Introducing Jainism

Author(s): Satyaranjan Banerjee
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006956/1

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INTRODUCING
JAINISM
Satya Ranjan Banerjee
Il GG HUG II

wwwijainelibrary.org

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INTRODUCING
JAINISM
By
Professor Satya Ranjan Banerjee Quondam Professor of Linguistics, Calcutta University
II UG HG ||
JAIN BHAWAN P-25 Kalakar Street Calcutta-700 007

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Published by The Secretary Jain Bhawan P-25 Kalakar Street Calcutta-700 007
Published on the occasion of the 2600th Birth Anniversary of Lord Mahāvīra
This book is printed with the financial assistance from Shri Anand Chand Osatwal
Printed in February 2002
Price : Rupees Thirty only
Printed by Shri Bivas Datta Arunima Printing Works 81, Simla Street Kolkata-700 006

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Preface
This monograph is prepared for the general reader on the occasion of the 2600th Birth Anniversary of Lord Mahāvīra held in April 2001. This booklet gives us very briefly the history of the rise, growth and development of Jainism in different parts of India and some of the basic tenets, such as, tolerance and ahimsā (Non-violence) in Jainism.
In preparing this monograph I have utilised some of my articles on Jainism. These are–The Philosophy of Mahāvīra in the Puşkara Muni'Abhinandana Grantha (Udaipur, 1979, 59-61), The Doctrines of Mahāvīra, Jain Journal (Vol. XXVII, 1993, 199-209); the review of a book entitled Jaina Path of Purification, in Jain Journal(Vol. XXVII, 1993, 55-60); Jainism Through the Ages, Jain Journal, (Vol. XXIX, 1995, 129-166), the foreword to Pearls of Jaina Wisdom by Dulichand Jain, and the introduction to my edition of Nyāyāvatāra (Calcutta, 1981), including my latest article on the Origin and Growth of Jainism and Some Doctrines of Jainism published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Vol. XLII, nos. 1-2, 2000, 728. All these articles form the nucleus of the present monograph. But it should be remembered at the same time that it is altogether a new book which has been entirely rewritten and very largely revised and augmented with new .materials. In many cases, I have freely incorporated some passages in my present monograph without mentioning their sources and without keeping them within the inverted commas.
Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my brotherin-law, Shri Barun Kumar Mukhopadhyay, IAS (Retd.), for going through my proofs and making necessary corrections here and there for the betterment of the language. I am also greatly indebted to my elder brother, Shri Chitta Ranjan Banerjee, M.Sc., for his encouragement for the completion

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of the book. I am also indebted to Shri Dilip Singh Nahta for his financial help for publishing this book. This book would not have seen the light of the day, had not there been a person like Shri Nahta.
In conclusion, I can say that if this monograph stimulates the interest of the reading public, I shall consider my labour well-rewarded.
6 February 2002 Kolkata.
Satya Ranjan Banerjee

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Contents
I.
Prolegomena
Mahāvira's Brief Life-Sketch III. What is Jainism
i) Meaning of Tirthankara IV. The Background of Jain Religion
i. The Vedic Legacy of Dharma ii. Jain attitude towards Vedic Religion
Part I. History of Jainism
11
14
15
Origin of Jainism i. The Antiquity of Jainadharma
(a) The Date of Mahāvira References to Jainism in the
Buddhist Literature iii. Jain Literature : Svetāmbara and
Digambara iv) Position of Jainism after the Nirvana
of Mahāvīra VI. Growth of Jainism :. VII. Spread of Jainism
i. Introduction of the Caturāśrama
19
20
2.3
Part II. Some Aspects of Jainism
37
37
41
VIII. Free Thinking in Jainism IX. The Constitution of the Universe X. Jaina Kālacakra (The Wheel of Time) XI. Philosophical Doctrines
i) The Doctrine of Reality ii) Anekāntavāda iii) Saptabhangi iv) The Nature of Syāduāda v) Nayavāda
45
44
45 46

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53
54
56
56
:56
64
XII. The Path to Salvation (Mokşamārga)
i) Pancamahāvratas ii) Triratna/Ratnatraya (three gems) . iii) Trigupti iv) Pañcasamiti v) Dasa Yatidharma vi) Duādasa Bhāvanā
vii) Saptadaśa samyama XIII. Tolerance in Jainism
i) Tolerance through Pañcamahāvratas : ii) Tolerance through Trigupti
iii) Tolerance through Pañcasamiti XIV. The Doctrine of Ahimsā
i) Mahāvira of Ahimsā ii) Ahimsā in Buddhism iii) Ahimsā in the Hindu Scriptures iv) Ahimsā in the Mahābhārata v) Ahimsā in Mediaeval Jainism vi) Ahimsā in History
vii) Conclusion XV. Bibliography Appendix : The Jaina Hagiology
Tirthankaras Ganadharas Disciples of Mahāvīra Salākāpurusa
64
.66
67
73

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INTRODUCING JAINISM
I. Prolegomena
Jainism is one of the greatest important religions of the world. Though originated in the eastern part of India, the then Magadha (now in Bihar), in course of time, it spread to the entire terrain of India side by side with Hinduism and Buddhism. The basic tenets of Jainism, which Mahāvīra preached, are the doctrines of Karma, rebirth and moksa (Salvation); its concept of the world as eternal and imperishable is unique in its nature; its contributions to the philosophy of anekāntavāda, syādvāda and nayavāda are considered as the highest manifestations of human critical faculties; its expositions on social justice and equality are uncommon in human history; and finally, its philosophy of ahimsā (non-violence) is unparalleled and unmatched in the history of mankind. From time immemorial till today, the Jains have been toiling much for the propagation of their doctrines. What is Jainism today is the outcome of the contributions of Lord Mahāvira towards the growth and development of human history.
It should be borne in mind that the time of Mahāvīra, that is, the sixth century B.C., is extraordinarily important in the intellectual history of mankind. Some great men were born at that time. In India we had Vardhamāna Mahāvīra and. Gautama Buddha, in Persia Zoroaster, in China Confucius and Lao-tzu and in Greece Pythagoras-all were promulgating their new doctrines in their respective countries, and as a result, some basic human religious ideas emerged out of their doctrines. All these great men revolutionized some of the then fundamental ideas of human beings. Mahāvira's contribution towards the religious development of mankind is a great landmark and unparalleled in many ways in the annals of human history.
It is to be noted that seers and saints, philosophers and poets, theologians and thinkers, playwrights and writers, great men and reformers are born in this world only to mould the destiny of men from generation to generation. They have left their riveted thoughts and trenchant ideas only to influence the opinions of their followers with the instructiveness and values of their lives which lay in the

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INTRODUCING JAINISM
means which they had shown to prove themselves what they were. The history of human civilization would not have been like this to-day, had not these great men left their contributions for the betterment of human beings. In fact, “No great men", says Carlyle, “lives in vain. The history of the world is but the Biographies of great men."
Such was the life and activities of Lord Vardhamāna Mahāvīra, an almost forgotten saint of India, who came to the arena of intellectual battlefield over 2600 years ago, when the majority of the world were in the infernal gloom and cimmerian darkness of colossal ignorance. He dedicated his life to the cause of mankind, consecrated the most extraordinary energies ever conferred upon a mortal, beaconed the path of human knowledge and created a new horizon in the domain of Religion and Philosophy. He is great and divine, not because he dedicated his life to the right cause of humanity, not because he had a high feeling of honour for all sorts of living beings, not because he respected the rights of conscience, but because he found the eternal truth of peace and happiness for mankind, but because all his utterances, full of wisdom, have the "trumpet of a prophecy”, but because he nobly advocated equality of privileges and the universal brotherhood of man. That is why, even after the lapse of 2600 years of ever new expansion of human ideas, we feel to remember him, to analyse his ideas and principles, to vivisect his doctrines and to resuscitate his thoughts from the pages of forgotten history.
II. Mahāvira's Brief Life-Sketch
Lord Vardhamana Mahāvīra, a contemporary of Gautama Buddha and a new interpreter of human life, was born in 599 B.C. at the site of Kundagrāma, a suburb of the town Vaisāli (the modern Basārh about 27 miles north of Patnā). His father Siddhārtha was a ruling Ksatriya ('a warrior class) in the republic of Vaiśālī in Bihār. He was born at a time when Magadha, an area in Eastern India, was, perhaps, both politically and spiritually in the height of its power. Vardhamāna seems to have lived with his parents till they died. At the age of 30 Vardhamana, with the consent of his brother Nandivardhana, entered the spiritual career. For

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twelve years he led a very austere life and visited many places in Rādha, a country adjacent to his birth place. Vardhamāna (lit. 'the prosperous one') attained kevala-ship (lit. 'one who is recognized as omniscient) at the end of the twelve and a half years. Then he virtually got the titles Mahāvīra ('the great victorious'), Jina (the conqueror'), Tirthankara (the one who has crossed the ocean of this world'), Arhan (the adorable one'). After attaining this omniscient knowledge, he continued preaching and teaching his doctrines for the last 30 years of his life. During this time he organized his order of ascetics and gave it a proper shape. At the age of 72 in 527 B.C. he attained nirvāna ('Salvation') at Pavapuri.
He was "the prince of men, and he could be a king attaining graces as justice, vivacity, temperance, stableness, bounty, perseverance, mercy, loveliness, devotion, patience, courage and fortitude”, and yet he renounced everything in his life for the sake of searching the truth in order to get rid of the miseries and sufferings of this mundane existence.
Mahāvīra became a divine saint not by performing miracles, but he worked miracles and thereby attained sainthood. He emphasized man's being fearless, being valiant to perform miracles. His life tells us about his victory over fear which determines his divine quality.
III. What is Jainism
The word Jaina' has come from Jina which again is "The epithets" Enlightened one" (Buddha) and “Victor" (Jina) were applied to Gotama as well as to Mahāvira (and other founders of religions). However, whilst "Buddha" came to be the name of Gotama, “Jina" came to be the usual name of Mahāvīra, and his adherents called themselves “Jainas”, i.e., disciples of the Jina." It has grown customary to use the expressions “Jainism" and "Jainistic". However, as we never say "Bauddhism" and "Bauddhistic”, we ought by rights to say "Jinism” and “Jinistic" just as we say "Buddhism" and "Buddhistic". Scholars like A. Weber and Th. Benfey still considered the Jainas as a Buddhist sect. It has been proved by Jacobi (SBE 22, Introd., and in the introduction to his edition of the Kalpa-sūtra) that this view is erroneous." - Winternitz, Hist. of Ind. Lit. II p. 424fn.

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4
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formed from the root ji 'to conquer' with the suffix nalk) meaning thereby ‘one who conquers', and then by extension of its meaning‘one who conquers the five senses and thereby destroys all the Karmas, and ultimately attains sarvajňahood (omniscience) by performing tapas (penances). People who worship the Jina and follow his paths and doctrines are Jainas. Jainism is, therefore, the tenets or doctrines of the Jinas.
(i) Meaning of Tirthankara
The Jinas are also called Tirthankaras? and Arhats?, and therefore, Tirthankaras and Arhats can also be used as synonymous with Jaina religion. "The termi Tirthankara means one who helps human beings to cross the ocean of: samsāra by providing them with a vessel to sail with in the form of Dharma. Jina-dharma is the boat which is provided for the human beings for the purpose of crossing the ocean of samsāra and because of this noble task of helping the mankind Jina is called Tirthankara."
The word tirtha (Page #12

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(dhrti), merit (punya), and the purity of mind (višuddhir manasah) are the tīrthas of all the tirthas.”
It is a fact worth noting that the Tirthankaras have got all the qualities mentioned in the verse to become Tirthankaras. And that is why, they are men who attained the god-hood after their Nirvāṇas.
The designation ārhata shows that Jina is "worthy of adoration and worship". Arhat Parameșthi is, therefore, the Lord worshipped by all the Jains5".
"He is represented by a pratibimba or an image which is installed in a caityālaya (a Jaina temple) built for the purpose. The pratibimba is always in the form of a human being, because it represents the Jina or the Tirthankara who spent the last portion of his life on earth in the noble task of proclaiming to the world the Mokşamārga ('path to salvation'). The idol will be either in a standing posture or kāyotsarga ('renunciation of body'), or in the posture of padmāsana. Whether standing or sitting it represents the Divine Lord absorbed in the self-realisation as a result of tapas or yoga. Therefore the facial expression would reveal the intrinsic spiritual bliss as a result of self-realisation and omniscient knowledge (kevala-jñana). People who worship the Jina in this form installed in Jinālaya (Jaina temple) and who follow the religious tenets proclaimed by the Jina are called the Jainas and their religion is Jainism"6
The Jina is the divine person (sarvajña) who lived in the world with his body, and “it refers to the period after attaining sarvajña-hood and the last period of the parinirvāṇa, when the body is cast away and the self resumes its own intrinsic pure spiritual nature and it becomes Paramātmā or Siddha"?. This is the last stage of spiritual development and is identical with the Self which attains Moksa. This Siddhasvarūpa or Paramātmā-svarūpa is without body (aśarīra) and without form (arūpa). Hence its nature can be understood
5. Chakravarti, ibid., p. 80. 6. Chakravarti, ibid., p. 80. 7. Chakravarti, ibid., p. 80.

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INTRODUCING JAINISM only by yogic contemplation. Having given in a nutshell the basic conception of Jainism, I will pass on now to the question of the conception of dharma in Indian atmosphere vis-à-vis Jainism which has a strong bearing upon Indian life and society.
IV. The Background of Jain Religion
The Jain religion is very old. The orthodox scholars have. tried to trace its origin from Mohenjodaro and Harappa. We do not have any clear-cut and sharp evidence to trace back its origin as far back as that. Even in the Vedic period (1500 B.C. - 7th/6th centuries B.C.) we do not have any direct and definite evidence of Jainism. It is true that the name Rşabha occurs in some of the Vedic passages, but what was his tenets and what doctrines of Jainism he preached and practised is not as apparent as it was at a later time. Tradition says that he was the first Tirthankara who propagated and in the end established the doctrine of ahimsā in Vedic times. Besides, there are some aspects of Jainistic ideas which may be traced to the Vedic period, but those ideas and thoughts are more Vedic than Jainistic. So to understand how the Jains reacted at a later time against the then prevailing ideas of religion, it is better to discuss briefly the Vedic conception of dharma vis-à-vis Jainism.
i) The Vedic Legacy of Dharma
Dharma is generally translated as 'Religion', or sometimes as ‘Righteousness' or 'Duty'. Etymologically, Dharma means the principle which holds together the Universe' (dhāraņād dharma ityāhuḥ). And this meaning is more or less associated with the idea that șta (eternal law') holds together the Universe. According to this conception it is the duty of man and society to make this sta, or otherwise known in literature as dharma, active and fruitful in every sphere. This conception of the Universe ultimately actuated the Vedic seers to establish a relationship between the Universe and man. And finally, the idea of religion is converted altogether into the acknowledgment of a close relationship between God and man. In this respect all religions, I believe, whatever may be the cause of their origin, or whatever idea a religion

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describes, are, at least, basically theanthropic. To establish, effectuate, or realize this relationship between God and man, the Vedic people preached various rites, formulas and practices. These tenets as embalmed and treasured up in the whole terrain of Vedic literature are commonly known as dharma in Indian atmosphere, which I want to translate as “Attitude towards Life" or "Way(s) of Life". If we forget this basic conception of Indian Religion (dharma) which tries to establish a relationship between God and man, we may fail to understand the Indian ways of life.
As I have said above that the origin of the idea of Religion is associated with the idea of God and man, the Vedic seers naturally speculated on many of the problems connected with man and Universe. They questioned many times about the origin of the Universe which was a wonder and a mystery to them. They endeavoured their best to understand the mystery of the Universe on the one hand and to get the idea about the oneness of the Creator on the other. This oneness of the creator is emphasized in some of their inspired hymns commonly known as Hiranyagarbha, Prajāpati, Puruşa, Viśvedeva, Kāla etc. In all these hymns and many others they have stated that 'Laws and Orders' of this Universe are due to the creator who is self-existent (Svayambhū), self luminous (svayam prakāśa), self-conscious (samanaska) and full of qualities (saguna). They have also depicted God as Father (dauspitā), as friend (mitra) and as companion (āryaman). God is Almighty, and His power over Nature is boundless. All living and moving things, all phenomena, are dominated and ruled by the Ultimate Reality or Divinity (Parama Purusa). So ultimately supreme powerfulness is attributed to God. In the same period, different phenomena around this Universe were also recognized as different aspects of one creator. They are independent and at the same time are controlled by the Supreme Power. They are
8. For this idea of Vedic religion see S.K. Chatterji, Indianism and
Sanskrit, Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol-XXXVII, pts. 1-11, January-April, 1957. See also R.D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upanisadic Philosophy, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay (1927), Second edn., 1968,
pp. 66-75. 9. Chatterji, op.cit.

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also extraordinary and mysterious, and therefore, some power is added to them. That one Creator is a Unique Being (ekam sat) and has been described by different sages in a manifold way (bahudhā vadanti). So the sun, the moon, the stars, the cloud, and even Indra, Varuņa, Yama, etc. are considered as supreme powerful.10 The adjectives applied to these phenomenal gods in order to praise them show that they are almost equally powerful with the Creator. In this way, the conception of one creator originated together with His other aspects which are equally powerful and independent.
Having established the idea of one Creator, the Vedic seers felt it necessary to bridge a relationship between man and the Creator. It is in this connection that the question of sacrificial rites (yajñas) comes into existence." To the Vedic seers sacrifice was one of the best means, if not the only one, by which a man could communicate with the Ultimate Reality (Parama Purusa) and could send his message to Him. 12 It was also considered at that time that sacrifice was one of the chief means of attaining puruşārtha. It was also thought that men should send their messages to the Creator through Agni who acted as a divine messenger. And gods are always waiting for men to receive their messages through the mouth of Agni (agnimukhā vāi devāḥ). The Sacrifice, it seems to me, was introduced in order to seek happiness by men in this mundane life by making a relation with God. One of the attributes of God is, in fact, a state of happiness in Him. That is why, Indra used to get happy by drinking the soma which was offered to him by his devotee and which was carried to him by Agni, the divine messenger. In fact, to drink the soma, or to eat purodāsa (a sort of cake used at the sacrifice) was intended to awaken or augment the state of joy in human beings. Eventually, of course, this sacrifice developed into a complex system, and killing of animal as
10. Indram Mitram Varuņam Agnir āhur atho divyaḥ sa Suparņo
garutmān/ ekam sad viprā bahudhā vadantyagnim Yamam
Matarisvānam āhuh// (RV. 1.164.46). 11. For the significance of Sacrifice, see Hastings, Encyclopaedia
of Religion and Ethics, under Sacrifice. 12. agnimukhā vai devāh

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INTRODUCING JAINISM one of the things to offer to gods in order to please them became very apparent. 13
Finally, came the philosophical speculation to establish the relationship of man with God.4 Different philosophers from time to time tried to explain the mysterious elements of Nature and by that they tried to understand the equally mysterious elements of human life. In order to determine the mysterious relation between man and God, the question of jñāna (knowledge) and karma (series of actions) came into existence. The Brāhmanic and Upanişadic treatises emphasize the value of Knowledge or Self-realisation for attaining the ultimate goal (parama Brahma), and they set forth the summum bonum of the life of man, and also how to get parama purusa. They have also raised the question of ultimate Reality of Divinity. The answer to this question has been given by different philosophers in different ways. In later times, six or nine systems of Indian Philosophy (Jainism being one of them) have suggested different paths to be followed by man. Some philosophers who are the followers of Vedic injunctions stressed the jñāna-mārga (the path of knowledge), or the karma-marga (the path of the series of actions), or at a much later time bhakti-mārga (the path of Devotion or Faith). The atheistic philosophers have their own views. They in general renounced the theistic views from their field of studies.
: It is at this stage man's function in the worldly life comes into existence. To the Vedic school it is seen that to prepare the ground for attaining the parama purusa, the Vedic people started from the very beginning to speculate on man's function in mundane life by establishing the four stages of life (catur āśrama).15 These are brahmacarya, gārhasthya, vāņaprasthya and sannyāsa. In the brahmacarya stage, a man should undergo the life of a student in order to discipline his life by means of knowledge. He can be a naişthikabrahmacāri (taking the life of a celibate) seeking knowledge
13. Ranade, ibid., pp. 4-5. 14. Ranade, ibid., pp. 153-155. 15. The Gșhya-sūtras and Smộtis generally describe the four stages
of life.

