacela), blanket (Padakambala), broom (Rajoharana), pot (Patra), seat (Asana-peetha), phalaka etc30. Thus the ascetic constitutes the conduct by observing five causes of stoppage, namely control (Gupti), regulation (Samiti), moral virtues (Dharma), reflections or contemplations (Anupreksas) and conquest of afflictions (Parisahajaya) and conduct (Caritra).
In this context we should also understand the penance or religious austerity which is the chief stoppage of influx and dissipation of Karmas. If is, of course, self-imposed. Penance (Tapa) is of two types, namely external penance (Bahyatapa) and internal penance (Antarangatapa). The external penance is of six types,
30. Uttaradhyayana, 26.21-22.
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viz. fasting (Ansana), reduced diet (Avamaudaraya), special restrictions for getting food (Vrttiparisankhyana), giving up stimulating and delicious dishes (Rasaparityaga), and mortification of body (Kayaklesa). The main object behind the external austerity is to cultivate patient endurance of bodily pain and suffering in order to remove attachment to pleasure and to proclaim the glory of the teaching of the Jainas. The internal austerities are also six types, viz. expiation over negligence of duties (Prayascitta), reverence to the holy personage (Vinaya), services to the saints in difficulty (Vaiyavrtti), study of the Scriptures (Svadhyaya), and meditation for checking the mind. The auspicious meditations (DharmaSukla Dhyana) became the cause for attainment of various types of transcendental powers (Riddhis). Eventually, the aspirant attains Kevalajnana (omniscience) as a result of destroying the Ghatiyakarmas and then finally reaches to the 14th Gunasthana of stage of spiritual development where all the Karmas are destroyed. This is the most purified stage of soul which is called Nirvana.
To attain this highest position in the spiritual sphere an aspirant undertakes daily Samayika and Caityavandana and then goes out to beg for food with a certain Aharamudra and eats in a standing posture from the hollow of his hands once in a day if he is a Digambara monk, while the Svetambara monks eat from their pots after returning to the monastery. Afterwards, they further engage themselves in studying the Scriptures, writing the books, preaching to the audience and performing penance. RITES AND RITUALS
Jainism in the strictest terms do not prescribe invocation, propitiation, offerings, prayers and the like. But in popular practice a devotee expresses his or her devotional attachment to idols which symbolize the glorification of the spiritual state and the attributes manifested in the idol Jinahood itself.
A Jaina devotee worships the Jaina image with two ways, the first is the abstract worship (Bhavapuja) which needs neither idol nor ritual, and the second one is formal worship (Dravyapuja) which needs the idol and some ritual performances.
The mendicants usually perform the abstract worship. It is also performed by those laities who do not have the sufficient facilities for accomplishing formal worship. There is a certain method prescribed for formalworship. After taking a bath and wearing clean
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clothes, the devotee goes to the temple and recites Namokaramantra (the Mahamantra) with devotional sonas and hymns, puts down a few grains of rice, bows and goes around a circamambulatory path three times, and repeats Arihanta-Siddha etc. Then on a rosary of 108 beads, he starts performing As-. tadravyapuja which is an eight-fold worship. First of all, he bathes the image with pure water which is a kind of reminiscence of the post-birth illustration of the bathing of the Tirthankara by Indra, the Lord of Gods (not of Jinas). Then he recites the verses, drops one after another the Astadravyas (water, sandal wood paste, cleaned rice-grains, flowers or saffron coloured rice, coconut, lamp,incense, fruits like cloves and almondsand the last one mixed offeringsArgha) in a platter placed on the table in front of him. This procedure of paying homage to the Jina or Tirthankara, the ideal Guru and the Sastras or Scriptures may be done individually orin a congregation. After this the devotee concludes his worships with the recitation of Santipatha expressing his wish for universal peace: "May Lord Jinendradeva, bestow peace on the land, the nation, the city and the state, and welfare on all the citizens, may the rulers and the administrators be strong, law-abiding and righteous, the rains be timely and adequate, all the diseases and ailments disappear, no one in the world be aftlicted with famine or scarcity because of theft, loot, plunder and devastation, nor with epidemics, even for a moment: Peace be to all."
Among other Jaina rituals, idol installation include Jinabimbapratistha or Pancakalyanakapratistha with devotional songs and hymns which initiates the image for worship in a Jaina temple. It is performed with a great ceremony under the leadership of a learned priest through depicting the five auspicious events of a Tirthankara's life, namely, conception, birth, renunciation, enlightenment and Nirvana.
There are some social ceremonies like Samskaras which are somehow connected with spiritual and with physical purity. They are of three types viz.i) 53 kriyas (rites) which cover the entire life of a person from conception to death (Garbhanvayakriyas), ii) 48 rites which are related to new converts and their spiritual development (Diksanvayakriyas), and iii) 7 rites which are meant for personality development of meritorious souls (Kartranvyayakriyas).
Among festivals celebrated by Jainas are : Paryusana, or Dasalaksana Parva held during the rainy season for eight or ten
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days in Jaina temples where the sermons on the Dasadharmas, which are the ten virtues of the soul described in the Tattvarthsutra and Kalpasutra Scriptures are regularly read to an audience. At its end, ksamavaniparva or Samvatsariparva is celebrated, which is the day of universal forgiveness, when every Jaina asks for forgiveness from everyone else, and he himself forgives others for wrongs done towards him during the past year. Other festivals such as Raksabandhana, Sodasakaranvrata, Aksayatrtiya, Srutapancami, Dipavali, Mahaviranirvana Jayanti, Siddhacakravidhana, Astanhikaparva, Nandisvaravidhana, etc. should also be mentioned which are social festivals of the community.
JAINA AS A COMMUNITY
In light of modern definitions and speculations, our Jaina society may be termed as "Jaina Community" which states a particular form of social life, its cultural and ethnic ideas and values. It is originally based on the Jaina principle of equality and equanimity which stresses on the social and spritual individual, and rejects the idea of God as mediator, and replaces it with the theory of Karma. It regulates not only the present life, but also the future. Unlike the Vedic religion, the Jaina Scriptures sets forth the responsibility of ones deeds for deciding his caste (Jainas do not hold caste as a way of people being judged). In other words, caste cannot be decided by birth but it is one's own action or conduct which decides the caste. it is said that by simply shaving the head, one cannot be a Muni (monk) and by only adhering to Kasayacivar (saffron clothing) one cannot claim to be a Tapasvi, a person who resides in a jungle cannot be called a Sramana. As a matter of fact, they should possess the attributes like: Samata (equality and equanimity), Brahmacarya (celibacy), Jnana (knowledge), Tapa (penance). and Caritra (conduct) with the right attitude.
Jaina Community in its historical and social perspective is a quite distinct, independent and new society with its congregrationalist nature. It has never abondoned the origin spirit of Jainism. Therefore the Jaina community cannot be said to be the part of the Vedic or Hindu community, though it carries deep impact of it in the coue of conduct of householders in the later period. Like-wise, inspite of occupying a large portion of business and industry it would not be a true speculalion of the Jaina community to be recognised only
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as the business community.
Numerically, Jainas form a very small segment of the Indian population. Approximately, 3.19 million followers, or may be a little more near about 12 millions according to the calculation of Jaina society, of this religion account for 0.48 percent of the total population as of 1981 census and thus ranked the sixth largest religious group. However, Jainas are spread over all parts of India and have contributed a lot inspite of being a small community in the economic, political, cultural, social, literal, art, architecture and spiritual fields. They also never indulged in vicious and revengeful activities. Therefore, the Jaina community has its own distinctive place in the religious and human society.
