Chronology of Gujarat

Author(s): M R Majumdar
Publisher: Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006799/1

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CHRONOLOGY GUJARAT HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL General Editor M. R. MAJMUDAR For Personal & Private Use Only

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Dr. Vasudeva Sharan Agrawal, M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt. Head, Department of Ancient Indian Culture, Hindu University, Banaras. "This idea of historical stock-taking is excellent. It will provide a sure foundation for the accomplishment of a comprehensive regional history of Gujarat, which in its turn will serve as an indispensable stone in the edifice of a National History of India, Such invaluable aids would indeed be necessary for each area of our big country. The M. S. University is to be congratulated for planning such a work. I find the entries quite scientific in style and quite explicit." Prof. Dr. Vittore Pisani, Milano, Via Boccaccio, 43. "I feel my duty of congratulating on the Chronology, as it does not restrict itself to Gujarat, but, owing also to the importance of this region, provides the reader with large information on the history of the whole of India. Particularly important is for me the interest which is attached to the history of culture, literature and art." For Personal & Private Use Only

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HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT [ From Earliest Times to 942 A.D. ] With Illustrations and Maps SAIRAO DIVERSIT THE NARARA OF BARODA 'satyaM ziyaMsundarama With Best Compliments from The Vice-Chancellor, The M. S. University of Baroda wy M. R. MAJMUDAR M.A., Ph.D., LL.B. GENERAL EDITOR For Personal & Private Use Only

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HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT From Earliest Times to End of the Rastrakuta-Pratihara period : i.e. upto 942 A.D.) With Illustrations and Maps With a Foreword by Dr. J. M. Mehta, M.A., Ph.D., Bar-at-Law, Vice-Chancellor, M. S. University of Baroda Dr. M. R. MAJMUDAR General Editor Board of Contributors (1) Dr. A. N. Jani (2) Prof. H. R. Kapadia (3) Shri Amrit Pandya (4) Dr. H. G. Shastri .11n WEPO THE satyaM zivaM sundaram Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda BARODA 1960 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Number of Copies 500 Price Rs. 24.00 Can be had at: The University Publications Sales Unit, Near Palace Gate, Palace Road, Baroda. Printed by R. J. Patel, Manager, the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Press (Sadhana Press ), Near Palace Gate, Palace Road, Baroda and published by Shri B. K. Zutshi, Registrar, the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Baroda. August, 1960. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Respectfully Dedicated To DR. JIVRAJ N. MEHTA, The First Chief Minister, Gujarat State Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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sarva yasya vazAdagAt smRtipadaM kAlAya tasmai namaH / - ieft: 1 [Bow to that Time Eternal, under whose control, everything in this world) is reduced to mere Memory! -Bhartshari] What is History? History is another Universe, a universe built by Man, with the help of Time and Memory, in answer to the challenge of Death. - Dr. Zhivago', Boris Pasternak. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Message Foreword Preface: Historical and Cultural CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT (From Earliest times to 942 A.D.) CONTENTS .. Dr. Shrimati Hansaben Mehta. Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta. (i) History of the undertaking; (ii) Scope; (iii) Periods in Political History; (iv) Term 'Gujarat' defined; (v) Aim & Object; (vi) Sources; (vii) Co-operation of Scholars; (viii) Acknowledgments. List of Illustrations (Art-Plates) List of Maps Acknowledgments I Pre- and Proto-history of Gujarat: (i) Prelude to Gujarat History, pp.1-9. (ii) Extension of Harappa Culture in Gujarat-pp. 10-14; (iii) Select Bibliography.-pp. 15-17. (iv) Antiquities: Plates I-VIII. II Pre-Mauryan Period (Traditional History): (-Pre. 322 B.C.)-pp. 19-26. III Mauryan Period (C, 322 B. C.-185 B. C): (i) Introductory. pp. 27-30; (ii) Chronology-pp. 30-36; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 36-38. (iv) Plates IX-XI IV Indo-Greek Period (C. 185 B. C.-78 (i) Introductory-pp. 39-42: (iii) Antiquities-pp. 48-49. A. D.): (ii) Chronology-pp. 42-48; (iv) Plate XII V Ksatrapa Period (78 A. D.-397-8 A. D. ): (i) Introductory-pp. 51-56; (ii) Chronology-pp. 56-90; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 90-104. (iv) Plates XIII-XXIII VI Gupta Period (C. 400 A. D.-470 A. D.): (i) Introductory-: pp. 105-110; (ii) Chronology-pp. 110-126; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 126-128. (iv) Plates XXIV-XXVI VII Maitraka-Gurjara Period (C. 470 A. D.-745 A. D.): (i) Introductory-pp. 129-137: (i) Chronology-pp. 137-194: (iii) Antiquities-pp. 194-216. (iv) Plates XXVII-LVIII VIII Rastrakuta-Pratihara Period (C. 745-942 A. D.): (i) Introductory-pp. 217-222 (ii) Chronology-pp. 222-268 (iii) Antiquities-pp. 268-281. (iv) Plates LIX-LXXXIII For Personal & Private Use Only

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X CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Appendix: Geographical Data from Puranic Tradition: Place-Names-pp. 283-306. Addenda : (i) Excavations at Devani Mori: pp. 307-312; (ii) Plates LXXXIV-XC. (ii) Additional Notes: pp. 313-318 : Index pp. 319-338 Errata: pp. 3:9-342 For Personal & Private Use Only

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MESSAGE It is gratifying to me that the book on the Chronology of Gujarat is to be shortly out. The book which has taken so long has no doubt passed through a careful scrutiny and should prove an authentic publication on the subject. Such a publication would be of great value to those working in the field of research in the history of Gujarat. With the advent of the new State of Gujarat it has become a timely publication. The new State needs a proper introduction to the world at large and even to its own people who are not fully aware of their rich heritage. The best way to introduce it is through its social and cultural history. Such a history has still to be written. Socially, with its various tribes, castes and creeds, Gujarat presents a rich field for research. Culturally, too, Gujarat has much to show by way of its rich architecture; its rich arts and crafts; its folk-lore and literature: and its music, dance and drama. I hope the Chronology of Gujarat' will serve as a prelude to the publication of a social and cultural history of Gujarat. I am sure the students of history, particularly the history of Gujarat, will find this book most helpful. 29th June, 1960. SIDDHASHRAMA" CHIEF MINISTER'S RESIDENCE 1 SHAHI BAG AHMEDABAD, 4. Haneamenta, For Personal & Private Use Only

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A SA TREN satyaM zivaM sundarama FOREWORD It gives me very great pleasure in writing this 'Foreword' to the First Volume of the "Chronology of Gujarat", which is edited by Dr. Majmudar. The publication of this volume would not have been possible but for the untiring zeal and labour of Dr. Majmudar, assisted by a band of keen scholars like Dr. Jani, Prof. Kapadia, Shri A. Pandya and Dr. Shastri. Dr. Majmudar, as he acknowledges in his 'Preface', was, from time to time, guided by Dr. Sankalia and Dr. Subbarao, the Head of the Archaeology Department of the M. S. University of Baroda. Dr. Sandesara and Dr. U. P. Shah of the Oriental Institute of the University of Baroda, and Dr. R. N. Mehta of the Archaeological Department of the University, also gave Dr. Majmudar the benefit of their great erudition and scholarship. This work was started in 1954. It took nearly four to five years in collecting the necessary data. The data, collected by Dr. Majmudar and his colleagues on the Editorial Board, was scrutinized by Dr. Sankalia and Dr. Subbarao. The material in its final form was ready only last year and is now published. It is needless for me to emphasise the importance of this publication. The chronological information collected in this way provides an important framework in which subsequent scholars can build up the history of Gujarat. As Dr. Majmudar says in his . Preface', that with the exception of the Historical Introduction to the Bombay Gazetteer Vol. I, edited by Mr. Cambell, no satisfactory and continuous history of Gujarat has so far been written. There have been some excellent works on specific Periods of the history of Gujarat ; but no continuous history of Gujarat from the earliest times till today has yet been written. This chronological framework will be of great service to a future historian of the history of Gujarat. For Personal & Private Use Only

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xiv CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT The data collected is extremely comprehensive and throws light on the cultural, political and social history of Gujarat. Events in chronological order have been shown only with the beginning of the Mauryan Rule. It is difficult to assign a precise chronological order to data before that period. At the advice of Dr. Sankalia and myself, this earlier material has been shown under the caption of Prelude to History'. Reference has been made to the excavations in Langhanaj in Mehsana District, North Gujarat, and at Lothal. There is also a chapter on the Traditional history of Gujarat, where the material has been collected largely from the Puranas. The historicity of many of these events is debatable, and, therefore, they have also been excluded from the regular chronology. I would here like to take the opportunity of congratulating Dr. Majinudar for this very bold venture to construct the Chronology of the History of Gujarat from the diffused and varied material available. 1. zn. mehle Vice-Chancellor, M. S. University of Baroda. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PREFACE (i) History of the Undertaking: The idea of compiling a Chronology of the Cultural History of Gujarat', shortly styled 'Chronology of Gujarat,' was primarily taken up by the M. S. University of Baroda, to further the cause of Historical Research in Gujarat, at the instance of Shrimati Hansaben Mehta. The publication of this Volume comes at an auspicious moment, when the new composite State of Gujarat, embracing all Gujarati-speaking people, has come into existence for the first time in its political history. Our knowledge of the History of Gujarat is based mostly on the Bombay Gazetteer Vol. I (1896) compiled by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji and other scholars. Since its publication, a good deal of research work has been done in various directions throwing new light on History (political, social, economic), Art, Architecture etc. But this is not available in an easy form. Hence the chief object of this work is to make an attempt to bring all these fragments of information together. These are now sufficiently numerous and well-established (in many cases), to enable us to construct a chronological and geographical framework for the political history of Gujarat. Into this framework may be fitted the history of social and religious institutions also. The scheme thus intends to organize some of the accumulated stores of information on the subject, which will present the material in a collective form, and consequently facilitate further research in the subject. A number of scholars have welcomed this idea of Gujarat Chronology' as, "a concrete form of stock-taking which will provide a sure foundation for the accomplishment of a comprehensive Regional History of Gujarat, and in its turn, serve as an indispensable stone in the edifice of a National History of India".-(Dr. V. S. Agravala). It is urged that such chronological aids would be necessary for the historical sketch of each region of our big country, to which details could be filled in gradually as research advances. (ii) Scope: The extant works on Indian Chronology-like the "Chronology of India, up to the 15th Century A.D." by Miss C. Mabel Duff (Mrs. W.R. Rickmeres) published in 1899; the "Chronology of Modern India (A.D. 1494-1894)" by Dr. James Burgess, published in 1913; Dr. L.D. Barnett's Chapter on "Chronology of India, upto the year 1200 A.D." in his book " Antiquities of India" published in 1914; and the latest "Andhra Chronology" (90 A.D.-1800 A.D.) by Sir V. Ramesham of Madras, being a chronological sketch of the Andhra or Telugu country, published in 1946-had the purpose of enumerating briefly, in order of time, mostly the historical events connected primarily with political history; whereas the present volume of "Gujarat Chronology" aims at collecting all relevant data bearing on the history and the culture of Gujarat. It is, thus, intended to be comprehensive in its scope. For Personal & Private Use Only

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xvi CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT In this volume it is proposed to collect events and dates from the political, literary and cultural history of Gujarat, and tabulate them in chronological sequence, with their corresponding dates given in the margin. These dates represent the years B.C. or A.D. If only approximate, they are marked Circa'. Original dates of the local Eras that were current through the ages are given in the body of the text. In cases where sufficient chronological data for certain events are not available, the approximate period is given. This approximate dating will often help the reader to trace their contemporaneity with known events and objects. (iii) Periods in Political History: The period covered by the present Volume is of a very wide range, spreading as it does, over more than a millenium. The Chronology of the Pre-historic and Proto-historic periods, is, by nature, vague and unsettled. Even for the historic period included in this volume, there still remain many lacunae and wide gaps, and opinions of scholars are widely divided over the chronology of a number of events during the extensive range from prehistory to history. The dates and events in this work are, therefore, tabulated by dividing them into different " Periods" or "Sections ", so as to bring the various dynasties of political history prominently before the readers. Each of these Periods' form, as it were, a Chapter with relation to the entire Volume of the Chronology. Each Period' is prefixed with an Introductory Historical Note', before the Chronological Years, which are followed by a Note on Antiquities'. The 'Art-Plates' that follow, illustrate the 'Antiquities'. The division in 'Periods' is as follows: Periods in Gujarat Chronology: (From Early Times to 942 A.D.) Section : Prelude to Gujarat History (Pre-and Proto-history). Pre-Mauryan Period: (-Pre 322 B.C.). III Mauryan Period: (C. 322 B.C.--185 B.C.). IV Indo-Greek Period: (c. 185 B.C.--78 A.D.). Ksatrapa Period: ( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.). VI Gupta Period: (C. 400 A.D.-470 A.D.). VII Maitraka-Gurjara Period: (c. 470 A.D.-745 A.D.). VIII Rastrakuta-Pratihara Period: (c. 745-942 A.D.). (iv) Term Gujarat' defined: The term 'Gujarat' is used in two different senses: firstly, to denote the main land between the areas west of Mount Abu and south of Damanganga. It occupies an important part of the Western sea-board of India from Sindh to Bombay; and secondly, the much larger language field in which Gujarati is spoken. On account of the political and cultural affinities of Gujarat with Rajasthan and Malwa, during the period under review, it has been decided to incorporate certain historical data of these areas also, to give a comprehensive picture. II V Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PREFACE xvii In terms of Human Geography, Gujarat may be described as a Provincial State' within a National State', thus accounting for the unity in diversity of Indian culture : "Gujarat is bounded by the desert of the Rajputana and the Rann of Kaccha in the north, by the Satpuras and the Vindhyas, which join the Aravallis with small gaps in between, separating Gujarat from the Deccan and the plateau of Malwa in the west ; in the south the Deccan plateau abuts on the coast between Daman and Dahanu. To the west is the Arabian sea. This whole cultural zone may be really divided into three natural zones, which also constitute the traditional sub-divisions of Gujarat from the earliest times : (1) Kathiawad peninsula called Saurastra, (2) North Gujarat, coinciding more or less with the semi-arid sandy zone called Anarta', and (3) South Gujarat or * Lata'. The geographic unity of these three sub-divisions, was consolidated during the Solanki rule of Gujarat from 1000 A.D."-(Dr. B. Subbarao, 'Archaeology of Gujarat, Indian Science Congress Souvenir, 1955, p. 45). Gujarat consists of regions known in earlier period under different names, such as Anarta, Lata, Saurastra, Kaccha, Aparunta, etc. which are different from one another in some respects. In spite of different traits having developed in these various regions comprising Gujarat, it had an independent social and cultural entity from the earliest times, though it did not exist as a single political unit. As the boundaries of Gujarat have throughout been found to be changing, we have aimed at taking the area of Gujarat at its farthest extent, during the different periods' of its political history. In the earliest times, the memory of which is preserved in traditional history, North Gujarat was called Anarta, with its capital Anartapura or Anandapura, which formed part of the empires of the Mauryas, Greeks, of the Saka Ksatrapas and of the Guptas. On the decline of Gupta empire, Anarta formed part of the kingdom of Valabhipura. In the seventh Century, Saurastra, Anarta and the region between the Sarasvati and the Narmada formed part, first of the kingdom of Valabhi, and later, that of Bhillamala or Srimala, near Mount Abu, which was the capital. The country south of the Mahi or at times south of the Narmada upto the Purna or as far as Daman was called Lata. It is first mentioned by that name in the Mandasor Inscription of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman ( 437 A.D.). Bharu-kaccha in Lata and Surparaka in Konkan were both associated with Parasurama, the descendant of the Sage Bhrgu. A paranta, generally identified with North Konkan, was known in different ages to indicate different geographical concepts. It was known in Buddhist times as a country on the western sea-board of India, of which the chief town was Surparaka, now known as Sopara. With intermittant short periods, North Konkan continued to be included in the kingdom of Gujarat till 1543 A.D., when by the treaty of Bassein, the Sultan of Gujarat ceded it to the Portuguese. Kusavarta is the Puranic name of territory around Dwarka, of which no exact date can be given; whereas, the name Surastra occurs in inscriptions, literature and tradi For Personal & Private Use Only

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xviii CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT tion. It is also referred to by foreigners like Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, the Periplus and Hiuen Tsang. When the empire of the Imperial Pratiharas broke up in 940 A.D., Mularaja established himself in the Sarasvata Mandala in the principality of Anahilla-pattan. This territory, which came to be known by the word 'Gurjara-Mandala', Gurjara-Bhumi' or Gurjara-Desa' was, after Siddiaraja Jayasimha, applied to whatever territory which the Caulukyas claimed as their domain. The Muslims that succeeded the Rajputs continued to call the region as 'Gujarat'. It is this Gujarat' which is the subject of our study. In the early historic and the early mediaeval period, Gujarat has mostly been a political annex or an outlying province of bigger empires of Northern and Western India. During the rest of her political history, small local kingdoms flourished, of which Maitrakas alone developed a sufficiently big kingdom which incorporated large areas of Modern Gujarat. Yet the cultural homogeneity of the three sub-divisions constituting Gujarat first asserted itself with the development of maritime trade with the Mediterranian world, in the early centuries of the Christian era. This unity was consolidated by the Solanki kings and the Sultans of Gujarat, who brought a large part of modern Gujarat under their sway. (v) Aim & Object : This volume purports to be not a mere compilation of so far known material (first put together in 1896 as the Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. I, History of Gujarat); but, also, aims at including fresh data collected from up-to-date historical discoveries and archaeological finds from excavations. The epoch-making new finds from Lothal throw a flood of light on the Saurastra-Harrapan Contacts, known recently for the first time. The Art-tradition in Elura Cave-Paintings, Samalaji Sculptures and Akota Bronzes of Western India, go to illustrate the existence of the 'Art-School of Ancient West', believed to have flourished at Maru in the 7th Century A.D., as noted by the Tibetan historian Taranatha in 1608 A.D. The fresh discovery of the Buddhist Stupa and Vihara, with the terracotta Buddhe statuary, of the late Ksatrapa period, from the village Devani Mori, near Samalaji, Sabarkantha District, is, equally epoch-making. About that portion of history, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina Literary Tradition-namely the Epics, the Puranas and the later literary works inspired by them,- there does not exist any recorded date. However, the geographical data, --consisting of references to villages, towns, rivers, mountains and places of pilgrimage and the various regions of colonisation and the settlements of various tribes, along with the dynastic lists of kings and families-afford rich material for interpretation. It is needless to say, against this general Epic and Puranic background, their account would bring into focus the geographic data on Gujarat. This section on Geographical data from Puranic Tradition has been relegated, for reference, to the end of the volume as an Appendix'. For Personal & Private Use Only