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and the Truth, he may not go to the other stages of his life. From this state, a man passes into the garhapatya stage where his first duty is to get married in order to fulfil certain rites. According to the Vedic people, a man comes to the world to pay in course of his life, three debts (mas), viz, deva, pitand rşi. 16 He pays deva-mņa (debt to the gods) by worship, service and doing good duties; his pitr-iņa (debt to the Fathers) is paid by marriage and thereby he leads the life of a householder and continues the race by raising a family; rși-ma (debt to the Sages) can only be paid by studying and learning, by discussing the old learning and by extending its bounds by further additions. It would be a great achievement, if a man could pay all these three debts in one life. In the third stage, known as Vanaprasthya, a man seeks to get rid of the encumbrances of worldly existence. In the last stage (sannyāsa), he renounces altogether the mundane happiness. It should be noted that this system of catur āśrama was adopted in the Jaina system sometime in the 10th cent. A.D. It will be discussed later on. In performing four stages of life, mind has been given a prominent place, and to control mind from various aspects of life, several paths have been suggested. After a full-fledged control over mind, a man with a thorough knowledge of self (ātma-tattva) can enter into the path of Realization (mokşa-mārga) by following some measures of ethical principles (niti-tattva). It is in this connection that the question of caturvargadharma, artha, kāma and mokşa-are related. Without going into details about all these things, the fundamental issues of the Vedic people can be summed up in the following ways. In the Vedic period there developed
i) a belief in an unseen Reality arrived at either
a) by Intuitive Faith, or · b) by Intellectual Ratiocination, or
c) by Reason and Faith both.
16. jāyamāno vai brāhmaṇas tribhir mavā jāyate, bruhmacaryeņa
rşibhyo, yajñena devebhyaḥ, prajayā pitsbhyaḥ, eşa vā anrņo yah putro yajvā brahmacārivāsi (Taittiriya-Samhitä, VI. 3.10.5).

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There developed furtherii) a belief in the oneness of Life and Being, in one single
principle running through the Universe which also
regulates the life of human beings; iii) there is sorrow and suffering in this world and a
man will have to free himself from this either by following the path of knowledge and self-culture, or by Faith or by doing good deeds. This idea of the Vedic people has led them to believe the theories of karma and samsāra (of Actions in Life) which bring in good or bad results as they are good or bad, and
Rebirth and Transmigration; iv) lastly, a sense of sacredness of all lives. This is
followed both in positive and negative ways. In the negative way it teaches the principle of Ahimsā (noninjury), and the positive side of it is upekşā (ignoring evils), mụditā (the spirit of graciousness and happiness in all circumstances), karunā (a feeling of pity and charity) and maitri (a spirit of active
friendship by doing good)."? I do not want to go into details about the implication of all these doctrines with regard to dharma, but with this idea in the background I now pass on to Jainism.
ii) Jain attitude towards Vedic Religion
Let us see now how some of the fundamental Vedic concepts were changed in the light of the Jain attitude towards their the Jain point of view.
It is seen that Jain Philosophy as one of the interpreters of human life exhibits a remarkable independence of religious tradition. It is generally said that it is basically a revolt against some of the fundamental issues of the then existing system of religious ideas.
First, the Vedic conception of the Ultimate Reality or Divinity as an outside creator-God is challenged. It is said in the Sūtrakstānga (I. 3. 64-68) that some say that this
17. See Chatterji for these ideas, ibid., pp. 8ff.

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Universe was created by Brahmā (Pkt. Bambha-utte), but this is wrong:
iņam annam tu arņāņam iham egesim āhiyam/ . deva-utte ayam loe bambha-utte tti avare//64// .
"This is, indeed, ignorance of some (people) to say that this world was created (utte=uptah) by God; some say (it was) by Brahmā."
isarena kade loe pahāņāi tahāvare/ jivājīva-samāutte suha-dukkha-samaņņie//.65//
“(Some say), this world was done by God, (some say), by the primordial god (pahāņāi), (this world) which is full of jiva and ajīva and their happiness and miseries."
sayambhūņā kade loe iti vuttam mahesinā/ māreņa samthuyā māyā teņa loe asāsaye //66//
"It was created by Svayambhū-is said by the great sage. That Svayambhū has also created māyā which is associated with mộtyu (death)."
māhaņa samaņā ege āha andakaļe jagel aso tattam akāsī ya ayāṇantā musam vayel/67//
"Some Brahmins and śramaņas say thus world was created from an egg (anda), that Brahmā (aso) has created all the substances (tattam), one who does not know this (ayāṇantā) tells lies."
Moreover, the conception of God as a Perfect Being is questioned. It was often asked if God were perfect, then why His creations were imperfect. If the world is the creation of a Perfect Being, how is it that there are sorrows and sufferings, and miseries and wants and iniquities in His created beings ? Whatever may be the position of God as a Perfect Being, it is an undeniable fact that there are miseries in the world. The Jains and the Buddhists went on further to emphasize that if the woes and troubles of the Creator are to be accounted for by the acts of the creators themselves, and if the creator-God could not be held responsible for them, then what is the point of accepting the outside creatorGod ? So the Jains eliminated the outside creator-God from their processes of thinking. They accepted this world as it is

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13
and tried to account for the miseries. Buddhism says that the miseries of creatures are due to taṇhā (unquenchable thirst) for existence on the part of the creatures themselves. Jainism asserts that miseries and imperfections are due to karma (a series of actions) on the part of the unemancipated soul for which man comes to live in this world again. Hence if any godhood is attached, it is to be attached to a person who is a perfectly emancipated soul being possessed of omniscience, and a perfectly all-powerful man being absolutely free from all taints of selfishness. He is a person who saw the eternal verities as they were and realised the truth as they came to him. So to the Jains there is no need to accept an outside creator-God. This is the first principle which the Jains formulated with regard to the Vedic conception of creator-God.
Secondly, when the foundation of a creator-God is questioned, the other elements based on it naturally dwindles down. The validity of Sacrifice is criticised, particularly the elements of animal sacrifice. As the main object of Jainism is to establish the doctrine of Ahimsā (non-injury/nonviolence), animal sacrifice has no place in it.
: The Jains do not believe in the authoritative character of the Vedas. They contend that these Vedas cannot be said to be eternally self-existent. "The fact of non-remembrance of any author (kartur asmaranāt) of the Vedas does not prove that they had not any author at any time. In order to justify their case, they have given an example: In the case of an ancient well, an ancient house, or an ancient garden people may not know who in olden times made it, the name of its maker may long have been forgotten, but nobody would be prepared to say that the well, or the house or the garden is self-existent from the eternal past. The doctrine of the eternal existence of the Vedas is thus untenable. The Jains further point out that the very fact that the Vedas are a collection of words, so arranged as to carry an intelligible sense, shows that they were carefully made. So the Jains have refused to accept the validity of the Vedas as well as the sacrificial rites."
Thirdly, in Vedic literature Self or Ātman (or Ultimate

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Being or Reality) is maintained as permanent, without beginning, change or end. The Jains oppose this view, and declare that Being or Sat, is not persistent, unchangeable. or endless. Reality is permanent and changeable, there is a growth, development and destruction in it. The Reality has two aspects, and this is what is known as anekāntavāda in their philosophy.
Lastly, about the origin of the idea of Ahimsā. The cult of Ahimsā is very old in India. It is found in Vedic religion as well as in the Buddhist. But in these two religious beliefs, the doctrine of Ahimsā is not fully and rigorously stressed. But in Jainism it is very rigorously stressed and that is why this doctrine of Ahimsā is mainly associated with Jainism.
PART I. HISTORY OF JAINISM
V. Origin of Jainism
After the Vedic period comes the Age of Imperial Unity (7th/6th cent. B.C.- 320 A.D.) which is, in a sense, an age of revolt in Human Civilization. In fact, the sixth century B.C. is extraordinarily important in the intellectual history of mankind. In this century, some great men of the world like Mahāvīra, Buddha, Zoroaster, Confucius, Laotzu, Pythagoras were born and were preaching their new philosophies. It was in this period that Lord Vardhamāna Mahāvira was born in 599 B.C.; it was at that time Magadha, an area in Eastern India, was both politically and spiritually at the height of its power; it was in this time Mahāvīra started preaching and teaching his doctrines for 30 years; it was an era which experienced some new thoughts and trenchant ideas which ultimately gave birth to a new religion known as Jainadharma. Though Mahāvīra gave it a new shape, the antiquity of Jaina religion is older than Mahāvira and Buddhism.
i) The Antiquity of Jainadharma
According to the belief of the Jains themselves, the Jainadharma is eternal, and it has been revealed again and again, in every one of the endless succeeding periods of the

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world, by innumerable Tirthankaras. 18 In the present period, which is avasarpini according to the Jains, there are 24 Tirthankaras. The first of them was Rsabha, and the last three were Aristanemi, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra. All these Tirthankaras reached Nirvāņa at their death. Because of their attainment of Moksa, all these Tīrthankaras are regarded as gods (devas) by the Jains. In order to honour and worship them, the Jains have erected temples where the idols or images of these 24 Tirthankaras, the favourite being the first and the last three ones, are found. At a later time, some sects, especially a rather recent section of the Svetāmbaras, the Dhundiyā or Sthānakavāsīs, reject this kind of worship. Except the last two (Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra), all the Tirthankaras belong to mythology rather than to history. But the 22nd one, Aristanemi, is connected with the legend of Krsna as his relative. But Krsna is regarded as a historical person, so also Aristanemi. It is said that Pārsvanātha was the real reformer of Jainism, and Mahāvīra gave it a final shape into the present order in which we get it in the canonical literature of the Jains.
(a) The date of Mahāvīra
The date of Mahāvīra, though controversial, is more or less fixed. According to the Svetāmbaras, Mahāvīra was born in 599 B.C. and he got his parinirvana in 527 B.C. This date is more or less accepted. The Digambaras believe that Mahāvira was born in 659 B.C. and attained nirvāņain 587 B.C. But Jacobi thinks that Mahāvira's date must be between 549/48 B.C. and 477/76 B.C. Jacobi wants to bring down the date of Mahāvira very near to Lord Buddha who is a contemporary of Lord Mahāvīra. The date of Buddha is also controversial. According to Ceylonese tradition the Parinirvāṇa of Buddha happened in 544 B.C. 19, whereas according to Cantonese tradition it was in 486 B.C. Geiger, however, thinks that the date should be 483 B.C.20 However, 18. In the past there were 24 Tirthańkaras and there will be 24
Tirthankaras in the future 19. For these dates, see R.C. Majumdar and other's, Advanced
History of India, 2nd edn. MacMillan & Co. Ltd., London, 1963,
p. 58. 20. Majumdar, loc. cit.

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INTRODUCING JAINISM the 6th or 5th cent. B.C. would be the time of Buddha as well. The date of Pārsvanātha is much older than that of Mahāvīra. According to the Cambridge History of India, Pārsvanātha lived some 220 years prior to Mahāvīra. The traditional date of the birth of Pārsvanātha is 817 B.C.21 If that is taken to be partially true, then Jainism must have penetrated into India nearly three centuries before Gautama Buddha. Though Charpentier did not go beyond Pārsva, we may add here that the 22nd Tirthankara. Aristanemi. is said to have preached and practised Jainism and to have attained Nirvana on the Mount Girnar in the Junagarh State. If Śri Krsna is to be taken as a historical person, then Ariştanemi may also be regarded as such. In that case, Jainism can be further pushed back to n
back to nearly 1000 B.C.
To sum up this discussion, it can be said in a tabulated form thus :
Tīrthankaras Views of scholars Approximate Dates [1] Ariştanemi
nearly 1000 B.C. [2] Pārsvanātha According to the nearly 817 B.C.
Cambridge History
of India [3] Mahāvīra (i) According to 599-527 B.C.
Svetambara view (ii) According to 659-587 B.C. Digambara view (iii) According to 549-477 B.C.
Hermann Jacobi [4] Mahāvīra
72 years lived for
ii) References to Jainism in the Buddhist literature
That Jainism is older than Buddhism can be proved by the fact that Buddhist literature contains references to the Jain views. “As a matter of fact”, says A. Chakravarti, "Buddha was a younger contemporary of Lord Mahāvīra.
21. Majumdar, ibid., p. 1045.

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17
The Buddha himself in his conversation with his friend and disciple Sāriputta, narrates the fact that he himself in his earlier days was adopting Jaina practice of austerity which he had to give up because of the rigorous discipline which he did not like". 22 How far this is true is a matter of speculation now. But it is true that some of the Jainistic references are found in Buddhist literature. We often come across the references to Niggantha Nātaputta23 which, it is said, is another name for Jaina or Jain religion. In the dialogue of Pāyāsi and Kumāra Kassapa in the Pāyāsi-sutta of the Dighanikāya No. 23, the existence of a soul substance is denied by Pāyāsi as it was done by Buddha himself. A version of this dialogue is also found among the Jains. In the Upāli-Sutta (No. 56) of the Majjhima-Nikāya, there is a dialogue between Buddha and Jaina with regard to the practice of asceticism. In the Anguttara-nikāya (III. 27) eight powers of people belonging to the different strata of society are described. These are also found in the Thānanga and Samavāyanga suttas of the Jainas. The parable of the blind man and the elephant (andha-gaja-nyāya) is also found in the Jalna Syāduāda-manjarī as well as in the Udāna. The idea of a true brāhmana is dealt with in the Uttarādhyayanasūtra (XXV) as well as in the Sela-sutta (III. 7) of the Suttanipata, in the Dhammapada (Ch. 26-383-423), in the Udāna (I). It is surprisingly interesting to know that some of the verses of the Dhammapada are also found in the texts of . the Jainas, such as, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, Dasavaitālika
sūtra etc. Leumann24 has tried to prove that the Jātaka No. 530 has a specimen in the Jain texts. In the story of Moggalāna a very hostitle attitude towards the Jaina monks is described. The reference to Bhadda's becoming a Jaina ascetic is found in the commentary of Therigāthās. In the Kalpana-mandițīkā, the religious views of the Brāhmaṇas and the Jains are confuted. In the Divyāvadāna (p. 427), the persecutions of Jaina monks are mentioned. In the Sumāgadhāvadāna, there is a legend of Sumāgadhā, the daughter of Anathapiņdada, a merchant, who alienates her
22. A. Chakravarti, Samayasāra of Kundakunda, Bhāratiya
Jñānapīķha, Delhi, 1971, Introduction, p. 81. 23. See for this Winternitz's Hist of Ind. Lit. Vol-II. p. 424f. 24. For this reference see Winternitz, ibid., p. 145.

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husband from the Jaina monks and then converts the whole town to Buddhism. In the Lankāvatāra-sūtra, Aristanemi, among others, is mentioned.
iii) Jain Literature : Svetāmbara and Digambara
In the age of Imperial Unity, the codification of Mahāvira's sayings started.25 After the death of Mahāvīra (527 B.C.), in the fourth-third centuries B.C. after a severe famine lasting for twelve years at the time of Chandragupta of the Maurya empire, the Jains were divided into two broad sects ! Svetāmbara and Digambara. So their canonical literatures (Āgamas), though originally based on the sermons.of Mahāvīra, are also different. Mahāvira was not the composer of these texts, but these were compiled by his disciples, Indrabhūti Gautama, who, in turn preached to his disciple the ganadhara Sudharmā who again related these texts to his disciple Jambūsvāmi. It is believed by both the sects that originally the Jaina sacred texts were preserved in the 14 pūrvas and 12 Angas including the Dşstivāda. The knowledge of the 14 pūrvas continued only down to Sthūlabhadra, the 8th patriarch after Mahāvira, the next 7 patriarchs down to Vajra knew only ten pūrvas, and after that time the remaining pūrvas were gradually lost, until the time when canon was written down in books in 454 A.D. on the lapse of 980 years after the Nirvana of Mahāvira. All the pūrvas and the 12th Anga Dșstivādawere lost. What remains is the 11 Angas and these 11 Angas are the oldest part of their Siddhānta. The Svetāmbaras accept these 11 Angas which consist of 45 texts divided into 11 Angas (different from the previous ones), 12 upangas, 10 painnas, 6 chedasūtras, 1 Nandi, 1 Anuyogadvāra, and 4 mūlasūtras. The Digambaras do not accept these Āgama texts at all. On the contrary, they have their own Agama texts comprising almost 45 books under the name of Şațkhaņdāgama, Kasāyapāhuda, Mahābandha, and so on, and they claim that the lost Dşstivāda has been restored and preserved by them in their canonical literature. These books have been published since 1938. In a nutshell, I will say that all these books are complementary and supplementary to each other
25. Winternitz, ibid., pp. 431-445.