As regards the status of women in the Jaina community, we will have to go back to the period of Mahavira who made then a crucial revolt against the existing tradition and extended his solid support to uplift this very important but most neglected organ of the family where they became least powerfuland most discogarded and controlled bitterly by men in each and every sphere. Considering all these nefarious practices and alienative attitude of men towards women, Mahavira stood against these pernicious social elements and freed them from indignation for their own progress in all walks of life. Some reservations had, of course, to be observed due to the slight physical incapability of women. Hence, some special rules were prescribed for nuns. Though they used to be heads of their units as Pravartini and Ganavacchedini, similar to Acarya and Upadhyaya, they were entirely responsible to the Acaryas. Candana, Puspacula, Subrata, and other well-known nuns of long ago, are referred to in this context. Even then, the patriarchal form of the society was developed and nuns were treated as slightly inferior to monks in certain respects. This however, does not hold women as anything less than human beings who, like all souls, have the right and capability to attain salvation. SPREAD OF JAINISM,
As we have discussed earlier, Jainism had already been established as an important religion in various provinces of India before Mahavira and the Buddha began their missionary activities. During their period, Magadha, Kausala, kapilavastu, Vaisali, Pava, Mithila, Varanasi, Simhabhumi, Kausambi, Avanti, etc. were prominent Jaina Centres. After Mahavira's Parinirvana, Jainism
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was patronized by the Sisunagas, Nandas, Kharavela, Mauryas, Satavahanas, Guptas, Paramaras, Candelas, Kalacuris, and others who provided all possible facilities to develop its literature and cultural activities. The Southern part of India was also a great centre of Jainism. Bhadrabahu and Visakhacarya with their disciples migrated to the South and propagated Jainism very much. Andhra, Satavahanas, Pallavas, Pandyas, Colas, Calukyas, Rastrakutas, Gangas, and others were main dynasties which rendered sufficient royal patronage and benefits to Jainism and its followers through the spirit of religious toleration which existed in this region. The Jainas were given magnificent grants for their spiritual purpose. Numerous Jaina temples and sculptures throughout the ages were erected by kings and many facilities were provided for literary services throughout India. As a result the Jaina Acaryas wrote their ample works in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa, Tamil, Kannada, Telagu, Marathi, Hindi, Gujrati and other modern Indian languages.
Jainism crossed India from South India at about eighth century B..C.. if not earlier, and become one of the most important relia of Ceylon, which was known in those days by the name of Lanka, Ratnadvipa or Simhala. The Mahavamsa (10.65-70; 33. 43-79) refers to the existence of Jainism in Ceylon even before the arrival of Buddhism. According to it, Pandukabhaya built a house at Anuradhapur for the Nigantha Jotiya and Giri and some more Niganthas. Jaina tradition takes the history of Jainism in Ceylon even prior to its Aryanization, or the Arrival of the Aryans. Ravana, a king of Lanka long ago is said to have erected a Jaina temple there at Trikutagiri. Another statue of Parsvanatha, the 23rd Jina found in the caves of Terapur is also said to be from Lanka. Jainism was a living religion of Ceylon upto the 10th A.D.
Kalakacarya, another Jaina monk, is said to have visited Burma or Svarnabhumi (Uttaradhyayana Niryukti, 120). Rsabhadeva is said to have travelled to Bhali (Bactria), Greece, Svarnabhumi, Panhave (Iran), etc. (Avasyaka Nir.336-37). Tirthankara Parsvnatha also went to Nepal. The existence of Jainism can also be proved in Afghanistan. Tirthankara images in the Kayotsarga, or meditating pose have been found in Vahakaraj Emir (Afghanis
32. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of India, Jan, 1885. 33 J.F. Moor, H.C. Com. Vol. P. 374.
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tan). Digambara Jaina monks have been in Iran, Siam, and Philistia !. Greek writers also mention their existence in Egypt, Abysiniya and Ethyopia®. It had also propagated in Kambuj, Campa, Bulgaria and some other foreign countries. ART AND ARCHITECTURE
The Jainas have been amongst the foremost in contributing to the field of art and architecture since early days. The images of Tirthankara Rasbhadeva and the figures of standing or sealed nude Yogins found inscribed on some terracotta seats, relics of the prehistoric Indus Valley Civilization, discovered at Mohenjodaro, as well as nude Harrappan red stone statue are almost equally old. The latter is remarkably akin to the polished stone torse of a Jina image from Lohanipur (Patna) which is ascribed to the Mauryan times (4th c. B.C.). King Kharavela of Kalinga, as the Hathigumpha inscriptions speaks, reinstalled the Jaina image which had been taken away by Nanda to Magadha in (4th c. B.C.) During the Satavahana period (60 B.C. to 225 A.D.) Mathura and Saurastra were the main centres. The earliest Mathura sculpture represented by Kankalitila where from Ayagaptta. Stupa, images, and other Jaina cultural material are recovered. Gandhara art and Mathura art belong to Kusana period (First B.C. to 2nd A.D.) in which Jainism flourished to Mathura and the Ardhaphalaka sect, Yapaniya Sangha and Nagara art came into existence.
Gupta period (4th to 7th C.A.D.) is said to be the golden period of ancient Indian Culture. Harigupta, Siddhasena, Harisena, Ravikirti, Pujyapada, Patrakesari, Udyotanasuri and other Jainacaryas have been in existence during the period. karnataka, Mathura, Hastinapur, Saurastra, Avanti, Ahicchatra, Bhinnamala, Kausambi, Devagumpha, Vidisa, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaisali, Pataliputra, Rajagraha, Campa etc. were the main Jaina centres of art and architecture. After the Gupta period, Kakkula, Vatsaraja, and Mahendrapala were the Jaina kings in the Pratihara dynasty. King Munja, Navasahasanka and Bhoia were followers of Jainism. Dhanapala. Amitagati. Manikyanandi, Prabhacandra, Asadhara, Dhananjaya etc. had contributed to the literary field during the same period. Cittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacarya and Haribhadra devoted their lives for the development of Jaina art and architecture.
During Candela dynasty, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Canderi, Ahar, Papora, and Gwaliar became famous
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for their Jaina art. Some important inscriptions, Toranas, images and other sculptural material are found in Tripuri.
As mentioned earlier, Bihar has been a prominent state since very early days with regard to Jaina culture. It is the Parinirvanabhumi of so many Tirthankaras and is enriched through Jaina statues, relics, sculpture etc. at Rajagrih, Nalanda, Parsvanatha hill, Simhabhumi, Barabar hill, Patna, Pavapuri etc. The earliest Jaina images are recovered in Bengal from Surohar and Mandoil of Mathura style. The images of Jaina Tirthankaras found in Udisa at Udaigiri-Khandagiri, and some other places such as Keonjhar, Mayurabhanja, Jaipur, Cuttack are very beautiful from artistic point or view.
Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since an early time. Satrunjaya, Girinar, are Siddhaksetras of Jainas. Rastrakutas and Calukyas, Pratiharas, Paramaras, Cauhan and other dynasties patronised Jainism and its art and architecture. Hemacandracarya was a court poet of Jayasimha and Kumarapala. Vastupala and Tejapala who were ministers of Baghelas of Solanki branch built a large number of Jaina temples at Girinar, Abu, Satrunjaya, etc. They are also found in large number at Ranakapur, Udaipur, Sirohi, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, Jaipur, Alwar and so many places. The existence of Jainism in Punjab and Sindh can traced out long before the Christian era, from the sites of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, Taksasila, Simhapur, Sindhudesh, Lahore etc.
The inscriptional history of Jainism in Maharashtra starts with the Parle inscription of first c. A.D. which commences with "Namo Arihantanam". Keljhar, Pavanar, Nagpur, Bhandara, Ramtek, Akola, Karanja, Achalpur, Latur,Bhadravati etc. are main Jain ancient sites with archaeological remains. Sirpur is famous for its artistic decoration. Malakhed was found inhabitated when Padaliptacarya visited in about Ist c.A.D. Jaina caves are found at Ellora, Nasik, Dharasiva, (Osmanabad) etc. Pratishthanpur, Belgaon, Kolhapur, Ehol, Alaktakanagara, Kunthalgiri, Ardhapur, Kandhar, Karanataka (Karad), Mahimagiri, Vatapi, Meghuni etc. have been main centres of Jainism where huge and magnificient Jaina temples idols and inscriptions are found. Mrgesavarvarman's inscription (450-478 A.D.) states that a huge donation was made to Digambaras, Svetambaras, Kurcakas and Yapaniyas. Belagaon and Kolhapur were also ruled over by Silaharas of Konkana who

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built there huge Jaina temples like Adataraditya, Satyavakya, Candraprabha, Ratta, etc. Vatapi, Ehol, Meguli were also Jaina centres of this period when Pulakesi First, Kirtivarman, and Ravikirti constructed Jaina temples.
