India As Described In Early Texts Of Buddhism and Jainism

Author(s): Bimla Charn Law
Publisher: Bimlacharan Law
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/011047/1

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INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
OF BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
By
BIMALA CHURN LAW, M.A., B.L., Ph.D). (C'al.), D.Litt. (Laucknow)
Fellow, Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Royal Geographical Society of London; Honorary Correspondent, Archaeological Survey of Tulia; Author, A History of Pali Literature, Geography of Early Buddhism, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, Ancient Indian Tribes, Mahāvīra, etc., etc.
Thesin approved for the Degree of Doctor of Literature in the University of Lucknow
LUZAC & CO.,
GREAT RUSSELL STREET.
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Printed by G. E. Bingham, Baptist Mission Press,
414 Lower Circular Road, Calcutta.

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PRCFACE
The present trentise consists of five chapters aling with Geography, Kings and people, ninl Life and Ironomic Conditions, Rigivi, und Wucation and warning of Jambulviju Inclia). It is based on lille curly texts of the Buddhists and Jis written in Pali and Ardha-Māyarthi. In my treatment, I have 1100 ignore the evidence of Brahmaninal literature, and wherever I have ned it, I have lone so with a view to clarify the relevant points. I have not faileil to inake nise also of molern 'terature on the subject inclurling my own vublications. The sources utiliser have been roperly mentioned in the body as well as in de faatustes
I have endeavoured to draw a picture of ndia with spocial reference to her peoples. he scheme allopteil by mo is in many respects fferent from that followed by Rhys Davills in si Buddhist Indile, and the treatnient oven of mmon topics is fuller in the sense that I have I along taken into account the collateral vi. .ence of the Jain Ayan. In Chapter 1, an 40, - geography of India hils been
h the help of a first-hanul Htudy of
textual evidenceng boarding uign

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PREFACE
mountain and river systems and the, 'cation and extent of countries, cities, etc. The second chapter has hecn devoted to the kings and proples who were the active factors in the make-up of the life and civilisation of ancient India. The third chapter deals with the social life ani economic conditions. Here the treatment is novel as showing how all the grigions of the people played their part as much angcial as in economic life. In the fourth chapise dealing with religion,-, the treatment may also be claimed as new in the sense that instead of taking religion as the source of inspiration for higher philosophy and ethics, I have sought to show how it was a living factor of ancient Indian civilisation. The last chapter treats of education and learning. Here my endeavour has been specially directed to the classification and description of vu'ious institutions and their founders, diverse m., nents and their promoters, together with the methods adopted and the results achieved. This kind of treatinent, as far as my informatio: goes, has not been attempted before.
The present treatise has been acopted as a thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Lerature by thr (niversity of Lucknow.
BIMALA HURN LAY :

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CHAPTER I
GEOGRAPHY
he country which is now known to us as India was known, to all intents and purposes, to the Buddhists as Jamhudvipa and to the Jains and the Brahmins as Bhāratavarşa (Bharahavāsa). in the Purāņas, Jambudvira is counted as one . if the seven dvīpas or mythical continents into vhich the Earth, as then known or imagined, vas divided. Bhäratavarşa was just one of the nine Vargas or countries constituting the nine main divisions of Jambudvipa. So far as the varsa divisions of Jambudvīpa are concerned, the Jaina description of Jambudvīpa in the Jambudīva-pannatti and other works based upon it, is materially the same as found in the Purāņas. Thus with the Jainas and Brahmin writers Jambudvipa as a continent was thought of as of much wider extension than Jambudvipn as known to the Buddhists. In all earlier and antor Buddhist texts and commentaries Tambudvipa figures as one of the four mahā
vipas or great 'continents with Mt. Sineru Sumeru) in the centre of them. The
natta wpraks of
Matsya Purūna, 11, 85. The Jarbudtr s An Vargas.

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ISDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
S. SI
Pubhavidela or Eastern continent is placed t. the cast of Sinerı, the Aparagodāna or Apara. guyana the Western continent to the west, the liftirakuri or Northern continent to the north, and the Jambulviția or Southern continent to the south.
Even we are told that the land in Jambudvip shor the people coming originally front Publaviileha settled clown, was named Videh maafter them; the land where the people coming from Ajarayodāna settled down, became know! hiy the name of aparanta; and the land in which people from (ttarakuru settled down, became knosa1 Maler the name of Kuru..
The Bucılhist Sineru, also called Meru Sumir. Hemameru and Mahamoru, is the highrst concritable mountain which formed the (routre of the earth. In the sea, it is based to a (lepth of cighty-four thousand yojanas, and above the sea level, it rises to the same height: The Yuyanıthara, the Isachara, the Karavika, the Snclassana, the Neuinhara, the Vinataka and Issa kunna are the seven mountain ranges that surround it. On its sınımit is Távatimsay the Heuren of the Thirty-three gods, and at ita facit is Asurabhuvann, the doinain of the demons Orrits four: siles are the four great continental

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CICOGRAPHY
rach containing several smaller ones. The Buclidhists as well as others in India treat Sineri as an emblem of long duration. Both its conception and closcription all'* semiastronomical, semi-terrestrial, and on the wholes, mythical in their origin and character.
We get a slight roulistic touch in the Puranas that locate the Sumeru Mountain with it. altitude of one hundroul thousanı yojanas at i central region of slāvstavarşa, the country, which, according to them, stanrls in the nichelle of the nine* varşas of Jambulvijia. "To the sonth of Ilāvịtavarna is the Nişadha mountain range, and to the south of it is Harivabil, the country which lies just to the north of Bhāratavarşa. In between the tuin is the Himalaya mountain with the Hemikūtil mrvitit north of it. The Himalayan range extends east and west over a distance of about 1,000 yojanas, Thc topography of this range as it stins in relation to Bhāratavarşa may be picturesquels ropresentert by the shape of a bow with its string to the south (Himaván uttarenāsya kārmukasyon yathā gruaḥ). The Jumbulirn-qutunulli, which, like the Puranas, lorates Harivitrigail to
1 Anqutturu, iv, p. 1001.; NILANtaruīzh 17, i, p. 119; Prvudet. inagga, p. 208; Parur threjolika, II, pp. 113, 483; 12xynunu, p. 217.
2 Soven, according to Jumbrulīun junnutti. 8 Bhagavata Purana, Dvipavarga-varnana->kunitha, Ch. 18.

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4 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS the north of Bhāratavarşa and the Himalaya mountain, divides the Himalayan range into two, the Mahāhimavanta or Greater Himalayan and the Cullahimavanta or Lesser Himalayan. The former extends eastwards up to the eastern Bea, i.e., the Bay of Bengal, and the latter westwards and then southwards up to the sea , below the Varşadhara mountain, i.e., the Arabian sea.1
The topographical outline of India to tho south of the Himalayas is sought to be pictured in the Pali Mahāgovinda-suttanta in the shape of a bullock-cart with its face towards the south. Accordingly it is describod as extended on the north. The symbol suggested in the Mārkandeya Purāņa for visualisation of tho surface of India is one of the convex shape of the upper shell of a tortoise (kūrmaprstha). It is obviously a very correct picture of the thing, inasmuch as all the rivers of India either flow eastwards into the Bay of Bengal or flow westwards into the Arabian Sea. Further, according to the Jambudiva-pannatti, the Vaitādhya (Vindhya ?) mountain range divides
1 Jambudīva-pannatts, i, 9: Bharahe nämam vēse... Cullahimavamtassavāsaharapavveyagga dâhinonam dâhiņalavapasamuddassa uttarenam, puratthitalavarasamuddassa pacoatthimenarp ... The same extension of the range is implied in the Molinda, p. 114.
2 Dağha, II, p. 238: uttarena āyatam, dakkhinena sakata-mukhamp. & Märkandeya Purāna, Chaps. 67 and 58.

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GEOGRAPHY
5 India into two halves, the northern half (uttarārdha), later called Aryävarta, and the southern half (dakşiņārdha), later called Dākşinātya or Deccani
The Himalaya mountain is known in Pali by such names as Himavā, Himācala, and Himavanta. It is one of the seven mountain ranges that surround Gandhamādana.? According to. traditional description, it extends over a distance of three hundred thousand yojanas (loaguos), and contains eighty-four thousand peaks (kūtas), the highest of them being five hundred leagues. Here the length, the number and the altitude given are all cvidently fabulous. We have montion of seven great Himalayan lakos: Anotatta, Kaņņamunda, Rathakāra, Chaddanta, Kunāla, Mandākini and -Sihappapātaka, that are never heated by the sun. Each of them is fifty leagues in length, breadth and depth.5 Their names are such as to defy all attempts at a correct identification, and the description of their length, breadth and depth is too symmetrical to inspire confidence. The Kuņāla
1 Jambudiva-pannatti, i, 12: Bharahe väse Veyaddhe pămam pavvaye pannatte: utwaraddha-Bharahavõsassa dähinepam dahiņabharahavāsagga uttarenam.
2 Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 66; Malalasekera, Dict., of Pal Proper Names, ii, p. 1325.
8 Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 224.
4,8 Anguttara, iv, p. 101; Manorathapūrani, u, K. Iud; Paramatthajotikā, TI, p. 443.

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6 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS Jätaka mentions by name Manipabbata, Hingulapаbbata, Añjanapabbata, Sānupabbata, and Phaļikapabbata among the Himalayan peaks,1 none of which can now be satisfactorily identified. The Sutta-nipāta commentary speaks of some five hundred rivers, only ten of which were to be reckoned, according to the „Milinda, the rest having an intermittent
periodical flow. Of the ten rivers, the first a five, Gargā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū and Mahi that were honoured as the five great rivers (pañca mahānadiyo) constitutod the Gangos group, and the rest, Sindhu, Sarassati, Vottavati, Vitamsā and Candabhāgā, with the exception of the second, constitutod tho Sindhu group. Broadly speaking, the first five flowed from tho Jaina Mahāhimavanta, and the other five from the Lesser range.
The Kuņāla Jātaka draws our attention to two most delightful spots in the shape of rocky table-lands (silātala), one, called Suvaņņatala, on the east side of Himavanta, and the other, called Hingulatala, on the west side, the latter being sixty leagues in extent. Similarly the
1 Jataka, v, p. 415. 2 Paramatthajotika, II, p. 437. 8 Milinda, P. 114. 4 Of, Mārkandeya Purana, 57, 16-18
5 Angultara, 14, p. 101; Vin., il, p. 237; Samyutta, ii, p. 136 ; 1, p. 401.
Jotaka, v, p. 416.

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GEOGRAPHY
Milinda-pañha mentions one Rakkhitatala or protected table-land in the Himalayan region.
The Buddhists derive the name of the continent of Jambudvīpa from a Jambu tree, which stands as its kalpavřkşa, with its trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, shade one hundred yojanas in extent and height of one hundred yojanas, 2-all too symmetrical and imaginary to be believed as correct. It is on account of this tree that the continent is also called Jambuvana 3 and Jambusaņda. The tree stands on a bank of the river Jambo (Jambu). The continent extends over a distance of ten thousand leagues, of which four thousand are covered by the seas, three thousand by the Himalayas, and three thousand only are innabited by mon. It contained as many as 34,000 towns, large or small. As Malalasekera points out, this number is sometimes reduced to sixty thousand, forty thousand, or even twenty thousand, but never too less'.? A description in the Anguttara-nikāya would have us believe that trifling in number were the parks, groves,
1 Milinda, p. 6.
2 Vinayn, i, p. 30 m Samantapdaddikā, i, p. 119; Paramatthajotilā, II, p. 443; Visuddhimagga, i, p. 206.
8 Law, Geography, p. xvi. 4 Sutta-nypäta, verse 552; Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 121. 6 Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 437. • Ibid., II, p. 59. Cf. Jätaka, iv, p. 84. 7 Malalasekora, op. cit., i, p. 941.

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8
INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
lakes, etc., in Jambudvipa, while more numerous were the steep, precipitous places, unfordable rivers, inaccessible mountains, and the rest.1
In accordance with the description in the Jambudīva-paņņatti, the Bhāratavarşa which is situated to the south of the Himalayas and between the eastern and western seas, abounds in prickly stumps and thorns, uneven and inaccessible roads, hills and dales, fountains and springs, khattās, crevices, rivers and lakes, trees, creepers and shrubs, forests and grasses, thieves, dimbas and damaras, famines and bad times, religious sects, the poor and destituto, emorgencies and epidemios, wicked persons, drought, diseases, iniquities and constant commotions. It appears from the north like a bedstead, and from the south, like a bow (uttarão paliamkasamthāna-samthie, dāhiņão dhanupittha-samthie). By the two large rivers, Gangā and Sindhu, and the Vaitādhya mountain range it is divided into six portions (chabbhāga-pavibhatte). It is 52644 leagues in extent.?
As for the number and location of the dyipas, the Pali account may be shown to have followed the same tradition as that in the Mahābhārata which, too, speaks of just four great continents and locates them on four sides of the golden mountain of Meru or Sumeru. The continent
1 Anguttara, i, p. 86; Malalasekera, op. cit., i, p. 941. 2 Jambudiva-panpatti, i, 9.

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GEOGRAPHY
o
9
on the west side is, however, called Ketumāla instead of Aparagodāna, and that on the east side, Bhadrāśva instead of Pubbavideha. The continent on the north side is called Uttarakuru, precisely as in Pali. To the north of Harivarsa and in between the two mountain rangos of Nila (on the north) and Nişadha (on the south) lie two other ranges, the eastern, called Mālyavat, and the western, called Gandhamādana. Encircling the space botween them stands the Meru. mountain. As in Pali texts, the Jambudivapannatti and the Purānas, so in the Great Epio the name of Jambudvipa is derived from a mighty Jambu tree, called Sudarsana, which, too, is located in a spot between the two ranges of Nila and Nişadha. The origin of the Jambu river is accounted for, exactly as in Pali texts, by an accumulated flow of the juice of rose-apples that grow on that Jambu tree.
The Mahābhārata agrees with the Jambudīvapannatti and the Purāņas when it speaks of six varsaparvatas in Jambudvīpa. These are: Himavān, Hemakūta, Nişadha, Nila, Sveta and Śrngavān, enumerated from south to north, each forming a long range from sea to sea or ocean to ocean. Bhāratavarşa is, of course, placed to
1 Mahabharata, Bhigmaparva, 6.12, 13; 7.13; 6.31; 7.13, 14, 2 Ibrd., 6.9, 10. 8 Ibid., 7.19, 20. 4 Ibid., 7.22-26.
6 Ibid., 6.3-0.

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10
INDIA, AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
the south of the first. It also speaks of seven divyagangās or celestial rivers: Nalini, Pāvani, Sarasvati, Jambu, Silā, Gangā and Sindhu.1 The origin of Gangā is traced to a lake called Bindusara, which is situated in the middle of three peaks, Kailāsa, Maināka and Hiranyaśțnga. The Jambudīva-pannatti connects the origin of Gangă with a flow through the castorn outlet of a great lake in the Lesser Himalayan range, called Mahāpadmahrada, and that of Sindhu with a flow through its western outlet. It speaks of a similar lake in the Greator Himalayan range. The doscription of the lako with four toranas or outlets is akin to the Buddhist account of the lake Anotattar, to which it refers the origin of the fivo grcat rivers flowing eastwards. Anotatta, too, is liko the Jaina Padmahrada, a lotus lake with four mukhas (outlets) on its four sides, from cach of which flows a river. Beginning from the east, the qutlets are called Sībamukha (the Lion faco), Hatthimukha (the Elephant face), Assamukha (the Horse face), and Usabhamukha (the Bull face). The four rivers that flow, according to the Jambudīva-paņņatti, from the four outlets of the Lotus lake are, Gangā, Rohitā, Sindhu and Harikāntā.
1 Mahābhārata, Bhiamaparva, 6.49, 60. 3 Ibid., 6.43, 44. 8 Papancasilani, ii, p. 686. * Jambudiva-pampatti, iv, 34, 35.

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GEOGRAPHY
11
The long description in the Pali commentaries 1 of the origin of five rivers, Gangā, Yamunā, Aciravatī, Sarabhū and Mahi from the Anotatta lake may be best summed up in the words of Dr. Malalasekera: the river which flows out through the south channel circles the lake three times under the name of Avattagangā, then as Kanhagangā flows straight for sixty, leagues along the surface of a rock, comos into violent contact with a vertical rock, and is. thrown upwards as a coluinn of water three gāvulas in circumference; this column, known as Alūsugangā, flows through the air for sixty lcaguos, falls on to the rock Tiyaggala, excavating it to a depth of fifty leagues, thus forming a lake which is called Tiyaggalapokkharaṇī; thon the river, under the name of Bahalagangā, flows through a chasm in the rock for sixty leagues, then under the name of Ummaggagangā, 2 through a tunnol for a further sixty leagues, and finally coming upon the oblique.rock Vijjha, divides into five streams forming the five rivers'.8
1 Papancasūdant, Sinhalese od., 11, p. 686; Manorathapurani, ü, pp. 759-60; Paramathajotika, II, pp. 437–9.
2 The Ajivikas cherished a tradition of seven Gangā which they know as Gargā, Mahāgaigā (perhaps, Gangā proper), Svādhinagangā, Mşdugangā, Lohitageiga (evidently Lauhitya or Brahmaputra), Avantigaögā (evidently Avanti), and Paramāvantigangā. Of Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 268.
8 Malalasekera, op. cit., i, pp. 783-34.

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12 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
A similar account of the origin and course of Gangā and Sindhu is presented in the Jumb udivapannatti. But what is really important in it is the suggestion that thousands of other rivers fall into the Ganges through which they enter the eastern sea,t not directly. The same as to the Indus.
The identification of the Pali Anotatta lake with the Bindusara in the Mahābhārata and the Mānas-sarovara of popular fanc may be justified by the fact that, like the latter, the former is associated with Kelāsa or Kailāsa. In Pali commentaries it is said to bo onclosed by fivo Himalayan peaks, known as Sudassanakūta, Citrakūta, Kālakūta, Gandhamādlana and Kelasa.
In the Jambudīva-paņņatti we have mention of eight peaks (kūtas) of the Greater Himalayan range, of eleven of the Lesser range, and of nine of the Vaitādhya range which divides India into two halves: Āryāvarta and Dākşinātya. The eight Mahāhimavanta kūtas are Siddhāyatana, Mahāhimavadadhisthāts, Haimavatapati, Rohitanadisuri, Arisuri, Harikāņtānadīsuri, Harivarşapati and Vaidūrya. The eleven
in Jambudāva-pannatti, iv, 34: puratthābhimuhi avattásamāņi coddasahim salilasahassehi samaggå ahe jagaing dalaittà puratthim. enam lavenasamuddarp samappei.
? Papañcasüdant, ii, p. 585; Manorathapurani, ii, p. 759. • Jambudīva-franziatti, iv, 80.

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GEOGRAPHY
connected with the Lessor range comprise Siddhāyatana, Kşudrahimayadgiri, Kumāradeva, etc. The list of nine peaks associated with the Vaitādhya range begins with Siddhāyatana and ends in Tamisrāguhā. The names are too ingeniously Jaina to be considered genuine and identifiable.
True that in it, precisely as in the Mahābhārata, and the Mārkandeya Purāņa, Bhāratavarşa is described as a peninsula with seas on its three sides, cast, south and west. But is it not somewhat far-fetched to represent the topographical outline of the Deccan figuratively by the shape of a half-moon (addhacamdasamthāņasamthie)? To the Buddhists, as we saw, Jambudvípa is shaped like a bullock-cart with its face towards the south. In the Great Epic the shape is poetically conceived as one resembling, from south and north, a bended bow of which the string being pulled by the hand forms an apex at Dhanuşkoti, Rāmasebu or Rāmesyaram. In the Mārkandeya Purāna the shape of India, according to one description, is like that of a tortoise (kūrma) which lies outspread, with its face towards the east, and,
1 Jambudtua-pampatti, iv, 35. % Ibid., i, 12. 8 Ibid., i, 10. 4 Mahābhārata, Bhişmaperva, 6.88. 5 Mārkandeya Purana, Ohaps, 57-58,

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14
IKDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
according to another, like that of a peninsula with the Himalayan range stretching along on its north, like the string of a bow.l According to Hiuen Tsang, the north part is broad, the southern part narrow. As in the Jambudīvapannatti, he describes its shape as one like that of a half-moon. All these images are suggestive, though only approximately accurate. . In agreement with the Great Epic S and the „Purāņas, the. Jambudīva-pannatti derives the name of Bhāratavarşa from king Bharata whose sovereignty was established over it. It speaks of six divisions (bhedā; khandā) in Northern India, and of three divisions in Southern, Eastern, Western and Middle. Those are all internal divisions of India proper. The vine bhedas or parts of Varāhamihira conforming, as . they do, to the centre and eight of the ten points of the compass: eastern, southern, Western, northern, south-eastern, south-western, north-western and north eastern (also suggested by the Jainas), are all internal. The nine bhedas or khandas mentioned in the Mārkandeya Purana and the Siddhāntaširomaņi (iii, 41),n and somewhat differently enumerated in the Vāmana and Garuda Pürānas go as to count Kaţāha and
1 Mārkandega Puranai, Chap: 57: Dalīsiņo parato hyasya pūrvena : che mahodadhi) Himavån uttaršņāsya kērmūkasya yatha gunah. S. Beal, Buddhist Records of this Western World; i, pi :70. :.
a Mahabharata, Bhiemaparva, üür, 41.

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GEOGRAPHY
15
Simhala dvipas among them, were all internal even as they were explained to Alberuni and Abul Fazl. But reading between the lines, one may find that the Mārkundeya description hardly leaves room for doubt that only the ninth of nine dvspas constituting the Bhāratavarşa, elsewhere called Kumāra, Kumāri or Kumārika, was the India proper. The Mārkundeya Purāņa gives it a length of one thousand yojanas from south to north.
Like Bhāratavarşa in the Jambudiva-pannalti,2 Jambudvipa in Pali texts is described as the kingdom of a king overlord (cakkavatti).3 Accordingly Jambudvípa finds mention in Puli as tho contiuent over the whole of which the sovorcignty (okarajjābhisekam) of Dhammāsóka prevailed. 4 In Asoka's own description Jambudvipa, which was somewhat wider than his own kingdom (vijita), was certainly the whole of India where he succeeded in creating a sphere of righteousness. He gives it a length of six hundred leagues,
As for countries and peoples (janapadā), the Mārkandeya. Purāna introduces them, adopting
1 Law, Geographical Essays, p. 120.
2 Jambridiva-pannatti, iii, 41: Bharahe vāce ....Bharahe namam raya căuramta cakkavatti samuppajjitthà. | 3 Auguttata, iv, p.190: Cakkovatti Bhum rõj& Jumbusandassa issaro.
4 Samantapäsädikā, i, p. 41. 6 M.R.E. and R.E. XIII.

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16 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
the following system of classification: (1) those belonging to Madhyadeśa (Middle country); (2) those to Udicya (Northern region); (3) those to Prācya (Eastern India); (4) those to Dakşiņāpatha or Dākşiņātya (Deccan); (5) those to Aparānta (Western India); (6) those to the Vindhya region (Vindhya or Vindhyaprştha); . and (7) those which are mountainous (parvatā
Grayi).1 These may be shown to have been a A result of further systematisation froin the Mahābhārata, Bhişmaparva, Ch. 9, in which the divisions Prāoya, Udīoya, Dakşiņa, Aparānta and Pārvatīya are distinctly mentioned, and the remaining two are implied. The five traditional divisions of India, as met with in Hinen Teang's Si-yu-ki and the Bhuvanakoşa of the Puriņas are: as enumerated in the formor-northern, southern, eastern, western and centrala, and as in the latter-Madhyadesa (Middle country), Udicya (Northern), Prācya (Eastern), Dakşiņāpatha (Deccan) and Aparānta (Western). Rajasekhara, in his Kāvya-mümārsā, offers the following description of them:
Tatra Bārāṇasyā parataḥ Pūrvadeśaḥ Māhīpmatyā parataḥ Dakgiņāpathaḥ Doyasabhāyā parataḥ Pasoāddesaḥ Pșthudakāt parataḥ Uttarāpathaḥ
1 Märkandeya Pusāna, Ohap. 57. 2 Beal, Records, į, p. 70; Omningham, Anoient Geography, p. 186. 8 Thom Aanvanha of winerla Radhim

Page #25

GEOGRAPHY
1 17 Vinaganaprayāgayoḥ Gangā-Yamunayońca
antaram Antaravedi.' 1
"To the east of Benares is the Eastern India. To the south of Māhismati is the Deccan. To the west of Devasabhā is the Western India. To the north (bettor, north-west) is the Northern (better, North-western) India. And the tract lying between Vinasana and Prayāga and between the Ganges and the Jumna is the Inland (same as Midland or Middle country of other texts).'
Cunningham elucidates the geographical significance of Hiuen Tsang's 'Five Indies' in the following manner:
(1) Northern India comprises the Punjab proper including Kashmir and the adjoining hill States with the whole of eastern Afghanistan beyond the Indus and the present Cis-Sutlej States to the west of the Saraswati river;
(2) Western India, Sind and Western Rajputana with Cutch and Gujrat and a portion of the adjoining coast on the lower course of Narmadā river;
(3) Central India, the whole of the Gangetic provinces from. Thaneswar to the head of the Delta and from the Himalayan mountains to the banks of the Narmadā;
Kārya-mimõthsā, p 93.

Page #26

18
INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN PARLY TIXTS
(4) Eastern India, Assam and Bengal proper including the whole of the Gangetic Delta together with Sambalpur, Orissa and Ganjam: and
(5) Southern India, the whole of the peninsula from Nasik on the west and Ganjam on the east to Cape Comorin on the south including the modern districts of Berar and Telingana, Mahārāştra and the Konkan with the separate States of Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore or very nearly the wholo of the peninsula to the south of the Narmadā and the Mahānaclī rivers.
The broad divisions of India, mot with in early Pali texts, are rather six than five. These are: (1) Majjhimadesa (i.e. Madhyadosa or Middle Country); 1 (2) Hemavata or Himavanta (Himalayan region); 2 (3) Uttarăpatha (Northwestern region); 8 (4) Dakkhiņāpatha or Dakkhiņā janapadā (i.e. Dākşiņātya or Deccan); (5) Pubbanta (Eastern India); and (6) Aparānta (Western India).
The Anguttara Nikāya mentions the following sixteen as Mahājanapadas among the countries
1 Vinaya, 1, p. 197; Jätaka, i, pp. 49-80.
* Mahavamaa, xi, 41; generally called Himavantapadesa in seyeral Jatakas.
& Vmaya, iž, p. 6; Samantapdsådrka, i, p. 175; Jätaka, ii, p. 277, iv, 79; Divyqvadāna, p. 470; Mahāvast ili, p. 303; Petavatthua#hakathā, p. 200; Theragăthd-affhakathe i, p. 339.
* Sutta-nipāta, verse 976; Vinaya, i, f. 196-6; ii, p. 298; Jätaka, 41, p.403; v, p. 188; Sumangalavilāsint, 1, p. 266.

Page #27

GEOGRAPHY
19
in Jambudvīpa: Kāsī, Kosala, Anga, Magadha, Vajjī, Malla, Cetī, Vamsa, Kuru, Pañoāla, Maccha, Sūrasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhāra and Kamboja,1 each named after the people who settled down there or colonised it. As noted by Dr. Malalasekera, the first fourteen are included in the Majjhimadesa, and the last two in Uttarapatha. The Digha Nikāya gives a list of twelve only, omitting the last four, while the Cullaniddesa adds Kalinga to the list and substitutes Yona for the Gandhāra. The Jaina Bhagavati Sūtra (otherwise called Vyākhyāprajñapti) gives a somewhat different list of sixteen containing Anga, Banga (Vanga), Magadha, Malaya, Mālava, Accha, Vaccha (Pali Vamsa), Koccha, Pādha (?), Lādha (Rādha), Bajji (Pali Vajjī), Moli (Malla ?), Kāsi, Kosala, Avaha (?), and Sambhuttara (?).
A short description of each of the six divisions, as made out from Pali, taking along with it the principal kingdoms, cities, towns, rivers, peoples, eto., is found indispensable in the present chapter. To begin with,
I Middle: country (Madhyadega): Madhyadesa has been described in the Dharmasūtra
1 Anguttara, i, p. 213; iv, pp. 252, 266, 260. 2 Malalasekera, op. cit., ii, p. 494.
8 According to Märkandeya Purana (Chape. 57, 82-35), the comm. tries in Madhyadesa were Matsya, Kubula, Kulya, Kuntala, Käsi, Kosala, Arvuda, Pulinda, Samaka, Vika and Goverdhanapura. It refers Avanti to Aparanta.

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20 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
of Baudhāyana as lying to the east of tho region where the river Saraswati disappears, to the west of the Black forest (Kalakavana), 1 to the north of the Pāripātra mountain and to the south of the Himalayas. The eastern boundary excluded not only the
country now known as Bengal but Behar which - in ancient days included the whole of Magadhan
country, the Buddhist land par excellence. - According to Manu, Madhyadeśa extends from
the Himalayas in the north to tho Vindhyas in the south and from Vinaśana (the place whore the river Saraswati disappears) in tlio west to Prayāg in the east. It is otherwiso kuown as Antaravedi or Inland which extends up to Benares in the east. The Buddhist writor would extend the boundary of Madhyadesa farther towards the east so as to include Anga and Magadha. According to tho Mahāvagga 6 of the Vinaya Pitaka, it extends in the east to the town of Kajangala e beyond which was the city
1 Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, li and xlı, f.n. 1. 2 Baudhayana, 1, 1, 2, 9, etc.
8 Manu, u, 21 Humavad-vindhyayor madhye yat prag vim asanádapıpratyagava Prayāgāo ca Madhyadejah prakirttitah'
4 Kõvya-māmāmsā, p 93 The same extension is implied also in the Mārkandeya Purana.
5 Vol. V, pp. 12-13.
& Identicatwith Ka chu-wen-kilo of Yuan Chwang which lay at a distance of above 400 lz east from Campā (Bhagalpur). Of. Sumangalavdasint 11, 429, as to Kajangala forming the eastern boundary of the Madhyadeau Also see Jät, uu, 226-7; 1v, 310.

Page #29

GEOGRAPHY
21
of Mahāsāla; in the south-east, to the river Salaļavati (Sarāvatī); in the south, to the town of Setakannika; in the west, to the Brahman district of Thūņa; 1 and in the north, to the Usīradhvaja mountain. The Divyāvadāna (pp. 21-22) extends its eastern boundary still farther so as to include Punďavardhana which in ancient times included Varendra (roughly identical with North Bengal). It is 300 yojanas in length, 250 yojanas in breadth and 900 yojanas in circuit.8
Thus it may be shown that the definition of the Middle country was not the same at all times and with all the authorities. In Manu, ii, 19, Kuruksetra, Matsya, Pañcāla and Sūrasena, are included in Brahmarşideśa, while the Mārkandeya Purāna includes them in Madhyadesa, Manu's Middle country is a tract between Vinaśana and Prayāga, while in the above Purāņa and the Kāvya-mīmārsā it extends so far east as to include Kāśi and Kosala. The Pali list of six principal cities in the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta (Dīgha, ii, p. 146): Campā, Rājagaha, Sāvatthī, Sāketa, Kosambi and Bārāṇasī, suggests an extension which included
i Oongult Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Introd. xlin, f.n.2, as to the identification of Thüng with Sthānesvara: also see Jät., vi, 62.
2 It may be said to be identical with Usiragiri, a mountain to the north of Kankhal, I.A., 1905, 179.
8 JRAS., 1904, p. 86.

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22 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY
Kasi, Kosala and Vatsa in the west but excluded Avanti and Surasena. These two countries have been expressly excluded in the Vinaya Pitaka from the Middle country. Dr. Malalasekera has not cited any Pali authority justifying their inclusion in the Majjhimadesa.
The seven representative rivers of this division are enumerated in one list as Bāhukā (Bahukā),1 Adhikakkā, Gaya, Sundarika, Sarassati, Payāgā - and Bahumati, and in another list as Gangā, Yamuna, Sarabhu, Sarassati, Aciravati, Mahi and Mahanadi. The Jātaka mentions the Dona and Timbaru along with the Bahukā and Gaya. Here Bahuka is evidently the same river as Vāhudă in the Mahabharata,* which the Markandeya Purana connects with the Himalayas along with Ganga and Yamuna.5 The Adhikakka remains yet to be identified. The Gaya is no other than the Phalgu forming just a united flow of the Nerañjarā (Nairañjanā) of Buddhist fame and the Mahanadi (Mohānā of Brahmanical fame)." The Sundarika was a sacred river in Kosala. The Sarassati is identified with the famous Sarasvati which taking its rise in the Himalayas, disappears at
1 Jātaka, v, p. 389.
2 Viauddhimagga, i, p. 10.
* Jaka, Tp. 388f.
4 Mahabharata, iii, 84.67.
5 Markandeya Purana, Chap. 57.
6 Barua, Gaya and Buddhagaya, i, p. 87f.

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GEOGRAPHY
23
' Viltkisana. The Payāgā must have represented
the confluence of the Gangā and Yamunā at Prayāga (Allahabad).1 The Ganga and Yamunā do not need much comment. The Bhāgirathi Gangā flowed through Pañchāla dividing it into Uttara (Northern) and Dakşiņa (Southern), Kampilla, the capital of the latter standing on its right bank. The Yamunā served as a . boundary between Sūrasena and Kosala and further down, between Vamsa (Vatsa) and Kobala, Madhura, the capital of Sūrasena and Kosambī, the capital of Vaņsa standing on its right bank. The Sarabhū is to be identified with the Sarayū in the Rāmāyana, on the left bank of which stood and still stands Ayodhyā, the ancient capital of Kośala (Uttara Košala). The Aciravati is modern Râpti on the right bank of which stood Sāvatthi (Śrāvasti), the third or last capital of Kosala. The Mabi (Mahāmahi Gangā) is a tributary of the Ganges; a river of this name is associated in the Mārkandeya Purāņa with the Pāripātra range. The Bāhumati, Doņa and Timbaru are still to be identified.
The Jaina Bhagavatā Sūtra and the Pali Manorathapūranī speak of a certain Mahāgangă
1 Barua, op. oit., i, þ. 87. 2 Lew, 81 avasti m Indian Literature, p. 9. 3 Märkandeya Purana, Chap. 57. 4 Manorathapurani (Sinhalese ed.), ii, p. 7611.

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24 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
which was either the confluence of the Nerañjarā and the Mahanadi or the river Soņa.1 To the east beyond Prayaga the united flow of the Ganga and Yamuna bore the name of Gangă. It is this Ganga which formed a boundary between kingdoms of Kasi and Magadha. Bārānasī, the capital of Kāśī, stood on its left bank. Further down it formed a boundary between Videha and Vesali on the north and Magadha, Anga and Kajangala on the south, on the right bank of which stood and still stand Pataliputta, the second or last capital of Magadha and Campa, the capital of Anga. In the early Pali texts we have mention of three other rivers in Madhyadesa that were of minor importance: Anoma, Rohiņi and Kakutthā. The first was a river thirty leagues to the east of Kapilavatthu which obviously formed boundary between the territory of the Sakyas and that of the Mallas. According to the Lalitavistara, however, the distance of the river from the Sakya capital was six leagues only.* The second, Rohini, was a small river which divided the Sakyan and Koliyan territories." Cunningham identifies it with the modern Rowai
a
F
1 Manorathapuraṇī (Sinhalese ed.), i, p. 761f.
2 Majjhima, I, Vatthupamasutta.
3 Jātaka, i,p. 64f.; Paramatthajotika, II, p. 382; Malalasekera p. cit., i, p. 102.
4 Lalitavistara, ed. Lefmann.
5 Jataka, v, p. 412; Paramatthajotika, II, p. 358.

Page #33

GEOGRAPHY
25
or Rohwaini, a small stream which joins the Rapti at Gorakhpur.1 According to Dhammapāla, it flowed from north to south to the northwest of Rājagaha. And the third, Kakutthā, was a river near Kusinārā 3 which appears to have formed, at one point at least, a boundary between the two Malla territories. Other rivers mentioned are: Campā, Kosiki, Migasammatā, . Hiraññavati, Sappini, Sutanu, Salalavati and Vettavati. Of them, the Campā formed a boundary between Anga in the east and Magadha in the west. It is probably the same river as one to the west of Campānagar and Nāthnagar in the suburb of the town of Bhagalpur. The Kosiki, modern Kuáī, is just a branch of the Ganges,5 The Migasammatā was a river which rising in the Himalayas flowed into the Ganges. The Hiraññavati is the Little Gandak and the same as Ajitavati near Kusīnārā which flows through the district of Gorakhpur about eight miles west of the Great Gandak and falls into the Ghogrā (Sarayū). On the bank of it once stood the Sal forest of the Mallas of Kusīnārā.?
1 Arch. Surv. of India, xii, p. 190f. 2 Therigäthä-atthakainā, i, p. 501; Malalasekera, op, oit., il, p. 762. 8 Dīgha, ii, pp. 129, 184f.; Udāna, viii, 5. 4 Jätaka, iv, p. 454.
8 Ibid., v, pp. 2, 5, 6. The river is called Koaikā And Kosikiganga. & Ibid., vi, p. 72.
Dīgha, ü, p. 187.

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26 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
The Sappini, modern Pancāna, was a small stream at Rājagaha. Similarly Sutanu was a small stream at Săvatthi2 which must have fallen into the Aciravati. The Salalavati (Sarāvati in the Divyāvadāna, better Saranavati), probably modern Suvarnarekhă, formed, as we saw, the south-east boundary of the Middle country. And the Vettavatī, modern Betwa in Bhopal, is an affluent of the Yamunā on the bank of which stood the city of Vetravati, and farther south-west, stands Bhilsā or ancient Vidisā.8
As regards the hills, mention is froquently made of Gayāsīsa, the principal hill of Gayā,4 which is the modern Brahmayoni and identical with what is called Gayasira in the Mahābhārata, 5 and Gayāśira in the Purānas. The Pali commentaries account for the origin of its name by the striking resemblance of its shape with that of the head of an elephant (gajasīsa). The Mahobhārata speaks of twenty-five hills of Gayā including the Gayasira, but the early texts of Buddhism ignore all but the Gayāsisa. The hills called Prägbodhi by Hinen Tsang 8 on the
1 Anguttara, 11, p. 29. 2 Samyuta, v, p. 297. 8 Jātaka, iv, p. 388. 4 Vinaya, i. p. 34f.; ti, p. 199. 6 Mahabharata, ii, 95.9; Barua, op. oit., i, p. 74.
Barua, op. cit., i, p. 88. 7 Săratthappakäsint, ili, 4. 8 Real, Buddhist Records, ii, p. 114.

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GEOGRAPHY
other side of the Gaya river are vaguely referred to but nowhere mentioned by name.
In the Barabar Hill-Cave inscriptions of Asoka and Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya1 we have mention of a set of hills under the name of Khalatika. The same finds mention in the Mahabharata, the Hathigumpha and two other inscriptions as Gorathagiri or Goradhagiri from which one could have a view of Rajagaha or Giribbaja, the earlier capital of Magadha. This group of hills. came to be designated in some of the mediaval inscriptions as Pravaragiri which has given rise to the modern name Barabar.
1 Mahabhāṣya, i, 2.2.
* Mahabharata, Sabhaparva, Ch. xx, v, 30.
1
The Pali Isigili Sutta names the five hills surrounding the city of Rajagaha, taking them in the very order in which they stood to each other and beginning with Isigili: Isigili, Vebhāra, Pandava, Vepulla and Gijjhakūta. In the Theragāthā, verse 41, the Vebhara and Pandava are mentioned as two hills that stood side by side. The canonical order of the five names was changed in the commentaries, one of them enumerating them as Pandava, Gijjhakūta, Vebhāra, Isigili and Vepulla, and another as Isigili, Vepulla, Vebhāra, Paṇḍava and Gijjhakūṭa. The Mahābhārata contains two lists, one
5
3 Majjhima, iii, p. 68f.
5 Vimanavatthu-atthakatha, p. 82.
27
8
4 Paramatthajotika, II, p. 382.
"

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28 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
naming the five hills as Vaihāravipula, Vārāha, Vṛşabha, Rşigiri and Subhacaityaka,1 and the other as Pāṇḍara, Vipula, Vārāha, Caityaka and Matanga. A comparison of the two lists may show that Vipula is the same name as Vaiharavipula, Caityaka is identical with Subhacaityaka, and Vṛsabha and Matanga are substituted respectively for Panḍara (= Pali Pandava) and Rsigiri (= Pali Isigili), the name Vārāha being common to both the lists. By the name Caityaka or Subhacaityaka may have been meant no other hill than the Buddhist Gijjhakūta or Gṛdhrakūta.
The Jainas following a much later tradition of their own name locate the sevon hills thus: 'If one enters Rajgir from the north, the hill which lies to the right is Vaibharagiri; that which lies to the left is Vipulaparvata or Vipulagiri; the one which stands at right angles to the Vipula and runs southward parallel to the Vaibhara is Ratnagiri; the one forming the eastern extension of the Ratnagiri is Chathagiri, and the hill that stands next to Chathagiri in continuation of Ratnagiri is Sailagiri. The one opposite to the Chathagiri is Udayagiri; that which lies to the south of Ratnagiri and the west of the Udaya is Sonagiri. The Vaibhara
1 Mahābhārsta, 11, 21,2.
2 Ibid., ii, 21.11.
3 Law, Rajagriha in Ancient Literature, pp. 2f., 28f.

Page #37

GEOGRAPHY
29
giri extends southward and westward ultimately to form the western entrance of Rajgir with the Soņagiri.' 1
A list of seven hills may be made out from the Pali texts with the addition of Kālašilā, a black rock on a side of Isigili, and that of Patibhānakūța, an echoing peak with a fearful precipice (subhayānako papāto) in the neighbourhood of, Gijjhakūta, to the traditional list of five. These very texts speak of Indakūța noar Gijjhakūta and Vediyaka hil, identified by Cunningham with the Giriyak, the latter containing the famous cavo, called Indasāla-guhā 6 (wrongly Sanskritised as Indrasaila-guhā). It may safely be maintained that the group of five Rajgir hills formed, as it now forms, the head, and the Vediyaka the tail of one and the same short range running from west to east over a distance of nine miles from Rajgir to the village of Giriyak or Giryek.
Among the five hills of Rājagaha all but the Isigili bore different names in different ages. The Vepulla mountain, for instance, was known in a very remote age by the name of Pācīnavamsa and the people of the locality were then
1 Law, op. cit., p. 3. 2 Digha, ü, pp. 116-7. a Samyutta, v, p. 448. 4 Ibid., i, p. 206. 6 Digha, ii, p. 263; Sumangalavilāsint, iii, p. 697. 8 Majjhima, iii, p. 68F.

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30 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
known as Tivaras. In the next stage the name of the bill was changed to Vankaka, and that of the people to Rohitassas. In the third stage the hill received the name of Supassa and the people became known by the name of Suppiyas. It is in the fourth or last stage that the hill became known as Vepulla and the people by the name of Magadhas.
With the Pi-pu-lo (Vipula, better, Vaibāravipula) hill to the west of the north gate of Rājagaha Hiuen Tsang associated five hundred hot springs of which several scores, somo cold, some tepid, remainod at his time. The source of them was traced to the Anotatta lako. In the Jaina Vividhatūrthakalpa the Vaibhāragiri is described as the sacred hill affording tho possibility of the formation of kuņdas of tepid and cold water (taptasīlāmbukuņdāni). The Pali and Epic traditions, too, speak of hot springs in connection with Rājagaha,' while Buddhaghosa definitely refers them to the Vebhāra hill.4
The Indasālaguhā in the Vediyaka hill was not the only cave in the Rajgir or Giryek range. The Rājagaha hills abounded in- guhās and kandarās, caves and crevices, sufficient to offer accommodation, according to the Vinaya
1 Samyutta, ü, p. 190f.; Law, op. cit., p. 32. 2 Watters, Yuan Ohwang, ii, pp. 163-4. 8 sáratthappakäsint, i, p. 88. 4 Imid.