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for the study of Jainism as a whole. It is a fact worth noting that the Svetāmbara texts are written in Ardhamāgadhi, while the present day Digambara texts are in Sauraseni. In both cases, texts are either in prose, or in verse, or in prose and verse mixed. In course of time, a large literature of glosses and commentaries (Niryukti Cūrņi, Țikā) has grown up round the Agama texts of both the sects. Besides these, the Jains possess separate works in close material agreement with the former works, which contain systematic expositions of their faith in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Gradually, the Jains have covered all branches of literature, such as, cosmogony and cosmology, Theogony and Philosophy, folk-lore and tradition, tales and stories, ornate kāvyas, dramas, grammar and so on. All these books will tell us all about Jainism.
One of the greatest contributions of Mahāvira in his age is his idea of preaching the religious sermons in a spoken language, a práctice which was never followed by anybody before him. At the time of Mahāvīra, Sanskrit was probably used for all sorts of communications - be it a general conversation or an ecclesiastical one. Mahāvīra broke the tradition and realised the value of a spoken language as a vehicle of religious discourses. The language in which he preached his religious doctrines was Ardhamāgadhī, one of the dialects of Prakrit, a name given to the Middle Indian languages, whose uninterrupted literary documents had come down to us from the time of Mahāvira down to the 15th century A.D. covering a period of twenty hundred years. Later on, his doctrnes were codified by his disciples and followers in Ardhamāgadhi. Mahāvīra won the admiration of the common people for speaking in their own language.
iv) Position of Jainism after the nirvāņa of Mahāvīra
After the death of Mahāvīra, the history of Jainism for a few centuries practically means 'little more than the history of the Jain Church'.26 Later on, the Church organisation became very complex. At the time of Mahāvīra, some of his followers started dissenting from his opinion. Gosāla's
26. Majumdar, History and Culture of the Indian people, Vol-II, (The
Age of Imperial Unity), p. 415.

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doctrine of fatalism was formulated before Mahāvīra. We have some references to seven schisms27 at the time of Mahāvīra. A little later sometime in the fourth-third centuries B.C. the Jaina community was broadly divided into two. sects-Svetāmbara and Digambara. "The points of difference between the two pertain to matters of dogma like the number of movable and immovable beings, the possibility of woman attaining liberation, and the food partaken by the omniscient teachers; to mythological events like the transference of Mahāvira embryo, his marriage, the sex of Malli, one of the prophets, and to practices like the wearing of clothes and going naked."
VI. Growth of Jainism
At the time of Mahāvīra, Jainism spread to the kingdoms of Kośala, Videha, Anga, Vanga etc. besides its birth place Magadha. In the Kappasutta (I. 51-52) Mahāvira's itinerary is preserved to some extent. He wandered as far as AngaMagadha to the east, Sthunā to the west, Kausāmbi to the south and Kunālā to the north. From the inscription of Khāravela (3rd/2nd cent. B.C.), we come to know that Mahāvīra established Jainism in the country of Kalinga, and Khāravela, the Chedi king of Orissa, showed his great inclination towards Jainism.
Sometime in the second century B.C., the Jaina community migrated to Mathurā and Ujjayini. In Mathurā we have some ruins of a Jaina shrine and a small number of inscriptions, engraved on Jaina images. Ujjayini was also a strongholdof Jainism. “If we believe in the story of Aśoka's grandson king Samprati and his conversion to Jainism by Suhastin, this spread to Malwa must be placed as early as the second century B.C. We are further told that Samprati persuaded his grandfather to send religious missionaries to the countries of Andhras and Dramilas to propagate the religion. The famous story of Kālakācārya, the Jaina sage, implies the spread of Jainism in Malwa in the first century B.C."28
27. Glasenapp, Der Jainismus, pp. 346-49. 28. Majumdar, ibid., p. 418.

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The Junagarh inscription (2nd cent. A.D.) gives the earliest reference to Jain monks who had attained the perfect knowledge (kevalajñāna). The inscription contains the Jain symbols like Svastikā, Bhadrāsana, Minayugala and others.
The spread of Jainism to the South is due to the migration of a Jaina community affected by the famine at the time of Maurya Candragupta which resulted in the establishment of the Digambara community in Mysore with Śravana-Belagola as its centre.
As for the doctrines of Jainism, nothing definite can be vouchsafed. We can only sum up the position of Jainism in the words of Ghatage : "Most of the features of Jainism suggestive of its primitiveness may be regarded as received by Mahāvira as they already existed. What he did was, in all likelihood, the codification of an unsystematic mass of beliefs into a set of rigid rules of conduct for monks and laymen".29 But as what Mahāvīra really preached is not known, barring a few references in the Canonical literature codified a thousand years after the death of Mahāvīra, we may assume that most of the Jaina dogmas, such as, karma-theory, soul, non-soul, influx, bondage, cessation, etc. must have been evolved after Mahāvīra and before Umāsvāmi wrote his Tattvārtha-sūtra between the first and the fifth centuries A.D.
At the time of Mahāvira, Jainism was in a formative stage, but the contribution of the Jains in the Classical Period (320-740 A.D.) was immense. It was in this age that the Jaina Canonical literature was codified, besides other developments.
It has been said above that the Svetāmbara canonical texts, as we have them today, were not composed in one day. There were several councils for that, the last being in the middle of the Classical Age (320-740 A.D.), which saw a spring time efflorescence in all spheres of life. "The creative urge of the time has contributed both character and richness to the evolution of the national mind in every succeeding
29. Majumdar, ibid., p. 420.

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century."30 The texts redacted in the first Council of Elders in Pataliputra in 4th/3rd century B.C. did not get the recognition of the whole community:31 It was at that time that the division of the two sects --Svetambara and Digambara-came into existence. In the Classical Age the Second Council at Valabhi under the able guidance of Devardhigani Kşamāśramana was held in 454 A.D. or 467 A.D.32 This council was held at the time of King Dhruvasena I of the Maitraka dynasty of Valabhi. The Jaina tradition says that this King was extolled as a Jaina convert. But this tradition seems to be doubtful as numerous records of the Maitraka Kings of Valabhi make no mention of this fact. This tradition can only say that Valabhi was a famous centre of Jaina literary activity. The two famous Jaina scholars Puşpadanta and Bhūtabali belonging to the ninth century embodied the older works of Dharasena.33 It is in this Age that Jinabhadra-Kşamāśramani wrote his famous Viseşāvasyaka-bhāsya in 609 A.D. It was in this Second Council at Valabhi that the Jaina Agama texts took its present shape into 45 āgamas divided into anga, upānga, prakirņakas, chedasūtras, mūlasūtras and the two independent texts.34
Besides the redaction of the Āgama texts, vigorous literary activity went on among the Jain monks. As a result, we have a vast and rich literature of considerable merit. The later non-canonical literature, such as, the Nirjuktis and Bhāsyas, were greatly 'recast in this period by Samghadāsa, Jinadāsa and Siddhasena.35 The Cūrņis, Prakrit commentaries of the Agama texts in prose, were also composed in this period. It was in this age that we see “a general tendency among Jaina scholars to prefer Sanskrit more and more to Prakrit."36 The preference to Sanskrit was 30. K.M. Munshi's Foreword p. vii in Majumdar's History and
Culture of the Indian People, Vol-III (The Classical Age). 31. Majumdar, ibid., p. 415. 32. op.cit., p. 415. 33. Majumdar, ibid., p. 416. 34. op. cit., p. 416. 35. Majumdar, ibid., p. 417. 36. op. cit., p. 417.

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so strong indeed that the famous Jaina scholar Haribhadra (705-775 A.D.) nearly at the end of this period composed works and commentaries in Sanskrit. “The Jaina philosophy received in these days greater emphasis on its logical side, and we know of such keen intellects as Siddhasena, Akalanka, Pujyapāda and others formulating Jaina dogmatics in a more logical form, defending it against the views of the rival philosophical schools and developing the doctrines of Syādvāda and Nayavāda with admirable skill and wonderful subtlety."37
It was in the same period that the Digambaras cultivated their literary activities in the South.38 They still used both Prakrit and Sanskrit. The Digambara scholars belonging to this period are Bhattakera, the author of Mulācāra, which describes the rules of conduct of the Jain monks, Svāmi Kārttikeya, the author of the Duādaśānuprekşā, which deals with the twelve reflections on the glaring shortcomings of this mundane life, Yativrsabha, the author of Tiloyapannatti, which describes the comprehensive survey of Jaina cosmography. Some Digambara scholars also started writing in Sanskrit. We may mention the names of Samanatabhadra, Akalanka, Pujyapāda, Mānatunga and others. It is a fact worth noting that it was in this period that the karmadoctrine of the Jainas got its prominence.
VII. Spread of Jainism
Historically the starting point of Jainism was Magadha sometime in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. But by the end of the third century A.D. at the time of Imperial Unity, Jainism spread throughout India. To the south-east it went to Kalinga, and to the south to Deccan and Tamil lands, and Mathura and Malwa to the west. By that time Jainism lost its stronghold in Magadha. It is guessed that for the lack of royal patronage it was lost in the North, but was confined to the merchants and bankers for a long time. “This loss of kingly support in the north, was, however, made good by the favour shown to this religion by many ruling families
37. Majumdar, ibid., pp. 417-18. 38. Majumdar, ibid., p. 418.

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of the Deccan."39 By the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. Jainism established its strongholds in the countries to the south of the Vindhyas. By the end of that period the Jain communities were finally sharply divided into Svetāmbaras and Digambaras. Only one community-the Yāpaniyas was still alive, but they were not as important as the other two sects. These two sects were further grouped. In the south there were Sanghas and Gaņas, whereas in the north we have groups like Gacchas, Kulas and Sākhās. In the age of Gupta Imperialism (320-467 A.D.) Jainism as well as Buddhism declined. We have come to this conclusion because of the fact that there are no epigraphic and literary records about Jainism. We do not find any description of Jainism in the records of the Chinese traveller Fahien (5th cent. A.D.). But there are indications by which we can say that it continued to be popular among the merchants and bankers. 40
Apart from literary sources described above, there were two inscriptions41 concerning Jainism in the 5th century A.D. At the time of Kumāragupta these inscriptions were found at Mathura and Udayagiri. The Mathura inscription (dated 432 A.D.) speaks of a Jaina image dedicated by a lady, while the other at Udayagiri in Malwā (426 A.D.) describes the image of Pārsvanātha, the 23rd Tirthankara, erected by an unknown person. Similarly, at the time of Skandagupta (461 A.D.) in the inscription of Kakubha, commonly known as Kahuan inscription, it is stated that five images of the Jaina Tirthankaras are set up in that village. All these records show that Jainism was popular more in the west than in the east.
In Bengal and Bihar during the period under review, Jainism did not flourish very much. Only in the Pāhārpur copper-plates of 478 A.D. in Rajshāhi District, it is recorded that for the maintenance of worship at the Jain Vihāra at Vața Gohālī, which was presided over by the pupils of the
39. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-III, p. 409. 40. Majumdar, ibid., III, p. 409. 41. Majumdar, ibid., III, p. 409.

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Nirgrantha teacher Guhanandin of the Pancastūpanikāya of Banaras42 some pieces of land were donated by a person and his wife. "This vihāra, of the fourth or fifth century, probably occupied the site of the great temple unearthed at Pāhārpur (Rajshāhi District). It is worth noting that the founder of the vihāra was a monk, who migrated from Benaras to the East."43
In the seventh cent. A.D. from the records of Hiuen Tsang (who was in India from 629 to 645 A.D.) we come to know that both the Svetāmbara and the Digambara monks were found near Taxila to the west, and Vipula to the east. It also tells us that in Pundravardhana and Samatata to the east there were numerous Digambara Nirgranthas.44 That the Jains, particularly the Digambara sect, were not held in great esteem at least in Northern India can be gleaned from a reference to the Harsa-carita by Bāņa. The reference is to the Jain ascetics carrying peacock feathers to sweep insects out of their path. It is also said that the sight of a naked Jain ascetic is cited as a very bad omen (abhimukham ājagāma śikhi-picchā-lāñchano nagnāțakaḥ).45 At a much later time Viśākhadatta (8th-9th cent. A.D.) in his Mudrārāksasa Act IV. says that the sight of a ksapanaka is said by Amātyarāksasa to be an evil omen. So also Madhavācārya (13th-14th cent. A.D.) in his Sarvadarśanasamgraha (Ārhatadarśana) had the same opinion when he said- luñcitāḥ picchikāhastā” pāņipātrā Digambarāḥ Dandin in his Dašakumāracarita46 also made fun of a Jaina ascetic.
· Though there are some references to low estimate of the
Jain monks by some writers, the activities of the Jain monks were not, however, very poor. We can get this idea from a reference to a book Kuvalayamālākahā by Uddyotana
42. Marimdar, ibid., p. 410. 43. Majumdar, ibid., III, p. 410. 44. Majumdar, ibid., III, p. 410. 45. Harsacarita, 5th Ch. p. 20 of P.V. Kane's edn; see his
Introduction, p. xxxviii. 46. Dasakumāracarita of Kale's edn. second ch. of the Uttarapithikā, . p. 73ff.
:

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composed in 779 A.D. At the beginning of his romance Uddyotana tells us the following story.47
"In the northern part of India there was a town called Pavvaiyā close to the river Chandrabhāgā, which was the capital of the Yavana king Toramāna. The spiritual preceptor of this king was one Harigupta of the Gupta family. One of his pupils was Devagupta, a royal scion of the Gupta dynasty, who, in turn, had a pupil called Sivachandra, bearing the title Mahattara. In the course of his wanderings, Sivachandra took up his residence at Bhinnamāla, otherwise known as: Śrīmāla. One of his pupils was the far-famed Yakshadatta, while a band of his other pupils is represented as converting the whole of Gujrāt to Jainism by their wanderings and preachings. One of his pupils was Vatteśvara, who caused a magnificent temple of the Jina to be constructed in the town of Ākāśavapra. He had a pupil Tattvāchārya, who was the teacher of Uddyotana, the author of this work. Uddyotana imbibed the knowledge of the scriptures from Virabhadra while he learnt logic and other sciences from the famous scholar Haribhadra."
On this piece of information as gathered from the introductory portions of Kuvalayamālākahā, A.M. Ghatage48 comments:
"Though history does not help us in ascertaining who these Gupta kings were, and how far the Hūņa king Toramāṇa was a regular convert to Jainism, we may readily believe that men of standing and petty chieftains of those times patronised the Jain faith, and bands of wandering monks formed the chief agency of spreading the religion in different parts of Western India."
In the sixth and seventh centuries A.D. the Ganga Kings of Mysore were very much attracted to Jainism. In fact, the founder of the family was a disciple of a Jaina teacher called
47. Kuvalayamālākahā ed by A.N. Upadhye, Bhāratiya Vidyā
Bhavan, Bombay, 1949. The quotation is from Majumdar, ibid.,
III, p. 410f. 48. Majumdar, ibid., III, p. 411.

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27
Simhanandin. His successors were also followers of Jainism. It is said that two later rulers of this dynasty, Avinīta and Durvinīta were brought up and nurtured by the two Jain sages Vijayakirti and Pujyapāda respectively. At their time, the kings presented gifts to Jain monks and built Jain temples. 49
In a similar way, the Kadamba rulers of Vaijayanti, though followers of Hinduism, showed unusual favour towards Jainism. They too gave donations to Jain monks and erected many Jain temples. At the time of the Kadamba rulers "the Jaina community was flourishing under their benevolent patronage, and that many high officials and rich landlords of the country were devout followers of this religion."50 There were many sects at that time : the Nirgranthas, the Yāpaniyas, the Kūrcakas and the Śvetapatas.
In the early part of the Chālukyas of Bādāmi (Bijāpur District) who held sway over extensive regions of the Deccan from the middle of the sixth to the middle of the eighth century, we do not get any remarkable evidence of Jainism.51 But at the time of Pulakesin II (610/11-642 A.D.), the greatest of the Chalukya rulers, Jainism was very much favoured. A
temple of the Jinendra, called Meguti, was constructed by : Ravikirti. Later rulers like Vinayāditya, Vijayāditya and
Vikramāditya gave grants to Jaina teachers for constructing Jain Temples. 52
The early history of Jainism in South India 53 is not very clear. The lack of direct evidence is the cause of this uncertainty. There is a reference to the Nirgranthas in Ceylon in the Mahāvaņģa at the time of Pundukābhaya. So also in the caves in the districts of Rāmnād and Tinnevelly there are references to Jainism. The early Tamil literature, though might indicate the flourishing state of Jainism in South
49. Majumdar, ibid., p. 411f. 50. Ibid., III, p. 412. 51. Ibid., III, p. 412. 52. Ibid., II, p. 412. 53. Ibid., III, p. 413.

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India, does not supply us concrete evidence on the existence of Jainism in South India. The Jains also claini that the authors of Tolkāppiyam and Kural are their adherents. The dates of some works, such as, Yasodharakāvya, Silappadikāram, Jivakacintāmaņi and Nilakesi, though Jain in origin and contents, are uncertain. But it is supposed that they must be dated before the seventh century A.D. But the doctrines of Jainism as depicted in the Manimēkhalai, which mentions the Digambara Jain monks, are fairly accurate.54
Though the early history of Jainism in the South is obscure, their later history supports the prosperous state of Jainism in South India. In the town of Kāñci, Jainism was at its height.55 Kundakunda, the famous Digambara writer, also honoured by the Svetāmbaras, belonging to the first century A.D. wrote several philosophical treatises. All of his works, available so far, are in the Sauraseni Prakrit. Three of his works-Samayasāra, Pravacanasāra and Pañcāstikāya, commonly known as Nāțaka-traya or Sāratraya (cf. the Prasthāna-traya of the Vedānta Philosophy) are studied with great zeal by Jain scholars. Kundakunda is very popular in the South Indian Jaina tradition. These three works are commented upon in Sanskrit by Amrtacandra (about the close of the 10th cent. A.D.) and by Jayasena (12th cent. A.D.) and in Kannada by Bālacandra (13th cent. A.D.). Padmaprabha Maladhārideva (died A.D. 1185) wrote a Sanskrit commentary on the Niyamasāra. After Kundakunda the name of Sarvanandin can be mentioned. When Simhavarman was the ruler of Kāñci, Sarvanandin, a Jain scholar, wrote his Prakrit work Lokavibhāga in 458 A.D.56
The Digambara Jaina author Samantabhadra (1st half of the 8th cent. A.D.) at the time of Kumārilabhatta belonged to Kāñci. He wrote a commentary on Umāsvāti's Tattvārthādhigama-sūtra. The introduction to this commentary, is entitled Devāgama-stotraor Aptamīmāmsā.
54. Ibid., III, p. 413. 55. Ibid., III, p. 413. 56. Ibid., III, p. 413.

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In the book the Jaina Philosophy of Syādvāda is explained. Kumārilabhatta and Vācaspati Miśra knew this book. It should be noted in this connection that there was a great philosophical dispute between Kumārilabhatta and Samantabhadra. Akalanka also joined the dispute, while Prabhācandra and Vidyānanda defended their co-religionists against Kumārila.57
Almost at the same time there were several sanghas (groups) in South India. There was a Mūla-sangha (the original group) in the south. Later on, this sangha was divided into four ganas. The names of the ganas depended on the founders of the gaņas. For example, the Nandigana is named after Māghanandin, Senagana after Jinasena, Simhagana after Simha and Devagaņa after Deva.58 They were all pupils of Arhadbali, who was again a pupil of Bhadrabāhu II. From Hiuen Tsang's account59 we come to know that in the country of Pandyas, a large number of the Nirgranthas lived and preached their doctrines. But in the seventh century, owing to the rise of Saivism and Vaignavism, Jainism began to decline. Tradition says that Mahendravarman, a Pallava king, was a Jain by faith, but was converted to Saivism by Appar. So also Arikeśari Māravarman, a Pandya king, was converted to Śaivism. All these evidences show that Jainism lost its ground in the south in the seventh century A.D.60
Ghatagel has succintly outlined the position of Jainism · in the south at that time thus :
The picture of Jainism as a religion, which we get in thla period, does not differ materially from what we know of itin later days. The community was divided into the monastic order and the lay following, with further sub-divisions, particularly among the former. The building of temples, the establishment of monasteries, the worship of the prophets,
57. Winternitz, Hist. of Ind. Lit. II, p. 478. 58. Majumdar, ibid., p. 414. 59. Majumdar, ibid., p. 414. 60. Majumdar, ibid., p. 414. 81. Majumdar, ibid., p. 414f.