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PREFACE (vi) Sources: The sources of Gujarat Chronology have been, broadly speaking, the ancient and later Tradition as reflected in the works of Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhistic literatures, Coins, Inscriptions on stone and copper-plate, Records of Foreign Travellers and the antiquarian remains in the field of Art and Archaeology. xix The compilation of this volume has been accomplished mainly source-wise by the co-operation of scholars as detailed below: Puranic Tradition and Sanskrit Literature: by Dr. A. N. Jani, M.A.; Ph.D., Kavyatirtha. Jaina Canonical Literature: by Prof. H. R. Kapadia, M.A. Coins and Inscriptions: by Dr. H. G. Shastri, M.A., Ph.D. Pre-History in Gujarat: by Shri Amrit Pandya. Buddhist Literature, Records of Foreign Travellers, Cultural Data from Events, and Archaeological and Artistic Antiquities: by Dr. M. R. Majmudar, M.A., Ph.D., LL.B. (vii) Co-operation of Scholars: In spite of the token honorarium, the contributors have taken this task as their labour of love. I am grateful to them for their co-operation and help during all the different stages of compilation. Drs. B. J. Sandesara, U. P. Shah, S. C. Misra, R. N. Mehta and Shri J. S. Padel Shastri deserve special mention for having willingly undertaken to scrutinise the sourcewise slips of the Mss. referred to them. It gives me great pleasure in referring to the contribution of Dr. B. Subbarao to Chapter I on Prelude to History" (Pre and Proto-History of Gujarat), being a connected survey of the work done so far in this field of Pre-History. When the book was passing through the final stages of printing, Excavations were carried on at Devani Mori, Samalajt area, by the Department of Archaeology, M. S. University, under the guidance of Dr. B. Subbarao, as a result of which, a Stupa and a Vihara of the late Ksatrapa period were laid bare. It is through the warm cooperation and spontaneous consent of Dr. Subbarao that his "Preliminary Note on Excavations at Devani Mori" with illustrations, could be secured and included in the Addenda. TheNote subscribed at the request of the General Editor, on "Extension of Harappa Culture in Gujarat" from Shri S. R. Rao, the brilliant excavator of the rich. Harappan site at Lothal, has been very opportune for this Volume. I must refer to the permission given to Shri Rao by the Director-General of Archaeology, New Delhi, for subscribing this Note and also for arranging a loan of blocks to illustrate the same. I am very much indebted to Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri, formerly Government Epigraphist, Government of India, and now Joint-Director, Department of Archaeology, For Personal & Private Use Only

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XX CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT New Delhi, for his warm response to the present work. His decipherment of the Seal of the Biksu-Sangha of the Rudrasena Vihara, excavated from Intva, on Girnar Hill in 1949, (See, p. 79), and of the inscription on the pedestal of the Buddha bronze from Bhuj, discovered in 1957, (Sce, p. 215 ) can well be remembered here. His recent reading, from an ink-impression of the inscription on the back-side of the prabhavali of the life-size bronze, discovered in 1935 from old Kotyarka temple, Mahudi Village, Vijapur Taluka (N. Guj.), still in situ, has settled, once for all, the identity of the bronze (Plate LIII) as having been Buddhistic, instead of being Jaina, as believed so far.-(See, p. 316.). I cannot adequately thank Shri B. L. Mankad, Keeper, Art & History Sections, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, for selecting and designing, at my request, the various Illustrative Coin-Plates, entirely based on the rich Coins Collection of the Baroda Museum. I have been laid under a great obligation by Shri Parameshwari Lal Gupta, Keeper of the Coins Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and Joint-Editor, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, for having scrutinised the matter regarding coins, included in the Sections on ' Antiquities', and for lending in advance his unpublished material on Coin-Hoards in the Bombay State' for inclusion is this Volume. (viii) Acknowledgments The Standing Committee of Experts, comprising of Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta, Chairman, the present Vice-Chancellor of the M. S. University of Baroda, Professor H. D. Sankalia, Director, Deccan College Research Institute, Poona, the author of 'Archaeology of Gujarat' (1941 ) and Professor B. Subbarao, the author of The Pesonality of India' (2nd ed. 1958), the Members, have laid me under a deep obligation by closely scrutinising the Mss. as a whole, and making valuable suggestions regarding its revision before it could be sent to the Press. I am very much indebted to Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta, the Vice-Chancellor and Chairman, Standing Committee of Experts, for giving the Foreword to this volume. The interest shown in the entire scheme of Gujarat Chronology from its inception, by Dr. Shrimati Hansaben Mehta, the first Vice-Chancellor of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, and the unstinted help given by her for furtherance of the object cannot be adequately thanked. The Message testifies to her unfailing interest in the cultural study of Gujarat, as a whole. I thank the Pro-Vice-Chancellor Dr. C. S. Patel for promptly sanctioning my tour-programmes, whenever proposed in connection with the Chronolozy work. I cannot adequately thank Dr. B. Subbarao, Professor of Archaeology and Ancient History, M. S. University, for the keen and constant interest he has evinced in the final revision and recasting of the MSS., even during all its stages of printing. The selection of representative Illustrations, and the preparation of Maps have obtained the stamp of his critical scholarship. For Personal & Private Use Only

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PREFACE xxi My erudite colleague Dr. H. G. Shastri's uniform interest and hearty co-operation in the work, cannot go unnoticed. It gives me pleasure to put on record the expert co-operation of the PhotographerArtist Shri Dinabandhu '( Mohanlal Bhav-ar) of Kathlal, who accompained me in most of the Research-tours, and took sharp photographs, some of which are reproduced in this volume. I thank Shri Batukkumar (Chandramauli) Majmudar, a Post-graduate student, and Kumari Shraddhadovi Majmudar, my children, for materially helping me in the preparation of the Index, which includes names of Books and Articles also, given in Italics. This project was, from the beginning, carried out under the auspices of the Oriental Institute. So I take this opportunity to thank the ex-Director Professor G. H. Bhatt, and the present Director Professor B. J. Sandesara, and other members of the Staff, who have helped me in various ways. My special acknowledgment of hearty cooperation is due to Dr. P.M. Joshi, Director of Archives and Ancient Monuments, Bombay State, Bornbay, to Dr. Moti Chandra, Director, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and President, Museums Association of India, to Shri V. L. Devkar, Director, Baroda Museum and Art Gallery, and Head, Museology Department 'M. S. University, to Shri K. V. Saundara Rajan, Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, Baroda, and to the late Shri P. P. Pandya, Government Archaeologist, Rajkot, of the former Bombay State. Thanks are due to the Director, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, to the Director, B.J. Research Institute, Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad, to Shri P.G. Shah, Secretary, Gujarat Research Society, Khar, Bombay, and to the Hon. Curator, Shri Rajendra Surakatha of Winchester Museum, Surat, for warm cooperation. Thanks are due to many Institutions, Collaborators and Friends, besides, who have extended to me the loans of photographs, negatives, blocks etc., and have thus enabled me to present the work in this extant form. Their individual help and cooperation is explicitly acknowledged at the proper places. To the Press-Management of the M. S. University Press, my sincere thanks are due for giving me every facility in printing work, and for offering their expert co-operation in the production of this work, as a whole. Chronology of Gujarat Section, Oriental Institute, Baroda 30th June, 1960 GENERAL EDITOR Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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ART-PLATES Plate Plate Plate Plate Chapter 1 (Pre and Proto-History) I (A) Rangpur: Dist. Jhalawar, Saurastra General view of Excavated Ruins (B) Lothal: Clay-fillings with structures above. II (A) Lothal : Row of Houses (B) Lothal: Burials III (A) Rangpur: Pottery with Harappan affinity (B) Lothal: Pottery with Harappan affinity IV (A) Lothal: Copper and Bronze objects (B) Lothal: Copper-vessel V (A) Lothal: Terracotta Guerilla : Front and Side-views (B) Lothal: Terracotta Mother-Goddess (C) Lothal: Terracotta bearded figurine (D) Lothal : Terracotta animal figurines VI (A) Lothal: Painted Pottery (B) Lothal: Painted and Incised pottery VII (A) Lothal: Chert Blades (B) Lothal: Terracotta Sealings Vill (A) to (H) Lothal: Seals (Slightly enlarged) Chapter III (Mauryan Period) . Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate IX (A) Asoka Inscription on Girnar-rock at the bottom: Rudradaman's and Skandagupta's Inscriptions are on the sides. (p. 36) (B) Sopara: Asoka Inscription, 9th Edict (p. 36) X Uparkot Cave at Girnar Hill, with Pillars and Caitya-window design. B (P. 92) XI Punch-marked Coins: Post-Mauryan (Enlarged) (p. 37) Plate Plate Chapter IV (Indo-Greek Period ) Plate XII Indo-Greek Coins (p. 48 ) (1-1) Silver Coin: Eukratides: Obv. & Rev. (2-2) Silver Coin: Apollodotus II: Obv. & Rev. (3-3) Menander (in youth ): Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Menander (advanced in age): Obv. & Rev. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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xxiv Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Chapter V (Ksatrapa Period) XIII Mahaksatrapa Castana (Torso), with inscription, Mathura Museum. (p. 96) XIV (A) Bronze Images and Gold Flowers from the Reliquary, Sopara Stupa. (Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society Collection). (B) Reliquaries from the Sopara Stupa (p. 91) XV (A) Talaja-Cave Mandapa, with Caitya-window design, Gohilway, Saurastra (p. 92) (B) Boria Stupa Railing, Mt. Girnar (p. 90) XVI Khambhalida Cave Facade, Madhya Saurastra (p. 93. 314) Flanked by large sculptures, representing the Bodhisattvas and showing devotees under the shelter of trees. XVII (A) Pot-sherd from Bet Sankhoddhara (pp. 93-94) (B) Somanatha Pot-sherd (pp. 94, 314) (C) Intva Seal of Rudrasena Vihara (p. 91) (D) Ghosundi Inscription, Chitodgadh Dist., Rajasthan (p. 44) XVII A (A) Andhau Stone-Inscription of the Joint Rule of Castana and Rudradaman, dated S. 52, 130 A.D., Bhuj Museum (p. 62) (B) Fragmentary Stone-Inscription from Lathi, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p. 94) (C) Fragmentary Stone-Inscription, Rajkot Museum, (pp. 94. 314) XVIII SEALS. (1) Akota Seal and Sealing: show Prancing horses (p. 95) (2) Timberva Inscribed Seal, seems to read (p. 94) (3) Vadnagar Terracotta Inscribed Seal: Reads RA I (p. 94) (4) Navsari Lead Seal with an Iranian horse and Dragon-tail. (p. 95) (5) Vadnagar Uninscribed Seal, shows a woman with a flower in hand. (p. 94) (6) Elephant Seal, excavated by Rev. Father Heras from Vala (Valabhi Period), (p. 197) (A) Painted and Incised pottery from Rosadi, Atkot, Prabhasa. (315) (B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojitra, near Cambay Vallabha Vidyanagar Museum, (p. 315) (C) Rastrakuta Seal of a Garuda, the Vahana of Visnu--[ See Plate XXVIII (B) Infra] XIX Terracotta Figurines from Gohilwad Timbo, Amreli, (p. 95) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Flate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate ART-PLATES XX A Ksatrapa Male Head from Tapi river, Surat Museum: Front view and Back view. (p. 315). XXI (A) Legged quern from Salad, Baroda Dist., Baroda Museum. (p. 97). (B) Legged quern from Karvan, Ramanlal Desai's Collection. (p. 97). XXI A (A) Stone Lion-capital from Baroda (p. 96). (B) Stone Lion-capital from Baroda (p. 96). (C) Roman Handle from Akota, (p. 98). (D) Figure of Eros plying the oar, on the Roman Handle, Akota, (p. 98). (E) A Roman Stone Cameo of a Patrician Lady, from Karvan. (p. 98). XXII Kusana Coins: (1-1) Wema Kadphises, Obv. & rev. (2-2) Huviska, Obv. & rev. (3-3) Vasudeva, Obv. & rev. Andhra and Tribal Coins: XXIIA Ksatrapa Coins: Top Row: XXV (1) Pulumavi, Obv. (2) Yajna Satakarni, Obv. (3) Siri Satakarni, Obv., (4) Ujjain Symbol, Reverse of Andhra coins. (5-5) A Tribal Coin, with Ujjain symbol on the reverse. Bhamaka's Coin: Obv.: Arrow pointing upwards and a thunderbolt. Nahapana's Coins: Obv.: Bust: Capital of a pillar consisting of a lion with an upraised paw and dharmacakra, with a legend. Family of Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II Coins of Svami Rudrasena III. Obv., Obv., Bust; Rev., Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent. XXIII Ksatrapa Coins: Obv. Bust; Rev.: Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent. Family of Castana (1-1) Damasena, (2-2) Viradaman, (3-3) Vijayasena, (4-4) Rudrasena II, (5-5) Bhartrdaman, (6-6) Visvasena. Chapter VI (Gupta Period) XXIV Temple at Gop, Halar Dist., Saurastra. After conservation in 1959. (p. 126). For Personal & Private Use Only

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xxvi CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Plate Plate XXV Bagh Cave fresco of Danda Rasaka, showing six ladies with danda held in either hand, and other six with cymbals : At the Fourth Cave called Ranga Mahal'. (p. 122) XXVI Gupta Coins (1-1) Gold Coin of Candragupta II: Obv.--Horseman type; Rev.-Goddess seated on a stool. (2-2) Gold Coin of Kumaragupta I: Obv.-Archer type ; Rev.-Seated Laksmi. (3-3) Silver Coins of Kumaragupta I: Winged Pea-cock type. ( 4-4) Folded Wings Pea-cock type: First Variety (5-5) , : Second Variety (6-6) Silver Coin of Skandagupta : The Nandi type Chapter VII (Maitraka-Gurjara Period ) Plate XXVII Vala Seal of Pusyena : (p. 195) (A) The Terracotta Seal (B) Letters on the Seal Plate XXVII A (A) Vala Pot-sherd of Guhasena, dated Valabhi year (2) 47 = C. 576 A.D., (pp. 151, 197) (B) Inscribed Pot-sherds from Gohilwad Timbo, Amreli, Baroda Museum. (C) Clay-seal of Siladitya, excavated from Gohilwad simbo, Amreli (p. 197) Plate XXX (A) Eka-mukha Linga from Khedbrahma, Baroda Museum Open Air Gallery (p. 211) (B) Lakulisa from Karvan, M. S. University Dept. of Archaeology Collection, (p. 204 ) (C) Bhairava from Baroda Museum ( p. 275 ) (D) Bhairava from Visvamitri river, Baroda (p. 275 ) Plate XXXI Virabhadra Siva from Samalaji, Baroda Museum (p. 203 ) Plate XXXII Ksetrapala Siva from Samalaji, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p. 204 ) Plate * XXXIII (A) Kartikeya from Samalaji (p. 204) (B) Siva ( Torso ) from Samalaji (C) Standing Ganesa, Samalaji (p. 204) Plate XXXIV Uma.Mahesvara from Kapuri, Baroda Dist., Baroda Museum. (p. 204 ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate XXXVII XXXVIII Plate XXXVIII A XXXIX Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate ART-PLATES xxvii XXXV (A) Mother and Child, Kotyarka-Mahudi (N. Gujarat), New Temple (p. 206) (B) Mother and Child, Kotyarka-Mahudi, Old Temple (p. 206) (C) Matrka Mahesvari from Devani Mori, Samalaji (p. 205) XXXVI A (A) Matrka Varahi, from Devani Mori, Samalaji ( p. 205) (B) Consort of Agni, Agneyi, from Devani Mori, Samalaji (p. 205) XXXVI (A) Kaumari (standing) from Samalaji (p. 205) (B) Kaumari ( seated) from Mt. Abu (C) Kaumari ( dancing) from Karvan (p. 276) A Standing Lady, Samalaji (p. 207) Mother and Child, Samalaji (p. 207) Standing Mother Bhadra, Samalaji Parvati as Sabarakanya, Samalaji (p. 207) XL Ganga on' makara', Samalaji (p. 270) Plate Plate XLIX (Misprinted as XXXIV) Plate XLI Stone Plates of Krspalila from Mandor, Jodhpur Museum (p. 208) XLII Visnu from Bhinmal, Baroda Museum (p. 208). XLIII Visou on Lotus, Mt. Abu (p. 274) XLIV (A) Ananta Vispu, from Samalaji (p. 209) (B) Visnu from Tenna, Surat Dist. (p. 209) XLV (A) Trimurti Head, Limbodra, Rajpipla (p. 210) (B) Trimurti from Kathlal, near Kapadvanj (p. 209) XLVI (A) Kesisudana, from Vala (p. 210) (B) Mahisamardini, from Vala (p. 208) XLVII (A) Sage Udumbara, from Mesvo river, Samalaji (p. 210) (B) Yaksa from near the lake, Bhinmal (p. 210) XLVIII (A) Vayu (torso) from Samalaji, with name inscribed. (p. 316) (B) A Terracotta Peacock, from Samalaji (p. 206) (A), (B), (C), (D): Four Ganas in the Gandhara tradition, Samalaji, (p. 211) L Adinatha Bronze Head, from Akota Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) LI (A) Mahudi Bronze, Parevanatha, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) (B) Ambika Bronze, Akota Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) LII Camaradharini Bronze, from Akota hoard: Front-view and Back-view (p. 212) LIII A Buddha Bronze from Kotyarka, Mahudi, (Old Temple) with an inscription on the backside of the pedestal. (p. 213, 318) For Personal & Private Use Only

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xxviii CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate LIV Inscribed Vasantgadh Bronze, in Kayotsarga position, now at Pind. wara ( Rajasthan) (p. 213) LIVA (A) Tirthankara Bronzes, from Lilvadeva, near Jhalod, Panca. mahals. (p. 213) (B) Vala Buddha Bronze, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p. 213) LV (A) Parsvanatha stone sculpture from Dhank (p. 213) (B) A Jaina Kayotsarga stone Sculpture from Dhank (p. 213) LVI (A) Maitreya Bronze from Reliquary of the Sopara Stupa (p. 214) (B) Seated Buddha (Stone) on a mound at Nagara, near Cambay (p. 278 ) LVII Inscribed Buddha Bronze, Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha ), with an inscription on two sides of the pedestal. (p. 215) LVIII (A) Nandi from Samalaji, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p. 21) (B) Bronze Incense-burner from Akoti Hoard, Baroda Museum (p. 317) Chapter VIII (Rastrakuta-Pratihara Period ) LIX (A) Late Fresco, Ajanta, Cave No. 17 (p. 269 ) (B) A Jaina Fresco from Kailasanath Temple, Indra-Sabha Hall. Three-fourths profile faces, and the left eyes being shown beyond the facial line. LX A Temple with an Amalaka on the Sikhara from Roda, Idar Terri tories, (p. 270) LXI ( A ), (B), Osia Temples, Marwad (p. 270) LXII (A) Kottai Temple, Kaccha (p. 270) (B) Kalika Mata Temple, Chitodgadh, (p. 270 ) LXIII (A) Entrance Door-frame, facing the Karvan Lake (p. 270) (B) Sculptured portion, right side Pillar-bottom, of the Door frame, (Enlarged). LXIV (A) Torana on Mesvo river, near ruins of Hariscandra Temple, Samalaji (p. 271) (B) Enlarged sculpture from the left Pillar-base, given in the middle. (p. 271) LXV (A) Architectural Remains from Kadyar, near Prabhasa (p. 271) (B) Architectural Remains from Patan, Baroda Museum. (p. 270) LXVI (A) Outline Plan : Sun-Temple at Bilesvara near Porbundar - (p. 272) (B) Sun-Temple at Bilesvara (p. 272) ! LXVII (A) Standing Surya, Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu (p. 273) (B) Standing Surya, Karvan, (p. 273) Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate For Personal & Private Use Only