Andhra Pradesa has been a stronghold centre of Jainism. Acarya Kundakunda (Ist C.A.D.), the spiritual leader of the time hails from Kondakunda situated on the boarder of Andhrapradesha. King Vishnuvardhan of Calukyas, Akalavarsa, Amoghavarsa, and Krashnaraja of Rashtrakutas, Bhima, Ganga Vijayaditya, Durgaraj etc. of Vengis, Tailapa, Vikramaditya of Badami Calukyas, some kings of Velanatichoda period patronised Jainism by way of constructing temples, Vasadis and Vidyapeethas. Some of them, afterwards, were occupied by Virasaivaitas and Lingayatas, who have been great destructers of Jaina monuments and the community as well.
Jainism in Karnataka goes back at least to Bhadrabahu and Candragupta Maurya who migrated to South India via Ujjain with twelve thousand disciples due to severe calamity and famine in the North. Gangavadi dynasty was established by Simhanandin, the Jainacarya. Jainism was its state religion for about seven hundred years during which hundreds of Jaina monuments were erected by the kings. Pujyapada, Prabhacandra, Jinasena, Gunanandi, Patrakesari, Puspadanta, Vidyanada, Anantavirya, Joindu etc. get the patronage of the dynesty. Of the kings the name of Racamalla Satyavakya may be specially mentioned under whose reign Camundaraya, his great minister erected the collossal statue of Gomatesvara Bahubali, the unparallel statue in the world. After Rashtrakutas Jainism got set back. One Vasava murdered his master Vijjala, the Kalacuri Jaina king and perished Jainism and its adherents. He established an independent sect named Lingayata and persecuted the Jainas. From Jaina archaeological standpoint, the main sites are Mangal, Nandidurga, Panditarahalli, Candrasala vasadi. Amarapur. Arkettar. Sarangipattam, Halebid, Kelasaur Aihole, Marol, Honwad, Honnur, Kalholi, Mulguna, Lakkundi, Nagire, Biligi are the main places where the Jaina monuments are richly available.
Jainism entered in Tamilnadu most probably from Kalinga in about 4th c.B.C. Visakhacarya proceed to Cola and Pandya countries with the entire Munisangha. It can be supported by the caverns containing beds carved out in the rock found in hills and
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mountains around the Pudukottai, Madura and Tinnevelly and rock-cut sculptures and inscriptions in the hills of the north Arcot district which indicate the existence of Jainism in Tamil Nadu in 3rd c.B.C. Kanci was one of the important seat of learning in South India. It was the capital of Pallvas who were mostly Jainas in early centuries. The inscriptions of Jinakanchi refers to some prominent Jaimacaryas of the city like Kundakunda, Samantabhadra, Jinacandra, Pujyapada, Akalanka, Anantavirya, Bhavanand , Mallisena etc. The North and South Arcot region is very rich from Jaina archaeological standpoint. Pancapandava, Trirumalai, Vallimalai, Vidal, Villipuram, Chinglaput may be specially mentioned. Sittanavasal, Narttamalai, Tenimalai, Bommamalai, Malamala, Samanar Kudagu, etc. have been the Jaina centres since last two thousand years. Most of these places have paintings, and sculptures of Sittanavasala tradition which may be compared with Ajanta and Sigirya. Some of the rock-cut temples like Samanar Kudagu have been converted into Visnu temples.
Madura was the capital of Pandyas who took their favourable attitude towards Jainism. Its neighbouring hills Annaimalai, Nagamalai,, Alagarmalai, Muttupatti, Eruvadi, etc. are very rich from Jaina sculptural and painting standpoint. It is a land of origin of Samgama literature. Tirukurala, Tolkappiyam, Naladiyara, Cintamani, Silakppadikaram, Nilakesi, Manimekhalai, Kurala etc. are the Jaina epics of early period. Pujyapada, Vajranandi, Aryanandi, Patrakesan etc. were the prominent Jainacaryas of the period. Afterwards Jainism was patronised by the Kadamba kings. In Tinnevelly region the Kalugumallai, Tiruchcharanattumalai, Nagarajaswami temple belonged to Jainas but they are under the control of Vaidikas.
Thus the survey of Jainism in South India gives an apparent picture of its position that it was there popular during the period of Tirthankara Mahavira or even earlier to him. The popularity augmented gradually and Digambara sect became the prominent one. During about Ilth c. A.D., Vaisnavism, Alawara and Lingayatas came into existence and stood against Jainism that caused a serious blow to its propagation. The devotees of Sambandara, Tirunavukkarasata, Appara, Mukkanti, Tirumalasai, Tirumangai Vira-Saivas committed heavy atrocities on Jaina society, temples, sculptures and Vasadis. Their massacres took place and the Jaina centres were converted into Saiva or Vaisnava temples. Some
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places like Pillaiyarapatti and Kunnakkundi, Arittayatti, Nartamallai, and Kulugamalai, Tiruccirapalli, Virasikhamani, Kudumiyamalai, Dalavanura, Siyamangalam and Mamamdura can be cited in this respect. All this can be evaluated as follows.
Jaina images, Ayagapttas, Stambhas, Toranas, Vedicas etc. were excavated from Kankhaltila in Mathura belonging to Kusana period. The Stupa made of bricks is called Devanirmita Stupa. The symbols are not traceable on these images, the Sarvatobhadra Pratimas. The names of Kaniska, Ruviska and Vasudeva are inscribed on these images. The unique Jaina image of Sarasv may also be mentioned in this context. The Chausa bronzes, in some Jaina images in Lucknow and Patana museums, the Jaina remains at Vaibhara hill Rajagiri and the bronzes of the Akota hoard are also belonging to this period. Some auspicious symbols like Phana, Srivatsa, Purnaganata, Svastika, Vardhmanaka, Matsya, Nandyavarta etc. are also inscribed on one of the Parsva images. The image of Jivantasvami may also be referred to the period. Then the crystallized forms of the iconography were transferred to rocks on hills like Vaibhara hill, Udaigiri hills in Sanchi and Udaigiri, Kalagumalai in South. Afterwards, the iconogrpahy became fixed.
In other words it can be said that the Jaina iconography was developed during the Gupta period in 4th century A.D. Decoration on Padapitha, Dharmacakera, Paramesthis, Gandharva Yugala, Navagrahs, Triratnas, Bhamandala, and Astapratiharyas were in cluded as the symbols of Jaina images. However, all the symbols could not be decided in the early Gupta period. The images of the period can be viewed in Mathura museum, Vesanagar, Budhicanderi, Deogarha, Rajagiri, Kumarahara, Vaisali and other places. Some more images of the Gupta period are found in Udaigiri, Vesanagara, Nacana (Patana) etc. with somewhat more decorated forms. Some of the bronzes of the Akota hoara, particularly the image of Jivantasvami in Kayotsarga pose bearing mukuta, Bhujabandha, Kundala, Kangana, and the image of Ambika decorated with ornaments and Yaksa-Yaksis are the representative images of the period. Sasanadevatas, Drum-player, a pair of elephants etc. were also included in the symbols. . In late Gupta period these symbols were more developed and in about 8th-9th c. A.D. all the symbols, Yaksa-Yaksis, Sasanadevidevatas, were fixed. Afterwards, Ksetrapalas, Dikpalas, Navagrahas, and Vidyadharas were also placed around the
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Jaina images. Tantrism entered into Jaina inconography in about tenth century A.D. and as a result, the Yaksa-Yaksis etc. got their due place on the pedestal or around the Jaina images with more decorative sculptural surroundings. Sandy stone is widely used in about twelveth century along with black and white marble. The bronze images are also popularly available of the period. In the fourteenth century the development of Jaina iconography stagnated and the decline started. This can be understood through perspective of iconographical peculiarties of Tirthankaras and their associates.
Temple art is of three types, Nagara, Vesara and Dravida. In Nagara style, the Garvagraha is quadrangular and its summit (Sikhara) is circular with Kalasa. It is used in Punjab, Himalaya, Rajasthan, Madhyapradesa, Udisa and Bengal. The Sikhara becomes flat in Vesar style which is found in Madhyabharat and the temple gets the form of pillar in Dravidian style. The earliest Jaina temple is found at Lohanipur (Patna) of Maurya period. Then the temple art is available from the seventh century onwards. Painting has also been one of the best methods for expressing the ideas.