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and celebration of great public festivals were the normal features of the religious life of the people, Circumstances probably led to a change of habits of some of the monks, :. which produced the distinction between Chaityavāsa (residence in the monastery) and Vanavāsa (residence in the forest). The former developed a more compact organisation which led to the establishment of a spiritual head of the community of a given locality, called the Bhattārakas, whose lists of succession called the Pattāvalis, often cover long periods of time. Many religious records of these days speak of the observance of the vow of Sallekhanā; the peculiarly Jain practice of observing fast unto death, as performed both by monks and laity, and we observe a steady growth of holy places to which monks and pious householders retired towards the end of their life." ,
In the age of Imperial Kanauj (750 A.D.-1000 A.D.), which began with the invasions of the Arabs (712 A.D.) in the beginning of the 8th cent. A.D. and ended with Āfghānisthān's passing into the hands of the Turks in 997 A.D., Jainism did not flourish very much for the lack of royal support in the north, though it was very popular among the merchants and bankers in the north.62 In the south, on the other hand, it enjoyed an extensive royal patronage. In fact, in the Deccan there was no rival of Jainism, and as Altekar63 thinks that perhaps one-third of the population of the Deccan was following the doctrines and teachings of Mahāvīra. But afterwards owing to the rise of the Lingāyata sect, Jainism received a serious set-back.
During the period under review, Jainism did not have any appreciable influence in Bengal. It is noticeable that in the inscriptions of the Pālas, no reference to Jainism is found. 64
During the period of the Chāpa dynasty65 whose one branch ruled from Vardhamāna and the other from
62. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, p. 287. 63. Rāstrakuțas and their times, Poona, 1934. 64. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, p. 288. 65. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, pp. 288-89.

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Anahilapāțaka, modern Pātan, in Northern Gujarāt, in the first quarter of the ninth century, Jainism received royal patronage. In fact, the Chāpa rulers were the patrons of this religion. According to the Jaina Prabhandhas, Vanarāja Chāvďā was installed on the throne at Anahilapāțaka by his Jaina guru Silagunasūri. Vanarāja's prime minister was a Jaina merchant (varik) named Champa. Another merchant prince Ninnaya by name built a temple of Rşavanātha at Anahilavāda; Lahora, the son of Ninnay, was a general in Vanarāja's army. Vanarāja consecrated the idol of Pārsvanātha in the temple of Pañcāsara-caitya built by him. The rulers of the Chāpa dynasty also built many Jain temples.
From Bappabhattisūricaritra, found in the Prabhāvakacarita, (SJS; pp. 85 ff) we come to know that the Pratihāras (from the second quarter of the eighth century to the 10th cent. A.D.) were also the chief patrons of Jaina religion.66 Vatsarāja of this dynasty also consecrated a golden temple of Lord Mahāvira at Kanauj, and at Gwalior he also. established an image of Mahāvira. It is said that Vatsarāja's son Nāgabhațţa II was converted to Jainism and his grandson Bhoja was a great patron of Jainism."
:: Literary activities were also pursued by many famous
Jaina writers in the court of Paramāra Kings.67 One of these : writers was Dhanapāla. We have two Dhanapālas : one is a
Śvetāmbara Jain and the other is a Digambara one. The Svetāmbara Jaina Dhanapāla (10th cent. A.D.), son of Sarvadeva, wrote his Tilaka-manjarī under Muñja Vākpatirāja of Dhārā at about 970 A.D. In the introductory verses Dhanapāla eulogises the Paramāra King of Dhārā. He also mentions the names of some of his predecessors. such as, the author of Tarangavati and Rudra who composed a Trailokya-sundari-kathā. The Tarangavai68 is a Jain religious story (Dharma-kathā) and the name of the author
66. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, p. 289. 87. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, p. 284. 68. Winternitz, Hist of Ind. Lit. II, p. 522; S.N. Dasgupta and S.K.
De, History of Sanskrit Literature, Calcutta, 1946, p. 201 (in. 1),

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is Śrīpādalipta or Siripālitta. In the Aņuogadāra he is mentioned as a Tarangavatīkāra. As the Jaina canonical works were finally laid down by the 5th cent. A.D., it is presumed that the author must have flourished before the 5th cent. A.D. The Tarangavati is lost, but its romantic lovestory is, however, preserved in the Tarangalolā whose authorship is variously ascribed to Virabhadra or Yaśaḥsena or Nemicandra of the Hārijyapuriya Gaccha. It is composed in Prakrit verse in 1643 A.D. E. Leumann, who has translated the work into German (München, 1921), says: that Śrīpādalipta lived as early as the 2nd or 3rd cent. A.D. Tradition says that he lived in the time of Sālivāhana. This Dhanapāla also wrote a Prakrit lexicon named Paiya-lacchināma-mālā, and a Jaina Stotra, Rşabhapañcāśikā.
The other one is a Digambara Dhanapāla,69 who also lived in the 10th century, and is the author of the Apabhramsa poem Bhavisattakahā, otherwise also known as Jñāna-pañcami-kathā. This Dhanapāla is a son of Māesara and Dhanasri.
At the time of the Imperial Kanaujo Jain literature was written in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhsamsa including the Deśabhāṣās, and also in Tamil and Kanarese. One of the famous writers of this age is Haribhadra who has written books in Sanskrit and Prakrit. He is, in fact, the earliest Sanskrit commentator of the Jaina Āgama texts. Haribhadra? lived in the 8th cent. A.D., probably between 705 and 775 A.D. He is the pupil of Jinabhadra or Jinabhata and Jinadatta from the Vidyadharakula. He was born at Citrakuța, modern Chitore. He was a Brahmin by birth and had all the Brahmanical learning. He was later on converted to Jainism. On the conversion to Jainism there is an anecdote which runs as follows. "Proud of his enormous erudition, he declared that he would become the pupil of any man who could tell him a sentence the meaning of which he did not understand. This challenge was inscribed on a plate which he wore on his stomach, whilst another legend
69. Winternitz, ibid., p. 532. 70. Majumdar, ibid., Vol-IV, p. 292. 71. Winternitz, ibid., II. p. 479f.

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has it that he laid gold bands around his body to prevent his bursting owing to so much learning. One day he heard the Jaina nun Yākini reciting a verse, the meaning of which he did not understand. He asked her to explain the meaning to him. She referred to a teacher Jinabhatta, who promised to instruct him, if he would enter the Jaina Order. So Haribhadra became a monk, and thenceforth called himself the "spiritual son" (dharma-putra) of the nun Yākini. He soon became so well-versed in the sacred writings of the Jainas that he received the title Sūri (honorific epithet of learned Jain monks), and his teacher appointed him as his successor."72 The Jain tradition says that he wrote no less than 1,444 works.73 But so far 88 of his works have been found in manuscripts, of which again, 20 books are only printed. He wrote both in verse and prose, and most of his writings are scientific and philosophical. According to one tradition, it is said that Haribhadra is supposed to have taken part in the compilation of the Maha-nisiha. This seems to be unlikely, although he occupied himself with the text. 74 He was the first to write commentaries on the Jaina Agama texts of which again Avassaya and Dasaveāliya have come down to us. In Haribhadra's commentaries many interesting tales are found. In his Sanskrit commentaries he retained the narratives in their original Prakrit form. Hemacandra has taken some of his stories in his Sthavīrāvali-carita. Haribhadra is also the author of Upadesapada and 32 Astakāni In his famous book on general philosophy Şaddarśana-samuccaya, he mainly deals with Nyāya, Vaišeşika, Samkhya, Jaimini and Buddhism, and lastly on Jainism in a short section. Loka-tattva-nirnaya is his another philosophical text in Sanskrit verses, where also he has discussed other systems including Jainism. He wrote a commentary on Umāsvāmi's Tattvārthādhigama-sūtra. He also wrote a commentary on the Nyāyapraveśa of the Buddhist Dinnāga. His other works are Yogabindu, Yogadsstisamuccaya, Dharmabindu etc. All these works deal with
72. Winternitz, ibid., II, p. 480.
73. Winternitz, ibid., II, p. 485. :: 74. W. Schubring, Das Mahānisiha-sutta, Berlin, 1918, p. 5f;
Winternitz, ibid., p. 565.

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the doctrines of Jainism. Jacobi75 mentions some other works of Haribhadra. They are Anekānta-jaya-patākā with his own commentary, Šāstra-vārttā-samuccaya, Șodaśa-prakarara. Haribhadra's Samarāicca-kahā is a prototype of Tarangavati and is a Prakrit prose romance. Haribhadra also wrote a satire Dhūtākhyana by name in five ākhyanas (stories) during the reign of king Sammattarāya of Citoda.
i) Introduction of the Caturāśrama
One of the greatest contributions of the Jains in the Age of Imperial Kanauj was the introduction of the Caturāśrama76 concept of Hinduism. It is believed that Jinasena (9th cent. A.D.), a pupil of Virasena, and the friend of King Amoghavarşa I (815-877 A.D.), and an author of the Adipurāņ, accepted the Caturāśrama system of Hinduism. His follower the famous Digambara Cāmundarāva (10th-11th centuries A.D.) in his work Caritra-sāra has acknowledged this concept of the four asramas of the Hindus. Except one, the names are also the same. His system of Caturāsrama can be tabulated thus :
Caturāśrama
brahmacārin
grhastha
vānaprastha bhikṣu
1. upanaya brah jāti tirtha
1.anagāra 2. avalamba brah ksatriya ksatriya 2. yati 3. adikşā brah
3. muni 4. gūdha brah
4. rși 5. nāişthika brah
The upanayana brahmacāri is he who after his upanayana ceremony enters into the household life. In this period his main object is to study the Agamas and to become a master of the subject. On the contrary, an avalamba brahmacāri is one who is a novitiate before entering into a monkhood and studies the Agama in this period. After that he may become a monk or go back to the household life.
75. Winternitz, ibid., II, p. 527. 76. For this information see R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, London, 1963,
pp. 36-38.

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Adikşā brahmacārī, as the name suggests, is he who, without wearing the monk's attire.or taking orders, but adhering to the household life, studies the Agamas thoroughly. gudha brahmacāri is a kumāra śramana, a boy ascetic, who studies the Agamas in this stage. After the expiry of his student life, he may go back to the household life after abandoning his monkhood. He may do so either on his own, or owing to the pressure from his relatives or otherwise. A naişthika brahmacāri, on the other hand, is he who leads the life of a monk, studies the Agamas and other Sastras, begs alms for food. He wears a white garb (or a red one), and wears a sacred thread on his chest, and his head is shaven. It is not clearly stated whether he can go back to his household life or not. But from his description it appears that he prefers monkhood to family life.
A grhastha is a household. It is of two types : jātikāyastha and tirtha kāyastha. jāti-kāyasthas are brāhmins, ksatriyas, vaiśyas, and sūdras. This classification is the same with the Hindus. The Tirtha-kāyasthas are of various kinds depending on their ways of life.
In the vānaprastha stage, one practises a moderate asceticism and wears one piece of cloth without taking the vow of nudity. The type of life expected in this stage is similar to that of Hindu order. But Medhāvin (1504 A.D.) at a much later time in his Dharma-samgraha-śrāvakācāra has styled the Vanaprastha as the aparādalingi and the bhikṣu-utsarga-lingi
The bhikṣu is one who begs alms for his livelihood after being initiated into the order of monkhood. It is of four types: anagara, yati, muni and rși. An ordinary monk is called anagāra, while a monk who has ascended the spiritual ladder is called a yati. A muni is a monk who has acquired supernatural knowledge by his power of penance. He is endowded with avadhi-jñāna, manaḥ paryāya and kevalajñāna When a monk attains to divine power (pddhi), he is called rși bhikṣu. It is the supreme stage of bhikṣu-hood.
The above classification is given by the followers of the schools of Jinasena, and hence cannot be taken to be representative of any authority. In the normal Jaina context

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INTRODUCING JAINISM
the term muni has no relevance, even though the term is used as a prefix to certain Jaina sādhus in modern times. The term bhikṣu is also dubious. It generally means a Buddhist monk, as opposed to a Jaina, and the Svetāmbaras use it to describe an ordinary Jaina sādhu. Even the Digambaras use it to designate a layman in their orders.
Along with the concept of caturāśrama, the Jains also discussed the types of Srāvaka in the same period. Santisūri (11th cent. A.D.) in his Dharma-ratna-prakarana (verse 321) has enumerated four categories of śrāvaka”, e.g., nāmaśrāvaka, sthāpanā-srāvaka, dravya-śrāvaka, and bhāvaśrāvaka.
Nama-sraraka, as the name suggests, is one who is a Jaina in name only, Sthāpanā-śrāvaka is a Jaina layman who follows some statutory principles of Jain orders, but a dravya-śrāvaka is one who follows the Jaina rites compulsory for a Jaina, whereas a bhāva-śrāvaka is a mere believer of Jainism.
After a few centuries, Āsādhara (1240 A.D.) in his Sāgaradharmāmsta and Medhāvin (1504 A.D.) in his Śrāvakācāra had given threefold classification of the Śrāvaka 78 These are pāksika, naişthika, and sādhaka. A pākṣika-śrāvaka is a layman who practises the anuvratas and the mūlaguņas. He is called a pākṣika layman, because he has an inclination (paksa) towards ahimsā, while, on the contrary, the naisthikaśrāvaka (which is, in fact, equivalent to naisthika-brahmacāri and which is again later on called kşullakci) is one who pursues “his path upwards for spiritual attainment and practises the tenfold dharmas of the ascetic. As in his culminating point (nisthā) he leaves the household life, he is called naisthika śrāvaka. A Sadhaka is he who concludes (sādhayati) or renounces his human body by carrying out sallekhanā.
This is, in brief, the history of the origin, growth and development of Jainism in different parts of India. I shall now talk about some aspects of Jainism which will help us to understand the basic contributions of the Jains to the world culture. 77. Williams, ibid., p. 36. 78. Williams, ibid., p. 37.

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PART II. SOME ASPECTS OF JAINISM
VIII. Free thinking in Jainism
In the evolution of world's thoughts and culture, the Jain literature can supply us material on free thinking and sophistic ideas. Herein lies the value of Jainistic teachings and practices. The Jains afford us many an interesting glimpse of every day life of a section of people of India. They are identified as a part and parcel of Indian life, not only of the life of the monks themselves, but also that of the other classes of people as well.
From his teachings and preachings it appears that Mahāvīra was an outstanding exponent of social equality and justice. He stood both for the rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, and for the ruler and the ruled. He did not allow anybody to be exploited and oppressed, but through his principles of non-violence he maintained peace and tranquility in the society with his splendid and imperishable excellence of sincerity and strength.
It is generally said that Jainism is basically a revolt against some of the fundamental issues of Vedic religion. But to me it appears that it is not. At the very outset, it should be borne in mind that Jainism should be treated as one of the ways of interpreting human life and society, and from that point of view it is, in a sense, unique in its nature. Mahāvīra has, of course, challenged some of the fundamental issues of Vedic religion, but they are interpreted in a more straightforward way than were done before. His logic is more mundane and acute than the previous one. And from that point of view it seems revolutionary, but it is really not.
IX. The Constitution of the Universe
The Jains do not believe in the creator-God. To them, the world is beginningless and endless, and no God has ever created the world.
According to the Jain conception, this world is eternal

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(anādi) and vast (niravadhi). To the Jains, the Universe is composed of two things : loka and aloka. In this division the nine cardinal principles (navatattva) and the six substances (şat padārtha) of Jainism are included. According to the Jains, there is nothing outside these divisions. In the Uttarādhyayana-sūtra (36.2) this constitution of the world is adumbrated :
jīvā ceva ajīvā ya, esa loe viyāhiel ajīva desam āgāse, aloe se viyāhiel/
"The living and the non-living beings constitute this world (loka), but the space (āgāsa), where only non-living being is found, is called the non-world (aloka)."
In the domain of loka (or lokāstikāya, as it is often called), all things (i.e. dravyas- substances) are classified into nine categories (navatattva) : The Pancāstikāya (verse 108) says
jīvājīva bhāvā punnam pāvam ca āsavam tesim/ samvara-nijjarā bandho mokkho ya havanti attha//
"The soul or living (jiva), non-living (ajīva), influx (äsrava), bondage (bandha), merit (punya), sin (pāpa), stoppage of influx (samvara), dissociation of karma (nirjarā) and emancipation (mokşa) are the nine principles."
The six substances (şat padārtha) as described in the Uttarādhyayana-sūtra (28.7) are as follows:
dhammo adhammo āgāsam kālo puggala-jantavo/ esa logo tti paņņatto jiņehim varadamsihim//
“Dharma (motion), adharma (motionless), space, time, matter and soul (are the six kinds of substances); they constitute this world as has been said by the Jinas who possess the best knowledge."
So, according to the Jains, this world is composed of the following:

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39
Visua (Universe) Loka
Navatattva (Nine principles) 1. Jiva
2. ajīva
Şatpadārtha (Six substances) 1. Jiva (cetanā, consciousness) 2. dharma 3. adharma 4. ākāśa 5. pudgala 6. kāla
3. āsrava 4. bandha 5. punya 6. pāpa 7. samvara 8. nirjarā 9. moksa
Aloka (ākāśa)
The whole edifice of Jainism is based on this conception of the world.
Jiva is of two kinds : samsāri (mundane) and mukta (liberated). Samsāri jīva (mundane souls) are the embodied souls of the living beings in the world and they are subject to the cycle of Birth. Mukta jīvas are liberated souls and so they will not come to this world again. They are free from the bondage of the world.
Among the samsārī jīvas, man is made up with cetanā (consciousness) and jada (unconsciousness). So long as jaďatva in man remains, he will come back to this world again and again. If jadatva is removed, he will be free (mukta) and will attain nirvāņa.
Āsrava means flow of karmic matter into the nature of self or soul. The Tattvārtha-sūtra (VI. 1-2) says
kāya-van-manah-karma yogaḥ// sa äsravahy/
“Action on the part of body, speech and mind is yoga. (And) that is asrava (influx of karma)."