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ART-PLATES xxix Plate LXVIII (A) Seated Surya, from Rapupipli, Padra, Baroda Dist. (p. 274) (B) Seated Surya, Roda, Idar Territories, Baroda Museum Open Air Gallery. (p. 273) Plate LXIX (1) Inscription on the pillar at Gop Temple which does not admit of decipherment. ( 2 ) Inscription on two sides of the Buddha Bronze from Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha ) (p. 215 & Plate LVII) Plate LXX (A) Dasarathi Rama from Varaha Temple, Kadvar. (p. 277) (B) Haladhara Balarama from Kavi, Jambusar Taluka, Dist. Broach. Dr. M. R. Majmudar's Collection (p. 277) Plate LXXI Kartikeya, with an attendant, in the rosette frame. From Kapuri Village, near Baroda, (p. 275) Plate I.XXII (A) Siva-Parvati from Roda, now in Baroda Museum (p. 317) (B) Vinapani Siva from Kotesvara,, near Ambaji, now in Baroda Museum (p. 316) Plate LXXII Dhanapati Kubera, from Kavi, Jambusara Taluka, Dist. Broach. Dr. M. R. Majmudar's Collection. (p. 276) (A) Head of a Tapasa( i), from Karvan, Side-View and Back View (p. 275) (B) Mother-Goddess from Bhinmal (p. 276 ) Plate LXXV (A) Nagaraja with a triple hood of Naga, from Vasisthasrama. (p. 210) (B) Agni, from Osia, Marwad (p. 317 ) (C) Kartikeya from Baroda, Baroda Museum (p. 275 ) Plate LXXVI (A) Hari-Hara from Osia Temple, Marwao, (p. 318) (B) Vamana becoming Virata, from Osia, Marwal, (p. 318) Plate LXXVII (A) A Valabhi Copper-plate (B) A Saindhava Copper-plate, with a fish symbol, Jamnagar Museum. Plate LXXVIII Sculpture of a Music Party, Surat Museum (p. 277) Plate LXXIX (A) Miniatures of Tara, from an illustrated Palm-Mss. of the Pala period, Baroda Museum. (p. 277) (B) Inscription on the backside pedestal of the life-size Buddha bronze at Old Kotyarka temple, Mahudi, still in situ. (p. 318) Plate LXXX Sculpture of Tara from Taranga Hill, with the Buddhist formula inscribed at the bottom, in the late 9th Century script. (p. 278) Plate LXXXI A Female Sculpture from Paldi, Ahmedabad; H. K. Arts College Collection, Ahmedabad. (p. 279) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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XXX CIIRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Plate LXXXII Indo-Sassanian Coins : (1-2) Early Sassanian Coins, precursors of Gadhia Coins; Reverse shows the Sassanian Fire-Altar. (3-3) Early Gadhia, Thin Fabric: Degeneration of the bust on the obverse, and of the altar on the reverse. (4-4) Later Gadhia, Thick Fabric : Further deformation of the bust and the altar, shown in lines and dots. A Coin of Bappa (5-5) A coin of Gurjara-Pratihara king Bappa : Obverse and Reverse. Plate LXXXII Sakambhari Inscription of Jayasimha Siddharaja, in Jodhpur Museum, gives the starting Samvat year of Mularaja's reign in symbolic words: (Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi 9) (p. 261) vasunaMdanidhau varSe vyatIte vikramArkataH / mUladevanarezastu cUDAmaNirabhUd bhuvi / / Addenda (Excavations at Devani Mori) Plate LXXXIV General view of the Stupa, Devani Mori, Samalaji area. (p. 309) Plate LXXXV (A) General view of the exposed Vihara, showing cells and two floors of the Central Court-yard. (p. 309 ) (B) Face of the lower platform, showing the pilasters and the decorated frieze of the lower platform. Plate LXXXVI (A) (B) Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering both the shoulders, Devani Mori Stupa Plate LXXXVII (A) Terracotta Buddha Head, Devani Mori Stupa, samalaji. (B) Terracotta Round Medallian, from Devani Mori Stupa. Plate LXXXVIII (A) Terracotta Architectural pieces, from Devani Mori Stupa (B) Terracotta Filled Arch of the niche, Devani Mori Stupa, Samalaji Plate LXXXIX (A) Terracotta Head of a Buddha, with the typical upward flow ing Gandhara hair-style. (B) Terracotta Buddha Head, from Devani Mori Stupa. Plate XC Gadadhara Visnu, samalaji. In the sculptural style of Bhinmal Visnu (Plate XLII) and Tenna Visnu ( Plate XLIV B) (p. 318 ). Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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LIST OF MAPS FIGURE I. Physical Map of Gujarat (Chap. I) -Courtesy "The Personality of India', (2nd Ed.) Facing Page 3 FIGURE 2. Culture-Sequence in Gujarat (Chap. I) -Courtesy * The Personality of India', (2nd Ed.) Facing Page 14 FIGURE 3. Map of Mauryan Period (Chap. III) Facing Page 29 FIGURE 4. Map of Ksatrapa Period (Chap. V). Facing Page 53 FIGURE 5. Map of Gupta Period (Chap. VI) Facing Page 107 FIGURE 6. Map of Maitraka-Gurjara Period (Chap. VII) Facing Page 131 FIGURE 7. Map of Gujarat at Hiuen Tsang's Journey in 641 A.D. -Courtesy, 'Glory that was Gurjaradesa, Part I'. Facing Page 171 FIGURE 8. Map of Rastrakuta-Pratibara Period (Chap. VIII) Facing Page 219 For Personal & Private Use Only

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am very grateful to the following Institutions and Individuals for kindly lending their Blocks wherever possible or otherwise for supply of Photographs :(1) Director-General of Archaeology, New Delhi, for lending the Copyright Blocks reproduced on Plate I, Plate II, Plate III, Plate IV, Plate V, Plate VI, Plate VII, Plate VIII. ( 2 ) Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, Baroda : For lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XVII (A), Plate XXVII A (B), Plate LXXX. For lending Photographs reproduced on Plate X, Plate XV (A) and (B), Plate XXIV, Plate LV, Plate LX, Plate LXI, Plate LXII, Plate LXIII, Plate LXV, Plate LXVI, Plate LXIX (A), Plate LXXIX (B). ( 3 ) Government Epigraphist for India, Ootacamund, South India : For Photograph reproduced on Plate XVII(C). (4) Government Archaeologist, Gujarat State, Rajkot: For supply of Photographs or Estampages reproduced on Plate XVI, Plate XVII (B), Plate XVIIA (C). ( 5 ) Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda : For supply of Photographs reproduced on Plate XVIII (A), (B), (C), (D), Plate XXIA (E), Plate XXX (B), Plate XLIV (B), Plate XLVIII (B), Plates LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, XC. (6) Curzon Archaeological Museum, Mathura: The then Curator, Prof. Krsna Datta Bajapeyi. For Photograph reproduced on Plate XIII. (2) Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay: are thanked for lend ing Estampages reproduced on Plate IX (B), Plate XVIIA (B), and Photographs reproduced on Plate XXVIII (A), (B), Plate XXX, Plate XXXII, Plate LIVA (B). (8) Director, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, for lending Photographs, re produced on Plate XIX, Plate XXVII (C), Plate XLVII (C), Plate LI (B), Plate LII, Plate LXXI (A), (B), Plate LXXIV (A), (B). (9) Hon. Curator, Rajendra Surakatha, Winchester Museum, Surat for lending Photographs reproduced on Plate XX, Plate LXXIII. ( 10 ) Curator, Vallabh Vidyanagar Museum, Shri Amrit V. Pandya for lending Photographs reproduced on Plate XVIII (B), LVI (B). (11) Curator, Jodhpur Museum for lending Photographs, reproduced on Plate XLI. For Personal & Private Use Only

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xxxiv (12) Dr. P. M. Joshi, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. Secretary, Bulletin of Museums Association of India, for lending Blocks, reproduced on Plate XXX (A), Plate XXXIII (B), (C), Plate XXXVI (A), Plate XL. CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT (13) Director, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery Bulletin, for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XXI (B), Plate XXIA (C), (D), Plate XXX (D), Plate XXXIII (A), Plate XXXIV, Plate XXXVIII A, Plate XXXIX, Plate XLI, Plate XLII, Plate XLIII, Plate XLV (A), Plate XLVI, (A), (B), Plate XLVIII (A), Plate XLIX, Plate LIV A, Plate LVIII (A), Plate LXV (B), Plate LXVII (A), (B), Plate LXVIII (A), Plate LXXIV (C), Plate LXXV (C), Plate LXXIX (A). (14) Director, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XXI (A), (B), Plate XXX (C), Plate XXXIV. (15) Director, Gujarat Vidya Sabha, Ahmedabad for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XLVI (A), XLVI (B). (16) Editor, Kumar Monthly, Kumar Karyalaya, Ahmedabad for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XXXI (From the Photograph by Shri Pramoda Chandra, Keeper, Fine Arts Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay), Plate LI (B) (From the Photograph by Dr. U. P. Shah, M.A. Ph.D.), Plate LVIII (B) (From the Photograph by Dr. U. P. Shah, M.A. Ph.D.). (17) Proprietor, Gurjara Grantha Ratna Karyalaya, Shri Shambhulal Jagashibhai, Ahmedabad for lending Block reproduced on Plate L, and, also, on the Book-Cover. " (18) I am obliged to Shri Jagan Mehta, Photographer, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, for lending his Photographs reproduced on Plate LIII, Plate LIV. (19) I am obliged to Shri Laxmidas M. Patel, M.A., B.Ed., Baroda, for Photographs of Samalaji Sculptures, first taken from the old Himatnagar Museum, Idar State, reproduced on Plate XXXVII, Plate XXXVIII. (20) I am obliged to Shri Dinabandhu (Mohanlal Bhavsar, A.M.) for Photographs reproduced on Plate XLV (B), Plate LVII (A), (B), Plate LIX (A), (B), Plate LXX (A), (B), Plate LXXIII, Plate LXXVI (A), (B), Plate LXXV (A), Plate LXXXIII. (21) I am obliged to Shri Ravishankar Raval, Ahmedabad, the Veteran Artist and Art-critic for Photographs reproduced on Plate XXXV (A), (B). (22) I am obliged to Shri Pramoda Chandra, Keeper, Fine Arts Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay for Photograph reproduced on Plate LVI (A). (23) I am obliged to Shri Chandramauli Majmudar B.A., for Photographs reproduced on Plate LVII, Plate LXVIII (A), Plate LXXXI. For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER I PRELUDE TO HISTORY (Pre-and Proto-History of Gujarat ) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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EXANXAR MARKERENTE 1. Ini R e . . . . . . . . 1 . T A Neilon. 12 THAR DESERT Jawa 197SHIN Sal. The RAJASTHAN UDAIPUR: . . RANN OF CUTCH DEESA 6%. PALANPUR, HET 4 RADHANPUR verovatan evapivaank: W ASK.45 Amcam . DADAD SHA . . . Y . . GULF OF . . . OF CUTCH Mohor (GODHRA. S DOHAD . .. MALWA. ... PLATEAU Bhadas CAM MB AY swahi R OBARODA ER CHHOTA UDAIPUR . chah R .. Dhadhar B BROACHS NADODEN JUNAGADH S yo ARABIAN SEA CAMBAYO S AT PURA WTS GULF OF CAMBAY So S SURAT Mindholm VERAVAL ON CASES GUJARAT AHYADRI MTS . S AND THE ADJACENT AREAS PHYSICAL FEATURES . Area above 500 feel Sand desert Rann & saline marshes Modern towns 0 16 32 48 64 80 begini MAHARASHTRA MILES 152mg DSX BOMBAY . GEOLOGY 3333 DHARWARIAN CUCINA TEREO .... 2 S ' v m GRANITES CUDDAPAH, DELHI, ETC UPPER CONDWANA OF THE PEF DECCAN TRAP (NINSULA E OLIGOCENE & LOWER MIOCENE V BEN COASTAL TERTIARY EPLEISTOCENE E PLEISTOCENE & RECENT UNCLASSIFIED CRYSTALLINES. Mail EPALA EOCENE E FOCENE 12 CRETACEOUS SOILS MEDIUM BLACK SOIL DEEP BLACK SOIL COASTAL ALLUVIUM SHALLOW SANDY SOIL SANDY LOAM (AREA OF FOSSIL DUNTS) For Personal & Private Use Only RAINFALL C www.jainelibrary. .

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY The history of man enters on a very crucial phase with the invention of writing, which enabled him to record his intellectual heritage to posterity. But, let it be noted, that this so-called era of civilization is a minute fraction of the total span of time when man emerged on this planet of ours, nearly a million years ago. The existence of these literary records enable the historian to reconstruct a more complete story of our civilization in space, and more important thing, in time. In this volume dealing with Chronology, naturally, the chronological history is being presented. Hence following the general definition of Pre-history-as the story of man before the advent of writing--the Pre-historic as well as the legendary periods are being treated as a Prelude to the Chronological History'. Gujarat, like most of the outlying provinces of India begins its history-or historical chronology-with the advent of the Mauryan rule in Western India with Girinagara or Junagadh as the headquarters of a Vice-royalty. The other well-known phase of Indian culture is the civilization which spread from the Indus basin to the peninsula of Saurastra across the seas. This Chalcolithic culture had a system of alphabets or script, which has not been satisfactorily deciphered yet. Hence this phase, like the one revealed by the Puranas and other Sanskrit literature, will be treated as ' Proto-history.' Yet, this too is, in a sense, a prelude to the chronological history of Gujarat.' Pre-history of Gujarat : The geologists call the age of man the 'Pleistocene'. This period was characterized by violent fluctuations of climate affecting the land-surfaces, sea-levels and the rivers, which are very sensitive instruments for recording these changes in environment. Besides, the rivers provided the water which attracted man and his prey, the animals whom he hunted and eked out a livelihood. The Early Man of this period was not very different from the animals which surrounded him. Since he lived on the banks of these rivers, their history gives us an idea of the various vicissitudes through which man passed. Hence the rivers speak of the history of man that lived on their banks. Gujarat can be divided into two large natural divisions--the plain of Gujarat from the south of the Aravallis upto Daman and the peninsula of Saurastra. Gujarat is drained by the rivers-(north to south ) Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and Tapi, besides a number For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT of smaller rivers. All these rivers except the Tapi have been investigated in recent years by Foote, Zeuner, Sankalia, Subbarao, Pandya A. V., Mehta and Malik (see Bibliography). It is not proposed to go into their full details, but a short summary of the main trends uptodate will be discussed here. From the studies carried out by F. E. Zeuner-we know that Gujarat passed through a series of fluctuations varying from arid dry periods to more wet periods with greater precipitation. These are the results of the survey of portions of the valleys of rivers like Sabarmati, Mahi and Narmada. The main phases may be described as follows :1. Formation of lateritic crusts-humid climate with hilly land-surface. 2. Mottled clay-deposition in the rivers--somewhat drier than the previous. 3. Cemented gravel phase--when the river spread large pebbles in the bed. We have definite evidence of the Earliest Man in Gujarat : and his tools have been found in these gravel-beds in all the rivers. 4. Beginning of a dry phase, when climate seems to have changed: The rivers aggrade or build up their deposits---Human tools have been found in the lower levels of the silt. 5. Return of the wet conditions resulting in the spread of vegetation and the resultant weathering of the surface of the silt. Resumption of the dry conditions and acute wind-activity resulting in the wide-spread deposition of wind-blown dunes from North Gujarat, almost upto the Narmada. But we have evidence of a declining wind-activity as we move southwards. There is, so far, no evidence of human habitation in this period. Probably northern Gujarat was uninhabitable, since we have evidence of human habitation in the South Gujarat and the Bombay area. 7. A wetter phase-particularly noticeable in the Mahi and the Karjan. 8. A drier phase when isolated dunes were blown about upto the river Narmada. 9. Return to wet conditions indicated by the presence of the Microlithic man whose contemporary fauna included Rhinoceros Unicornis. 10. Another change towards a drier phase; yet the men of this period were in a Stone Age', but used better pottery. Thus we see two main phases in the Stone Age of Gujarat--Palaeolithic and Microlithic periods. Palaeolithic: Gujarat shares with the other parts of peninsular India most of the features of its Palaeolithic culture. It consists of Abbevillo-Acheulean tools with some pebble-choppers. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY The main tools made of Quartzite and Quarts (rarely) consist of choppers made of pebbles, hand-axes and cleavers, discoid cores and scrapers, and flakes with an occasional retouch. In view of the various deposits discussed above, there is no doubt about the considerable antiquity of this culture. But since we have as yet no means of correlating with the known sequence in Kashmir with the Glacial periods, nor with the fossiliferous deposits of Narmada and Godavari, the exact chronology of this culture remains vague. But on typological grounds it can be equated with the Sohan of Punjab and dated to the Penultimate glaciation. On the basis of the astronomical theory of Milankovitch and Zeuner it can be placed to about 150,000 to 200,000 years. Microlithic: We have already discussed the period when the dunes were blown about in Northern and Central Gujarat. When these dunes occur in clusters, blow-outs or depressions are formed in the middle, by the whirling action of the wind. Hence when the climate changed for the better, these blow-outs became the ponds which became the centres of attraction for the next Pre-historic culture of Gujarat, characterized by the use of microliths. These consist of small implements made of semi-precious stones like agate, chalcedony, chert, jasper etc. These microlithic sites have a very wide distribution in Gujarat and Saurastra. All the river-valleys and the isolated clusters of dunes around ponds supported the hunting communities. Besides, there is a concentration of these sites along the eastern stretches of Gujarat flanking the hills. In the central hilly areas of Amreli and Dhari Prants, Foote had recorded a large number of sites. One of the most important sites which has been investigated by Sankalia and later by Subbarao is Langhoaj in the Mehasana District. Here on a high mound facing the pond lived one of these hunting settlements. A very interesting evidence of the climate of North Gujarat is provided by the remains of animals discovered there : Rhinoceros, Hog Deer, Black Buck, Indian Buffalo, Nilgai etc. None of these animals were domesticated, confirming that these people were wild hunters. They used the shoulder-blade of rhinoceros as anvil for making their stone-tools. About twelve human skeletors have been discovered so far, and they are being studied. The capacity of the skulls compares with that of Europoid ; but "the slight prognathism of the one skull with smooth small rounded forehead suggests negroid affinities, which belief is strengthened by the smallness of the cross-section as compared to the length of the long bones of the upper and lower extremities." About the age of this culture, we are not yet in a position to give an exact date; but excavations at Rangpur and Baroda roughly provide the other limit. At the former site, it precedes the appearance of the "Kathiawad Harappan culture". At Baroda and Timberva, it precedes the Mauryan and Ksatrapa periods. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT But the recent studies in the Indian Microlithic industries show that the typology of this industry is more or less homogenous throughout the country. In certain parts of the country it survived to later periods. In these late industries, we have evidence of pottery, as at Langhoaj and in Central India. This proposition seems to be well-founded in view of the distribution of Microlithic culture along the Western Ghats from Aravallis to Calicut, as the investigations of Todd have shown. Proto-historic Period Recent work in Saurastra is bringing to light the extent of the great urban civilization of the Indus basin. One of the most remarkable discoveries is that of SaragvalaLothal (Taluka Dholka) in the Ahmedabad District. At Lothal there is a fairly large settlement showing typical Indus valley seals of steatite and several sealings and extensive mud-brick platforms which seem to have supported large burnt-brick structures, the remnants of which have survived. However, it is on account of this, that the nature of some of these structures becomes enigmatic, to say the least. Large number of antiquitiesbeads of semi-precious stones, gold, gold ornaments, terracottas, bronze vessels etc., have been recovered. A fuller account of these excavations is given in the succeeding Note subscribed by Shri S. Ranganatha Rao, the Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, on special duty, who first investigated this site. The story of this civilization in Saurastra is one of the survival and slow deterioration in their ceramics and material culture. The sequence of Lothal is carried further by the excavations at Rangpur, started in 1934 by M. S. Vats and continued by Ghurye, Sankalia, Dikshit and S. R. Rao. With slight variation, Lothal evidence is carried through to a transitional phase. Then we go into a phase characterized by the continuation of some of the older forms and the appearance of a new ceramic type, called for convenience, the 'Lustrous Red Ware'. The exact interrelation between the Kathiawad Harappan' of Lothal and the 'Lustrous Red Ware' culture is, as yet, not very clear, though the appearance of a new wave of people or culture is indicated here as well as at Somanath more clearly. The most important site in Saurastra from the point of stratigraphic evidence of culture-sequence, is Somanath. The ancient site, probably identical with ancient Prabhasa, is situated on the bank of Hiranya to the N.E. of Prabhasa Patana. Here the story begins with a later phase of " Lothal-Rangpur", "Kathiawad Harappan " and continues without a break right into the 6th century A.D. The importance of this site lies in the fact that, for the first time, the sequence in Saurastra can be roughly equated in time with the Mauryan and Pre-Mauryan horizons all over the country, characterized by the presence of the famous Northern Black Polished Ware. The Phases at Somanath may be stated as follows:I-a. Typical Kathiawad Harappan forms with incised decorations, sometimes like loops-reminiscent of the paintings. Very characteristic cores and flakes with crested ridges suggest the continuity of blade technique. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY I-b. "Transitional' and 'Late' wares of Rangpur (2-b and 2-c) occur with an entirely new ceramic fabric and forms in curved bowls with panelled decorations. The painting is done in black, or purple, over red and tan backgrounds or red greyish background. Some of the decorations occur at Mahesvar (Dist. Nimad, Madhya Bharat) and Ahar (Dist. Udaipur, Rajasthan ). II. Lustrous red wares. This phase has been divided into two sub-periods on the basis of the changes in ceramic decorations and changes in fabrics in the upper levels. Here it seems to be an intrusion as there is a tendency for the earlier motiffs on the new ware. III. This is very important on account of the occurrence of the Northern Black Polished ware which enables us to identify the Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan horizons. From other antiquities also, we can definitely date this phase to a period from 500 to 100 B.C. IV. A coarse gritty and thick Black-and-Red ware: this phase can be linked up with the rest of Gujarat from excavations at Vadnagar and Timberva, and can be dated to about 100 B.C. to 100 A.D. V. The well-established era of contact with the Mediterranean region by the occurrence of the Red-Polished Ware, which can be dated to between 100 to 600 A.D: The occurrence of large number of Gupta and Valabhi coins vouches for this date. Thus the sequence at Somanath begins to supply important data, which would ultimately help us in tackling the problems of Saurastra. These results are based on the joint work carried out by Dr. Subbarao and Shri P. P. Pandya in 1955, and continued by Pandya in 1956-57. In conclusion, it is very interesting to note that in Gujarat, as in the other Littoral provinces, separated from the mainland, by difficult communications, the maritime influences have kept the window open and enabled a local or provincial development. Even the earlier Harappan element seems to have penetrated by sea from Kaccha and Sind. Finally the story of the sequence of cultures based on the excavations at Lothal, Rangpur, Somanath, Amra and Lakhabawal gives us a very fine sequence of cultures from about 1500 B.C. or earlier to about 700 A.D. The exact relation between the Harappan culture of Kathiawad to its parent culture in the Indus basin cannot be defined exactly at the present stage of our knowledge. But a provisional chronology can be reconstructed on the basis of relative stratigraphy. The appearance of iron and the associated dominance of black-and-red ware over such an extensive region covering Central India and the Deccan peninsula, and now its extension into coastal Gujarat, as well as Kathiawad, is of great significance. Even if we assume the beginning of iron about 500 B.C., a reasonable time-scale would be to allot For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT about a thousand years to the whole range of Proto-historic cultures beginning with a Harappan. This would allow for the large number of inter-links or contacts between the Pre-N.B.P. Chalcolithic cultures of Central India and Deccan with Grey wares on the one hand, and the late Harappan sequence of Kathiawad. Recalling the dates suggested by Fairservis for the end of the Harappa in their peripheral zones ( 2100-1200 B.C.), we can at best treat the Harappan culture of Lothal and Kathiawad as a younger contemporary of that of the Cities of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, if it does not represent a southward displacement of the culture, after the advent of the Aryans. To sum up the position, the archaeological sequence in Kathiawad does not belie its history and its function in the historical geography of India. Hence this long story of survival and deterioration fits better into the geographic picture of Gujarat, as an area of relative isolation from the rest of the country, and a simultaneous window to the influences from across the seas. Further work will be necessary to confirm this hypothesis, and more than any, an independent absolute date for Lothal is a great desideratum. Tradition and Archaeology In view of the large amount of traditional material preserved in our Puranas and other literature about Saurastra, Lata and Anarta it is natural for any body to ask, what is the bearing of all this archaeological evidence on this story? In reply to this, we should understand two important facts. As at present constituted, most of our literary tradition has been consolidated about the beginning of the Christian era. Worse still, on account of the religious sanctity and the function of the Puranas as a philosophy by examples, of the kings of the Kali age, we see either a crude repetition of the historical and geographical material of the consolidated texts or a deliberate interpolation to suit or glorify a particular region or religion. Hence one has to be on the guard while trying to interpret tradition and traditional history. Yet, should we entirely abandon it? Here, a sober attempt is very badly needed. With the recent excavations at the hallowed sites of Hastinapur, Mahismati and PrabhasaPatan (Somanath), the trends are very encouraging. For example, take Saurastra ; according to literature, there are three main incidents: (1) the settlement of the Aryan colonists and the establishment of the kingdom of Anarta by a son of Saryata in North Gujarat. (2) The second is the main story of Ktisna and the migration of his people into Surastra. (3) The last is the establishment of the asrama by Chyavana, the Bhtigu on the banks of Narmada, giving rise to a number of Bhoigu-tirthas, of which Bhrigukaccha was one. These stories have been repeated at great length in various forms and periods by different authors of the Puranas. Taking Somanath, the place where Krisna's mortal remains were cremated, it is possible to attempt a link. If Krisna's story has any validity, it speaks of extensive cultural contacts between Central India and the Gangetic basin with Surastra. Then this contact can be seen approximately at about 1400-1000 B.C. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CULTURE SEQUENCE IN GUJARAT SOUTH GUJARAT PERIOD SOUTH GUJARAT ASA DATI SAURASHTRA ?? MEDIEVAL EARLY MEDIEVAL PAINTED WARE (BLACX-ON WHITE ON-RED) GADHIA AND VALABHI COINS ?? 100-600 A.D. EARLY HISTORIC II PLAIN BURNISHED BLACK-ON-RED AND RED SLIPPED PAINTED WARES, WARES RED RED POLISHED POLISHED WAREWARE, KSHATRAPA KSHATRAPA COINS AND LOCAL AND ROMAN COINS-ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ANTIQUITIES. TIMBARVA II VADNAGAR I SOMNATH IV AMRANI,LAKHABAWAL11 NBP BLACK -ANDRED WARE IRON N.B.P SOMNATH II 400B.C.TO 1OO A.D. PERIODI EARLY HISTORIC POSSIBLE CONTI BLACK-AND-RED NUATION OF THE WARES, N.B.P. PAINTED TRADIIRON. -TION IN POTTERY IN SOUTH TIMBARVA I KATHIAWAD SOMNATH II JOE GWA POST K. PROTO HISTORIC HARAPPAN HARAPPAN LATE K. ? A FEW SITES OF THIS + CULTURE + ARE FOUND ON THE GUJARAT COAST FACING THE GULF OF CAMBAY A FEW OF RANGPUR ICE III THE HARAPPAN SOMNATH II SETTLEMENTS AMRAT OCCUR IN THE DELTAIC REGIONS OF TAPI AND RANGPUR IIB NARMADA SOMNATH IAEIB LAKHABAWAL 1 IN THE INTERIOR THERE LOTHAL SEEMS TO BE A RANGPUR II A SURVIVAL OF HARAPPAN LATE STONE EXTENSION AGE HUNTING INTO COMMUNITIES GUJARAT HARAPPAN KATHIAWAD V AGE LATE STONE GEOMETRIC MICROLITHIC INDUSTRY AGE EARLY STONE ABBEVILLO-ACHEULEAN HAND AXE AND CLEAVER INDUSTRY. www.enelibrary.org Jain Education Inte Private Use Only