Thus it is abundantly clear that Jainism, one of the most ancient animistic Indigenous religions has been constantly and unforgetably to the field of history and culture. Its philosophy, ethics, dogmas, spiritual disciplines and practices are based on truth and non-violence with the nature of humanistic approach, interreligious dialogue and understanding which can be easily perceived through its extensive and perennial literature. All the more conspicuous fact is that Jainism could not be elaborated here much in such a concised chapter. However, the student of religion and culture can of course gather some pivotal points over the subject. The corroborative evidence can be further accumulated from the original sources, and comparative study can be made with other contemporary religions specially Buddhism which is more closer in all respects.
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2. MAHAVIRA
Tirthankara Mahavira was the great spiritual leader of India in sixth-fifth century B.C. He followed the ancient Sramana tradition from which he had been alienated by the pressures of secular society. Mahavira found his way through psycho-socio analytical involvment in the movements for peace and justice, and created an atomosphere of trust and understanding through inter-religious dialogue, the unparallel vehicle and the model for developing the distinctive spiritual journey of the time for entire human community and souls.
Age of spiritual leaders
During this period there emerged great spiritual leaders, prophets and philosophers whose teachings represent a change from mythic to self-reflective thinking and individualistic purification. For instance, Confucious and Lao- tsetung appeared in China, Zoroaster in Persia, Elijah, Isaiah and Jeremian in Israel, pythagoras, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Moses in Asia, Minor in Greece. Likewise, in India there were some popular vedic and Upanisdic sages like Asita Devala, Dvaipayana, Parasara, Nami, Videhi Ramagupta, Bahuka, Narayana etc. and Sramanic teachers like Buddha, Makkhali Gosala, Sanjaya Belatthiputta, Pakudha Kaccayana, and others who were imparting the spiritual teachings according to their own traditions. The Samannaphalasutta of the Dighanikaya mentions six heritical teachers and the Brahmajalasutta refers to 62 types of Micchaditthis. The Prakrit literature perhaps divides these views into 363 types1.
The people were confused by these philosophical views. The spiritual sphere was violated by the sacrifices, rites and rituals. The humanity was divided by the caste system and the so called lower class people were deceived by a certain section on the name of religion. Kesi said with anxity the Gautam " The masses are weltering in the encircling gloom, who shall then light? Gautam replied "The one who initially was the prince of the kingdom of Videha and who is today the great exponent of freedom from body consciousness, the verily enlightened the propounder of the prin
1. Dighanikaya, 1, p. 52; Sutrakrtanga, 1.12.15, Vr.p. 209/2. See in detail the author's books "History of Buddhist Culture" and "History of Jaina philosophy and Culture", First Chapter.

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ciple of perennial creation, and the truly venerable Mahavira has already risen as a Sun who will lead the massess from darkness to light
Tirthankara Mahavira, the Nigantha Nataputta of pali literature, was a great realist philospher who had not, as a matter of fact, innovated a new philosophy but advocated the old one followed by the predecessors with new additions and interpretations without involving himself in any kind of controversies. He attained enlightement by his own constant striving and then showed the path to all others out of his abundent compassion for suffering beings. His life is, therefore, an human appeal both individual as well as social. Predecessors of Mahavira
Mahavira is the twenty fourth Tirthankara of Jainas appeared at certain intervals and preached the true religion to the suffering world. His twenty three predecessors are ; Rishava, 2) Ajita, 3) Sambhava, 4) Abhinandan, 5) Sumati, 6) Padmaprabha, 7) Suparsva, 8) Chandraprabha, 9) Puspa or Suvidhi, 10) Sitala, 11) Sreyamsa, 12) Vasupujya, 15) Vimala, 14) Ananta, 15) Dharma, 16) Santi, 17) Kunthu, 18) Araha, 19) Malli 20) Munisuvrata, 21) Nami, 22) Nemi, and 23) Parsva. The Kalpasutra presents the life history of only four Tirthankaras, viz, Risabha, Aristanemi, Parsva and Mahavira. This number would have been increased gradually from four to seven and from seven to twenty four as found in Buddhist traditional conception of Buddhas in about first or second century A.D.
In addition to Vedic literature, the pali and Buddhist literature too mention the name of Jaina Tirthankaras. For instance, Risabhavadeva is called one of the Jaina Tirthankaras in Chinese Buddhist literature. The Manjusrimulakalpa* refers to him as Rsabhanirgrantharupin, and the Dharmottarapradipao mentions him along with the name of Vardhamana or Mahavira. It may be mentioned here that the names of Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas in Buddhism appears to have been influenced by those of the Jaina Tirthankaras.
2. Uttaradhyayana, 23.75-78. 3. The Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 184. 4. Manjusrimulakalpa, Ed. by Ganapati Shastri, Trivendram, 1920, 45.27. 5. Dharmottarapradipa, p. 280 6. See in detail the author's book “Jainism in Buddhist literature", pp. 23-24
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Tirthankara Parsvanatha is undoubtedly a historic personage who flourished 250 years earlier than Mahavira at Varanasi. The Anguttaranikaya mentions the names of kings of Varanasi- Brahmadatta, Uggasena, Dhananjaya etc.' Parsvanatha belongs to the Ugravamsa which may have been named after ggasena and Vissasena may be recognised as his father. Brahmadatta is also said to have been a Jaina king who devoted his whole life for jainism. Vappa of Manorathapurni, the Buddha's uncle, was a follower of Parsvanatha tradition.
In early Pali literature various doctrines of Jainism have been acknowledged. They belong to Parsvanatha or Aristanemi. Parsvanatha was known as Purisajaniya or distinguished man according to the Anguttaranikaya. The Dharmottarapradipa (p.286) also refers to both Parsvanatha and Aristanemi. The Caturyamasamvara, which is attributed to the Nigantha Nataputta in the Samannaphalasutta, is in reality a teaching of Parsvanatha Some Niganthas mentioned in Pali literature are apparently followers of Parsvanatha. For instance, Vappao. Upali, Abhaya", Aggivessayana Saccaka', Dighatapassi Asibandhakaputta Gamani!4, Deva Ninka's, Upatikkha', Siha are lay followers while Sacca, Loha, Avavadika, Paticara 18 are lay women followers of the Parsvanatha tradition. They had later on become the followers of the Nigantha Nataputtals. Jacobi, therefore, says that Parsva was a historical person. Early life of Mahavira
Mahavira was born at Kundanapur (Vaisali) or Kundanagama. Jacobi indentified Kottigama of the Mahavagga with Kundagama of the Jaina Texts. Mahavira's perents Siddhartha and Trisala were
7. Anguttaranikaya, i. 290 8. See in detail the author's book " Jainism in Buddhist literature", pp. 120-124. 9. Anguttaranikaya, 11.196 H. 10. Majjhimanikaya, i.371 ff. 11. ibid. i. 392 ff. 12. ibid. i. 232 ff., MA. 1.450 13. ibid. i. 371 ff. 14. Samyuttanikaya, iv. 312 ff. 15. A name of Deva who utters a verse in praise of Nigantha Nataputta. 16. Mahavira i. 42 17. Samyuttanikaya, i. 571 ff. 18. Jataka,i.l; Therigatha. 19. Majjhimanikaya, i. 371 ff.

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the chief of Vaisali and followers of Tirthankara Parsvanatha (Pasavaccijja - Ayaranga, 2.15-16). Not much is found about his childhood and householder life in early Prakrit and Pali literature. Regarding his ascetic life, of course, we find some valuable references in early Pali as well as Prakrit Scriptural Texts which will be discussed in the following pages. He renounced the worldly life at the age of thirty and attained kevalajnana after undergoing severe penance. He then preached the Dharma for about thirty years and attained Nirvana at Pava in 527 B.C. The Scripture whatever we have at present reached to us through him. He is called Nigantha in the sense that he is free from all bonds, and is called Nataputta because Nate or Naya was the name of his clan. The term Nigantha for a Jaina came to be used perhaps along with the origin of Jainism itself.