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Bandha implies the mixture of the karmic matter with the nature of the soul on account of which the soul loses its intrinsic purity and brilliance. The Tattvārtha-sūtra (VIII. 2) says
sa kaşāyatvāj jīvaḥ karmano yogyan
pudgalān ādatte sa bandhaḥ "As the self is actuated by passion (kaşāya), the soul attracts particles of matter adaptable for action, and that (is) bondage (bondha).”
Punya means the meritorious activity of karmas, whereas pāpa means the sinful activity of karmas. The Tattvārthasūtra (VI. 3) says
śubhaḥ punysyāsubhaḥ pāpasya.
"Virtuous activity is the cause of merit (punya) and wicked activity is the cause of demerit (papa).
Samvara represents the act of presenting the inflow of the karmic matter and hence it is the blocking of āsrava.
Nirjarā represents the act of destroying the karmic matter which may adhere to the soul. Each particular karma has been caused by some action, good, bad or indifferent, of the individual being in question, so that karma in return, produced certain painful, or pleasant or indifferent conditions and events which the individual in question must undergo. The Tattvārtha-sūtra (VIII. 21-23) says
vipāko'nubhavaḥ//21//
tatasca nirjarā //23// "Fruition (vipākaḥ) of a karma upon its ripening is experience (anubhavah).”
“After that (fruition) karma disappears."
The state of nirjarā can be attained by penance (tapasā) cf. tapasā nirjarā ca (TS. IX. 3).
Moksa literally means 'salvation', i.e. "complete release from all karmas." The Tattvārtha-sūtra (X. 2) says

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bandha-hetva bhāva-nirjarābhyām kệtsna-karmavipramokṣo mokṣaḥ//
"Complete release from all karmas through nonexistence of causes of bondage and through nirjarā is mokşa" (Jaini).
The five categories which are grouped in the ajīva class are distinctly non-spiritual and hence incapable of consciousness. They are, therefore, acetana. These are dharma, adharma, ākāsa, pudgala and kāla. The inherent character of dharma is to make move, or to be moved, while adharma is the opposite to it. The idea is that dharma and adharma are necessary conditions for the subsistence of all other things, viz, soul and matter. Akāsa is space, while pudgala is matter which is eternal and consists of atoms. There are two kinds of matter : gross (sthūla) and subtle (sūkşma). Gross matters are the things which we perceive, while subtle matter is beyond the reach of our senses. Subtle matter is that matter which is transformed into the different kinds of karma. kāla (time) is a quasi-substance and it is necessary to accept it as a substance in order to explain the changing state of the souls and matter.
X. Jaina Kālacakra (The Wheel of Time)
Just as the Hindus have satya, tretā dvāpara and kaliyuga, so also the Jains have a system of reckoning the kālacakra, i.e. the wheel of time. The Jains have divided time into two broad divisions-utsarpiņi (Progressive era) and avasarpiņi (Declining era). Each era is divided into six wheels (ara-s), and both the eras have twelve sub-divisions. Each division is known as kāla (time). The Jains think that as the Universe is beginningless and endless, so also the flowing of time is endless and limitless, and yet it is conceived that the wheel of time has twelve periods for the convenience of our understanding.
At present we have the avasarpiņi (Declining period) and its division is as follows:
1) Suşamā-suşamā (period of extreme happiness),

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2) Suşamā (period of happiness) 3) Suşamā-duhsamā (period of happiness and misery) 4) duhşamā-suşamā (period of misery and happiness) 5) duhşamā (period of misery), 6) duhşamā-duhşamā (period of extreme misery).
Like the wheel of train, the wheel of time moves from below to above and vice versa in both the eras. In the utsarpiņi era the progress of human beings increases step by step from misery to happiness, and in the avasarpiņi era the process is reverse, i.e., the progress of human beings decreases step by step from happiness to misery. The calculation of time consumed by both the eras is more than lacs and crores. At present, in the avasarpiņi period the 24 Tīrthankaras were born and got nirvana at their death. Of the declining era, four stages of time have elapsed and the fifth division (i.e. duhşamā period) is continuing.
In the Pañcāstikāya (verses 24-25) time is described thus:
vavagada-pañavaņņa-raso vavagada-dogandhaattaphāso ya/ aguru-lahugo amutto vattang-lakkho ya kālo tti// samayo ņimiso kattā kalāya ņāli tado divā-ratti/ māsa-udu-ayaņa-samvaccharo tti kālo parāyatto//
"That which is devoid of five colours (krishna (black), harita (green), pita (yellow), rakta (red), and sveta (white)); of five tastes (tikta (pungent) katuka (bitter), kshāra (saline), kashāyita (acid), and mishta (sweet)); of two smells (sugandha (agreeable) and durgandha (disagreeable)), of eight kinds of touch (light and heavy, smooth and rough, soft and hard and hot and cold); and which has the agurulaghu attribute (i.e. the set of central attributes which sustain the others), is immaterial and is characterized by modifications (of other substances)-is time (kāla). Samaya (unit of time), nimisha, kāshthā, kalā, nāli, divārātra, māsa, rtu, ayana, samvatsara- these are secondary time."
(J.L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, p. 86).
Although the broad division of time is avasarpiņi and

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utsarpiņi, and in each division there are six periods, for our practical purposes, the Jains have divided time as follows:
samaya nimisa kāsthā kalā nāli muhurta ahorātra māsa stu ayana samvatsara
: is the unit of time; : is the time taken in raising the eyelids; : is the 15 nimisas; : is the 20 kasthās; : is a little over 20 kalās;
is the 2 nālis; is the 30 muhurtas; is the 30 days;
is the two months; : is the six months; : is the 2 ayanas-one year
XI. Philosophical Doctrines
Having discussed the constitution of the world along with its navatattvas (nine cardinal principles) and satpathārtha (six substances), let us now explain some of the fundamental philosophical doctrines associated with it.
i) The Doctrine of Reality
In Jain Philosophy, the doctrine of reality (sat) is different from the rest of the other systems of philosophies. The . definition of sat as described by Umāsvāti is
utpāda-vyaya-drauvya-yuktam sat (TS V. 30)
"Existence is characterised by origination, disappearance (destruction) and permanence" (S.A. Jaini).
It is a permanent reality in the midst of change of appearance and disappearance. This conception of Reality is peculiar to Jainism. An existing reality in order to maintain its permanent and continued existence must necessarily undergo change in the form of appearance and disappearance. It seems to us a paradox at the beginning. But a closer analysis and minute observation will help us to appreciate the significance of this description of reality. For example, let us look at the seed of a plant. When the seed is

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planted in the soil it must necessarily break the shell and sprout out. This is the first step in its attempt to grow. Then the sprouting seed further undergoes change and some portion of it comes out seeking the sunlight and another goes down into the soil, will undergo enormous changes into the root system. Similarly, the portion that shoots up into the air and sunlight will also undergo enormous changes, of sprouting out in tendrils and leaves finally resulting in branches and stem of the plant all engaged in the task of procuring nourishment with the help of sunlight. At every stage thus we find change, the old leaves being shed off and the new sprouts · · coming in. This seems to be the general law of nature. The life of the seed does never die; it lives even though it is being constantly changed, and this is what is sat. .
ii) Anekāntavāda
What is true of a plant, is also true with regard to the basic or fundamental thing of Nature. In this respect, I believe, Jaina conception of Reality is different from the other Indian philosopies. Some philosophers would only emphasize permanency as the nature of Reality, while others would emphasize change alone as the characteristic of Reality. The one-sided emphasis either on permanency or change is rejected by Jaina thinkers. They consider this system as anekāntavāda, a system which clings to a partial aspect of the reality. So they call their own as anekāntavāda, that is to say, a system of philosophy which maintains that Reality has multifarious aspects and that a complete comprehension of such a nature must necessarily take into consideration all the different aspects through which Reality manifests itself. Hence the Jaina darsona is technically called Anekāntavāda, often translated as "Indefiniteness of Being". It tells us that any material thing continues for ever to exist as matter, and this may assume any shape and quality. Thus mịttika (clay) as a substance may be regarded as permament, but the form of a jar of clay (ghața-paţadi), or its colour, may come into existence and perish.
Anekāntavāda describes the nature of a dravya (substance). Anta means pakşa, or koți or dharma, another

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side of a substance. In analysing a substance, it is observed that it has, at least, two aspects. In one sense a permanent substance is an anta (one side) and anityatva is also an anta (another side). Nāgārjuna in his Madhyamika-kārikā says
astīti nastīti ubhe api antāḥ-suddhiti asuddhiti ime'pi antāḥ, tasmād ubhe ante varjayitvā madhye'pi sthānam prakaroti paņditāļ//
In his opinion, existence and non-existence, purity and impurity all are distinctive features of a substance. And this is anta or dharma. And therefore in an anekāntavāda, the nature of contradictory features of a substance is described. If there is no mutual contradictory features, then it is not described by anta. In the Upanişad, a substance is considered as only permanent, the Buddhists consider the existence of a substance as transitory. But only the Jains think that a substance (dravya) is both permanent and transitory. When it is nitya (permanent), it is a dravya (substance), and when it is anitya (transitory), it is called paryāya. The description of a substance in the form of dravya and paryāya is the basic tenet of anekāntavāda.
iü) Saptabhangi
The doctrine of anekāntavāda is upheld by a logical method called saptabhangi. According to this doctrine, there are seven forms of metaphysical propositions, and hence it is known as saptabhangi, "seven syllological forms of propositions." As the seven forms contain the word syāt 'may be', it is also known as syādvāda. So the saptabhangi is nothing but the seven propositions of the syādvāda. The Saptabhangi is defined in the Syādvādamañjarī of Mallisena (1292 A.D) thus :
ekatra jīvādau vastuni ekaika-sattvādi-dharma-visayapraśnavasād avirodhena pratyakşādi-vādā-parihāreņa pşthag bhūtayoḥ samuditayośca, vidhi-nişedhayoḥ paryālocanayā kļtuā syācchabda-lanchito vaksyamāṇaḥ saptabhiḥ prakāraiḥ vacana-vinyāsaḥ saptabhangiti gīyate.

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INTRODUCING JAINISM iv) The Nature of Syāduāda
The doctrine of anekāntavāda, as it is said earlier, is established by a logical method called syāduāda. These seven propositions are as follows:
1) syād asti, 2) syān nāsti, 3) syād asti nāsti ca, 4) syād avyaktavyah, 5) syād asti avyaktavyas ca, 6) syān nāsti avyaktavyaś ca, 7) syād asti nāsti avyaktavyaś ca.
The word "syāt means 'may be', and is explained by kathancit 'somehow'. The word syāt here qualifies the word asti, and indicates the Indefiniteness of Being (or astitvam). For example, we say a jar is somehow, i.e. it exists, if we mean thereby that it exists as a jar; but it does not exist somehow if we mean that it exists as a cloth or the like. The purpose of these seeming truisms is to guard against the assumption of the Vedantins that Being is one without a second, the same in all things. Thus we have the correlative predicates 'is' (asti) and 'is not' (nāsti). A third predicate is ‘inexpressable' (avaktavya); for existent and non-existent (sat and asat) belong to the same thing at the same time, and such a co-existence of mutually contradictory attributes cannot be expressed by any word in the language. The three predicates variously combined make up the 7 propositions, or saptabhangas, of the Syādvāda.” (Jacbi, ERP, Jainism, p. 468).
According to this logical doctrine every fact of Reality can be described in two logical propositions-one affirmative and the other negative. We have described before that the ultimate Reality is a permanent and changing entity manifesting itself through constant change of appearance and disappearance, and then we can understand that a fact of Reality when looked at from the underlying permanent substance may be described to be non-permanent and changing. When a substance is described from the aspect of the underlying substance, it is called dravyārthikanaya and when the description is based on the modifications or

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changes, it is called paryāyārthikanaya. As a dravya has two aspects, it should be described logically from two points of view : positive and negative. For example, if a jar is made of clay, then it is possible to say that it is a jar made of clay. But can we describe it as a jar made of stone? Certainly not. But it must be remembered that to describe every fact of Reality four conditions are to be taken into considerations: dravya, kşetra, kāla and bhāva, i.e. name of the substance, the place where it is, the time when it exists, and characteristics presented in it.
Every object from its own dravyas admits an affirmative predication and looked at from the paradravya admits of a negative predication. So the example given above from its own substance (clay) admits of affirmative predications, and from the view of paradravya, a negative predication. Similarly, from the point of view of kşetra, it can be stated in two ways : if a thing is really in the room, then we can say affirmatively it is in the room, and negatively it is not in the room. Similarly, if a thing exists at this particular time, it may not be so at some other time. So also is the case with bhāva. If some characteristics are intrinsically present in it, it may not be so in other cases. To sum up, the whole system of syāduāda can be tabulated thus :
Syādvāda saptabhangi saptabhangi
vacanavinyāsa
applicable to Jiva
1. syād asti
prathamo bhangaḥ (in a positive way)
syād astyeva sarvam iti sadaņsa-kalpanāvibhajanena prathamo bhangaḥ "May be the jar exists."
In a certain sense jīva exists, and in another sense, it does not
2. syān nāsti dvitiyo bhangah syān nāstyeva sarvam In a certain sense
(in a negative iti paryudäsa- jiva does not way). kalpanā-vibhajanena exist, in another
dvitiyo bhangah sense it exists. “May be the jar does not exist."

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Syādvāda saptabhangi saptabhangi
vacanavinyāsa
applicable to Jiva . ..
3. syād asti
nāsti ca
tệtīyo bhangah syād astyeva syān. In a certain sense both in a nāstyeva iti kram- ljiva exists and positive and eņa sadaņsā-sada in another sense negative way msa-kalpanā-vibha- does not exist as
janena třtiya bhan. well.
gaḥ
yathā-syādasti nāst. yeva ghatah. May be the jar exists and in a sense it does exist. .
4. syād caturtho syād avaktavyam In a certain avaktavýam bhangah eveti sama-samaye sense jiva is
explains im vidhi-nişedhayor indescribable. possibility anirvacaniya-kal. The positive and of affirming
negative aspects and denying caturtho bhangah. of jiva cannot be simultaneously yathā-syad avak- explained simul
tavya eva ghatah. taneously by any "May be the jar is word. indescribable"
In a certain sense jiva exists as well as it is indescribable.
5. syād asti pañcamo syād astyeva syad'
avaktav. bhangaḥ avaktavyam eveti yasca takes into vidhi-prādhānyena
consideration yugapad-vidhithe existence nişedhā-nirvacaniyaand indescribable khyāpanā-kalpanā. nature both vibhajanayā pañsimultaneously camo bhangah.
yathā--syādastyeva syād avaktavya eva ghataḥ. “May be the jar exists as well as it is indescribable."

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Syādvāda
saptabhangi saptabhangi
vacanavinyāsa
applicable to Jiva
6. syān nāsti şaştho bhangah syān nāstyeva syād in a certain
avaktav. explains the avaktavyam eveti sense jīva is not yasca negative nisedha-prädhänyena and indescribable
character of yugapan-nişedha as well. the things as vidhya-nirvacanîyawell as the kalpanā-vibhajanaya indescribable şastho bhangaḥ. nature of the yathā-syān nāstye
va syād avaktavyo ghataḥ "May be the jar is not and indescribable as
same
well.”
7. syād asti saptamo syād astyeva syān In a certain
nāsti bhangaḥ nāstyeva syād avak- sense jiva is avyakta is a synsthesis tavyam eveti kramāt and is not and vyaśca between the sadamśāsadamsa is indescribable.
fifth and the prădhānyena-kalpasixth
nayā yugapad-vidhinişedhā-nirvacaniyakhyāpanā-kalpanā. vibhajanayā ca saptamo bhangaḥ yathā-syād astyeva nāstyeva avaktavyaḥ ghataḥ "May be the jar is and is not and is indescribable as well.
u) Nayavada
Supplementary to the doctrine of syādvāda is the doctrine of naya-vāda The nayas are ways of expressing the nature of things. There are seven nayas : naigama, samgraha, vyavahāra, rju-sūtra, sabda, samabhirudha and evambhūta. Out of these seven nayas, four refer to concepts and three to words. The nayas are necessary in order to understand the partial true nature of a thing.
Naigama : Naigama is that naya where the general

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(sāmānya) and the specific (višeșa) features of the things are judged. For example, conscious man is a jīva (soul). Here the general and the specific nature of jiva is described. This naya is also recognised by the Nyāya and the Vaseșika schools of Indian philosophy.
Samgraha : Samgraha is a naya by which the general qualities of the things are taken into consideration not by ignoring the specific qualities of the thing, but the emphasis is given on the general qualities alone. This naya is also recognised by the Sankhya and the Advaita schools of Indian philosophy.
Vyavahāra: Vyavahāra is that naya by which the specific qualities of a thing are taken into consideration, not completely ignoring the general qualities of a thing, but by by-passing the general qualities of a thing. This naya is recognised by the Cārvāka school of Indian philosophy.
Rju-sūtra : Rju-sūtra is that naya by which a thing is to be judged as it is without looking into the past and future nature of the thing. As past is aleady lost and the future is not born yet, this naya does not refer to the past and future of the thing. This naya is also recognised by the Buddhists.
Sabda: Sabda is that naya by which a thing is recognised simply by hearing the name of a thing. Sabda naya includes all grammatical aspects of a word or of a sentence. For example, true was a city named Pataliputra. The word 'was' in the sentence indicates that it is different from the present one. This is accepted by the grammarians.
Samabhirūdha : Samabhirūdha is that naya by which the meaning of a word is judged on the basis of its different etymological meanings. This naya is deeper than the sabda naya. For example, the meaning of jiva means consciousness. And, therefore, all who have got consciousness are jīvas. Etymological meaning of a word is the most important feature of this naya.
Evambhūta: When the meaning of a world is established on the basis of its etymology, it is called evambhūta naya.