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Plate I (A) Rangpur : Dist. Jhalawar, Saurastra : General view of excavated remains. K ONTAK (B) Lothal : Clay fillings with structure above. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate II L ONDON SH SEXE (A) Lothal: Row of Houses. Jain Education Internatione of Personal & Private Use Only (B) Lothal: Burials.

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Plate III (A) Rangpur: Pottery with Harappan affinity. (B) Lothal: Pottery with Harappan affinity. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate IV SNS 3 89 CMS INCHES (A) Lothal : Copper and bronze objects. (B) Lothal : Copper vessel. For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY 9 Most of our orthodox historians are reconciling themselves to a date of the Mahabharata War almost to this period of time. Hence it is a possible line of investigation which may yield ample results. The archaeologist can, however, only point out the shadows; but, he is not yet in a position to designate the actors of this shadow-play. So, unless we solve the more complex problems of the Aryans and equally terse problems of archaeology, we can only plead for a little more patience. Link with History: Thus we have seen how from Pre-history and Proto-history of Gujarat, we come through Archaeology into History; and the Pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan periods inaugurate the main chronology discussed in the succeeding chapters. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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II EXTENSION OF HARAPPA CULTURE IN GUJARAT* Introduction : The discovery of Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro in the years 1921-22 revealed the existence of a highly developed urban civilization in the Indus Valley during 3rd and 2nd millenium B.C. The recent discovery of Lothal in the Peninsula of Saurastra has extended the zone of the Harappa culture as far south as the gulf of Cambay, and the excavations at Rangpur and Lothal have thrown new light on the circumstances leading to the disappearance of the Harappans. Secondly, it has been possible to narrow the gap between the supposed end of the Harappa culture in circa 1500 B.C. and the beginning of the Buddhist period in circa 6th century B.C. Lastly the vague Harappan affinities in the late chalcolithic cultures of the first millenium B.C. can be explained from the Harappan traditions found surviving at Rangpur, Lothal, Prabhasa etc. Rangpur: Rangpur is a small village in Limdi Taluka of Zalawad District in the Bombay State, a reference to which has been made in previous pages. The cultural sequence arrived at as a result of the excavations (Plate I a) carried out by Shri S. R. Rao between 1953 and '56 may be summed up as follows: Long after the microlithic-using folk of Period I left Rangpur the Harappans came to settle down at the sight in circa 2000 B.C. and continued to live upto 1500 B.C. Their earthen-wares, tools, weapons, personal ornaments, toys and objects of domestic use were identical with those of their neighbours at Lothal. The first occupation by the Harappans is assigned to period II a. Owing to the total destruction of their township by a flood in circa 1500 B.C. they had to face many hardships. The material equipment of the post-flood Harappans is in many respects poorer than that of the early Harappans. This degenerate phase of Harappa culture extending from circa 1500 B.C. to 1100 B.C. falls in period II b. Subsequently an attempt to revive painted traditions and to evolve new ceramic forms was made in period II c. Side by side certain Harappa ceramic forms such as dish-on-stand, jar, bowl and basin did continue to be in use. The Black and Red Ware emerged as a popular ware in period II c which is deemed to represent a Transition Phase of the Harappa culture. Locally available agate and jasper were preferred to imported chert for making lithic implements. Copper celts, pins and razors continued to be in use. Ceramic wares were frequently painted with geometric and animal motifs such as deer, peacock, bull and black buck. At the close of the 2nd millenium B.C., a new culture was being slowly evolved at Rangpur and several other The absolute chronology of the Harappan culture of Saurastra is yet in a fluid stage. The dates given in the text are those of the author.-Editor For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY 11 late settlements of the Harappans in Saurastra. Period III of Rangpur which is approximately dated between 1000 B.C. and 800 B.C. is noted for the exuberance of the Lustrous Red Ware. Black and Red Ware is also a popular ceramic ware of the period. (Plate-b): A village-to-village survey of the peninsulas of Kaccha and Saurastra was made during the years 1954 to 1958 when it was found that the early settlements of the Harappans ware made on the coast-line only. They must have taken a sea-route from Sind to Saurastra. Curiously enough no Harappa settlement contemporary with Lothal or Rangpur II a, is encountered in region between Viramgam and Surendranagar or even further south until one reaches Lothal. Being a sea-faring people the Harappans preferred a sea-route to a land-route and settled themselves on the fertile coastal strip during their south-ward movement. Bhagatray in the Kim estuary near Surat is the Southernmost Harappa settlement known so far. Lothal: The discovery of the Lothal mound in Saragvala village of Dholka Taluka in Ahmedabad District of the Bombay State in November 1954 has not only extended the limits of the Harappa Empire but also added much to our knowledge about the maritime activities of the Harappans. Lothal has yielded seals and sealings and a distinct ceramic ware known as the Black and Red Ware in addition to the usual Harappan ceramic wares, tools, weapons and ornaments. The sealings have, for the first time, helped to understand the purpose with which seals were prepared. With a rich wheat and cotton-growing hinterland and easy access to the sea, Lothal occupied an important position for developing overseas trade. The extent of the mound so far known is about half a mile in length and a quarter mile in width. It is 12 ft. high, from the surrounding area; but the total occupation deposit is 28 ft. Owing to sheet flooding the slopes of the mound are silted up. It is said that only 50 years ago, country crafts used to anchor at a distance of half a mile from Lothal. Through the Gulf of Cambay and the Sabarmati and Bhogavo rivers they might have been able to reach Lothal, it is so surmised. At present three main phases of occupation with five building periods can be distinguished. In the first phase the houses did not stand on any platform nor did they have a high plinth. But soon the township came to be destroyed by a flood. In the second phase the inhabitants are found to have devised various measures of safety against inundation. One of the steps taken by them was to construct a protective wall of mud-bricks around the town and platforms of mud-bricks within the town to raise their dwellings over them. The habitation area was further extended; but once again a great flood destroyed the structures. There was an elaborate system of drainage. Clearance of manholes and soakage-jars must have also existed. Houses were built in rows on either side of the streets. (Plate II) One of the most important structures uncovered at Lothal is what is supposed to be a kiln built on a platform in the south-east corner of the town. There are twelve solid cubical blocks built in three rows of four each with an intersecting channel between each Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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12 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT block. The channels are paved at the ends with kiln-burnt bricks. Ash, cinders, charcoal, baked lumps of clay, terracotta objects such as ovaloid balls, triangular "cakes" and sealings were found in the channels. The most important find was, however, a hoard of seventy-five terracotta sealings which carry the positive impressions of the Indus seals, bearing script and animal figures. It is surmised that this mud-brick structure with twelve blocks must have served the purpose of a kiln for baking small clay-objects like sealings, toys, etc. on a mass scale. The third and last phase of occupation provisionally equated with the fifth period of constructional activity witnessed a decline in the prosperity of the town. The eroded face of the platforms in the main section gives an idea of the severity of floods. In this third phase houses and drains were shabbily constructed and soakage jars were placed at the end of the narrow drains to drain off water from the bathrooms. From the foregoing description of the town-planning of Lothal and the nature of construction of houses, drains and platforms it should be evident that the Lothal folk closely followed their contemporaries at Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro in town-planning, and adopted identical safety measures against floods. The personal ornaments, tools, weapons, toys,ceramic wares, objects of domestic use and the products of the artists of Lothal bearing close resemblance to those found at Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro are mentioned below:Tools and Weapons : Copper celts and arrow-heads (Plate III) and terracotta sling balls have been found at Lothal. (Plate IV) They might have been used for defensive purposes. Long blades of chert rarely retouched and occasionally polished were used as pen-knives with or without hafting. (Plate Va) Arts and Crafts : The gold and steatite beads of Lothal are the smallest in size ever found. A necklace made of such micro-beads gives an idea of the personal ornaments in use 4000 years ago. (Plate V b). Lothal is wellknown for a large variety and number of beads of topa, carnelian, agate, jasper, shell, ivory, faience and copper. Even etching was known in those days. The art of modelling was widely practised. Animal and human figures were prepared to cater to popular taste. Torsos of male and female human figurines including a bust of a foreigner with a long beard, sharp nose and sunken eyes deserve special attention. The art of painting on earthen vessels was also highly developed. The colour scheme is in black over red or chocolate over buff. Peacock, crane, deer, stag, sparrow, snake, pipal-leaf and palm-tree are some of the naturalistic designs painted on the Lothal vessels. Entire vessels' surface is often painted and the designs are repeated as in Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro. (Plate VI) Figurines of swan and dog in copper are good examples of the art of metal-casting. Occupations : The chief occupations of the Lothal folk were fishing, agriculture and trade. A large number of fish-hooks of copper and vast quantities of fish-bones recovered in the excavations establish that fishing was an important occupation. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRELUDE TO HISTORY 13 The prosperity of Lothal was primarily due to trade and commerce. Finished products like beads might have been processed at Lothal and exported, as is even now the case at Cambay. 'Bhala' being a rich cotton-growing area, cloth might have been one of the goods exported. A standard of weights was stipulated. The sealings were used for sealing packages of goods exported. Bullock-carts and boats were in use as means of transport, and their terracotta representations are encountered at Lothal. Script : No clue has been found so far to enable scholars to decipher the indus script. The seals and sealings of Lothal bear Indus script and animal figures. Unicorn, bull, goat, elephant, birds and swastika are some of the designs beautifully engraved on seals. (Plates VII and VIII) The discovery of terracotta sealings bearing positive impressions of the seals has established that the seals were meant to be used for sealing pakages and not merely as intaglios. In the graffiti marks on the pottery of Rangpur II c and III, Somanath II and Rozdi I, some of the Indus symbols can be seen. They suggest a survival of the script. Religion : In one place an enclosure of mud-bricks built on a small platform was found to contain ash, charred animal bones, a gold pendant with two holes, beads, etc. The altar appears to have been specially built for a ritualistic purpose. Secondly certain animals seem to have been held in veneration. When they died, their bones were deposited in earthen vessels. Such urn-burials containing animal bones were also found at Lothal. Funerary Method: Burial was the normal method of disposal of the dead. A cemetery was recently discovered in the north-western parts of the Lothal mound. Out of three burials opened up, two were greatly disturbed. As such, the burial urns were found missing. In Burial No. 2, however, two bodies were found placed close to each other. They were extended burials with head to the north. Conclusion: The discovery of a large number of proto-historic sites in Saurastra and Gujarat and the excavations conducted by the M. S. University, Baroda, and the Archaeological Department of the former Saurastra Government at Prabhasa, Amra, Lakhabaval and Rozdi have confirmed the findings of Shri Rao at Lothal and Rangpur that the Harappa Culture survived in a degenerate form in the 2nd millenium B.C. The bearing which the exploration and excavations of proto-historic sites in Gujarat, Saurastra and Kaccha has on the proto-history of India can be summarised as follows: The Harappans moved south of the Indus estuary and made settlements on the Western sea-board of India in the 3rd millenium B.C. Lothal was their earliest settlement in the peninsula of Saurastra. Desalpar in Kaccha and Bhagatrav near Surat in the Kim estuary in the south may be slightly later settlements. In due course, the Harappans mov Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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14 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT ed further inland and settled down at Rangpur. An unprecedented flood destroyed all the early Harappan settlements in Gujarat, Saurastra and Kaccha, but they continued to live in poorer conditions. A large number of small late Harappa settlements sprang around Jamnagar, Porbandar, Somanath, Kodinar and Mehgaum in the post-flood days as a sequel to an influx of panic-stricken Harappans from the Indus Valley. They had only a material equipment; but most of the Harappan traditions still survived with them. In the course of the five centuries following the devastation of the major cities and towns of the Harappans in the Indus Valley and in Saurastra, a gradual degeneration in the material equipment of these Harappans can be seen at Amra, Lakhabaval and Rozdi, Rangpur, Lothal, and Prabhasa. But they revived their traditions of painting on earthen wares and even new motifs were introduced. The lithic appendage of the surviving Harappans consisted of scrapers of agate and jasper instead of ribbon flakes of chert. Spheroid weights of sandstone came to be used instead of cubual weights of chert and agate. Copper celts and pins continued to be in use, but certain terracotta objects such as triangular cakes were given up. In the beginning of the first millenium B.C. they established contacts with other chalcolithic folk living in Mewad and Malwa plateau and in the Deccan. Thus it is now possible to tell a continuous story of the expansion of the Harappa culture over space and time, and its survival in different parts in Gujarat and Saurastra for nearly eight centuries even after the destruction of Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro. It made substantial contributions to the physical and metaphysical aspects of Indian culture. A reappraisal of the evidence of survived Harappa culture in the Ghaggar Valley and in the East Punjab may reveal a parallel development. This note does not go into the details of the discoveries made in recent days. Some of the statements made above may have to be modified in the light of further evidence, if any, coming up at Lothal. + Sir Mortimer Wheeler's impressions about a trip to Lothal in March 1959 are recorded by Uma Anand (The Illustrated Weekly of India, April 12, 1959) as under:-"It has been the most interesting and exciting of the new sites. Lothal belongs quite definitely at the earliest levels to the Harappa culture, about 2200 B.C., and, what is so much important, lasts well beyond the latest dates of the Indus civilisation as previously indicated by the excavations at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa. Did the forces that destroyed these northern cities compel the people to migrate to the southwest coast? Or, did the Indus-valley civilisation originally have a two-pronged movement: one extending about 800 miles from the west up north-east towards the Himalayas, the other along the west coast? Perhaps new sites will continue to follow these distant trails of the past. The digging at Lothal has revealed a rectangular construction like an artificial inlet or harbour for small ships. The trench that is now uncovered measures 716 feet North-south, and 116 ft., Eastwest. The total height of the walls is 12 ff. It has an inlet in the embankment and a spill channel in the southern embankment. Marine shells have been found from insidle, of what can be called, the harbour.-General Editor. For Personal & Private Use Only