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GEOGRAPHY
31
Cullavagga,1 for five hundred brethren. Among the caves, those worthy of mention were the Pippali (or Pipphali) and Sattapanni, both associated with the Vebhāra hill. Both of them were situated on the north side of this bill. And among the crevices, those enjoying importance were these four: Kapota-kandarā. Gomata-kandarā, Tinduka-kandarā and Tapodakandarā.3 The Påsāņaka-cotiya was a holy rock not far from Rājagaha.*
Besides these hills there were in the Middle country some natural forests (svayamjātavanā) and somo hill-tracts. The Kurujāngala, for instance, was a wild region in the Kuru realm which extended as far partib as the Kāmyaka forest and which in all likelihood separated the Kuru realm from Pañcāla. According to one tradition, the kingdom of Uttara pañcāla was founded in this very jungle tract. The Pārileyyakavana was an elephant-forest at some distance from the city of Kosambi and on the way to Savatthi. The Añjanavana at Sāketa, the Mahāvana at Vesālī and the Mahāvana, at Kapilavatthu were natural forests. The latter Mahāvana lay in one stretch up to the foot of
1 Vinaya, ii, p. 76. 2 Udäna, i, 6; i, 7; Digha, ii, p. 116. a Udāna, iv, 4; Law, op. cit., p. 11. 4 Sutta-nipāta, verse 1013. 6 Samyutta, ii, p. 96; Vinaya, i, p. 352; Udana, iv,

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2 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
the Himalayas.1 The Lumbinivana, a village in the time of Asoka, situated on the bank of the Rohiņi on the Kapilavatthu side, was a similar forest. The Nägavana, an elephant-forest at Hatthigāma in the Vajjī realm, the Sālavana of the Mallas at Kusīnārā,4 the Bhesakalāvana at Sumsumāragira in the realm of the Bhaggas, the Simsapăvana at Kosambi,o the one to the north of Setavyā in Kosala," the one near Aļavi and the Pipphalivana of the Moriyas 8 may be cited as othor typical instances of natural forcsts. The Alavi (Ardhamāgadhi, Alabhi), identified by Cunningham and Hoernle with Nowal or Nawal in Unao district in U.P. and by Nandolal Dey with Aviwa, 27 miles north-east of Etwah," was, as its namo implies, a forest tract and formed a Yakşa principality.10 Similarly Kajangala, which lay to the east of Anga and extended from the Ganges in the north-east to the Salalavati or Suvarnarekha in the south-east, was an extensive hill-tract in the Mid-land. The
1 Sumangalaviläsint, i, 309.
2 Jätalca, i, p. 52f.; Kathavatthu, pp. 97, 559; Manorathapurani, i, p. 10.
3 Anguttara, iv, p. 213. 4 Dīgha, ii, p. 146f. 6 Wrongly spelt Sumsumărugiri. Majjhima, i, p. 95;ii, p. 91, etc. 6 Samyutte, v, p. 437. 7 Digha, ü, p. 316. 8 Ibid, ii, p. 164f. • Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, p. 24. 10 Raychaudhuri, op. cit., pp. 160-1.

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GEOGRAPIY
Viñjhātavi represented the forests surrounding the Vindhya range, through which lay the way from Pāțaliputta to Tāmalitti. According to Buddhaghosa, it was then a forest without any human habitation (agāmakam araññam).
Over and above the natural forests and jungles there were hundreds and thousands of private and royal gardens and parks, and in some of the parks tho deer, set at liberty, roamed about freely. The migadāya (mrgadāva) at Isipatana near Benares, the one at Maddakucchi in Rājagaha, and that at Bhesakaļāvana were three among the notable deer-parks. Besides the tanks, large and small (taļāka-pokkharani) and wells (kūpā, udapānā), in which the Mid-land abounded, thero were several natural pools (jātasaras) and lakes (dahas), though none of them were so very important as to find mention by name,
It may, perhaps, be safely premised that the realms visited by the Buddha were all included ; by the Buddhists in their Middle country. Such realms were Kuru and Pañchāla in the west and north-west, Vamša or Vatsa in the west and south-west, Kāsi and Kosala in the middle, the Sakya and Koliya in the north, the Vajji and Malla in the east and north-east, and Anga;
1 Mahavamsa, xix, 6; Dipavamsa, xvi, 2. 2 Samantapāsådikā, iii, p. 666.

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34
INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
Magadha and Kajangala in the east and southeast. The Buddhist Mid-land may be shown to lave constituted the upper Gangetic valley between the Himalayas in the north and the Vindhya (Pali Viñjha) range in the south. Within this area the Pali texts include a few other small tracts, such as the Rāmagäma of the Koliyas, the Pipphaliyana of the Moriyas, the Allakappa (Adrakalpa) of the Bulis, Vethadīpa the native land of the Brahmin Doņa, the realm of Bhaggas, and the Kesaputta of tho Kālāmas. According to the Mahāgovinda Suttanta, Mabāgovinda, the Brahmin chaplain to king Reņu, divided his empire into sovon separate kingdoms with their respective capitals as named below:
1. Kalinga, capital Dantapura, 2. Assaka, capital Potana. 3. Avanti, capital Māhissati.
Sovira, capital Roruka. ,5. Videha, capital Mithila, 6. Anga, capital Campā. 7. Kāsi, capital Bārāṇasī.
Of these, the last three only were included in the Majjhimadosa.
Kururattha: The Kuru kingdom which extended from the Sarasvati to the Ganges
1 Bigha, ii, p. 184. 3 Digha,"li, p. 920f.
2 Anguttara, i, p. 188.

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GEOGRAPHY
, 35 consisted of these three parts: Kurujāngala, the Kuru-land proper and Kuruksetra. According to Pali tradition, the people originally coming froin Uttarakuru, colonised it, whence the name Kuru. In the Mahābhārata (i, 109.10) it is aptly called Dakşiņakuru, vying as it did with Uttarakuru in its glory, splendour, prosperity and righteousness. The Kurujāngala, as its name implies, was the jungle tract of the Kuru-land which extended as far as the Kāmyaka , forest. There is a tradition to the effect that the kingdom of Uttarapañcāla was founded in this very part of Kuru, in which case it must have stood on the left bank of the Bhāgirathi Gangā. It is, therefore, not astonishing at all that in the Somanassa Jātaka Uttarapancala finds mention as a city in the Kururattha. The kingdom proper had Hastinapura for its capital,) Indapatta (Indraprastha) near modern Delhi, according to the Jātakas. The kingdom was three hundred leagues in extent, and its capital seven hundred leagues in circumference, The Taittirīya Aranyaka locates Kurukşetra to the north of Khăņdava, to the south of the Tūrghna and to the east of the Pariņa, while the Great Epic definitely places it to the south
2. Jätaka, iv, p. 444.
1 Mahabharata, 1, 108 1. 8 Drvyāvadāna, p. 436. 4,5 Jataka, v, pp. 57, 484, vi, p. 256. 6 Vedic Inder, 1, p 169f.

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36 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
of the Sarasvati and the north of the Drşadvati, between Taruntuka and Arantuka and between the lakes of Rāma and Macakruka. In Pali we have mention of Kammāsadamma (also spelt, Kammāsadhamma), and Thullakotthita 8 as its two townships (nigamā). The Jātakas even speak of two townships by the name of Kammāsadhamma, one distinguished from the other as mahā from cūla. The commentaries have their own ingenious explanation for the origin of the name of the first township. But it should be noted that another spelling of its name is Kammāsadamma, & name which suggests that the place was a training ground of draught-horses. According to Buddhaghosa, the second township was called Thullakotthita because its granaries were always full (thulla. kottham, paripuņņa-kotthāgāram). The Jaina Uttarādhyayana Sūtra speaks of another ancient, wealthy, famous and beautiful town, named Isukāra after its ruler Isukāra (the Arrowmaker').?
Pancāla: This country was divided into two kingdoms: Uttarapañcala and Dakķhiņapañcāla,
1 Mahābhārata, iii, 83.204.
? Digha, ii, pp. 55, 290; Majjhima, i, pp. 56, 601; Samyutta, 11, p. 92.
8 Majjhima, i, p. 54; Manorathapürant, i p. 144. 4,5 Jataka, v, pp. 35, 411. 6 Papañcastidani, ii, p. 722. Cf. Avadānasataka, ii, p. 118. 7 Uttarādhyayana, xiv, 1; Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 113.

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GEOGRAPHY
the Bhāgirathi forming the dividing line between them. The northern Pañcāla had its capital at Ahicchatra 2 (Adhicchatrā in Aşāờhasena's inscriptions), identified with modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district. According to the Somanassa Jātaka, its capital Uttarapañcāla bore the same name as the janapada.3 The capital of Dakkhiņapancāla was Kampilla (Sk. Kāmpilya) which is identical with modern Kampil in the Farokhabad district. In the Kumbhakāra Jātaka, however, Kampilla, situated on the right bank of the Ganges, is wrongly described as the capital of Uttarapañcāla.
Vamsa (Vatsa): This country, called Vatsabhūmi in the Mahābhārata, was, as Hiuen Tsang know it, about 6,000 li in circuit, and its capital, Kausāmbi, about 30 li. “It was a fertile country with a hot climate; it yielded much upland rice and sugarcane; its people were enterprising, fond of the arts, and cultivators of religious merit.'8 In the Lalitavistara, however, its inhabitants are criticised as “rude and rough' (prākştam cha
1 Malalasekera, op. cit., ii, p. 108. 2 Mahābhārata, Adiparva, Ch. 140. 3 Jataka, v, p. 444. 4 Ibid., zü, p. 379. 6 Mahābhārata, ii, 30. G Watters, op. cit., i, p. 366,

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38 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
caņņam cha). The Aitarcya Brāhmaṇa (vii, 14.3) places it, together with Usinara, Kuru and Pañcāla in the Dhruvamadhyamā dik (i.e. Madhyadesa). The Anguttara Nikāya describes it as a land which was very rich and prosperous, a while the Arthasāstra testifies to the high quality of its cotton fabrics.d Kaušāmbi which was all along its capital is rightly identified by Cunningham with the present village of Kosam on the right bank of the Yamunā. Even apart from retaining the name of Kosambi, Kosam is situated on a bank of the Yamunā as it should be according to Pali tradition. The present distance by road of about 100 miles from Benares to Kosam is the distance of 13 yojanas suggested by F'a Hien.4 According to Hinen Tsang, a way from Prayāga (Allahabad) to Kausāmbī lay through a jungle and bare plains covering seven days' journey on foot. Kosam is about 30 miles from Allahabad across the fields and 137 miles by road above the Yamunā. At a distance of about 27 miles north-east of Kosam is the village of Pabhosā where two caves were dedicated to the Kassapiyas by a king of Ahicchatra.
1 Lalitavistara, ed. Lefmann, p. 21. 2 Anguitdra, iv, pp. 262, 256, 260; Manorathapurani, i, p. 806f.; Spence Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 501.
& Shamasástri's Tr., p. 94. 4 Watters, op. cit., i, p. 387. 5 Watters, op. oit., i, p. 366.

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GEOGRAPHY
39 In a modern Jaina dedicatory inscription the hill of Pabhosā is placed just outside the town of Kaušāmbi (Kaušāmbi-nagarabāhya-Prabhāsācalopari). At Kosambi were two famous gardens known as Ghositārāma and Pāvārikambayana,
There was a reserve-forest of Pārileyyaka in Vatsa (rather in Ceti) the way to which from Kosambi lay through the village of Bālakaloņakāra and Pãcinavamgadāya. Pärileyyaka itself stood on a road from Kosambi to Sāvatth1.2
The Vinaya Culla vagga (xii) records a journey on foot from Kosambi to Ahoganga (Adhoganga) hill, from there to Soreyya, from Soreyya to Samkassa (Samkissa), from there to Kannakujja (Kanauj), from Kannakujja to Udumbara, from there to Aggalapura, and from Aggalapura to Sahajāti up to which the country-boats could ply. The Vinaya Pitaka (iii, p. 1f.) records also similar journey from Verañjā to Benares via Soreyya, Samkassa and Kaņņakujja after crossing the Ganges at Payāgapatitthāna.
Bhagga: This was the land of the Bhaggas (Bhargas) which became a dependency of Vatsa with Sumsumāragira as its chief town. The
Vinaya, i, p. 387.; Majjhima, i, p. 320; Digha, ih, p. 81. 2 Ibid., i, p. 352.; Samyutta, üi, p. 05; Udána, iv,,6; Majjhima, i, p. 320; Jätaka, iii, p. 489, sto.
8 Majjhima, i, p. 382; Anguttara, ü, p. 61; vi, p. 85; Vinaya, ii,
p. 127,

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40 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
!
name of its capital is generally spelt as Sumsumăragiri. But Buddhaghosa expressly says that the city was called Sumsumāragira on account of the fact that while it was being founded, the shriek of a sumsumāra (crocodile) was heard. If the spelling giri be correct, the city must have been built either round or in the vicinity of the Sumsumara hill. The location of Bhagga is not as yet settled, though ⚫ Dr. Malalasekera places it between Vesali and Sāvatthi 2 without citing any evidence for it. In the Mahabharata, too, the Bharga State is associated with Vatsa. In tho Apadāna, Bhagga is mentioned along with Karusa (Karūṣa),4 which latter is referred in the Märkandeya Purana to a neighbourhood of the Vindhya range.5
Cetiraṭṭha: The country of the Cetis or Cedis lay near the Yamuna, contiguous to that of the Kurus. It may approximately be identified with the modern Bundelkhand and adjoining region. In the Cetiya Jātaka Sotthivati, probably identical with the Sukti or Šuktimati of
6
1 Papañcasidant, i, Sinhalese ed., p. 292
2 Malalasekera, op. cit., ii, p. 345.
P
a Mahabharata, ii, 30.10-11; Raychaudhuri, op. cit., p. 159.
Also Harivaméa, 29.73.
* Apadāna, ii, p. 359.
6 Märkandeya Purāṇa, Chap. 57.
6 Jataka, (Fausböll), iii, pp. 454-461.
?

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GLOGRAPHY
the Mahābhārata,1 is mentioned as its capital. Sahajäti 2 finds mention as a township of Ceti, which probably stood on the right bank of the Yamunā. Salañcanika: appears to have been another township, but according to Dr. Malalasekera, 4 the name is evidently a wrong reading of Sahajāti. There was a Deer Park in the village of Pācinavamsa, which, as its name implies, lay to the east of Vatsa, next to the village of Balakaloņakāra on the side of the Vatsa kingdom. The Vessantara Játaka mentions ono Cetaraţtha, situated 30 yojanas from the Jetuttara-nagara, through which lay a way to thc Himalayau region. This latter Ceti country is sometimes identificd with the territory covered by the kingdom of Nepal.
Kāsi: This is one of the most ancient kingdoms in Northern India, with Bārāṇasī (modern Benares) as its capital, twelve yojanas in extent. The city stood, as it now does, on the left bank of the Ganges, and it was known by different names in different ages: Surundhana, Sudassana, Brahmavaddhana, Pupphavati, Ramma and Molini.In Pali texts it is predicted
3 Samyutta, v, p. 436f.
1 Mahabharata, iü, 22260; xiv, 83.2. 2 Anguttara, iii, p. 356. 4 Malalasekera, op. cit., ii, p. 1080. 6 Anguttara, iv, p. 228f. & Jätaka, vi, p. 614f. ? Ibid., vi, p. 160. 8 Ibid., iv, pp. 16, 119.

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.
P
42 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
5
to be the future capital of Jambudvipa. According to Brahmanical literature, the city derived its name from Asi and Baruna,1 the two small streams bounding it on the south and the north respectively. The country was noted as a great centre of trade, most populous and prosperous at the same time, One high way connected it with Rajagaha 2 and another with Savatthi. It was noted for its silk cloth and for perfumes (Käsi-vilepana, Kasi-candana). Vasabhagāma, Macchikāsaṇḍa, Kīṭāgiri and Dhanapālagāma are mentioned as notable places. Of them. Kiṭāgiri was a very fertile tract with abundance of rain-water enabling it to yield three harvests of food-grains'. Cundatthila (Cundavila) finds mention in the Petavatthu, iii, i, as a village near Benares but on the other side of the river (Baruņā?) and between Vasabhagama and Benares. A locality of this name finds mention in one of the Barhut inscriptions. The most important place near Benares in the history of Buddhism is the Deer Park at Isipatana (Rṣipatana, modern Sarnath) eighteen leagues from Uruvelă, the place of the Buddha's Enlightenment and three or four miles to the
1 Cunningham, op. cit., pp. 435-6.
A
2 Vinaya,ri, p. 212.
4 Jataka,,vi, p. 151.
3 Ibid., 11, p. 10.
5 Ibid., i, f. 355; Anguttara, ii, p. 391. • Barua in J.H.Q., x, p. 63.
7 RAMIA. And Sinha. Barhut Tuorrintione

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GEOGRAPHY
north of the present city of Benares. The old Deer Park still exists about five miles from Sarnath. The ancient city of Benares was a great centre of trade and industry and trade relations existed between it on one side and Sāvatthi and Takkasilä on the other.1
Kosala: A distinction is to be made between Kosala as a janapada and Kosala as an empire. The former was the Kosala proper. The latter comprised five territories including Kosala proper, the remaining four being Käsī with Benarcs as its capital, Alabhi (Pali Aļavi) with its capital at Alabhī, Uttarapañcāla having Kampillapura (better, Ahicchatra) for its capital, and another with Polāsapura as its capital. Here we are concerned with the country of Kosala proper which was divided into Uttara and Dakkhiņa, evidently by the Sarabhū (Sarayū) serving as a wedge between them. The Rāmāyaṇa and the Vāyu Purāņa speak of two Kosalas, Northern and Southern, the former with Śrāvastī as its capital and the latter having Kušāvatī for its capital, Ayodhyā (Pali Ayojjhā) being the earlier capital of the undivided king. dom. The Rāmāyana locates Kugāvatī, the
1 Dhammapada-atthakatha, i, p. 123; ii, p. 429.
% Samyutta, i, p. 80, speaks of pañoarājāno Paseiadi-pamuknd Of. Journal Asiatique, Juillet-Sopt., 1929,--Levi, S.Pre-Aryan et Pre-Dravidian dans l'Inde.
8 See Uvdsaga-dasão discussed in Law's Srdvasti, p.-12. * Rāmāyana, vii, 120.7; 121.4-6; Väyu Purana, 88, 209.

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44 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
capital of Dakşiņa-Kosala at the foot of the Vindhyas. This may have been precisely the city which under the name of Ayodhyā is associated in the Jambudīva-pannatti with the
Vaitādhya range along which there wero sixty „Vidyadhara towns (saţthim Vijjhāharanagarāvāsā),1 referred to also in the Hathigumphā inscription of Khāravela as Vijādharādhivāsā. Besides Ayojjhā and Sāyatthi, Sākota, too, has been mentioned in some of the oarly Buddhist texts 2 as the capital of Kosala, the northern Kosala. Sāketa is said to havo stood on a high road between Săvatthi and Kosambi," at a distance of seven relay drivos of royal chariots (satta-ratha-vinītāni). Såvatthi was called Savatthí either because it was founded near the hermitage of the sage Savattha or because of its great prosperity as a city. It stood on the right bank of the Aciravati (modern Rapti). There is much to be said in favour of Dr. Barua's suggestion that the great trade-route from Rājagaha to Savatthī branched off into two roads, one the Dakkhiņāpatha or Southern (better, South-western) Road, and the
1 Jambudwa-pannattt, 1, 12. 2 Jätaka, un p. 270; Mahāvastu, 1, p 34,w. 3 Sutta-nopdta, verges 1011-1013. 4 Mahmas 1, p. 149, 6 Law, Geography, p. 5f 8 Law, Srāvasu,'p 9.

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GEOGRAPHY
45
other Uttarāpatha or Northern (better, Northwestern) Road, each lending its name to the region through which it lay1 Ukkatthā 2 was an important town in Kosala besides Sāvatthi and Säketa, and Nangaraka, a township bordering on the Sakya territory, Uļumpa or Medaļumpa being the adjoining township on the Sākya side. Setavyā on the high road between Kapilapatthu and Sāvatthi was the headquarters of a chieftain. Among other towns, mention may be made of Daņďakappaka,5 Nāļakapāna 6 and Pankadha.? The Pali texts speak of a few famous Brahmin villages, such as Manasākata (probably the same as Manayasītikada of the Soghaura plate), Ekasālā, Iochānangala, Opasāda, Nagaravinda and Venāgapura. As for other localities, these preserve the names of Toraṇavatthu on the road between Sāvatthi and Sākota, Palāsavana, a woodland at Naļakapāna, Caņdalakappa,10 and Nālandā.11
1 Barua, Old Brāhmi Inscriptions.
Digha, i, p. 81. 8 Majjhima, ii, Dhammacetiya Sutta. 4 Sutta-napäta, verdes 36-38; Digha, ii, p. 316. 3 Anguttara, iii, p. 402. & Ibid., v, p. 122. 7 Ibid., i, p. 236.
8 Law, Geography, p. 4; Malalasekera, op. cit., i, n. 696; Law, Srävasti, p. 11.
9 Samyutta, iv, p. 374. 10 Majjhima, ii, p. 209. 11 Samuutta, iv. p. 322.

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46 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
At the south gate of Sāvatthi and within a distance of about two miles from it was the famous garden of Prince Jeta, at its east gate lay the site of the Pubbārāma built by Visākhā, and in its neighbourhood stood the Ekasālakatinduka grove of Queen Mallikā.1 The Jaina Bhagavati Sūtra mentions the settlement of Saravaņa as the birth-place of Gosāla.2
The Sundarikā, probably not far from Săpatthi, was a sacred river in Kosala besidos the Sarabhū and Aciravati. The river Sadānīrā (modern Gandaki) formed a boundary in the east between Kosala and Videha.3
Magadha: The kingdom or country roughly corresponding to the modern Patna and Gayā districts of Behar-was broadly divided into two khettas: Gayā and Magadha 4 from a religious, and may be also from a fiscal point of view. In the Jambudīva-pannatti the latter is distinctly called Māgahatitthakhetta. The Ganges formed a natural dividing line between Kāsi in the west and Magadha in the east, as well as between Magadha in the south and Videha
1 Sumangalavilásint, ü, 365. 2 Law, Srävasti, p. 26. 8 Law, Strāvasti in Indian Literature, p. 13.
4 Paramatthajotika, II, p. 301: Gaya n gämo pi tittham pi vuocati; Therīgäthä-affhakathā, p. 225: Magadharatthe Bodhimanda; Lalita. viatara, Mitra's Edition, XVII, 309: Māgadhakānam Gaya; Paramatthajotikā, II, p. 683: Magadhakhette pãeānakacetiye ; Barua, Gaya and Buddhagaya, 1, p. 83f.

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and Vesāli in the north. The river Campā (modern Chandan) formed a boundary on the east side botween Magadha and Anga. As for the two khettas of Gayā and Magadha, it may be said that Gorathagiri (Asoka’s khalatikapavata) affording a distant view, as it did of Rājagaha, stood just on the borderland of Magadha towards Gayā. The Gayā proper, the holiest place of ancient India, comprised three divisions, all located along the left bank of the Nerañjarā and the Gayā river (i.e. Phalgu): Uruvelā, Nadi (the meeting-place of the Neranjari and the Mahānadi), and Gayà. According to the Mahābhārata, the Gayā division contained twenty-five hills (enumerated in the Vāyu Purāņa), of which the Gayāsīra (modern Brahmayoni hill) was the main. As clearly implied in the Gayāmāhātmya the hills of Gaya formed the head of a very old range of hills with its navel at Yājpur in Orissa and southern extremity at Mahendragiri. The distance by road from Gayā to Uruvelā (modern Bodhagayā) was three gāvutas (six or seven miles) then as now.1 The Yruvelā division on the banks of the Nerañjarā, contained Senānīgāma or Senanigama identified by BiJch with the present village of Urel) and Nala, the native village of Buddhaghosa, the great Pali commentator.
1 'Bodhmandato h Gaya timu, Báránasi attharasa?yöjandni

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48 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
According to Hiuen Tsang, 'the Uruvelā of yore' extended north and cast 14 or 15 li at least from a point near the base of the Gayāsirşa hill on the other side of the Phalgu. In its southern extension it was outskirted by an extensive jungle tract of Vankahāra janapada (roughly identical with Hazaribagh district)." The way from Gayā to Benares lay through such localities as Aparagayā, Vaśālā, Cundadvola, Lohitavastu, Gandhapura and Sărathipura on the right bank of the Gangos, opposite to the city of Benares.
The earlier capital of Magadha was Rājagaha, also known as Giribbaja. Hiucn Tsang knew it as Kušāgrapura (ku-she-ka-lu-pu-lo), a namo corresponding to Kuśāgrapura, met with in such late works as the Mañjuśrīmülakalpa and Jaina Vividhatūrthakalpa. According to the Mahabhārata, the city abounded in lodhra grass. Besides the five hills, the guhās, kandaras, tapodas, etc., already discussed in connection with Rājagaha, mention also may be made of the Corapapāta, the precipice down which the thieves were thrown, the Sappasondikapabbhāra, the tank called Sumāgadha, Moranivāpa, a feeding ground of the peafowls. The Latthivana (Yaşțivana) was either a bamboo-forest or palm
1 Barua, Gayā and Buddhagaya, i, p. 106. 2 Mahävastu, ü, p. 324f. ; Barua, op. cit., 1, pp. 116.8. 3 Law, Rajāgrhi, p. 1.

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49
gropron road between Rājagaba and Uruyelā.1 Other localities of importance near about Rājagaha, a city provided with sixty-four gates, the four of which were main, were Veluvana, the Bamboo-grove of Bimbisāra, Jivaka's Mango-grove, the Royal pleasance at Ambalaţthikā on the high road from Rājagaha to Vesāli, and Pāvārika's Mango-grove at Nälandā (identified with the present village of Burgaon). Ekanālā finds mention as a famous Brahmin village at Dakkhiņagiri. Nālaka was a village in Magadha. The Jaina Bhagavatī Sūtra speaks of a village by the name of Siddhatthagāma. The Jainas lay the scene of Mahāvīra's demise at Pāvāpuri on the Bihar Sarif-Nawadah road. The village of Pāšaligāma stood on the right bank of the Ganges, on the same high road, opposite Koţigāma, a locality in an extremity of the Vajji territory. Pāțaligāma having been fortified, gave rise to the city of Pātaliputta, the second and later capital of Magadha which suffered thrice from the action of water, fire and earthquake. The Dhammapada-Commentary (ii, p. 439f.) places Rājagaha at a distance of five leagues from the Ganges. The country of Màgadha comprised as many as eighty thousand villages.
2,8 Law, op. alt., p. or.
1 Law, op. cit., pp. 18-17. 4 Rookhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 250, 6 Digha, ü, 88.
& Vinaya, i, p. 179.

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50 "NDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY 1
Arga: The kingdom or country or viga, 4,000 li in extent according to Hiuen Tsang, lay to the east of Magadha, separated from the latter by the river Campā. On the north it was bounded by the Ganges. Arga, as described in the Mahābhārata, may be supposed to have comprised the districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr. Its capital Campā on the right bank of the Ganges, formerly known by the name of Malini,1 stood at a distance of sixty yojanas from Mithilā.?, Bhaddiya and Assapura are two other cities that find mention. Apana is mentioned as a township in Anguttarãpa, a tract which lay 'north of the river Mahi, evidently a part of Arga on the other side of that river." The way from Bhaddiya to Apaņa lay through Anguttaräpa. Anga was a prosperous country and Campā was undoubtedly one of the most flourishing cities and a great centre of trade and commerce. In its neighbourhood was the famous tank of Gaggarā.
Kajangala: The country of Kajangala formed an eastern boundary of the Middle country just beyond which was a Brahmin village of Mahāsālā.
| Mahābhärata, xii, 5.6-7: Ya Malunyabhavat purā. Also Matsya Purāna, 48.97; Vāyu, 99.106; Harivamsa, 31.49.
Jätaka, vi, p. 32. 8 Majjhima, 1, p. 271; Dhammapada-athohatha, i, p. 384.
Malalasekera, op. cit., p. 22; Paramatthajotiko, II, p. 437. 'Vinaya, i, p. 248f.; Dhammapada-afthakatha, iii, p. 888. -Digha, i, p. I'll; Sumangalavilásint, i, p. 279.

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151
The Divyāvadāna, as already pointed out, fixes the Pundakakşa hill as its eastern boundary beyond which was Pundravardhana in North Bengal, also included in the Mid-land. But there is no justification in saying that the country of Kajangala, with its chief town of the same name, was in any sense identical with Pundravardhana. According to Hiuen Tsang, the country of Kajangala, 2,000 li in circuit, was bounded on the north by the Ganges; the kingdom of Pundravardhana could be reached from its capital by journeying about 600 li eastward across the Ganges. Kajangala was a prosperous place whero food was easily available (dabbasambhårā-sulabhā).2 The Anguttara, Nikāya 8 speaks of a Bamboo-grove at the town of Kajangala, while in the Majjhima Nikāya, we have mention of another locality named Mukheluvana. At the south-east of this country was the river called Salaļavati.
Sumbha: This was the land of the Sumbhas with Setaka, Sedaka or Desaka as its chief town. Dr. R. C. Majumdar inclines to identify Sumbha with Suhma (modern Midnapore district). But the location of the tract is uncertain.
· Anguttara, v, p. 54f.
1 Beal, Buddhist Records, ni, p. 193f. 2 Jätaka, lv, p. 310f. 4 Majjhima, iii, p. 298. 6 Samyutta, v, p. 89; Jataka, 1, p. 393.

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Vajji territory: It appears to have comprised the principalities of eight? or nine 2 allied clans. The names of all of them are nowhere given; these are left only to be inferred. The Pali works expressly speak of Vajjīgāma, a locality of the Vajjis near about Vesālī. Vesāli (modern Besarh in the Muzaffarpur district of North Bebar) was the headquarters of the Licchavis. The city was rich, prosperous and populous. 'It had 7,707 storied buildings, 7,707 pinnacled houses (kūtāgāras), 7,707 ārămas, and 7,707 lotus ponds', too symmetrical to be accepted as a fact. It was encompassed by three walls at a distance of a gāvuta from one another each provided with gates and watch-towers. The early Jaina texts locate Kundagāma, the seat of power of the Nātas in a suburb of Vesālī. The country of the Bhaggas is placed between Vesāli and Săvatthi. Videha (modern Tirhut), the land of ther Videhas, with Mithilā as its capital, was bounded by the Kosiki in the east, the Ganges in the south, the Sadānīrā in the west, and the Himalayas in the north. Cunningham identi.
1 Sumangalavilásini, ii, p. 619: an inference drawn from the expression atthakulika. * Kalpasūtra, seo. 128; Nirayávalt Sutra: an inference drawn from the expression navamallali.
8 Samyutta, v, 348, eto. 4 Vinaya Texta, ii, 171; Lalitavistara, ed. Lefmann, Oh, iii, p. 21. 5 Acarángasutra, Janina Sutras, SBR., vol. xxii, pp. x-xi. * Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 7, 30, 31.

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53
fies Mithilā with Janakapura, a small town within the Nepal border, north of which the Mozaffarpur and Darbhanga districts meet'.1
The high road connecting Rājagaha with Kapilavatthu passed through such places in the Vajji territory as Kotigāma on the left bank of the Ganges, Nädikā, Vesali, Hatthigāma, Ambagāma and Jambugāma. There was a natural forest called Mahāvana in the neighbourhood of Vesāli. Mithilā, the capital of Videha, had at each of its four gates a market town of the Yayamajjhaka shape.8
Ukkācelā (but not Ukkāvelā, met with as a variant) was a Vajjian town on the left bank of the Ganges.
Malla country: The kingdom or country of the Mallas, stated to be nine in the Jaina canonical texts, comprised in theory nine territories, one of each of the confederate clans. But the Pali canonical texts bring into prominence the territories of just two of them, one with its headquarters at Kusīnārā (Kusinagara) and other with Pāvā as its chief town. The first abutted, on the Säkya territory and the second on the Vajji. Bhoganagara was a Malla
1 Law, Geography of Early Buddhism, pp. 7, 30, ?" % Sumangalavildaini, 1, 309. 8 Jätaka, vi, p. 380. 4 Magghima, i, p. 226; Samyutta, iv, p. 261f.; Papañcasüdant, Sinhalese ed., 1, p. 447.
6 Kalpasutra, 8128; Nirayāvali Sūtra.

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54 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
town between Jambugāma and Pāvā on the high road connecting Vesālī with Kapilavatthu,1 The river Kakutthā formed the boundary between the two territories, for after crossing it one could reach the Sal grove of Kusinārā on the river Hirañõavatī. Kusīnārā which was just a daub town was in bygone ages the most flourishing and magnificent city of Kusävati, 12 leagues in length from east to west and 7 leagues in breadth from north to south. Anupiya or Anupiyā was another Malla town, evidently on the same high road, between Kusīnārā and the river Anomã,: the latter serving as a dividing line between the Sakya and Malla territories. The Uruvelakappa was yet another Malla town. In' the neighbourhood stood Mahāvana which was an extensive forest.4 Of the two cities of Pāvā and Kusinārā, the first may probably be identified with Kasia on the smaller Gandak and to the east of the Gorakhpur district, and the second with the village called Padaraona, 12 miles to the north-east of Kasia. Hiuen Tsang's journey from Kusinagara to Benares covering a distance of 500 li lay through a great forest. 5
1 Digha, d, p. 123; Sutta-nopāta, verses 1012-13. . Ibid., 11, p. 146f. * Jätaka, 1, pp. 85, 140, Digha, iu, p. 1, Vmaya, 11, pp. 180, 184. * Šamyutta, iv, pp. 327, 380, V, p. 228, Anguttara, 10, p 438. 6 Beal, Buddhist Records, 1, p. 43.

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Sākya and Koliya territories: The Sākya territory lay to the east of Košala and due south of the Himalayas. It was then rich and prosperous.? Where it bordered on the kingdom of Košala, there was the Sakya town Uļumpa or Medaļumpa, opposite the Kosalan town of Nangaraka. Kapilavatthu (identified by Rhys Davids with Tilaura, two miles from Tauliva in the Nepal Terai), was the capital of the Sākyas. According to Hiuen Tsang, the city was situated to the south-east of Săvatthi, at a distance of 500 li or so from the latter. It was situated on the high road which passed through Setavyā to connect it with Sāvatthĩ.Among other towns, mention is made of Cātumā, Sāmagāma, Sakkara, Silavati and Khomadussa.
The Koliyas were distinguished as those of Devadaha and those of Rāmagāma. Accordingly they possessed two territories. That of the former was separated from the Śākya territory by the river Rohiņi. On the bank of this river on the Sākya side stood Lumbinivana, the birth-place of the Buddha, mentioned in Asoka's inscription as Lumminigāma, the modern village of Rummindei, only 10 miles to
1 Sutta-nvpåta, vorse 1012. 2 Beal, op ort., 1, p. 18. 8 Sutia-npăta, verge 1012. 4 Law, Geography, p. 28. 6 Digha, i, p. 164.

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56 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
the east of Kapilavatthu and 2 miles to the north of Bhagavānpur. Devadaha on the other side of the Rohiņi (Hiuen Tsang's Tailavāha ?) was the seat of government of the first Koliyan territory. Rāmagāma, the second Koliyan territory, lay, according to Hiuen Tsang, to the east of Kapilavatthu, at a distance of about 300 li across a wild jungle. In order to reach Kusīnārā from it, the pilgrim had to walk north-east through a great forest, along a dangerous and difficult road, where wild oxen, herds of elephants, and robbers, and hunters caused incessant trouble. In the neighbourhood of Kapilavatthu was the famous pleasance of Nigrodha.
Pipphalivana: This is described as the land of the Moriyas. It is well-nigh impossible to offer any definite suggestion for its identification. One may be even tempted to find an echo of its name in that of Piprāvā, & village in the Birdpur Estate in the district of Basti. But a Buddhist tradition connects it with Himatala, which, if correct, may lead one to think that it lay somewhere in the kingdom which came to be known by the name of Nepal.
1 Law, Geography, p. 80. 3 Beal, op cit., i, p. 26. 8 Ibid., ii, p. 31. 4 Vinaya, i, 82; Jätaka, i, p. 888, 6 Law, Geography, p. 29. 6 Mahfinnm ) i Ainhalapa A n
180

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Allakappa and Vethadīpa: The first is mentioned as the land of the Bulis and the second as the native land of a Brahmin called Doņa. In the Dhammapada commentary, both of them are called kingdoms, the first being ten leagues in extent. Tho Sanskrit form of the first name would be Ādrakalpa, and that of the second Veştadvipa, Hiuen Tsang locates the site of Droņastūpa, that is to say, of Vethadīpa, 100 li south-east of Mahāsāra (Pali Mahāsālā, · Mahāsāla), identified by St. Martin with Masār, a village six miles to the west of Arrah. But the Brahmin villago of Mahasālā is located in Pali texts to the east of Kajangala in the eastern extremity of the Majjhimadesa. As for the identification of Allakappa, relying only ori a verbal similarity of names, fanoy may choose between Arrah on the right bank of the Ganges and Adra on the B.N. Railway.
Kesaputta: In the Anguttara Nikāya (i, p. 188) the Kālāmas are associated with a place called Kesaputta, which is a name apparently similar to Pāțaliputta, Seriyāputa (Barhut Inscriptions), Satiyāputa and Keralapula (Asoka's R.E. II). Buddhaghosa, however, suggests that both Kālāma and Kosaputta were nigamā or
1 Dhammapada-affihakathā, 1, p. 101. 2 Beal, Buddhist Records, ii, p. 65. $ Vinaya, 1, p. 197; Jataka, 1, p. 40.

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townships, without telling us where these were actually situated. The Kesaputtas may remind one of the Kesins, a people connected in Põnini (VI, 4.165) with the Pancālas and Dälbhyas.
Alavi: This is the name of both the country and its principal town. The Ardhamāgadhi spelling of the name is Āļabhi. The town was thirty yojanas from Sāvatthí and twelve from Benares, and it lay between Săvatthi and Rājagaha. The way from Sāvatthi to Aļavi and thence to Rājagaha lay through Kītāgiri.“ Mrs. Rhys Davids inclines to think that Alavi was on the bank of the Gangos, evidently basing her suggestion on the fury of tho Yakkha Alavaka who would throw the Buddha over to the other side of the Ganges (pāra-Gangāya), which, however, is treated by Dr. Malalasekera as merely a rhetorical expression without any geographical significance. Aļaví as a principality was undoubtedly included in the Kosalan empire.
II Pubbanta or Prācya (Eastern India): The Pubbanta or Prācya may be defined as the extreme eastern part of India which lay to the
1 Manorathapurani: Kälāmānam nigamari Kalāma nama Khattiya tesam nigamo. Kesaputtiya t Resaputtinigamaväsino.
Paramathajotikā, II, p. 220. 8 Watters, Yuan Chwang, ii, p. 61. 4 Vinaya, ii, p. 170f. 6 Psalms of the Brethren, p. 408, f.n. 6. & Malalasekera, op. cit., i, p. 296,

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east of the Mid-land. The eastern boundary of the Mid-land changed, as we saw, from time to time, from Prayāga to Kāsī, from Kāsi to Kajangala, and ultimately from the latter to Pundravardhana. The only locality to the east of Kajangala which was included in the Mid-land was.the Brahmin village of Mahāsālā or Mabāsāla which has not as yet been satisfactorily identified. Its south-east boundary was formed by the river Salalayati (Sarāvati) to be identified either with the Silai (Sīlāvati) which taking its riso in the Chotanagpur hills and being united with the Dalkisor (Dvärikesvari) flows down as the Rupanarayani through the districts of Bankura and Midnapore, or with the Svarnarekhā or Suvarnarekhā which also taking its rise in the Chotanagpur hills flows down through the districts of Manbhum and Midnapore. The Jaina Ācārānga Sūtra speaks of Lādha (Rādha) as a pathless country with its two divisions : Subbhabhūmi (probably the same as Sk. Sukma) and Vajjabhūmi, which may be taken to correspond to the modern district of Midnapore. The country of Lādha, thus identified extended from the south-east corner of the Mid-land to the Bay of Bengal and lay just to the north-east of Kalinga. If the Subbhabhūmi of the Acārāngá be identical with the Suhma of the Mahābhārata
1 Law, Geography, p. 68. 2 Jacobi, Jaina sutras, i, p. 84.

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(ii, 30.25) it may be taken to have formed then the upper or northern division of the district of Midnapore, while Vajjabhūmi with Tāmalitti (Tamaralipta, modern Tamluk on the western bank of the Rupnarayan), the lower or southern division. Tāmalitti (also spelt as Tāmalitthi), which seems to have stood formerly at the mouth of the Ganges, was a great sea-port town of the time. It is said that Asoka reached it from Pāțaliputta by crossing the Ganges and then traversing the Viñjhātavi.1 Sumbha mentioned in the early Pali texts with Setaka, Sedaka or Desaka asits important town would seem to have been a locality other than onc corresponding to Subbha or Suhma. Hiuen Tsang speaks of a Svetapura, obviously the same name as the Pali Setaka, which lay within the Vajji territory, 80 or 90 li south from the neighbourhood of Vesāli.2
As for Pundra or Pundravardhana (identified with the modern district and town of Bogra), it lay, according to the Divyāvadāna, to the east of the Pundakakşa (Pundrakakşa) hill, and according to Hiuen Tsang, about 100 li east from the northern end of Kajargala across the Ganges, say, from the isolated hill at Sakrigalli. A Brāhmi inscription on a circular stone seal of the Maurya Age, found at Mahāsthāngarh near the town of Bogra, mentions Punara as a
1 Law, Geography, p. 68. * Beal, op. cit., i, p. 75.

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1 61 beautiful and prosperous town. The way to the city of Pundravardhana from Kajangala must have been through the place now covered by the district of Malda. This is precisely the route from North Behar to Pundra indicated in the Mahābhārata (ii, 30.21-22).
Vanga ? finds mention in the Mahāniddesa (pp. 155, 415) as an important centre of trade and commerce, and in the Bhagavatī sūtra and Pali chronicles as a country or kingdom. In the Mahābhārata (ii, 44.9), Vanga is placed contiguous to Anga. It is evident even from the Pali canonical texts that Varganta or western oxtremity of Vanga bordered on AngaMagadha. According to the Pali chronicles, the district of Lāla (equated with Lāța of Western India) was situated between Vanga on one side and Kalinga on the other. Thus the name Vanga in its earlier denotation may be taken to have represented central Bengal extending as far west as the eastern end of Kajangala. Subsequently, say from the time of the Imperial Guptas, Vanga, as might be ascertained from the Mahābhārata (ü, 30.23), came to denote Eastern Bengal proper, practically identical with Hiuen Tsang's Samataţa. Suvaņņakūta mentioned in the Makāniddesá
ID R. Bhandarkar in J. 2 For details, vide B. O. Law, Ancient Indian Tribes, vol. u, Oh. I. 8 Dipavamsa, p 54; Mahāvamaa, p. 56.

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(pp. 155, 415) as another centre of trade and commerce appears to have been the same place as Suvannakudya in the Arthaśāstra which Bhattasyāmi locates in Kāmarūpa.
III Himavanta-padesa (Himalayan region): According to all Indian traditions, Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical, Jambudvipa as the southern continent extended to the north up to the southern side of Mount Sumeru placed in the Mārkandeya Purana in the middle of a country called Ilāvsta containing two mountain ranges, the western called Malyavat and the eastern known as Gandhamādana. Tho Purāņa locates the four mountains: Mandara, Merumandara, Supäráva and Kumuda on the east, south, west and north sides of Sumeru respectively. The river Jambu taking its rise in the Merumandara mountain, flows down through the Lāvstavarsa.2 The Nişadha (Pali Nisabha) 8 mountain range is placed to the south of the Ilāvştavarşa to the south of which lay the country of Harivarşa. In between Bhāratavarşa and Hariyarşa are placed the Himalayan range and the Hemakūta, the former lying to the south of the latter. This is also the setting of the countries and mountain ranges to be found in the Jambudiva-pannatti and Mahābhārata.
1 N. N. Das Gupte in Indian Oulture, vol. v, p. 339. 2 Markandeya Purina, Oh. 67. & Jätaka, vi, pp. 204, 212; Apadāna, i, p. 67.

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The Hemakūta region is also known as Kimpuruşavarşa, the land of the Kimpuruşas, and the Haimavata region as Kinnarakhanda, the land of the Kinnaras.1 Uttarakuru or northern continent, which is the romantic kingdom of Kuvera, is placed alike in the Pali texts and the Mahābhārata on the north side of Mount Sumeru.
According to Pali tradition, however, the Himalayan region extended to the north up to the Gandhamādana range. The Pali descriptions of the ranges and their setting are rather olumsy and far from systematic; these are more. over silent as to the existence of Harivarşa and the rest. But as in the Purāņas, so in the Jätakas the Kinnaras, Kimpuruşas and Vidyadharas are associated with the Himalayan mountains. Besides Nisabha (Nişadha), the Apadāna names a few other mountains in the neighbourhood of the Himavanta: Kadamba (p. 382), Kukkura (p. 155, better Kukkața, p. 178), Kosika (p. 381), Gotama (p. 162), Paduma (p. 362), Bhārika (p. 440), Bhūtagana (p. 179), Lambaka (p. 15), Vasabha (Vrşabha, p. 166), Vikata (p. 227), Samanga (p. 437) and Sobhita (p. 328). Of the lakes mentioned, the most important was, of course, the Anotatta or Mānas-sarovar, associated with the Kelāsa
1 Law, Geographical Besays, p. 118.