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For example, king means as long as a person holds the sceptre of a kingdom, he is king. In other times, he is not a king. Grammarians accept this naya.
It should be noted here that in the Tattvārtha-sūtra (I. 34, 35) samabhirūdha and evambhūta nayas are considered under the sabdanaya, as they are the variety of the sabdanaya, and therefore, according to Umāsvāti, the nayas are five in number.
XII. The Path to Salvation (mokşa-mārga)
To achieve the path to Salvation (moksa-marga), the Jains suggest a completely different system of their own. According to the Jains, in order to attain moksa one should follow certain vows and qualities which are necessary for the monks. These are pañca mahāurata, tri-ratna, tri-gupti, pañca samiti, daśa yatidharma, dvādaśa bhāvanā and saptadaśa samyama. These are described below.
i) Panca Mahāuratas (Five great vows)
The Jains believe that for the realization of nirvana, certain rules of conduct must be observed. And by observing them one must acquire the corresponding virtues of these vows. Of all the vows, the pancamahāvrata (five great vows), of which the first four, are also acknowledged by the Brahmanical and Buddhist tenets. These five vows areahiņsā, satya, acáurya, brahmacarya and aparigraha.
· Ahimsā: ahimsā generally means “not to kill" anybody. Mahāvīra says that life is dear to all animals, and so people should refrain from killing any animals.
Asatya: asatya means abstaining from telling lies. Under any circumstances, people should refrain from telling lies. Hemacandra in his Yogaśāstra (II. 53-54) has eulogized the effects of speaking the truth. R. Williams has summed up this in the following manner in the Jaina Yoga (at p. 78): "The consequences which may ensue from speaking asatya are dwelt on by Hemacandra. A liar may have his tongue and an çar cut off, may be beaten and imprisoned, treated

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with contumely, and deprived of his possessions. In another incarnation he may be afflicted with dumbness, speech defects, and foetid breath. Wilful calumny in particular is the root of endless miseries. On the other hand, one who always speaks the truth will, so popular belief avers, never be beaten by a serpent."
Acaurya : acaurya means abstaining from stealing. It is to be noted that theft is considered as one of the seven calamites (vyasanas) in many Jaina texts. In the Ratnakaranda (III. 11), as quoted by Williams (p. 83), the definition of theft is given :
nihitam vā patitam vā su-vismộtam vā parasvam avisrstam/ na harati yan na ca datte tad-akrsa-cauryād uparamanam//
"Not taking the property of others whether pledged or dropped or completely forgotten unless it has been given", the enjoyment of that unearned property is due to theft.
Brahmacarya : brahmacarya means 'abstaining from sexual intercourse'. In Jain tradition any kind of kāma is to be abandoned. Devagupta (1016 A.D.) in his Nava-padaprakaraṇa (verses 48-50) has described kāma in various ways. "Brahma (abstinence from sexual intercourse) is of eighteen kinds, nine relating to celestial females (vaikriya) and nine to terrestrial females (audārika), Maithuna (copulation) is twofold, relating to vaikriya and audārika classes and the latter is again divided into animal and human categories. Under this last head are distinguished : svadāra (one's own wife or concubine), para-dāra (any woman under the authority of another man), and veśyā (a prostitute who is considered to have no owner)." (Williams, p. 84). Even
rcourse, by some other ways also, sexual manifestation is expressed. These are
smaranam kirtanam keliḥ preksaņam guhya-bhāṣaṇam/ saņkalpo' dhyavasāyasca kriyā-niruộtir eva ca// etan maithunam aștāngam pravadanti manīșiņah/ viparītam brahmacaryam etad evāșta-lakṣaṇam//
(quoted by Mallinātha in his Kirāta 1.1)
“Passionate remembrance (smaraṇam), wistful

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description (kīrtana), sports (kelih), gazing with longing (prekṣaṇan), secret conversation (guhya-bhāṣaṇam), imagination (samkalpaḥ), resolution (adhyavasāyaḥ) and crowning of love (kriyā-nirustiḥ) are the eight kinds of carnal enjoyments and opposite to all these are in brahmacāri and they are also, (therefore), eight fold."
The Jains also think that all these eight kinds of carnal enjoyment are to be considered bad for a brahmacāri. And a sādhu should always shun all these maithunas under any circumstances.
Aparigraha: aparigraha means "to renounce all interest in worldly things, and not to keep any property." parigraha is of two kinds : ābhyantara (internal) and bāhya (external). The internal parigrahas are false belief (mithyātva), anger (krodha), pride (māna), deceit (māyā), greed (lobha), sense of the absurd (hāsya), pleasure (rati), displeasure (arati), fear (bhaya), sorrow (soka), disgust (jugupsā), male sex urge (pum. veda), female sex urge (strī-veda) and androgyne sex urge (napumsaka-veda) (cf. Williams p. 93). The ten external parigrahas are-land (kşetra), houses (vāstu), silver (hiramya), gold (suvamņa), wealth (dhana), grain (dhānya), servants (dāsa/dāsi), livestock (catuspada), cloth (kupya) and bed (sayyāsana). The Jain sādhus should not attach to all these parigrahas.
ii) Tri-ratna/Ratna-traya (three gems)
For the path of liberation, i.e., to release oneself from the "cycle of transmigration", the Jains believe that the ratnatraya, or otherwise known as guņa-traya, is to be observed. The guna-traya is a technical term, and it means samyagdrsti (right vision), samyag-jñāna (right knowledge) and samyak caritra (right conduct). The acquisition of these three qualities will lead someone to the path of liberation. That is why, in the Tattvārthasūtra (1.1) the subject begins with the statement
samyag-darśana-jñāna-cāritrāņī mokṣāmārgaḥ
i.e., “The right vision (or faith), right knowledge, and right conduct are the path of liberation.”

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The word samyak (sam-añc + kvip) is to be construed grammatically with all the members of a dvandva compound by the dictum-dvandvādau dvandvänte ca śruyamānam padam pratyekam abhisambadhyate iti vacanāt, "in the beginning or end of a Dvandva-compound when a word is syntactically connected, that word is to be construed with all the members of the compound." And so, we have samyag darśana, samyag jñāna and samyak cāritra. The Sarvārthasiddhi of Pujyapāda has explained the sūtra thus:
"The attribute 'right' is added to faith in order to include faith based on true knowledge of substances. Knowing substances such as the souls as these actually are right knowledge. The attribute 'right' is intended to ward off uncertainty, doubt and error in knowledge. Right conduct is the cessation of activity leading to the taking in of karmas by a wise person engaged in the removal of the causes of transmigration. The attribute 'right' is intended to exclude conduct based on ignorance or wrong knowledge. That which sees, that by which it is seen, or seeing alone is darśana. That which knows, that by which it is known, or knowing alone is knowledge. That which acts, that by which it is acted or acting alone is conduct." (S.A. Jain, p. 31
So samyag darśana means right faith in the dogmas of the religion, whereas samyag-jñāna makes the knowledge of the right faith of the dogmas acurate. Samyak cāritra means 'self-restraint or discipline'.
iii) Tri-gupti (three forms of self control (=gupti)
As a measure of self-restraint, the tri-guptis (three forms of self-control) are to be followed. These three guptis arevag-gupti, kāya-gupti and manogupti.
Vag-gupti means the control of speech. The Sarvārthasiddhi explains speech as follows : "Speech is of two kinds, physical and psychical. Therein psychical speech is material as it arises on the destruction-cum-subsidence of energy-obstructing karmas and sensory and spritual knowledge obscuring karmas, and on the rise of physique

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making karmas of limbs and minor limbs. For in the absence of matter there can be no functioning of psychical speech. Matter prompted by the active and endowed with this capacity takes the mode of speech. Hence physical speech is also material." (S.A. Jaini, ibid., p. 145]
Kāya-gupti means the control of activity of body. The control of body from the different points of karmas is the kāya-gupti. In the Tattvārtha-sūtra (II. 36) the different forms of body are described. These are "āudārika (the gross), vaikriyika (the transformable), āhāraka (the assimilative), taijasa (the luminous) and kārmaņa (the body composed of karmic matter).”
Manogupti means the control of mind. The control of mind is regarded as one of the best ways of the ratnatraya. Mind is fickle and feeble (cañcalam hi manah), and so to control it is one of the ways by which one can lead oneself to the path of liberation. Like kāya-gupti Pujyapāda in his Sarvārthasiddhi has explained it in the following way.
"The mind is of two kinds, physical and psychical. The psychical mind characterized by capacity (for comprehension) and consciousness is material, as it is assisted by matter. Similarly, owing to destruction-cumsubsidence of knowledge-covering and energy-obstructing karmas and the rise of name karmas of limbs and minor limbs, particles of matter transformed into mind assist the living beings tending to examining good and evil, remembering things etc. Hence the physical mind also is material. It is contended by others that mind is a different substance, that it is bereft of colour, form etc., and that it is of the size of an atom. Hence it is improper to consider it as material." (S.A. Jaini, ibid., p. 145).
In this way, by means of argument, Pujyapāda says that ultimately mind is connected with the soul and the soul stirs the mind to activity. And, therefore, for the purification of the soul, the control of mind is necessary.

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iv) Pañca samitis (five rules of conduct)
The tri-ratnas are related to the five rules of conduct (pañca-samitis). These are
1. Tryā-samiti, i.e., care in walking, 2. bhāsā-samiti, i.e. care in speaking, 3. esaņā-samiti, i.e., care in accepting alms, 4. ādāna-niksepa-samiti, i.e., care in taking up and
setting down, 5. utsarga-samiti, i.e., care in excreting.
v) Daśa yatidharma
The Jain sādhus and sādhvis should adhere to ten yatidharmas. And these are
1) ksamā (forbearance); 2). mārdava (humility); 3) ārjava (uprightness); 4) nirlobhatā (absence of greediness); 5) akiñcanatā (poverty); 6) satya (truthfulness); 7) samyama (self-discipline); 8) tapasyā (self-mortification); 9) sauca (desirelessness); 10) brahmacarya (celibacy).
Along with this tenfold ascetic religion, the laymen also follow some four regular dharmas which are
1) dana (almsgiving); 2) sila (virtue) 3) tapas (ascetic practices) or according to some
upavāsa (fasting) 4) bhāvanā (spiritual attitude) or pūjā (worship)
vi) Dvādaśa Bhāvanā
After that, the Jain sādhus and sādhvis must adhere to the twelve spiritual attitudes (dvādaśa-bhāvanā). These are
1) anitya (on impermanence); 2) āśaraña (on helplessness); 3) samsāra (on the cycle of transmigration);

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4)
eka-tva (on solitariness);
5) anyatva (on the separateness of the self and body); asucitva (on the foulness of the body); 7) asrava (on the influx of karma);
6)
8)
samvara (on the checking of karma); 9) nirjara (on the elimination of karma); 10) loka (on the universe);
11) bodhi-durlabha (on the difficulty of enlightenment); 12) dharma (on the attainment of peace and salvation).
vii) Saptadasa samyama
The seventeen restraints are
5 asrava tyāga
5 indriya-asrava

1. himsā, 2. asatya, 3. caurya, 4. abrahmacarya, 5. parigraha
1. sabda, 2. sparśa, 3. rūpa, 4. rasa, 5. gandha
1. krodha, 2. māna, 3. māya, 4. lobha 1. kāya, 2. mana, 3. vākya.
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4. kaṣāya tyāga
3. tri-samvara
XIII. Tolerance in Jainism
Tolerance is one of the most fundamental principles in Jain religion. Tolerance is expressed in different contexts in different ways. Though Jainism started in the very hoary antiquity, Mahāvīra, the 24th Tirthankara, was the main propagator of Jain religion and philosophy. Through his whole life, dedicated for the cause of Jainism, Mahāvīra showed the people the way of tolerance for becoming a perfect man in different aspects of Jainism. At the age of 30, he left his home and started doing severe penance for the Salvation of his soul. While doing penance and preaching his doctrines in different parts of eastern India, Magadha being the primary center for his propagation, he suffered quite a lot from the hands of the people. In the second part of the Acārāngasūtra a brief life sketch of Mahavira is given and there it is said that when he was at Radha, the people of Radha had mocked him, had sneered at him and threw stones at him. Even dogs and ferocious animals used to attack him for biting. Mahavira withstood all these sufferings calmly and quietly. This is one of the greatest instances of his tolerance.

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Apart from this incident as narrated in the Acārāngasūtra, there are other stories also, where Mahavira's arguments were challenged by his rival groups, such as, the Ajivikas, Gosāla Mankhaliputra and so on, but Mahavira endured and encountered all his rival groups maintaining the sense of tolerance. Tolerance was his only weapon to defeat his enemies. We are familiar with the life stories of Mahavira, where at every step he used to show his tolerance and calmness towards his playmates.
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The basic ideas of tolerance as can be gleaned from the Agama texts are the following:
i) Pañcamahāvrata
ii) Trigupti
iii) Pañcasamiti
i) Tolerance through Pañcamahāvrata
The Pañcamahāvratas are the greatest vows in Jainism. These five vows are (a) ahimsa (non-violence), (b) satya (truth), (c) acaurya (non-stealing), (d) brahmacarya (celibacy) and (e) aparigraha (non-possession of things). By ahimsā Mahavira means total abstention from killing. Ahimsa is the way by which a person can restrain himself from doing any harm to anybody by means of body, mind and word or speech. The path of non-violence will give people the habit of tolerance. So by ahimsa, people can be tolerant. The second vow is the 'truth'. Mahāvīra says that under any circumstances people should not tell a lie. By not telling lies people will inculcate the habit of speaking the truth and truth only, and thereby they will follow a sense of tolerance towards all living beings. The third point is acaurya (non. stealing). By no means, people should steal anything from anybody. Stealing is a bad habit for humanity at large, and from stealing there arise lots of inhuman activities, which are detrimental to the society, and intolerance will prevail thereupon. But by practising non-stealing, a sort of tolerance will prevail upon the society, and so non-stealing is recommended by Mahavira as one of the elements of tolerance. The quality of brahmacarya as a part of tolerance is always celebrated by all religions saints, and tolerance will be one of the greatest qualities of celibacy. The fifth one

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is the aparigraha (non-possession of things). It is seen in the society that possession makes a man greedy and any kind of possession (money, property etc.) is detrimental to the personality of a man. People become not only greedy by hoarding up lots of things under their possessions, they become intolerant also for amassing more and more property for their own aggrandisement. So Mahāvīra advises people not to hoard up lots of property, and thereby people will attain a habit of tolerance.
Through these pañcamahāvrata as enunciated above, Mahāvīra actually wanted to restrain men from doing many things in their life and if a man is not tolerant enough, he will lose the mainstay amidst other things. So the background behind all these pañcamahāuratas is actually the quality of tolerance in man and animal.
ii) Tolerance through Trigupti :
The triguptis in Jainism are: a) Vag-gupti (b) Kāya-gupti and (c) manogupti
The Vag-gupti (restraining in speech) is essential in human beings. Words once spoken or thrown can never be taken back. So before speaking or talking to anybody we must observe restrain in our conversation, and this will also form the habit of tolerance. The Kāya-gupti (body tolerance) is another essential point for human beings. Different bodily actions are to be restrained thereby forming a habit of tolerance. The manogupti (mental restrain) is the tolerance of mind itself.
Mahāvīra wants to emphasize that trigupti will be one of the few vows which will restrain a man from doing wrong things in speech, body and mind, and thereby he will attain a sense of tolerance to all living beings. The meaning of tolerance is the quality of tolerating opinions, beliefs, customs, behaviours, etc. different from one's own. So if a person is averse to all these things he will definitely be a man of tolerance, that is, he will be a man of perfect quality.

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iii) Tolerance through Pañcasamiti
Equally the five samities (īrṣā, bhāṣā, eṣaṇā, ādānanikṣepa and utsarga) will also lead a person to the path of tolerance. irṣā (jealousy), bhāṣā (language), and eṣaṇā (begging alms) are the three qualities which restrain a man from movement and conversation and also begging alms from people. One must be alert in taking and giving a thing from householders, and one must also be cautious in urinating and throwing excreta. Though pañcasamiti can be equated to some extent with the trigupti, it is different.. from trigupti in the sense that the pañcasamiti could be practised not only by the saints, but also by laymen as well.
In order to prove and ensure practice tolerance, as one of the highest qualities in Jain religion, there are lots of stories in Jain literature. These stories are meant for the laymen to shape or reshape their lives. The story of Candakausika may be mentioned as one of the greatest stories of tolerance and non-violence. Candakausika was a very big black poisonous snake. He used to bite many people; as a result, many people did not dare go to the field for ploughing. Once Lord Mahāvīra came in contact with him and tried to tame him and persuade him to practise ahimsā. Candakausika listened to Mahāvīra and started practising non-violence. Gradually, because of his practising nonviolence, Candakausika became harmless. The villagers also discovered that. Seeing Candakausika harmless, the villagers started teasing him including throwing stones at him. After a few days of Candakausika's miserable plight, Lord Mahavira met him and asked him about his present condition. To which Candakausika replied, "Lord, you have taught me to practise non-violance and I follow your path. Now I have become tolerant." To which the Lord replied, "Candakausika, I have asked you to stop hurting people, but I have never told you to stop hissing at man". This is, perhaps, one of the greatest stories of tolerance in Jain literature. Similarly, in the Samaraiccakahā of Haribhadra Sūri (8th cent A.D) lots of stories and substories are interwoven where the above mentioned pañcamahāvrata and trigupti are illustrated through the medium of stories. In the Kuvalayamālācampū of Uddyotana Suri (779 A.D) many

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stories are found. The wanderer, who is the hero of the story, travelled different parts of India and wherever he went he faced lots of difficulties to encounter with the people belonging to the different parts of the country. Because he followed particularly the message of trigupti in his wandeings, he overcame all sorts of difficulties in his life. The Jain literature is full of stories to illustrate the different aspects of Jainism, and tolerance is one of them. In this short space, it is not possible to ransack all these stories where the episodes on tolerance are adumbrated.
The Paryusana parva of the Jains is one of the finest festivals which lead people to the goal of tolerance and thereby maintain a friendship between men and men, and even between men and animals. Paryusaņa parva is normally held between the end of August and beginning of September of every year. It is one of the compulsory festivals of the Jains. Irrespective of men and women, this festival is performed. The main purpose of this festival is to sing and hear the life-stories of Lord Mahāvira and also doing tapasyā (penance) for eight days. At the end of the paryusaņa parva the kşamāyācñā ceremony starts, and in that ceremony everybody craves indulgence of others to forgive Everybody asks for pardon as a sort of atonement for the deeds done during the last year. Everybody says to everybody the following verse:
khamemi savva-jive sauve jīvā khamantu mel metti me savva-bhūesu veram majjham na keņāvi//
"I pardon all the animals and let all the animals perdon me; I have friendship with all animals and I have no enmity with anybody".
This verse (which every Jain uses at the end of the Panyuşaħa parva) is one of the most important verses in Jainism and so this festival is one of the most important festivals which bring all the Jains under one canopy. This is one of the greatest events where tolerance plays a prominent part. Just as daserā of the Hindus, so also panyaşaņa parva of the Jains.
Some of the Jain kings, Vastupāla, for example, in

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Gujarat in the 13th c. A.D. practised tolerance to all sorts of religious beliefs. What is secularism today, was also. practised by Vastupāla at that time. One verse shows how Vastupāla was honoured by all sorts of religious people. A verse from the Purātana-prabandha-samgrahademonstrates the truth of this assertion.
bauddhair bauddho vaisnavair visnubhaktah, saivaiḥ śaivo yogibhir yogarangah . jainais tāvajjaina eveti kṛtvā,
sattvādhāraḥ stūyate vastupālaḥ// "Vastupāla, the depositor of strength, is praised in this way by the Buddhists as Buddha, by the Vaisnavas as a devotee of Vişnu, by the Saivas as Śiva and by the Yogis as a devotee of Yoga and also by the Jains as a Jina".
This one piece of information as recorded in the above book is good enough to say that tolerance as one of the administrative measures was followed by one Jaina king, Vastupāla by name, in the 13th cent. of the Indian history. Almost at the same time there is a similar type of verse (sources not known) found in several books of importance where a sort of secularism is focused. The verse says that the lord of the three world (Trilokanātha) is considered as the same by different religious people. The verse runs as sallows :
yam saivāḥ samupāsate siva iti brahmeti vedāntino bauddhā buddha iti pramānapatavaḥ karteti naiyāyikāḥ arhannityatha jainaśāsanaratāḥ karmeti mimamsakāḥ so'yamvo vidadhātu vāñchitaphalamtrailokyanātho hariş//
"Whom the Saivas worship as Siva, and the Vedantins as Brahma, the Buddhists, expert in logic, as Buddha and the Naiyāyikas as the Creator and the Jains, adherent to the teachings of Jaina, as arhan (that is jina) and the Mimāmsakas consider as the karma (actions) that Hari, the lord of the three worlds, gives us the fruit desired by us".
The above mentioned two passages will show how a sort of secularism in the modern sense of the term was prevalent in the middle history of India which shows a sense of