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III SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY* Dikshit, K. N. The Dawn of Civilization in India'. Bulletin of the Baroda State Museum-II i, pp. 3-14, 1944-45. Dikshit, M. K. "Excavations at Rangpur". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, XL, 1951. Foote, R. B. (1) On Pre-historic Man in the old alluvium of the Sabarmati river in Gujarat, Western India'. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Transactions, p. 664, 1894. (2) Geology of the Baroda State, Baroda State Press, 1898. (3) Indian Pre-historic and Proto-historic Antiquities-Notes on Ages and Distribution: (IPPA) Madras, 1916. Catalogue Raisonne, (IPPA) Madras, 1917. Ghosh A. (1) Indian Archaeology-a Review : 1953-54. Summary of Rang pur Excavations: by S. R. Rao. 1954. (2) Indian Archaeology--a Review : 1954-55. Summary of the Further Excavations at Rangpur by S. R. Rao. 1955. (3) Indian Archaeology-a Review : 1955-56. Summary of the Excavations at Lothal by S. R. Rao; and Summary of the Excavations at Amra, Lakhabawal and Somanath by Subba rao and Pandya. 1956. (4) Indian Archaeology: A Review : 1956-57-Summary of Ex cavations by S. R. Rao at Lothal ( Saragvala ), Dist., Ahmedabad, resumed after 1955-56; and Summary of Excavations at Prabhasa Patan, Dist. Sorath, by P. P. Pandya. 1957* * Special mention must be made of the very recent discovery of two sites Mehgam and Telod, both near the Narmada estuary. A preliminary examination of their material indicates that both of them contain late Harappan pottery. Subject to confirmation by a detailed study, the sites would seem to represent the southernmost stations of the late Harappa culture till now known, and would be of great signi. ficance."--(Indian Archaeology: 1956-57: A Review, p. 1.) * Since it is very difficult to be precise in chronology when we deal with Pre-history and Protohistory, our extant knowledge is summarised in a running account; and a Select Bibliography of Original Papers is given for reference. For Personal & Private Use Only

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16 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Ghosh, A. (5) Indian Archaeology: A Review : 1957-58. Summary of Excavations at Rozdi, Atkot, Pithadia and Exploration of Harappan sites in Saurastra : by P. P. Pandya. Ghurye, G. S. "Excavations at Rangpur", Journal of the Bombay University; VIII, No. 3. 1939. Heras, H. Rev. (1) " The Origin of the Round Proto-Indian Seals discovered in Sumer". B. B. & C. I. Annual, 1938. (2) "A Proto-Indian Sign from Vala". Quarterly Journal, Mythic Society, Bangalore. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3. 1941. "Prehistory in India ". Ancient India, No. 3, New Delhi, 1947. Krishnaswamy V. D. Logan, A. C. Old Chipped Stones of India, Calcutta, pp. 31-2. Malik, S. C. "Palaeolithic Industries of Bombay-re-evaluation". Journal of the Maharaja Sayajirao University; 1957. Mitra, P. Pre-historic India, Calcutta University, 2nd Ed., 1927. Pandya, A. V. (1) Series of articles on "Pralaya-purva-nu Gujarat." in the Gujarati monthly Navachetan, Calcutta. 1938. (2) "In Search of the Past", Kumar Monthly (Gujarati), 1941. (3) "Pre-historic Cultures discovered On the Narmada," Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Bombay Session, 1947 (4) Saurastra before the Dawn of History' Part I, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society XII, No. 3. 1951. (5) Saurastra before the Dawn of History' Part II, Journal of the Gujarat Research Society XIV, No. 1., 1952. (6) "Babylonian cities in the Puranas". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Waltair Session, 1953. Pandya, P. P. (1) "Explorations in Halar and Sorath Districts of Saurastra ". Journal of the Maharaja Sayajirao University, III. 2; 1954. (2) 'A Harappan Village Settlement: Rozdi': Journal of the Saurastra Sansodhan Mandal, 1959 March. Rao, S. R. The Excavations at Lothal'. Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, April 1956March 1957 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate v (A) Lothal: Terracotta Guerilla : front and side-views (ht. Il in.) (B) Lothal: Terracotta mother goddess (ht. (C) Lothal: Terracotta bearded figurine (ht. 2} in.) ES (D) Lothal: Terracotta animal figurine (ht. 2 in ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate VI (A) Lothal : Painted pottery. (B) Lothal : Painted and incised pottery. For Personal & Private Use Only

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REAL FOUR 1 For LI (A) Lothal : Chert blades. (B) Lothal Terracotta sealings. Plate VII

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Plate VIII (immy SINu De . H Lothal: Seals (slightly enlarged). For Personal & Private Use Only

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Sankalia, H. D. PRELUDE TO HISTORY 17 (1) 'In Search of Early Man along the Sabarmati.' Journal of the Gujarat Research Society, 1941-42. (2) Report of the II nd Gujarat Pre-historic Expedition. In Search of Microlithic Man'. The New Indian Antiquary, 1944. (3) Preliminary report of the IIIrd Gujarat Pre-historic Expedition, 1945. (4) Investigation into Pre-historic Archaeology of Gujarat. Baroda, 1946. (5) The Microlithic Industry of Langhoaj', (North Gujarat). Journal of the Gujarat Research Sociely, October, 1956. Sankalia and Karve, I. Primitive Microlithic Culture and People of Gujarat.' American Anthropologist. LI. 1949. Starr, Richard F. S., Indus Valley Painted Pottery, Princeton, 1941. Subbarao, B. (1) "Archaeological Explorations in the Mahi Valley". Journal of the M. S. University of Baroda, I. 1952. (2) "New Light on the Archaeology of Gujarat". Paper read at the Gujarat Research Workers' Conference, Ahmedabad, 1932. (3) Baroda through the Ages, M. S. Univ. Archaeology Series No. I., Baroda, 1953. (4) The Personality of India, M. S. University Archaeology Series No. 3, 1956: Revised 2nd Edition, 1958. Tod, K. R. V. (1) Palaeolithic Industries around Bombay'. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1939. (2) "Microlithic Industries around Bombay", Ancient India, No. 6, New Delhi, 1951. Vats, M. S., Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India : 1934-1935. First Excavations at Rangpur. Zeuner, F. E. (1) Stone Age and Pleistocene Chronology in Gujarat, Poona. 1950. (2) "Microlithic Industry of Langhnaj ", Man, No. 182, 1952. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER II PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD (Traditional History:- Pre circa B.C. 322) For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD (Pre Circa B. C. 322 ) The oldest Pauranic legend regarding Gujarat appears to be that of the holy king Anarta, son of Saryati, and grand-son of Manu. The first reliable land-mark in the history of Gujarat, however, is the establishment of the Mauryan rule by Candragupta. Before this event, we have to fall back on literary tradition, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina works--the epics, the Puranas and later literary compositions inspired by them. Most of these traditions, particularly of the Puranas refer to the advent of the Aryan tribes into Gujarat. These traditions have been carefully analysed by K. M. Munshi. (Early Aryans in Gujarat ). Accordingly, the bare facts have been summarised in this section. A few references from Panini regarding Western India have also been included. I The Puranas say nothing about the original home of the Aryans. The scene of traditional history opens in India with the division of the territory, comprising the whole of North India extending in the east upto Orissa, among the ten sons of Manu, the first King and Common Ancestor of the ruling families in India. The traditional account of the expansion of the Aryans and Aryan culture is identical with the geographical background of the Aryan conquest of India given in the Puranas. From this starting point, the traditional history possibly enables us to trace the progress of Aryan advance during the four Ages-Kota, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali. Kings Sagara, Rama, and Ktsna are said to have flourished respectively at the end of the Krta, Treta and Dvapara Ages, so that the Kota Age covers roughly 40 generations, Treta 25 and Dvapara 30. The Kali Age set in after the Bharata War. By the end of the Ksta Age, we find the Aryans in occupation of the whole of North India including Sind and Kandahar in the west, and Bihar and West Bengal in the east. In the south, Gujarat, Saurastra, the Western Coast south of Bombay and Berar were colonized by the Aryans, and their southern limits had extended beyond the Vindhya and the Narmada, down to the Tapti and the Satpuras. The Aryan occupation during the Treta Age extended further east and south, embracing in addition the territories occupied in the Krta Age. The southern territories of Janasthana, Kiskindha, and also Lanka came under the sphere of Aryan influence during the days of Rama. By the time of the Bharata War, which marked the close of the Dvapara Age, the Aryans had extended over the whole of India, and even beyond its frontiers in the west. For Personal & Private Use Only

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22 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT This traditional account of the Aryan expansion is, however, in conflict with the evidence of the Vedic texts, and also with that of the Brahmanas. It is generally assumed that the Aryans had not advanced beyond the middle region of Northern India till all the traditional royal dynasties who ruled had ceased to exist. The Smyti texts quote verses defining Aryavarta or the land of the Aryas as coextensive with North India. As to the expansion of the Aryan culture to the Deccan and South India, the evidence of Panini's Astodhyayi and Katyayana's Vartikas on Panini, seem to be fairly conclusive. The only country in the Deccan south of the Narmada mentioned by Panini is Asmaka, whereas Katyayana knows Pandya, Cola, and Kerala. This shows that the Aryans came into contact with the South Indian peoples during the time intervening between Panini and Katyayana, i.e., some time between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C. Yet the Puranas and the Ramayana would have us believe that the whole of South India, including Ceylon, was colonized or brought under their sphere of influence by the time of Ramacandra in the Treta Age !-(The Vedic Age, pp. 311-313). II Saryata Manava is the first Aryan associated with Gujarat, as his son (Anarta) gave it its first Aryan name. Saryata occurs in the Rgveda as the name of a singer, and the Brahmanas mention Saryata in connection with rejuvenation of Cyavana, proving the historicity of Cyavana's connection with Saryati. Cyavana is always connected with Gujarat; and the Bhrgus (closely connected with Gujarat) were the descendants of Cyavana. While Parasurama is generally associated with the Creation of Surparaka, a stanza in the Mahabharata (Mbh. (Cr. Ed.) III, 86.9 ] shows that it was colonized earlier by Jamadagni. Parasurama is credited with the Aryanization of the whole of the western coast of Bombay, especially the Konkan, the Karhata, the Tulava and the Kerala. The traditions, at any rate, indicate the important role played by the Bhargavas in the colonization of the Deccan. Among the Aryan tribes, the Bhrgus and the Saryatas seem to be the earliest ones connected with Gujarat. Tradition ascribes that Anarta, the son of Saryati, gave his name ( Anartadesa) to Gujarat, and his son Revata founded Kusasthali, the capital, on the ruins of which was erected later Dvarka, the capital of the Yadavas. Balarama, the elder Yadava brother of Sri Krsna accepted in marriage the daughter of Kakudmin Raivata and the latter gave his kingdom of Kusasthali to the Yadavas. The Yadavas have a long history of their own, which goes back to the period of the Rgveda, as the word 'Yadu' occurs in the Rgveda as the name of a king and his tribe (Vedic Index, p. 185). The Puranas divide the family of Yadu or the Yadavas into many septs such as the Vitihotras, Haihayas, Satvatas, etc.; and the Satvatas have further been subdivided into general branches, viz. : Devaveddhas, Andhakas, Bhojas and Vssnis. -(Matsya, 43-44; Vayu, 94-96). The Andhakas and Vrsnis are mentioned in the Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD 23 Astadhyayi of Panini, (IV, 1. 114; VI, 2. 34) and the latter are described as a republican corporation (Samgha ) by Kautilya (Arthasastra 1. 6, p. 12). The migration of the Yadavas from the holy land of Kurupancalas had already begun since Vedic times, on account of the constant raids of the Blatas; and the Satapatha Brahmana actually refers to the defeat of the Satvatas by Bharata. (XIII, 5. 4. 21). So, the emigration of the Yadavas had commenced much earlier than the age of Krsna, whose exodus to Dvarka may be taken to represent a wholesale migration. Jarasandha, the Magadha king invaded Mathura several times to avenge the death of Kamsa, his son-in-law. His invasions were resisted for some time, but finally the Yadavas decided to leave Mathura in a body and settled in Dvarka on the west coast. III Krsna appears for the first time in the Mahabharata story at the svayamvara of Draupadi. He was a friend and councellor of the Paodavas, and his sister Subhadra was married to Arjuna. The coming of Arjuna to Aparanta, and the royal reception that Ktsna and other Yadavas gave him is described in the Mahabharata (Adiparva, Adh. 218-221). King Jarasandha of Magadha was killed by Bhima under Ksspa's directions. At the rajasuya yajna performed by the Pandavas, Krsna was offered the first worship. This enraged the Cedi king Sisupala who heaped vile abuse upon Krsna and was killed by him. This has been the theme of Magha's sisupala-vadha-mahakavya ( 8th century A.D.). After the period of the Pandavas' exile was over, Krsna acted as their emissary of peace to Duryodhana ; but all his efforts at conciliation proved futile. In the great Bharata War, Krsna offered his personal help as a charioteer to Arjuna, while the army joined the Kauravas. Krsna helped the Pandavas a number of times during the great war, and it was due to the part played by Krsna in the great war that the Pandavas emerged victorious. Krsna returned to Dvarka after Yudhisthira was installed on the Hastinapura throne. He revived the stillborn child of Abhimanyu's widow Uttara, later known as Pariksita. Towards the close of Krsna's life there was a fratricidal struggle among the Yadavas in which practically the entire Yadava males were destroyed. Then Krsna sent a messenger to Hastinapura inviting Arjuna to come to Dvarka and look after the women and children; and asking them to accompany Arjuna, Ktsna retired to the forest. Krsna, when in deep meditation, was hit by the arrow of a hunter who mistook him for a deer. Thus passed away Kssna of the Puranas and the Mahabharata. Arjuna came to Dvarka, took with him the remnants of the Yadu family and installed Vajra, the only surviving grandson of Krsga, on the throne. IV The deification of Vasudeva Krsna as an incarnation of Visnu is dated before the period of the Mahabhasya, i.e. 2nd century B.C.-(The Vedic Age, pp. 298-299). Krsna For Personal & Private Use Only