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and Cittakūta peaks. The Jambudīva-pannatti seems right in suggesting that this really consisted of two lakes, each called Mahāpadmahrada, one connected with the Kşudrahimavanta or Western Himalayan range, and the other connected with the Mahāhimavanta or Eastern Himalayan range. Of the four rivers channel. ling out from this lake, Ganga that flowed down southwards branched off into five main rivers of Majjhimadesa, Rohita flowing eastwards may bo identified with the Lauhitya or Brahmaputra, Sindhu flowing northwards with the Indus, and one flowing westwards with the Sutlej.
The Himalayan region was ponetrated by the tāpasas (hermits), vanacarakas, migaluddakas (hunters), and kings on hunting expedition. The hermits and ascetios built many hermitages there. Some of the Jātakas and Apadānas contain most charming and romantic descriptions of the hermitages and of the fauna and flores that were really the fauna and flora of Jambudvipa as a whole. The hollows in the mountains and hills served as dens for lions, tigers, eto. The beasts generally lived near about the rivers, lakes, and springs. The Pali works speak of four species of lions: (1) those resembling the cow, pigeon-coloured and eating grass; (2) black lions; (3) light yellow lions; and (4) those possessing a big mane. Among other members of the feline

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species, montion is constantly made of vyagghā (ordinary tigers), dīpī (panthers), taracchā (hyenas), acchā or bhallukā (bears), majjārā (cats). These speak also of kukkuras or sunakhas (dogs). The kchaggā or palāsadā (rhinoceros), gavajā (gayals), usabhā (bulls), mahisā (buffaloes) and diverse spocies of deer (migā) : the ruru, rohanta, tipallattha, citta, pasada, nigrodha, sākha, eni, and the rest. We have mention also of ajā (goats) and eļakā (rams). The Himalayan forests are said to have abounded in elephants living in herds or as rogues, distinguished as vāmаnika (dwarfish), uccākaļärikā, uccākaņerukā, and chaddantā (six-tusked). The lastmentioned class are associated with the Chaddanta lake and noted for the high quality of the ivory. They contained horses (assā) of diverse breeds, the sindhu and valāha being the two best of them. They abounded also in such reptiles and ajagarā (pythons), nāgā or sappā (snakes) divided into four families of virūpakkha, erāpatha, chavyāputta and kanha. They do not fail also to refer to the water-snakes feeding on green frogs (bhekā) and godhā (iguanas). The rivers were habitats of sumsumārā (porpoises and crocodiles), kumbhilā (alligators), makarā, ogāhā and tantiggāhā. The rivers and lakes were full of fish: pāthīnā, muñjarohitā, maggurā and
1 JRAS , 1888–Animals classed as deer in the 'Jatakas, p. 642

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the like, and kulirakā or kakkatakā (crabs, small and monstrous). The birds were numerous : cakkaväkā (ruddy geese), hamsā, ravihamsā, kadambā (nilahamsā), jīvamjivakā, sweet-voiced kokilā and karavikā, vakā and koñcă (cranes, herons), kosikā (owls), kālakannikā (birds of ill omen), kākā (crows), kapotā or pārevatā (doves and pigeons), kunālā, kurarā, supannā or garulā (kitos, eagles), gijjha (vultures), kakutthā (phasianus gallus), vattakā, latukikā, dindibhā (partridges), and above all, sikhī or morā (poacocks). Of the trees, mention may be made of nigrodhā (banyan), assatthā (poepul), udumbarā (fig), amba (mango), jambu (rose-apple), panasa (jackfruit), sirīsa (shorea robusta), nāga (mesua ferrea), harītaka (terminalia chebula), āmalaka (phyllanthus emblica), vibhitaka (terminalia belerica); of the creepers, äsävatīlatā, atimutta (madhavilatā); of kadali (banana), mātilunga (citron); of the flower trees, campaka, ketaka (castus speciosus). The lakes were decked with the uppala (lilies, white, red and blue), paduma (lotus with one hundred petals) and pundarīkā (lotus with one thousand petals).-.
IV Uttaräpatha or Udicya (North-western India). This part of India extended west and north-wost from the Brahmin village of Thūņa or from Pfthudaka (modern Pohoa), that is to
1 Law, Apadana in JBBRAS., xüü, 1937, p. 236; Barua, Barhut, iü, pp. 86, 586.

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gay, from a place near about Thaneswar. It was bounded on the north and west by the belt of the western Himalayan range called Kșudra. himavanta reaching down to the Arabian Sea. It may be said that the region of Uttarāpatha lay to the north of Aparānta and the west of the Buddhist Mid-land, and was watered by the Himalayan rivers forming the Indus group. Defined in these terms, the region may be taken as identical with what is called Udioya in the Mārkandeya Purāna, and approximately with Manu's Brahmävarta and Brahmarşidesa. The important janapadas that are referred in this Purāņa to this region include, among others, Aparānta, Sūdra, Gandhāra, Yavana, Sindhu, Sauvira, Madra, Pārada, Kekaya, Kāmboja, Darada, Pahava, Barbara, Vāhlíka and Kāśmira. In Pali literature Kamsabhoga with Asitañjana as its capital, Kasmira-Gandhára and Kamboja s are definitely placed in Uttarapatha. According to Brahmanioal tradition, the Kamsa-territory was the kingdom of Mathurā,+ i.e., Sūrasena of which Mathurā was the capital in the time of Mahāvīra and Buddha. The Yona, Kamboja and Gandhära are included,
1 Märkandeya Purana, Ch. 67. 2 Jätaka, iv, p. 79. 8 Anguttara, iv, pp. 262, 266, 260; Vinaya, iii, p. 6; Samantapāsādikā, Sinhalese ed., 1, p. 179.
4 Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 119.

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as we saw, in some of the Pali canonical lists of important countries. These three are the countries that are referred in Asoka's R.E. V to Aparānta or western end of Jambudvipa, Gandhāra may be taken to have comprised the whole of the districts of Peshawat (Puruşapura) and Rawalpindi in the northern Punjab.. Its capital Takkasilā (modorn Taxila) was both a centre of trade and an ancient seat of learning. According to the Jatakas, its distanco from Benares was 2,000 leagues. Kasmira is not other than the modern State of Kashmore and Jammu which lies to the east of Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The location of Yona and Kamboja is not finally settled. Evidently they must have been localities near about KasmiraGandhāra. Other places mentioned in early Pali texts and to be included in Uttaräpatha are the countries of Vajirā,1 Suddaka, Khuddaka, Madda, Alasanda, Pallava, Bāhika and Babbara. Of these, the city of Vajiră is obviously no other than what finds mention in the Bodhisattvävadāna-Kalpalatā (p. 4) as Vajrāvati and is placed in Uttarāpatha. Thor Mahābhārata (ix. 37.1) definitely locates the land of the Suddakas (Śūdrakas) in western Rajputana where the Sarasvati disappears (yatra naştā Sarasvati). But the Greek historians place the 1 Buddhapampaa, xxviu, 8; Diparamsa, p. 27
Apaddna, ii, p. 359.

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Sodrai in the western part of the Punjab. The land of the Khuddakas (Sk. Kşudrakā,1 Greek Sudracae, Oxydrakai) which is placed in the Greek accounts between the Hydraotes (Ravi) and the Hyphasis (Bias), may be located in the district of Montgomery. Madra was the country of the Sivis which had Sāgala (Sk. Sākala, modern Sialkot) as its capital; the river Irāvati flowed through it. Alasanda (variant Allasanda) was a city in the Yona country which is mentioned in the Mahāniddesa as a centro of trade and commerce, The Greek equivalent of the name would be Alexandria. In the Milindapanha Alasanda is described as a dipa, which has led scholars to suggest that it was 'an island in the Indus in the territory of Baktria'.? But according to Dr. Geiger, it was probably the town founded by the Macedonian king in the country of Paropanisadae near Kabul'.8 The fact seems to be this that Alasanda was both the name of a country and its chief town. In the Mahāniddesa (pp. 155, 415) it is mentioned just after Yona
1 Mahabharata, u, 52.15; vu, 68 9. 2 Raychaudhuri, op. c., p. 205. 8 Mahābhārata, 11, 31.119. 4 Matsya Purana, 114.7, 16-18. 6 Mahāniddesa, pp. 156, 415. & Malmda, pp. 82, 327, 331, 369. 7 Rhys Davids, The Questions of King Milinda, S.B.E., 1, p. xx 8 Mahavamsa, English translation, p. 194, f.n. 8.

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and Paramayona. Further, it would seem that Sāgala which was formerly the capital of Madda became afterwards the capital of a Yona kingdom. The Pali texts also speak of the two lands of Sindhu and Sovira, each of which is described as a great centre of trade and commerce. Here Sindhu, also mentioned as a kingdom, may be easily identified with the province of Sind on the Arabian Sea. In the Mahāgovinda Suttanta Sovīra has been described as a kingdom with Roruka as its capital. It was probably situated between the Indus and Jhelum. The story of Serissaka in the Peta and Vimänavatthus definitely tolls us that the way of the caravan merchants(Satthavāhā) from Anga and Magadha to Sindhu-Sovira lay across a great desert, which was no other than the desert in Rajputana. Some rivers and ranges of hills had to be crossed with difficulty (nadiyo pana pabbatānam ca duggā),1 The desert is described in the Vaņņupatha Jātaka as a sandy dosert, sixty leagues in extent (satthiyojanikam marukantāram). Among the rivers that had to be crossed the commentary mentions the Candabhāgā (Chenab) by name, Immediately after Allasanda and Marukantāra, the Mahāniddēsa (pp. 155, 415)
1 Vimånavatthu, p. 78.
Jätaka, 1, p. 107; p. 109: vampu vuouw www.vwg välukamagge ti attho.
8-Vimänavatthu commentary (vii, 10), p. 338.

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71
as
1
introduces such places of importance from the point of view of trade and commerce Jannupatha (corrected as Vannupatha), Ajapatha, Mendapatha, Sankupatha, Chattapatha, Vamsapatha, Sakuṇapatha, Musikāpatha, Daripatha and Vettadhara (variant Vettacara, Vettacara). That the Vanņu, Vettacara and Sankupatha are mentioned as roads (maggam) in the Serissaka Vimana-story has led Dr. Barua to suggest that these were originally names of different parts of Uttarapatha taken in the sense of the north-western trade-route, and that like it they lent their names to the regions across which they lay. These, as convincingly shown by Sylvain Levi and others, became subsequently connected with a traderoute connecting Suvarnabhumi with Suvarna. dvipa. But even on the evidence of Panini's commentators who introduce some of these names in connection with the Sūtra, v, 1.77: Uttarapathenahṛtañca, it may be established that they were associated with a journey to and from Uttarapatha.
2
The Pali Babbara is no other than Barbara which is associated in the Mahabharata (xii,
1 Vimanavatthu commentary, vii, 10, p. 338.
a Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions.
* Etudes Asiatiques, 11, p. 45f.; R. C. Majumdar, Suvarnadripa, P. 56f.
4 Väri-Jangala-sthala-kāntārāja-sanku-pūrvāc ca

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72 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
207.43) with Yauna, Kamboja, Gandhāra and Kirăta and placed in Uttarapatha. Babbara or Barbaricum is described in the Periplus as a market-town of Minnagara on the Erythræan sca, Pallava may be identified with Pahlava (Parthia) in the Mahābhārata 2 and Bahika with Vähika. The Divyāvadāna mentions a city by the name of Utpalavati in Uttaräpatha, which may be easily identified with Puşkarāvati or Puşkalāvati. Puşkalăvati (modern Parang and Chārsada, 17 milos north-east of Peshawar on the Swat river) was one of the two most important cities in Gandhāra.5 Kekaka or Kekaya is another country with its capital of the same name which finds mêntion in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts. According to the Rāmāyana (ü, 68,1922; vii, 113.14), the Kekaya territory lay beyond the Vipāśā and abutted on the Gandharva or Gandhāra-vigaya', and its'metropolis was Rājagpha'. In the Jaina Rāyapaseni, Seyaviyā (Pali Setavyā) is described as a city in the kingdom of Kekaya,? while in the Pali canonical texts it is located in Kpsala and on
1 Rayohaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 86% » Hopkins, Great Epic of India, p. 393f. & Panini, -, 2.117: Vähika-grāmebhyas oa. * Divyāvadāna, p. 470. 6 Ramayana, vii, 114.11; Päyu Purana, 88.189-90. $ Rayobaudhuri, op. cit., pp. 62-63. 7 Indian Antiquary, 1891, p. 376; Raychaudhuri, op. cit., p. 54.

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the high road between Kapilavatthu and Sāvatthi.
The Apadāna mentions the Sindhu (Indus), Vitamsā (Vitastā), and Candabhāgā (Chenab) among the important rivers of Uttarāpatha, and points out that the Gangă Bhāgirasi (Bhägirathi) taking its rise in the Himalayas, Howed by the gate of Hamsavati, which was an ancient city in Uttarapatha. The Amarikā was a river which flowed down from the foot of the Samanga mountain belonging to the Himalayan range.
V Aparānta or Pascāddeśa (Western India): This may be taken to represent that part of Western India which lay to the west of the Buddhist Mid-land and to the north and south respectively of the Dakkhiņāpatha and Uttarāpatha. According to the Kāvya-mimāṁsā, as we noted, the region extended westward from Devasabhā (identified with modern Dewas in the Central Indian States Agency). From, the Buddhist definition of the Middle country it may be inferred that Aparānta extended westward from the western side of the kingdom of Vatsa. Bhagawanlal Indraji took Aparanta to be the western sea-board of India. The Bhoja and Rastra countries that are referred in the Mārkandeya Purāna to the Vindhye region are mentioned in Asoka's R.E. V, as examples of countries in Western India

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74 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN BARLY TEXTS
(Aparānta). The Kävya-mimāṁsā mentions, among others, Devasabhā, Surāştra, Bhrgukaocha, Kaccha, Anarta and Arbuda as representative countries of Aparānta. The Márkandeya Purāņa offers a longer list containing the names of such countries as Sūrpāraka, Kosala (South Kosala), Vidisā, Pulinda, Nāşika, Marukaccha (Bhțgukaccha), Kaccha, Surāştra and Avanti.1 To them we may add Sūrasena and Matsya which may as well be referred to Uttarāpatha. According to Hiuen Tsang's account, Western India seems to have comprised 'Sindh, Western Rajputana, Cutch, Gujarat and a portion of the adjoining coast on the lower course of the Narmada'.
The most important among the countries in Aparānta was Avanti which formed one of the three mandalas of Jambudipa, the other two being Päcina and Dakkhiņāpatha. It appears to have been divided by the river Vettavati into north and south, the north having its capital at Ujjení (modern Ujen), and the second at Māhissati(Māhismati, later known as Gonaddha). It is probably the second part which has been described as Avanti Dakkhiņāpatha. Both
Märkandeya Purana, 57. * Cunningham, Ancient Geography, p. 690.
a Rhys Davids, The Questions of King Milinda, 8.B.E., i, p. 250, f.n. 1.
+ D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures (1918), p. 64.

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GEOGRAPHY
Ujjeni and Mahissati stood on the Southern High Road extending from Rajagaha to Patitthāna via Vesali, Kapilavatthu, Sāvatthi
75
and Kosambi.2
8
5
Kuraraghara was a town in Avanti adjoining the Papatapabbata. Among other localities, mention may be made of Ghanaselapabbata, Makkarakata, Velugama and Sudassanapura. The country or kingdom may be taken to have corresponded roughly to 'modern Malwa, Nimar and adjoining parts of the Central Provinces'." Vedisa or Vedisagiri (identified by Cunningham with the modern Bhilsa in the Gwalior State, 26 miles north-east of Bhopal) lay on the road to Ujjeni, at a distance of fifty yojanas from Paţaliputta. Second in importance to Avanti was the kingdom or country of Surasena with Madhura, Mathura, modern Muttra on the right bank of the Yamuna as its capital. Sūrasena, often mentioned with Kaccha, is placed to the south of the Kuru country. The way from Savatthi to Madhura lay through an important locality called Verañjā. Maccha (Sk. Matsya)
1 JRAS., 1906, p. 453, ibid, 1898, p 533.
* Sutta-napata, v, 101-13
3 Samyutta, in, pp. 9, 12, iv, p. 115f, Angutiara, v, p 48
* Malalasekera, op. cit., 11, p. 935.
5 Law, Geography, p 22.
6 Law, Geography, p. 22.
7 Mahabodhivamsa, p. 98. 8 Law, Geography, p. 20.
• Malalasekera, 11, p. 980,

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76 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
generally mentioned with Sūrasena is to be located to the south or south-west of Indapatta and to the south of Sūrasena. Its capital was Virāțanagara (modern Bairāt) where a copy of Asoka's Minor Rock Edict was engraved. It may be supposed to have comprised the State of Jaipur and included the whole of the State of Alwar with a portion of Bharatpur.1 Surattha was another important country in Aparānta which was watered by a river called Sātodikā. Its capital was Girinagara (modern Girnar in Kathiawad) containing as it does a whole set of Asoka's Rock Edicts. The Sunā paranta or Aparānta is identified by the late Sir R. G. Bhandarkar with the modern Konkan. Its capital was Suppāraka, a highly important seaport on the Arabian sea, modern Sopārā in the distriot of Thänā near Bombay. The Bharukaccha (Sk. Bhrgukaccha) was another very important sea-port town on the Arabian Sea which is identified with the modern Broach in Kathiawad and identical with the Barygaza of Ptolemy and the Periplus.8 Bhoja, the territory of the Bhojaputtas, sixteen in number, may be identified with the modern Berar. The town of Satakaņņikā which is mentioned as the south-western boundary of the Buddhist Mid-land
1, "Law, Geography, 19, 59, 56-57. * Samyutta, i, n. 6lf.; Jätaka, i, p. 45; Law, op. cit., p. 62.

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has not been as yet identified. If this spelling of the name be correct, it may be taken to have represented the place of origin of the śātakarņis.
VI Dakkhiņāpatha or Dākşiņâtya (Deccan): This represents South India which, according to the Kāvya-mīmāṁsā, extended southward from Măbişmati identified with Mandhātā on the Narmadā. According to the Jambudīva-pannatti, as we noted, it was the southern half of India to the south of the Vaitādhya or Vindhya range. From the Buddhist definition of the Mid-land, it appears that this part of Jambudīpa lay to the south of the river Salalavati and the town of Satakaņņikā. The Godāvari and Narmadā regions are definitely placed in Dakkhiņāpatha. Besides the Nammadā and Godhāvari, the early Pali texts mention these two rivers of South India: Kāverī and Kaņņapeņņā (Sk. Krsnabeņā).1 The former is the famous river Kävers which flowed into the sea through the Coļa country of which we have a most patriotic description in the writings of Buddhadatta. The Kannapenna was a river in the Mahiņsaka country or Mysore. Patitthāna (modern Paithan) on the Godhāvari is described as the southern terminus of the Southern High
1 Jötaka, v, p. 182f. 9 Buddhadatta's Manuals, PTS.
3 Malalasekera, op. cit., i, p. 498: 'At the bend of the river and near its source was the mountain Candaka'.

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78 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
Road extending from Rajagaha. It was situated near about the modern Pañcavați at Nasik. On the banks of the Godhāvari (Godāvarī) and at the point where it formed a doab stood the two Andhra kingdoms of Assaka (Sk. Ašvaka, Asmaka) with its capital at Potali or Potana (Paudanya of the Mahābhārata, i, 77.47), and Alaka or Mulaka, the latter standing to the north of the former.1 The Pali texts speak also of Kolapattana which was a harbour, probably on the Coromandel coast. In the Apadāna (ii, pp. 358-59) we have mention of the Andhaka (Andhra) and Damila (Drāvida) countries. Siddhattha, Rajagiri, Pubbasela and Aparasela were all localities near about the Andhaka seat of power, i.e., in the neighbourhood of Dhanakataka or Amarāvati. The Damiļa territories, as represented in the Pali obronicles, included the countries of Cola with Kancipura (modern Conjeeveram) as its capital, Pāṇya with Madhurasuttapattana (modern Madoura) as its chief town, and Kerala (Chera 4) which was no other than Asoka's Keralaputra. Kalinga finds mention in several texts both as a
1 Sutta-nipäta, verse 1011.
Milinda paniha, p. 369. a Kathavatthuatthakatha, quoted in Points of Controversy', pp. 6, 104; Law, The Debates Oommentary (PTS), p. 62,
4 calavamaa, liii, 9; lv, 5, 12. OL. S. K. Aiyangar, South Indian Oulture (The Cultural Heritage of India, III, p. 71).

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79
kingdom and a country with its capital at Dantapura (Palura of a Nāgārjunikonda inscription), situated near Chicacole on the Bay of Bengal. But the Apadana (ii, pp. 358-59) mentions at the same time Oḍda (Oḍra) and Okkala (Sk. Utkala) representing two distinct parts of Orissa. The Mekala country which finds mention in the Apadana was probably a tract of land comprising the modern Amarakanṭaka hills and adjoining locality. The Telaväha is mentioned in the Jātaka (i, p. 111) as a river in the Serivaraṭṭha near Andhapura.
GEOGRAPHY

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CHAPTER II
KINGS AND PEOPLES The Dīgha Nikāya contains this prophecy of the Buddha that when the advent of the future Buddha, Metteyya, will take place on earth, 'Jambudīpa will be pervaded by mankind even as a jungle is by reeds and rushes'.1 The
teeming millions of India' is indeed an oftrecurring phrase of the present day. In dealing with the peoples of Jambudvipa we are not, however, to deal with the teeming millions of India as such but only as divided into various tribes or nations ruling themselves or being ruled by kings. By way of a general description of the ninth dvipa of the Bhāratavarşa, i.e., of India proper, the Mārkandeya Purāna locates the Kiråtas in the eastern (better, north-eastern) extremity, the Yavanas in the western (better, north-western), and the rest of the peoples in the remaining parts of India.
As for the Himalayan region, the Purāņas refer the Kinnaras to the Haimavatavarşa, the Kimpuruşas to the Hemakấtavarşa and the Yakşas to some regions, the main home of the
· Digha, iii, p. 75.
* Mārkandeya Purāna, Ohap. 67: Pūrve kirätā yasyante, pascime Yavinah amrtäh.

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1
Yakṣas being Uttarakuru or Northern continent forming the kingdom of Kuvera Vaisravana. The Kinnaras, Kimpurusas and Yakṣas 1 figure as semi-human beings, the first two representing the two branches of one and the same stock of people. This is in substance and details the description of them as offered in the early texts of Buddhism.
The words, Kinnara and Kimpurisa, are employed in Pali, precisely as in Sanskrit, as synonyms. According to the Amarakoṣa, the Kinnaras or Kimpurusas have a human form which is ugly because of having a face like that of a horse, and are, therefore, known also as aśvamukhāḥ or turangavadana; the heavenly musician, Tumbaru, belongs to the race of Kinnaras or Kimpurusas. In Pali, on the other hand, the heavenly musician is represented by Pañcasikha who belongs to a class of demigods called Gandhabba. As the Kinnaras or Kimpurisas figure in the Pali Jātakas, they were rather of a human or infrahuman race 4 than of a suprahuman origin. Like the deer, they
8
1 Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, pp. 59-80.
2 Jataka, iv, p. 252f.
• Amarakoga, Svargavarga, 71: Kinnaraḥ Kimpurusas turangavadano mayuḥ.
4 Jātaka, iv, p. 252: Na-y-ime deva na pi Gandhabbaputta, miga ime turacchanagata; iv, p. 439: miga manussā, vā nibhāsavanna, 'animals in a human form'.

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82 -INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS lived on leaves, flowers and fruits of trees and put on garments of leaves or of flowers. They preferred to live in a beautiful hilly region along the banks of rivers, dwelling on the summit of hills during the rains and on the river banks during summer. They were timorous and shy by their nature, particularly afraid of the currents of water (udakabhītā). They were very playful, amusing and enchanting, fond of music and noted for their romantic conjugal love and fidelity. They were to be found in all the Himalayan ranges up to the Gandhamadana. To the hunters they were known as Kimpurisas. They possessed excellent health and their span of life was one hundred years.?
The Yavanas who are assigned in the Märkandeya Purāņa to the north-western extremity of India are known as Yonas in Pali 8 and Yaunas in the Great Epic. The Yonas are grouped, precisely as in Asoka’s Rock Edicts, 10
1, 2 Jataka., iv, pp. 288, 286.
8 Ibid., 1v, p. 283: Candapabbatavāsino Kinnarā vassāratta samaye Anotaritvā pabbate yeva vaganti, nidäghe otaranti.
4 Ibid., iv, p. 439.
6 Ibid., lv, p. 438f.: Mallamgirim Pandarakan Tikūtam sītodiyā anuvicaráma najjo; Apadana, i, p. 265f.: Candabhāgõnaditire ahosing kinnaro tadă pupphabhakko ... pupphānam vasenoll
& Ibid., 19, p. 489: jänanti no Kimpuriså oa luddā. 7 Ibid., iv, p. 441. 8 Majjhima, ü, p. 149. # Mahabharata, xü, 207.43. 14. R.E., V and XII.
бв

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KINGS AND PEOPLES
83 with the Kambojas and Gandhāras. As for the Yonas, they were originally the people who came from Ionia. But the Macedonian and Bactrian Greeks, too, have been represented by the sanie name in all branches of Indian literature. The Yonas mentioned in the canonical Pali texts together with the Kambojas and Gandhāras may be presumed to have settled down subsequently in the extreme north-western part of India retaining their old customs and manners and maintaining their old religious beliefs. That they tried to maintain their separate entity as a people in these two respects is well attested by the evidence of all literary and epigraphical documents.?
In tho Epica a as well as in some of the later Buddhist texts, the Yavanas are associated with the Sakas. In the Rāmāyana (iv, 43.11-12), as pointed out by Dr. Raychaudhuri, the Yavanas are placed between the country of the Kurus and the Madras, and the Himalayas. The Baotrian king Milinda is said to have been born in a village in the island of Alasanda(Alexandria) with which the memory of the Yonas as Macedonian Greeks remained associated. The
1 Majjhima, ii, p. 149. 2 Rāmāyana, iv, 43.11-12; Mahabharata, i, 64.21. 8 20.g., tho Mahāvibhāgā sāstra. 4 Political History, 4th ed., p. 3.
5 Kalasigāma is the name of the locality mentioned in the Milindapanha, p. 83.

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C
84 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
Yonas or Yonakas as Bactrian Greeks founded principalities in this very region of India establishing their suzerainty even over Mathurā 1 in the south-east and over Surastra 2 and Besnagar (Vessanagara near Vedisa). When the Sakas (Scythians) invaded Uttarapalha and established themselves there, the Yonas or Bactrians and other Greeks appear to have made political and matrimonial alliances with them.
The Yonas as the Ionian Greek settlers figure in Asokan records, precisely as in the Pali Suttas, as semi-independent or independent tribes. But the Yonas as the Bactrian Greeks were all along ruled by the monarchs of their own. They adhered, in their official documents at least, not only to their national language (Yavana-bhāsā) but also to their national alphabet (Yavana-lipi).
The Mahabharata (xii, 207.43) introduces the Kambojas (Pali Kambojas) along with the Yaunas, Gandhāras, Kirātas and Barbaras as peoples of Uttarapatha (Uttarāpathajanmānaḥ). The constant association of them with the Gandhāras and Yaunas in the Great Epic, the Pali texts and the early Indian inscriptions
1 Cf. Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela: Madhuram apayato Yarana-rājā.
2 Cf. Junagarh Rook Inscription of Rudradāman I.
2 Of. Besnagar Garuda-pillar Inscription of Heliodoros.

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KINGS AND PEOPLES
, 85
may be taken to suggest that they settled down and founded their territory somewhere near Gandhāra. According to the Mahābhārata (vii, 4.5), they had undoubtedly their capital at Rājapura,t a place which Hiuen Tsang locates to the south or south-east of Punach.? Dr. Raychaudhuri points out that the western boundaries of their territory must have reached Kafiristan in which district tho three distinct tribes, namely, Caumojee, Camoze and Camoje remind us of the Kambojas. Their country stood evidently on a trade-route connecting it with Dvārakā. It was the habitat of good horses (assānam āyatanam). As described in the Pali Assalāyana Sutta, the Yonas and Kambojas had the same kind of social organisation, Tho Kambojas were considered barbarous.? They had an independent or semiindependent tribal form of government.
The Jaina canonical texts mention the Cirātas (Pali and Sk. Kirätas) as a people without any details about them. In one of the Nāgārjunikoņda inscriptions, the Cirātas are associated
1 Rajapuram gatvā Kāpbojā nirjitë-stvayā. 9 Watters, op. cit., i, 284. 8 Raychaudhur, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 126; JRAS., 191%, p. 266. 4 Petavatihu, p. 23. 8 Sumangalavilāsini, i, p. 124. 8 Majjhima, ii, p. 149. 7 J@taka, vi, pp. 208, 210.

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86 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS with the Cīnas." The Apadāna speaks of the Cinas and Babbaras, the former being described as a people who came to Hamsavati on the Ganges from a distant land (ārā va Cinaraţthā ca ägacchanti). The Barbaras and Kirātas are placed in the Great Epic in the Uttarāpatha along with the Yaunas, Kambojas and Gāndhāras.3 The Kirātas find mention in the Pali commentaries as 'a tribe of jungle men'. Their dialect is 'classed with those of the Ottas (Oądas), the Andhakas, the Yonakas and the Damiļas'. These are all recorded as languages of the Milakkhas + (Milakkhānam bhāsā) that were thirteen in numbers according to the Jambudīva-pannatti. From Pali and Sanskrit sources it may be concluded that the Kirātas had their settlements not only in the north-east and north-west extremities of Northern India but also in other parts of India.
The Gandhāras after whom the land where they settled down was named were one of the ancient peoples of India the Gandhāris mentioned in the Vedas. In the Purāņas they are . described as descendants of the Drubyas, who were, according to the Vedic tradition, a north
1 E I., vol. xx, Pt. I. 2 Apadāpa, ii, pp. 368-359. & Jahabharata, xii, 207.43. 4 Sumangalavıldaini, i, p. 176.
Eighteen, according to the Sammohavinodani, p. 888. 6 Rgveda, 7, 125.7; Atharvaveda, v, 22.14.

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KINGS AND PEOPLES
western people. In the Jātakas and the Epio, Gandhāra is described as a kingdom with Takkasilā (Sk. Takşasila) as its capital and Puşkalāvati or Puşkarāvatī or Utpalāyati as one among its other chief towns. The Kumbhakara Jātaka preserves the tradition of Naggaji (Sk. Nagnajit), a famous ancient king of Gandhāra, who was a contemporary of Nimi, king of Videha, Dummukha, king of Pañohāla,1 and Bhima, king of Vidabbha,. and Karandu or Karakandu, king of Kalinga. In a few other instances the rulers of Gandhāra are introduced simply as Gandhārarājā. Situated at a vulnerable point of attacks from the southeast, south-west and north-west, Gandhāra passed hands several times, retaining its independence from time to time. It was conquered once by king Janamojaya of Kuru, while in the latter half of the 6th century B.C., it became included in the empire of Darius, the Achaemenid king of Iran. We are told by Buddhaghosa that king Pukkusāti was reigning in Gandhāra as a contemporary of king Bimbisāra of Magadha, and that there was a friendly relation between them. At the time of Alexander's
1 Cf. Uttarddhyayana Sūtra, xviu, p. 46; Jätaka, iii, R. 377. % Astareya Br., vii, 34. 3 Jätaka, 1, p. 191; ii, p. 219; 111, p. 364; 1v, p. 98. 4 See Behustun inscmption of Darius. 6 Papancasüdani (Sinhalese ed.), u, 982.

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88 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS invasion of India in B.C. 327, the kingdom was ruled over by Taxiles (Tákşasilā) who was succeeded by his son Mophis or Omphis (Sk. Ambhi). As the Divyāvadāna 1 and Asoka's Rock Edicts (V and XIII) attest, Gandhāra was included in the Maurya empire, the Gandhāras as a people enjoying some degree of independence along with their neighbours, the Yonas and Kambojas. According to the Mahāniddesa (vol. i, p. 154), Takkasilā was one of the great centres of trade, while the Rgveda bears testimony to the good wool of the sheep of the Gandhāris. The local script of the Gandhåras was Kharosthi which was in use in that part of Eastern Turkistan where the people of Gandhāra founded a colony.
The Maddas (Sk. Madras) as a people founded their territory in the central Punjab with Sāgala or šākala (modern Sialkot) as their capital. Sāgala was the capital of king Milinda (Menander) when he ruled over the kingdom of Madda. The Maddas find mention not only in the Jātakas and Epios but also in the Aitareya. Brāhmaṇa. This Vedic text (vii, 14.3) speaks of the Uttarakuravas and Uttaramadras as two peoples who had established, a special kind of sovereignty called vairājya and lived in countries beyond the Himavanta. The existence of an
1 Divyivadāna, p. 61.

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89
Uttaramadda side by side with that of Uttarakuru is proved also by the Pali commentaries that tell us that the queen of a king overlord is a princess either from Uttarakuru or from the royal house of Madda.Thus we are led to think that, like the Kurus, the Maddas were originally a trans-Himalayan people. As in their original home, so when they migrated to India, they settled down in the Punjab as neighbours of the Kurus. Even their Indian territory which is strictly speaking the southern Madda was equally noted for the beauty of their women (Maddaraţtham nāma itthāgāro). We have mention in the Játakas and in the Epics of matrimonial alliances between the royal house of Madda on one side and those of Sivi, Kuru, Kāšī, Kosala and Kalinga 8 on the other, in each instance, the princess belonging to the former. The Maddas lived under a monarchical form of government and their capital Sāgala was an emporium of trade and one of the most flourishing cities.
The Kekayas, Kekakas or Kekas find mention in the Jātakas as one of the ancient peoples of
1 Papañcasūdani, ii, p. 950; Sumangalavilāsini, ii, p. 628; Paramatthajorika, I, p. 173.
2 Theragatha-afghakatha, ii, p. 142; Therigatha-aithakathā, p. 68.
& Law, Geography, p. 54. According to the Mahabharata, the mother of Janamejaya, king of Kuru, and according to the Ramāyāna, one of the three queens of kmg Dasaratha of Kolalar were princesses from the Royal House of Madra.
4 Milindapanha, pp. 1-2.

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90 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
India who evidently founded two territories, one in Uttarapatha and the other in Mahiņsakarattha. In the Purāņas they are mentioned as one of the three septs of the family of Anu, son of Yayāti, the other two being represented by the Usinaras and the Madras. According to the Rāmāyana, the Kekayas of Uttarapatha settled down in a territory between the Vipāsā, (Beas) and the kingdom of Gandharva or Gandhāra. Their capital was Rājagrha or Girivraja which is identified by Cunningham with Girják or Jalalpur on the Jhelum. The name of their capital is not met with in the Vedic texts. According to the Jātaka tradition, the kingdom and capital of the Kekayas were named Kekaka after them, their capital ranking among the three principal cities in Jambudipa, the other two being Uttarapancāla and Indapatta. The Sarabhanga and Sankicca Jătakas preserve the tradition of Ajjuna, a very powerful but wicked king of the Kekayas in the Mahimsakarattha. It is probable that the Kekaya kings mentioned in some of the Amarāvati and Nāgärjunikonda inscriptions were descendants of the Kekayas who founded a kingdom
1 Matsya, 48.10–20, Väyu, 99.12–23; Raychaudhur, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 53.
2 Rāmāyana, 1), 67.7, 1, 68.22. : Jataka, u, p. 213. * Ibid.. v.con. 146. 273.

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in the Deccan. The Rāmāyaṇa speaks of a matrimonial alliance between the royal houses of Kosala and Kekaya in Uttarapatha. We learn from Jain sources that one half of the Kekaya kingdom was Aryan and the Kekaya city was known as Seyaviya.1
1
1 Indian Antiquary, 1891, p. 375.
2 Jätaka, iv, 401; v, 210; vi, 419.
s Ibid., vi, p. 480.
4 Ibid., vi, p. 514,
91
The Sivis are mentioned in the Jātakas as another ancient people of India who settled down in Uttarapatha. There is a discrepancy between Sivi and Vessantara Jātakas, as regards the name of the capital of their kingdom," the former calling it Aritthapura 2 and the latter Jetuttara. The fact seems to be that the two Jātakas speak of two different kingdoms, one with its capital at Aritthapura and the other with Jetuttara as its chief town. The second territory is placed to the south of the Cetaraṭṭha at a distance of thirty yojanas. Just to the north of the city of Jetuttara stood a mountain called Suvannagiritala. Between this mountain in the south and the mountain, Arañjaragiri, in the north, flowed a river by the name of Kontimara. The way from Jetuttara to the Varka mountain in, the Himavanta lay through the Cetaraṭṭha across the river Kontimara. The Nimi Jātaka mentions a king named Usinara

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92 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS and his son Šivi without giving any hint as to their connection with the Sivi people or kingdom. The connection is made clear in the Mahābhārata (üi, 130.131) which definitely speaks of a Sivi kingdom ruled by king Ušīnara, "which lay not far from the Yamunā'.Patañjali in his comment on Pāṇini's rule (iv, 2.2), mentions a locality in the north-western India by the name of Sivapura which is apparently the same place as Sivipura mentioned in & Shorkot inscription. Thus we may agree with Dr. Vogel in thinking that the Shorkot region was once the site of a city of the Sivis. The people of this part of Uttarāpatha were known to the Greek historians as Siboi, equipped with 40,000 foot-soldiers at the time of Alexander's invasion, dressing themselves with the skins of wild beasts and having clubs for their weapons.
The Khuddakas (Greek Sudracoe or Oxydrakai, Sk. Kşudrakā), Suddakas (Greek Sodrai), Rohanas and Sindhavas are four other tribes or peoples of Uttarāpatha who find mention in the Apadāna (ii, p. 359). Of them, the first founded a territory between the Hydraotes (Ravi) and Hyphasis (Bias), and
1 Jalaka, vi, p. 96f. * Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 205. > E.I., 1921, p. 16, * Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 204.

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figured as one of the most numerous and warlike of all the Indian tribes in the Punjab' at the time of Alexander's invasion. The second is invariably associated in the Great Epic (vii, 19.6; ix, 37.1) with the Abhiras who lived near the Sarasvati. Apart from their association with the Sindhavas in the Apadāna, nothing further is as yet known of the Rohanas as a tribe or peoplo. They were probably the Indian people in Uttarāpatha who formed a settlement in Ceylon 'comprising the south-eastern part of the island', though, according to the chronicles of Ceylon, the kingdom of Rohana was founded by a Sakyan prince.1 The Sindhavas, as their name implies, were a tribo or people who settled down in a valley of the Indus and founded a territory which has been known as Sindhu or Sind. This territory is constantly associated in the early Pali texts with that of the Sauviras between the Indus and the Jhelum.
The Kurus are described by Buddhaghosa as a people who had migrated in large numbers from Uttarakuru to Jambudvipa and founded a kingdom which was named Kuru after them.2 The Kuru kingdom which was 300 leagues in extent comprised several districts, towns and villages, and its capital, Indapatta (Sk. Indraprastha near the modern Delhi) was seven
1 Mahāvamea, ix, 10.
4 Papancasidant, i, 184

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94 , INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
leagues in circuit. Hastinapura (Pali Hatthipura), known, in earlier times as Āsandivat, appears to have been the earlier capital. On this point Dr. Raychaudhuri observes: The evidence of the Vedic texts and that of the Purāņas can be reconciled if we assume that, after the death of Janamejaya, the Kuru kingdom was split up into several parts. One part, which had its capital at Hastināpura, was ruled by the direct descendants of Janamojaya himself. Another part was ruled by the descendants of his brother Kakşasena. The junior branch probably resided at Indraprastha or Indapatta .... which probably continued to be the seat of kings claiming to belong to the Yudhițghilagotta (Yudhişthiragotra), long after the destruction of Hastināpura, and the removal of the elder line of Kuru kings to Kausāmbi'.2 It is, however, difficult to reconcile such an assumption as this with the Jāteka tradition, according to which, Ajjuna or Dhanañjaya Koravya of the stock of Yudhitthila, with Vidhurapanạita as his wise counsellor, reigned in the Kuru country when its capital was at Indapatta.8 On the other hand, the Kuņāla Jätaka preserves a tradition of the five Pāņdave brothers (Pandurājaputta), Ajjuna,
1 Apudāna, u, p. 369. 2 kayohaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., pp. 37-38. 8 Jätaka, v, p.67f.; vi, p. 266.

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95 Nakula, Bhimasena, Yudhitthila and Sahadeva, all of whom were chosen as husbands at the same time by Kaņhā (Sk. Krşņā, another name for Draupadi according to the Great Epic), the only daughter and only child of the king of Kāśi. It speaks of them without reference to any kingdom and applies the epithet of rājā only to Sabadeva. The Jātakas have nothing to say with regard to the war of the Pāndavas with the Kauravas. They tell us nothing also about the matrimonial alliance of the Pāndavas with the Andhaka-Vrspis or Yadavas. Evidently the Kuru king Ajjuna of the family of Yudhitthila had nothing to do with Ajjuna and Yudhitthila among the five Pāņdava brothers. In the Mahavamsa (vii, 50, 69, 72), by the term Pandurājā is meant the king of Pandya in South India with Madhură (modern Madoura) as its capital. The Jātakas are silent as to the connection of Pandurājā, the ancestor of the Pāņdavas, with any kingdom in Northern or Southern India having Madhurā for its capital. They are eloquent in praise of king Ajjuna during whose reign the Kuru country was an ideal kingdom, ruled most righteously and noted for virtue. His family chaplain was a Brahmin of pure conduct by the name of Sucirata and
1 Cf. Rurudhamma Jätaka (No. 276), Dhūmakārt (418), Sambhava 615), Vidhurapandita (545).

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he alone seems to have deserved the epithet of Koravya.1
It seems that the next king in the line of Ajjuna was Sutasoma who is introduced as the son of king Koravya of the Kuru realm and who became so very fond of eating human flesh that he was compelled at last to abdicate his throne and walk out of his realm.
When the Kuru country included in it Uttarapañcala, a king by the name of Renu reigned in the city of Uttarapancāla, and Prince Somanassa was his son.
There was a time when Kuru, Pañcāla and Kekaya were three of the most powerful kingdoms' in Jambudvīpa. But in the Buddha's time the Kuru country was being ruled only by a titular chieftain called Koravya, and evidently had very little political importance of its own. The people of Kuru continued nevertheless to enjoy their ancient reputation for deep wisdom and sound health
The Pañoālas founded a kingdom contiguous to that of the Kurus. The Pancāla country was divided by the Ganges into two parts, Uttara and Dakkhiņa, each forming a kingdom 1 Jataka, iv, p. 361. * Ibid., V, p. 457f. 3 Ibid., iv, p. 444. 4 Ibid., ü, p. 214. 5 Majjhima, ü, p. 68. Paparcasudini, i, p. 184.

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KINGS AND PEOPLES by itself. Like the Jātakas, the Divyāvadāna and the Mahābhārata speak of the two divisions of their realm. According to the Kumbhakara Jätaka, when king Dummukha, a contemporary of king Naggaji of Gandhāra, reigned in Uttarapañcāla, its capital was Kampilla (Sk. Kāmpilya),+ while according to the Divyāvadāna (p. 435), at one time its capital was Hastinapura, the well-known chief city of the Kurus. The Mahābhārata, on the other hand, definitely mentions Kāmpilya as the capital of Dakşiņapañcāla, and Ahicchatrā or Chatravati as that of the Uttara. According to the Great Epic, the division of the Pañcāla kingdom into Northern and Southern was effected in fulfilment of a treaty between the king of Pañcāla and that of Kuru, after the former had been snatched away by the latter. The fact, however, seems to be that the two peoples were on a state of war with each other from time to time, at one time the Pancālas annexing a portion of the Kuru country to their realm, and at another, the Kurus establishing their supremacy over the northern division of Pancāla. At all events, the Somanassa Jataka definitely states that once upon a timer Uttarapancāla was included in the Kuru realm.
1 Játaka, m, 379. 2 Law, Geography, p. 18. 8 Jätaka, wy, p. 444.

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In the Jätakas we have mention of three other kings of Pañcāla, namely, one whose son was the valiant prince Jayaddisa; 1 secondly, Brahmadatta who oppressed his subjects with taxes and tyranny; and thirdly, Cūļaņi Brahmadatta who partly succeeded in subduing the then king of Videha by a well-plotted stratagem.3 King Cūļaņi Brahmadatta finds mention in the Rāmāyana (i, 32), the Jaina Uttarādhyayana Sutra (xiii, 1) and the Svapnavāsavadattā (Act V). Even in the Buddha's time Pancāla was being ruled by a king of its own, although like the Kuru realm, it lost its political importance. If it be correct to think that the Pañcālas were originally the same people as the Krivis who find mention in the Vedic texts, we can say that they settled at first on the Sindhu and the Asikni (Chenab) and that their country was divided as Western and Eastern instead of Northern and Southern.4
In the Anguttara Nikāya, as noted before, the country of Maccha (Sk. Matsya) is included, together with its people, in the traditional list of sixteen mahājanapadas. In this and other Pali lists the Maochas as a people are usually associated with the Sūraseñas, while in the Vidhurapaņạita Jātaka they are said to have witnessed the contest at a game of dice between 1 Jätaka, v, p. 21f.
Ibid., v, p. 98%. 8 Ibid., vi, p. 294,
+ Vedro Index, i, p. 469.

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the Kuru king Dhananjaya or Ajjuna and Puņņaka the Yakkha. This may lead one to think that the Maochas had formed an alliance with their neighbours, the Kurus and the Sūrasenas. According to the Mahābhārata, the Matsya country was then ruled by king Virāta who was an ally of the Kurus. Its capital Virātanagara was evidently named after king Virāța of the Epic fame. The Macchas as a people had no political importance in the Buddha's time.
Over and above the usual association of the Sūrasenas (Sk. Sūrasenas, Greek Sourasenoi) in the Pali canonical lists of the mahājanapadas, the Vidhurapaņdita Jataka speaks of an occasion when the Sürasenas were present in the Kuru court in the city of Indapatta along with the Macchas, Maddas and Pañcālas. If any historical inference is to be drawn from these combinations, it would be that they were all neighbours and that their realms stood close to one another. Their capital, Madhură (Sk. Mathurā) on the right bank of the Yamunā stood midway between Indapatta and Kosambi on the same river. Strictly speaking, it is the Uttaramadhură which is identified with Maholi, five miles to the south-west of the present town of Mathurā or Muttra." From Samkissa (Sk.
Law, Geography, pp. 20-21.