The Vedic literature does not mention at all the life and contribution of Mahavira. The Pali literature, of course, refers to his principles and later, not the early, part of his life. So far as Jaina Literature is concerned, both the Digambara and Svetambara traditions are not unanimousoncertain points. Digambara literature is very Scanty in this regard. The Tiloyapannatti is perhaps the earliest book of Yativrsabha (about 5th c.A,D,) which mentions the life of Mahavira somewhat rather in detail. The Tisatthimahapurisagunalankara of Pushpadanta (Sak.Sam.880), Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra (8th-9th c.A.D.), Vardhamanapurana of Camundaraya (10th-11th C.A,D,) and Vardhamanacarita of Asanga etc. are some more works which can be mentioned in this connection. The Svetambara tradition is more enriched and developed on the pattern of Buddhist tradition. The Ayaranga, Suyagadanga, Thananga, Samvayanga, Uvasagadasanga, Vyakhyakprajnapti, Kalpasutra, Avasyakanirukti, Visesavasakabhasya, Ayarangacurni, Cauppannamaha-purisacariyam, Trisastisalakapurasacaritam etc. are important works for cronological recording of the life of Mahavira. The historical development for its recording is naturally traceable, like exaggerations, ficititious elements, astonishments and poetical peculiarities as found in the latter Buddhist literature. This is the reason why Acarya Samantabhadra had stressed on the point of Vitaragatva and not on the attainment of Devas, Astapratiharyas and other amazements which could be perceived in fraudulents 20. Aptamimansai, verse
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In pursuit of Knowledge
No substential references to his schooling are available in Pali or Prakrit literature except that a Brahmana teacher was astonished on hearing his scholarly answers to the questions asked as had been in case of the Buddha. He remained in the householdership upto the age of 30 where he could kindle in his mind the flame of emancipation from Karmas and through cultivation of self-realisation with perfection in non-violence, truth and celibacy. Mahavira left the home for the best and renounced the ego, attachment possessive instinct. The Acarangasutra gives an account of his pursuit of knowledge for twelve years when he roamed and camped in the following villages in the rainy seasons, viz. Astigrama (Vardhamana or Burdwan), Nalanda, Campa or Campapur, Prsthacampa, Bhaddila or Badrika (Pali Bhaddiya), Bhaddiya near Vaisali, Alabhiya (Pali Alavi), Rajagraha, Suvarnabhumi Sravasti, Vaisali, Campa, and Jambhiyagrama. During this period he also visited Panitabhumi and Vajrabhumi, the parts of rough terrians of Radha. During these years of his pursuit a number of incidents occurred in his life: calamities of Gopalakas, Sulapani, Agni, Tapta Dhuli, Lohargala, Kataputana, Sangama Candakausika, Karnasalaka niskasana, meetings with Makkhali Gosalaka, Sages of Parsvanatha tradition, separation with Gosalaka, etc. Eventually he attained the Kevalajhana in Jambhiyagrama in the thirteenth Varsavasa on Vaisakha Sukla Dasmi, April 23, B.C. 557). Jambhiyagrama may be identified with modern village Jamui situated on the bank of quil (Rjukula), near Rajagriha and Kevali where he attained kevalajnana.
Next day Mahavira reached Madhyama Pawa from Jrmbhikagrama where a Somila Brahamana organised a large sacrificial rite. Eleven great scholars were invited to perform the yajna. Mahavira had to wait for sixty five days. Due to paucity of appropriate scholars, preaching could not take place. Mahavira realised the necessity and appropriate time for propogating nonviolence before the scholars and their 4400 disciples. They were somehow attracted by the verstile personality and scholarship of Tirthankara Mahavira who replied to their philosophical questions and satisfied their queries. As a result, all the eleven Scholars (Indrabhuti Gautama, Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Vyakta, Sudharma, Mandita, Mauryaputra, Akampita, Acalabhadra, Metarya, and Prabhasa) became his disciples. This incident might have taken
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place at the Vipulacala (Rajagrha) about thirty miles away from Jrmbhiyagrama. The Digambara tradition replaces Maundraya, Putra, Maitraiya, and Andhavela to Vyakta, Mandita, Acalabhadra and Metarya.
Tirthankara Mahavira selected Indrabhuti Gautama as the Head of the Sangha and the Sangha was divided into four units, monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. Likewise, he arranged the system of religious leadership into seven units, Acarya, Upadhyaya, Sthavira, Pravartaka, Gani, Ganadhara and Ganavacchedaka. It may be mentioned here that Indrabhuti Gautama is quite deferent personality from the Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism and contemperary to Mahavira.
It is said that the first discourse of appeal of Mahavira was ailure, but subsequently Ganadharas were converted. The Digambara tradition is of the view that even after obtaining Kevaljnana at Jrmbhikagarama, Mahavira moved around continuously for sixty six days observing silence and then converted the Ganadharas at Rajagrha where he preached before masses for the first time, and then visited for different places for the upliftment and betterment of the society rest of the life. After the attainment of Kevalajhana, Tirthankara Mahavira camped thirty years in the rainy seasons as follows: Rajagrha, Vaisali, Vanijyagrama, Rajagrha, Vanijyagrama, Rajagrha, Vaisali, Vaisali, Rajagrha, Vanijyagrama, Rajgrha, Campa, Mithila, Mithila, Vanijyagrama, Rajagrha, Vanijyagrama, Vaisali, Vaisali Rajagrha, Nalanda, Mithila, Mithila, Rajagrha, and Apapuri. This list of places gives an impression that Mahavira visited and preached the masses mostly in Bihar and some areas of Bengal and U.P.
The great kings like Prasenajit of Sravasti. Srenik Bimbisara of Magadha, Dadhivahana of Campa, Satanika of Kausambi, Jitasatru of Kalinga etc. were the followers of Mahavira. It appears that jainism had spread all over India. We do not know whether Mahavira ever visited South India. But Jaina Literature is of the view that Jainism was prevelent there even prior to Mahavira. The Pali sources inform that Jainism was the state religion of Shrilanka well before Sanghabhadra and Sanghamitra reached there.
21 Agama aur Tripitaka : Eka Anushiiana by Muni Nagaraj. pp 396-400,
Kalpasutra 122
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After passing twentyninth Varsavasa at Rajagrha, Mahavira reached to Apapuri (may be Majjhima), the capital of Mallas where he spent his last Caturmasa. At the morning of the fourth month Kartika Krishna Amavasya, he left the mundane world and entered into salvation at the age of 72 years. At that time the king of Kashi, Licchavis of Kausala, nine Mallas and eighteen Ganarajas were present who celebrated the Nirvana Mahotsava by liting the lamps. The Samannaphalasutta of the Dighanikaya refers to this event. Date of Mahavira's Parinirvana
The date of Mahavira's Parinirvana, like the date of the Buddha, has been a subject of much controversy among the scholars. The Pali Canon has two main references which aive an idea of the age and death of Mahavira. The first reference to Mahavira as one who has long been recluse, old and well-sticken in years (Cirapavvajito, Addhagato, Vayonupatto)22. The other reference recorded is that when the Buddha was at the Ambavana of the Sakyas, Nigantha Nataputta had just died at Pava“. Ananda is supposed to have conveyed this news to the Buddha in a very pleasent mood.
Jacobi is perhaps the first savant who tried to determine the date of Mahavira. On the basis of the Hemacandra's Parisistaparvan which tells us that Chandragupta Maurya ascended throne 155 years after the death of Mahavira. Jacobi is of opinion that the death of Mahavira must have occurred in 468 B.C. as the Chandragupta's ascension took place in 313 B.C. (313 + 155 = 468 B.C.)24. Carpentier also supported this view20. They were of the opinion that the statement of the Pali Canon was spurious. Basham too is inclined to accept Jacobi's view. But he based his arguments on the Bhagawatisutra and a less favoured theory that the date of the Buddha's Parinirvana was held in 483 B.C. The Pali record in his opinion does not refer to the death of Mahavira at Pava, but to that of Gosala at Savatthi.
Majumdar and Raychaudhuri are of the view that Mahavira's
22 Dighanikaya, i 57 23 ibid. ii. 119 (Pasadikasuta), Majjhimanikaya, 1.244 (Sangamasutta); iii. Dighanikaya 24. SBE. Vol. xxii, intro. p. xxvii, 1884 25. Indian Antiquary, XLIII, 1914, 118 ff. Also see the Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1, pp. 139-140.
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death should have taken place in 478 B.C. In support of this view they suggest that Mahavira dies sixteen years after the accession of Ajatasatru, and according to the Ceylonese chronicles, the Buddha dies eight years after the enthronement of Ajatasatru (323-155 = 478 B.C.)26.