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24 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT is mentioned as 'Devakiputra' in the Chhandogya Upanisad, the Mahabharata and the Puranas; and the last two sources call him also Vasudeva, i.e. the son of Vasudeva. Panini refers to Vasudeva and Arjuna as objects of worship, Ksatriya heroes raised to divinity. In the Ghata Jataka Vasudeva is described as a scion of the royal family of Upper Madhura' and receives the epithet Kanha (Krsna). The Jaina Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Lecture XXII) states that Vasudeva was a Ksatriya prince and its twelfth Upanga deals with Balarama and Kanha (Krsna) Vasudeva of the Vrsni dynasty. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador shows that Krsna Vasudeva was already deified in the 4th Century among the people of Mathura, and that he was connected with the Pandavas. V The earliest historical record about Surastra is that of the Vrsnis of the Yadaya clan. These Vrsnis, according to the Mahabharata and the Jatakakatha, left Mathura and settled themselves in Dvarka when pressed by Jarasandha, the Magadha king. The musical propensities of the Vrsais are a familiar feature in Sanskrit literature, The Hari-Vamsa describes their dancing sports such as the dance with accompaniment of sticks--the Dandarasaka, and the one with accompaniment of clapping of hands-the Tala( i )rasaka. Bhasa refers to Hallisaka dance in his drama Balacarita, Act III. The Bhagavata purana (not later than 8th Century A.D.) has a section on Rasapancadhyayi (Xth Skandha), wherein this sport of dancing is described at length, VI The contribution of the Yadavas in carrying the banner of Aryan culture over large tracts of land in the South-West and in Rajputana, Gujarat and Malwa, and the Deccan, which came under their occupation, needs special mention. It was due to the activities of the Yadavas that these regions were brought under the Aryan way of life. The peculiar feature in the career of the Yadavas is the considerable mixture they had with the non-Aryans, though they trace their descent from Pururavas through Yadu. This fact coupled with the possible looseness in the observance of the Aryan Dharma led the Epics and Puranas to call the Yadava branches' Asuras', and to class them with the tribes of the extreme north-west and west among the Nichyas and Apacyas. The fact that they mixed freely with the non-Aryans, with whom they had marital relations and some of whose customs they incorporated, facilitated the Aryanization of the so-called outsiders, and thus spread Aryan culture far and wide. Krsna of the Yadavas, well-known as a politician, warrior and religious teacher was a national hero, who was regarded as an incarnation of Visnu. He held liberal and catholic views, and his doctrines helped in the spread of Aryan ideas among the so-called Sudras.-(The Vedic Age, pp. 311-315, abridged). The Aranyaka-parva (Vanaparva) of the Mahabharata contains a narrative of Yudhisthira's pilgrimage through Gujarat. (Mbh, III, Adh. 118-121). When this eldest Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD 25 son of Pandu visited the land, he found Aparanta, the sea-board to the north of Bombay, studded with Aryan colonies. Markandeya had an asrama or hermitage on the Payosni, identified with the river Tapi by some and with the river Parna by others. The Bhrgus had asramas on the Narmada. VII From tradition preserved in the Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa it appears that Ceylon owes its name 'Simhaladvipa', its language Simhalese and its Aryanisation to a prince Vijaya of Lala'or Lata '-a name by which Gujarat was often referred to in early times. Prince Vijaya the son of Simhabahu who ruled at Simhapura (modern 'Sihor' near Bhavnagar not far from the sea ), having been banished for his lawlessness, departed from Simhapura, with a band of adventurers and sailed southwards. After stopping at *Surparaka' (modern Sopara in Thana Dist., Bombay State) he continued his voyage to Ceylon, where he arrived very shortly before the death of Gautama Buddha in 483 B.C. On that basis the event is tentatively dated circa 443 B.C. (Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 605-607; History of Bengali Language (1924) pp. 72. 73, fn.: Suniti Kumar Chatterjee). Since then, Ceylon had a close maritime intercourse with Bharukaccha and Surparaka. According to Vividhatirthakalpa, a princess from Ceylon built a Jaina temple known as Sakunika vihara at Broach. VIII Panini in his Astadhyayi mentions Kaccha (Cf. Kacchadibhyasca-IV. 2. 133). "Kaccha represented the water-logged portions in the south as against the dry desert area in the north. Kaccha was historically connected with Sindh forming its province in the seventh century when Yuan Chwang visited the country. Cunningham says that Kaccha and Parkar have always been linked together (Ancient Geography, p. 347 )".-(V. S. Agrawala, India as known to Panini, pp. 51-52). Panini also refers to the names of towns ending in Kaccha. (Cf. Kacchagnivaktragartottarapadat-IV. 2. 126). These were "mostly situated along the coast from BhrguKaccha to the province of Kaccha" (Ibid., p. 52). Panini also instances places which have lent their names to persons as the places of their own residence, or of their ancestors (IV, 3. 90). Besides persons, commodities and animals were also called sometimes after the places of their origin. Thus the word Kaccha denoted a bull of Kaccha country (IV, 2. 134). The reference shows thae the bull of Kaccha was famous for its strength and vitality and must be in wider use for many purposes. There may also be other associations of names with places. "An assemblage of meanings can be seen in the word Kacchaka which used to denote (a) an inhabitant of Kaccha, (b) the turban (Cuda) peculiar to its people, (c) their mannerisms in speech (Jalpita), and (d) laughing (Hasita )-(Ibid. p. 52)". Thus the word Kacchaka shows that people of Kaccha were putting on a peculiar type of turban and that their way of speaking and laughing were equally peculiar to them. C4 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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26 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Panini refers to the compound names Kunti-Surastrah and Cinti-Surastrah (IV, 2.37). The names indicate the period when the royal houses of Kunti and Cinti were tied to Surastra, (Ibid., p. 60). The Gana-patha enumerates Anarta country under Dhumadi (IV, 2. 127); and the river Mahi under Nadvadi (IV, 2.97). IX The period B.C. 550-500 is lit up by the personality of two great reformers, Buddha (Traditional date of death B.C. 544-43 ) and Mahavira (Traditional date of death B.C. 528 ). Both were Ksatriyas; both organised wandering ascetics; both ignored God and denied the Vedas; and while admitting the fourfold order of society, both led a revolt against the superiority of Brahmanas over the Ksatriyas and derided the four stages of life, stressing only the life of an ascetic. Buddhism, for instance, was a protestant movement within the fold of Dharma; and its ready sympathy for suffering was its refreshing attraction. It is significant that the heterodox religious tenets of Buddhism and Jainism grew among the small non-monarchical states ruled by semi-independent or autonomous clans, like the Sakyas and the Licchavis, and found in them their chief supporters and patrons. It illustrates the great principle that political freedom is the great nursery of freedom of thought. According to the tradition preserved in Avasyakacurni, king Pradyota alias CandaPradyota of Ujjayini who ruled over Bharata, was a contemporary and a devotee of Lord Mahavira. The former died on the very night the latter attained salvation in B. C. 528(Abhidhana Rajendra, Vol. I, 494). Bharukaccha was under Pradyota's power, Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER III MAURYAN PERIOD (Circa 322 B. C.-185 B. C.) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Facing Page 29 Fig. 3 GOOG ALAGHMANS SHAHBAZGARHI AMANSHERAS TAXILA MAURYAN EMPIRE SHOWING MAURYAN SITES AND ANTIQUITIES TOPARAT I MIR ATH R. Sindhu NIGLI VA - - - - - - A BAIRATU RUMMINADEI CIRANPURVA IL AURIYA NANDANGARH ILAURIYA ARARAJA ALLAHADI SARNATH PAT LIPU A GUJJARAT A SAHASRAM ABARABAR I SANCHI wada A RUPNATH JARAT KARVAN R.Narmada a IS GIRINAGAR Eri TIMBARVAL SOMNATH PRAKASHA KAMREJ honak RT DHAULI SOPARA B JALGAD Godavari R AMASKI GOVIMATHA A RAJULA MAND AGIRI PAKIGUNDA ERRAGUDI SIDDAPUR JATINGA-RAME SWARA BRAHMAGIR! ------ duver .ROCK EDICTS MINOR ROCK EDICTS PILLARS MAURYAN SITES OVAT ORN Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAURYAN PERIOD (Circa 322 B. C.-185 B. C. ) After the destruction of the Yadavas a long blank occurs in the traditional history of Gujarat. It is probable that many foreigners settled in Saurastra and South Gujarat owing to the long sea-board suitable for trade; and it is because of the foreign element that the Hindu Dharma-sastras considered Gujarat a mleccha country and forbade visits to it except on pilgrimage. The fact also that Asoka, the Mauryan Emperor chose among the Buddhist Sthaviras sent to various parts of his kingdom a Yavana Sthavira (Thera ) named Dhammorakkhito as evangelist for the western sea-board, possibly indicates a preponderating foreign element in these parts. It is possible that these foreign settlers may have been rulers. In spite of these possibilities, however, we have no traditions between the fall of the Yadavas and the rise of the Mauryas. (Bom. Gaz. I, p. 13). Gujarat's political history dates from the rule of the Mauryan dynasty, the only early Indian dynasty, the record of whose rule has been preserved in the writings of the Brahmanas, the Buddhists and the Jainas. The supremacy of Candragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.), extended over both Anarta and Surastra. The Junagadh rock-inscription of Rudradaman not only specifically names the Maurya Emperor, but affords an interesting glimpse of the extent of his conquests and methods of administration. The continuance of the Mauryan rule over Gujarat under Asoka, the grandson of Candragupta (273-236 B.C.), who was previously the viceroy at Ujjayini and at other times at Taksasila during his father Bindusara's reign is proved by his 14 edicts on Girnar. The Prince (Viceroy ) of Ujjayini may have had the responsible control over Malava, Gujarat and also over Surastra. Asoka ruled over Surastra through an Ionian governor, Yavanaraja Tusaspha by name. Since all the rock-edicts of Asoka have been found on the frontiers of his empire, the Girnar and the Sopara edicts leave no doubt that Gujarat, Surastra and North Konkan sea-board were in Asoka's possession. A bilingual Greco-Aramico inscription of Asoka, called 'Piodasses' (Piyadas or Priyadarsi), engraved on a block, being part of the mountain at the entry to the old city of Kandahar is found in 1949 in the neighbourhood of Laghman in Afghanistan and is now kept in Kabul Museum. Herein Asoka announces his view on mercy, at the roth year from Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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30 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT his consecration, an abstention from doing harm or injury to living beings, and asks even hunters and fishermen 'to cease their sinful activities,' and expresses the wish that 'his subjects comply with the rules and be obedient to their parents and old men'. The good sentiments and ethical principles found enunciated in this Afghanistan record are in a way an echo of similar ideas found expressed in the Edicts discovered in India proper.-( Radhagovind Basak, Asokan Inscriptions, Introduction pp. xiv, xv, 1959) The material achievements of the Mauryan rule, and particularly of the reign of Asoka include the irrigation projects like the well-known Sudarsana lake which were carried out with great care. It was the construction of a reservoir by artificially damming up some of the streams flowing from Mt. Girnar, and equipping the lake with well-provided conduits, drains, and means to guard against foul matters'. As regards cultural unity of India, the findspots of Asoka's records prove that one language and one script were used, or at least understood, by common people all over India in the third century B.C. Since then, the Sanskrit language and literature have throughout been a common bond of culture in addition to religious and social ideas and institutions. -(The Vedic Age, p. 105-6 fn.) II B.C. Surastra was under the sway of Candragupta Maurya (c. 322-298 B.C.) and C. 322-298 was governed by his rastriya Vaisya Pusyagupta. He constructed a dam ( setu ) across Suvarnasikata, Palasini and other rivers of mount Urjayat, and built a beautiful reservoir named 'Sudarsana Tataka' in the vicinity of Girinagara. It was defended by embankments (palikas) and provided with well-arranged conduits (pranalis), drains (parivahas ) etc. The waters of Suvarnasikata ( Sonarekha), Palasini (Palansio ) and other rivers were stored up in the reservoir. (EI, VIII, 44 ff.) This information is recorded in the Junagadh rock-inscription of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman, which deals with the accidental destruction and the reconstruction of the dam during the reign of that Mahaksatrapa. (EI, VIII, pp. 36 ff.) Girinagara, which seems to be the head-quarter of Surastra, probably stood at the foot of mount Urjayat represented by modern Girnar. The river Suvarnasikata is identified with modern Sonarekha which flows by the rock, bearing the two inscriptions. The proper regulation of irrigation was a matter of prime importance even during the Maurya period-(Vide, Vincent Smith, E H I. p. 132). The needs of the local farmers did not escape the notice of the Mauryan Government, though Surastra was a very remote province of the empire. For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAURYAN PERIOD 31 B.C. 315 305 C. 300 Candragupta established the Maurya dynasty of Pataliputra. The chronology of this dynasty and that of Buddha's death are determined by the initial date assigned to this king.-(e.g. B.C. 477). Candragupta's life-history is the subject of Visakhadatta's play-the Mudraraksasa. Seleukus Nikator, king of Syria, is said to have undertaken an expedition against Candragupta about this time in order to recover the Indian conquest of Alexander. The result was a treaty that the territories on the west bank of the Indus were to be retained by Candragupta in exchange for 500 elephants. About this time, or a little later, Megasthenes was sent by Seleukus as ambassador to Candragupta at Palibothra (Pataliputra). His Indika, of which a few fragments remain, gives a valuable picture of the life and customs of the Hindus at that date.-(M. Duff, Chronology of India, p. II). About the corporations or guilds of warriors (Ksatriyasreni), Kautilya says that the corporations of warriors of Kamboja and Surastra etc. live by agriculture, trade and by wielding weapons : 41795-HTTE 477 Vaiza atafretusifaa: 1 (Ch. 135, p. 378) As early as the times of Mauryan supremacy, Kautilya mentions the Saurastriyans as a 'republic'-a Rajanyagana; and the republican people of Surastra are mostly known as a group of agriculturists, traders and warriors. The names of republics actually mentioned by Kautilya fall into two groups: (i) one devoted to economic pursuits and subsisting by fighting with weapons, like the Kambojas, Surastra, Ksatriyasreni and the like; (ii) the others who used the title of raja', apparently for marking the status of the members of the executive body of the republic, such as Licchivika, Vrijjika, Mallaka, Madraka, Kukura, Kuru, Panchala and others.-(K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p. 173). The Arthasastra certainly existed before Bana (7th century A.D.), the Nandisutra of the Jainas (not later than the 5th century A.D.), and possibly the Jatakamala of Arya Sura ( 3rd or 4th century A.D.). In the Junagadh rock-inscription of Skandagupta reference is made to the testing of officials by upadhas, as we find in the Arthasastra. Again verse 10 of the same record reminds us of Arthasastra I. The prevalence of the study of Arthavidya in still earlier days is proved by the Junagadh rock-inscription of Rudradaman I (2nd century A.D.), which mentions such technical terms as pranaya, visti etc. It is noteworthy that the Kautiliya Arthasastra, which purports to be a compendium of pre-existing Arthasastras, does not quote the views of previous writers in the chapter on C. 300 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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32 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT B.C. C. 300 Kosabhisamharanam which deals with pranaya (Book V, Chap. II). It is therefore, not unlikely that the knowledge of the term in the days of Rudradaman I was derived from the Kautilya itself, and not from any pre-existing treatises. An carly date is also suggested for the absence of any reference to the Denarius (Bk II, chaps. 12 & 19) in the sections dealing with coins and weights. Regarding the terminus a quo there are grave doubts as to whether, in its present shape, the famous book is as old as the time of the first Maurya (c. 300 B.C.). At least, the kernel of the book is contemporary with Candragupta Maurya-(K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, pp. 190-201). Kautilya informs us that the cotton of Madhura (Madura), of Aparanta (Konkana), of Western parts, of Kalinga, of Kasi, of Vanga, of Vatsa (Kausambi), and of Mahisa (Mahismati ) is the best. (Ch. 32, p. 81 ) Arthasastra of Kautilya, while speaking about the qualities of elephants from different countries remarks that the elephants of Surastra and Pancajana (v. 1. Pancanada) countries are of low or middle quality, the best being those bred in Kalinga, Anga, Karusa and the East, the elephants of the Aparanta being of middle quality. (Ch. 23, p. 50, Mysore Ed. of 1924). While speaking on the quantity of rain in different countries Kautilya informs that the quantity of rain in Avanti is 23 dronas, while it rains immensely in Aparanta regions (Ch. 45, p. 116), which denote the west-coast line. Surastra continued to be under the Mauryan sway during the reign of Asoka Maurya, the grandson of Candragupta Maurya. It was governed by his rastriya Tusaspha, whose name is mentioned in the Junagadh rock-inscription of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman. (Vide, EI, VIII, p. 43). In the record he is styled a Yavanaraja, but his name seems to be of Persian origin (Bom. Gaz. I, I, 14). He adorned the lake with conduits (pranalis) constructed in a manner worthy of the king. Asoka mentions in his Rock Edict No. 2, his importing and planting of medicinal herbs in those parts of his wide dominions where they did not exist, just to increase the medicinal stores. There is no reference, however, to physicians. The Maurya Emperor Asoka (c. 273 or 272-232 B.C.) ruled over a vast Indian dominion from the Maurya capital, Pataliputra in Magadha (modern South Behar). The distribution of the hitherto known inscriptions of his is the best guide for forming an idea of the extent of his empire. If may briefly he said that his empire lay within the limits of modern Afghanistan in the North-west to Orissa (Kalinga ) in the South-east, and again from the Himalayas in the north to Mysore in the south of India. 273-236 259 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate IX (A) Asoka Inscription on Girnar-rock at the bottom. (p. 36) Rudradaman's and Skandagupta's Inscriptions are on the sides. (B) Sopara : Asoka Inscription, 9th Edict (p. 36) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate X Uparkot Cave, at Girnar Hill, with Pillars and Caitya-window design. (p. 9) B For Personal & Private Use Only

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B.C. 252-1 15 33 Junagadh Edicts are a set of fourteen rock-edicts of Asoka incised on a rock situated on the right-hand side leading to the hill, about a mile to the east of modern Junagadh, the headquarter of Surastra. It is the earliest epigraphic record as yet discovered in Gujarat which is unique for the history of India also, as it bears side by side inscriptions of kings of three dynasties-Asoka Maurya, Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman and the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta. It thus reveals a glimpse of the early history of Gujarat from the third century. B.C. to the fifth century A.D. MAURYAN PERIOD These Asokan edicts are incised on the eastern side of the rock. The characters of the edicts are clearly and deeply cut. They are about" in height and uniform in size. A portion of the rock bearing parts of Edicts V and XIII had been blasted with gunpowder to furnish materials for the adjoining road. Two fragments of the missing portion which were discovered later on, are now preserved in the Junagadh Museum. Since these edicts are inscribed in a form of Prakrit' closely allied to Pali, containing dialectical peculiarities of the province, and are recorded in the Brahmi alphabet which is the prototpye of almost all modern Indian Scripts unlike those at Shahbazgarhi which are inscribed in the Kharosthi script, it can be presumed that it was current in Gujarat as early as the Mauryan period. The language of this version differs from that of the other versions in using some peculiar forms, such as the locative singular in mhi instead of si. There are also differences in the forms of the letters, especially in that of r, which is here formed by a wavy line instead of the rigidly straight upright stroke on the other rocks. (Cunningham, CII, I, pp. 14 f.) Among the many inscriptions and minor edicts of Asoka, the 14 Rock-Edicts are found in seven more or less complete versions at Girnar, Kalsi, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra, Dhauli, Jaugada and Yerragudi, not to speak of the small fragments of the 8th and the 9th rock-edicts found in Sopara. These were issued about the 14th year (252-1 B.C.) after his coronation. Sopara Edicts were known through the discovery of a broken block of basalt bearing a fragment of Edict VIII also in Prakrit language and Brahmi script from Sopara, the ancient Surparaka, the headquarter of Aparanta. (D. R. Bhandarkar, Asoka, pp. 270 f.). Another fragment of Asoka's IXth Edict was recently discovered (1956), (Impression published in Indian Archaeology, 1956-57, Plate LXXXIX and also in Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, 1957, by S. N. Chakravarty). The two stones. bearing fragmentary edicts at Sopara prove that a copy of the 14 Edicts existed there. These are now preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. For Personal & Private Use Only

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34 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT B.C. 252-1 Herein the king says that men practise various ceremonies during illness, or at the marriage of a son or a daughter, or at the birth of a son, or when setting out on a journey. In the opinion of the king these ceremonies bear little fruit. But the following religious practices bear much fruit, viz. proper courtesy to slaves and servants, reverence to elders, gentleness to animals and liberality to Brahmanas and Sramanas. Surparaka seems to be the headquarter of Asoka's Western Provinces, Girinagar being the Northern one (Bom. Gaz., Vol. II, pt. 1, p. 14). The form of the letters and the language of the inscription resemble those of the Junagadh Version. (Bhagvanlal Indraji, Antiquarian Remains at Sopara, p. 11). The edicts, styled dhammalipis in the text, are intended to propagate dhamma (dharma) among people. This dhamma consisted in the highest common factors of all sects, viz., self-control and purity of thought (R. E. VII). Asoka enjoined his officials to instruct people in dhamma when they would go out on tours in districts (R.E. III). He also appointed special Mahamatras (High State-functionaries) of dhamma, during the thirteenth year after his coronation (R.E.V.). He prohibited, as far as possible, animal-slaughter for sacrifices, festival meetings and meals in the royal kitchen (R.E.I.). He established medical treatment for men as well as animals, everywhere in his own dominions and also in the dominions of other kings like the Yona (Greek) king, and Antiyoka ( Antiochus ) of Syria (R.E. III). Everywhere he sent envoys for instruction in dhamma (R.E. XIII) and exhibited representations of aerial cars, elephants and other divine objects that might lead people to the path of dhamma (R.E. IV). His instruction in dhamma mainly consisted in obedience to mother and father, liberality to Brahmanas and Sramanas as well as to friends, acquaintances and relatives, proper behaviour to slaves and servants, and abstention from killing animals. (R.E. III, IV, IX, XI). In the reign of Asoka the sound of drums became the sound of dhamma, pleasure-tours (vihara-yatra) were replaced by tours for dhamma (R.E. VIII); and the practice of dhamma was regarded to be the most fruitful ceremony (mangala ) (R.E. IX). Glory in the propagation of dhamma was considered the gift par excellence (R.E. XI); the conquest by dhamma was regarded to be the real conquest to be desired. (R.E. XIII). The king desired not only that all sects should reside everywhere (R.E. VII) but also that they should learn and respect each other (R.E. XII). The king was so much devoted to the welfare of the people that he gave access to the reporters everywhere and at all hours, in order to expedite the disposal of state business (R.E. VI). Asoka got these edicts engraved on stone with a For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAURYAN PERIOD 35 B.C. view that they may last long and that his successor may conform to them for the welfare of all people. (R.E. IV, V, VI). C. 400-200 In the Baudhayana Dharma Sutras (I, 1-2-14) people staying in Surastra are mentioned as of mixed blood, owing, perhaps, to the influx of foreigners both by land and by sea : avantayo'GgamagadhAH surASTrA: dakSiNApathAH / upAvRtasindhusauvIrA ete saMkIrNayonayaH / / -(P. V. Kane: History of the Dharmasastras) The Baudhayana Grhya Paribhasasutra (I, 12, 6) gives a verse as a corollary to his 'Dharmasutras', that having travelled among the people of the countries inhabited by people with non-Aryan ways of living, Brahmins should undergo purification once more : surASTra sindhusauvIramavantI dakSiNApatham / etAni brAhmaNo gatvA punaH saMskAramarhati // C 400-200 As Gujarat was away from Madhyadesa, the home of the Aryans, the culture she received, suffered both in purity and vigour in the process of transplantation. The Mahabharata ( XIV, 23, 13-16) states that the ksatriyas of this land had lost their status as they had no Brahmins to perform their ritual, so very essential in the life of an Aryan. The Visnu Purana (IV, 24) enjoined that those who visited Surastra should undergo purification. C. 246 Events from the death of the Buddha were recorded in Ceylon by the Buddhist Church after its introduction in 246 B. C., and later incorporated into the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, composed respectively in the 4th and 6th century A. D. The earliest historical tradition that we have is of the colonisation of Ceylon by people from Bengal under the lead of Vijaya, as narrated in the Mahavamsa. This colony is said to have started from the wellknown port of Tamralipti, the Tamluk of modern times. The occasion for this emigration from Bengal was the banishment of prince Vijaya, for his evil conduct, by his father. Vijaya sailed with 700 companions and, after a long voyage, landed in the north coast of the island. They settled there, founding numerous towns such as Tambapanni, Anuradhagama, Ujjeni, Uruvela, etc. According to the Mahavamsa, prince Vijaya landed in Ceylon on the very day that the Buddha died. This would date the Aryan settlement back to the fourth or even the fifth century B.C. Since these adventurers were all of the male sex, they felt the need of women-folk. As the story goes, they applied to the nearest kingdom across the sea, and had 1,000 families along with a number of maidens sent across. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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36 B.C. 246 241 C. 200 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT They entered into marital relations with them; and thus both north and south Indian elements constitute, according to tradition, the more civilized elements in the population of Ceylon. From Simhabahu or Simhala, the father of Vijaya, the island received the name Simhala-dvipa'.-( The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 234-35) The other view shared by some scholars holds that Ceylon owes its name 'Simhaladvipa ', its language Simhalese and its Aryanisation to a prince Vijaya of Lala' or Lata'-a name by which Gujarat was often referred to in early times. Prince Vijaya, the son of Simhabahu who ruled at Simhapura (modern 'Sihor' near Bhavanagar, not far from the sea), having been banished for his lawlessness, departed from Simhapura, with a band of adventurers and sailed southwards. After stopping at Surparaka' (modern Sopara in Thana Dist. : Bombay State), he continued his voyage to Ceylon, where he arrived very shortly before the death of Gautama Buddha, in C. 487 B.C. On that basis. the event is tentatively dated circa 443 B.C. [Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 605-607; Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, History of Bengali Language (1924) pp. 72-73, fn. ] The so-called Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra in the 7th year of Asoka's reign, under the presidency of Tisya Maudgallputra. The Buddhist Council sent Mahendra, a son of Emperor Asoka, as missionary to Ceylon, where he introduced the Buddhist religion in the reign of Devanampiyatissa. The Jatakas have preserved memories of voyages of daring Indian merchants voyaging from Campa or even Banaras to the mysterious land of 'Suvarnabhami' which has been proved to be a generic title in those days for Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago. We hear of merchants voyaging from the great western sea-port Bharukaccha to the same destination, obviously by a Ceylonese port.-( K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and the Mauryas, p. 270). III ANTIQUITIES Of the Mauryan remains-pillars, caves and rocks-Gujarat has only rocks which bear the edicts of Asoka: one at Girnar (Plute IXa) and the other found in fragment at Sopara (Plate IX6). The Sopara fragments include the remnants of the 8th and the 9th. rock-edicts (the latter discovered in January 1956, and both deposited in the Epigraphical Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay). For Personal & Private Use Only