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100 INDIA AS DESCRIBED "IN EARLY TEXTS
Samkāsya) on the Ganges the distance of Northern Madhurā is said to have been four yojanas only. According to the Ghata Jātaka, once upon a time king Mahāsāgara reigned in Uttaramadhurā. He had two sons, Sāgara and Upasāgara of whom the former succeeded his father to the throne and the latter became the uparājā or viceroy. Mahāsāgara's contemporary was king Mahākamga of Kaņsabhoga & in Uttarāpatha with his capital at Asitañjana, * a place which has not as yet been identified. Mahākamsa was succeeded to the throne by his elder son, Kamga, whose younger brother Upakamsa became his viceroy. There was a matrimonial alliance between the royal houses of Uttaramadhurā and Kamsabhoga, Prince Upasāgara marrying Kamsa brothers' sister Devagabbhā (Sk. Devaki) who became the mother of Vasudeva, his nine brothers and one sister. Among the contemporaries of Sāgara and Kamsa, the Ghata Jātaka mentions the name of Kālasena who was at that time reigning in the city of Ayojjhà (Sk. Ayodhyā), which was undoubtedly the earlier capital of Kosala. The village of Gováşdhana (Sk. Govardhana) in the
1 Kacpāyana's Pali Grammar, edited by 8. o. Vidyābhūmapa, Book, III, Ch. I, p. 167. A Jataka, iv, p. 81.
. It is diffioult to agree with Malalasekera in thinking that Kansabhoge or Kampsabhoja was probably the same country as Kamboja."

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kingdom of Kamsa was offered to Upasagara' as a wedding present. In the Buddha's time the ruler of the Surasenas, as his name implies, was a prince born of a princess married by the king of Surasena from the royal house of Avanti.1 When Megasthenes wrote about the Surasenas, their country must have been included in the Maurya empire, and after the Mauryas, their capital Madhura came under the sway of the Bactrian Greeks and the Kuşanas. Whether their country formed a Sunga dominion or not is still a disputed point. The memory of the Surasenas as a people remains associated with a distinct form of Prakrit dialects named Sauraseni after them or their country.
The Ghata Jātaka seems to present a distorted version of the legend of Vasudeva and his brothers, described as Andhakaveṇhudāsaputtā dasabhātikā, the ten brothers who passed as the sons of Andhakaviṣṇu, husband of Nandagopā, their foster-mother. In it Vasudeva is otherwise called Kanha (Sk. Kṛṣṇa) and Kesava (Sk. Keśava), which is quite compatible with the account given in the Great Epic and the Purāņas. It records the names of Vasudeva's nine brothers as Baladeva, Candadeva, Suriyadeva, Aggideva, Varunadeva, Ajjuna, Pajjuna (Sk. Pradyumna), Ghatapandita and Ankura. The
1 Majghima, ii, p. 83f.

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first child of their mother Devagabbhå (Devaki) was a daughter named Añjanādevi. Devagabbhā is represented as the sister of king Kamsa whom the Jätaka connects with Kamsabhoga instead of Madhurā. The ten brothers who grew up as powerful wrestlers and valiant warriors became ambitious to establish their paramount 80vereignty over the whole of Jambudvīpa. The first kingdom they seized was that of Uttaramadhurā. Next they directed their attention to Kamsabhoga. After making themselves masters of Kamsabhoga, and gradually defeating and killing the kings of sixty-three thousand realms, they began to reign in the city of Dyäravatī or Dvārakā which stood on the sea and had a hill by its side. They divided their empire into ten dominions that were allotted to the ten brothers, the youngest brother parting with his share in favour of their sister Añjanādevī. The sons of the ten brothers perished by the curse of the sage Kanhadīpāyana whom they had insulted and killed, and they themselves met with a tragio end, the account of which is in substance the same as that given in the Mauşalaparva of the Great Epic. But according to the Mahāummagga Jātaka, Vāsudeva's son, Sivi, by a Candāla woman, named Jambāvati, continued to reign in Dväravati."
1 Jataka, vi, p. 421.

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The Pali Andhakaveņhu, offered as the personal name of Vasudeva brothers' fosterfather, is only a wrong Prakrit form of the Sk. Andhaka-Vrsņis who represented two out of the four branches of the Sātvatas, the other two being the Daivāvždhas and the Mahābhojas. The Sātvatas themselves were one of the septs of the Yadavas. According to the Mahābhārata and the Purānas, the ruling family of Mathurā belonged to the race of Yadu. Krşņa-Vāsudeva and his brothers wore Andhaka-Vršņis or Yādavas. The connection of Kroņa with the land of the Sūrasenas is confirmed also by the Greek writers who mention Methora (Mathură) and Cleisobora (Krşņapura) as two of their important cities. Dr. Raychaudhuri rightly observes:'The Andhakas and Vfsnis are referred to in the Astādhyāyī of Pāņini (iv, 1.114; vi, 2.34). In Kautilya's Arthasāstra the Vranis are described as a Sangha, i.e., a republican corporation. The Mahābhārata, too, refers to the Vrsnis, Andhakas and other associate tribes as a Sangha (sii, 81.25) and Väsudeva as a Sanghamukhya.'1 a
The early Jaina and Buddhist texts have very little to say regarding the Avantis as a people. According to the Mahāgovinda Suttanta, when the empire of Reņu, probably a powerful
1 Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 118

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Videhan king, was divided into seven subkingdoms, the kingdom of Avanti fell to the share of Vessabhū, counted as one of the seven contemporary kings of the line of Bharata. 1 Māhissati (Sk. Māhīşmati) was then the capital of this kingdom. But the Pali canonical texts nention Ujjeni (Sk. Ujjayini) as the capital of Caņdapajjota, the king of Avanti in the time of Mahāvīra and the Buddha. Professor D. R. Bhandarkar seeks to account for this discrepancy by the assumption that the country of the Avantis was divided into two kingdoms, one placed in the Dakkhiņāpatha having Mābissati for its capital, and the other, i.e., the northern singdom having its capital at Ujjeni. This explanation has not so far been disputed.
As for the Avantīs as a people, the Matsya Purana counts them among the five branches of he Haibayas, the other four being represented by the Vitihotras, Bhojas, Kuņņikeras or Tuņņi. keras and Tālajanghas. According to the Matsya 4 and Väyu o Purăņas, the first dynasty of Māhismati 6 was of the Haihaya family. The Haihayas, mentioned also in the Arthasāstra, established themselves in that part of India by
1 Digha, zi, p. 236. 2 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 54. 8 Matsya, 43.48-9. * Ibid., 43.8–29. + Vày, 94.5–26, D-JRAS., 1916, p. 867--Pargiter's note deserves consideratior

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overthrowing the Nagas of the Narmadă region. The Haihayas and their descendants, the Avantis, Bhojas, and the rest, were all originally of the Satvata race.1
The pedigree of king Candapajjota of Avantī is nowhere given in Pali or Ardhamägadhi. According to the Purāņas, however, his father was Pulika who killed his master, the then reigning king of Avanti and anointed his son, Pradyota by force. Pradyota who subdued all neighbouring kings was 'destitute of good" policy.' He reigned for 23 years and was succeeded by five kings who reigned for 138 years. His son and successor was Pālaka whose reign served as data for fixing the date of Mahavira's demise. Thus in the time of Mahavira and the Buddha, Candapajjota or Pajjota was the powerful monarch of Avanti who had three sons and a daughter named Vasuladatta (Sk. Vasavadattā). Vasuladattā eloped with king Udena of the Vaccha realm.
Within a century and a half from the death of Pajjota, the country of the Avantis became merged in the Maurya empire.
The Jātakas speak of sixteen Bhojaputtas.3 But they tell us nothing as to the countries where the sixteen branches of the Bhojas resided
1 Raychaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 23.
2 Pargiter, Dynasties of the Kali Age, pp. 18, 68.
Samyutta, i, 61-62; Jätaka, i, p. 46; Law, Geography, p. 62.

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1
or founded their territories. The Bhojas were, even according to the Aitareya and Satapatha Brahmanas, one of the septs of the Satvatas. Bhima, the king of Vidabbha (modern Berar), was no doubt a Bhoja king. The Sarabhanga Jātaka 1 preserves the tradition of the powerful king Dandaki of the kingdom of Dandaka in the Vindhya region, who had his capital at the city of Kumbhavati. The sovereignty of Dandaka was established over the whole of the Vindhya region, extending as it did from Vidabbha to Kalinga. Kalinga, the king of Kalinga, Aṭṭhaka, the king of Atthaka and Bhimaratha, presumably the king of Vidabbha, acknowledged his supremacy. The kingdom of Dandaki was utterly destroyed by a natural catastrophe. Dandaki or Daṇḍakya was undoubtedly a Bhoja king. In the fifth and thirteenth Rock Edicts of Asoka, the Rathikas, Bhojakas and Pitinikas, all of whom may be supposed to have belonged to the Satvata race, are mentioned as semi-independent ruling peoples of Aparanta. In the Hāthigumphā Inscription of Kharavela the Rathikas and Bhojakas are introduced in such a manner as to leave no room for doubt that they were ruling chiefs of the Vidyadhara settlements (Vijādharādhivāsā).
1 Jātaka, v, pp. 134, 267ff., Majjhima, i, p. 378; Mahāvastu, iii, p. 383f.
2 Arthasästra, Chamasastri's Tr., p. 12.

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The Jambudīva-pannatti, as noted before, connects the Vidyādharas with the Vaitādhya or Vindhya rango and speaks of their eighteen settlements. When the Jatakas speak of sixteen Bhojaputtas, one may understand that they were the ruling chiefs of sixteen Vidyādhara tracts along the Vindhyas. From these references, both in literature and in inscriptions, , it may be inferred that the Vidyādharas were not mythical beings but some aboriginal tribes that settled along the Vindhyas.
The Assakas (Sk. Asvakas, Asmakas) find mention as a distinct people of India in early Pali texts, in Pāņini's grammar, and in the Mahābhārata, Brhatsamhità, and Purāņas. The Greek writers knew them as Assakenus whose territory was situated in the Swat Valley. In the Mārkandeya Purāna, they are placed in Uttarāpatha. Päņini's reference, too, must have been to a people in Uttarāpatha. But the early Pali texts are concerned only with those Agsakas who founded a territory in the Dakkhi. ņāpatha which lay contiguous to the kingdom of the Avantis 2 and on the south bank of the Godāvari. The capital of this southern kingdom was Potana? (Sk. Paudanya) or Potali."
2 Jataka, v, p. 317.
1 Law, Geography, p. 21. 3 Sutta-nipäta, verse 977. 4 Digha, ii, p. 295. 5 Jätaka, i1, p. 165.

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It .was included at one time, in the past, in the empire of Reņu and was ruled by Brahmadatta 1 who must have been a prince of the royal family of Käsi. At another time, as stated in the Agsaka Jātaka, the Assaka kingdom formed an integral part of the empire of Kāsī. In this instance, the Jätaka does not give us the personal name of the king. The Cullakāliäga Jätaka mentions Aruņa, the king of Assaka, who accepted the challenge of the contemporary powerful king of Kalinga and ultimately defeated him. The battle ended in a treaty which was solemnised by a matrimonial alliance between the two royal houses.3 The Godavari flowed between the two neighbouring kingdoms of Assaka and Mülaka or Alaka, the latter lying to the north of the former and at the foot of the Vindhyas. In the commentary on the Sutta-nipāta, the two kingdoms are represented as two Andhaka or Andhra principalities. According to the VimānavatthuCommentary, the ruler of Assaka at the time of the Buddha was a king whose son was Prince Sujata
Among the dwellers of the Vindhya region other than the Bhojas and 'Avantis including
i Digha, i, p. 288, - Jataka, ii, p. 166. 8 Jataka, üi, pp. 3-5. 4 Sutta-nipäta, verse 977. 6 Vimänavatthaliatthakatha, p. 259f.

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the Anuvindakas, the Apadāna (ii, p. 369) mentions the Bhagga-Kārūsas, Okkalas and Mekalas. The Dasaņņas find mention in the Jātakas 1 and Petavatthu. They were evidently a people who settled along the banks of the river named Dasaņņā (modern Dasan, a tributary of the Yamunā), and founded a territory with their capital at Vedisa (modern Bhilsa) on the river Vetravati. Erakaccha was a well-known city of the Dasannas. The Dasaņņa country is counted among the sixteen mahājanapadas in the Mahābhārata (ii, 5.10) and Mahāvastu (i, p. 34). The name of the Mekalas is to be met with only in a nominal list. The Okkalas were evidently the inhabitants of Ukkala (Sk. Utkala) which lay, according to the Mahāvastu (ü, p. 303), in Uttarāpatha. It is not impossible that the Okkalas who belonged at first to the north-western region of India, founded a colony afterwards in the Vindhya region. That there was an Ukkala janapada in Uttarăpatha is borne out by the Theragātha-Commentary, according to which, the two caravan-merchants, Tapassu and Bhalluka, referred in the Mahāvastu to Utkala in Uttafāpatha, were citizens of Pokkharavati, a well-known city in Gandhāra.
1 Jataka, iü, p. 338. 2 Petavatthi, ii, 7. 8 Theragatha-atthakathā, i, p. 48f.

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110 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN PARLY TEXTS Thus it is very probable that Utkala in Uttarāpatha, with Pokkharavati as its chief town, formed a part of the kingdom of Gandhāra. So far as the Apadāna reference is concerned, the association of the Okkalas with the Mekalas hardly leaves room for doubt that they belonged to Ukkala, which, together with Odda, constituted Orissa proper. The Apadāna list contains also the name of the Oddakas whose dialect, as already noted, was counted among the instances of Milakkhabhāsā. Certain classes of thinkers, namely, the ahetuvādā, akiriyavādā and natthikavādā, are banned as Ukkalāvassabhaññā, i.e., persons speaking the unintelligible jargon of the country of the Okkalas'.1 The Bhaggas, associated in the Apadāna with the Kārūşas whom the Mārkandeya Purāna allocates to the Vindhya region, were a people who founded a territory contiguous
to that of the Vamsas or Vacchas. Their i capital was Sumsumāragira. In the Buddha's
time their country became a dependency of the kingdom of Vaocha and was being governed. by Prince Bodhi, son of king. Udena, who built a magnificent palace called Kokanada at Sumsumāragira. A branch of the Bhaggas,
1 Angultara, ü, p. 31; Majjhima, iii, p. 78. Buddhaghosa wrongly explains the expression as signifying two persona, Vassa and Bhañiä, whd were natives of Ukkala.
Angruttura, ii, p. 61; Majjhima, i, p. 332,

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111 as already pointed out, also occupied a small territory between Vesāli and Sävatthi.
Among the peoples of the Aparänta or western sea-board other than the Sindhu-Sovīras, we have mention in the Apadāna (ii, p. 359) of the Suratthas, Aparāntakas and Suppārikas (or Suppārakas). The Jaina canonical texts mention the name of Kaochas, who settled down in a territory, now known as Cutch. The Bharukacchas (Sk. Bhřgukacchas) were the citizens of Bharukaccha (modern Broach in Kathiawar)." The kingdom of Bharu stood on the sea and was three hundred leagues in extent. The tradition is that the whole of this kingdom was submerged in the soa by the fury of the gods.1 According to the Divyāvadāna (p. 576) the kingdom of Bhiru with its principal city Bhiruka or Bhirukaccha was founded by and named after Bhiru, who was one of the two chief ministers of king Rudrāyaṇa of Sauvira in the lower Indus Valley. Rudrāyana, a contemporary of king Bimbisāra of Magadha, was · killed by his wicked son Sikhandi, whose kingdom was afterwards destroyed as a punishment for this crime. The legend concerning the foundation of the Bhiru kingdom with its capital in the Buddha's time cannot be believed, for the simple reason that the kingdom and its sea-port
1 Jataka, ü, p. 169f.

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112 INDIA AS DESCRIBED' IN EARLY TEXTS
had existed long before. The Sussondi Jataka speaks of the ministrel Sagga's journey from Benares to Bharukaccha 1 (Barygaza of Ptolemy and the Periplus.)
The Suppārikas or Suppārakas (Sk. Saurpārakas) were the citizens of Suppăra or Suppāraka (modern Sopārā) which was the capital of the kingdom of Sunäparanta. The distance of Suppāra from Sāvatthi was one hundred and twenty leagues. The people of Sunāparanta 'were reported as being fierce and violent.4
The Suratthas were the inhabitants of the kingdom of Surattha (Sk. Surâştra) which is identified with Kathiawar. The prosperity of Surattha was due to trade. One king Pingala ruled in Surattha as a subordinato potentate under the Mauryas, while, according to the Junāgaļ inscription of Rudradāman I, the Yavana Tuşāspa was the govornor of Surāştra under king Asoka.
Among the peoples of South India referred to in the Great Epic and Mārkandeya Purāna, 1 Jataka, iii, p. 187f.
2 Majjhima, ui, p. 268; Sannetta, iv, p. 61f; N. L. Dey, Geographical Dictionary of Ancient and Medical India, p. 197. 3 Dhammapada-affhakatha, ii, p. 213. * Majjhima, iii, p. 268; Samyutta, iv, p. 61.
5 Apaddna, ii, p. 369; Milinda, pp. 331, 369; Jataka, ii, p. 463 V, p. 133.
6 Petavatthat, iv, 3. According to the Commentary, the con. temporary Maurya king was Dhammāgoka, which is, however doubtful. See O. D. Chatterjee's paper, 'A historical character ir the reign of Asoka Maurya', D. R. Bhandarkar Volume, p. 329f.

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113 the Andhakā (Sk. Andhrā), Sabarā, Damiļā (Dravidā) and Kolakā (Coļā) find mention in the Apadāna (ii, pp. 358-59). The Mahimsakā and Kalingā are mentioned in the Jātakas. Uttaramadhurā mentioned in the Jātakas presupposes knowledge of Dakkhiņamadhura, which must have been the capital of the Pandyas of South India. The Pāņdyas as an independent people find mention in the edicts of Asoka along with the Coļas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras. These four peoples must have been comprehended by the name, Damiļā, in the Apadāna. The Andhrakas, Pulindas and Savaras are counted in the Mahābhārata (xii, 207.42) among the people of the Deccan. In the edicts of Asoka too, the Andhras are associated with the Pārindas who were apparently no other people than the Pulindas in the Great Epic and the Purānas.
Vincent A. Smith considers the Andhakas (Andhrakas) as a Dravidian people, now represented by the large population speaking the Telugu language, who occupied the deltas of the Godāvari and the Krşņā'. But in the Pali commentaries, exactly as in the Apadāna, the Andhakas as a people are distinguished from the Damiļas, although their dialeots are classed under the group of eighteen Milakkhabhāsā or non-Aryan languages. Srinivas Iyengar thinks that they were originally a Vindhyan

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114 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
tribe, whose territories extended from west to east down the valleys of the Godāvari and the Kysņā. According to the Sutta-nipāta commentary, Assaka and Mūļaka became two Andhaka principalities. In the Kathāvatthu commentary, Buddhaghosa definitely mentions that Pubbasela, Aparasela, Rājagiri and Sid. dhattha were all localities in the Andhaka territory. The Serivāņija Jātaka locates Andhapura, the capital of the Andhakas, on the river Telavāha, identified by Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar with the modern Tel or Telingiri. The Āndhras and Pārindas were two among the semi-independent ruling tribes within Asoka's empire.
The Sabaras (Sk. Savaras) were evidently an aboriginal tribe identified usually with the Suari of Pliny and the Sabarae of Ptolemy. They are . probably represented now by the Savaralu or Sauras of the Vizagapatam Hills and the Savaris of Gwalior. 8
The Akitti Jätaka speaks of the Damilaraţtha as a territory round Kāvīrapattana,- the port of Kāverī which is definitely placed by Buddhadatta in the kingdom of Coļa (Colaraţthe).
1 Indian Antiquary, 1913, p. 276f. 3 Ibid., 1918, p. 71. 8 Rayohaudhuri, op. cit., 4th ed., p. 79. 4 Jataka, iv, p. 238. 6 Buddhadatta' Manuale, Introduction, xii, foll.

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KINGS AND PEOPLES 115 King Asoka frankly admits that the Coļas maintained their independence during his reign. Their territory in Dakkhiņāpatha 1 certainly lay to the south of Asoka's empire including the Andhra and Mahimsaka or Kekaya territories.
The Pāņdyas were a ruling people of South India; whose territory lay to the south of the river Kāverī. Their later capital, Madhurā, is described by Buddhaghosa as a suttapattana or a port noted for the export of cotton fabrics. During Asoka's reign they were one of the independent nations in the south. As described in the Hathigumphā inscription of Khāravela, the contemporary Pandya king was rich in the possession of gems, pearls and jewels.
The Keralaputras, Keralas or Cheras were a branch of the Damilas who occupied a territory along the western sea-coast of the Deccan. In Asoka's time they, too, were the independent nations of South India.
The Kālingås were a powerful people of India who founded a territory between the territories of the Lādhas and the Andhakas, and along the eastern sea-ccast. Their country represented one of the seven sub-kingdoms in the empire of Reņu, ruled bỳ king Sattabhū with his capital at Dantapura (Pālura), near Chicacole, The Häthigumpha inscription speaks of the
1 Petavatthu commentary, p. 133.

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'three dynasties of kings who reigned in Kalinga, the third being a Ceti or Cedi royal family to which Khāravela himself belonged. One of the ancient kings of the Kalingas was a contemporary and rival of Aruņa, the king of Assaka, who being defeated in battle, concluded a treaty by which he gave all his four daughters in marriage to the victor.1 Another king was a vassal under king Daņdaki. A third king, Karandu or Karakaņdu, was a contemporary of Naggaji of Gandhāra. In the Kālingabodhi Jātaka we read that the Kālinga king of Dantapura had two sons, Mahākālinga and Cullakālinga, the elder brother succeeding his father and the younger brother marrying a Madda princess from Sāgala while in exile. Cullakālinga's son, who was destined to be a Cakkavattī, was installed on the throne of Kalinga after the death of Mahākālinga.4 The Jātakas maintain also a tradition of a Kalinga king, named Nāļikira, who brought about destruction of his kingdom by ill-treating a hermit.5
The Kalinga country was conquered by Asoka and it was annexed to his kingdom. The people of Kalinga were so powerful at that
1 Jätaka, iü, p. 3f. a Ibid., v, p. 135.
Ibid., iii, p. 376f. 4 Ibid., iy, p. 232f.
Ibid., v, p. 144.

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KINGS AND PEOPLES 117 time that they could well afford to lose in battle about throe hundred thousand soldiers.
In the Great Epic and Mārkandeya Purāņa, the Angeyas (Pali Angā), Māgadhas, Vangeyas (Vangā), Sauhmas, Tāmraliptakas, Bhārgavas, Vaidehas and Mallas are counted among the peoples of Eastern India. The early Buddhist and Jaina texts speak also of the Vajjis, Licchavis, Nātas, Sumbhas and Lādhas (Rādhas).
Of them, the Lādhas lived in a pathless country with its two divisions, known as Subbhabhūmi and Vajjabhūmi. It may be rightly supposed that these two divisions of Lādha corresponded to Suhma and Tāmralipti respectively. The Jaina Acārānga Sūtra speaks of the inhabitants of the Rādha country as rude and generally hostile to the ascetics. When the ascetics appeared near their villages, they used to set dogs upon them, uttering the syllables, 'cu cu'.
The Angas, Vangas and Magadhas as countries and peoples figure prominently in the Jaina list of sixteen mahājanapadas, while in the Pali list the Vargas have no place at all. So far as the evidence of the Pali canon and Milindapañha goes, Vanga stood apart from Anga. Vanga finds mention indeed, in the
1 Acäränga sutra, I. 8.3.

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118 INDIA AS DESCRIBED' IN EARLY TEXTS • Mahāniddesa 1 and Milindapanha s as a centre of trade reached by sea. According to the Pali chronicles, however, both the country and capital of the Vangas were known as Vanga. The then king of the Vangas had married a princess from the royal family of Kalinga.8
It is in the Atharvaveda (v, 22.14) that we have the earliest mention of the Angas and Magadhas as two peoples. From the Vrátya book of the same Veda (XV), it is evident that they were despised as Vrātyas or peoples who lived outside the pale of orthodox Brahmanism. Anga with its capital at Campā formed one of the seven sub-kingdoms within the empire of Reņu, and it was allotted to a king named Dhatarattha of the line of Bharata. Magadha, however, has no place in this list. According to the Harivamsa and Purāņas, Dadhivāhana was the son and successor of Anga. This Dadhivāhana could not have been the same king Dachivähana of Anga who is represented by the Jainas as a contemporary of Mahāvīra and a weak rival of king Šatānika of Kaušāmbi.$« According to the Pali tradition,, however, the king of Anga in the Buddha's time was Brahma
V Niddesa, vol. i, p. 154. W Milinda, p. 369. W Dipavamaa, ix, 2, V For a learned note on the subject, vide A, B. Keith's paper in TRAS., 1919, p. 156f. J. JASB., 1999, p. 320,

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119
datta who was defeated and killed by Prince Seniya Bimbisāra, son of king Bhattiya of Magadha, who ruled Campå as his father's viceroy. Anga continued to be a dependency of Magadha till the reign of Khāravela of Kalinga. The Dipavamsa (p. 28) tells us that Campā was ruled by Agoka's son, Mahinda, his sons and grandsons. In the earlier phase of the war, Brahmadatta is said to have defeated Bimbisāra's father, Bhattiya. Even before that the kings of Anga were at war with those of Magadha, the victory being sometimes on this side and sometimes on the other. The Vidhurapaņdita Jātaka refers to Rājagaba as a city of Anga.
Among the peoples of Eastern India, the Magadhas or Māgadhas were destined to rise steadily into an imperial power. As a Khattiya tribo, they founded a territory round Mt. Vepulla, which was bounded on the north and west by the Ganges, on the east by Campā, and on the south by the Vindhyas, the Sone forming the western boundary of the Magadhakhetta. The Gayākhętta formed an integral part of the Magadha kingdom throughout its existence. The Mahābhārata ti. 63.30) honours king Brhadratha as the founder of Girivraja, also named Bārbadrathapura after him, while the Rāmāyana
1 Jätaka, v, p. 271.

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120 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
(i32.7) gives the credit for it rather to his father, the Cedi king Vasu Uparicara. In the Cetiya Jātaka, the five sons of the Coti king Upacara or Apacara are mentioned as founders of the cities of Hatthipura (in the Kuru realm), Assapura (in the kingdom of Anga), Sihapura (in the Panjab), Uttarapañcāla (in Pancāla), and Daddarapura, the Giribbaja being excluded from the list,1 But the Purāņas persistently describe the Bārhadrathas as the royal dynasty that continued to rule the Magadha kingdom almost up to the 6th century B.C.
Seniya Bimbisāra was king of AngaMagadha when the Buddha renounced the world and Mahavira became a Jina. He was junior to the Buddha in age by five years. According to the Buddhist tradition, Bimbisāra's father and immediate predecessor was king Bhatiya or Bhattiya, whose connection with the Bārhadrathas is nowhere mentioned or indicated. King Caņdapajjota of Avanti, Udena of Vamsa, Pasenadi of Košala, Rudrāyaṇa of Sauvira and Pukkusāti of Gandhāra are known to have been his great contemporaries. Similarly Pulika of Avantī, Parantapa of Vamsa, Mahāpasenadi of Kosala and Brahmadatt&_of_Anga may be described as contemporaries of Bimbisāra's father as also of himself. In the Great Epic,
92 Jataka, iii, pp. 454, 460-461.

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121
KINGS AND PROPLES Jarasandha, the most powerful king of Magadha, is introduced as the son and successor of Bphadratha. His powerful ally was the Cedi king Siśupāla, both of whom were defeated and killed by the Pāņdava brothers. Nothing of this historical legend can be traced in the early Jain or Buddhist texts. On the other hand, in the Jaina Uttarādhyayana Sūtra (xviii, 43), we have mention of Jaya, son and successor of king Samuddavijaya of Rājagaha, as the eleventh Cakkavatti of the Bhāratavarşa: Arindama, Duyyodhana, and a few other ancient kings of Magadha are mentioned by name in the Jātakas. During the period preceding the advent of Mahăvira and the Buddha, the notable event in the history of Magadha was the prolonged contest for supremacy between the Magadhan monarchs and the kings of Anga with varying results. It ultimately ended, however, in permanent annexation of Aäga to Magadha.
The Videhas, who represented in the Buddha's time as one of the important clans constituting the Vajjian or Licchavi confederacy, were a people who originally migrated from the eastern continent of Videha and founded a territory named Videha aftər them on the left bank of the Ganges. According to the Satapatha Brāhmana (I. IV, 1 etc.), the country of Videha owes its name to its first king, Videgha Māthava, who came from the Sarasvati region. This

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122 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
king Mathava would seem to be no other than Makhādeva or Maghädeva in Pali. The father and predecessor of Nemi or Nimi as noted before, was a contemporary of Naggaji of Gandhåra, Dummukha of Pañcāla and others. It was from Nimi that the long line of the Janakas proceeded. The son and immediate successor of Nimi was Kaļārajanaka,? so called because of his projecting teeth, whose son and successor was Samankara. Thus Makhādeva is rightly described as the forerunner of the powerful kings of Mithilā. According to the Rāmāyaṇa (1.71.3), the adipuruşa of the royal family of Mithila was Nimi (Jaina Nami), whose son was Mithi and grandson, Janaka I. Jánaka's son, Janaka II, father of Sīta, had a brother named Kusadh vaja who became the king of Sāmkāsya. In the Vāyu (88.7-8) and Visņu (iv, 5.1) Purāņas, however, Nimi or Nemi figures as a son of Ikshvāku and is honoured with the epithet of Videha. The Brhadāranyaka Upanişad speaks of the philosopher king Janaka of Mithilā whom Rhys Davids was inclined to identify with king Mahājanaka of the Mahājanaka Jātaka. The Videha country was bounded on the east by the Kausiki, on the south by the Ganges, on the west by the
1 Majjhima, u, 82; Jataka, v, 129. 8 Jätaka, v.

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123
KINGS ÁND PBOPLES river Sadānīrā and on the north by the Himar layas. It was, according to the Gandhāra Jātaka, 300 leagues in extent and contained at one time 16,000 villages, 16,000 storehouses and 16,000 dancing girls. Its capital Mithilā was built by Govinda.2 The great prosperity of the Videhas was due to trade with other countries, Benares and the rest. According to the Jaina canonical tradition, Cetaka 8 of Videha was an influential leader of the Licchavi confederacy. His sister, Tribalā, was the mother of Mahavira, the historical founder of Jainism, and his daughter, Cellanā or Vodehi, was married to Śrenika Bimbisāra of Magadha and became mother of Kūņika, i.e., Ajātasattu.
When we speak of the Vajjis (Sk. Vrjis), we speak either of the Vajjian confederacy or the Vajjis as one of the constituent clans of that confederacy. The confederacy is also associated with the name of the Licchavis forming another constituent clan. The confederate plans were eight in number (atthakulā or atthakulaka) which, according to the Jaina Kalpa 4 and Nirayāvali Sūtras, consisted of nine Licchavi olans. They formed an alliance with the nine Mallakas and the kings of Kāsī and Kosala.
1 Jataka, iii, p. 385.
Digha, ii, p. 235. . Acaranga Sätra, pp. xii-xvi-maternal uncle of Mahkvira.
Seo, 128.

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This alliance existed not only at the time of Mahāvīra's demise but also when a war ensued between Kūņika Ajātasattu and the Licchapis. As for the remaining confederate olans, one may mention the name of Nayas, Nătas or Jñatrikas,1 who lived in a suburb of Vesālī, the Vajjian capital, and the Bhaggas who settled between Vesālī and Sāvatthi. Thus it may be supposed that the eight or nine confederate clans with the exception of the Videhas resided hear about Vesālī which was at the time one of the most flourishing and beautiful cities in northern India. According to the Ekapaņņa Jātaka, the city of Vesāli was surrounded by a triple wall, each wall standing at the distance of a league from the next and was provided with three gates and watch-towers. The Vrjisor Licohavis possessed a bright complexion; they were luxurious and at the same time most warlike, and strong in their national unity. Theirs was an oligarchical republic and they had a common Mote-hall in which all important questions of administration were decided. So long as they were able to maintain their unity, no power could conquer their country.
1 See B.D. Law, Some Ksatrya Tyrbes of Anorent Indra, Ch. II. 2 Vinaya Texts, S.B.B., 11, 171; Lalitovratara, Ch. III, p. 21. & Jataka, 1, p. 504. 4 3. O. Law, Some Ksatriya Tmbes of Ancient India, Licohavis, & Ibid., Oliapter on Licchavis, Sec. V.

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But we shall see anon that their unity was destroyed and that their country was conquered by the kings of Magadha not long after the demise of the Buddha. According to their national custom, a most handsome girl was reserved for the pleasure of the people. Each family had its distinctive dress of its own.2 The Vajjis or the Licchavis claimed their descent from the royal family of Kāsī.
125
a
1 B. C. Law, Historical Gleanings, p. 71.
2 Watters, On Yuan Chwang, ii, p. 79.
a X. 22.
The Mallas and the Licchavis are counted in the Manusamhita among the Vratya Kşatriyas. Like the Licchavis, the Mallas or Mallakis, consisting of nine clans according to the Jain canonical texts, formed a strong confederacy, republican in its character. They too had a Mote-hall, for the discussion of all important matters concerning them. In the Mahaparinibbana Suttanta," they are called Vasetthas, i.e., the Khattiyas belonging to the Vaseṭṭha (Vasistha) gotra. Like the Videhas, the Mallas had originally a monarchical form of government, Okkāka (Ikshvāku) being mentioned in the Kusa Jātaka (No. 531) as a Malla king. It is probable that like the Sakyas, the Mallas as Ksatriyas claimed their descent from
B. C. Law, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, Oh. IV. 5 Digha, ii, pp. 158-159.

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126 INDIA AS DESCRIBED 'N EARLY TEXTS the royal family of Okkāka. The Mallas and the Licchavis as two neighbouring peoples established friendly relations between them at least for their self-defence, though the Bhaddasāla Jātaka (No. 465) offers us an account of a conflict between them. At the time of the rise of Buddhism the Mallas were divided into two main sections, one having their capital at Pāvā and the other at Kusinārā. There was current among the Mallas a living tradition of the former glory of Kusinārā, which was built on the site of the ancient city of Kušāvatī, which was the capital of the king Mahāsudassana. There was a great belt of a Himalayan forest called Mahāvana which covered some portions of the Vajji and Malla territories. The Mallas retained their independence till the demise of the Buddha, as we find that both the main sections of the Mallas? appeared among claimants for shares of the bodily remains of the Master. It is not yet possible to collect the names of all the nine branches of the Mallas mentioned in the Jaina Kalpasūtra.
The Säkyas who, too, formed a confederacy with the Koliyas, have a permanent place in the history of India and of the world on account of the birth of the Buddha Gotama among them. They founded a kingdom named after them in
1 Digha, 4, p. 170. . Thd., 1, p. 167.

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127
that part of northern India which stood between the kingdom of Kosala in the west and the Malla territory in the south-east. Their capital, Kapilavatthu, was founded around or near the hermitage of the sage Kapila. The Sākyas claimed their descent from king Okkāka whose ancestry is traced back to king Mahāsammata. In the early Pali texts, they are described as Adiccabandhu in the sense that they belonged to the solar race of the Khattiyas. They had their Mote-hall at Kapilavatthu where their administrative and judicial business was carried out. They as a ruling people were proud of the purity of their birth, for which, as tradition goes, they had to pay a beavy penalty. In the Buddha's time, the position of the Säkyais was that of vassals (anujātā) under king Pasenadi of Kosala. Placed as they were, they could not cherish much of territorial ambition. They once came into conflict with the Koliyas over the waters of the Rohiņi river which had separated their territories. According to the Tātakas and the Pali commentaries, the Sākya territory was invaded and conquered by Vidū dabha, the usurper king of Kosala in the last year of the Buddha'a career. But in the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta,8 we read that both the
1 Buddhist India, p. 19. Cf. ZDMG., 44, 344 (Jolly).
Jätaka, v, 412. 8 Digha, ii, 167.

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Šakyas and the Koliyas as independent political powers appeared among the rival claimants for shares of the Buddha's bodily remains. Among other claimants, we have mention of the Bulis of Allakappa, the Moriyas of Pipphalivana and the Kalamas of Kesaputta. We know practically nothing about the Bulis and the Kālāmas save and except that they were two of the small ruling clans. As for the Moriyas of Pipphalivana, according to the Mahāvamsa commen*tary, two are the possible derivations of their name, one from the word modiya meaning delightful and the other from the word mora meaning peacock. According to the first derivation, the Moriyas were so called because they lived in a delightful land, and according to the second, they were called Moriyas bocause they founded their city in a locality which always resounded with the cries of peacocks. The Mahavamsa commentary (pp. 119-121) traces the origin of the Maurya dynasty of Magadha to the Moriyas of Pipphalivana. Candagutta, according to this tradition, was born of the queen-consort of the.Moriyan king of Pipphalivana. This is evidently in conflict with the account in the Mudrārākṣasa.
Turning at last to the peoples placed in the Brahmanical Mid-land, we have to take into
↑ Mahāvamsa-Tikā (Sinhalese ed.), p. 119f.; Law, Some KsatriyaTribes of Ancient India, pp. 211-212.

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129 account the four important peoples, e.g., the Kāsīs, thé Kosalas, the Vamsas and the Cedis. The Kāsīs were one of the most ancient peoples of Northern India, who find mention in the Atharvaveda, in which they are associated with the Kosalas and Videhas. They founded a kingdom named Kāsī after them, which was 300 leagues in extent, with its capital at Bārāṇasī which was known by other names in the past ages. The city of Benares which stood on the left bank of the Ganges was encompassed by the walls that were twolve leagues in circuit. In the Mahāgovinda Suttanta Kāsi with Bārāṇasī as its capital is included in the list of seven sub-kingdoms within the empire of Roņu. The administration of the kingdom of Kāsi fell to the share of Dhatarattha represented as a king of the line of Bharata. The Bharata line of the Kasi kings appears to have been supplanted by a new line of Brahmadattas who were probably of the Videhan origin.: Most of the Jātaka stories have been narrated with freference to the reigns of the Brahmadattas of Kāsi. The Mahābhārata speaks of a dynasty consisting of as many as 100 Brahmadattas (ü, 8.23). That Brahmadatta was more a family designation than a personal name of the
1 Vedro Index, ii, 116 f.a. % Jataka, iv, 18, 119-20. 9 Raychaudhuri, op. cit., p. 63.

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reigning king is evident from at least two Jatakas namely the Dummedha 1 and Gangamāla.? The Videhan origin is borne out by the evidence of such Jātakas as the Mātiposaka and Sambula, especially the latter in which a son of Brahmadatta, king of Käsi, is expressly called Vedehaputta. The history of the Kāsīs, their kings and country is long as well as eventful. Many Játakas testify to the unsurpassed glory of the city of Benares and to the ambition of its rulers for paramount sovereignty over the whole of Jambudīpa.3 The Vinaya Mahāvagga (x, 2.3), too, bears testimony to the former greatness and prosperity of the city. The kingdom of Kāsi became important in the history of the Jains on account of the fact that their Tirthařkara Pārøya was a prince of Benares. There was a time when king Manoja of Benares was able to subdue the kings of Kosala, Anga and Magadha.* At another time, the kingdom of Assaka became a dependency of Kāsi. During the period preceding the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, the most important event in the history of the Käsīs is the repeated struggle for supremacy between the kings of Käsi and
1 Jätaka, i, p. 269f. 2 Ibid., No. 421.
Bhaddagäla Jataka No. 466, Dhonasikha. Jätaks No. 353. 4 Sonananda Jataka No. 632.
Agsaka Jät ka No. 207.

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Kosala. Some of the Kasi kings in the Jātakas, as pointed out by D. R. Bhandarkar 1, find mention also in the Purāņas. 2
The series of struggles ended finally in a permanent annexation of the kingdom of Kāsi to that of Kosala.8
The Kosalas & as a people do not find mention in the Vedic texts. They were a Kşatriya - tribe who like the Sākyas traced their descent from king Okkāka. The kinship between the two neighbouring peoples was so close in all respects that the Buddha openly confessed that he was as much a Kosalan (Kosalako) as the then king Pasonadi of Kosala. In the earlier days of Brahmadatta, king of Kāsī,, the Kosala country was only a poor and tiny estate with slender resources'. (daliddo appadhano appabhogo appabalo appavāhano appavijito aparipuņņa-kosakotthāgāro). It may be taken for granted that Ayojjha (Ayodhyā) was the earlier capital of the undivided kingdom of Kosala. One king Kālasena reigned in
1 Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 57.
2 Viskasena of Jātaka No. 268 = Viswasaksena; Udaya of Jāteka No. 458 - Udakasene, Bhallātiya of Jätaks No. 504 = Bhallata.
& Vinaya, S.B.D., Vo... aw, 294–99; Kuņāla Jataka No. 638; Kosambi JĀtaka No. 428.
4 For fullor details, vide B. C. Law, Ancient Inaran Tribes, Oh, II.
6 Dhammacetiya Sutta, Majjhime, u p. 118f. & Vinaya, Mahāvagga, S.B..., vol. xvii, 294.

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132 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
Ayojjhā as a contemporary of Sāgara of Uttaramadhurā and Vasudeva Kanha of Dväravati. The capital of the Kosalas in the Buddha's time was Sãvatthi on the right bank of the Aciravati. King Dasaratha whom the Rāmāyana represents as the king of Kosala with his capital at Ayodhya is described in the Dasaratha Jātaka as, the • king of Kāsi. The second capital of the Kosalas was Säketa as may be inferred from the Nandiyamiga Jataka.1 But Vanka and many others are said to have reigned in Kosala when Săvatthi became its capital. This was indeed the third and last capital of the Kosalas. At the time of the rise of Buddhism, Pasenadi, son and successor of Mahāpasenadi, was king of Kosala. Kāsi became subordinate to Kosala already during the reign of Pasenadi's father. Käsi was at that time being governed by Pasenadi's brother who was evidently his viceroy. The throne of Kosala was being usurped by prince Virudhaka, a son of Pasenadi. Pasenadi is known to have been not only a contemporary of the Buddha but also a person who was born on the same date and died in the same year (tvam pi asitiko aham pi asitiko).
The Vamsas or Vacchas 8 were a people who founded their territory along the right bank
-
1 No. 386.
% Dhammacetiya Sutta, Majjhima, i. * For fuller details, see B. O. Law, Ancient Mid-Indian Kaatriya - Tribes, Vol. I, Ch VI.

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133
of the Yamunā with their capital at Kosambi. The Purāņas trace their origin to the royal family of Kāsi. In the epic tradition, a Ceti prince named Kušāmba is described as the founder of the city of Kosambi. The king of the Vamsas in the Buddha's time was Udena (Udayana) who is described as the son and successor of king Parantapa. In the Purānius, . Udayana is connected with a long line of Kuru kings headed by Nioakşu who, on the destruction of Hastināpura by flood, transferred his residence to Kaušāmbi. Udena excelled others in the wealth of his elephants and sought to strengthen his position by entering into matrimonial alliances with the neighbouring kings. Even during the reign of Udena, the Bhagga country remained a dependency of the Vamsas.
The Cetis or Cedis , also known as Cetaputtā, were one of the most ancient peoples of India whose territory lay midway between the kingdoms of the Kurus and the Vamsas. In the Cotiya Jataka we are given a genealogy of the Coti kings from the first king Mahāsammata. The tenth king Upacara or Apacara is generally identified with the Puru king Vasu-uparicara mentioned in the Mahābhārata. The agreement
1 According to the Puranas, his father's name was Vagudāna and According to Bhāşa, Sahasranika.
2 For fuller details, vide B. C. LAW, Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, Vol. I, Oh. V.

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134 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
betwoen the two legends lies in the fact that in both the five sons of Uparicara are said to have been founders of the five different lines of kings. Even in historical times, as already pointed out, the third dynasty of the kings of Kalinga including Khåravela is expressly mentioned to have originated from the Cedis..
The early texts of Jainism and Buddhism present, on the whole, a picture, envisaged by Rhys Davids 1 for the first time, of the political history of India in which the four great monarchies of Magadha, Kosala, Vamsa and Avanti, appeared as powerful competitors, for overlordship. The remaining powers were of minor importance. They only remained as passive spectators or subordinate allies. The two of the most important oligarchical powers were tho confederacies of the Vajjis or Licchavis of Vesālī and of the Mallas of Kusīnārā, and Pāvā. The Sākyas and Koliyas were only vassals under the monarch of Kosala. The Bulis of Allakappa, the Moriyas of Pipphalivana, the Kālāmas of Kesaputta and the Bhaggas of Sumsumāragira remained as vassals under Ko. sala and Vamsa respectively. The four king
1 Buddhist India, Ohaps, 1 and 2: This subject has boen further discussed and elaborated by D. R. Bhandarkar in his Carmichael Lectures, 1018, by Raychaudhuri in his Political History of Ancient India, by Vincent A. Smith in his Early History of India, and by various writers in the Cambridge History, Vol. I.