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tolerance among the kings where all sorts of religious faiths could live together without any enmity.
The idea of tolerance got also prominence in one of the philosophical treatises of the Jains. In the Tattvärthasūtra of Umāsvāti (between Ist and 5th C., A.D) the line parasparopagraho jīvānam'live and let live shows that every living being should live together without harming each other. This is one of the greatest mottoes in Jainism and this line is also often used as the motto of Jainism. The idea of Umāsvāti is that it is not enough that one should live in this world by hook or by crook, but one should live together without harming anybody. Every living creature, says Mahāvira, has a right to live and it is the duty of human beings to show respect that right of all creatures. Mahāvīra says in the Daśavaikālika sūtra
savve jīvā vi icchamhanti jīvium na marijjium/ tamhā pānivaham ghoram niggamthā vajjayanti ņam//
(I. VI. 10). "All antmals wish to live, and not to be slain; therefore, the Jain monks must relinquish the dangerous killing of animals".
Lastly, a verse from Amitagati (11th cent. A.D) will also prove how the sense of tolerance was prayed for from his lord by Amitagati :
sattveșu maitrim gunişu pramodam klișteșu jiveșu kệpāparatvam/ madhyasthya-bhāvam viparīta-víttau
sadā mamātmā vidadhātu deva// "Lord, may my Ātman ever entertain friendship towards (all) the living beings, rejoicing at (the sight of the virtuous, highest compassion for the suffering souls and an attitude of detachment towards the ill-behaved."
In conclusion it can the said that tolerance in Jainism is well-treated through the principles of non-violence. The path of non-violenee will restrain human beings from doing all sorts of bad works, and, therefore a sort of simoom atmosphere will not prevail all over the society. Human

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beings will not behave like butchers where lives of all sorts are annihilated. Mahāvira emphasises that if his principles of non-violence are practised and followed, then there will be no violence in the world, and therefore a heavenly bliss. of tolerance will prevail all over the world.
XIV. The Doctrine of Ahimsā
India is the cradle of Ahimsā From the Vedic times down to the present day, the doctrine of ahimsā has always been regarded as pure and serene. There are some passages in' the Vedas which tell us the eulogy of ahimsā. ..
What Mahāvīra actually talked about ahimsā cannot be known authentically, because most of his teachings and doctrines have come down to us through his disciples and their descendants who have kept in their memory the sayings of Mahavira for nearly a thousand years after his nirvana till the second council at Valabhi in the 5th cent. A.D. which codified the doctrines of Mahāvīra in the present form of the Āgamas of both the sects. I shall only discuss the position of ahimsā as recorded in the Agama texts considering them to be the views of Mahāvira.
i) Mahāvīra on Ahimsā”
In the Āgama texts the nature of ahimsā is generally descriptive. The passages as recorded there are the glorification of ahimsā. At a much later time the glorification was turned into a philosophy. For example, in the Daśavaikālika-sūtra non-killing (ahimsā)is regarded as one of the best and excellent dharmas along with controlling of mind (samyama) and penance (tapa), and the followers of ahimsā are even respected by gods :
dhammo mangalam ukkittham ahimsā samjamo tavo/ devā vi tam namamssantijassa dhamme sayā mano//I.I.I.
This has a parallel in the Dhammapada (19.6) : yamhi saccam ca dhammo ca ahimsā samyamo damo/ . sa ve vantamalo dhīro so thero ti pavuccati//

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In a similar way, lise of all beings is extolled : jāvanti loe pānā tasā aduva thāvarā/ te jāņam ajāņam vā na haņe no vi ghātael/ I. VI.9.
'In this world as many lives of both trasa and sthāvara animals are there, one should not kill them or cause to be killed with or without knowing.'
The reason he offers for saying this is - savve jīvā vi icchanti jivium na marijjiurn/ tamā pāṇivaham ghoram niggamthā vajjayanti ņam//
[I. VI. 10) 'All animals wish to live, and not to be slain; therefore, the Jain monks must relinquish the dangerous killing of animals'. •
On the question of a restraint, Mahāvira says
tesim acchanajoena niccam hoyavvayam siuā/ maņasā kāya-vakkeņa evaņ havai samjael/ [I. VIII. 3]
'Towards all these animals one must always and constantly be non-injurious even in mind, body and speech, then he is called a restrained person'.
Mahāvīra's emphasis was on the fact that life is dear to all sorts of creatures. The Ācārānga says-savve pāņā piyāuyā (I. 2.3) and nāivāijja kimcana (I. 2.4). The Uttarādhyayana also echoes the same· jaganissiehim bhūehim tasanamehim thāvarehim ca/ no tesim ārabhe damdam maņasā vayasā kāyasā ceva//
VIII. 10] ''In thoughts, words, and acts he should do nothing injurious to beings who people the world, whether they move or not.' na hu pāṇavaham aṇujāņe muccejja kayāi savva
dukkhāņam/ evāriehim akkhāyam jenim imo sāhudhammo pannatto//
(VIII. 8]

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‘One should not permit the killing of living beings; then he will perhaps be delivered from all misery; thus have spoken the preceptors who have proclaimed the Law of ascetics.
savvāhim anujuttihim matimam padilehiyā/ savve akkanta-dukkhā ya ao savve na himsayā//
[Sūtr. I. 11.9) 'A wise man should study them with all means of philosophical research. All beings hate pain; therefore one should not kill them.'
eyam khu nāņiņo sāramjam na hiņsai kimcana/ ahimsā samayam ceva eyāvantam viyānīyā//
[Sūtra. I. 11.10) "This is the quintessence of wisdom: not to kill anything. Know this to be the legitimate conclusion from the principle of reciprocity with regard to non-killing.'
From these above passages of ahimsā we must not get this idea that Mahāvira has asked the people to renounce the world. It will be a great mistake if we think so. In all his teachings he wants to emphasize that we must not be goaded by the passions and impulses of himsā, But, to all intents and purposes, we must control our mind to allow us to grow stronger mentally, so that our life can become serene, pure and holy. This does not mean that we should not enjoy life to its fullest extent, but that enjoyment should not be of a beastly type, but of a divine nature. It must not transgress the purity and serenity of life and of dharma. It should be noted that the basic idea of ahimsā is not to control the outward events of one's life, but to control the inward temper in which he faces these events. So the practice of ahimsā will teach us how to preserve a purely inward integrity and balance of mind, and how to conquer the word from a world both hostile and intractable.
(ii) Ahimsā in Buddhism
It must be noted in this connection that Buddha has also preached the doctrine of ahimsā. In the Suttanipāta and in the Dhammapada kindness towards all beings (mettā),

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non-violence (ahimsā) and many more ethical doctrines are found. But the Jains emphasize the doctrine of non-violence in a more vigorous way than the Buddhists. Because of the non-killing, Jainism lays stress far more on asceticism and all manner of cult exercises than Buddhism.
(iii) Ahimsa in the Hindu scriptures
In the Hindu scriptures ahimsa is also eulogised. Though it is true to say that himsa in connection with sacrifice is not himsā at all, it is ahimsā, and the mandate of Manu is often quoted for that:
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yajñārtham pasavaḥ sṛṣṭāḥ svayam eva svayambhuvā/ yajñasca bhūtyai sarvasya tasmād yajñe vadho' vadhah// [V. 39]
"Svayambhu (the Self-existent) himself created animals for the sake of sacrifice; sacrifices (have been instituted) for the good of this whole (world); hence the slaughtering (of beasts) for sacrifices is not slaughtering (in the ordinary sense of the word)."
The Mimāmsakas also hold this view. But the Sankhya disagrees with this opinion. Despite the fact that for sacrificial purposes the killing of animals is not despised, Manu in general has described the excellence of ahimsā. In his opinion non-killing is a quality which is to be inculcated by all :
indriyānām nirodhena rāga-dveṣa-kṣayena ca/ ahimsayā ca bhūtānām amṛtatvāya kalpate// [VI. 60]
"By the restraint of his senses, by the destruction of attachment and hatred, and by the abstention from injury to the creatures, he becomes fit for immortality."
(iii) Ahimsa in the Mahabharata
(The story of Jajali and Tulādhāra)

Ahimsa is also eulogised in the various parts of the Mahābhārata. In the Vanaparva (III) a long conversation between Draupadi, Yudhiṣṭhira and Bhima was made on ethical questions in which Draupadi praises the doctrine of

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ahimsā, i.e., the forbearance towards living beings (chapters 206-208). It is noteworthy that in many places of the Mahābhārata "the ascetic morality of ahimsā and of love towards all creatures” is depicted. In the śāntiparva, the greatness of ahimsā is firmly established, the argument being
jivitum yaḥ svayam cecchet katham so'nyam ghātayet/ yad yad ātmani ceccheta tat parasyāpi cintayet//
(12.254.22] "He who himself wants to live, how he can kill the other; what one wants for himself, that is to be thought of others.'
In order to establish this statement the story of JājaliTulādhāra is given, in which Tulādhāra has proved the excellence of ahimsā as a superior religion to anything else. Tuladhāra is the pedlar and Jājali is the Brahmanical ascetic. In this conversation Tulādhāra appears as a teacher. The Brahmin Jājali well-versed in the Śāstras has asked Tulādhāra about the essence of religion. Tulādhāra says
adrohenāiva bhūtānām alpadrohena vā punah yā vịttiḥ sa paro dharmas tena jīvāmi Jājale//
"Oh Jājali, without injuring the animals or doing less injury (to animals), if one lives, that is a great religion. I want to live by following that religion.'
sarveşām yaḥ suhrn nityam sarvesām ca hite ratah karmaņā manasā vācā ca dharmam veda Jājale//
'Oh Jājali, he who becomes a friend to all people or who is engaged in doing good to others by means of action, mind and speech, he knows religion. .
yadā cāyam na bibheti yadā cāsmān na bibhyati/ yadā necchati no dvești brahma sampadyate tadā//
'When one does not fear others, and when others do not fear one and when one does not wish to do anything, or when one does not want to hurt others, he attains the feet of Brahma.'
yadā na kurute bhāvam sarvabhūteșu pāpakam/. karmanā manasā vācā brahma sampadyate tadā}/

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, 'When a man does not do harm to animals by action, mind and speech, he can attain the feet of Brahma.'
yasmān nodvijate bhūtam jātu kiñcit kathañcana/ abhayam sarvabhūtebhyaḥ sa prāpnoti sadā munel/
'When an animal is never agitated by any means from anybody, that world does never feel any agitation from any animal.'
loke yaḥ sarvabhūtebhyo dadātyabhaya-daksinām/ sa sarva-yajñāirījānaḥ prāpnotyabhaya-dakşiņām/ na bhūtānām ahimsāyā jyāyān dharmo'sti kaścana//
"He who gives fearless (atmosphere) to all animals of the world, he attains no fear (from anybody) even by performing sacrifice. There is no great religion of men like ahimsā (non-injury) in the world.'
Tulādhāra79 goes on saying that “there is no higher law than forbearance towards all living beings. Therefore the breeding of cattle is cruel, because it involves the torturing and killing of animals. Cruel, too, is the keeping of slaves, and traffic in living creatures. Even agriculture is full of sin, for the plough wounds the earth and kills many innocent animals.” To this Jājali replies -
krsmā hyannam prabhavati tatas tvam asi jīvasi/ paśubhiś coşadhibhiếca martyā jīvanti vanija// tato yajñaḥ prabhavati nāstikyam api jalpasi/ na hi varted ayam loko vārtām utsrjya kevalān//
"Food is produced by agriculture, and you, too, are living on it; people live on cattle-breeding and agriculture; from that sacrifice is performed, you are talking like an atheist, people could not live alone by giving up the business of his livelihood.'
“Thereupon Tulādhāra replied with a long discourse upon the true sacrifice, which should be offered without the desire for reward, without priestly deception, and without the killing of living beings. Finally Tuladhāra calls on the birds which had nested in the hair of Jājali's head as witnesses for his doctrine, and they, too, confirm that the true religion consists in forbearance towards all human beings." 79. Winternitz, ibid., 1, p. 416-17.

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ahimsā paramo dharmas tathāhimsā paro damah/ ahimsā paramam dānam ahimsā paramam tapah// . .
'Ahimsā (non-violence) is the hightest religion, in the same way ahimsā is the highest restraint; ahimsā is the highest gift, and ahimsā is the hightest penance.'
ahimsā paramo yajñas tathāhimsā paramam phalam/ ahiņsā paramam mitram ahimsā paramam sukham//. ahiņsā paramam satyam ahiņsā paramam śrutam//
Ahimsā is the highest sacrifice, in the same way ahimsā. : is the highest fruit; ahimsā is the highest friend, ahimsā is the highest happiness; ahimsā is the highest truth, ahimsā is the highest knowledge.'
sarva-yajñeșu vā dānam sarva-tirtheșu vā plutam/ sarva-dana-phalam vāpi nāitat tulyam ahimsayā//
'Or ahimsā is the best gift in all sacrifices, it is a raft (boat) in all tīrthas; or even is the result of all gifts, nothing can be compared with ahimsā'.
Whether this portion of the Mahābhārata is greatly influenced by Jainism or not, is a matter of speculation now. But in other Hindu texts ahimsā is also praised as one of the best ways of social behaviour. For example, in the Bhāgavata the killing of animal even in the sacrifice is vilisied to a great extent as the following verse shows :
ye tvanevamvido'santah stabdhāh sadabhimāninah/ paśūn druhyanti višrabdhāḥ pretya khādanti te ca tān//
(11. V. 14)
"Those who are ignorant of this real Dharma and, though wicked and haughty, account themselves virtuous, kill animals without any feeling of remorse or fear of punishment, and are devoured by those very animals in their next birth.”
In the Uttarakhanda of the Padmapurāņa we come across a passage where the goddess Durgā praises the doctrine of ahimsā. Even in the Tantrik texts some praises of ahimsā are found. For example, in the Kulār nava-tantra the drinking of wine (surā) is extolled in the most extravagant manner, and the eating of meat is permissible only in the Kulapūjā,

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even though the non-killing (ahimsā) is honoured elsewhere. This shows an exception to the rule of ahimsā.
I am not quoting here the passages from the Gitā (X. 5, XII. 13, XIII. 7. XVI. 2 VII. 14) to say that the encomiums showered on ahimsā there prove beyond doubt that it has a significant place in Hindu religion as well. Sankarācārya in his Sarva-vedānta-siddhānta-sāra also says
ahimsā vān-mana-kāyāih prāņi-mātrā-prapīdanam/ svātmavat sarvabhūteșu kāyena manasā girā//
(iv) Ahimsā in Mediaeval Jainism
Coming to Jainism we can say that the doctrine of ahimsā has gained ground in philosophy. Apart from the passages on ahimsā, in the Jaina canonical literature, the philosophical texts like the Tattvārtha-sūtra by Umāsvāmi (1st or 5th cent. A.D.) describe also the nature of ahimsā as was current in his time. It is said by Umāsvāmi that himsā does not depend on acts alone. Himsāmay be bhāva-himsā, i.e.; 'the intention to hurt', and dravya-himsā, i.e., 'the actual hurt'. Bhāva-himsā arises under the influence of anger and other passions (krodha-lobha-bhirutva-hāsya-pratyākhyānāni-anuricibhāsanam pañca. TS. VII. 5). Drarya-himsā is the actual physical injury. On this point, Amộtacantra (11th cent. A.D.) thinks that rāga and dvesa can constitute himsā'even though no creature perishes. His argument is that once a person is full of anger, he destroys himself, even though he does not destroy any creature.
· In the mediaeval period ahimsā was relegated to the position of anuvrata which should be practised by all, whereas in the earlier stages it was one of the pancamahāvratas. Somadeva (959 A.D.) in his Upāsakādhyayana, i.e: the sixth, seventh, and eighth books of his Yaśas-tilaka which constitute an excursus on the Srāvakācāra, has emphasized the positive aspect of ahimsā which, in his opinion, is māitri, pramoda, kārunya, and madhyasthya. Māitri is the friendship with the animals by practising noninsliction towards the creatures, pramoda is the affection coupled with the respect for the beings, kārunya is charity to help the needy, and mādhyasthya is a state of equanimity.

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Later on, Amitagati, (993 A.D.) and Amstacandra (11th cent. A.D.) in their respective treatises Śrāvakācāra (VI. 33-44) and Puruşārtha-siddhyupāya (verses 79-89) advocated absolute ahimsā (non-violence).
There are various facets of himsā. This is described by Devagupta (1016 A.D.) in his Nava-pada-prakarana (verse 22). He says that himsā may be ārambhaja or anārambhaja. Arambhaja-himsā is inherent in the occupation, whereas anārambhaja is not related to the occupation. There is another called sankalpajawhich is intentional. Crimes done: by himsā may be either sārthaka or nirarthaka. Sārthaka offences are done consciously, while nirarthaka fortuitously. Sārthaka himsā may be committed with care and attention (sāpekṣa), while, if it is committed carelessly, it is nirapeksa.
Though Manu has depicted the excellence of ahimsā, he has said that the killing of animals in a sacrifice is not an offence (tasmad yajñe vadho' vadhaḥ). Hemacandra (10881172 A.D.) protests against the statement of Manu in his Yogasästra, (II. 33-49). He says that it is a distortion of reality to think that the animals have come to this world to be offered to gods for the prosperity and betterment of the world. It is not true to say that the jīvas living in this world will be reborn as divine beings. Hemacandra calls these people hypocrits who preach the religion of cruelty. Hemacandra goes on further to say that if the animals are sacrificed for an abode in heaven, then why should one not kill one's parents in the sacrifice for getting an abode in heaven ? His argument rests on the famous verse he quotes from the Dasa-vaikālika-sūtra:
savve jīvā vi icchanti jivium na marijjium/ tamhā pāṇivaham ghoras nigganthā vajjayanti ņam//
(I. VI. 10) Hemacandra then concludes by comparing ahimsā with the beneficient mother :
māteva sarva-bhūtānām ahimsā hitakāriņi/ ahimsāiva hi samsāram arāvamsta-sāranıħ// (2.50] ahimsā duḥkha-dāvāgni-prāvssenya-ghanāvali/ bhava-bhrami-rugārtānām ahimsā paramāuşadhi//
(2.51).