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12 3 4 1 2 3 4 Punch-marked Coins: Post-Mauryan (Enlarged) (p. 37) Obverse: A group of five symbols. Reverse Minute symbols. And no legend. For Personal & Private Use Only Plate XI

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Plate XII YPATIA OY TO Indo-Greek (Enlarged ) : (p. 48 ) (1-1) Silver coin : Eukratides (c. 175 B.C.) Obverse and Reverse (2-2) Silver coin : Apollodotus II Obverse and Reverse (3-3) Menander (in youth ) : Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Menander (advanced in age) : Obv. & Rev. (Died c. 130 B.C.) For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAURYAN PERIOD 37 Of the two centuries preceding the Christian era, we have some more evidence. The first excavation of the earliest series of caves known as Baba Pyara's Matha at Junagadh is assigned by some to Asokan times or to the end of the Mauryan age, as they exhibit the early simplicity and primitiveness associated with the first abodes of the Buddhist or Jaina monks. (H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, 1941, p. 49). These caves show on the walls a Caitya-window ornament with a rail-design in the lower part, and two ladies in the upper one, looking out of the window. Female figures and couchant lions on the capitals of some of the pillars of this group are regarded as the earliest known sculptures in Saurastra and Gujarat. These pillars are unique with tastefully decorated bases. (Plate X) No trace of the famous Sudarsana lake built by Candragupta, and improved with canals under Asoka can be traced now. The earliest coins, known in India before her contact with the Greeks were those, which are called 'punch-marked' coins, as they bear symbols, stamped from various punches separately, but have no legends. They are found mostly of silver and rarely in copper. The silver punch-marked coins that are found through-out India are of the weight standard of 32 ratis or 57.8 grains and have uniformly a group of five symbols on the obverse. The reverse of these coins bear either minute symbols which are innumerable in most cases or have a bold symbol. In some cases they are found blank also. These coins differ variously in size and thickness and are of irregular shapes. They originated during the ascendency of the Magadha empire in the middle of the sixth century B.C. and spread all over India with the expansion of the empire ; and they remained in currency till about second century B.C. These were probably stamped by the issuing authorities in order to guarantee their genuineness. The authorities might have been kings or States, which also included individual merchants, trade-guilds, city-corporations and similar bodies ; for, the idea of a Statemonopoly of minting coins was yet unknown. Only two hoards of silver punch-marked coins have so far been found in Gujarat. Of them one contained 58 coins and was found somewhere in the old State of Baroda during the last quarter of the last century and is now in the Baroda Museum (Gupta, P.L., "Punch-marked coins in Baroda Museum". Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. X-XI, 1953-55, pp. 63-72.) The other was found in 1917 in the village Vadia in Depdar Taluka of Palanpur district ( Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1917-18, Pt. I, p. 30). A few stray coins are also known from Kamrej and Navsari. (Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1953-55, p, 67). Stray punch-marked copper coins are known from Amreli (ARADB 1935-36, p. 18), Hathab (with S. C. Upadhyaya), Kamrej (ARADB, 1935-36, p. 45 and 1936-37, p. 9), Karvan (Antiquities from Karvan', Bom. Uni. Journal, 1941 ), Modhera (with A. V. Pandya ), Prakasa ( with Sivalal Das Desai of Nandurbar) and Vadnagar ('Excavations Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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38 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT at Vadnagar', M. S. Uni. Journal, Vol. IV, No. 1, March 1955). These copper coins are of a single variety having five symbols on the obverse and are of the type that have been found at Ujjain, Bhilsa and Besanagar in the Madhya Pradesh. (Plate XIa). The symbols found on these coins are very interesting. (Plate X1b). Uninscribed cast coins of copper bearing symbols similar to those found on the punch-marked coins were also issued in this country during the Mauryan period; and are found in many parts of India, but none is recorded so far from Gujarat. The Northern Black Polished (N.B.P.) ware that was widely distributed in India during this period is discovered from Timbarva (Baroda Dist.) and Somanath (Dist. Sorath). Associated with these ware have been discovered beads, conical terracotta objects and cylindrical cones, flesh-rubbers, mother-goddess figurines, arrow-heads and blades of iron and a copper ring. (Vide, R. N. Mehta, Excavations at Timbarva: p. 21, 23: 1955). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER IV INDO-GREEK PERIOD (Circa 185 B.C.-78 A.D.) For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD (Circa 185 B.C.-78 A.D.) Mauryan rule in Gujarat did not last after Samprati (c. B.C. 200 ), the grandson and successor of Asoka. One of the factors that led to the extinction of the dynasty of the Imperial Mauryas was the advent of the Yavana invaders through the north-western gate of India. After the break-up of the Mauryan empire (c. 185 B.C.), the distant provinces of Western India were ruled by the Bactrian Greek generals, The word Yavana was derived from the Old Persian form Yauna, signifying originally the Ionian Greek, but later, all people of the Greek nationality. The Greeks of Ionia in Asia Minor, between the Aegean Sea and Lydia and the people of North-western India came into contact with each other as subjects of the Achaemenian Emperors of Persia since the time of Darius I ( 522-486 B.C.). The word was used in mediaeval Indian literature as a synonym of mlecchha, and indicated any foreigner'. The Muslim rulers of India were often called Yavana and sometimes also Saka or Yavana-Saka. The earliest use of the Sanskritized form Yavana can be traced in the Astadhyayi of Panini (c. Fifth century B.C.), and that of the Prakrit form Yona in the inscriptions of Asoka-(A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, Appendix I, Pp. 165-9). Although Alexander did not penetrate so far south as Surastra, this region came into contact with the Greeks as early as the time of Asoka's Yavana governor Tusaspha. The author of the Periplus also speaks of later Indo-Greek rulers such as Apollodotus and Menander, whose coins were in use in his time at Barygaza or Bharukaccha. The belief of the Indo-Greek conquests in the Indus delta and Gujarat was, however, based mainly on the references in Strabo and the Periplus. The evidence relating to Barygaza in the Periplus does not, however, prove the rule of either Menander or Apollodotus II there; the reference merely states that some coins which bore Greek inscriptions and the devices of Apollodotus and Menander circulated in Barygaza, which was known to be a trading centre. The passage clearly implies that these coins came from some outside area, probably from where the 'warlike nation of the Bactrians' ruled. Or, it may be that the author of the Periplus had seen the coins of a certain Apollodotus and Menander, and noticed similar coins in Barygaza not necessarily of their own minting. The name of Apollodotus mentioned in the Periplus evidently refers to the later king of that name whose coins are more numerous and widely spread than those of the hypothetical Apollodotus I, and who, like Menander was more closely in touch with India proper. c6 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Apart from this, the silver coins of the later Saka Satraps of Maharastra and Ujjain are held to be inspired by the drachms of Apollodotus, that is, of Apollodotus II, who alone of the two put his portrait on his coins. The coins of these saka Satraps also bear traces of Greek legends. The author of the Periplus, who was a trader, may have noticed the similarity and mentioned the coins as a curiosity. Even if some coins of Menander and Apollodotus were actually found at Barygaza by the author of the Periplus, this gives no proof that they ruled there, since the coins are said to have been brought to Barygaza, almost certainly by way of trade. Thus there is hardly any evidence that either Alexander (as suggested by some ) or the Indo-Greeks conquered Gujarat, because the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story. There is no evidence for the existence of an early Apollodotus I as a king of the Indo-Greeks, also. (A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, pp. 68-9, 93). The representation of Menander in various poses on his silver coins reflects his vigorous career. He used two epithets, 'Soter' (Saviour ) and 'Dikaios' (Dhramika) on his money. The fact that Menander appears on his coins both as a youth and as well advanced in middle age shows that he must have had a long reign ( Plate XIII). Probably he died in C. 130 B.C. The Buddist tradition would have us believe that he handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the world; but it is more likely that he died in camp, as Plutarch says, (Moralia, 821 D-F); and, on the evidence of coins, that he left only a minor son to succeed him.--(A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p. 100). II B.C. About 150-140 B.C. began the invasion of India by the Sakas from the C. 150-40 North-west. A large part of the North and West came under their control; and they established Satrapies in the North and at Mathura, and in the West (Surastra ), which were more or less under the suzerainity of the kings of Parthia. C, 144 Menander, seems to have been one of the most powerful of the GraecoBactrian kings. The number of his coins, and the wide area over which they are found, point to a long reign and an extended sovereignty. Traditions of some of his conquests have been preserved by Strabo ; and Plutarch mentions him as a Bactrian king; and states that, on his death (B.C. 130 ), several towns contended for his ashes. The passages in Patanjali's Mahabhasya recording the beseiging of Saketa ( Ayodhya ) and the conquest of Madhyamika by the Yavanas, are supposed to refer to Menander's conquests. He is also identical with the Milinda of the famous Buddhist work, the Milinda.panho. The work is a conversation between Milinda of Sagala (the Greek ruler Menander) and Thera Nagasena on a number of problems and disputed points of Buddhism. In the arguments, the Buddhist doctrine of the impermanence For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD 43 B.C. of the Ego is expounded and Milinda is converted. The Milinda-panho origi nated in north-west about the beginning of the Christian era, and was written probably in Sanskrit or some North-Indian Prakrit. The original text is lost, and the present work is merely a Pali translation of the original made at a very early date in Ceylon. C. 140-20 Patanjali, the grammarian, author of the Mahabhasya flourished about B.C. 140-120. His date has been fixed by scholars from the passages in the Mahabhasya which show him to have been contemporary with Menander, and Pusyamitra, who founded the Sunga dynasty in Magadha by overthrowing Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryas. Patanjali was a native of Gonarda in Eastern India, and lived for a time in Kashmir. (JBRAS, xvi, 181, 199). The Mahabhasya corroborates the statement of Nirukla (II.2) that the country of Kamboja was outside the limits of the country of Aryas (Aryavarta) and further adds that Surastra was not an Arya country (vide, Vol. I. p. 9). This shows that during the period of Patanjali Surastra might not have developed its culture, might have been inhabited mostly by the non-Aryans, and, as such, was considered to be outside the pale of Aryavarta, which was situated to the north of Pariyatra. This also shows that the Aryavarta extended in south only upto the Pariyatra mountain. (Vide, Vol. I, p. 475 on II 4.10 ; Vol. III. p. 174 on VI 3. 109.) C. 100 In the first century B.C. we have a coin type with the legend Vysni-rajajko ganasya tratarasya. (Allan J., A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum, Ancient India, Intro., P. clvi). Significantly the legend on these coins is both in Brahmi and Kharosthi. The legend means 'the coins of the gana (republic) of Vrsni and Rajanya.' Vrsni were a well-known people, who according to Mahabharata lived in Mathura; but went to Dvarka, when they were hard-pressed by Jarasandha. They were, according to the Pauranic traditions, an offshoot of the Aila race. Vrsni, the founder of the clan is supposed to be the brother of Andhaka, the founder of the clan of the same name. In the literary works, Andhaka and Vrspi are mentioned together, which shows that they had a federal organisation. Vasudeva (Ktsna ) is described as a Samgha-mukhya. Panini also makes a mention of Andhaka-Vrsni league. Rajanya, as a tribal republic is known from its coins, which may be dated to circa 200 B.C. Therefore, it can well be inferred from the coin that Vrsni and Rajanya had formed a confederation among themselves and issued coins in their joint name and called themselves a' gana'. Kautilya refers to Vrsni as a Samgha (Arthasastra, P. II). It is also found as a name of a tribe in the Harsacarita. For Personal & Private Use Only