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KINGS AND PHOPLES 135 doms of Kāsī, Aļavi, Kuru and Pancāla aca knowledged the supremacy of Kosala which became very powerful by the conquest of the kingdom of Kāsī. The kingdom of Avanti under Caņdapajjota became so powerful that all the neighbouring states admitted its supre. macy in Western India. The kingdom of Magadha under Bimbisāra extended its supremạoy over the whole of Kajangala along with the kingdom of Anga. In the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta, king Ajātasattu of Magadhả is represented as saying to himself 'I will uproot the Vajjis'. An oxplanation of this grim determination is given by Buddhaghosa. We are told that Ajātasattu and the Licchavis shared between them a big port on the Ganges. At a certain distance from it, there was a mineral mine the produce of which was to be equally divided, as per agreement between the parties. But the terms of the agreement were violated. by the Licchavis. Ajātasattu, fully conscious of the strength of the Licchavis as gañarājās, did not venture to enforce the terms of the agreemont upon them. According to the Jaina Nirayāvali Sūtra, Ajātasattu presented his two uterine brothers, Halla and Vehalla,, with a noble elephant and a costly necklace. After ascending the throne, he demanded back both the presents. Reluctant to return them, his

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136 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
brothers fled away from Magadha and sought the protection of their maternal grandfather, Cetaka, the Licchavi-nāyaka of Vesāli. Ajātasattu having failed to get the things back by peaceful means, declared war against the Licchavis under Cetaka. A fierce battle ensued ending in the victory of the latter. The fact, however, seems to be that when Ajātasattu aspired after the throne of his father, the Licohavis set up a rival claimant. Anyhow the utterance of King Ajātasattu is significant as indicating that previously he was baffled in his attempts to subdue and punish the Licchavis. Ho sent his minister, Vassakāra, to the Buddha who laid much stress upon unity as the real source of their strength. Ajātasattu employed his ministers, Sunidha and Vassakāra, to fortify the village of Pāţaligāma on the Ganges to repel the attacks of the Vajjis and to bring about their disunion in order to weaken them.
Shortly after the death of Bimbisāra, Pasenadi stopped the payment of the revenue of the village of Kāsi which was offered by his father to his sister, as he was not in favour of allowing Ajātasattu, a parricide, to enjoy the income. This• resulted in a war between Magadha and Kosala with the result that Ajātasattu was ultimately defeated and taken prisoner. A treaty was then concluded by the marriage of Pasenadi's daughter, Vajirā

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KINGS AND PEOPLES
137
with Ajātasattu. Pasenadi did not live long after this. Taking advantage of his absence from the capital, Digha-Kārāyana (cārāyaṇa), the commander-in-chief, placed Viąūdabha, a son of Pasenadi, on the throne. The last interview of Pasenadi with the Buddha, as recorded in the Dhammacetiya Sutta,1 took place when both of them were in their eightieth year.
In the Introduction to the Bhaddasāla Jätakas, we read that Viļūdabha marched against the Śákyas on detection of the fraud committed by them by giving his father a slave woman to marry instead of a Sākya girl. He massacred the Sākyas brutally during the Buddha's lifetime. But this story does not tally with the account in the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta in which the Sākyas of Kapilavatthu claimed and received a share of the Buddha's bodily remains.
By the machination of the Magadhan minister, Vassakāra, the unity of the Licchavis was completely destroyed and it became easy for Ajātasattu to conquier Vesāli. After the fall of the Vajjians, it may be supposed that their allies, the Mallas "and the kings of Kāsī and Kosala with their vassals, came under the sway of Ajätasattu.
1 Majjhima, il, p. 118f. % Jataka, 1v, p. 144f.

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138 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
From the dynastic list of the kings in the Purāņas, it appears that Prasenajit of Kosala, Udayana of Vatsa, and Pradyota of Avanti were succeeded each by four or five kings, after which their dynasties came to an end. But the early texts of Jainism and Buddhism have practically nothing to say about their successors after the Buddha's demise. The Pali canon and the Milindapañha record three events with reference to three chronological landMarks, e.g., the First Buddhist Council 1 held during the reign of Ajātasattu shortly after the Buddha's demise, the Second Council o held a century after that and the compilation of the Kathāvatthu during the reign of Dhammāsoka. Further, the Petavatthu mentions king Pingala of Surattha as a subordinate potentate in western India under the Moriyas. This is a clear indication of the fact that at that time the Magadha empire under the Moriyas included the three kingdoms of Kosala, Vamsa and Avanti.
The supremacy of Magadha which reached its zenith during the reign of Dhammásoka, continued even in the midst of many vicissitudes through the reign of the Sungas and their successors.
1 Vinaya Pifaka, Cullavagga, Ch. 11. 2 Ibid., On. 12.

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CHAPTER III
SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC
CONDITIONS
The peoples and kings dealt with in the preceding chapter-dich notmannstitute the whole of the populace of Jambubahia From the point of view of social grades, who were Khattiyas princes, warriors or nobles, who acquired tho right to rule the country by the strength of their arms. The Indo-Aryan society was composed of three other social grades, namely, those represented by the Brāhmaṇas, Vessas and Suddas. Those who accepted this social system based upon the four theoretical divisions of people, were broadly distinguished as Aryans from tho rest of the populace looked down upon as Milakkhas or Mılakkhus (= Mlecchas). In the outer fringes of the Indo-Aryan society, thus conceived and con'stituted, lived the Milakkhas among whom, again, some sections of people camo completely under the sway of members of the Indo-Aryan society, and some maintained their political
1 Jacobi, ZDMG., 48, 417--the Khattaya formula of the Buddhists a B. C. Law, Concepts of Buddhasm, Ch. II (Jäti or caste).
& Digha, ú, p. 284; Samyutta, v, p. 466; Jataka, vi, p. 207 Sumangalavilasini, 1, p. 176; Paramatthaiotika. I. p. 236.

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140 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
JUL
'independence, adhering to their own socia system. Those forming the first category ar broadly classed as five hānajātis or 'low tribes who followed hinasinnas. or 'low trades. Th Yonas and Kambojas of Uttarāpatha ma be mentioned as two typical examples of those who belonged to the second category .
In contradistigation to the toma upper grades of Khattiya ibhanga 1
rāhmaṇa, the Vinaya Suttate womerates the five hinajātis as the Caņņāla, Vena, Nisāda, Rathakāra ( = Cammakāra) and Pukkusa. Of these 'low tribes, the Caņdālas are distinguished from the Pukkusas as corpse-throwers (chamachaddhaka) from the methars and sweepers (pupphachadqhakā). The Voņas are the workers in bamboo, the Rathakäras the workers in leather and the Nesādas the hunters (including the fowlers). In the opinion of Rhys Davids, they were 'aboriginal tribesmen', the last three being horeditary craftsmon. In some of the enumerations, we have mention only of the first two just below the four recognised social grades of Khattiya, Brāhmaṇa, Vessa and Sudda, the implication being that the five despised classes were typified by them. From
1 Anguttara, 1, p. 107; ii, p. 85. & Buddhist India, p. 64. .
5 Anguttara, i, p. 162; iii, p. 214: Khattiya-Brāhmana-Veggām Sudda-Candale-Irukkuse.

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OTAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 141
very manner of enumeration, it is clear that ey were to be linked up with any of the recognised grades, it was with the Suddas. ast, in Panini's Sūtra (ii, 4.10—śūdrānāṁ vasitānām), they are classed with the
aras.
Here Panini distinguishes the Śūdras two classes: (1) the aniravasita, meaning who were not considered outside the pale Indo-Aryan society (abahiskṛta-śūdrāḥ), the niravasita or those who were contside thereof. As explained in thé s, the latter class comprised those were untouchables or pariahs. artapas and the Hadḍipas or illustrations of this class. sita Šūdras, Pāṇini's wherds (cattle
kters, wood
Bhil
om
a
side
Šūdras The Can
malegrahis
As illustration
commentators ment rearers), barbers, gola .carvers, blacksmiths, washer las and fishermen. When a pound is formed of names of the Suck the fold, it has a neuter singular form gopa-näpitam, karmara-kumbhakāram; if names of the Śūdras outside the fold, it has a masculine dual or plural form, e.g., Candala. hadḍipau.
In the Assalāyaṇa Sutta, the Y Kambojas are mentioned as peoples whose social tion only between
ጎ
uring distinc
grades of ayy

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142 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
or master and dāsa or slave, there being impassable barrier at all between the classes. The early texts of Jainism and D dhism do not give us any insight into the sco systom of the Andhakas, Damiļas and .. milakkhas before they adopted the Indo-Alby social scheme.
It will be seen that the social grades defined in the Indo-Aryan social schema all apparently based upon occupationsm s such, they might be taken to deno u ses (senās), or even trade-guilds (Pūgas). Sasthan castes or races. The Brahmanista vart for the conception of society as an en d with the mouth, the arms, the things feet as its four important functia
, none superior, none inferior, there wg of the entire organism departe che harmonious working of all thi
The mouth as symbol of cult
o n is represented by the Brāh
parms as symbol of military strength ***Yaministrative capacity by the Khattiya; Phare thighs as symbol of wealth and economic prosperity by the Vessa; and the feet as symbol of menial work by the Sudda,2 the service beintendered by all the four in four different
the Brahmanist, the society with its fourt h was a natural order, and as 1 Majhima, ti,
dāso hoti, dāso hutud ayyo hoti. . Barua, A History on
Indian Philosophy, p. 33.
W

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1
SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 143
"
such unalterable. The allegorical fancy led him to name the four divisions in terms of vanna, jāti or nikāya. In Pali and other contemporary Indian texts these three terms occur as synonyms.1 The organic conception of society and its allegorical expressions were attractive so long as these were kept within their reasonable bounds. The difficulties arose when the theory was sought to be put into practice and the allegories and metaphors were sought to be interpreted literally, e.g., the term vanna in the sense of distinctive colour or complexion, jati in that of distinctive mode of birth, and nikāya in that of distinct species. The persistent Brahmanical tendency to give a hereditary character to occupational distinctions by birth-right led to the formation of castes and castes within castes. The early records of Jainas and Buddhists reveal a powerful movement of thought counteracting this rapidly increasing tendency.
As regards vanna, jāti or nikaya forming basis of social distinctions, each of them admitted a twofold interpretation: biological and psycho-ethical, biological and social or cultural. The vanna as a biological term meant colour or complexion and as a psycho-ethical-term, & particular colouring or modification of soul o
1 Law, Concepts of Buddhism, p. ¡1.

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144 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED 'IN EARLY TEXTS
man's internal nature. The jāti as a biological term meant birth, pedigroe or relationship, and as an ethical term, a particular mental or moral trait. Similarly the nikāya as a biological term meant a species, and as a social or cultural term, a distinct class, group or body. The claim of correspondence between the two meanings in all cases was absurd. There was no guarantee that one who was bright in complexion was in the same degree bright in internal nature; or that one who was of noble birth was also of noble disposition.
Taking jāti and vanna in their biological senge, Rhys Davids observed: "The basis of social distinctions was relationship; or, as the Aryans, proud of their lighter colour, put it, colour. Their books constantly repeat a phrase as being common amongst the people--and it was certainly at least among the Aryan sections of peoplem-which divided all the world, as they knew it, into four social grades, called colours (vannā). At the head were the Kshatriyas, the nobles, who claimed descent from the leaders of the Aryan tribes. They were most particular as to the purity of their descent through seven generations, both on the father's and the mother's side; and are described, as "fair in, colour, fine in presence, stately to behold, Then came the Brahmins, claiming descent from the sacrificing priests,

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIO OONDITIONS 145
and though the majority of them followed other pursuits, they were equally with the nobles distinguished by high birth and clear complexion. Below these were the peasantry, the people, the Vaisyas or Vessas. And last of all came the Śūdras, which included the bulk of the people of non-Aryan descent, who worked for hire, were engaged in handicraft or service, and were darker in colour. In the Ambattha Sutta, kanhā (blackies) and bandhupādāpaccā (sprung from the feet of Brahmā) are freely applied to the Suddas as two terms of contempt. But the peoples of different complexions became so much intermingled in course of time that the brightness of colour in the natural sense of the term could rarely be relied upon as criterion of superiority of the social grade.
In order to prevent the loss of colour through intermixture and to preserve the national, racial, tribal or family type, it was deemed necessary to impose certain restrictions, rigid more or less, as to connubium or the right of inter-marriage and commensality or the right of eating together.' Aiming at the production and preservation of the best possible type, not only from the physical and mental point of view but also from the family and cultural, the distinotigns and restrictions were based also
Buddhist India, pp. 53-54,

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146 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
upon kula and gotta, the former meaning the collection of cognates and agnates and the latter, the cultural heritage from a highly endowed æşi. The term nikaya may be taken to have comprehended the sense of both kula and gotta.
In the Pāli texts, however, the term gotta has been employed in the sense of ancestry, lineage.' 'It includes all those descended,, or supposed to be descended, from a common ancestor. A gotta name is always distinguished from the personal name, the name drawn from place of origin or residence, or from occupation, and lastly from the nickname. It probably means agnate rather than cognate.'1 In support of this one may indeed cite the description given in the Sutta-nipāta of the Sakyas as: Adiccă nāma gottend, Sākiyā nāma jātiyā, 'known as Adityas by their ancestry, and as Säkyas by their birth'; and the introduction in the Jātakas of Dhananjaya as'a Kuru king of the Yudhitthila-gotta, 'of the stook. of Yudhişthira'.2 But when Vāsudova, a Khattiya, is described as Kanha, i.e., 'one belonging to the Kanhāyana-gotta', 3 the Buddha as Gotama, 'one belonging to the Gotama-gotta', and the Mallas as Vásetthas, 'those belonging
1 Pali-English Dictionary (P.T.S. ed), sub voor gotta
Jätaka, iü, p. 400. 3 Thid. iv, p. 84.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 147
to the Vasettha-gotta', it cannot be maintained that the term gotta stands for ancestral lineage in view of the fact that Kanha, Gotama, Vaseṭṭha and the rest are names of the ancient Rşis who were mostly Brahmins and rarely Khattiyas by their birth. According to the Ambaṭṭha and Tevijja Suttas, the persons, such as Aṭṭhaka, Vamaka, Vamadeva, Vessamitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bharadvaja, Vaseṭṭha, Kassapa and Bhagu, from whom had originated the gottas, were all ancient sages who were composers and promulgators of the mantas or Vedic hymns. As Buddhaghosa suggests, the personal name was meant for recognition, and the gotta or surname for lincage (paññattivasenu nāmam pavenivasena gottam). A history of the gradual division and sub-division of the original ten gotras into many pravaras and śākhās is given in the Divyāvadāna, Ch. xxxiii. Among the Sotthiya-class of Brahmins, many might have been led by sentiment to claim
from those ancient sages. But will always remain open whether l descent implied a line of agnates ken succession of teachers and in the case of gotta, too, there was confusion between the ancestral cultural.
F1 Sumanaalavilāsinī, i, p. 257,

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148 INDIA AS DESCRIBED' IN EARLY TEXTS
Besides vanna, jāti, gotta, bhoga (wealth), 1 and kula, we have mention in the early Pali texts of mâna or prestige as determining a person's family or social status, of which the testing was marriage factor of boys or girls.
VAs for the four vannas forming the four broad divisions of the Indo-Aryan socioty, it should be noted at the outset that the usual order of enumeration, was: the Brāhmaṇas, the Kşatriyas or Rājaṇyas, the Vaisyas and the Sūdras. In the early Buddhist texts, on the other hand, the order of the first two vannas was reversed with the result that the Khattiyas came to be placed first and the Brāhmaṇas just next to them. As regards the remaining two vannas, the order was left undisturbed. The Jainas and Buddhists contended for the precedence of the Khattiyas over the Brāhmaṇas on the Brahmanist's own ground, i.e., the purity of birth through seven generations on the father's as well as the mother's side. The history of the superiority between these two indeed as old as the remote v some of the earlier Upanişads at intellectual and spiritual groun
1 Dhammapada-akhalatha, ü, p. 218: jātiya og usadiso. * Digha, i, p. 99: jötivado iti pi gottavādo iti pil * Ibid., i, p. 99: dvāha-vivdha-vinibandham.

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SOCIAL LIFÐ AND EQONOMIC CONDITIONS 149
triyas were openly claimed to have been entitled. to a superior position.' Throughout the early Jaina and Buddhist texts, a sharp distinction was sought to be drawn between the Brāhmaṇas as they ought to have been and the Brāhmaṇas as they actually were, that is to say, between the ideal and the fact. In drawing a correct picture of the social life in India as revealed in the ancient Jain and Buddhist texts, we are concerned with the Brāhmaṇas as they actually were. As for the other view, even on the frank admission on the part of the Jainas and Brāhmaṇas, there were ideally perfect Brāhmaṇas in the past. Their criterion was applied to the Brāhmaṇas of the time who became degenerated on account of their graduar deviations from the ancient path of purity or morals, absence of greed, contentment and magnanimity. What they themselves aspired to be was the ideally perfect Brāhmaṇa. When the Brāhmaṇa stood theoretically for the ideal, the nature of the claim was not that all those who passed in society as Brāhmaṇas lived or were capable of living up to that ideal. Simi. Jarly, when the Khattiyas contended for the ideal of Jinahood or Buddhahood, the nature of the claim was not that all those who passed in society under the name of Khattiyas became or were capable of becoming Jinas or Buddhas. The claim indeed was that it was among the

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150 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
two upper divisions that there lay the real possibility of the birth of highly endowed persons capable of realising the ideal or ideals and remoulding human civilisation.
In the Dasa-brāhmaṇa-Jātaka, Vidhura, the wise man of the Kuru court, divides the Brāhmaņas into ten categories, classes or types (dasa-brāhmaṇa-jātiyo) and sweepingly criticises them as placed in each category: the Brahmins who went about like physicians (tikicchakasama) with sacks containing sanctified and therefore important medicinal roots and herbs, offering themselves to cure diseases for money. Those who like servants (paricarakasamā) used to ring little bells as they went before "as heralds of kings and their ministers, served as messengers or even followed the calling of wagondrivers. Those who in the garb of ascetics behaved like tax-collectors (niggāhakasamā), determined not to leave the place until something was given to them by way of alms: Those who begged alms in another garb of ascetics with long nails and hairs on the body, etc., and covered with dust and dirt were like diggers of the soil for uprooting the stumps (khāṇughātasamā). Those who like tradesmen (vānijakasamā) used to sell various fruits, planks, wood, sweets, scents, honey and ointment. Those who like the Ambatthas -and the Vessas carried on agricultural trade,.did farming, gave away their daughters for money

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SOCIAL LIFE AND EVONOMIQ OONDITIONS 151
and acted as matchmakers. The Purohitas who interpreted omens, castrated and branded animals and acted as butchers (go-ghātaktā). Those who armed with the sword and the shield and axe guarded the business-quarter and led the caravans through roads infested with robbers and thus resembled the Gopas and Nisādas. Those who in the garb of hermits behaved like hunters (luddakasamā), killed hares, cats, lizards, fish and tortoises. The Yājñikas who in performing the Somayāga for lucre acted like bathers (malamajjanasamâ) to the kings.
Similarly the criticism of the Brahmin position offered in the Pali Väsettha Sutta clearly implies that the Brāhmaṇas of the time followed the pursuits of agriculturists (kassakā), craftsmen (sippikā), order-carriers (pessikā), tradesmen (vānijā), soldiers (yodhājīvā), sacrificers (yājakā) and landlords (rājaññā) as various means of their livelihood.1
In the Fragment on Silas, it is clearly stated that the Brāhmaṇas, seoular as well as religious, parned their livelihood by such low pursuits as those of apothecaries, druggists, physicians and surgeons, priests, occultists and sorcerers, soothsayers, fortune-tellers, palmists, foretellers, interpreters of dreams and signs and
1 Sutta-nipäta, p. 122; Fiok, Social Organisation, yo. 221f.

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152 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
·
omens, calendar-makers, astrologers, appraisers, selectors of lucky sites for the erection of homesteads and buildings and edifices, architects, collectors of alms by diverse tricks and clever devices, story-tellers and ballad-reciters, landholders, traders, cattle-breeders, farmers, matchmakers and messengers. Although they belonged to a religious order, stood for the highest religious ideal, and were expected to live up to that ideal, in practice they appeared as hoarders of wealth and as persons who cared to live the aristocratic life of luxury and of pleasure and of ease and to witness and take part in all worldly amusements, games and sports, feasts and festivities.1
*~/A more correct picture of the Brahmin position in the Indo-Aryan society of the Age may be drawn on the basis of the Buddha's classification of the Brahmanas into five types: Brahmasamā, or those resembling the Brahmā; Devasama, or those resembling the gods; Mariyādā, or those respecting their ancient tradition; Sambhinna-mariyādā, or those disregarding their ancient tradition; and Brāhmaṇa-caṇḍālā, or those who lived a vulgar life. In the first category are placed the Brahmaṇas of high and pure birth through seven generations on both the father's and the mother's side, who
gha, i, p. 4f.; Dialogues of the Buddha, 1, p. 6f.

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SOOTAL LIFE AND EGONOMIC CONDITIONS 153
after the practice of brahmacariyă and the complete study of the four Vodas with all the auxiliary works, took up the position of teachers, depending for their livelihood only on alms, and thereafter renounced the world to live the life of lonely meditation and holy communion. In the second category, are placed those Brāhmaņas who differed from the former only in one respoot, namely, that in the second stage of life they took up the position of married householders and as such they married girls only from their own class. They met their wives in proper time only for the purpose of procreation. Otherwise they lived a life of moral rectitude. In the third category, are placed those Brāhmaṇas who differed from those of the second class only in one respect, namely, that they did not renounce the world in the third stage of life but continued to live a household life, strictly adhering to their ancient tradition. In the fourth category, are placed those Brāhmaṇas who differed from those of the third class only in this respect that they married girls from all social grades, the
das and untouchables included, and insed in sexual intercourse for the purpose of kreation as well as sensual pleasure. , In the
or last category, are placed those Brāhgas who differed from those of the fourth
only in this respect that besides narrying

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154 INDIA AS DESCRIBED, IN EARLY TEXTS girls from all social grades, they adopted with impunity all manner of pursuits, agriculture, trade, cattle-breeding, fighting as soldiers, government service and the rest, as a means of livelihood (sabbakammehi jūvitam kappeti).
The second classification of the Bräbmanas is interesting and important as presenting two sides of the picture in contrast, on one side, supreme worth, moral elevation, intellectual perfection and spiritual fervour, and on the other, worthlessness, moral degradation, dullness and worldly-mindedness.
So far as occupation of the Brāhmaṇas as a basis of social distinction was concerned, we find that the study of the Vedas with all the auxiliary sciences and arts, the teaching of the Vedas along with all sciences and arts useful to the State and to the people at large, and the office of a priest appertaining to the religious part of all social ceremonies constituted their monopoly. If the Khattiyas, Vessas, or even Suddas appeared as their rivals as teachers, it was only in the field of ethics and spirituality.
In speaking of the Brāhmaṇas, the early Jain and Buddhist books place them eithely the usual social environment or in the her tages. In the first connection, they are troduced either as those who were in the ser
Anguttara, ili, p. 2287.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 155 of the king (rājakammikā), or as those who had followed different professions of their own. 'In the second connection, they are introduced as those who went out of the social environments and lived the life of tāpasas or isis in forest homes called assamas with or without their families and resident pupils. Of those in service of the king, the most important was the Purohita. Next to him in importance were the amaccas or maħāmattas (councillors and ministers). The Yăcakas (sacrificers) and others were no better than assistants in the office of the Purohitai. Partly in connection with the king, they held the position of mahāsālas or heads, of Vedic institutions. They came to represent the sotthiya class of Brāhmaṇas who were occasionally' employed by the kings as dütas (ambassadors). The Brahmins also filled the office of senāpatis (generals), and issatthas, or yodhājīvas (soldiers), chariot-drivers, trainers of elephants, legal experts and judges. To the people in general thegungendered services as purohitas and priests, as physicians and druggists, as astronomers and architects, as ballad-reciters and matchmakers. They pursued various other vocations of life as well in their own independent capacities as private citizens. The economic position of the Brāhmaṇas as a class, other than those in high royal service, the mahāsālas, and the few farmers and traders, could not but be

Page #164

156 INDIA AS DESCRIBÚD IN EARLY THXTS voor as they were wholly dependent on an uncertain income from fees, gifts, and alms.
The Purohita occupied a peculiar position in the court. Though in the service of the king, he was not counted among the king's officers. But he was partly entrusted with official functions and surpassed the royal officers in many respects in importance and influence. As house-priest of the king, the Purohita advised him in secular and spiritual matters (atthadhammānusāsako). He acted as the ācariya or preceptor, the sacrificial priest and the house-priest. He was the person to invoke the favour of the gods on behalf of the king or his family, and it was also in his power to do him barm. He performed the sacrifice with the assistance of other Brāhmaṇas to guard against misfortunes suggested through bad dreams, or through some unusual natural phenomena. He was expected to be able to predict the result of all important undertakings on the part of the king by means of signs or constellation of stars. The Purohita was preferably appointed from among the teachers, playmates, comrades or class-fellows of the king, so that he might be always trusted and relied upon as the best friend
1 Fick, op. cit., p. 184.
Jataka, ü, p. 376; wv, p. 270; v, p. 127. Ibid., in p. 834f. ; it, p. 46.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND DUONOMIO CONDITIONS 157 in weal and woe. The guarding of the king's treasures was part of his duties. In one instance, he is described as the king's officer (rājakammika); 8 in another, he replaces the Senāpati in the matter of judicial duties. 4
The office of the Purohita was not necessarily hereditary, though the books record instances where it was held by the same family for generations together to justify the appellation, purohitakula. Bavari, for instance, was born in the family of Pasenadi’s Purohita, and was the teacher of Pasenadi during his boyhood. But there are many other instances where the king was at liberty to appoint his own Purohita. It was, however, considered a legitimate expec. tation that after the death of Purohita he would be succeeded in his post by his son. When Govinda, the Purohita of king Disampati of Videha, died, his son Jotipāla was appointed in his post at the suggestion of the crown-prince, Renu. The' Purohitas of the six sub-kings were trained by Mahāgovinda.? In the SusimaJätaka, we read that after the death of the
1 Jataka, i, p. 289; ii, p. 282; ili, p. 31. 2 Ibid., iü, p. 513f. 8 Ibid., i, p. 489.
Ibid., ii, p. 187f. 6 Ibid., i, p. 437. 6.Paramatthajotika, II, p. 580. 7 Digha, ü, p. 230f.; Arguttara, li, p. 373. 8 Jätaka, ü, p. 48f.

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158 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
Purohita other Brāhmaṇas objected to the consecration of the State elephant by his son on the ground that he was still too young and was wanting in scriptural knowledge. The main source of income of the Purohitas was the fees and gifts received from the kings on all festive occasions and at the time of sacrifices. The gifts included land-endowments, women, maidens, slaves, male and female, and livestocks. Fick seems to be right in his suggestion that here lay the origin of the landed property and worldly prosperity of the Purohitas. Among the Purohitas appointed from among the Brāhmaṇas versed in the Vedic lore, Mahāgovinda, Bavari and others may be singled out as those who were Brahmasama-brāhmaṇas. There were others who were either unworthy of the office they held or whose virtue did not come up to the Brahmanio ideal.
In the monarchies, the Brahmins figure among the amaccas and manāmättas 1 who, too, were rich and influential by virtue of the office held by them. The strength and quality of administration largely depended on their honesty and efficiency. They were the great diplomats and specialists in the rules of royal polity. In the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta, we have mention of Sunidha and Vassakāra as two able Brah
Cf, ZDMG., 37, pp. 287, 275.

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SOOTAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 159
maņa ministers of king Ajātasattu under whose supervision the village of Pāțaligāma was fortified and the city of Pāļaliputta was built. It was again by the tactful machination of Vassakāra that the strong unity of the Vajjian confederacy was broken and the Vajjīs could be easily conquered. Cāņakya under whose guidance Candragupta was able to found the powerful Moriyan empire in India, belonged to this official rank.
The Sarab'langa-Jätaka speaks of Jotipāla, son of the Purohita of the king of Benares by a Brahmin wife, who was appointed commandor-in-chief, musavat borcukor his great mastery and skill in ar
e n he was first appointed, his da d was one thousand kahāpaņas and after had defeated 500 archers in an open contest, it was increased to one hundred thousand. In appreciation of his high proficiency, all the people of Kāsi offered him money, which amounted to eighteen hundred crores.1
In the Buddha's time, there lived at Ekanālā in Dakkhiņagiri a Brāhmaṇa of the Bhāradvaja olan, who was a rich agriculturist. Five hundred ploughs were needed to cultivate the fields owned by him. On the day of the festive sowing (mangalavappa), he used to distribute
1 Jätaka, v, p. 127f,

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160 INDIA. AS DESORIBBU, IN BARLY TEXTS •food to a very large number of people. The Somadatta-Jataka, on the other hand, relatos the story of a poor Brāhmaṇa farmer who bimself ploughed his field and whose son was a pādamülika or menial in a royal court, The Jătakas record other instances where the Brāhmaṇa farmers drove the plough with their own hands.
In the Mahāsutasoma-Jätaka, we see that a wealthy Brāhmaṇa was engaged in trade. He Darried on trade between the east-end and west-end of India, transporting his goods in 500 wagons. We read also of ordinary Brahmaņa tradesmen andhawla ho roamed about in the country,
wares. The Phandana-Játou. As the story of a Brāhmana who took to profession of a carpenter (vaddhaki), collecting wood from the forest and making wagons for sale. In a rare instance, we find that a Brāhmaṇa youth who lived in a frontier village, earned his livelihood by selling the hunted beasts. The roason, as suggested by Fick, was purely economio.
1 Sutta-nipāta, Kasi-Bharadvaja Sutta; Samyutta, i, p. 171t.; E. J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha, p. 117. » Jataky, ü, p. 86.
Ibid., iü, p. 162; iv, p. 278. * Ibid., v, p. 471. Ibid., ii, p. 18.
8 Ibid., iv, p. 207. 7 Ibid., di, p. 200.
& Fick, op. cit., p. 247.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIO CONDITIONS 161
Some of the Jätakas speak of Brāhmaņas and Brāhmaṇa family of great wealth and influence (addhā, mahaddhanā, mahābhogā, mahāsälakulā). They mention some Brāhmaṇas whose wealth amounted to eighty crores (asītikoţi-dhanavibhavā).1
According to Pali scholiasts, the MahäsālaBrāhmaṇas were those who were men of substance (mahāsārā), whose hoarded wealth amounted to eighty crores. But the Mahagovinda Suttanta describes them as heads of the Vedic colleges. The Pali stock list of eminent Kosalan Brāhmaṇa Mahāsālas contained the names of Canki, Tārukkha, Pokkharasāti, Jāņussoņi, Todeyya and Lohicca. Of them, Canki was established at Opasāda," Tārukkha at Icchanankala, Pokkharasāti at Ukkatthā, Jāņussoņi at Săvatthi, Todeyya at Tudigāma and Lobicca at Salâvati. Each of them lived in a royal domain, given to him as a royal fief by king Pasenadi. Similarly we Toad of Kūţadanta who was established at -Khāņumata in Magadha and of Soņadanda who was established at Campā. They lived each in a royal domain, given to him as a royal fief by king Bimbisāra. The localities where
1 Jätaka, u, p. 272; iv, pp. 15, 22. 3°Paramatthajotild, II, p. 313. , & Digha, ü, p.
Law, Srāvasti, p. 18. 5 Law, Rājagre' p. 36; Dāgha, i, pp. 111, 127.

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162 INDIA AS DESCRIBED, IN FARLY TEXTS they lived with their disciples became known as Brāhmanagåmas.
As observed elsewhere, these Brāhmaṇas became rich and powerful only bocause of certain permanent land-grants and endowments, made by the kings. The localities, as the description goes, full of life and covered with much grassy land, woodland and corn fields around Northern India, were dotted over with such Brāhmaṇagāmas. The Brāhmaṇas as Makāsālas had a control over them as regards their revenue and the judicial and the civil administration, as was determined by the terms of royal grauts (rājadeyyam brahmadeyyam). The Purohitas in respect of learning and social status belonged to this very class of Brahmins.
In the Brāhmana texts, two privileges are claimed for the Brāhmaṇas, namely, unmolestibility and immunity from execution. They were not required to pay rents in so far as the land-endowments were concerned. The Pali texts do not bear testimony to any privind position enjoyed by them in the eye of the law. It is clearly stated in the Madhura Sutta that a criminal, whether a Brāhmaṇa or not, was liable to execution. The -Játakas dofinitely speak of the execution of Brāhmaṇas. The
1 Law, Srävasti, p. 16; Fiok, op. cit., p. 244.
Majjhima, ü, p. 83f.. 8 Jataka i, p. 439; Flok, op. oit., p. 212.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 163
early Buddhist and Jain texts recording instanong where the Brāhmaṇas discharged worldly duties along with sacerdotal functions. • It should also be noted that even in the Buddha's time, the Udioca Brāhmaṇas, meaning the Brāhmaṇas who either belonged to KuruPañçāla 1 or those who claimed descent from, them, occupied a pre-eminent position among':. the Brāhmaṇas . as class.2. The epithet brahmabandhu (Brahma's favourite) was applied
at first as a term of contempt to the Brāhmaņas : of Magadha. But their position gradually
improved so far that in the Aranyaka period their views were quoted with respecto
The Khattiyas represented the ruling class, family, tribe or clan, claiming the Aryan descent. Wherever they founded a territory or colony, they lived either under a monarchical or a tribal, oligarchical or republican form of govern." ment. In monarchies, the kings were their best representatives. The members of a Boyal family passed as Khattiyas. In oligarchies, such ais, those of the Licohavis, Mallas and sākyas, all the members bore the family title of rājā, which means a leading member of the
1JRAS., 1920, 90£. ::
2. Játaka, i, pp. 324, 366, sto. :3 Aitareya-Brahmana, vii, 29; Katyāyana Srautasütra, xxii, 4.22; Latyāyana, viii; 6.28; Fiok, op. cit., p. 215. ...
Vedic Index, ii, p. 116.

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164 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
ruling clan. The royal families originated from the reigning kings through succession.
The Khattiyas as a class were expected to be warriors by their training and occupation. They had, theoretically at least, the right to rule, maintaining internal order and peace and protecting their territories against their enemy. But the reigning king was not necessarily a man of the Khattiya family. In the Jatakas we read that where the reigning kings having been considered unworthy of the throne, the people in a body replaced them each by a Brāhmaṇa. In the event of a king's death he was generally succeeded by the Uparājā (viceroy) appointed by him. The Uparājā "might be either the deceased king's younger brother or his eldest son by his chief queen. When, after the death of Mahākamsa of Asitañjana, his elder son, Kamsa, became king, be made his younger brother, Upakamsa, the U parājā. The same thing happened as to Sågara, king of Madhurā, and his younger brother, Upasāgara.? Among the ten sons of Upasāgara and Devagabbhā, one was anointed as king-overlord and the rest were to take up the position of subordinate potentates. As a rule, as pointed out by Fick, the sons of the
1 Jātaka, i, p. 326.
Ibid., iv, p. 79. 3 Ibid., in, p. 81f.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 165
queen consort (aggamahesi), who was to be of the same caste as the king, were considered legitimate heirs to the throne, the eldest or fittest of them being chosen for kingship. But this legitimacy was not always regarded as an essential condition. In one instance, we find that the reigning king appointed the son of a woman wood-gatherer as the Uparājā, who duly succeeded to the throne. The Mudupāņi. Jätaka offers us an instance where the king made his nephew (sister's son) and son-in-law his successor. During the reign of king Bhatiya of Magadha, his son Bimbisāra ruled the newly conquered kingdom of Arga as his viceroy.
In the absence of the Uparājā appointed by the deceased king, the kingdom usually devolved on his son, preferably on the eldest son, by his chief queen. When a king died without an heir, the duty fell upon the Purohita to find out a worthy successor. In all cases, the formal anointment of a person as king depended upor the consent and combined will of the courtiers o: the deceased king and his subjects.
The king was freely recognised as the foremos of men (rājā mukham manussānam). The fan, diadem, sword, umbrella and slipper constituted the five regalia (pañcavidhakakudhā)
Fick, op. oit., p. 123. 3 Ibid., i, p. 323f. 6 Vinaya Mahāvagga, vi, 35.8.
% Jätaka, i, p. 133; iv, p. 148 4 IVid., ii, p. 238; cf. iv, p. 3!

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166 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
The majesty of his person, brightness in his appearance, stateliness in his presence, power in his will, force in his command and pomp attaching to his court made the position of the king a highly coveted one among men; so also was the case of the queen among women. The tasting of sumptuous food and drink, dalliances with the ladies of the harem, sleeping on a rich and costly bed, entertainment given by the courtezans excelling in the art of dancing, singing and instrumental music, and unrestrained joy in a processional drive to the royal pleasure-garden are mentioned and described as the five private enjoyments by which a person might be attracted to kingship.1
In theory a king of a Khattiya family was to marry a princess from the royal house of equal social rank. In practice, however, he could or did actually marry girls and women from all social grades at his sweet will and promote them to the rank of his queens. The number of queens did not generally exceed three or five. When a vacancy occurred, specially in the rank of the chief queen, it was filled up by promotion or
1 Jätaka, v, p. 505f.
2 King Udena of Varpsa, for instance, had five queens: Samāvatī, the adopted daughter of his treasurer Ghosaka, Māgandiya, a Brahmin girl, Gopalamătă, daughter of a peasant, Vasuladatta, daughter of Candapajjota and Sagarika, daughter of a Sinhalese king. See Malalasekera, op. cit., i, p. 379f; Law, Ancient Mid-Indian Ksatriya Tribes, p. 136.

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SOOTAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 167
new appointment. The royal harem was filled with molens and women from all social grades. The high-class courtezans who were not allowed to live within the palace compound, came also into close personal contact with the king. The books contain instances where, even in historical times, princes were begotten on them, e.g., Prince Abhaya, son of Bimbisāra, was born of Ambapālī. The Jätakas mention an instance in which Vasudeva saw a Candāli on his way to the park, and in spite of her low birth, married her, making her his chief queen. Her son, Sivi, succeeded to the throne of Dväravati. Some of the kings were so profligate in their ways that no handsome women could escape them. The fate of the captured queens depended on the victor's whims and caprices. In the new household, they sometimes had to exchange places with their maids. Even the father employed the dancing girls to persuade his sons to indulge in worldly pleasures. The want of a male issue to succeed to the throne was keenly felt in the royal family as well as by the subjects. In an extraordinary case, the king having no son by any of the women in his harem, let out in the streets the queens and all, for a week from time to time under a religious sanction (dhammanātaka). In Pali literature,
1 Jätaka, v, p. 279.

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"
168 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXÍ
the birth of king Candapajjota is said to have resulted from an appointment and hol contact. Thus the king with the princes and courtiers as well as landed and business aristocrats may be shown to have played the part of subverters of the social order and social morality. With them polygamy was the rule and monogamy the exception, with the result that the princes of the royal blood and sons of the Brahmins were distinguished by the names of their mothers, e.g., Ajàtasattu Vedehiputta, Săriputta, Moggaliputta, even the Barhut Gateway inscription of Dhanabhūti bearing a clear testimony to this. It was a custom among the Vajjis, as noted before, to make courtezans (ganikās) from girls of perfect beauty.
The marrying of the maternal uncle's daughter was prevalent in some of the royal families, as also among certain ruling clans, such as, the Šakyas and Koliyas. The tradition of polyandry is associated, in the Jātakas and Great Epic, with the five sons of Pandu and Kanha, described in the former as daughter of the king of Kāsī, and in the latter as daughter of king Drupada. The Pali legend of the Šākyas
1 Buddhistic Studies, ed. by B. C. Law, Chap. VII.
2 Even a righteous king like Asoka had queens more than ore. Jataka, ii, p. 323.
Prince Siddhartha married Rahulamāta who was his maternal" uncle's daughter.

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AT LIFE AND EGONOMIC CONDITIONS 169 o f their ancestors as princes of the Okkāka
So, under the pressure of circumstances, man ir own sisters. The legend records only ne thout implying that this form of marriage stomary among the Sākyas. The prevala d s, as a pre-historic custom, is presuppos e d, by the DasarathaJātaka ? and that of Yama and Yami in the Ķgveda.
The princes of the roya en generally eager, at the instigation of to secure the throne at the expense of their others, the reigning kings. When they showed such a tendency or when their intrigue was detected, the king either imprisoned them or sent them to exile, or made them Uparājās, allowing them to actively participate in the administration of the kingdom, or a part of it. In the Buddha's time, Prince Viļūdabha seized his father's throne with the aid of the general, Dīghakārāyaṇa.
In the Pali Suttas, kings are distinguished as belonging to three ranks: cakkavattī or overlord, issara or adhipati, and padesarājā. In all the three ranks, they were absolute rulers or despots, benevolent or otherwise, so far as the internal administration of the empire, kingdom or province, was concerned. The main
1 Jātaka, v, p. 426; Sumangalavilāsini, i, p. 268. 3 Ibid., iv, p. 123f.

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170 INDIA AS DESCRIBED, IN EARLY TE
sources of their income were the land duties on trade commodities, unclaim w and presents on festive occasions. pear to have owned private lands, and o nial ploughing or sowing by them
other big farmers, was one of the estivals of the year. The conquest kingdom and annexation of a new
t
bled the victors to obtain abunda
The victory celebrations
ne of the memorable festive
Hunting of deer was a favourite time of many kings. The happiness and joy of the subjects greatly depended on the good rule and righteousness on the part of the ruler, and their misery and distress on his misrule. The chariots of the kings were drawn by four horses of superior breed, all-white in colour. The state-elephant preferably allwhite, was a special object of veneration, and according to popular belief, the welfare of the kingdom or territory depended on its auspicious presence. The famine due to drought was sought to be remedied by the presence of such elephants. The state-elephant bore special names, 0.g., Puņdarīka. The Indian army was composed of the elephant-riders,
1 Jataka, iv, p. 167. 2 Ibid., v, p. 98.
Tbid., 11, p. 368f. 4 Pundańka was the name of the state-elephant of king Pasenadi.

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SPCIAL LIFE AND BOONOMIO CONDITIONS 171 atístry, charioteers and infantry. The mockfights, I calls, marching of troops through the streets, and the like were no doubt enjoyable sights. The seasonal festivals, announced from time to time, were observed. The Samajjās or Samājas afforded occasions for big feasts, musical entertainments, dramas, operas, balladrecitations, improvisation of verses, wrestling, bouting, duels, bull-fights, buffalo-fights, cockfights, and the rest. The remission of taxes and release of prisoners were two of the traditional acts of the king's mercy. The construction of roads and bridges, excavation of tanks, sinking of wells, planting of shade-trees, erection of publio halls, laying out of parks and gardens, maintenance of alms houses, provisions against drought and famine in the shape of public granaries and storehouses were the most notable among the works of social piety. The king was not only the head of the executive but also the supreme administrator of justice and final court of appeal for criminal cases. In peacetime, the Senāpatis, as the king's deputies, functioned as judges." As for the administration of criminal justioe, the best system was one which prevailed anlong the Vajjians, which consisted of several courts, the lowest.being represented by the Vohārikas and the highest
Jätaka, ü, p. 186.

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172 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
by the rājā or President. One of the termediate courts was a tribunal congruituted by representatives of the eight confederate clans (atthakulikā). The lower court could acquit the accused on its own authority but in order to punish him, had to refer the case to the next higher court.1
Along with the prevention of famine, the suppression of thieves (corā) was one of the principal tests of a successful reign. The 'famines, distinguished in the Divyāvadāna (p. 131) into three kinds—Cañcu, Svetästhi (= Pali Setaţthika) and Salākāvștti, occurred mainly on account of the dearth of rain-water (anāvrsti). But the failure of crops or scarcity of food was due as well to floods, the action of fire and similar other causes. The Divyāvadāna preserves a tradition of a twelve-year-famine of the Svetāsthi type which caused a dire distress to the people of Kāsī; the Vinaya. Pitaka mentions a famine which broke out in Northern India during the Buddha's time and the Jaina tradition refers to one during the reign of Candagutta Moriya.
The coras, as distinguished from ordinary thieves, were as follows:- burglars (sandhichedakā), plunderers of villages (gāmaghātacorā), highway robbers (panthaghātacorā), message
1 Law, Some Kpatriýa Tribes of Ancient India, pp. 102-103. 2 Vinaya, iii, p. 6; iv, p. 23.
- $ Samyutta, ü, p. 188,

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 173
senders (pesanakacorā) and criminal tribes living in foren af atavicorā). They were either isolated individuals or formed different gangs, each under a ring-leader (corajettha). The criminal laws provided for brutal and horrible forms of punishment, including putting on stakes and throwing down from a precipice, from which circumstances the precipice of a Rājagaha hill became known as Corapapāta. Sometimes the oppressive rulers or their officers were in league with the gangs of thieves or robbers." In a solitary instance, an educated Brahmin youth turned out to be a fierce highway robber and became an object of great terror to the people of Kosala and even to so powerful a king as Pasenadi. Among the epidemics, the most virulent was known as ahivātakaroga, which was a kind of plague that broke out at Rļājagaha, Sãvatthi and other places. The free supply of medicinal roots, fruits and herbs was another act of social piety on the part of the righteous king.2 - The Ratthikas, Pettanikas and Bhojakas were three classes of royal officers as well as hereditary feudal lords or landowners and landholders. They seem to have been represented mostly by the Khattiyas.
1 Majjhima, i, p. 101f.
% Law, Drugs and Diseases knowu to the early Buddhists, in Woolner Commemoration Volume, p. 163.