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"Ahimsā is like a beneficient mother of all creatures, in the desert of Samsāra (mundane life) ahimsā works like a stream of nector to the forest-fire, ahimsā is course of rainclouds, for the beings tormented by the diseases, (ahimsā) is the best healing herb; and ahimsā is called the perpetual return of existence'. .
Hemacandra thinks that the protection to all animal beings (abhayadāna or karuņādāna) is the positive side of ahimsā which everyone should follow.
(vi) Ahimsā in History
Apart from the textual citations, there are historical references as well. Aster Jayasimha, Kumārapāla became the king of Gujarāt. Kumārapāla was initiated into Jainism in 1159 A.D. by Hemacandra. After that he made the Jaina religion a state religion in his country. He himself abandoned hunting, and prohibited the killing of animals, eating meat, drinking, gambling and animal combat. Such types of instances can be ransacked from the pages of history.
It is a fact worth mentioning here that in the reign of Akbar (1556-1605 A.D.) for his slahi Dinor "Religion of God", the Jains obtained a warrant "prohibiting the slaughter of animals” in all the places wherever the Jains practised their religion. 80
(vii) Conclusion
Though the Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jains have accepted the question of ahimsā, it is the Jains who have turned it into a system of philosophical order. The quintessence of ahimsā has made Mahāvīra an outstanding exponent of social equality and justice.
It seems somewhat paradoxical to think of any religion in this advanced age of science and technology. It may seem outlandish too to think of a religion at the present day which speaks of non-violence, when the spectacular contributions 80. James Burges, The Temples of Satrunjaya, Jain Bhawan,
Calcutta, 1977, p. 30.

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of science erode the foundations on which our beliefs and values of life have rested for centuries. But in spite of all these achievements one thing is still sure : Are men really happy ? Has science been able to bring mental peace and tranquility ? Is it not true that one violence has brought back another violence ? Has one war stopped another war ? Material world does not and cannot bring happiness to mankind. It did not happen in the past and it will not happen in future either. People have realised now that spiritual and ethical teachings and practices may restore happiness in our life. And in this respect Mahāvira's doctrines have profound significance in the present society as it had in the past. To be precise, if Jain philosophy is properly understood, one is inclined to believe that it will contribute much to the development of human personality and will make life worth living. A proper understanding of Mahāvīra's teachings will lessen the misery and dishonesty, corruption and fear, malice and hatred under whose pressure the present world is helplessly groaning.
Mahāvira's intellectual empire as reflected in his principles of non-violence is imperishable, and the heart of a great number of people burst with a boundless admiration has been greatly moulded from thousands of years over the whole terrain of Indian life. A section of people still believes that Mahāvira's doctrines should be preached and practised in this world - a world which is full of toil and turmoil, a world which is full of violence and conflicts, a world where the values of human lives are jeopardised at the altar of human power, a world where beastly propensities of human beings are increasing rapidly, where the human finer qualities are sacrificed for the cause of material expansion and prosperity, and where lives of all sorts are butchered as fodder for guns. It is also believed that if Mahāvīra's basic tenets are imparted to the present generation as a part of their education, a new world may be ushered in in course of time, where there will be no violence, but a permanent bliss will pervade all over the world. To conclude, his teachings will deepen our ideas and thoughts, broaden our visions, heighten our mental horizon, strengthen our mind with a new vigour, and enlighten our future generations for the betterment of our life.

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XV. Bibliography
Aiyangar, S. Krishnaswami-Jainism in South India,
Atmananda Centenary Commemoration Volume,
1936. Altekar, A.S. - Rāştrakuțas and their Times, Poona, 1934. Ayyangar, M.S. and B. Seshagiri Rao - Studies in South
Indian Jainism, Madras, 1992. Babb, A. Lawrence-Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual
Culture, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi, 1998. Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (ed) -Jainism in Different States of
India, Jain Bhawan, Calcutta, April 2001. (Originally published in the Jain Journal, Vol. III,
No. 4, April 1969). Banerjee, Satya Ranjan and Ganesh Lalwani (ed) - Weber's
Sacred Literature of the Jains, Jain Bhawan,
Calcutta, 1999. Barodia, U.D. - History and Literature of Jainism, Bombay,
1909. Bhuvanbhanusuri, Acharya Vijaya-Ganadharavāda, Motilal
Banársidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi, 1989. Bloomfield, Maurice-The Life and Stories of the Jaina
Saviour Pārsvanātha, Baltimore, 1919. Boolchand - Lord Mahāvira, Banaras, 1948. Bühler, G- Über die indische Secte der Jainas, Vienna, 1887.
(Translated into English by James 'Burgess The
Indian Sect of the Jainas, London, 1903.) Charpentier, Jarl - The History of the Jainas, Cambridge .: History of India, Vol. 1, Ancient India, pp. 150-170,
Cambridge, 1922. .: Desai, P.B.-Jainism in South India and Some Jaina
Epigraphs, Jaina Samskrti Samraksa Sangha,
Sholapur, 1957. Glasenapp, H.- Der Jainismus, Berlin, 1925. (Translated into
English by S.B. Shrotri under the title Jainism, an Indian Religion of Salvation, Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers, Delhi, 1999). Guerinot, A. -Essai de Bibliographie Jaina, Paris, 1906. Guerinot, A. – "Notes de Bibliographie Jaina", J.A. XIV, pp.
48-148. Guerinot, A. – Repertoire d' Epigraphie Jaina, Paris, 1908.

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Guerinot, A.-La Religion Djaina, Paris, 1926. Handiqui, K.K. - Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture, Sholapur, .
1949. Hertel, Johannes-On the Literature of the Shvetambaras.
of Gujrat, Leipzig, 1922. Jagan Nath-Jainism in the Gupta Age, Jaina Vidyā, Vol-I.
No. 1. Jain, Hiralal-Sad-khandāgam ki Śāstrīya Bhūmikā ed by
Dharamchand Jain, Prācya śramaņa Bhārati,
Muzzafphar Nagar, U.P., October 2001. ::.. Jain, S.A. - Reality, English translation of Shri Pujyapāda,"
Sarvārthasiddhi, Vira Sasana Sangha, Calcutta,
1960. Jaini, J.L.-Outlines of Jainism, with a Foreword by F.W.
Thomas, Cambridge; 1916. Kapadia, H.R.- A History of the Canonical Literature of the
Jainas, Bombay, 1941. Reprinted in 2000 A.D. by Saradaben Chimanbai Educational Research Centre, Opp. Ranakpur Society, Shahibag, Ahmedabad-380
004. Kapadia, H.R. -Jaina Religion and Literature, Vol-I, part 1,
Lahore 1944. Klatt, J.-Specimen of a Literary-Bibliographical Jaina
Onomasticon, Leipzig, 1892. Majumdar, R.C. - History and Culture of the Indian People,
Bhāratiya Vidyā Bhavan, Bombay, Vol-II, The Age of Imperial Unity (1951), second edn. 1953, Chapter XIX, pp. 411-431; also pp. 281-285; Vol-III. The Classical Age (1954), third edn. 1970, Chapter XV, pp. 325-26; Chapter XVIII, pp. 408-419; Vol-IV, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, 1955, Chapter IX, pp. 206209; Chapter XI, pp. 287-299; Vol-V, The Struggle for Empire, 1957, Chapter XV, pp. 344-357, Chapter
XVI, pp. 427-435. Nahar, Puran Chand and Krishnachandra Ghosh- An
Epitome of Jainism, Calcutta, 1917., (Reprinted by Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi 1988
in the name of “An Encyclopaedia of Jainism”) Rao, B.V. Krishna-Jainism in Andhradeśa, JAHRS, XII, pp.
185-196. Saletore, B.A. - Mediaeval Jainism, Bombay, 1938, Sandesara, Bhogilal J.-Literary Circle of Mahāmātya

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
77
· Vastupāla and its contribution to Sanskrit Literature,
Singhi Jain Series, No. 33, Bharatiya Vidyā Bhavan,
Bombay, 1953. Schubring, W.- Die Jainas, Tübingen, 1927. Schubring, w. - Die Lehre der Jainas, Leipzig, 1935.
[Translated into English, The Doctrines of the Jainas. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1962, reprint 1978,
1995, 2nd revised edn., 2000). Sen, A.C. - Schools and Sects in Jaina Literature, Calcutta,
1931. Shah, C.P.-Jainism in Northern India, Bombay, 1932. Sharma, S.R. -Jainism and Karņāțaka Culture, Dharwar,
1940. Sharma Arvind-A Jaina Perspective on the Philosophy of
Religion, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
Delhi, 2001. Shastri, Balchandra-Şat-khandāgama Parisilana, Bhāratīya
Jnānapītha, Delhi, 1987. Siddhāntaśāstrī, Balchandra-Jaina Laksaņāvali (an
authentic descriptive dictionary of Jain philosophical terms) Vir Seva Mandir, Delhi, Vol-I (1972), Vol-II
(1973), Vol-III (1979). Smyth, H.W.-Weber's Sacred Literature of the Jains, IA,
Vol-XVII, 279ff.; 339ff.; XVIII, 181ff.; 369ff.; XIX, 62ff.; XX, 18ff., 170ff. 365ff.; XXI, 14ff., 106ff., 177ff., 210ff., 293ff., 327ff., 369ff. (Original in German by A. Weber, Indische Studien, Vols-XVI, 211f. and XVII 1ff.] Published in a book form by Jain Bhawan,
Calcutta, 1999. Stevenson, Mrs Sinclair - The Heart of Jainism, Oxford,
1915. Varņi, Jinendra - Jainendra Siddhāntakoşa, Bhāratiya
Jñānapitha, Delhi, Second edn. Part I (1970, 1985), . Part II (1986), Part III (1987), Part IV (1st edn. 1973),
Part V Word-index (1st edn. 1995. Watters, Thomas-On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 629
645 A.D. Vols. I and II, London, 1904. Williams, Robert-Jaina Yoga, a Survey of the Mediaeval
Śrāvakācāra, Oxford University Press, London, 1963. Winternitz, Maurice-A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II,
Calcutta University, Calcutta, 1933. [Third reprint 1991 by Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., Delhi).

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Appendix
The Jaina Hagiology Tirtharkaras, Gañadharas, Disciples of Mahāvira and the Great Jain persons (salākā-puruşa):
In the Jaina Hagiology, there are 169 great persons. They occupy the highest position in Jain religion. Their life-stories are variously discussed. These persons are 63 Excellent persons (Salākā-puruşa) and 106 adorable persons.
These persons are
Number
(A) 63 great persons are
Names of Great men 24 Tirthankaras. 12 Cakravartins 9 Vasudevas 9 Prati Vasudevas 9 Baladevas
(B) 106 adorable persons are
9 Nāradás 11 Rudras 24 Kamadevas 24 Fathers of Tirthankaras 24 Mothers of Tirthankaras
14 Kulakaras | 11 Ganadharas
33 Disciples of Mahāvira
(C) Ganadharas and Disciples
Their names are given below :
(A) 63 great persons (salākā-puruşa) are[1] 24 Tirthankaras : (1) Ādinātha,/Rsabha or Vrsabha,
(2) Ajita, (3) Sambhava/Sambhava, (4) Abhinandana, (5) Sumati, (6) Padmaprabha, (7) Supārsva, (8) Candrapraha, (9) Puşpadanta/ Suvidhi, (10) Sitala, (11) Sreyamsa, (12) Vāsupūjya, (13) Vimala, (14) Ananta, (15) Dharma,(16) śānti, (17) Kunthu, (18) Ara, (19) Malli, (20) Suvrata, (21) Nami, (22) Ariştanemi, (23) Pārsvanāth, (24) Mahāvīra.

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APPENDIX
(2) 12 Cakravartins
(1) Bharata, (2) Sagara, (3) Maghavan, (4) Sanatkumar, (5) Santinātha, (6) Kunthunātha, (7) Aranātha, (8) Subhauma/Subhūma, (9) Padmanābha, (10) Harişena, (11) Jaya(sena), (12) Brahmadatta.
[3] 9 Vāsudevas
(1) Triprstha, (2) Dviprstha, (3) Svayambhū, (4) Purusottama, (5) Purusasimha, (6) Pundarika, (7) Dattadeva, (8) Nārājana (9) Krsna
(4) 9 Prativasudevas
(1) Aśvagriva, (2) Tāraka, (3) Meraka (Naraka), (4) Madhukaitabha, (5) Niśumbha, (6) Balī, (7) Prahlada, (8) Rāvana, (9) Jarāsandha (Magadheśvara).
(5) 9 Baladevas
(1) Acala, (2) Jiya, (3) Bhadra/ Dharaprabha, (4) Suprabha, (5) Sudarsana, (6) Ananda (Nandi), (7) Nandana (Nandimitra), (8) Padma, (9) Rāma (-Balarāma or Rāmacandra)
B. 106 Adorabhe men 16] 9 Nāradas
(1) Bhima, (2) Mahābhima, (3) Rudra, (4) Mahārudra, (5) Kāla, (6) Mahākāla, (7) Durmukha, (8) Narakamukha, (9) Adhomukha.
17] 11 Rudras
(8] 24 Kamadevas
(1) Bhimabali, (2) Jitaśatru, (3) Rudra, (4) Viśvānala, (5) Supratiştha, (6) Acala, (7) Pundarīka, (8) Ajitadhara, (9) Jitanāthi, (10 Pītha, (11) Śātyaki. (1) Bāhuvali, (2) Prajāpati, (3) Sridhara (4) Darśanabhava, (5) Prasenacandra, (6) Candravarna, (7) Agniyukta, (8) Sanatkumāra, (9) Vatsarāja, (10) Kanakaprabha, (11) Meghaprabha, (12) śāntinātha, (13) Kunthunātha, (14) Arahanātha, (15) Vijayarāja, (16) Śricandra, (17) Nalarāja, (18) Hanumān, (19) Balirāja, (20) Vāsudeva, (21) Pradyumna, (22) Nāgakumāra, (23) Jivandhara (24) Jambūsvāmi.

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[9] 24 Fathers of the
Tirthankaras
(1) Nābhirāja, (2) Jitaśatru, (3) Jitāri (4) Samvara, (5) Meghaprabha, (6) Dharana (Sridhara), (7) Supratiştha (Pratiștha), (8) Mahāsena, (9) Srigriva (or Supriya), (10) Drdha ratha, (11) Vişņu; (12) Vāsupūjya, (13) Kệtavarman, (14) Simhasena, (15) Bhānu, (16) Viśvasena, (17) Sūrya (18) Sudarśana, (19) Kumbha, (20) Sumitra, (21) Vijaya, (22) Samu: dravijaya, (23) Aśvasena, (24) Siddhārtha.
(10) 24 Mothers of the
Tirthankaras
(1) Marudevi, (2) Vijayadevi, (3) Senā (4) Siddhārthā, (5) Sumangalā, (6) Suśīmā, (7) Pịthivi, (8) Lakşmaņā (9) Rāmā, (10) Sunandā, (11) Vişnudri (12) Vijayā, (13) Suramyā (Śyāmā), (14) Sarvasā (Suryaśā), (15) Suvratā (16) Acira, (17) Sridevi, (18) Mitra, (19) Rakṣitā, (20) Padmāvatī, (21) Vaprā (or Viprā), (22) Sivādevi, (23) Vāmā, (24) Trišala.
[11] 14 Kulakaras
(1) Pratisvāti, (2) Sammati, (3) Kșemankara, (4) Ksemandhara, (5) Simankara, (6) Simandhara, (7) Vimalavāhana, (8) Caksusmān, (9) Yasasvin, (10) Abhičandra, (11) Candrabha, (12) Marudeva, (13) Prasenacandra, (14) Nābhinarendra.
C. Gañadharas (12) 11 Ganadharas
(1) Indrabhūti Gautama, (2) Agnibhūti, (3) Vāyubhūti, (4) Aryavyakta, (5) Sudharma, (6) Mandita, (7) Mauryaputra, (8) Akampita, (9) Acalabhrātā, (10) Metārya, (11) Prabhāsa.
(13) 33 Disciples
Names of Disciples
3 Kevalins
(1) Gautama, (2) Sudharma or Lohārya, (3) Jambū

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APPENDIX
.5 Śrutakevalins
(4) Visnunandi, (5) Nandimitra, (6) Aparajita, (7) Govardhana, (8) Bhadrabāhu
11 Dasapūrvi
(9) Visakhārya, (10) Prosthila, (11) Ksatriya, (12) Jayasena, (13) Nāgasena, (14) Siddhārtha, (15) Dhrtisena, (16) Vijaya, (17) Biddhila, (18) Gangadeva, (19) Dharmasena
5 Angadhāri
(20) Naksatra, (21) Jayapāla, (22) Pandu, (23) Dhruvasena, (24) Kamsa,
4 Ācārāngadhāri
(25) Subhadra, (26) Yasobhadra, (27) Yasobāhu, (28) Hohārya,
1 Angadhāri
(29) Arhadvali, (30) Māghanandi, (31) Dharasena, (32) Puspadanta, (33) Bhūtabali.
It is to be noted that out of eleven Ganadharas, only Indrabhūti Gautama and Ārya Sudharma were emancipated during the life-time of Mahāvīra. After the fifth Ganadhara Sudharma Svāmī, the tradition of the disciples of Sudharma was as follows: Fifth Ganadhara Sudharma Svāmi was head for 20 yrs His main disciple Ārya Jambūsvami was head for 44 yrs Jambū's disciple Arya Prabhava
was head for 11 yrs Prabhava's disciple Ārya Sayyambhava was head for 23 yrs Sayyambhava's disciple Arya Yaśobhadra was head for 50 yrs Yaśobhadra's disciple Ārya Sambhūta Vijaya was head for 8 yrs Sambhūta's disciple Arya Bhadrabāhu was head for 14 yrs
170 yrs
Bhadrabāhu was the last Śrutakevalin "the knower of scriptures". Being the head of the Samgha, Bhadrabāhu was emancipated after 170 years of Mahāvīra's nirvāṇa. Bhadrabāhu had also many disciples.
The lives of these Excellent Persons are described in the books, like Trişaști-salākā-puruşa-carita of Hemacandra

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(1088-1172), Tisatti-lakkhana-mahāpurāņa or Tisattisalākā-purisa-carita of an unknown author, and the Tisattimahā-purisa gunālamkāra of Puşpadatta (10th cent. A.D.). On the lives of these Excellent men, Winternitz remarks, "Whilst with the exception of the last two Tirthankaras, Pasvanātha, and Mahāvira, the personages of the TrişasthiSalakāpurusa-carita belong throughout to mythology or epic poetry, the Sthavirāvali-carita contains the life-stories of the Elders (Sthaviras, Theras), i.e. the disciples of Mahāvīra, whose names and sequence in accordance with the unanimous tradition of the Svetāmbaras may be regarded as historical. It is true that the stories by themselves alone seldom contain any historical nucleus. Hemacandra took them from earlier works of legendary lore and commentaries, especially those of Haribhadra. Frequently enlivened by proverbs and colloquialisms of the common people the stories reveal clearly their popular origin.” (History of Indian Literature, Vol.-II, p. 507).

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