Hoernle with a more comprehensive attitude suggests 484 B.C. as the date of Mahavira's death and 483 B.C. as the date of Buddha's death. He is of view that the war took place not in the year of Ajatasatru's legal, but of his de facto accession27.
H.C. Seth suggests 488 B.C. as the date of Mahavira's death on the basis of the Buddhist tradition, assuming 487 B.C. as the date of the Buddha's death 28. B.C. Law postulated 498 B.C. as the date of Mahavira's Parinirvana and 486 or 484 B.C. as the Buddha's Parinirvana on the ground that Mahavira passed away as a Jina about twelve years before the Buddha29.
The orthodex Jaina tradition which dated the death of Mahavira in 527 B.C. appears to be more reliable. It is stated that the date of Chandragupta Maurya's accession falls 215 years after the death of Mahavira. According to Hemacandra, the accession took place 155 years after the death of Mahavira. Here Hemacandra appears to be wrong in calculation. He omitted by oversight the period of 60 years of king Palaka who on the same day began to rule at Ujjaini after the death of Mahavira. Afterwards Nanda's dominion is listed for 155 years. Then commences the enthronement of Chandragupta Maurya. The Chandragupta Maurya's accession took place in 322 B.C. This accession must be on Avanti which was held 10 years earlier than Pataliputra accession. Therefore the death of Mahavira must be an event of 527 B.C. (322-10 +215 = 527 B.C. This view can be supported if we accept the Vikrama era commenced with Vikrama's death and Vikrama was born 470 years after the death of Mahavira (57 + 470 = 527 B.C.). According to the Titthogali Painnaya, (620-623) the Saka Samvat commences 605 years and 5 months after the death of Mahavira. This fact also supports the view of 527 B.C.) as the date of Mahavira's parinirvana. The Pali Nikayas, as a matter of fact, 26. An Advanced History of India, pp.85-86
27. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Ed. by J.Hastings, Vol. 1.pp.260-61. 28. Bhatata Kaumudi, Part 11, pp. 817-838.
29. Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, by B.C.Law, p. 55
30. See in detail the Author's Book "Jainism in Buddhist Literature, 1972, pp. 26

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recorded the death of Gosalaka sixteen and a half years before Mahavira, and not of Nigantha Nataputta. As the Buddha was a junior contemporary of Mahavira (Nigantha Nataputta), he might have attained Nirvana a few years after Mahavira, most probably in 544 B.C30. Recently Dir. Solanki tried to establish the date of Mahavira's death as (1761 B.C.) on basis of the Puranas (Tuisi Prajna XVIII. Feb. 1993) which cannot be accepted in toto.
It may be mentioned here that Mahavira and the Buddha never met personally each other, though their disciples discussed the matter so many times. Davadatta appears to be more influenced by the Mahavira's teachings as he insisted the Buddha for imposing the five special rules in the Buddhist order. The Place of Mahavira's Death
The place of Mahavira's death has also been a controvertial point. The traditional Pava is the place of Mahavira's death which is situated in the Southern part of the Ganga river, close to Rajagraha. The another Pava is the modern papura village twelve miles away from Kusinara or Kasiyau situated on the bank of little Gandaka river, to the east of the District of Gorakhapur at the Nothern part of the Ganga. It is most probable that Pava was included in the territory of the mallas since a Santhagara was built by them in Pava. It is also said that at this place the Buddha ate his last meal at the house of Cunda, and as a result he had an attack of dysentery. He then left the place and proceeded to Kusinara where he ultimately attained Parinirvana."
THE TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
Spiritual Discipline and Practices
Spirituality in the essence of spirit or self or ultimate reality in being which comprises its right knowledge and right conduct in its relation with the universe. It is beyond the physical or material world and therefore is immanent. It is called Adhyatma (pertaining to self) in Sanskrit. Spiritual knowledge of the self or Atma requires its realization that one has capacity and aspiration to attain the highest and ultimate truth. Spirituality needs spirit in its purity which can be achieved only by right conduct and inwardness, intuition and mys
31. Majjhimanikaya, ii, 243 1.; Dighanikaya, iii, 117, 210 32. Tattvarthasutra, 1.1
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ticism. Ultimate reality is related to world until one reaches ultimate spiritual destiny. Therefore there is significant relationship between human and pure spiritual and natural and super-natural phenomena.
Soul or spirit is, according to Mahavira, a central point of spiritual discipline and practices. For spiritual realization, he preached Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct which constitute all three together the path of spiritial salvation termed as triple jewel (Ratnatraya) 2. The Uttaradhyayana clearly says that Nirvana cannot be attained without observing combinedly the Ratnatraya. Bhatta Akalanka explains the trinity with the help of medicine which cures the diseases by following faith, knowledge and conduct accordingly. This is the abridged form of Astangikamarga or vice-verse.
Spiritual discipline is laid down for Sravakas (Householders) and Munis Mendicants). Sravaka is one who listens the Dharma with full faith from the Acaryas". Attributes of householder may be mentioned as follows: observation of non-violence, legitimate earning, hospitality, refraining from unnecessarily criticising of the Government, keeping good accompany, paying respects to parents and others etc.
Emancipation through the removal of karmic matter from the soul is attainable only through rightous living according to ethical discipline. One should abstain from the five faults (Pancapapa) viz. injury (Himsa), falsehood (Asatya), stealing (Steya), unchastity (Abrahma) and worldly attachment (Parigraha) 36. These vows are of two kinds: Partial vows (Anuvratas) or limited abstain from the five aforesaid faults and Full vows (Mahavratas) or total abstention from five faults. The former is prescribed for householders and the latter for ascetics. Five kinds of training (Bhavana) have been prescribed for each of these vows for the sake of securing stability in them
The Pali literature mentions both the Caturyamasamvara and Pancavayamasamvara. The Samannaphalasutta of the 32. Tattvarthasutra, 1.1 33. Uttaradnyayana, 28.30 34. Tattvartharajavartika, 1.47-48. 35. See in detail the author's book “Jain Darsana aur Sanskriti ka Itihasa, p.25. 36. Himsa'nrtasteyabrahmaparigrahebhyo viratirvratam, Tattvarthasutra, 7.1. 37. ibid., 7.4-8.
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Dighanikaya refers to the Catuyamasamvara wrongly as a part of the doctrine of Nigantha Nataputta Mahavira. The real Catuyamasamvara is occurred in the Udumbarikasutta where it is approved by the Buddha as the most purified type of penance as follows:
1. Na panam atipateti, na panam atipatayati, na panamatipatayato samanunno hoti.
2. Na adinnam adiyati, na adinnam adiyapeti, na adinnam adiyato samanunno hoti.
3. Na musa bhanati, na musa bhanapeti, na musa bhanato samanunno hoti.
4. Na bhavitamasisati, na' bhavitamasisapeti, na bhavitamasisasato samanunno hoti".
The four vows (Catuyamasamvara) of Parsvanatha were revised by Nigantha Nataputta who found it necessary to specify Brahmacarya as a separate vow in view of the laxity he observed among the followers of Parsvanatha. Asibandhakaputta Gamini was the follower of the Pancayama of Nigantha Nataputta*9. These five vows on the name of Nigantha Nataputta are also found in the Anguttaranikaya".
Alongwith the Pancavratas, a Jaina laity takes a vow not to eat meat, not to drink alcohol or wine, not to relish honey or any of the five kinds of figs containing souls. These are the eight basic restraints (Mulagunas which are to be followed by even an ordinary jaina layman. The Udumbarikasutta refers to these Mulagunas. In a later period the Acaryas discussed and suggested not to indulge in seven types of obnoxious habits (Vyasanas) which make the life disasterous". Likewise, a Jaina house-holder must practise the six more activities for spiritual progress, which are called Avasyakas. They are as follows:- i) worship of the Tirthankaras, ii) service of spiritual teacher iii) studying Scriptural texts, iv) practicing some form of self restraint v) doing some form of penance and austerity, and vi) doing some kind of charitable act“.
38. Dighanikaya, iii.49 39. Samyuttanikaya, iv.317. 40. Anguttaranikaya, iii., 276-7. 41. Latisamhita, 2.47-49. 42. Padmanandipancavimsatika, 245-6. 43. Majjhimanikaya, i. 372 44. Purusarthasiddhyupaya, 45-47
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The Majjhima Nikaya states that the Nigantha Nataputta did not lay down Kamma Kamma, but his teaching was more based on Danda Danda, wrong doings of body, speach and mind. Kayadanda was more heinous in his opinion. That means, attachment and intention are the main sources of injury (Himsa) in the eyes of Mahavira, and if injury is caused by body intentionally, it will be considered more blamable44.