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174 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS - Though the Khattiyas were the waptiors
par excellence, the recruits to the military regiments of a kingdom or a territory were not necessarily all Khattiyas. As noted before, even those born of Brāhmaṇa families adopted the profession of Yodhājīvas. In the Jātakas, however, the Uggaputtas occupying superior military ranks are all described as Khattiyas. In a notable instance, we find that a Khattiya prince renounced his right to kingship in favour of his sister and took to trade as his profession on this condition, however, that his brothers, the reigning kings, would exempt him from the payment of duties and taxes. This fact goes only to prove that even the Khattiya traders, if not otherwise exempted, were as much liable to pay duties and taxes as other members of the trade. The same as to the gahapatis whether they were Khattiyas, Brāhmaṇas or Vessas. There were wealthy and influential persons among the Khattiyas as among other classes of people. It is only those Khattiyas, among whom the tribal tradition formed a strong social tie, who were naturally inclined towards endogamy and strict adherence to the rules of commensality. ✓ Though the term gahapati in its general sense was applicable to all who lived the life of
1 Jätaka, iv, p. 84.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 175
a kivuseholder, irrespective of classes or social' grades, general usage it was restricted to the seţthis or bankers who were the best representatives of the Vessas. They were the gahapatis par excellence, just as the Khattiyas were the Warriors par excellence. There are single instances of gahapatis: Anāthapiņdika, Mendaka, Citta, Nakulapitā, Potaliya, Sandhāna and Hāliddhikāni, where gahapati 'almost assumes the function of a title'.1 The canonical Pali texts speak often of the Khattiya-mahāsālas or wealthy nobles, Brāhmaṇa-mahäsālas or wealthy Brahmins and Gahapati-mahāsālas or wealthy gentry. Buddhaghosa gives the minimum monetary strength of each of the three classes of mahāsālas, that of the Khattiya being the highest. The gahapatis as financiers figured as highly important persons in the royal court. As bankers they controlled the whole of trade and commerce, agriculture and industry. They were at the same time the business magnates in a city or town. They married within their own class, their main consideration at thom time of marriage being samānajāti and samānagotta.* Their wives end daughters as female members of'aristocratic families strictly observed the Purdah system, and as such
1 Rhys Davids and Stede, Pali-English Dict., sub voce gahapati. * Supta, i, p. 71; Noddes, z (Calla-v.), Bec. 18." & Law, Srävasti, p. 1A. Dhammapada-affhakatha, ü, p. 218,

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176 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
* remained concealed from public view have and except on a day of roligious, for suival.1 Besides the kings and wealthy nobles, there were others who could well afford to keep and maintain the gaņikās or prostitutes. An idea of the cash hoardings of the rich bankers of the time might be gathered from the fact, however exaggerated, that the banker Anāthapiņņika of Sävatthí easily spent fifty-four crores of gold coins for the purchase of Prince Jeta's garden, Erection of a monastic establishment thereon and its formal and festive consecration. The hoards had to be carried as cart-loads. A single piece of jewellery presented to Visākha' by her father-in-law, the banker Migāra, cost him one bundred thousand. As dowry she received from her father, Dhananjayasetthi of Säketa and originally of Rājagaha, five hundred carts full of money, five hundred carts full of vessels of gold, etc., ghee, rice, husked and winnowed, alsa ploughs, ploughshares and other farm implements, and five hundred carts with three slave-women in each, along with big cattle, bulls and milch cows.
Though by definition the Vessas formed the third grade of the Indo-Aryan society with
ze :
on
1 Dhammapada-afthakatha, ir, p. 100f. % Vinaya, Oullavagga, vi, 4.9c; Jataka, i, p. 92. 9 E. J. Thomas, The Life of Buddha, pp. 105-6. - Malalasekera, op. cit., i, p. 901,

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (177) trade and commerce, agriculture and farming' as the listinctive occupation, in point of fact, there was hardly any social grade which did not participate in production, distribution, export and import, sale and purchase of trade commodities. So on the basis of occupation alone, the social distinction accorded to the Vessas as a class could not be maintained. Trade and farming as the occupation of the Vessas could be taken to mean that the economic aspect of social lifo was dominated by persons born in the Vessa families, especially the gahapatis.
In the Apadāna, a young banker (sexțhiputta) gives the following description of himself, Born in the family of a banker, he was endowed with the five pleasures of the senses. While inside his palatial residence, he was entertained by the dancing girls with music, vocal and instrumental, and operas. The young and childish maidens and others of the female retinue 'pleased and teased him with jokes and Pranks. The barbers, bath-attondants, cooks, wreath-makers, jewellers, acrobats and wrestlers made him gay day and night. The poor and needy, all classes of beggars and vagrants , appeared at his door along with religious mendicants of various denominations. The traders and merchants from various countries, even those from the distant kingdom of China,

Page #186

go
(178)INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
(Çinaraṭṭha) and Soppabhumi (Suvannabhami) visited him. The basket-makers Lukārā), weavers (pesakārā), leather-workers (cammakārā), carpenters (tacchaka), metal-workers (kammārā), blacksmiths, goldsmiths, tinsmiths, jewellers (maṇikārā), potters (kumbhakārā), cloth merchants (dussikā), bow and arrow makers (usukārā, cāpakārā), perfumers (gandhikā), tailors (tunnavāyā), dyers (rajakārā), oilmen (telikā), fuel-suppliers (katthahārā), waterbarriers (udahārā), household servants (pessikā), cooks (sūpikā), artists or clerks (rūpadakkhā), door-keepers (dovārikā), sentinels (anīkaṭṭhā), drain-cleaners (sandhika), sweepers (pupphacchaḍḍakā), elephant-riders (hatthārokā), and élephant-trainers (hatthipala) used to visit him either for jobs and orders or for selling their wares.1
-
In a well-laid city or town, rooms had to be made for the residence of the various classes of Khattiyas, Brahmanas, Vessas, Suddas elephant-riders, horsemen, chariot-drivers, footsoldiers, bowmen, sword-bearers, standardbearers, adjutants, suppliers of food to the army, uggas (high-born warriors), military scouts, brave and valiant fighters, helmet-wearers and other fighting units, slaves, wage-earners, wrestlers, cooks, hotel-keepers, barbers, bath
Apadana, n, p. 357f.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (179) atı andants, turners, wreath-makers, goldsmiths; silverd..iths, workers in lead, tin, iron and brass, blacksmiths, jewellers, weavers, potters, leatherworkers, chariot and wagon-makers, ivoryworkers, rope-makers, comb-makers, spinners, basket-makers, bow, string and arrow-makers, decorators, paint-makers, dyers, washermen, tailors, money-exchangers, cloth-merchants, perfumors, grass-cutters and fodder-suppliers, fuel-suppliers, servants, sellers of leaves, fruits and roots, sellers of rice and sweetmeats, sellers of fish, moat and wine, professional actors, dancers, acrobats, magicians, ballad-reciters, corpse-burners, sweepers, venas, nesādas, courtezans, dancing girls, slave girls carrying water, and traders and merchants from various countries and places.
The hereditary craftsmen, or those who followed professional callings, such as those of architects, mechanics, carpenters, smiths, masons, ivory-workers, dyers, weavers, carriagebuilders, leather-workers, potters, jewellers, fishermen, butchers, and the rest, organised themselves into various guilds (senis, pūgas), agreeing to be governed by their own laws and customs. They funotioned either as producers, manufacturers, suppliers or sellers. There was
.
1 Law, Concepts of Buddhism, p. 241. 2 Milinda, p. 331

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180 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
'no hard and fast line to be drawn betweentöne and the other, for the producer or the manufacturer might himself appear to be a seller, shop or storekeeper. Those who followed a common profession, were led by a gregarious instinct to settle down or live in one and the same locality, from which circumstance the localities came to be distinguished as vaạạbakigāma, kammāra-gāma, kumbhakāra-găma, and the like. By their habitual adherence to the rules of marriage and eating within their own class or group, the guilds were being hardened into castes. The social process was further complicated by the general tendency to segregate one class of workers from another within the same profession, the oil-pressers, for instance, being distinguished from the owners of oilmanstores, the elephant-trainers from the elephantdrivers, the coach-builders from the coachdrivers. Among the barbers, washermen, shampooors, eto., the degrees of their family prestige depended on their working for the royal household or for that of the courtiers, noblemen, senāpatis, purohitas, and the like. The gradation proceeded almost by insensible degrees. Although, as a rule, the Vessas, Suddas, and outcastes did not or could not aspire to marry from the Khattiya and Brāhmaṇa families, it was not always possible to prevent - the intermingling of the various classes.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 181
1'e traditional number of cities and towns, n Jambudipa varies from sixty to eighty-four housand, which is evidently an exaggerated igure. Sixteen were the great countries, as we noted, and six were the most prosperous and flourishing cities. The bulk of the populace ived in gāmas or villages. The number of inhabitants in a village might vary from thirty to one thousand families. The common occupation of the villagers was agriculture or farming. The cultivable lands around the villages were known as gamakhettas. Every care was taken to protect them from dangers. Fences 1 (vatì) were erected as protection against wild animals, and snares 2 were laid to catch wild birds. Watchmen 3 were appointed to keep watch on them. Care was taken to irrigate the fields.*
1
The holdings might be small enough which could be managed by the members of one family with the help, in some cases, of a hired man', or they might be big enough, extending over one thousand karisas (acres) or more."
The khettas were cultivated by means of ploughs driven by oxen." Soil was turned with
1 Jātaka, i, 215.
2 Ibid., i, 143.
8 Ibid., ii, 110.
Ibid., iv, 167; v, 412.
Ibid., i, 277.
Ibid., iii, 293.
7 Ibid., ii, 166

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(182 INDIA AS DESCRIBED" IN EARLY TEXTS spades and watered by means of condits. Seeds were sown at the usual time anu crops, when ripe, were cut, threshed on a prepared mould (khalamandala) and then taken to the granary.
Various kinds of crops were grown on the soil. Rice was the chief article of food 1 and grown abundantly. There is mention of different kinds of rice, viz., sāli, vīhi, tanqula, etc. Of the other food crops, the chief were barley (yava) and millet (kangu), grams, beans and sugarcane. Cocoanut trees were cultivated on an extensive scale.
Besides these there were grown spices like pepper (marica), mustard, dry ginger, garlic, oilseeds like castor, fibre crops like cotton. These were the chief agricultural produces. Grass was collected for domestic animals.
Among the domestic animals, cattle were held in high esteem as a source of wealth. Dairy farming was in an advanced state and there was an abundant supply of milk, curd, butter and ghee. Sheep were reared for wool and other necessities.
There were jungles all over the country. Trees were cut for wood and* timber. A number of people liked animal hunting in forests. There was a regular industry of catching birds like
1 Jätaka, i, 340 & Ibid. 1. 339: ucсhulkhettänikorontā .

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SOCIAL LIFE AND EQONOMIO CONDITIONS 183 ! paigts, peacocks, quails, partridges, mallards, o etc., by means of snares that were sold in the markets..
The land was enjoyed by the cultivators by the payment of a tithe to the kings' in the monarchies. Tithe was caloulated as a sharel of the raw produce levied in kind, the amount' varied from 1/6 to 1/12 portion of the produce. It was levied according to the wish of the ruler and was collected at the barn doors 1 or in the
fields by the village syndicate, or headmah : (gâmabhojaka) or by an official (mahāmatta).
The king could dispose of all abandoned and forest lands, as he liked and all ownerless lands were acquired by the crown. The king could remit the tithe to any person. In case of cultivated lands, owners. could sell or dispose of them in any way they liked. · The agricultural produces and industrial goods were sold in markets, inland and foreign. The inland and foreign trades flourished side by side. The export and import of goods were carried on along land-routes and water-routes. Accordingly the merchants and traders were distinguished as thalapathakammikā or those who followed landsroutes, and jalapathakam. mikä or those who followed water-routes.
* Dagha, i, p. 87..
: 1. Jataka, ii, p. 378. ... 18 Jataka, iv, p. 169.. .
* Ibid., i, p. 121.

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(184 INDIA AS DESORIBÓD, IN EARLY TEXTS
As regards the inland land-routes, two were he main: Dakkhiņāpatha or the south frestern route which extended from Rājagaba to Patitthāna on the Godhāvarī via Sävatthi and Sāketa,1 and Uttarāpatha or the north-western route which extended from Săvatthi and Kosambi to Takkhasilā via Madhurà across the sandy desert of Rajputana. There were also local roads connected with these two great routes. The Apaņņaka-Jātaka speaks of the five kinds of wild (kantārā): the maru, vaņņu or nirudaka (sandy), cora (insested with robbers), vāļa (infested with wild animals), amanussa (dominated by evil spirits), and appabhakkha (where food was scarce). Thus the journey through them was perilous. The merchants and traders who used wagons or bullock-carts were known as Satthavāhā or caravan merchants. A caravan consisted, in some instances, of five hundred wagons and its course was guided by a land-pilot (thalaniyāmaka), the direction being determined in relation to the position of stars. The fords were crossed with the help of boats, and when the river-beds dried up, with the help of strong local bulls or bullocks.
1 Sutta-nipāta, vv, 976-7 and 1011–13; Buddhist India, pp. 30f. and 103.
2 Jataka, i, p. 99. 8 Ibid., i, p. 107f.; Digha, i, p. 73; Majjhima, i, p. 276.
Ibid., i, p. 107. 6 Ibid., 1, p. 194f.

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SOOTAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS (185
the Jātakas testify to the existence of trade-' relations between Benares and Ujjain,1 Videha and Kasmira-Gandhāra,? Benares and SẼvatthi, Rajagaha and Sāvatthi, Magadha and Sovira. The Satthavāhas had to carry arms as protection against highway robbers and other contingencies. The merchandise was transported by means of country boats that plied along the rivers of Jambudīpa, upwards along the Ganges as far west as Sahajāti, along the Yamunā as far as Kosambī; downwarchs along the Ganges as far as Campā and Tāmalitti.
Foreign trade was carried on by sea, and in some instances, partly by sea and partly by land, The Bäveru-Jätaka speaks of India's maritime intercourse with Babylonia, described as a birdless country. The Suppāraka-Jātaka relates the voyage of a merchant ship carrying six hundred passengers for four months across the six seas, the destination not given. The Sankha-Jätaka offers us an account of the wreck of a merchant ship on its way to Suvannabhūmi, the ship being 800 cubits in length, 600
1 Jataka, u, p 248.
2 Ibrd, w, p 365 8 Ibrd., 11, p 294f 4 Sutta-mpāta, vv, 1012-3; Buddhrst Indra, p 103. 6 Jumänavalthu-atthakatha, p. 336. & Buddhist Indra, p. 108. 7 Jätaka, No. 339. & Iord., No. 463.

Page #194

1
186 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
in width and 20 fathoms in depth. In this case, the merchant was a Brāhmaṇa of Benares.1 The Silanisamsa-Jātaka narrates the story of the wreck of another merchant ship in the midst of the ocean. In this instance, the merchant was a barber.2 The Samuddavānija-Jātaka narrates the story of the arrival at an island in the sea of a thousand families of carpenters in a large ship built by them. The MahajanakaJātaka relates the story of how Mahajanaka reached Suvarnabhumi from Videha in a ship with an accommodation for seven hundred caravans with their beasts. The ship is said to have made 700 leagues in seven days. The ValāhassaJātaka tells us the story of the arrival of five hundred shipwrecked merchants from Benares at the town of Sirisavatthu in Tambapannidipa, the inhabitants of which were mostly daring sea-going merchants. A matriarchal system of society prevailed in this part of the country owing to the uncertainty of the return of the husbands. As pointed out by Rhys Davids, in the Pāli Nikayas, mention is made of seavoyages out of sight of land and of long voyages
1 Jätaka, No. 442.
2 Ibid., No. 190.
a Ibid., No. 466.
Ibid., No. 539.
5 Ibid., i, p. 127f. For details of India's sea-borne trade, sec R. K. Mookerjee, History of Indian Shipping and Maritime Activity from the earliest times (1912).

Page #195

SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
lasing even for six months. The course of the ships. Was steered by the Niyyāmaka or water-pilot , the direction of land being sometimes ascertained by the flight of crows (disākākā). Rhys Davids further observes *Later texts, of about the third century B.C. speak of voyages down the Ganges from Benares to the mouth of the river and thence across the Indian Ocean to the opposite coast of Burma, and even from Bharukaccha (the modern Broach) round Cape Comorin to the sanie destination, 4
The Mahāniddesa 6 speaks of India's commerce by sea with Yona and Paramayona. If the first place be located in the Punjab, the socond place must be located either in Western Asia or identified with some Greek island in the Moditerranean, if not with Ionia proper. Towards the east, it mentions Kālamukha, Suvaņņabhūmi, Vesunga, Verāpatha, Takkola, Tamali, Tambapaņņi and Java as countries visited by the Indian sea-going merchants and speaks also of the manner in which they followed the difficult land-routes after reaching the harbour. Of the places mentioned,
1 Digha, 1, p 222, Samyutta, v, p. 51. 2nJataka, iv, p. 138 * Ibid., iii, p. 267 4 Buddhist India, p 96. 5 Mahānsddesu pp. 154-155, 416.

Page #196

(188 INDIA AS DESCRIBÉD" IN BARLY TEXTS 'Kalamukha may be identified with the Arakan coast and Suyanṇabhūmi may be lacated in Lower Burma. The next four places may be shown to correspond to Ptolemy's Chryse Chora, Besyngeitai, Berbai and Takkola. Tamali is identified by Sylvain Levi with Tāmralinga in Malay Peninsula. Tambapaņņi and Javą, are no other than Ceylon and the island of Java. Tho Apadănaexpressly mentions the visit, of merchants from Malaya (Malay Peninsula) and the distant land of Cīna (China).
It is difficult to say what the sea merchants traded upon and the nature of the articles of export ana import. The Suppāraka-Jätaka 8 shows that they made their fortune by collecting gems, corals, etc., from the seas. They appear to have traded also in muslins, the finer sorts of cloth, cutlery and armour, brocades, embroideries, perfumes, 'drugs, ivory works, jewellery and gold.
Within the country, produce was brought to markets for sale. Benares was one of the most important commercial centres. The other big cities also commanded a considerable amount of trade and exchange. Foodstuffs for the towns
1 R. O. Majumdar, Suvarnadvipa, p. 56f.; Lévi, Ptudes Asiatiques, Vol. II, Ch. II.
Apadána, i, p. 2.
No, 488. * Buddhist Indlin. p. 98.

Page #197

SOOLAL LIFE AND ECONOMIO CONDITIONS were brought to the gates, apparently from village, and the sale transactions were carried ony there. There were āpanas or shops where commodities were displayed for sale, while there were antarāpanas where things were stored before sale. Merchants could enter into partnership or temporary partnership and there could arise disputes as to the shares of profit. The commodities sold in these āpanas were textile fabrics, groceries and oil, green groceries , grain , perfumes and flowers), articles of gold and jewellery, carriages, arrows, etc. The hawkers carried their wares & for sale in portable trays. For the sale of strong drinks there were taverns known as pānāgāras.' Prices were not fixed and there was competition by which the dealers wanted to prevail upon the purchasers. The vice of adulteration was also not unknown. On the part of the buyers there was the haggling of price.10 Things for the royal households were purchased by an 'officer known as Aggahakāraka who fixed the prices of the required commodities. The prices so fixed could not, however, be changed by appeal. There was also a check on the officer
1 Jätaka, iv, p. 445. 8 Ibid., i, pp. 66, 380. 3 Ibid., i, p. 4ll. 7 Tbid., i, p. 290.; iv, p. 82.
Id., i, p. 251f.
% Ibid., ti, p. 267, - Ibid., i, p. 404.
Ibid., ii, p. 287. & Toid., ii, p. 21. 10 Thidi 111f.

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(190) INDIA AS DESCRIBED, IN EARLY TIXTS
from the side of the king. All native and foreign goods imported into the city were assessed and a duty was levied upon them.
Coins appear to have been the chief medium of exchange, but the more primitive means of barter was also not unknown. Barter was not, however, the usual practice. In the Jātakas almost all kinds of prices, foes, pensions, 'fines, loans, and incomes have usually been stated in terms of coins of different denominations. Among coins there is mention of kūkanika, māsaka, addhamāsaka, pāda, addhapāda, kahāpaņa and addhakahāpana. Silver coins do not appear to have been in use and mention of gold coins like rikkha 2 or suvanna is late and 'doubtful. There is mention also of cowry shells (sippikāni), but they were probably not used as currency, and the coins mentioned above were probably all made of copper.
Besides actual currency there were several other legal instruments. Mention is made of letters of credit by means of which big merchants
1 Buddhistic Studies, od. by B. C. Law, Ohap. XV; T. W. Rhys Davids, Ancient Ooins and Measures of Ceylon; D. R. Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1921, pp. 53, 62, eto.
, Zimmer, Altindisches Leben, 269. It is also called Mikloha ;D.R. Bhandarkar, Carmchacl Lectures, 1921, pp. 53, 62, 63, 64, etc.; Pran Nath, A Study in the Economio Condition of Ancient India,
p. 85f.
& For details, see Mrs. Rhys Ravids, Economic Conditions according to Early Buddhist Literaturo, Cambridge History of India, I, Chap. VIIE.

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SOCIAL LIFD AND BỌONOMIO OONDITIONS 195 in large cities used to get money from fellow merchants. There is also mention of promissory notes.
There were no banks, and banking facilities were few. Loans could be taken. Money-lending was looked upon as an honest calling but this had already given rise to profit-mongering. Money was lent against bonds (pannā) and there were instances of bad debts which were never repaid. But money-lending was done by professional money-lenders while ordinary people used to hoard up their wealth in piles and conceal them underground or deposited with friends. The nature and amount of such hoarded wealth were recorded on gold or copper plates.1
In the Anguttara Nikāya we have mention of Satta-vanijjā or trade in living beings. Buddhaghosa 8 explains the word as meaning manussa-vikkaya or traffic in human beings. This traffic might be taken to imply, among other things," traffic in women and slave trade. Prostitution as a social institution was in existence in India from the earliest times, and it had originated, as suggested by some scholars,
1 Buddhast Indra, p. 101f. 9, Anguttara Nakaya, u, p 208.
8 A celebrated Buddhist oommöntator who flourished in the 5th century AD. Wrote many important Pali commentai108—Law, The Life and World of Buddhachosa (1923)

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192 INDIA AS DESCRIBED, IN EARLY TEXTS
from abandoned harems of kings, nobles, bankers and others. The Pali Literature clearly attests that some of the leading gaņikās or courtezans of the time made a profitable trade of prostitution by maintaining a regular brothel containing five hundred prostitutes.
In the early Buddhist texts, mention is made of four kinds of slaves: antojātā,8 dhanaickītā, karamarānītā, and samamdāsabyamupagatā, į.e., those who were born of slave parents or begotten on slave women, those purchased with money, those who were reduced to slavery under coercion by bandits, and those who took to slavery of their own accord. The Jatakas contain instances where the slaves were bought för seven hundred kahāpaņas.
Scholars agree that there was nothing like what afterwards came to be the rigorous caste system in India at the time of the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, But this may not wholly be the correct reading of the fact. The evidence of the later Vedio texts 'is conclusive that even after death, the custom was to ereot sepulchres or tombs of different heights to maintain the distinction between the dead
1 Barua, Introduction to History of Indian Prostatunon by Sinha and Basu.
Jataka, w, pp. 60f. and 4865.; Law, Women in Buddhrst Interature, p. 324. * Sumangalavrläsint, 1, p. 300; Jätaka, No. 646.
Jätaka, ii, p. 343.

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SOCIAL LIFE AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 193,
belonging to the four divisions of the people. Though some of the Rgvedic hymns presuppose the prevalence of the custom of the burial, burial was subsequently replaced by cremation, although the cremation was followed by the consecration of the bonos, arranged limb by limb in mounds. The Vedic texts speak of two kinds of citā; agnidagdha, where the corpses were burnt and anagnidagdhā where they were not burnt. This was precisely the custom in some parts of India in Buddha's, time. Accordingly the early Pali texts refer to two different grounds for the disposal of the dead: āļāhana (Ardhamāgadhi, Aņāhaņa), where the dead bodies were cremated and sivathikā or āmakasusāna where the corpses were simply thrown away to undergo the natural process of decomposition or to be devoured by carnivorous beasts, birds, insects, etc. In cases of larger grounds they were placed in charge of susānagopakas 2 who were Candālas. The texts also refer to an aboriginal custom of būrying the dead and washing the bones (aţthidopana) 2 with drunkenness and revelry which was prevalent in southern India.
1 Dhammapada Commentary, 1, p. 68. % Anguttara, v, p. 218; Sumangalavilásini, i, p. 84. Vide B. O. Law, Social, Doonomical and Religious. Conditions of Ancient India gccording to the Buddhist Teata --Pathak Commemoration Volume, pp. 68-79.

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CHAPTER IV
RELIGION
The social and economic life of a country considered apart from religion, constitutes a sphere of collective existence in which 'human activities are directed to the twofold pursuit of kāma and attha, i.e., of worldly pleasure and advantage. Religion, on the other hand, constitutes a sphere of collective or individual existence in which human activities are directed to the twofold pursuit of dhamma1 and mokkha, i.e., of perfection of conduct and perfection of personality. By its definition, religion is essentially a system of faith and worship implying as it does human recognition of a personal God entitled to obedience and its effect on conduct, etc. As pursuit of dhamma, religion seeks to mould and remould, adjust and readjust human life, individual and collective, as expressed in various ways in conduct. It either sublimates the grosser elements in human nature or sanctifies all that is normally considered right, proper, good, noble, pure, refined, beautiful, appreciable and enjoyable. As pursuit of mokkha, it implies self-alienation
P
1 E. J. Thomas, History of Buddhist Thought, p. 78.
r
I3B

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from all things and all interests that connect us with the world. It seeks to bring the individual to a state of self-realisation and selfperfection. Here we are to consider religion only in that aspect in which it may be treated as a potent factor of human life and civilisation.
The early texts of Jainism and Buddhism reveal to us a wonderful and highly interesting picture of Jambudvipa in which the habitual religion of the masses of people was in its varying degrees and forms in conflict and compromise with the higher religions preached by various new schools of thought and new orders of religieux. The masses of people following their habitual religion were broadly distinguished as Devadhammikas or Devavatikas from others who professed to have belonged to distinct orders of hermits and ascetics, among whom discipleship played a prominent part.2 As Devadhammikas or Devavatikas, the masses of people are said to have been divided into diverse groups of worshippers. The Devadhamma was in its essence some form of a religion of Bhakti, and as such its expression was emotional and its form ritualistic or ceremonial. The taking and keeping of vows in propštiation
3 Culla Neddesa, p. 173f.; Barua in 1°H Q., iu, 1027, p. 261; Barhut, iit, P 69.

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196 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS or. honour of the worshipped was its prominent external feature. The connection between the worshipper and the worshipped lay through worship which always implied an act of offering in fulfilment of the vow or promise. The object of worship was the attainment of a desired cnd. This popular religion of worship was based upon the give-and-take principle. It was through prayer that the worshipper sought to have a communion or communication with the worshipped. The mediation by a holy person was considered necessary. So the office of a competent priest was always in requisition. From the side of tho worshipper no amount of offering was considered sufficient and no amount of praise adequate to bring out the divine attributes of the worshipped, who was in each case a deva or devatā, a personal god or goddess, malevolent or benevolent. Thus in Devadhamma representing the popular religion of Indta a belief in the presence of a divine. personality was the conditio sine qua non. This personality was either a god or a deity. It was marked throughout by a process of personification of the divine attributes or deification of the worshipped. The distinctife nomenclature for the different groups of worshippers was sought to be determined by the grammatioal rule yā yesam devatā, the worshippers are to be distinguished by the name of the deity they

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worship. Accordingly the devatā or deity was defined by the aphorism: ye yesam dakkhiñeyyā te tesam devatā. They are the deities to them to whom they are worthy of homage.'
In the Culla Niddesa and other Pali canonical texts, the devas are broadly divided into three classes: sammutidevā, i.e., gods by common acceptance, upapattidevā, i.e., gods by origination and visuddhidevā, i.e., gods by purity. In the first class are placed the kings, princes and the queens and princesses; in the second class, the various deities worshipped by the people; and in the third, the founders of religions, their great disciples and other saintly personages. The books also testify to the prevalence of a general tendency towards finding out the highest personality among the devas (atideva), among the sages (muni-muni) and among the leaders (gana-gani). In the Devadhamma-Jätaka, the gods of popular worship are typified by the sun and the moon. There is a longer list given in the Culla Niddesa which includes aggi or firegod, nāga or serpent, suvaņņa (suparna), i.e., garuda, yakkha, asura, gandhabba, mahārāja, canda, suriya, Inda, Brahmā, minor gods and quartergods (disā). The 1st also includes such deified
1 The role is implied in Oulla Niddesa, p. 174. This is the same as Pāņini's rule sāsya devata.
2 Oulla Niddesa, p. 174, 8 No. 6.

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198 INDIA AS DESCRIBED. IN EARLY TEXTS
'heroes as Vāsudeva, Baladeva, Punṇabhadda and Maņibhadda. In it are included, also the representatives of such religious orders as those of Ājivikas, Nigaạthas, Jatilas, Paribbājakas 1 and Aviruddhakas. The list also mentions elephants, horses, cows, dogs and crows among the objects of worship. The list given is not exhaustive. There are passages in which the upapattidevas are located in three spheres of the universe, those dwelling on the earth being called bhummā or terrestrial, those in the firmament as antarikkhacarā, and those in the highest region (äkāsatthā). At the time of the rise of Jainism and Buddhism it is inconceivable that the masses of people paid their homage to a particular deity of this class to the exclusion of the rest. On the other hand, the evidence tends to prove that all of them were included in a growing pantheon. And yet it is not incorrect to suppose that the masses were divided into several groups, each with its own supreme hero or object of worship, e.g., the Vasudevavatikas formed a group which had Väsudeva as its hero, and so as to the rest. That these popular groups represented different classes of devotees is evident from Pāņini's rule appertaining to Bhaktin As illustrations, Pāņini mentions the worshippers of Vāsudeva, Arjuna, Desa and
1 Law, Historical Glearings, Ohap. II. 12 Culla Niddesc, p. 173f.

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Janapada. The process of amalgamation must have taken place gradually with the inclusion of all the deities in a common pantheon. In doing 80 a classification of them was necessary and the result was a hierarchy in different forms.
The hierarchy as developed in early Buddhism placed the four grades of arūpabrahmas as the highest in the scale, below them the sixteen grades of rūpabrahmas, below their ranks the six classes of kamāvacaradevas, the lowest of them being represented by the four mahārājas or lokapālas exercising their suzerainty over the rest of the gods, and the demigods, whether ākāsaţthas, antarikkhacaras or bhummas. Below the kāmāvacara gods are placed ordinary men, below them the animal world, below it the spirit world and below it the different purgatories. Even above the arūpabrahmas are placed the saintly Buddhist personalities called Ariyas (elect) forming eight grades of spirituality and above all stands the incomparable Buddha.
The hierarchy as conceived in early Jainigm seems to place the Vemānikadevas as the highest in the scale, then the Jyotişis, the Vāņamantaras and Bhavanavāsis. The Vemānika gods and angels are represerlted by Sohamma Isāna, Sanankumāra, Māhinda Bambbhā (Brahmā), Lantaga, Mahāsukka, Sahassārā, Acchutapadī
1 Pānını, IV, 3.95–100.

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200 INDIA AS DESCRIŚDI IN EARLY TEXTS
and the rest. Māhinda's heaven is the heaven of the thirty-three gods together with the lokapālas. In the Jyotişī class are placed the sun, the moon, the planets, comets and stars including Rāhu. The Vāņamantradevas comprise the bhūtas, pisācas, yakkhas, räkshasas, kinnaras, kimpurisas, gandbabbas, etc. The asuras, nāgas, supaņņas, vijju (lightning), fire, continent (díva), ocean (udahi), disākumāras (quarter-gods), pavaņa (wind-gods) and thundergods (thaniya) represent the Bhavanavāsis. Below them are the earth-lives, water-lives, fire-lives, and wind-lives. Above all of them stands the incomparable Jina with his advanced disciples. A similar hierarchy was developed by the Ajīvikas in their cosmography,
As thoroughly discussed by Rhys Davids, 3 the two most important Pali suttas that contain the list of popular gods and deities are the Mahāsamaya and the Mahā-ātānātiya. The real interest of these two suttas lies in the fact that they offer us the names of hosts of popular gods and goddesses affiliated to the realm of the four lokapālas: Dhatarattha of the eastern quarter, Virūlhaka of the southern quarter, Virupakkha of the western quarter, and Vessarvaņa Kuvera of the northern quarter. Evidently they were the guardians or presiding 1 Aupapătaka Satra, secs. 32–37.
• Buddhist Indra, Chap. 12.
·
Digha, i, p. 54.

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201 deities of the four continents. Religious fancy led the people to locate the heaven of the thirtythree gods on the top of the Mount Sumeru and the world of the aguras at the bottom of it, below the water, and to conceive a protracted war between the thirty-three gods and the asuras for the possession of Inda's or Sakka’s domain. The formation of the hierarchy in ancient Indian pantheon must have resulted from a long course of development of religious ideas and beliefs and of conflict and compromise between them.
As for the higher religions, mention is frequently made of the contemporary representatives of the ancient Vedic sages generally enumerated as ten in number. They formed the sotthiya or mahāsāla class of Brahmins from among whom the Purohitas or housepriests of the kings and wealthy nobles, etc., were chosen and appointed. We have mention also of the teachers of the early upanishadic schools such as the Addhariyas (Aitareyas ?),
Tittiriyas (Taittiriyas), Chandokas (Chāndogyas), "Chandāvas (Šātapathas ?) and Bavharijjas (Bāhvșoas).
In addition to them, the Books speak of the Tāpasas, Paribbājakas and Samaņas of different orders. Among the Tāpasas some are honoured ago isis or sages. The, Paribbājakas, mostly
1 Digha, 4 p 237.

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202 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
Brahmins by birth, are broadly distinguished as Ekadaņņikas and Todaņņikas. The „Samaņas were typified by the followers of the six teachers known to the Buddhists as six titthiyas. But to this class belonged also the Sakyaputtiyas or followers of Buddha Gautama.
In the opinion of Hopkins 1, Vedic religion or Brahmanism was confined to a small section of the people of India. It was rather an island in the sea, the majority of the people following their own religions which consisted in beliefs in spells, incantations, charms and spirits. This acute observation of Hopkins is true only in so far as it appears that the Brahmins as a class including even those who were householders and followed different callings, belonged to a distinct religious order. According to the Brahmanio doctrine, the fulfilment of the religious ideal was to proceed by stages, three or four, called brahman oarya, gārhasthya and vānaprastha, the third culminating in the life of the Parivräjaka, Yati, Bhikṣu or Sannyasin. This is well borne out by the Buddha's description of the five types of Brahmins in the Anguttara Nikāya. But if Brahmanism was based upon the Vedas as it professed to be, in no stage of its history, it was free from the belief in the efficacy of spells, incantations, charms and the like. As a matter
Religions of Indra, Chap. IX.

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203 of fact, Brahmanism was the only form of higher religion in India which could affiliate all the popular cults without any feeling of contradiction. The religious beliefs and practices grew up among different tribes, races and nations and were cherished by them with veneration and joy. It was left to the founders and exponents of the higher religions to decide how far, and in which manner these were to be utilised, modified, improved or replaced. But we shall see anon, in spite of the apparent victory and predominance of the higher religions over the folk, the latter always held the ground and the sum total of results of the age-long conflict was nothing but a widening of its, scope and enrichment of its contents. The folk religion afforded indeed the living ground of synthesis of contending faiths. And with the march of time when it became sufficiently strong and self-conscious, it asserted itself as a great religion of Bhakti influencing the whole domain of the higher faiths, Jain, Buddhist, and all.
* We have in the Pali canonical texts a faithful account of the Vedic religion as practised by the Sotthiyas and Mahāsālas of the age. On its emotional side, it consisted in the invocation of Inda, Soma, Varuņa, Isāna, Pajāpati, Brahmā, Mabiddhi and Yama. The invocation was practised either by way of supplication (āyācanahetu), or by way of prayer (patthanahetu), or by,

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204 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS that of eulogy (abhinandanahetu).1 The invocation of Siri, the Goddess of Luck, mentioned in the Brahmajāla and other suttas is also typically Vedic.2 The Jātaka description of the four Indian Graces, viz., Asā (Hope), Saddhā (Faith), Siri (Luck) and Hiri (Modesty) as four daughters of Sakka, the king of the gods, is originally Vedio. From the Rgveda to the Jātaka, the trend of the change was from abstract conceptions of the four fundamental female attributes or virtues to their personifications. In the Lalitavistara and the Mahāvastu vorsions of the Atänātiya Sutta, the four varieties of the Goddess of Luok are associated with Virūdhaka, the regent of the southern quarter, and they bear the appellations of Śrīmati or Sriyāmati, Yasamati, Yasahprāptā or Lakshmimati, and Yasodharā. The name of the Goddess as recorded in the Barhut label seems to correspond to Srīmati. The Barhut representation of Sirima has, as shown by Rhys Davids, a_faithful, correspondence in her images as found in the temples of South India. The Siri-Kālakanni Jātaka (No. 383) introduces us to a Siridevi or Lakkhi, who is described as the daughter of Dhataraţtha, regent of the eastern quarter. In this Jātaka, Siri or Luck is compared and contrasted with Kāląkarņi or Misfortune, - the i Digha, í, p. 244f. .
2 Ibrd,, 1, p 11. . 3 Jätaka, v, p 3925

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205
latter being described as the daughter of Virupakkha, regent of the western quarter.1 Thus religion sought through its mythology to create various types of Graces and to present them through poetry and art for the improvement of female types in society. Manimekhala, the female angel of the sea, saving the sailing ships from wrecks, was a new but beautiful creation of the later age. She belonged to the realm of the four Mahārājas.2
On the sacrificial side, the same religion is said to have consisted in various forms of sacrifice involving the slaughter of cows, bulls, buffaloes, elephants, horses, goats, rams, etc.3 The Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajapeya, (soma sacrifice), associated with secular Brahmanism, were two forms of sacrifice having a political significance. The Purisamedha (human sacrifice) is also associated with the Vedic religion. These sacrifices are said to have been insisted on by the Purohitas and the Mahāsāla class of Brahmins. These were attended with big feasts, offering of gifts and distribution of charities. The performance of great sacrifices
4
5
1
RELIGION
1 Barua, Barhut, Bk. II, p. 73.
2 Jātaka, iv, p. 17; vi, p. 35; S. K. Aiyangar, The Buddhism of Manimekhalai. (Buddhistic Studies) p. lf.
1
a Sutta-nipata, Brāhmaṇadhammika Sutta; Digha, i, Kutadanta Sutta.
^
4 Samyutta, i, p. 76; Anguttara, ii, p. 423 Sutta-nipātu, v, 303. 5 Ibid.

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206 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
by the Vedic ascetics in the three regions of Gayākhetta was a notable annual function eagerly awaited by all the inhabitants of Anga and Magadha. Similar sacrifices were performed in other parts of the country where the Brahmins of these classes lived or had influence.
On the ritualistic side, the Vedic religion or secular Brahmanism consisted, as we are told, in Aggihutta or oblations to fire, and diverse other kinds of koma.
The Buddhist and Jaina texts do not at all exaggerate the state of things whon they inform us that secular Brahmanism consisted in spells, charms, incantations, exorcism, witchcraft, goccultism, interpretation of dreams, signs, and cries of beasts and birds as foreshadowing coming events, soothsayings, etc. They correctly refer, to the Atharva Veda as the scriptural source of the Brahmins from which followed the development and intermingling of popular occultism and science. It was indeed through the Atharvanic process that an alliance between secular Brahmanism and all primitive cults was possible, an alliance or blending from which even Hinduism of the 20th century is not free. Anyhow, as the books bear'ample evidence, the Purohita and Yājaka classes of Brahmins fully utilised it in guiding the course of daily life of the
1 Barua, Gayā and Buddhaqapjá, p. 110.

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people. They were exactly the class to whom the kings, courtiers, and the rest turned for consultation and ministration when they were frightened by some unnatural dreams or occurrence of abnormal events, celestial or terrestrial, or by apparitions. Curiously enough, the leaders of such highly protestant religions as Buddhism and Jainism could not help satisfying this insistent popular demand. The Buddha 18 represented as a better interpreter of dreams than the Brahmins, when he was consulted by king Pasenadi at the instance of his queen.2 The improvisation of Parittas as saving chants in early Buddhism was undoubtedly due to the dire necessity of meeting the same popular demand.
RELIGION
8
4
The people of India in their worldly existence had certain fears which are enumerated in the Pali canonical texts as sixteen, and in the Milinda as seventeen, such fears as might arise from the tyranny of the ruler, from the action of thieves, robbers, etc., from the action of men, malevolent spirits, stars, water, air, fire, famine, disease, pestilence, reptiles and wild beasts, etc. They were naturally inclined to avail themselves of all possible means to avoid
1.Digha, 1, p. 9f.
» Jätaka, 1, p. 234f
3 Anguttara, 11, p. 121f
4 Milinda, p 196

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208 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS or overcome them. No religion was acceptable to them if it could not assure them of the potency of its means to overcome their fears and to inspire confidence in order to obtain a fearlessy state. Secular Brahmanism employed all its means to prove its usefulnoss to them. When other contending faiths entered the field and endeavoured to win the people over to their side, they were required to fulfil the same task by such means as they could devise. The Buddhists adopted the solemn chanting of the Parittas as one of the means. The essence of the Parittas was saccakiriyā, or the effective expression of the wish by an open declaration of the truth. Through the Parittas they tried to get rid of the objectionable features of the Brahmanic rituals. The æsthetic aspect was improved and the matter was simplified. But in so doing they failed to anticipate how the parasite with its root stuck to the main tree would grow disproportionately in course of time.
The people were believers in the efficacy of pronouncement of benediction by the priests and other holy persons, in amulets, and the like. In order to oust the Brahmin vested interests from the field, the Jains and Buddhists had to introduce certain mangalas, claimed as more efficacious. With the Jains the eight mangalas were the eight auspicious symbols or emblemas: Sovatthiya (Svastika), Sirivacca (Śrīvatsa),

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209 Nandiyāvatta (Nandyāvarta), Vaddhamanaga
Vardhamāna), Bhaddāsana (Bhadrāsana), Kalasa. Maccha (Matsya), and Dappaña (Darpaņa). Other enumerations of mangalas are also met with in the Jaina texts. The Buddhists introduced chanting of the Mungala Sutta laying much stress on the thirty-seven points of mangala or moral condition of human welfare.8
In seeking to draw a sharp distinction between the Brahmin as he was and the Brahmin as he ought to have been, the Jains and Buddhists served only to bring the Brahmanio religious ideal into bold relief with the result that Māhaņa (= Brāhmaṇa) became one of the distinctive epithets of Mahāvīra, and the Buddhist arahants came to be praised as Brāhmaṇas par excellence.
By mangalas the people of India understood the sight of certain auspicious objects, all-white „chariots, etc., the hearing of certain auspicious sounds, and the touch of certain auspicious things. They also understood by them the performance of certain auspicious rites for the birth of a male child or for the marriage of boys
1 Aupapătrka Sitra, seo, 49. 2 Idrid., Becs. 53, 55.
8 Mangala Sutta in the Khuddakapagha (pp. 2-3); and Sutta-nipata lpp. 46-47), ar. also Mahamangala Jätaks (No. 453).
- Jätaka, wv, p. 72f.

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210 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
and girls and for making the journey to a distant place successful.1 Secular Brahmanism provided the people with appropriate rituals for all domestic rites of the Indo-Aryan householders. To bring and keep them within their fold, the Jains and Buddhists were required to suggest better substitutes. But in point of fact, they did the work so imperfectly that even their own lay supporters had to be left to adhere to the Brahmanic scheme of social life and to their own family, tribal, national and local customs, with minor modifications here and there.
The Brahmins as Lakkhaņa-pāthakas suggested certain prominent bodily characteristics of a Mahāpurisa or Great Man. As the early Jain and Buddhist texts go to prove that the Jainas and Buddhists simply utilised them in establishing that the founder of their own order was the greatest of men,
Secular Brahmanism allowed the Brahmins to marry from all social grades, and they did, as a matter of fact, marry girls from all sections of the people. The Jains and Buddhists who were otherwise strongly opposed to the caste system, stood as great champions for the purity
1 Agoka's Rock Ediot, is; D. R. Bhandarkar, Adoka, p. 322f.; R. K. Mookerjee, Asoka, p. 153ff.
8 Aupapātika Sūtra, seg. 16; Digha, iii, Lakkhana-Suttanta, p. 142f.

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211 of blood and family prestige. They praised thoso Brahmins who married girls from their own class only, and in doing so they became ipso facto contributors to the social orthodoxy. The cow sacrifice was freely allowed in secular Brahmanism. The eating of beef was not as yet forbidden in society, oven among the Brahmins and hermits. The Buddha raised his strong voice against cow-killing, and for the matter of that, against beef-eating. Thus unintentionally he contributed to the social orthcdoxy in so far as it expressed itself in the form of prohibition of certain articles of food.
The Brahmins as a class of priests with vested interests were in favour of the monar-- chical form of government, and the Brahmanic influence was much stronger in monarchies than in oligarchies. In theory, the Jains and Buddhists were in deep sympathy with the democratic constitution. The Jaina religious Order which was evidently constituted with "Mahāvīrā as the gasi or leader and nine among hís prominent disciples as ganadharasa or sectional leaders, was modelled on the republican constitution of the nine Licchavior Mallaki clans, and the Buddhist religious Order, too, with its stronger internal cohesion and marked regimental discipline, may be shown to have been
ni Sutta-nipata, p. 50f., Brāhmanadhammaka Sutta.
Mrs. 8. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, p. 61.

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212 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS " based upon the principle of unity and concerted action which characterised the life and constitution of a Khattiya tribe forming an oligarchy. The difference between the two organisations lay in the fact that the Jaina Order was based upon the idea of confederacy, while the Buddhist Order professed the regimental unity of a single ruling clan. But the popular predilections for kingship and overlordship were not without their influence on the Jain and Buddhist minds, Farticularly on the latter. The Pali canonical texts reveal throughout a growing tendency to establish parallelism between the position of a righteous king as an earthly overlord and that of the Buddha as the supreme founder of the Kingdom of Righteousness 1 as well as between the attributes and functions of the two. Even with regard to the disposal of the body of the Buddha after his demise, the direction was to adopt the method which applied to the funeral of a king-overlord. The ultimate result of adaptation to the monarchical tradition was that within a purely democratic constitution of the Buddhist Sangha, the Master came to be enthroned as the supreme Lord of Righteousness with Sāriputta and Moggallana as his two Dhammasenāpatis and an inner circle of eighty great disciples (asīti-mahäsävakā).
1 Note that in the Aupapătoka Sutra, seo. 16, Mahāvira in praisedm As Dhamma vara-cāuranta-oalkavath,

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Secular Brahmanism recommended the daily practice of salutation to six quarters by a good householder at dawn after bath. The practice was thus linked up with a symbolical scheme of the duties and obligations of a householder which the Buddha tried to render significant by an orientation from his own point of view. But the total result was nothing but the prominence of the ideal which was implied in the Brahmanical scheme.
The early Jain and Buddhist texts also present a vivid and fairly detailed picture of the life of the tāpasas or ancient order of hermits. Acoording to the Brahmanical scheme, the hermits represented the Vānaprastha (Vanapattha) stage. of life. Their retirement from the world is known in Pali as isipabbajjā. The persons who adopted this mode of religious life were mostly Brahmins and Khattiyas; a few of them were gahapatis. Only in a solitary instance a mātanga 2 or 'candāla figures as a notable personality among them. The tradition is conspicuous by the absence of the Suddas. The hermits on their retirement from the world selected a beautiful spot in a woodland or a sequestered valley having a river, or a stream, or a natural lake, near by, and built a hermitage which was no better than a leaf-hut or bamboo
1 Digha, in, p. 180f., Sungalovāda Sutta. 2 Mātanga Jātaka, Jataka No. 407.

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214 INDIA AS DESCRIBED. IN EARLY TEXTS
cottage in sylvan surroundings. Either they retired alone or with their families apd in some instances with their resident pupils. They lived on roots and fruits, wild-grown rice and vegetables. Their garments were made of birchbark or antelope-skin. The matted hair on their head marked them out to the people at large as Jatilas. Long before the rise of Jainism and Buddhism the hermits in large numbers built their hermitages in the Himalayan forosts, in the Vindhya Range and along the banks of the Ganges, Yamunā and other sacred rivers. The hermitages were fenced round, and inside, some of them reared mango and other fruit trees, wwhile the lakes or pools near by were adorned with varieties of lotus flowers; some of them were so idcally situated and so attractive that they were said to have been built by Vessakamma, the heavenly architect. The instances are not wanting in which the royal princes in exile betook themselves with their wives to. forest-life, leading the life of hermits. When and how the institutions commenced we cannot definitely say. But it seems to have had a very early beginning indeed. The Jātakas and Jain texts 2 maintain a tradition of some ancient
1 Cf. Vessantara Jataka (No. 647); Mugapakkha Tātaka=Tomiye Jakaka (No. 588).
Uttarādhyayana sútra, Leo. XVIIT, Kumbhakāra Jätake No. 408).

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215 illustrious contemporary kings of India, all of · whom adopted the life of a hermit, viz., Naggaji of Gandhāra, Dummukha of Pancāla, Nimi of Videha, Bhima of Vidabbha, and Karakaņdu of Kalinga. The Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 1 mentions a few other ancient kings who had reached perfection as hermits, viz., Bharata of Bhāratavarsa," Sagara of Ayodhyā, Maghavan of Śrāyasti, Sanatkumāra and Mahābala of Hastināpura, śānti, Kuntthu (Kakustha ?) who came to be rovered as Tīrthankaras, Harişeņa of Kāmpilya, Jaya of Rājagpha, Daśārņabhadra of Dasārņa, Rudrāyana of Sauvīra, and Vijaya of Dvāravati. Thus it may be shown that the tradition of hermit-life was not restricted to any particular country or kingdom. It was widely recognised as a well-ordered institution all over the Aryandom from Gandhāra to Videha and Kalinga and from Kuru-Pañcāla to Vidarbha.
In the history of the Indian tāpasas, the kingdom of Videha is entitled to much importance. Both the Satapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Makhādova Sutta 2 refer to king Māthaya, Makhādeva, Maghādeva or Mahādeva, founder of the royal dynasty of Videha, as the first gifted monarch, who was upset at the sight of a grey hạir plucked from his head, and taking it to be the sign of death and retirement, he left 1 Lec. XVIII, 2 Maggiuma Nikdya, i, p. 74.

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216 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN DARLY TEXTS
the world forthwith leaving the throne to his son, Nimi, who along with the long line of successors, , the Janakas of Mithilā, followed in the footsteps of his great father. The Brahmadattas of Kāsi appeared to have vied with the kings of Videha in this matter.
If the fall of an apple was important to Newton who reflecting on it, discovered the Law of Gravitation, the appearance of a grey hair on the head or the fall of a withered leaf from a tree was no less important, as the Jätakas 1 tell us, to the Indian hermits who reflecting thereon, found out the inner world of spirituality, immortality and tranquillity.
The retirement of several kings of the same line from the world and the distinction obtained by them as hermits enhanced the family prestige of their successors. It was with some amount of pride that Khāravela was introduced in his inscription as a scion of a family of royal sages (rājisi-vamsakula-vinisrita), all of whom belonged to the Cedi royal house. Similarly the Janakas of Mithila and the Brahmadattas of Benar... represented two ancient lines of royal sages.
The great Brahmin hermits became noted as Brahmarşis. Among them,« mention is made in the Jätakas of the sage Sarabhangle who
1 Jätaka, Kp. 247f., Mahar . , p. 450. 2 Sarabhanga Jātaka, Jataka, v, p. 126f.

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was formerly commander-in-chief of Benares.' He built his hermitage somewhere in the Vindhya region on the Godhavari. When he retired from the world, many others accompanied him. The number of hermits grew so large that he was compelled to ask his chief disciples to shift elsewhere taking with them as many of the hermits as possible under the circumstances. By his command they went to build hermitages in different kingdoms and countries. Kisavaccha was one of them. Sarabhanga is described as a hermit who wore three garments of birch-bark. According to the Aranyakaṇḍa of the Rāmāyaṇa Sarabhanga's hermitage was situated not far from Pañcavaţi, It was Sarabhanga who keeping Rama in his view, entered the burning funeral pyre and proceeded to the eternal world of Brahma in the resurrected divine form of a kumāra. It was undoubtedly a common practice with some of the hermits to die like heroes either by diving into water, or by bodily walking into fire or by a fall from a height.
217
The isipabbajja of Mahagovinda, the Brahmin Purohita of king Reņu of Videha, accompanied by the seven reigning kings, six other Purohitas in a large retinue of the citizens of seven kingdoms, as described in the Mahagovinda Suttanta1
1 Digha, ii, p. 220f.

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218 INDIA. AS DESCRIBAD IN EARLY TEXTS
ana the Jätakas, produced a very deep impression in the country. A popular chronicle, - embodied in the Anguttara Nikāya, bears an eloquent testimony to it. Mahāgovinda is claimed to have a direct communion with Brahma Sanamkumāra as a happy result of the cultivation of the four Brahmavihāras: Metta, Karuņā, Muditā and Upekkhā. The "Isigili Sutta in the Majjhima Nikāya 2 contains a similar chronicle of five hundred Paccekabuddhas who are otherwise described as great sages of old, and the Khaggavisāna Sutta in the Sutta-nipāta2 and the Paccekabuddha Apadāna in the Apadānas contain distinct utterances of them. In historical times, Băvari, the chaplain of king Pasenadı of Kosala, retired from the world and built a hermitage on the Godhāvarī (Godāvarī) in the Vindhya region. The Pārāyaņa Vagga in the Sutta-nipāta + preserves a glorious tradition of Bāvari along with his sixteen disciples. As the Jātakas elearly attest, among the tāpasas there were many who practised Yoga or Jhāna, and mastered as many as eight Samāpattis. There is evidence also to prove that the neighbourhood of the hermitages became sites afterwards of many important
1 Vol w, p. 88f * PP 6-12 3 Vol. 1, pp 7–14. * p. 190f.

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219
flourishing cities like Kapilavatthu, Sávatthf,' · Kākandi, and Mākandi. Thus the jungles were
converted into royal capitals and delightful human localities.
In the instances where the Tāpasas lived all alone or with their families and resident pupils, we cannot conceive of the possibility of a corporate or congregational life. They lived more or less a domestic life in the forest paying occasional visits to the neighbouring hermitages. Occasionally they had to appear in human localities for the collecton of salt or to keep invitations from kings. The religious homes in the forests served as a meeting place of the lovers ending in marriage.
It is correctly pointed out that according to the Aranyakāņda of the Rāmāyana, Rāma, while in exile with Sītā and Lakşmana, walked from hermitage to hermitage from Ayodhyā on the Sarayū to the Pancavati on the Godavari. The Sarabhanga Jätaka also shows that in travelling from Benares to the same destination, one had to follow a ekapadikamagga or narrow foot-track under the guidance of a vanacaraka. But when Bāvari built his hermitage near the Pañcavati during the reign of Pasenadi, there came into existence a high road connecting
i Sir Asutosh Mookerji Silver Jubilee Folums, ui, p. 412 2 Jataka, v, p. 132.

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220 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS Rajagaha with Patitthāna. Thus the hermits and vanacarakas co-operated in exploring the forest regions and gradually bringing into existence high roads and trade-routes.
The corporate or congregational life became manifest among the hermits when a large
number of them came to live in one and the same , hermitage, e.g., in the big assama or hermitage
of Sarabhanga in the Kavittha forest on the Godhăvari. In the Buddha's time, there were three settlements or colonies of the Jațilas under three Kassapa brothers in the three divisions of the Gayākhetta, The Pali legend concerning Uruvela seeks to bring out the fact that when in ancient times the hermits came to the place to atone for their sins, there was no corporate life among them. Even among the Jaţilas forming three distinct groups, the tie in each group was rather domestic than congregational. Their leaders, the three Kassapa brothers, were born in a Brahmtn family of Magadha. They were great personalities; all the inhabitants of Anga and Magadha highly rovered them. They were fire-worshippers by their cult, the believers in the great sanotity of the waters of the Gayā river. The people from all, parts of India came on pilgrimage to
1 Vinaya, i, p. 31f. * Barua, Gdya and Buddhagayā, Vol. I, p. 99 | Udāna, p. 6.

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221
Gavā to perform the holy ablution in a sincere belief that by bathing in the Gayā river they could wash off their sins. There were other sacred rivers where similar ablutions were performed. The Buddhist criticism of the belief and the practice was not without its value. But the belief served as a strong inoentivē to bathing in the sacred rivers the water. of which was hygienic and good for health.
During the period under notice there existed in Northern India various orders of Paribbājakas or Wanderers, who, in the language of Rhys Davids, 'were teachers or sophists who spent eight or nine months of every year wandering about precisely with the object of engaging in conversational discussions on matters of ethics and philosophy, nature lore and mysticism, Like the Sophists among the Greeks, they differed very much in intelligence, in earnestness and in honesty'. These wandering ascetics, particularly those who were called Brāhmaṇa Paribbājakas, were representatives of the fourth or last stage of progressive life. They were known as mendicants (bhikkhus) because they depended for their sustenance on alms ocllected from door to door,
1 Monghema, I, p. 36f, Vatthüpama Sutta; Udäna, p. 6, Therigātā, pp. 146 47. Gathās of Punnika
& 'Buddhast Indra, P 141. 8 Anguttara, 1, P 157; B. 0. Law, H18001 zal Gleanings, Ch IE

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222 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN BARLY TEXTS
as one-garment men (ekasāțakas), as they used to clothe themselves with one piece of cloth, and as shavelings (mundakas), as they shaved their heads clean as a mark of distinction from the Tāpasas who were all Jatilas (wearers of matted hair) and from the Brahmin householders who wore a crested look on their head. As distinguished from the tăpasas they lived a homeless life, without having a fixed residence save and except during the rainy season when they took shelter in deserted houses (suññāgāra), caves (gubā), rocky caverns (kandarā) and the like. Some of them went about naked and were known as acelakas or naggapabbajitas. Those whose garments consisted in antelope-skin were called cammasāļakas. The canonical Pali toxts introduce to us no less than 30 wandering teachers who were either leaders or members of various orders of Indian ascetics, the number of members of each varying from 300 to 3,000. Some of them were known by their nick-names, some by the names of the gottas they belonged to, some by their external signs and some by their religious practices. They were all contemporaries of the Buddha and so of Mahāvīra. Potthapāda 1, the rheumatic, had 300 followers; Bhaggavagotta 2, the wanderer, belonged to the
1 Potthapada Sutta, Digha, i. 4 Digha, iii, p. l.

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223 Bhargava family. Pātikaputta l was an acelaka" *or naked ascetic. Nigrodha ?,, Sandaka *, Sāmaņdaka“, Ajita 5, Sarabha ', Annabhāra ", Varadhara , Uttiya", Kokanada 10, Potaliya 11, Moliyasivaka 12, Sajjha 18, Sutavā 14, Kundaliya 15, Timbaruka 16, Nandiya 1?, Vacchagotta 18, Sūcīmukhi 19, Susīma 20, Uggāhamāna 21, Pilotika 22, Potaliputta 28, Sakuladāvi 24, Vekhanassa 25 (Vaikhānasa), Dighanakha 26, Māgandiya 27, Sabhiya 28, and
1 Digha, ui, pp. 12-35. 2 Ibid., iii, pp. 36-57. 8 Manghima, i, p. 513. * Anguttara, v, pp. 120-121.
Ibid., v, p. 230. 6 Ibid., i, p. 185. 7 Ibid., ü, p. 29. 8 Ibid., ii, p. 176.
Ibid., v, p. 193. 10 Ibid., v, p. 196. 11 Ibid., ü, p. 100. 18 Ibid., iii, p. 356. 18 Ibid., iv, p. 377. 14 Ibid., is, p. 389. 16 Samyutta, v, p. 73. 16 Ibid., ii, p. 22. 17 Ibid., v, p. 11. 18 Ibid., iii, p. 257. 19 Ibid., in, pp. 238-240. 80 Ibid., i, pp. 119-128. 81 Majjhima, ii, p. 22. 22 Ibid., i, p. 175. 38 Ibid., iii, p. 207. 24 Ibid., ü, pp. 1-22. 26 Ibid., ü, pp. 40–44. 27 Ibid., i, p. 501.
26 Fid., i, p. 467. 28 Carita-nipata, p. 91.

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224 INDIA. AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
*Sanjaya were the most notable of the class.
Their movements were restricted more or less to the Majjhimadesa. Apart from the Brāhmana Paribbājakas, the Pali texts repeatedly speak of the six influential orders of Samanas, the leaders of whom were known to the Buddhists as six titthiyas or leading thinkers: Pūraņa Kassapa, Makkhali Gosāla, Pakudha Kacoāyana, Ajitakesakambalī, Sanjaya Belatthaputta or Belaţthiputta, and Nigantha Nātaputta 1. Of them the sixth was no other than Mahavira, the reputed founder of Jainism. Sañjaya, as his name implies, was a Khattiya of the Belattha clan or one born of a princess of the Belaţtha family. The remaining four were Brahmins by birth. They too by their habits of life were all wandering teachers, shavelings and mendicants and differed from the Paribbājakas as a class only in their attitude towards the world and the existing social and religious institutions. Pūraña as a transcendentalist claimed that the soul (atta) cannot be affected by the moral or immoral action of men. Gosāla was, according to one of the Jain traditions, the son of a Brahmin Paribbājaka couple, and according to another, the son of a Brahmin who was rich in cattle (gobahula). He was pre-eminently a Kosalan teacher. Philosophically he was a determinist
* Digha, i, p. 47£.; Kern, Manual of Indian Buddhism, p. 32f.

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RELIGION and ethically a fatalist. Pakudha Kaccāyana, midentified by some scholars with Kavandhin
Kâtyāyana of the Praşnopanişad 1 was an eternalist, maintaining that both soul and the world are unchanging realities. Ajita distinguished by the garment of hair which he used to wear, was an avowed atheist denying as he did the possibility of continuance of personal existence after death and consequently the possibility of having reward and retribution for the deeds done in this life. These teachers were all dogmatic in the way they held their respective opinions. As distinguished from them, Sañjaya of the Belattha clan who is identified in the Mahāvastu with the Wanderer Sañjaya passed as a great sceptic (Amarāvikkhepaka, Ardhamågadhi Aņņānika). Nigantha of the Nāta or Jitātri clan of Vesāli is distinguished from the rest as the propounder of a system of Cātuyāmasamvara or fourfold self-restraint. This is only a rough and ready description of the founders of six different orders and leaders of six different schools of thought who held the field when the Buddha had just started on his career as a religious teacher
We are nowhere given in the early texts of Jainism and Buddhism a specific description of
1 Prad. I.I.
. For details from Buddhist and Jain, texts, vide.B. C. Law, Historical Cleanings, Ch. II.

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226 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS In the Tāpasas, Paribbājakas or Samaņas, taken
order by order or school by school, either asm regards their food or as regards their dress, habits and goals. Al that we can gather from them is only a general description, which is likely to prove misleading. In the Pali Kassapasīhanāda Sutta, we read, for instance, 'He feeds on potherbs, on wild rice, on rnivāra seeds, on leather parings, on the water-plant called hata, on the fine powder which adheres to the grains of rice beneath the husk, on the discarded scum of boiling rice, on the flour of oilseeds, on grasses, on cowdung, on fruits and roots from the woods, on fruits that have fallen of themselves ?.?
This list of ascetic practices concerning food applies mainly to the Tāpasas, and partially only to the Ajivikas who were followers of Makkhali Gosāla, Nanda Vaocha and Kisa Samkicca.
The following account of practises concerning garment and behaviour is applicable partly to the Tāpasas and partly to the clothed Partsbājakas, and, mutatis mutandis, to the Acelakas and some of the Samaņa orders: 'He wears
1 Dialogues of the Buddha, 8.B.B, 11, p. 230. sakabhakkho vã hotr, admdkabhakkho hotr, nivärabhakkho và hot, daddulabhakkho vá hoti, hatabhakklio vá hon, kanabhakicho vă hot, acamabhaklho Mô hot, muscebghe và hot, tabhakho ĐỠ ho, go agabhalckho vähot, varamula phatähäro yõpett pavattaphala whogr. Digha, 1, p. 186,

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227 hempen cloth; mixed hempen cloth ; cloths mtaken from corpses and thrown away; clothing made of rags picked up from a dust heap, of the bark of the Tiritaka tree; the natural hide of a black antelope; a dress made of a network of strips of a black antelope's hide; of Kuģa grass fibre; a garment of bark; a garment made of small slips or slabs of wood (shingle) pieced together; a blanket of human hair; of horses' tails; of the feathers of owls.
He is a plucker-out-of-hair-and-beard, a stander-up, a croucher-down-on-the-heels, a bedof-thorns-man. He uses a plank bed, sleeps on the bare ground, sleeps always on one side, a dust and dirt wearer, lives and sleeps in the, open air, does not mind whatsoever seat is offered to him, goes down into water thrice a day to wash away his sins '.1 Here the two practices of plucking out of both hair and beard and standing up rejocting the use of a seat are applicable alsс to the Jaina mendicants. Lastly, the account of the practices concerning the mõde of collecting food and eating may be shown to apply to the Acolaka class of the Paribbājakas and the Ajivika and Jaina types of the Samanas: 9
'He goes naked, performs his bodily functions and eats food in a standing posture, licks his
1 Dialogues of the Buddha, op. cit., p. 230f.; Digha, i, pp. 166-7. -

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228 INDIA AS DESCRIBEN. IN EARLY TEXTS
hanas clean after eating, when on his rounds for alms, if politely requested to step nearer orto wait a moment, he passes stolidly on, refuses to accept food if it is brought to him before he has started on his round, if it has been prepared specially for him, to accept any invitation, to accept food direct from the mouth of the pot or pan lest those vessels should be struck or scraped on his account. He will not accept food placed within the threshold, placed among the sticks or pestles. He does not accept food from persons while they are eating, from a woman with child, from a mother giving suck, from a woman when she is in her private chamber. He will not accept food where a dog is standing by or flies are swarming round. He will not accept fish nor meat, nor strong drink, nor intoxicants, nor gruel. He feeds on the four kinds of filth (cowdung, cow's urine, ashes and clay). He never drinks cold water. He is contented with alms received from one house only, or from two houses, or so on up to only seven houses. He keeps himself going on only one alms or only two, or so on up to only seven. He takes his food only once a day, or once every two days, or so on up to once every seven days or up to even half a month'.1
1 Based on the Dialogues of the Buddha, op. cit, p. 227f.; Digha. 2, p. 166.

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229 The Jaina Aupapātika Sūtra speaks of the Tāpasas as those religieux who adopted the Vānaprastha mode of life on the banks of the saored rivers typified by the Ganges. They were either fire-worshippers, family men or those who slept on the bare ground. They were either sacrificers, or performers of funeral rites, or owners of property. The water jugs and cooking pots were among their belongings. They followed different modes of bathing in the holy waters. Some of them used to blow conchshells, or were küladhumakas (winnow-beaters). Some of them killed deer for venison and skin, and some killed elephants to make food provision minimising the slaughter of life. Some went about holding a stick erect, or with the gaze fixed on a particular direction. They used the bark of a tree as their garment, and lived either on the seashore or near water at the foot of a tree, feeding on water, air, water-plants, roots, bulbs, barks, flowers, fruits and seeds. They rendered their body cooked as it were by the heat of the five kinds of fire and stiffened by the sprinkling of water 1.
The Sūtra mentions a class of recluses (pabbaiyā-samaņā) who were addicted to sensual pleasures, vulgar ways and vaunting, and were fond of singing and dancing .
1 Aupapatha Sutra, sec, 74
Ibrd, sec. 76

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230 INDIA AS DESORIBED. IN DARLY TEXTS
I'ne same text distinguishes between the Brāhmaṇa and Kşatriya Parivrājakas, and de-- scribes them as those religieux who either followed the Kāpila school of Sankhya or the Bhārgaya school of Yoga, or represented the four grades of Indian ascetics: Bahüdakā, Kuţibratā (Kuticakā), Hamsa and Paramahamsā. Some of them were Krşņa Parivrājakas 1. The Ajīvikas are placed in a different category, their description being the same as in Palia. It may be noted that even in Gosālas doctrine, the Ājivika orders were distinguished from those of the Parivrăjakas 8
A gradation of nisthă or goals aimed at by the Tăpasas, Paribbājakas and Ajīvikas is suggested in the Aupapātika Sütra, Buddhaghosa's Papañcasüdani, some of the later Upanisacs as well as Gośāla's doctrine of six Abhijātas or grades of spiritual advancement. The six grades are described in terms of six colours as the black (kaņha), the blue (nila), tlie red (lohita), the turmeric (halidda), the white (sukka), and the supremely white (paramasukka 4). Corresponding to them we have mention of the following six grades in the Samnyāsa Upanişad: ätura,
1 dupapatika Sutra, secs. 76-81. 9 Ibid., sec. 120.
Digha, i, p. 54: ekūnapannäsa-ājīuceato, Paribbājakasate. -4 Barua in I.A.Q., iü, p. 267f. .
skūnapangaran

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kutīcaka, bahūdaka, hamsa, paramahamsa and
uriyātītaporamahamsa, saniyama or aniyama. According to the Upanişads, the goal of the ätura (=kanha) is Bhūrloka, that of the Joutīcaka (=nila) is Bhuvarloka, that of the bahūdaka (=lohita) is Svargaloka, that of the hamsa (=halidda) is Tapoloka, that of the paramahamsa (=sukka) is Satyaloka, and that of the turiyātītaparamahamsa (=paramasukka) 18 Kaivalya. The turiyātītaparamahamsa cul. minates as avadhūta. According to the Aupapā. tika Sūtra, the destiny of worldly men is Vāņamantra, that of the Vānaprastha Tāpasas is the world of the Jyotişi gods, that of the Paribbājakas is Brahmaloka, and that of the Ajīvikas is Acyutapada . And according to Buddhaghosa, the goal of the Brāhmaṇas is Brahmaloka, that of the Täpasas is Ābhassaraloka, that of the Paribbājakas is Subhakiņņaloka and that of the Ājivikas is Anantamānasa &
The various forms of penances (tapas, dukkarakārikā) constituted the external feature of their religious efforts, and the various modes of Yoga or Jhāna practised by them constituted its internal feature. In the Jātakas, many among the ancient hermits are said to have mastered the eight samāpattis, each of them representing a particular form of ecstasy or
1 Aupapānka Sutra, gecs. 70, 71, 74, 81, 120.
2 Papancasüdani, pt. II, p. If, CulasThanāds Sutta.

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232 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
hypnotic trance. The Ariyapariyesana Sutta 1 and other Pali texts mention Āļārakālāma andTM Uddakaramaputta as two great Yogis under whom the Buddha learnt the practice of Yoga, better Rajayoga, on his way from Rajagaha to Uruvelă. While at Uruvela, he practised the hard penances and appāņakajhānas (i.e. kumbhakas of Hathayoga) of the Acelaka or Ajivika class of ascetics.
The common people who were the lay supporters of these various orders of hermits, ascetics and recluses, attached much importance to the austerities and believed in the infinite possibilities of the Yoga practice. The popular belief is that with the development of the supernormal faculties, being one, the gifted man becomes many, having become many, becomes one again. He becomes visible or invisible at his sweet will, he can fly through air like birds on wings, can easily walk on water, as if on solid ground, and can easily go to the further side of a wall or rampart or hill, as if through air, feeling no obstruction. Even the sun and the moon he can touch and feel with his own hands. He can visit any place he likes, even the world of Brahma. For the self-articulation and its effects through Yoga
M
I Majjhima, i, p. 1604.
2 Rhys Davids, Dialogues of the Buddha, S.B.B., ii, p. 208f.

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,
or Jhana,1 the popular simile was that of a clever 'potter making pots of any shape out of properly prepared clay 2.
Thus the Yoga practice and miracle went together. In popular estimation the greater the psychic power, the superior was the Master. Just as the wrestlers in an arena measured their strength with each other, so did the ascetics, and the contest was eagerly witnessed by the people. The Savatthi miracle performed by the Buddha was intended to establish his superiority over the rest of the competitors in the field of psychic power. The question with the people who thronged to witness the performance waswho is the greater Yogi, the Buddha or the Tilthiyas?" The Ajivikas claimed their third Titthankara, Gogala, as one of the three greatest Avadhutas in history. The Jainas proclaimed that their last Titthankara, Mahavira, was the all-knowing and all-seeing Master, possessed of an infinite knowledge. They further declared that in all postures of his body, the supreme knowledge and vision (ñanadassanam) were always present, with him. Similarly the
7
n
1 Keith, Buddhist Philosophy, pp. 30, 42, 43, 90, 119, etc.; Law, Concepts of Buddhism, Chap. VI.
20 Digha, i, p. 78f.; Dial. B., op. cit., p. 88f.
3 Jātaka, iv, p. 264f.; Mahāvastu, iii, p. 116.
Anguttara, ili, p. 384; Sumangalavilasini, i, p. 162.
5 Majjhima, i, p. 92f.; Law, Mahāvīra, p. 43.

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Byddhists contended for the superiority of their Master over, all by the fact of his experience of the highest state of consciousness through the ninth samāpatti called saññā-vedayitanirodha 1. Among the Buddha's immediate disciples, Moggallāna was claimed to have occupied the foremost rank in respect of the possession of psychic power a.
The man gifted with psychic power passed also as the man of wisdom, the greatest Yogi figuring sometimes as the greatest rationalist. The Samaņa-Brāhmaṇa period was indeed a period during which the religious experiences were sought to be rationalised. So we need Mot be astonished at all that the bands of the wandering ascetics, Paribbājakas and Samaņas, appeared in the scene as great controversialists and disputants. The royal parks and gardens of the aristocrats were their halting places where they engaged themselves in serious disoussions. The philosophical contest was no lesis an interesting occasion for the people than the miracle. Sometimes they talked so loudly that the place where they halted or resided became very much noisy like a fish market 8. We hear of a Tindukacira or Tinduka garden which
1 Mailama, i, p, 296. 2 Arguttara, i, p. 23; Majjhimo, 1, p. 261f.; H. J. Thomnes, History of Buddhist Thought, p. 52.
3 Majjhima, ii, Sakuludāyi Subtą (Mahi and Oūļa),

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"
resounded with the uproar of doctrines (samayapavadaka). To provide them with a fixed residence during the rains, their lay supporters, kings, queens, princes, courtiers and bankers, permanently dedicated the arāmas to this or that particular order of Paribbājakas and Samanas. The result was that the ärāmas gradually became known as Paribbājaka-ārāmas,
or converted into vihāras or monastic establishments. The mountain caves where they used to seek shelter during the rains, were likewise turned into lenas or cave-dwellings.
2
The Šaravana 2 near Śrāvasti was the place where the Ajivika leader, Magkari Gośāla, was born of Parivrājaka parents. The Jetavana on the south side of Savatthi was originally a private garden of Prince Jeta, which was subsequently converted into a vihara by the banker, Anathapindika, for the Buddha and his disciples. The Pubbārāma or the garden on the east side of the city was similarly converted into a vihara by Visakhā, daughter-inlaw of the banker, Migāra, and offered as
4
O
1 This was the famous gardon of queen Mallika in the suburb of Savatthi, provided at first with one shed and subsequently with many sheds to make accommodations for the wandering ascetics or recluses Digha, 1, p. 178
2 B. O. Law, Srävasti in Indian Literature (Memoir A.SI, No. 50), p. 10.
"
3 Ibid, p. 10
Ibid, pp. 10, 22-25,

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•
236 INDIA AS DESCRIRED IN EARLY TEXTS
a gift to the Buddhist Sangha of all times and all quarters. The Sahassambavana 1 outsidethe city of Palasapura became a Jaina residence during Mahavira's lifetime. The garden of the Sakya Nyagrodha near the city of Kapilavatthu was transformed into a vihara and offered as a gift to the Buddha and his followers. The same as to the Mahāvana " near “Vesali and the Veluvana and Jivaka's Mango-grove near Rajagaha. A retreat for the Paribbājakas was built on the landed estate of Udumbarikādevi, not far from Rajagaha. Pāvārika's Mango-grove at Nālandā and the Gaggara tank at Campa, the capital of Anga, were famous as halting places of the wandering ascotics and recluses; the places or sites that were attractive to this class of Indian religieux may be easily inferred from the two famous utterances of the Buddha, cited below:
First, the Buddha, at the first sight of Uruvelă, observed: 'Pleasantly picturesque is this part of land. Delightful is the sight of grassy woodland. The river (Nerañjara) is flowing on in a glassy stream showing the bathing places with gradual descent of steps presenting a charming landscape, and affording glimpses into
1 Uvāsagadasão, ed. by Hoerale, Chaps, IV-VII.
2 Law, Some Ksatriya Tribes of Ancient India, p. 46f.
8 Law, Rajagriha in Ancient Literature, pp. 11-12.
4 Ibid., pp. 12-13.

Page #245

RELIGION
237
the neighbouring hamlets, easy of access. This must be the fitting place for the scion of a noble race strenuously striving after the highest attainment 1."
Secondly, the Buddha's happy reminiscences of the sites at Rājagaha are vividly recorded thus in the Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta: "Delightful is "Rajagaha, delightful is the Gijjhakūta mountain, delightful is the Gotama Nigrodha, delightful is the Corapapata, the Sattapanniguhă on a side of the Vebhāra mountain, the Sappasondika-slope in Sitavana, the Tapodārāma, the Veluvana Kalandaka-nivapa, the Mangogrove of Jivaka, and the Maddakutchi Deer Park.
7
There varily I dwelt at Rajagaha in the Sattapanna cave on one side of the Vebhāra mountain. There verily I dwelt at Rājagaha on Kalasila on a side of the Isigili mountain'. So on and so forth 2.
It may be noted that the Kälasila was the very rock on which the Jaina recluses could be seen practising austerity in a standing posture from dawn to dusk 3.
1 Majjhima, i, pp. 166-187; Mahāvastu, ii, p. 123f.; Lalitavistara (Mitra's ed.), p. 311; Barua, Gaya and Buddhagaya, pp. 103, 162.
2 Digha, ii, p. 116f.; Law, Rajagriha in Ancient Interature (Memoir A.S.I., No. 58), p. 7f. The Theratherīgatha contains similar reminiscences.
s Majjhima, i, p. 92,

Page #246

238 INDIA AS DESCRIBED. IN DARLY TEXTS • In the opinion of D. R. Bhandarkar, the ancient șsis were not aggressive propagators oftheir faith 1 As distinguished from them, the Paribbājakas and Samaņas actively propagated the same amongst all classes of people. The happy result of it was that already by the time of Piyadasi-Asoka almost the whole of India was Aryanised or Hinduised by them, the Samaņas and the Brāhmaṇas 2. They were the people who prepared the ground for the vigorous Buddhist missionary work, organised during the latter part of the reign of Asoka. Before that time the spread of Buddhism was restricted more or less to the confines of Majjhimadesa 3. And yet the missionary zeal which enabled Buddhism to become a great civilising influence in the world, lay in the epoch-making utterance of the Buddha with which he urged his very first batch of advanced disciples to go forth in all directions and preach the new message of the Dhamma, not two of them following the same direction, for the good and happiness of many, himself taking the lead in the matter".
In carrying on this noble mission, some of the hermits, ascetics and recluses had to play the
| 1 Bhandarkar, Carmichael Leatures, 1918, p. 17.
2 Asoka’s R.E., xiii; Barua, Gaya and Buddhagayā, i, p. 262. a Kathāvatthu, i, 3; 1.H.Q., vii (1931), p. 368.
4 Vinaya Mahavagga: 'Saratha, bhilkhave, cărikcam bahujanahitāya - bahujanasukhāya', etc.

Page #247

RELIGION
239 rôle of martyrs. The Jātakas and Kautilya's Arthaśāstra record just a few typical instances of martyrđom suffered in the past. Ajjuna, king of the Kekayas, caused annoyance to the sago, Gotama. Dandaki, king of Dandaka, insulted Kisavaccha, the guileless ascetic. King Mejjha ill-treated Mātanga, the far-famed sage. The Andhaka-Veņhu youths of Dväravati roughly handled Kanha-Dipāyana and ultimately put him to death. Kalābu, king of Benares, tortured an ascetic who was a preachor of patience and forbearance. Nāļikira (or Nālikera), king of Kalinga, cut the body of an ascetic into pieces and offered his limbs to dogs to devour. In one instance, a king pierecd a harmless ascetic with an arrow under the misapprehension that he stood in his way as ill-luck and spoiled his game. Even in historical times, the Buddha's great disciple and powerful popular preacher, Moggallāna, was surrounded and killed by brigands (alleged to have been employed by his rivals in other sects).
There were two effective ways of checking the tyrants and sinners: the pronouncement of a curse and the invention of the stories of terrible sufferings in different purgatories. But the Indian ascetics also invented the stories of a happy and glorious life in different heavens to induce the people to lead a moral and pious

Page #248

240 INDIA AS DESCRIBED IN EARLY TEXTS
• life. The early Jaina and Buddhist texts are
full of vivid pictures of purgatories and paradises. 'According to the Rāmāyana, in order to prevent disturbances to the sacrifices in the āśramas, caused by the aboriginal tribes, the hermits and sages had to seek occasionally the aid of the princes and warriors for an armed protection. But left to themselves and determined to remain non-violent and non-harming, they had to make patience, forbearance, etc., ar virtue of necessity.
The account of Mahāvīra's early wanderings in the country of Ladha in the Acārānga Sūtra shows that the rude inhabitants of the place used to set dogs with the cry of chucchū upon the ascetios when they were found near their localities?. But as borne out by the reminiscences of Mahāvīra and the Buddha, the mischief-makers whom the lonely ascetics had to reckon with were the cowherds (gopālakā) who made practical jokes on them.
The doctrinal basis of various stories of heaven and hell was the widely current popular belief in paraloka or life hereafter. The doctrine of Karma was founded on this very belief. So much stress was laid upon the betterment of human existence in the life to come that the
1 Acäränga Sutra, i, 8.8-4. * Tod, 18,8–10; Mahasihan@da Sutta, Mcphama, i, p. 79.

Page #249

RELIGION
241 general impression among the people of the Buddha's time was that religion was needed for furthering the worldly interest only. It was from this impression that king Ajātasattu of Magadha was led to have interviews with the contemporary religious teachers for enlightenment on the question as to the possibility of the immediate fruit of religious life in the present existence. In the Sāmaññaphala and other suttas, we read that the contemporary religious teachers whom he waited upon gave answers that were not to the point. He then saw the Buddha who satisfied him with a relevant answer. The Buddha's arguments went to establish that religion, if rightly and earnestly, practised, was of immense service to men and women in the present world, its primary
function being to improve the personal, family, social, economio, moral, intellectual and spiritual status of them by showing them the path of deliverance from bondage in all its degrees and forms.
In corroboration of the drift of the Buddha's reply, we may note that Indian religions of the age encouraged various works of social piety, e.g., construotion of roads and bridges, planting of shade trees, excavation of tanks,
King of wells, laying out of fruit gardens,
Digha, 1, p. 60f.
16

Page #250

242 INDIA AS DESCRIBEN IN EARLY TEXTS supply of drinking water at suitable places for the thirsty, travellers and beasts, opening of charity halls, supply of medicinal roots, fruits, leaves and herbs, maintenance of public granaries and storehouses as provisions against famine and starvation, etc. The voice was raised against the servitude of men and women, the slave-trade was prohibited among the followers and the manumission of slaves was encouraged. The religious orders of the Samaņas admitted even the slaves and Suddas into their fold and proved that given a chance, a barber like Upāli could occupy a foremost rank among the elect
The door of higher religious life was also kept open to the women of all social grades and ranks, nay, even to the fallen women, some of who“; made their mark in history by their changed life.
By preaching the doctrine of Ahimsā, the religions brought about a change in the art of cooking and items of food. They persistently . sought to create a social order based on cordiality, fellow-feeling and love. The vi. gorous religious propaganda carried on during the period went to mitigate and humanise the most rigorous and barbarous laws 1. The religions served to improve the moral tone and taste of society. The Buddhist Vinaya con
| 1 Majong, 1 p. 87.