Nigantha Nataputta formulated five vows dividing the last of the Catuyamasamvara into two, Akusila and Aparigraha. The defects in these reference are: i) they do not follow the traditional Jaina order of precedence, and ii) the Parigraha, which is placed as the last way of falling into sin, is ignored in Pali literature. The compilers of the Pali Tipitaka either were not well acquinted with the reformation of Nigantha Nataputta or they did not consider it very important.
As regards the eating of flesh, the Vinaya Pitaka has a good record of the Mahavira's view. The episode of General Siha indicates clearly that the followers of Mahavira were completely against the eating of flesh. The followers of the Buddha appear to have been influenced by this idea of the Jainas. The question raised by Jivaka and Devdadatta also indicates our assumption.
The early Pali Scriptures seem to have been familar with the Gunavratas or Multiplicative vows of Nigantha Nataputta as discussed with the uposatha ceremony. The Siksavratas or Disciplinary Vows (Samayika, Prosadhopavasa etc.) are also referred to in the Pali literature. Sallekhana, the spiritual death in Jaina tradition, is the third stage of a householder which is very close to an ascetic where the subjugation of senses is conducive to the removal of passions. It is making the physical body and the internal passions emaciated by abandoning their sources gradually with pleasure and not by force at the approach of death. Sallekhana is included in the Siksavratas. It is also called Panditamarana. It is not a sort of suicide as there is no passion.
The stages of ethical evolution of a Jaina house-holder are called the Pratimas and are eleven in number. Some of them have been referred to in the Pali Canon. There is another division of spiritual stages which are called Gunasthans. They are fourteen in
45. Anguttaranikaya, 1.206, Dighanikaya, iii, 9 f.Culadukkhandhasutta etc.
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number, which can be comparetively studied with the Bhumis of Buddhsm.
Mahavira prescribed some special code of conduct for mendicant. After completing the practices of Anuvratas and Pratimas, a house-holder seeks permission from his relatives to renounce completely mundane affairs and become a Jaina monk. Then after worshipping Panca paramesthins (Arhanta, Siddha, Acarya, Upadhyaya, and Sadhu), he requests the Ganin to admit him into his Order. Being accepted by the Ganin, he pulls out his hair and becomes completely a naked ascetic according to the Digamabara tradition.
Mahavira never put any caste or creed restrictions to be his follower. People from all walks of life adopted his religion. The new monk makes gradual progress in monkhood and attains the position of Sthavira, Upadhyaya, Acarya, Ganadhara, and Pravartaka46. There are three Monastic Units which are recognized by Mahavira, viz. Gana, Kula, and Gaccha. The entire Order consists of monks, nuns, laymen, and women. If one breaks any rules or regulations, he should observe prayascittas like Alocana, Pratikramana, Ubhaya, Viveka, Vyutsarga, Tapa, Cheda, Parihara, and Upasthapana.“'. During the rainy season, a Jain ascetic should stop his touring and abstain from walking on green grass or water. One should move about only during the day taking proper care not to tread on any living creature (Samyak iriya samiti). 48 Following the Nigantha Nataputta's followers, the Buddha prescribed the rules pertaining to the observance of indoor residence in the rainy seasion.*
A Jaina monk, the Mahavira's follower has no attachment to the world. Nakedness or Acelakatva is considered one of the essential of monkhood." Pali literature refers to Jaina ascetics as Niganthas, for they claimed to be free from all bonds.51
Cloth and other requisties are considered Parigraha (Possession) which is an obstacle to the attainment of salvation. No body can
46. Mulacara, 4.155 47. Tattvarthasutra, 9. 22 48. Mulacara, 5.107-109 49. Vinayapitaka, 1. 137 f. 50. ibid. 10. 17-18 51. Majjhimankaya Atthakatha, i. 423 52. Pravacanasara, 3.3-5, 21 53. Dhammapada Atthakatha, Vol. i. pt. 11, pp.400; Buddhist legend, Vol.
29.p.p.70-74.
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attain complete emancipation from Karmas without being naked52
The Buddha was completely against nakedness (Acelakatva); He criticised this rule along with others on several occasions, though he is said to have followed the same before he had attained Buddhahood.
54
Niganthas are expected to have 27 qualities Pranatipata Viramana etc.. Among the requisites he is permitted to have a broom made of peacock feathers and a water-pot made of wood for using after answering calls of nature. He sleeps either on the bare ground or on a plank of wood. He never uses blankets and the like, even during the cold season. He is not supposed even to touch money.
55
A Jaina ascetic takes his meal and water once a day between about 9.00 A.M. and 12.00 Noon. He eats out of his own palms in a standing position. The concept behind this rule is to abstain from all botherations and mundane affairs. The food should be pure in nine ways (Navakoti-parisuddham). The faults pertaining to the improper begging of food are generally grouped into four, viz. Udgama (preparation of food), Utpadana (the ways of adopting food), Esana (the method of accepting food), and Paribhoga (way of eating food,its quantity etc.)56 The main purpose of eating is to gain physical strength adequate for the purpose of performing religious duties.
57
Some of these ascetic practices which were prevalent at that time among Samanas and Brahmanas are referred to by the name of Acela Kassapa. The same practices are said to have been practised by the Buddha himself before he attained enlightenment. Out of these practices, several are reminiscent of the eight aforesaid faults pertaining to food prescribed for Jaina monks.
58
59
The fundamentals of moral discipline consist of the twentyeight Mulagunas, the Uttaragunas, five-fold Acaras, the twelve Anuprekasa or reflections, the twelve-fold penance or Tapas, ten kinds of Vaiyavrttis, and the twenty-two kinds of Parisahas. The 54. Samavayanga, 27.1
55.
Mulacara. 10.92
53
56. ibid, 10.78
57. Majjhimanikaya, i.77;Dighanikaya, i. 166; Mulacara, 6.2.
58. Majjhimanikaya, i.77
59. Mulacara, 6.2.
60. Majjhimanikaya, i.93;ii.31.

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Pali literature possesses some very important references regarding to supernatural powers, daily routine, and observation of Mahavratas, Samitis, Kesaluncana, Triguptis, Mulagunas, and Acelakatva etc. observed by Niganthas.60
Yoga connotes the spiritual and religious activities that lead to Nirvana, the complete annihilation of all karmas. It is Dhyana (meditation) which carries an object to attain Samyagdarsana. It is of four types, namely Pindastha, Padastha, Rupastha and Rupatita.
This is the brief survey of the spiritual disciplene and practices of Jaina lay adherents and mendicants on the basis of pali literature. Prohibition of night-eating, drinking the filtered water, worship of true God or Tirthankaras, observance of non-violence and detachment from all worldly affairs are main tenets of Mahavira. Philosophy of Mahavira
Jaina philosophy of Mahavira is based on the nature of reality which is considered through non-absolutism (Anekantavada). The reality or substance in its opinion possesses innumerable attrbutes which cannot be perceived by an ordinary person. Language has its own limitation. Therefore one who perceives a thing partially, must be regarded as knowing one aspect of truth as his position permits him to grasp. Even though he is not in a possession of the entire truth, the aspect he has come to know cannot be altogether disregarded or ignored. The question arises as to how the whole truth or reality could be known. According to Jain standpoint, all the theories contain a certain degree of genuineness and hence should be accepted from a certain point of view; but the nature of reality in its entirely can be perceived only by means of the theory of manifold-ness (Anekantavada). The Jaina philosophers synthesize all the opponents views under this theory."
62
Rudiments of Anekantavada are traceable in the Buddhist approach to questions where the Buddha used the words Ekamsa, Anekamsa, Thapaniya, Vibhajjavyakaraniya etc. corresponding to Anekantavada." In the propositions of Saccaka, Citta Gahapati and Dighanakha Paribbajaka, we can trace the first four predication (including Syadavaktavya) of Syadvada conception of Jainas.63 There the Buddha and his followers levelled the charges like self61. Syadvadamanjari, 11-12; Also see Nyayakumudcandra.