Page #251

B
Ver
Kue
Indus
Karakorament
arakoram'Rans
Chretorb
Mount Pem
Sulaman Ranel
Boots
SU
SES
aus
Isang po HIMALAY
Women
Vindly
Vindhva Rousse
Perta Norbedar
ALAD Arakadlo
halomo
ARABIAN
SEA
BAY OF BENGAL
Western Ghat
English Mdes

Page #252


Page #253

Abbhutadhammas, 270 Abhaya, prince, 167 Abhidhamma, 267 Abhijātas
(grades
of
spiritual advancement),
230
INDEX
Acchutapadi, 199
Acelakas, 222, 223, 226, 227, Aiyangar, S. K., 78
232
Ajapatha, 71
Aciravati, 6, 11, 23, 26, 46, Ajätasattu, 123, 124, 13 136, 137, 138, 159, 168 241
132
Acrobats, 177, 179
Lotors, professional, 179 Acyutapada, 231
ddhariyas, 201, 253 Thicchatrā, 37 lhikakka, 22 thipati (issara), 169 hoganga, 39
Vyātmavidyā, 255, 256
anistan, 17, latantra, 259
hakaraka (officer fixing prices of commodities),
·
ioulture, 154, 177 oulturists
As 1, 159
Ahavvanavede, 245 Ahetuvādā, 110 Ahicohatra, 37, 38, 97
Ahimsa, doctrine of, 242 Ahivātakaroga, 173 Ahoganga, 39
Aitareyas, 201
2
apura, 39
ggideva, 101 Aggihutta (oblations to Alberuni, 15 fire), 206
Agnates, 146, 147
(kassaka),
Ajita Kesakambali, 223, 22: 225, 274 Ajitavati, 25
Ajjuna, 95, 96, 99, 101, 198
239
Akiriyavādā, 110
Akkhanam (ballad recita tion), 261
3
Akkharappabheda, 247, 24 Akkharika (game of guessin at letters), 277 Alaka, 78, 108 Alarakālāma, see Āļārs
kālāma.
Alasanda, 68, 69, 83
Alexandria, 83 Allahabad, 23
Allakappa, 34, 57, 128, 134
Alms houses, 171' Amarakantaka hills, 79
1

Page #254

292
INDET
Amarakosa, 81
Anoma, 24, 54 Amaravati, 78
Anotatta lako, 5, 10, 11, 63 Amarāvikkhepaka, 225 Antaravedi, 20 Ambagåma, 53
Antarāpaņas (godowns), 189 Ambalaţthikā, 49
Antarikichacarā (those in the Anabapāli, 167, 272
firmament), 198, 199 Ambassadors, 155
Antevāsis (resident pupils), Ambatthas, 150
287 Anăthapiņdika, 175, 176, Anupiya, 54 - " 235
Anuvindakas, 109 Anatomy, 260
Anuvyākhyānas (glosses), Anāvisti, 172
250 Andhaka, 108, 114, 271 Anuvyanjanaa, 288 Andhakas, 86, 103, 113, 114, Aparagayā, 48 116, 142
Aparagodāna, 2,9 Andhakavenhu, 103, 239 Aparagoyāna, 2 Andhaka vişnu, 101 Aparānta, 2, 16, 18, 67, 73, Andhaka-Vrgnis, 85, 103 108 Andhapura, 79, 114 Aparāntakas, 111 Andhra, 108, 115
Aparagela, 78, 114 Andhra, 113
Apothecaries, 151 Anga, 19, 20, 24, 32, 33, 34, | Appănakajbānas, 232 50, 117, 119, 120, 121, | Appraisers, 152 130, 185, 186, 220, 236, | Arabian Soa, 4, 67 282
Arakan Coast, 188 Angā, 117
Arantuka, 36 . Anga-Magadha, 70, 120 Arcbers, 169 Angas, 117, 118, 247, 267 Archery, 159, 258 Angiraga, 147
Architects, 152, 165, 179 Angulimila, 272
Ardbamägadhi, 225, 264, 265 Angnt car pa, 60
Arindama, 121 Anikatthå (sentinels), 178 Arithmetic (ganikā, rāší, . Añjanädevi, 102
samkhāna), 245, 248, 260 Aðjanapabbata, 6
Arrow-makers (pāpakārs), Aijanavana, 31
178, 179
** Ankura, 102
Arthasāstra (science of Annebhāra, 223 il polity), 249

Page #255

Artists (rupadakkhä), 178 "Aruna, king, 108, 116 Arupabrahmas, 199 Aryandom, 215 Aryans, 139
Ascetics, six grades of: Atura, 230
Aévaghosa, 272 Asvakas, 107,
Asvamedha (horse-sacrifice),
205
Atavicora (oriminal tribes living in forests), 173 Athabbaṇaveda, 247 Atharvanaveda, 245, 250 Atharvängirasas, 250, 251 Atharvaveda, 247 Attă (soul), 224
Atthaka, country, 106 Aṭṭhaka, king, 106
Aṭṭhaka, ṛşi, 147, 252 Aṭṭhakula, 123 Aṭṭhakulakā, 123 Aṭṭhakulika, 172
Asitafijana, 100
Asmakas, 107,
•
Aśoka, 15, 76, 78, 82, 106, Atthidhopana (washing the bones of the dead), 193 Avadhūta, 231
112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 119, 238 Assaka, 19, 34, 108, 114, 116, Avanti, 19, 22, 34, 74, 101 104, 105, 120, 134, 135 138
A
130 Assakanņa, 2 Assakas, 107 Assakenus, 107 Assamukha, 10 Assapura, 50, 120
Aşṭaka, rşi, 252
►
INDEX
Bahüdakā, 230, 231 Hamsă, 230, 231 Kuţibrată
(Kuṭicakā),
*230, 231 Paramahamsa, 230, 231 Turiyatitaparamahamsa,
231
Asi, 42
Asikni, 98
Asurabhavana, 2 Asuras, 200, 201
Astrologers, 152
Astrology, 246, 247, 249, Ayojjhā, 100, 131, 132
A
250, 266
Abhassaraloka, 231
293
Avantis, 103, 104, 105, 107
108 Aviruddhakas, 198
Aviwa, 32
Astronomers, 155
Acaradasă, 268
•
Astronomy, 246, 247, 249, Adiccabandhu, 127
250, 266
Ayodhya, 23, 43, 100, 131 132, 215, 219
"
Adipurusa, 122 Adityas, 146 Adrakalpa, 34, 57

Page #256

294
INDEX
Agama, 256, 257, 260, 264, Bandhupādāpacoa, 145 267
Banga, vide Vanga. Ajivikas, 198, 200, 226, 227, Bankers, 175
230, 231, 232, 233, 260, Banking facilities, 191 265, 266
Barbara, 67, 84, 86 Akasaganga, 11
Barbers, 141, 177, 178 Akäsatthā, 198, 199 Bārāṇasī, 21, 24, 34, 129 Alabhi, 32, 43
Barbaricum, 72 Alabana, 193
Bareilly Dist., 37 . ' Alárakālāma, 232, 284 Bärhadrathapura, 119 Alavaka, 58
Bärhadrathas, 120 Alavi, 32, 58, 135
Baruņā, 42 Ariakagusána, 193 Barygaza, 76, 112 Andhras, 113, 114
Basket-makers (nalakārā), Andhrakas, 113
178, 179 Angeyas, 117
Baskets (pitakas), 287 Apaņas (shops), 189 Bath-attendants, 177, 178 Apastamba, 268
Bathers (malamajjanasama), Aryävarta, 5, 12
161 Asā (Hope), 204
Baudhayana, 20 Anidhasena, 37
Bāvart, the chaplain, 157, Atura, 230
158, 218, 219, 283 Avattagangā, 11
Bāvharijjas, 201, 253 Ayurveda, 249, 259, 260 Bay of Bengal, 4
Beef-eating, 211 Babbara, 68, 71, 72, 86 Beggars, 177 Babylonia, 185
Belaţtha olan, 224, 225 Bactrian Greeks, 83, 84, 101 Belaţtha family, 224 Bahalagangā, 11
Benares, 112, 123, 129, 130, Babūdaka, 230
169, 185, 188, 216, 217, Bāhukā, 22
219, 239, 279, 281 Bahumati, 22
Berar, 106 Bahvroas 201
Berbai, 188 Bairāt, 76
Besarh, 62 Baladova, 101, 198 Begnagar, 84 Balakaloņakára, 39, 41" : Besyngeitai, 188 Ballad-ceciters, 162, 163, 179 | Bhaddánana, 209

Page #257

INDEX
Bhoddiy8, 60 Bhadrâsana, 209 Bhadrāśva, 9 Bhagalpur, 50 Bhagavänpur, 58 Bhagga, 133 Bhagga-Kárūsas, 109 Bhaggas, 32, 34, 39, 110,
124, 134 Bhaggavagotta, 222 Bhagirathi, 23, 37, 73 Bhagirathi-Gangā, 23, 36 Bhagu, 147, 252 Bhakti, 195, 203 Bhalluka, 109 Bhandarkar, D. R., 104,
131, 238 Bharadvája, 147, 252 Bharahavāsa, 1 Bharata, 14, 104, 118, 129,
215 Bhāratavarşa, 3, 4, 8, 9, 13,
14, 121, 215 Bhärgava family, 223 Bhargavas, 11% Bharu, 117 Bharukaccha, 111, 112, 187 Bhāsamaggam, 248 Bhatiya, king, 120, 165 Bhattiya, 119, 120 Bhavanavisia, 199, 200 Bhegakalāvana, 32, 33 Bhillas, 141 Bhilsā, 26, 75, 109 Bhima, king, 87, 106, 215 Bhimaratha, king, 106 Bhiru, 111
Bhirukaccha, 111 . , Bhoganagann, 53 Bhoja, 73, 106 Bhojaputtag, sixteen, 106, -
107 Bhojakas, 108, 173 Bhopal, 26,75 Bhrgu, 252 Bhrgukaccha, 74, 76, 111 , Bhummas (torrestrial), 198,
199 Bhürloka, 231 Bhūtagana Mt., 63 Bhutavidyā, 250 Bhāvarloka, 231 Bias, 69 , Bihar, 49, 61 Bihar-Sarif. Nawadah, 49 Bimbisāra, 49, 87, 111, 119,
120, 123, 135, 136, 161,
166, 167, 280 Bindusära lake, 10, 12 Biology, 260 Bird-oatching, 182 Birdpur Estate, 56, Birds, different species, 66,
183 Blacksmiths, 141, 178, 179 Bloch, J., 47 Bodhāyana, 288 Bodhi, prince, 110 Bagra, 60 Bones, Washing the, 193 Botany, 260 Bouting 171 Bow-makers (usukārā), 178,
179

Page #258

296
INDEX
Bowman 178
Buddhaghost, 38, 36, 37, . Brahma, 146, 187, 199, 203, 93, 114, 116, 147, 175, 232
230, 231 Brahmabandhu (Brahma's Buddhakhotta, 289 favourite), 163
Buddhasāsanam, 246 Brahmadatta, 98, 108, 118, Buffalo-fights, 171
119, 120, 129, 130, 131 Bulis, 34, 128, 134 Brahmaloka, 231
Bull-fights, 171 Brāhmaṇa-candālā, 152 Bundelkhand, 40 Brāhmana-mahāgālas, 161, Burglace (sandhichedakt), 175
172 Brāhmaṇa Parivrājakas, 230 Burma, 187 Brāhmaṇas, 139, 142, 148, Butchers (goghatakas), 161
150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158, 161, 162, 163, Cakkavatti (overlord), 16, 174, 178, 180, 201, 213, 121, 169 231, 238
Calondar-makers, 162 Biahmaputra, 64
Camndapannatti, 274 Brahmargidesa, 21 Cammakārā (loatherBrahmarşis, 216
workers), 140, 178 Brahmā varta, 67
Cammasātakas, 222 Brahmavidyā, 250
Camojo, 86 Brahmavihāras, four, 218 Campā, 21, 24, 34, 47, 50, Karunā, 218
118, 119, 161, 185, 236 Mette, 218
Cāņakya, 1699 Mudita, 218
Cañcu, a kind of famine, Upekkhā, 218
172 Brahmayoni hill, 26, 47
Candabhāgā, 6, 70, 73 Brhadratha, 119, 121
Candadova, 101 Bridges, construction of, 171 Broach, 111
Candagutta, 128, 172 Buddha, 120, 121, 125, 126,
Candála-haddipau, 141 127, 128, 131, 132, 136,
Candālas, 140, 141, 193 137, 138, 162, 212, 213, Candapajjota, 104, 105, 120, 220, 225, 233, 235, 236, 135, 166, 168 $38, 239, 241
Candragupta, 159 Buddhadatta, 77, 114 Caiki, 181

Page #259

INDEX
297
Cãpakārā (arrow-makers), Chathāgiri, 28 * 178
Chatravati, 87 Cape Comorin, 187 Chattapatha, 71 Caravan merchants, 70, 184 Chavachaddhakā (corpseCarpenters (taochakā), 160, throwors), 140 178, 179
Chenab, 73, 98 Carriage-builders, 179, Cheras, 115 Caste system, 192
Chicacole, 79, 116 Castor, 182
China, 177 Cattle, 224
Chotanagpur hills, 59 Cattle-breeders, 162 Chryae Chora, 188 Cattle-breeding, 154 Cinarattha, 178, 188 Cātubbeda (four vadas),
Cīnas, 86 248
Cirātas, 85 Catumā, 56
Cis-Sutlej States, 17 Cātuyamasamvara, 225 Cità (funeral pyre), 193 Caumojee, 85
Agnidagdhā, 193 Cavalry, 171
Anagnidagdbā, 193 Cave-dwellings (lenas), 235 Citrakūta, 12, 64 Caves, 222
Citta, 175 Cedi, 116, 120, 121, 216 Cleigobora, 103 Cedis, 129, 133, 134 Clerks (iūpadakkhā), 178 Cellană, 123
Cloth merchants (dussikā), Cetaka, 123, 136
178, 179 Cotaputta, 133
Cock-fights, 171 Cetirattha,"40
Cognatos, 146 Cati, 116, 120, 133
Coins, 190 Chaddanta lake, 6, 66 Addhakahāpana, 190 Chanda (metre), 245, 265 Addhamāsaka, 190 Chandasā (prosody), 249, Addhapāda, 190 263
Chiet medium of exChandāvas, 201, 253
change, 190 Chandogyas, 201
Copper, 190 Chegadokas, 201, 253 Gold, 190 Chariot-drivers, 155, 178 Kahápana, 159, 190, 192 Charioteers, 171
* Kákaņika, 190 Charsada, 72
Māsaka, 190

Page #260

298
INDEX
Páda, 190
Cũlani Brahmadatta, king, Rikkha, 190
98 Siver, 190
Culla-Himavanta, 4 Suvanna, 190
Cullakalinga, 116 Cola country, 114
Cundadvola, 48 Colas, 113, 115
Cundatthila, 42 Collectors of alma, 162 Cundavila, 42 Comb-makers, 179
Cutoh, 74, 111 Comets, 200, 263 Commensality, 145
Daddarapura, 120 Commerce, 177
Dadhivahana, 118 Conjeeveram, 78
Daivăvşdhas, 103 Connubium, 145
Dakkhiņakasala, 44 Conveyancing (muddā), 249 Dakkhiņagiri, 49, 159 Cooks (gūpikā), 177, 178 Dakkhiņamadhurā, 113 Cora, different kinds of, Dakkhiņapañoāla vide 172
Dakşiņapañola. Corajettha (ring-loader), 173 Dakkhināpatha, 73, 79, 104, Corapapāta, 48, 173, 237
107, 115, 184 Coromandel Coast, 78 Dakşiņapafioala, 97 Corpse-burners, 179
Dákşiņātya, 6, 12, 16, 18 Corpse-throwers, 140 Dalbhyas, 58 Cotton, 182
Dalkisor, 69 Council, First Buddhist, 138 Damila, 78, 271 . Second Buddhist. Damilarattha, 114 138
Damilas, 86, 113, 115 Valabhr, 267 Danders, 179 Fourteeam, 288, 287, 288,
Dancing girls, 177, 179 179, 192
Dandaka, 106, 239 Cowherds (gopalakk), 141,
Dandaki, king, 108, 116, 239 240
Dăņdakya, 106
Dantapura, 79, 115, 116 Cow-billing, 211
Dappana, 209 Cowry Shells (sippikāni), 190Darada, 67 Craftsmen (sippikā), 161 Därakatikiocha, 269 Criminal justice, 171 Darbhanga District, and Criminal tribes, 173
Daripatha, 71

Page #261

INDEX
299
Darius, king, 87 | DhanaЙjaya Koravya, 99, Darpana, 209
146 Dasan, 109
Dhanañjaya Setthi, 176 Dasaņņa country, 109 Dhanapalagāma, 42 Dasaņņā, river, 109 Dhanui veda (military or Dagannas, 109
archery science), 249, 258 Dabaratha, 132
Dhanuşkoti, 13 Dakārna, 216
Dhatarattha, 118, 129, 200, Dasārņabhadra, 215
240 Dead, disposal of the: Dhruvamadhyamnădik, 38 ājahana, 193
Dīgha-kārāyana, 137, 189, āmakagusāna, 193
261 sivathikā, 193
Dighanakha, 223 Doocan, 116
Disākākā (flight of rows), Deer Park, 42
187 Desaka, 51, 60
Disākumāras (quarter-gods), Despised classes, five, 140 200 Devadaha, 55
Disampati, 167 Devadhammikas, 195 Discipline, 287 Devagabbhā, 100, 102, 104 Dona, 23 Devaki, 100, 102
Door-keepers (dovārika), Devas, three classes :
178 Sammutidevā, 197
Dowry, 176 Upapattidevā, 197
Dramal pekkhā), 171 Visuddhidev8, 197
Drain cleaners (sandhika), Devasabhă, 73, 74
178 Devavatikas, 195
Draupadi, 95
Drāvidā, 113 Devavidyā (etymology), 250
Dream portents (supinam), Devayajanavidyā, 250
248 Dhamma, 194, 238, 267
Dronastūpa, 67 Dhammakathikas, 286*
Drşadvatī, 36 Dhammanātaka, 167
Drstivāda, 267 Dhemmasenāpatis, 212
Druggists, 161, 166 Dhammäsoka, 138
Drugs, 188 Dhanabhūti, 168
Druhyas, 86 Dhanakataka, 78
Drupada, 168

Page #262

300
INDEX
Duels, 171
Elephant trainers (hatthiDukkarakārikā, a form of pålā), 178, 180 penance, 231
Emblems, eight, 208 Dammukha, king, 87, 97, Embryology, 260 122, 216
Epidemics, 178 Dussiki, (cloth merchants), Erakaocha, 109 178, 179
Etiquette, laws of, 243 Dūtas, 155
Etymology, 250 Duties, exemption from the Exchange, medium of, 190 payment of, 174
Exegesis (nirutta), 246, 262 Duyyodhana, 121
Exorcism, 262 Dvārakā, 85, 102 Dváravati, 102, 132, 167, Famino, threo kinds of: 215, 239
Cariou, 172 Dvõrikesvarī, 59
Salākāvrtti, 172 Dyers (rajakārā), 178, 1791 Svetāsthi, 172 Dynastio list of the kings in Farmors, 162, 165, 160, 170 Page #263

INDEX
301 Gamabhojaka (village head. | Generals, 155 man), 183
Geology, 280 Gāmaghātaworā (plunderers Geyya, 269 of villagos), 172
Ghanaselapаbbata, 75 Gāmakhettas (cultivable Chatapandita, LOL lands), 181
Chogrā, 25 Game:
Ghosaka, 166 Akkharika, 277
Ghositārāma, 39 Ganadharas, 211
Ghotainnkha, 261 Ganarajks, 136
Gihivinaya (grhīvinaya), Gandak, 25, 54
208 Gandaki, 46
Gijjhakūta, 27, 28, 237 Gandhabba (music), 248 Ginger, dry, 182 Gandhabbayeda (science of Giribbaja, 48, 120 music), 260
Giriyek, 29 Gandhamādada, 9, 12, 62, 82 Gītamärga, 262, 265 Gandhapura, 48
Godāvari, 77, 107, 108, 113, Gandhāra, 19, 67, 83, 86, 218, 219, 283
97, 109, 116, 120, 122, Goghātakas (butohers), 161 185, 215, 280
Gomata-Kandara, 31 Gandhāra-vigaya, 72 Gonaddha, 74 Gandharvavoda (science of Gopa-nĒpitam, 141 musio), 249
Gopas, 151 Gandhikā (perfumers), 178 Goradhagiri, 27 Gangā, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 17, Gorakhpur, 25 73, 186 "
Gorathagiri, 27, 47" Ganges, 37, 100, 121, 122, Gobala, 224, 230, 233, 260 " 129, 135, 136, 214, 229 Gotama mountain, 63 Gangetic Valley, 34 Gotama-gotta, 146 Gaņikā (prostitutes), 168, Gotta, 146, 147, 222 176, 192
Gotama, 146 Ganivijjā (Arithmetic), 274 | Kaphāyana, 146 Gayā, 22, 46, 220, 221 Vāseţtha, 126, 146 Gayā, river, 220
Yuddhitthila, 146 Gayākhetta, 119, 206, 220 Govaddhana, 100 Gayāsira, 26, 47, 48 Government, form of: Gayāsisa, 26
Monarchical, 183

Page #264

302
INDLY
Qligarohical, 124, 163 | Hierarchy, 199, 200, 201 Republican, 124, 163 Highway robbers (pantha-m? Iribal, 163
ghātacorā), 172 Govinda, 123, 167
Himācala, 5 Graces, four Indian, 204 1 Himalaya, 6, 8, 123 Grammar (Vyakarana), 245, | Fimapanta, 5, 63 247, 263, 264
Hinajātis, fivo, 140 Granaries, publio, 171, 242 Hīnasippas (low trades), 140 Grass-outters, 179
Hingulapаbbata, 6 . Grdhrakūta, vide Gijjhakūta. Hingulatala, 6 Grhivinaya, 268
Hirafifiavati, 25 Guilds (pugas), 142, 179 Hiraṇyassiga, 10 Gwalior, 114
Homa, 206
Hopkins, 72, 202 Haddipas, 141
Horse-daorifice (afvamedha), Haihayas, 104, 105
206 Haimavatapati, 12 Horsos of diverse breeds, Hainavatavarsa, 80
65 Hāliddhikāni, 175
Hotel keepers, 178 Halla, 135
Household servants (pesHamsā, 230
sikā), 178 Harikāntā, 10
Human-sacrifice (purisaHarikāntānadīsuri, 12 medha), 205 Harisona, 215
Hunters (luddakasamā), Harivarşa, 3, 9, 62
140, 161 Hastinapura, 35, 94, 97, 133, Hyderabad, 18 215
Hydraotes, 69, 92 Hathayoga, 232, 255 Hyphasis, 92 Hatthāroba (elephant riders), 178
Icohānangala, 45 Hatthipală (elephant Iochānankala, 161 trainers), 178
Ikshvaku, 122, 125 Hatthipura, 120
Ilávịtavarsa, 3, 62 Hazaribagh, 48
Inda, 197, 201, 203 Helmet-wearers, 178 Indakūta, 29 Hemakūtaparvata, 3, 9,963 Indapatta, 35, 93, 94, 99 Hermits, 215, 216, 217 Indasālagubā, 29, 30

Page #265

INDEX
303
Indian ocean, 187
| Jambu river, 7, 9, 10, 132 Indraprastha, 35
Jambudvipa, 1, 3, 7, 9, 13, Indus, 70
42, 68, 77, 80, 93, 102, 139, Infant healing, 259
181, 185, 195 Inscription
Jambugāma, 53, 54 Barābar Hill-cave, 27 Jambusanda, 7 Barbut, 57
Jambuyana, 7 Barbut gateway, 168 Janaka, 122 Behistun, of Darius, 87 Janakapura, 53 Besnagar Garuda Pillar, Janamejaya, king, 87 84
Jannupatha, 71 • Brāhmi, 60 .
Jāņussoni, 161 Háthigumphā, 27, 44, Jarāsandha, 121 106, 115
Jātaka Junagadh Rock, 84, 112 Akitti, 114 Nāgārjunikonda, 79, 85 Apaņņaka, 184 Ionia, 83, 187
Assaka, 108 Zrivati, 89
Bareru, 185 [rubbeda, 247
Bhaddasala, 126, 136, 137 Isadhara, 2
Cetiya, 120, 133 I sāna, 203
Citta-Sambhūta, 282 Isidāsi, 272
Cullakālinga, 108 Isigili Mt., 27, 237
Dasaratha, 132, 169 Isipabbajja, 213, 217
Deyadhamma, 197 sipatana, 33, 42
Dhumakāri, 95 Isgatthas (soldiers), 155 Dummedha, 130 Igukāra, 36
Ekapanna, 124 Itmāsa, 245, 246, 247, 248, Gandhāra, 123 250, 256
Ghata, 100, 101 Itihāga-Puriņa, 250, 263, Kālingabodhi, 118 256, 283
Kumbhakāra, 37, 97, 214 Itivuttaka, 269
Kuņāla, 5, 6 Ivory-workers, 179
Kusa, 125
Mahāgutasoma, 160 Jacobi, H., 139, 274
Mah@ummagga, 102 Jalapathakammikā, 183 Mudupāņi, 166 Jambāvati, 102
Magapakkha, 214

Page #266

304
INDEX
Nandiyamiga, 132 Kacchas, 111 Phandana, 160
Kadamba mountain, 83 Sambhava, 95
Kahāpaņas, vide coins. Sambula, 130
Kajangala, 20, 24, 32, 34, 60, Samuddavānija, 186 51, 59, 61, 135 Sankha, 185
Kākandī, 219 Sarabhanga, 106, 169, 219 Kakutthā, 24, 64 Serivānija, 114
Kalábu, king, 239 Silānisamsa, 188
Kālakavana, 20 Siri-kālakanni, 204 Kälāmas, 34, 57, 128, 134 Somadatta, 160
Kālamukha, 187, 188 Somanassa, 36, 37, 97
Kalandala-nivājia, 237 Suppāraka, 185, 188
Kaļārajanaka, 122 Susima, 157
Kalaga, 209 Valābassa, 186
Kālasena, 100, 131 Vidhurapaņdita, 96, 98,
Kālasila, 29, 237 99, 119
Kalidasa, 272 Vessantara, 257
Kulingn, oormtry, 19, 34, 69, Jāti, 143, 148
78, 89, 106, 116, 118, 119, Jatilas, 198, 214, 220, 222
134, 216, 239 Java, 187, 188
Kalingā, people, 113 Jayaddisa, prince, 98 Jeta, prince, 176, 235
Kalingne, 116 Jotavana, 236
Kalpa, 250 Jetuttara, 41, 91
Kämarūpa, 62 Jhana, modes of, 218, 231,
Kāmasülras, 246 233, 265
Kāmāvacaradovas, 199 Jhelum, 70
Kambojas, 72, 83, 84, 85, Jivaka, 49, 237, 280, 281. I 140, 141 282
Kammācā (metal-workers), Jivakambayana, 49, 236
178 Jhiatri clan, 225
Kammāsadamma, 36 Jhâtrikas, 124
Kampilla, 37, 97 Jotipāla, 167, 159, 280 Kampillapura, 43 Judges, 156, 171
Kāmpilya, 97, 215
Kams8, 100, 101, 102, Kapcāyana, 100 | 164

Page #267

INDEX
Kamsabhoga, 67, 100, 102 Kanaka-saptati, 246 añoīpura, 78 Kandară:
Comata, 31 Kapota, 31
Tapoda, 31
Tinduka, 31
Kanhadipāyaṇa, 102, 239 Kanhaganga, 11 Kannamunda lake, 5 Kannapenna river, 77 Kapila, sage, 127 Kapila's formulation, 246 Kapilavatthu, 24, 32, 45, 54, 56, 73, 127, 137, 219, 236
1
Kasmira, 67, 185
Kassakā
151
Kassapa, 147, 220, 252 Kathiawar, 111, 112
Katthahara (fuel suppliers),
178
Kausambi, 37, 94, 118, 133
(agriculturists).
105
Kausiki, 122
Kautilya, 246, 257
Kavandhin Katyayana, 225 Kaveri ivor, 77, 114, 115 Kavirapattana, 114 Keay, T. E., 250
Keith, A. B., 118, 233 Kekaka oountry, 115
Kokayas, 89. 239
Kelasa, 10
Khalamandala, 182
Karakanda, king, 87, 116, Khalatikanavata, 27, 47 Khanumála, 9, 161 Khāravela, 44, 106, 115,
215
Karandu, king, 87, 116 Karavika, 2
Karmara-kumbhakara, 141 Kārūsas, 110
116, 119, 134, 216 Khattavijjā, 258 Khattiyas, 139, 147, 154, 163, 164, 173, 174, 178, 180, 213
Kasi, 19, 21, 22, 24, 33, 41, 89, 108, 123, 125, 129,
130, 131 132 133, 135, 136, 137, 159, 168, 172, 216
Keralaputias, 113, 115 Keralas, 115
Kern, H., 81, 224
Kesaputta, 31, 57, 128, 134 Ketumāla, 9
Khomadussa, 55
Kimpurisas, 81, 82. 200 Kimpuruga vaiga, 63 Kinnaras, 81, 200
Kirala, 72, 80, 84, 88, 271 Kisa Samkicca, 226 Kisavaccha, 217, 289 Kiṭāgiri, 42
2
Kokanada, 223 Kolaka, poople, 113 Koliyas, 34, 55, 126, 127. 128. 134, 168

Page #268

306
INDEX
Kosala, 19, 21, 22, 33, Lādha, 19, 59, 117, 240 43, 44, 45, 46, 74, 89, Lakes, seveu Himalayan, 5 100, 120, 123, 127, 129, Lakkhaņa-pāthakas, 210 130, 131, 132, 134, 135, Land-pilot (thalaniyāmakā), 136, 137, 138, 173, 218, 184 280, 281, 282
Latthiyana, 48 Kosambi, 21, 75, 99, 133, Lauhitya, 64 184, 185
Laukika, 265 Kosiki, 52
Law, B. C., 7, 15, 16, 23, Krivis, 98
28, 29, 31, 32, 43, 44, 45, Krsnā, river, 113, 114
46, 48, 40, etc. Kyanapura, 103
Leather-worker's (ammaKsatriya Parivrūjakas, 230
kārā), 178, 179 Kşudrabimavadgiri, 13
Lonas (cave-dwellings), 235 Kukkuta mountain, 63 Kumāra Kassana, 280
Lotters of Credit, 190 Kumārī, 26
Lovi, S., 71, 188 Kumbhakara (potters), 141,
Liochavi clan, 211 ~ 178, 179
Licchavis, 123, 124, 125, Kumbhakāragāına, 180
126, 134, 136, 163 Kumbhavatī, city, 106 Loans, 191 Kunāla lako, 5
Lohitavastu, 48 Kundagāma, 52
Lokapālas, 200 Kundaliya, 223
Lumbinīvana, 32, 55 Kūņika, 123, 124 Kuraraghara, 75
Maocha, 19, 98, 209 Kuru, 2, 19, 33, 35, 83, 89, Macchikāsaņda, 42
93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 133, Madda country, 89, 116
135, 146, 150, 163, 215 Maddakucchi Deer Park, 33, Kurujāvgala, 31, 35
237 Kuruksetra, 21, 35
Maddas, 88, 89, 99 Kururattha, 34, 120
Macīmurā, 23, 95, 99, 100, Kusãvati, 43, 54, 126 | 101, 102, 115, 164, 184. Kusīnārā, 25, 53, 120, 134 | Madhurasuttapattana, 78 Kūţadanta, 181
Madhyadosa, 19, 21 Kuvera, 63, 200
Madra, 67, 83, 88, 89 20B

Page #269

Magadha, 19, 20, 24, 34, | Mahi, 6, 11, 23
46, 49, 50, 87, 111, 119, 120, 121, 123, 125, 128, 134, 135, 136, 138, 161, 163, 165, 206, 220, 241, 282
INDEX
A
Mahakalinga, 116
Mahamali Gangă, 23
Mahāmättas, 155, 158 Mahameru, 2
1
217, 218, 256
Maha-Himavanta, 4, 6
Mahajanapadas, sixteen, 98, 109, 117
Magahatitthakhetta, 46 Magandiya, 223 Maghadeva, 122, 215 Mahadeva, 215
Mahāgangă, 23
Makhadeva, 122, 215
Mahagovinda, 34, 157, 158, Makkhali Gosāla, 224, 226,
274
Maharastra, 18
Mahasagara, 100
Mahasammata, 127, 133 Mahāsārā, 57
Mahamoggallana, 286 Mahanadi, 18, 24, 47 Mahapadmahrada, 10, 64 Mahāpasenadi, 120, 132
M
Mahasthängarh, 60)
Mahasudassana, king, 126 Mahavana, 31, 53, 54, 126,
236
Mahavira, 49, 104, 105, 118, 120, 121, 123, 124, 209, 211, 222, 224, 233, 236, 240, 266
Mahendragiri, 47
Mahimsakā, people, 113 Mahimsakaraṭṭha, 90, 115 Mahiṣmati, 17, 34, 77, 10 Mahissati, 34, 74, 75, 104 Maholi, 99
Maināka, 10
Majjhimadesa, 18, 34, 224 Majumdar, R. C., 188
Makandi, 219
307
Malalasekera, G. P., 45, 50,
58, 75, 77, etc. Malay Peninsula, 188 Malaya, 19 Mallaki olan, 211
Mallas, 117, 125, 126, 134,
137, 148, 163 Mallika, 46
·
Manas-sarovara, 12, 63 Mandakini lake, 5 Manikarā (jewellers), 178 Manimokhala, 205 Manoja, 130 Manussa-vikkaya (traffic in human beings), 191 Mariyādā, 152
Marukaccha, 74
A
Matanga, hill, 28 Matanga, sage, 239 Matchmakers, 150, 152, 155 Matharavṛtti, 246 Mathava, king, 121, 122.
"
-216 Mathura, 67, 75, 84, 99, TUE

Page #270

308
INDHX
"Matsya, 21, 98, 99, 209 | Mundakan (shavolings), 222 Mauryas, 101, 112
Muttra, 99 Mediterrancan, 187
Muzaffarpur Nást., 52 Megasthenea, 101
MyHol'c, 18, 77 Mekalas, 70, 109, 110 Menander, 88 Meņdaka, 175
Naoch (clanoing), 261 Meru, 2, 8
Nāgas, 105 Messago-gonders (penanam Nāgasena, 277 kacorā), 172
Någavana, 32 Motal-workers (kanimārā), Naggaji, kiny, 87, 116, 122, 178
215 Melhorī, 103
Nakşatravidya, 250 Migadāya, 33
Nakulapitā, 175 Migāra, bankor, 176, 235 Nalakāră (barkot-inukorn), Migasainmata, 25
178 Milalkhabhāsā, 86, 110, 113, Nalandā, 45, 236 249, 271
Nalini, river, 10 Miinda, 83, 88
Nandagopā, 201 Mithi, 122
Nanda Vacche, 226 Mithila, 34, 49, 50, 53, 122, Nandiya, 223 123, 216
Nandiyāvatta, 200 Mlecchas, 139
Nangaraka, 55 Moggaliputta, 168
Narmadā, 17, 18, 74, 77, Moggallãna, 212, 234, 239 105 Molini, 41
Nasik, 18, 78 Moliyasīvaka, 223
Natthikavādā, 110 Money-lenders, 191
Nawal, 32 Mookerjee, R. K., 186, 210 | Nemindhara, 2 Mopluis, 88
Nepal, 56 Moriyas, 34, 128, 134, 138 Naranjarā, 22, 24, 47, 236 Mate-hall, 124, 125, 127 Nestlas, 140, 179 Mrgudāva, 33, 42
Newal, 32 Mrbapas, 141
Nigakşı, 133 Muddā (conveyancing), 2499 Nigaptha Nataputta, 224, Mukheluvana, 51 . 225 Milaka, 78. 108
1 Nigenches, 198

Page #271

Niggahaka (tax-collectors), Pandara, 28
150 Nigrodha, 54
Nimi, king, 122, 215, 216 Nirukta, 262, 263 Nisadas, 151
Nigadha Mt., 3, 9
Niyyamnaka (water-pilot),
-187
Nrtyamarga, 262, 265
INDEX
Oddakas, 110, 271
Okkāka, 125, 126, 131, 169 Okkalas, 79, 109, 110, 271 Omphis, 88
Opasada, 161
Orissa, 79, 110 Oxydrakai, 69
Pabhosa, 39
Păcinavamsa, il
Padapatha, 247
Padha, 19
Paduma mountain, 63
•
Palasapura, 236
Pălura, 79
Pañcala, 19, 21, 23, 33, 36, $6, 97, 98, 120, 122, 135,
163, 215
Pañcavați, 78, 219
309
Pandava (hill), 27 Pandu, 168" Pandyas, 113, 115
Panini, 198, 264, 208, 275 Panjab, 120 Pankadha, 45
Panthaghatacora (highway robbers), 172, 173 Paramayona, 70, 187 Pārada, 67
Parantapa, 120, 133 Pargiter, F. E., 104, 105 Pariahs, 141
Paribbājakas, 198, 201, 221, 224, 226, 227, 230, 231, 234, 235, 236, 238. 254, 255, 268 Pärileyyaka, 39 Pärileyyakavana, 31
Pallava, 68
Paithan, 77 Pajjota, 105, 138 Pajjuna, 101
Pakudha Kaccayana, 224, Pațaligama, 49, 136, 159
225, 274
Palaka, 105
Pataliputta, 24, 33, 19, 57, 60, 75, 159
Parindas, 113, 114
Paripatra, 20, 23
Pārittas, 207, 208 Paráva, 130, 266 Pasenadi, 120, 127, 131, 132, 136, 137, 138, 157, 161, 173, 207, 218, 219, 280
Paṭibhanakuṭa, 29
Patiṭṭhāna, 75, 77, 184 Patna, 46 Paudanya, 107 Pava, 54, 126, 134 Päväpuri, 49

Page #272

310
INDMX
"Păvărikanibavana, 49, 236 | Pubba vidola, 2,9 Payāga, 23, 24
Pulkusa, 140 Pchoa, 66
Pukkusāti, king, 87, 120 Periplus, 76
Pulika, 105, 120 Pesakārā (woavors), 178 Pulindas, 123 Pesanakacorā (message- Pundakakşa-hill, 51, 60 sendera), 173
Pundavardhana, 21, 51, 60 Pettanikas, 173
Paņņabhadda, 198 Phalgı1, 48
Puņņaka, the Yakkha, 99 Phaļikapabbata, 6
Pupphavati, 41 Pilotika, 223
Pirella Kassapa, 224, 274 Pingala, 112, 138
Purinamertha (humani Pimphalivana, 32, 34, 66, i sacrifice), 205 128, 134
Purohitas, 151, 155, 156, Piprāvā, 56
157, 158, 102, 180, 201, Pitinikas, 200
200, 217 Piyaclasi, 238
Pluri, 133 Pliny, 114
Purlişapura, 08 Pokkharagāti, 161
Puşkulāvati, 72, 87 Pokkharāvati, 109, 110 Potali, 78, 107
Rādha country, 117 Potaliputta, 223
Rājagaha, 27, 33, 44, 49, Potaliya, 175, 223
75, 78, 119, 121, 173, 176, Potana, 34, 78, 107
184, 232, 236, 237, 255, Potters (kumbhakārā), 141, 280, 281 178, 179
Rājagrha, 215 Foţthapāda, 222
Rājayoga, 232, 255 Pradyumna, 101
Rajgir, 29 Prāgbodhi (hille), 26 Rajputana, 68, 184 Prayaga, 17, 21
Rakkitatala, 7 Prosody (Chandasā), 248, ) Rāma, 217, 219 249, 263
Răngāma, 34 Prostitutes, 176, 192 Rāmasetu, 13 Pșthudaka, 66
Rámcsvaram, 13 Ptolemy, 76, 112, 114, 188" Rāpti, 23 Pubbäramar, 46, 235 - Rathakāra lako, 5 Pabbasela, 114
Ratnagiri, 28

Page #273

INDEX
311
Ravi, 69
Säketa, 21, 31, 44, 45, 132 Ray Chaudhuri, H. C., 83,1 176, 184 * 85, 94
Sakuladāyi, 223 Roņu, 103, 117, 118, 129, Sākyas, 24, 55, 126, 127, 157, 217
128, 131, 134, 137, 146, Ķgveda, 169, 246, 250 i 163, 168, 169 Rhys Davids, C.A. F., 55, 58 Salalavati, 21, 25, 26, 32, 190, 262
51, 59 Rhys Davids, T. W., 65, Sālavana, 32 "134,- 140, 186, 187, 200, Salāvati, 161 204, 221
Sāli, 182 Rooklill, W. W., 262, 265 Sulyatantra, 259 Rohaņas, 93
Samajjās, 171 Rohini, rivor, 24, 55, 127 Samaņas, 224, 226, 227, 234, Rohitā, 10, 64
236, 238, 242, 253 Rolwaini, 25
Sainatata, 01 Roruka, 34, 70
Sāmāvati, 166 Rowai, 24
Sambalpur, 18 Rudradāman I, 112
Sambhutiara, 19 Rudrāyaṇa, king, 111, 120, Sarşkassa, 30 215
Samkissa, 39, 90 Rummindoi, 55
Sannnti (Smrti), 218 Riprārāyam, 59
Sandaka, 223
Sañjaya Belaythiputta, 224, Sabarā, people, 114
225, 274 Sabhiya, 223
Sankara, 250 Sacrificers (yājakā), 161, 165 Sankhyā (Samkhya), 248 Sadânire, 46, 52, 123 Sūnupabbata, 6 Saddhivihärika, 288 Sappasundikapabbhāra, 48 Sāgala, 69, 88, 116
Sappini, 25, 26 Sāgara, 100, 164
Sarabha, 223 Sāgarikā, 166
Sarabhanga, sage, 216, 217, Sahajāti, 39, 41, 186
220, 256 Sahancanika, 41
Sarabhū, 6, 11, 22, 23, 43, 40 Salrassambavana, 236 Sarajî, 23 Sailagiri, 28
Sarasvati, river, 10, 17, 20), * Sākala, 69, 88
*22; 34, 36

Page #274

312
INDEX
Sārathipura, 48
| Sialkot, 69 Saravana, 46, 235
Sīlappapataka, lake, 8 Sarāvati, 21, 20, 59
Sīhapura, 120 Sarayū, 23, 25, 43, 219 Silavati, 56 Sāliputta, 168, 212 Sindhu, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 67, Sārnāth, 43
70, 98 Şaşțitantia, 245, 246 Sindhu-Sovirals, 111 Satánika, 118
Sineru Ml., 1, 2, 3 Satiyaputras, 113
Siri (Goddess of Tok), 204 Sātodikā river, 76
Sirivacoa, 208 Satlapanni, 31
Siśupāla, 121 Sattapannigubā, 237
Sitā, river, 10 Satthavāhā (caravan Sitavana, 237
prorohanla), 70, 184, 185 Sivi, 91, 102, 107 Satvatas, 103, 106
Slaves, 178, 192 Saulimas, 117
Smith, V. A., 13-1 Sauraseni dialoot, 101
Sudrai, 69 Sauparacas, 112
Sohamıma, 1999 Sauvīra, 67, 70, 111, 120,
Sona, river, 24
Sonadayda, 101 Šavaras, 113, 114
Sonagiri, 28, 20 Savaris, 214
Sonnabhimi, 178 Sávatthi, 21, 23, 26, 31, 39,
Sopārā, 112 40, 43, 44, 45, 46, 111, 112, 124, 132, 161, 173,
Soreyya, 30 176, 184, 185, 219, 233,
Sotthivati, 40 235
Sotthiya class of Brahinius, Sekhiya rules (laws of oti
147, 155, 201, 247 quette), 243
Sovīra, 34, 185 Selectors of lucky sites, 162
Śrāvaslī, 23, 43, 215, 235 Senānīgāma, 47
Stevenson, 211 Senāpatis, 155, 171, 180 Suari, 114 Senis, 179
Subbhabhūmi, 59, 117 Seriyarattka, 79
Subha Jivakambanika, 272 Seriyāputa, 57
Subhacaityaka, 28 Setavyā, 32, 45, 55
Sügimakhi, 223 Seyaviya, 72; 91
Sudarsana, 9
215

Page #275

INDEX
313
Suddas, 139, 141, 145, Târukkha, 161
148, 154, 178, 180, 213, Telavāba river, 79, 114. 1242
Telingana, 18 Subma, 51, 60, 117
Telingiri, 114 Sujāta, prince, 108
Thalapathakammikā, 183 Suktimati, 40
Thanoswar, 17, 67 Sumbhas, 51, 117
Thomas, E. J., 160, 176, Sumedha, 272
234 Sumeru Mt., 1, 2, 3, 8, 62, Thūņa, 21, 66 • 201
Tinduka-kandarā, 31 Sumgumāragira, 32, 39, 40, Tirhut, 52 110, 134
Tituiriyas, 201, 253 Sunāparanla, 76, 112 Tiyaggala, rock, 11 Sungas, 138
Tiyaggalapokkharani, 11 Suppārakas, 111, 112 Todeyya, 161 Sūrasenas, 67, 74, 98, 99, Toranavatthu, 45 101, 103
Travancore, 18 Surattha, 112, 138
Trikalā, 123 Surpārska, 74, 76
Tundikeras, 104 Suti (Sruti), 248, 249 Türghna, 35 Suvannabhămi, 178, 185, 186, 187, 188
Udayagiri, 28 Suvannatala, 6
Udayana, 133, 138 Suvarnarekha, 26, 32, 59 Uddakaramaputta, 232, 284 Svetapura, 60
Udena, 120, 120, 133 Swat valley, 107
Udambar, 38
Uggaputtaa, 174 Takkagilā, 43, 87, 88, 184, Ujjayini, 104, 185 * 278, 280, 281, 282 Ujjeni, 75, 104 Tāmalitti, 33, 60, 186 Okkācola, 53 Tambapannidīpa, 186 Ukkala, 109, 110 Tāmralinga, 188
Ukkalā vaasabhañil, 110 Tāmralipti, 117 • Ukkatthā, 45, 181 Tāpasas, 201, 213, 216, Uļumpa, 45 . , 219, 222, 226, 229, 230, Upāli, 242, 280 231, 255
Truvelā, 42, 47, 48, 49, 220, Tapodārāma, 237
1 232 21

Page #276

814
INDEX
Vera
40.
Ulīnara, 38
Vedchi, 123 Usiradhyaja Mt., 21
Vedisa, 75, 84, 109 Utkala, 79, 109, 110
Vedisagiri, 75 Utlarakuru, 2, 9, 35, 81, Vediyaka hill, 26, 30 89
Vchalla, 135 Uttara-madhurs, 99, 100, Vekhanassa, 223 102, 113
Veļugāma, 75 Uttara-madras, 88
Veļuvana, 236, 237 Uttarapañoăla, 31, 35, 36, Venāgapura, 45 37, 43, 97, 120
Vopulla Mt., 27, 29, 3A, 119 Ultarāpatha, 18, 19, 66,
67, 71, 73, 90, 100, 107, Verāpatha, 187 109, 110, 140, 184 Vesālī, 24, 31, 40, 47, 49,
52, 54, 111, 124, 134, Vacchagolta, 223
136, 137, 225 Vablika, 67
Vosges, 139, 145, 148, 150, Vāhudā, river, 22
154, 174, 175, 176, 177, Vaibhāragiri, 28, 30
178, 180 Vaitādbya, 4, 8, 12, 13, 77, | Vethaclipa, 34, 57 107
Vetravati, 109 Vaj7, 19, 32, 33, 52, 128 Vottavatī, 6, 25, 26, 74 Vālmīki, 257
Vidarbha, 216 Vamsa, 19, 23, 33, 37, 120, Videgha Mathava, 121 134, 138, 186
Videha, 2, 24, 34, 46, 52, 98, Vanacarakā (explorers of 121, 122, 123, 167, 185,
forest regions), 219, 220 186, 215, 216, 217 Vāņamantradevas, 200 Vidinā, 26 Vangas, 117, 118
Viļādabha, 127, 137,169 Vardhamana, 209
Vijā.harādhivāsă, 44 Varendra, 21
Vijaya, 215 Vargadhara Mt., 4
Vikata Mt., 83 Vaśālā, 48
Vinasana, 17, 20, 21, 23 Väsa vadattā, 105
Vinataka, 2 Vāsudeva, - 100, 101, 102, Vinaya, 267
103, 132, 146, 187, 198 Vindhyā, 4, 16, 33, 34, 44, Vatba, 22, 23, 33, 37, 39, 106, 107, 108, 214, 217, 40. 41, 1389
218
GZIB

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INDIOX
315
Vipula, 28, 30
Wrosilors, 178 Virudhaka (Virilhaka), 132, • 200
Yādayas, 05, 103 Visakhā, 40, 235
Yājñikas, 181 Vitamsa, 6, 73
Yājpur, 47 Vrātyas, 118
Yamunā, 6, 11, 17, 22, 23, Vrşabha Mt., 28
24, 26, 38, 40, 41, 99, 109,
133, 185, 214 Water-pilot (niyyāmaka), Yasodharā, 204 • 187
Yavana Tuşāspa, 112 Weavers (posakarā), 141, Yonas, 82, 83, 84, 140, 178, 179
14] Wood-oarvors, 141 Wreath makers, 179 | Zimmer, 190
Published by Luzeo & Co., 46 Great Russell Street, London, • and printed by G. E. Bingham, Baptist Mission Press,
414 Lower Circular Road, Calcutta.

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70 Talalalala & Sindhu MAP OF INDIA showing important kingdoms, towns, English Miles Joe' Brahmaputta Suadri Jeruvati u 2 SODA Kanyakhouse L LAL $IRAR VANSA saglagang s Kalimbawa Som MAGAD sta AVANTI ut yindt m enacerade Scrpura Range MENMAKA shine KALINGIA ANDHRA WIKIRA SYAMRAPARNI ETC EYEONE Loncito Eart 7 of Greenwich