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contradiction of affirmative and negative characters, confusion and commingling etc, in the manifolded Anekantavada of Mahavira which is not true. They misunderstood the theory of Syadvada and Anekantavada, since they treated the dual characteristic of the nature of reality as absolutely different from each other.
Dual character of an entity means, each and every entity is universalized- cum - particularized (Samanaya - Visesatmaka) along with substance with modes (dravyaparyayatmaka). Here Dravya represents the universal character and Paryaya represents the particular character of a thing. A substance is Dynamic (Parinami) in character. It means a thing is eternal from the real standpoint (Niscayanaya) and momentary from a practical viewpoint (Vyavaharanaya).
For instance, the nature of soul in Jainism, from real standpoint, is absolutely pure possessing the nature of knowledge and vision and remains the same under all states, while according to the practical standpoint, it is transformed into modes and thus becomes different in number, place, form etc.
Dravya is of six kinds, namely, jiva (soul),pudgala (matter), Dharma (principle of motion). Adharma (principle of rest), Akasa (space) and Kala (time).
The first five types of Dravyas are called Astikayas (those which exist and have different Pradesas or areas like a body) and the last is named Anastikaya.66
The doctrine of karman seems to have developed against the doctrine of creation. According to jainism, the vibrations (Yoga) and the passions (Kasayas) or soul attract Karmic matter and transform it into Karmic body. Soul is pure in its intrinsic nature. The relation of Karmas is a cause that makes its cycling into births. This is the nature of bondage. Soul which is Amurta (spirtiual), is affected by karmas which are murta (material). This concrete association of the spiritual and the material leads to the existence of Universe which is beginningless. The material Karman (Dravyakarma) is a Avarana (cover) which brings about the Bhavakarman (its spiritual counterpart) that is called Dosa like privation and perversion. This is the mutual relation as cause and effect of both these Karmas. The Anguttaranikaya refers the Karmic philosophy of Nigantha Nataputta where he is said to have infinite knowledge and vision.
The Majjhamianikaya refers to him as who claims to be
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all-knowing (Sabbannu), all seeing (Sabbadassavi) and all embracing knowledge and vision (Aparisesamnanadassanam).68 This is the stage where all the karmas are totally removed. That is called Nirvana or Moksa.
Jainism is more known to us through Tirthankara Mahavira, the contemporary spiritual thinker of the Buddha. His prominent spiritual followers have written a vast literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit. There have been passing references in Pali literature to their contemporaniety and doctrinal dissimilarities as well as the role they played together as a revolutionary opposition to Vedic Brahmana. It may be mentioned here that both jainism and Buddhsim arose and grew up in the same province of India. The leaders of both sects were sometimes living in the same city, but they never meet perhaps personally. Their followers, however, used to indulge in discussions, conversations and debates.
Our analysis of Mahavira's or Nigantha Nataputta's teaching, religion, philosophy, psychology, spirituality, discipline, practices etc. is based on Pali literature and then supported by Prakrit and Sanskrit Jaina literature. All the references to Nigantha Nataputta have been dealt with in detail in my Ph.D. Thesis (Vidyodaya University of Ceylon) entitled " JAINISM IN BUDDHIST LITERA. TURE”, published by Alok Prakashan, Nagpur, India, 1972. My attempt has been there to evaluate the information contained therein and to find out the degree of accuracy and completeness with which the Buddhist literature has recorded various dogmas and teachings of Nigantha Nataputta. This attempt may help us to understand the earliest ideology of Mahavira and the Buddha on different issues and lead to have a comparative outlook there on.
62. Angutitaranikaya, ii. 46 : Milindapanho, iv. 2.5. Also see A..., 197 63. Samyuttaxikaya, iv., 298-99 : Majjhima nikaya, i. 498 FF. 64. M. i. 499. 65. Nyayaviniscayavivarana, 1087 66. Dravyasangraha, 23 67. A. i. 220 68. M. I. 529; ii, 31
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
SELECT BIBLIOGAPHY
Adipurana of Jinasena, Varanasi, 1951
Aptamimamsa of Samantabhadra, Solapur, Jaipur, 1963 Ayaro (Acarangasutra), Ed. Muni Nathmal, Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnu, V.S. 2031
21.
Art and Rituals, by Foorhard Fischer & Jyotindra Jain, New Delhi, 1977
Bauddha Sanskriti ka Itihasa By Dr. Bhagchandra jain, Nagpur, 1975
7.
Bhagwati Aradhana, Sholapur,1935
8.
Bhagawati sutra, Ahmedabad, 1974
9. Caritrapahud of Kundakunda, Delhi, 1943
10. Darsanapahud of Kundakunda, Delhi 1943
11.
Dasavaikalikasutra, tr. K.C.Lalwani, Delhi, 1973
12.
Dhavala, Vol. 1, Amrawati, 1945
13. Dravyasangraha of Nemichandracarya, Ed. by Ghosal, Delhi, 1956
14. Ethical Doctrines of Jainsim, Dr. K.C.Sogani, Sholapur, 1967 15. Jaina Ethics, Dr.D. Bhargav, Delhi 1968
16.
Jaina Yoga, by R. williams, New York, 1963
17. Doctrine of the Jainism by Walther Schubring, Delhi 1982
18. Jain Dharmasara by Dhirajlal Tokarsi Shah, Adoni, A.P. 1965
19. jainism in Buddhist Literature by Dr. Bhagchandra Jain, Nagpur, 1972
Bhagwan Mahavira aur Unaka Cintana by Dr. Bhagchandra Jain, Dhulia, 1976
20. Jaina Darshan aur Samskriti ka Itihasa by Dr. Bhagchandra jain, Nagpur, 1977
Kartikeyanupreksa of Swami Kartikeya, Agas, 1960

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22. Mulacara of Battakera, Bombay, 1980 23. Nisitha, Agra, 1957 24. Dharmabinduprakarana of Haribhadrasuri, Bombay, 1924. 25. Sagaradharmamrta of Ashadhara, Bombay, 1972 26. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara of Samantabhadra, Bombay,
1976 27. Samayasara of Kundakunda, Delhi, 1959 28. Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada, Tr. Reality by S.A.Jain,
Calcutta, 1960 29. Sutrakrtanga, Bombay, 1917 30. Tattvarthasutra, of Umasvami, Varanasi, 1952 31. Uttaradhyayanasutra, Ladhnu, 1977 32. Upasakadasanga, Rajkot, 1961 33. Yogas astra of Hemacandra, Calcutta, 1907 34. Yasastilakacampu of Somadeva, Sholapur, 1949
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Dr. Bhag Chandra "Bhaskar" ABOUT THE AUTHOR
BIRTH & PLACE : 1.1.1939, Bamhori (Chhatarpur), M. P., India. ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS : M. A. (Sanskrit, Pali, A. I. H. & C.): Acharya, (Prakrit and Jainism), Ph.D. (Shrilanka), D. Litt (Pali and Prakrit), D. Litt. (Sanskrit); Sahityaratna etc., POSITION : Professor and Head of the Department of Pali and Prakrit, Nagpur University: Former Professor and Director of Jain Studies, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur; AWARDS : U.G.C. Research Fellowship, National Fellowship, Literary Award by the Govt. of India, Shastri Parishad etc. ABROAD VISIT : Visited and delivered Lectures for so many times in U.S.A., U.K., and European countries, attended and chaired there Seminars and Conferences. EDITORS : Anandadpa, Sudharma, Jain Milan RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS: Jainism in Buddhist Literature, History of Buddhist Culture, Patimokkha, Chatushatakam of Aryadeva, Palikosasangaho, Jain Darshan aur Sanskriti ka Itihasa, Bharatiya Sanskritila Bauddhadharmacha Yogagana, Candappahacariu of Yashahkiriti, Dhammaparikkha of Harishena, Vayakaha, Samvohapancasia, Bauddha Manovijnana, Abhidhammattha Sangaho (Buddhist Psychology), A survey of Prakrit Literature, Jain aur Bauddha Darshanon ka Tulanatmaka Addhyayan, Prakrit Dhammapada, Jainism and Buddhism, He Vajratantra, Yashodharacaritam of Sakalakirti, Muka Mati : Eka Darsanika Mahakriti jaina Logic, Jaina bible Dohanos,
etc.

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