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44 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT B.C. C. 100 The Ghosundi (Chitodgarh District, Rajasthan) inscription of the first century B. C. refers to the construction of a paja-sila-prakara (a stone enclosure for the place of worship, or better, an enclosure for the sacred stone Salagrama) probably styled 'Narayanavataka', by a Bhagavata performer of the Asvamedha sacrifice, in honour of Sankarsana and Vasudeva who are called bhagavat, anihata (unconquered or respected) and sarvesvara ( supreme lord). - (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 438). The traditional date for Vikrama Era is 58 B.C. The era is believed to have been founded by the Malavagana to commemorate its victory over the Sakas, whose expulsion from India freed the country from foreign invasion and inaugurated an era of peace and prosperity, which figuratively was also called Kytayuga. In the last decade of the ninth century the Malavagana was entirely merged into the luminous personality of Vikramaditya and the era was called after him. (R. B. Pandey : Indian Palaeography, 198 ff.). This Vikrama Era' is current in Gujarat. Its year begins with Kartika and its months are amanta. In Rajasthan its years are Caitradi and months purnimanta. In the early records of Gujarat the months seem to be parnimanta. (H. G. Shastri, Maitrakalina Gujarat, p. 598). Thursday, September 18th : Commencement of the Samvat era 'is attributed to Vikramaditya, which is prevalent in Western India, and probably originated in Malava. In Northern India it follows the purnimanta reckoning, and the year begins with the full-moon of Caitra (instead of Kartika), making the epoch Sunday, February 23rd, B.C. 57, or Kaliyuga 3044 expired. As the first year of the era is reckoned as corresponding to 57-56 B. C., the era seems to have commenced in 58 B. C. Indian tradition ascribes the foundation of the Vikrama Samvat' to the hero King Vikramaditya, around whose memory succeeding ages have woven a long string of legends and romances. The vitality of this tradition is vouched by the recent celebration of the bimillenary of the Vikrama era. Nevertheless, sober history still refuses to recognise the existance of a king Vikramaditya in 58 B. C. for lack of positive evidence. Even eminent scholars treat him as a myth and attribute the foundation of the so-called Vikrama era' to a foreign ruler. All agree, however, in denying the existance of a king Vikramaditya. (R. C. Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Unity, Preface, p. xlviii; and for different views on the subject, see Ibid., 154 ff.) An Indian embassy was received by Augustus at Samos. According to Strabo (c. 54 B.C.-A.D. 24) Nicolaus Damasceus met at Antioch Epidaphne, the survivors of an Indian embassy to Augustus, bearing a letter in Greek from a king named Pandion or Poros. With them was Zarmanochegao (Sramanacarya) a native of Bargoza (or Barygaza), who afterwards immortalised 21 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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IN DO-GREEK PERIOD 45 B.C. C. 10 himself according to the custom of his country. This epitaph is on his tomb (Strabo, III, 119.) at Athens. Allusions to this embassy are made by Horace in his Odes':-( Strabo, XV, i. 73). Orosius of Tarragona speaks of an Indian and a Scythian embassy reaching Caesar in Spain, B.C. 27. These various notices apparently refer to one and the same embassy, probably sent by some petty Indian king at the instigation, and in the interests of Greek traders. Veni-vatsaraja, a devotee of Lord Buddha according to a late Jaina tradition, got built in a city of Gujarat a temple of Tara-devi. This city, therefore, came to be known as Taraura (Sk. Tarapura )'. Later on, this very king who became a Jaina, on being enlightened by Arya Khaputa Suri got built here a temple of Siddhayika, the Sasana-devi of Lord Mahavira. Since then, this city became a Jaina tirtha?. 1. This city is identified with Taranga of Gujarat; Vide, JTSS (Vol. I, pt. I, p. 146). * Kumaravalapadiboha, pp. 442-443. Padalipta Suri? (c. V. S. 80 ) had once gone to Dhankapuri (Dhanka) during his pilgrimage. There he met Nagarjuna. This Nagarjuna became his pupil, and in honour of his guru, he populated a city in the taleti (foot) of mount Satrunjaya, and named it Padaliptapura (modern Palitana). This Nagarjuna got built a temple on the mount and installed therein an image of Lord Mahavira and that of Padalipta Suri. (For Jaina sculptures from Dhankagiri or modern Dhank, see H.D. Sankalia : Archaeology of Gujarat, PP. 167, 234) This Padalipta Suri had been to Murunda, king of Pataliputra. He is the author of Tarangavai etc. According to Visesanisiha-cunni (pt. IV, p. 872) Padalipta Suri succeeded in removing pain in the head of King Murunda, which he was suffering from since a long time, by a mantra ( incantation). From Bhasa" (v. 8915) on Kappa we learn that this Suri prepared an image ( yantra-pratima) of the sister of Murunda, exactly resembling her. This image which was kept standing had a fan in the hand, and it was winking. 5 Bhimaraja of Omkarapura in Lata, was a devotee of Padalipta Suri. 1 For his life, see Avassaya-cunni (pt. I, p. 554), Nisihaviseh a-cunni (pt. IV, p. 872), Bhasa (v. 49-51 ) on Kappa etc. 2 Prabhavakacarita (V. 247-306). 3 In Malayagiri Suri's Com. (pt. 141-142) Pratisthanpura is mentioned. This seems to be a slip; for this Suri in the Com., (pp. 524-5) on Avassaya and in the com., (p. 162-a) on Nandi has mentioned Pataliputra. * See Kappa (pt. V, p. 1315). 0 In the com. (pt. V, p. 1315-6) it is said that 'female' forms were constructed in plenty in the 'Yavana' country, 6 JPI (pt. I, p. 240). For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. C. 39 Yaksadeva III attained the status of Suri' in Vira Samvat 585 i.e. V. S. 115. When he was in Mahuva, the Mlecchas plundered this city and took as prisoners this Suri, 500 Jaina monks and Javadasaha. But one Sravaka who had become a Mleccha, got this Suri released and sent him along with his men to Khatta-Kupa ( Khatu). Thinking that the Jaina church would perish if there were no Jaina monks, eleven boys were offered to this Suri. He thereupon gave them Diksa. Later on, this Suri went to Ahada. There, too, he was offered some boys who renounced the world. This event took place in about V. S. 95. (A.D. 39)-(JPI, Pt. I, p. 22). C. 50 The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is the first Greek record of organised trading with the nations of the East, in vessels built and commanded by subjects of the Western World. "Periplus' or 'Guide-book' was the name applied to a numerous class of writing in Roman times, which answered for sailing-charts and the traveller's hand-book. The notes give an exhaustive survey of the imports and exports, of its markets and of the conditions and alliances of its peoples of the inter-national trade between the great empires of Rome, Parthia, India and China, when human culture and commerce had centered in the countries bordering on the Persian Gulf. A commercial system was developed for the inter-change of products between Egypt and the nations of the Ancient India, having its centre of exchanges near the head of the Persian Gulf, the peoples of which region-the Arab tribes and the ancestors of the Phoenicians - were the carriers or intermediaries. The muslins and spices of India were received from Indian traders in their ports on either side of the Gulf of Aden. Changes in topography of India, the westward shifting of the Indus delta, the shoaling of the harbours in the Kaccha region, and the disorder incidental to great invasions of Asiatic peoples, however, sapped the vigour of the Indian Sea-trade.-( The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Tr. by W. F. Schoff, 1912: Introduction). C. 50 The earlier and the lower date and authorship of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' are fixed from internal evidence. The Scythians of the Periplus were the Saka tribe, who having been driven from Eastern Turkestan by the Yuechi overran Baluchistan, the lower valley and the adjacent parts of the coast of India itself. In Para 38 of the text is mentioned 'the Sea-coast of Scythia' around the mouth of the Indus and the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara, which was subject to Parthian princes at war among themselves'. The reference to the anarchy in the Indo-Parthian or Saka region in Para 41, does not suggest the consolidated power of that king of Surastra and Ujjain who founded the so-called Saka era' of 78 A.D.; and this indicated a date earlier than that era.-(Introduction', p. 10: The Periplus, Tr. by W. F. Schoff). For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD A.D. Murrhine (referred to in Para 6 of the Periplus') was probably agate and carnelian from the Gulf of Cambay; but was extensively imitated in glass by the Phoenicians and Egyptians. The murrhine mentioned in the Periplus' was evidently a cheap trading product, probably coloured glass.-( Notes to the 'Periplus', ibid, p. 68). Ariaca, as mentioned in the Periplus ' (Para 6 ) is the north-west coast of India, especially, around the Gulf of Cambay the modern Kaccha, Kathiawar and Gujarat.-(Notes to the Periplus', para 6, p. 70 ). C. 53 Broach was the principal port of India doing business with the Occident in textile fabrics according to the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea'. In the list of presents brought to Yudhisthira on the occasion of his Imperial sacrifice (the Rajasuya Yajna ) we find, according to one text of the Mahabharata' (not included in the Critical Edition.) that Bharukaccha men are mentioned as bringing slave-girls clad in cotton clothes : zataM yattu sahasrANAM kAsikanivezinAm / afs ETHICTY Hanafaalfaa: 11-4416, 50, X. Barygaza, as known to the Greeks, exported the best cloth of broad sort and a coarse cotton. Once Vajrasena Suri, pupil of Vajrasvami? (born in V. S. 26) came to Soparaka. This city was experiencing a severe famine. So Jinadatta Sresthin had procured rice with great difficulty by spending, so to say, a lac (of rupees). But this quantity of rice was not sufficient to maintain his family. So he added poison when this quantity was cooked, with a view that on eating it, the whole family might die. Fortunately, Vajrasena Suri came up there on that very day for alms. Jinadatta told the truth. Vajrasena Suri, who was foretold the ending day of the famine by Vajrasvamin, informed him that by to-morrow there would be plenty of corn and so the idea of taking poisoned rice should be given up'. Jinadatta replied: "If so, I, along with all the members of my family will renounce the world and will become your pupils'. The next day a number of ships filled with corn arrived in Soparaka on the sea-shore. Jinadatta along with his wife isvari and their four sons Nagendra, Candra, Nivsiti and Vidyadhara took diksa at the hands of Vajrasvamin as promised. This momentous event took place in Vira Samvat 592 (A.D.65 ). --( JPI, Pt. I, pp. 392-3). 1 According to JISS (Vol. I, pt, 2, p. 509 ) he had been to Srimala in the 1st cent. of tbe Vikrama era. C. 75 Arab settlements existed in Gujarat at Cheul, Kalyana and Sopara before the rise of Islam. Abul Fida speaks of their having settled in Sopara since early Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT times. In the time of Agatharcides, (B. C. 177-100 ) there were so many Arabs on the Malabar coast that the people had adopted the Arab religion. The Arabs were mostly Sabians at that time. It may, therefore, be safely presumed that Arab settlements existed in Gujarat parallel with this. (Reinaud's Abul Fida CCCL.---XXXIV; Vincent's Periplus 154 ; Bom. Gaz., Vol. IX, pt. Il ,p. 1, ff. 1.). III ANTIQUITIES The coins of Eukratides have been found in different parts of Saurastra and at different times, suggesting that they were the currency of the province, and may be, were imported either for trade or for ornament. These silver coins were very small, weighing five to seven grams, and bear the Buddhist symbols of the svastika, the trisula and the cakra. Another small variety of coins, weighing four grams, with a misshapen elephant on the obverse and something like a circle on the reverse, were found from Gondal and Junagadh.-(Bom. Gaz., I, p. 17, fn.) The coins of Menander were discovered from near Broach and from Junagadh. The silver Drachmae of Apollodotus and two varieties of his copper-coins were found in Gujarat. The author of the Periplus' (A.D. 240 ) writes: "Upto the present day, old drachmae bearing the Greek inscriptions of Apollodotus and Menander are current in Barygaza (Broach)."-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 17). The silver coins are of only one variety, round drachmae. The obverse of Menander's coins has in the middle a helmeted bust of the king and round it the Greek legend : Of the King, the Saviour Menander'. On the reverse is the figure of Athene Promochos, surrounded by the Bactro-Pali legend : Maharajasa Tradatasa Menandrasa . The silver drachmae of Apollodotus have on the obverse a diademed bust surrounded by the Greek legend (Basileos Apollodotou Soteros, meaning, 'of King Apollodotus, the Saviour'). The reverse bears the figure of the Goddess Pallas hurling thunderbolt and the Kharosthi legend : Maharajasa Trataras Apaladalasa, of the great king Apaladata, the Saviour. (PMC. pl., IV, 263, 276). The copper coins of Apollodotus (found from Junagadh ) are of two varieties : square and round. The square coins, have on the obverse the standing Apollo facing, holding arrow and bow in right hand and the Greek legend around : Basileos Soteros Kai philopatoros Apollodotou : meaning: Of King Apollodotus the Saviour and Father-lover. The round coins are similar to the square coins, but they have the legend : Basileos Appollodotou Soteros on the reverse ; and the Kharosthi legend Maharajas Tratarasa Apaladatasa on the reverse (PMC V, 322). On the reverse is the tripod of Appollo with two monograms and the Kharosthi legend Maharajasa Tratarasa Apaladatasa. (Bom. Gaz. I., p. 18). The coins of Eukratides bear on the obverse the bust of the king, diademed and with helmet adorned with ear and horn of bull and crest, surrounded by an inscription in Greek characters, which runs as follows: Basileos Megaloy Eukretidoy, meaning of king For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD 49 Eukratides, the Great'. The reverse has the figures of the Dioskuroi ( the Greek twin-gods Kastor and Pollux) standing, each holding a long spear and wearing a sword. There is a monogram beside the figures and a Kharosthi inscription all around: Rajasa Mahataka Eukratidasa, conveying the same sense as the Greek legend. (BMC, p. xxx, 9; I.M.C., Pl. II, 9) . The coins of Menander are discovered in Saurastra and South Gujarat, from near Junagadh and Broach ( Bom. Gaz., I, pt. i : p. I). His coins were current in Bharukaccha even upto the third century A.D. (McCrindle, Periplus, p. 121). The silver coins of Menander found in Gujarat are the round drachmae, similar to those of Apollodotus. They have on the obverse a helmeted bust of the king and round it the Greek legend (Basileos Soteros Menandro ), which means Of king Menander, the Saviour.' On the reverse is the figure of Pallas Athene (the Greek goddess of prosperity, strength and wisdom ) hurling thunderbolt, surrounded by the corresponding Kharosthi legend, Maharajasa Tratarasa Menandrasa, and a monogram. (PMC, VI, 379; BG, Vol. I, pt. I, p. 18)-(Plate XII) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER V KSATRAPA PERIOD ( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Facing Page 53 R. Sindhu Ardhau Parnasa. Khedbrahma. Vadanagamlaji Viramgam Anand Gunda Dwarka Mulavasar Intwae Amreli Girnar Samanath *Puskara Madhyamika Sarvania Talaja Dhank Sana Ujjayini Nagara Akota Timbarva Rangpur Baroda/Karvan Bharuka ccha Variav Kamrej R expli Ajanta Nasikya Jogellhembi Surparoha R. KSATRAPA PERIOD (78 A.D. - 397-8 A.D.) NAMA Cauvery Godavari R. For Personal & Private Use Only Patna Mahanadi R Fig. 4 rahmaputra R.

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KSATRAPA PERIOD ( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.) About the end of the first century A.D., the Kusana Emperor Kaniska I seems to have extended his power over Central and Western India. The Ksaharatas ruled Western India as Ksatrapas of Kaniska I and his successors. Ksaharata is the earliest known Ksatrapa in charge of the south-western part of the empire of the Kusanas of Kaniska's house. His coins have been found in the coastal regions of Gujarat and Saurastra and sometimes also in Malwa and the Ajmer region of Rajputana. The use of both the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts in Bhumaka's coin-legends probably points to the fact that the Ksatrapa territories not only comprised such districts as Malwa, Gujarat and Sausastra where Brahmi was prevalent, but also some regions about Western Rajputana and Sind, where Kharosthi appears to have been in use. Some writers are inclined to associate the use of Kharosthi on the earlier satrapal issues with the northern origin of the Ksatrapas. Traces of Greek legend on the coins of early Ksatrapas of Western India point to the influence and popularity in Indo-Scythia of the Indo-Greek coinage to which the Periplus ( c. 70-80 A.D.) bears witness. Ksatrapa Bhumaka seems to have been succeeded by Nahapana who belonged to the same Ksaharata family. The exact relation between the two Satrapas, however, is as yet unknown. Nahapana is known not only from his coins ( which have been discovered in the Ajmer region of Rajputana in the north and in the Nasik District in the South ) but also from a number of inscriptions ( all found outside Gujarat) bearing dates ranging between the years 41 and 46 of an era, which seems to be no other than Kaniska's reckoning i.e, the Saka era of A.D. 78. Nahapana flourished about the period A.D. 119-25, and the Ksaharata rule over Gujarat is fixed at the first quarter of the 2nd century A.D. Nahapana is invariably called Rajan on the coins; but in the earlier records he is called a Ksatrapa and on the epigraph of the year 46 he is called Mahaksatrapa. No record of his refers to his overlord, although he was ruling practically as an independent king without openly disavowing his allegiance to the Kusanas. The Kardamakas who succeeded the Ksaharatas also enjoyed the title Rajan, together with a satrapal designation. Nahapana's relation with Gujarat rests only on the references to places in Gujarat and Saurastra in the inscriptions of his son-in-law Rsabhadatta (Usayadata )-(EI., VIII, p. 78). But his reference to the holy places, Prabhasa etc., should not by itself imply the Ksaharata sway over them.-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 1o, fn.) A number of inscriptions recording the pious gifts of the Hinduised Saka chief Rsabhadatta (Usavadata), son of Dinika, have been discovered in the rock-cut caves at Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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54 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Nasik and at Karle in the Poona District. Rsabhadatta was the husband of Daksamitra, daughter of Nahapana, and was the Viceroy in the southern province of his father-in-law's dominions. There is no doubt that the aharas (districts) of Govardhana (Nasik ) and Mamala (Poona) were in charge of Rsabhadatta; but he may have ruled over southern Gujarat and the northern Konkan from Broach to Sopara In connection with Rsabhadatta's benefactions, inscriptions refer to such localities as Kapurahara ( Kapura in the old Baroda District), Prabhasa (in Southern Saurastra), Bharukaccha (Broach), Dasapura (Mandasor in Western Malwa ), Surparaka (Sopara in Thana District), and Puskara (near Ajmer), as well as to the rivers Tapi, Barnasa (Banas, a tributary of the Chambal), Parada (Par in the Surat District), Damana (Damanganga near Daman) and Dahanuka (near Dahanu in the Thana District). It is, however, likely, that Rsabhadatta visited some of these holy places outside his viceregal state as a pious pilgrim; but it seems very probable that Malwa, Saurastra, Gujarat, the northern part of the Konkan and the Maratha country, and larger parts of Rajaputana, probably including a portion of the lower Sindhu valley, lay within the dominions of Nahapana, his father-in-law. In the Saka year 46 (124-25 A.D.) which is the latest known date of Nahapana, he seems to have been defeated and killed by the Satavahana Andhra king Gautamiputra Satakarni, who not only annexed the southern provinces of the Ksaharata dominions, but totally uprooted their dynasty, and exterminated the Sakas together with the Yavanas and the Pahlavas. Gujarat and Saurastra passed over into the hands of the Andhras. (Nasik Cave Inscription No. 2 of Siri Pulumayi Vasisthiputta, E I., VIII, p. 60). Satavahana is also described as the lord of many countries including Saurastra, Kukura (in the Gujarat-Saurastra region), Anupa (northern Konkan), Akara (east Malwa) and Avanti (West Malwa). Gautamiputra Satakarni, who was the champion of Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, at one time held sway over the whole country watered by the Godavari, and also over Berar, Malwa, Gujarat and North Konkan. During this time South Gujarat came under the active influence of the Deccan. The large hoard of Nahapana's coins, discovered at Jogalthembi in the Nasik District, shows how the Satavahana king captured the Satrap's treasury and restruck the latter's coins for re-circulation. Soon after Gautamiputra's death about 128 A.D., however, another dynasty of the Western Ksatrapas known as the 'Kardamakas' wrested Malwa and Gujarat from the hands of his son. The Ksaharata family which became extinct with Nahapana's death, was succeeded in the South-Western satrapy of the Kusana empire by the Scythian family of the Kardamakas. Castana, son of Ysamotika, and of the family of Kardamaka (which name has been derived by some from the Kardama river in Bactria, PHAI, 363, fn. 3) seems to Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 55 have been appointed with instructions to recover the lost districts of the Satrapy from the Satavahanas. A life-size inscribed portrait-statue of Castana (without head) which was excavated from the Portrait-Hall (Devakula) of the Kusana Emperors at village Mata by Pandit Radhakrisna, and which is now in the Mathura Museum, bearing No. 212 (Plate XIII), shows that this family was in some way connected with the Kusanas; but whether they were their Viceroys, as is believed by some, it is by no means certain. When Castana, probably in old age, became a Mahaksatrapa, he seems to have selected his son Jayadaman as Ksatrapa, his subordinate associate in the administration. He, however, having died earlier was succeeded by his son Rudradaman I. The Andhau inscriptions of $. year 52 ( 130-31 A.D.) in Kaccha show that Rajan Castana was ruling jointly with his grandson Rajan Rudradaman. Thus the Kardamakas were at least on the borders of the expanded empire of Gautamiputra Satakarni within a few years after Nahapana's death. There is evidence to show that the Sakas under Castana and Rudradaman defeated the Satavahana king and recovered most of the northern districts conquered by the latter from Nahapana. After Castana's rule, the use of Kharosthi was discontinued, although the GraecoRoman legend continued to appear as a sort of ornamental fringe around the obverse of the coins. The omission of Kharosthi legend may be a result of the transference of the Kardamaka headquarters from the Kharosthi area to Ujjain. The family of Karmadakas reached the zenith of its power with Castana's grandson Rudradaman I (A.D. 143-158). Under him, the Ksatrapa dominion extended, [as is attested by his inscription at Girnar (150 A.D.), and confirmed by the distribution of his coins and by the evidence of the Andhra inscriptions] to the greatest part of South Rajputana, Malwa, including both Kaccha and Saurastra and North Konkan--the Anupa, Kaccha, Saurastra, Avanti, Maru, Sindhu-Sauvira and Aparanta (Vide, D. C. Sircar's Select Inscriptions, No. 67). Rudradaman's capital was at Ujjain in Malwa, and Gujarat was ruled by a governor, Suvisakha. In the Girnar inscription, his victories over Satakarni, the Lord of the Deccan, are specially mentioned, as also the fact that he won for himself the title of 'Mahaksatrapa'. Rudradaman I was not only a great conqueror and administrator but was also learned and accomplished, and recorded his achievement in Sanskrit on the Girnar rock which already bore Asoka's inscription. He was himself a past master of grammar, polity, music and logic and was reputed for the excellence of his compositions in Sanskrit, both prose and verse. What happened to the extensive empire of Rudradaman under the subsequent reigns is not known. However, it is certain that the family of Castana ruled without a break till For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 78 $. year 226 i.e. 304 A.D., for about two hundred years, making a total of more than three hundred years for the entire Ksatrapa period. The Ksatrapas continued to rule on; and a new family of Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Jivadaman, perhaps some relative of the Kardamaka Ksatrapas, succeeded Ksatrapa Visvasena in $. 227 i.e. 305 A.D. This branch-line ended with Svami Rudrasimha III, when in or about 390 A.D. he was exterminated by the Guptas. [The General Editor is indebted for this Introductory Note to Dr. D. C. Sircar's Chap. XII, " Saka Satrapas of Western India" in The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 178-190). II A.D. As regards the 'Sakabda 'or. Saka' era, modern authorities accept the Indian tradition that it was founded by a saka king or that it commemorates the date of his accession ; but there is no unanimity as to the foreign ruler who founded it. However, the view favoured by the majority is that the Saka era commemorates the accession of the Kusana king Kaniska in 78 A.D., which is a landmark in the history of India. As Kaniska started his era in the north, simultaneously Ksatrapa Nahapana, on his conquest of Gujarat and West Deccan began to use this Saka era, which corresponds to 78 A.D. ( Bom. Gaz. I, pp. 26-27). The records of the Western Ksatrapas are dated in years of this era, though they give only the Varse', without specifically naming the era. The Saka years are Caitradi throughout India. It commenced 135 years after the Vikrama era. In Gujarat its use is at present restricted to astrology and almanacs, but the same is current in the South as. Salivahana Saka'. In the Kalakacarya-Katha given in the Prabhavakacarita, it is stated that the Sakas founded their own era, having killed a descendant of Vikramaditya ; but the identity of the Scythian king is a matter of dispute. The view that it was founded by Kaniska and was spread southward by the Western Ksatrapas who were the vassals of Kaniska and his successors, is now widely accepted-(The Scythian Period, Chap. I and VII). Kaniska Kusana, the successor of Kadphises in North-Western India and the Kabul Valley, probably founded the saka era, which seems to date from his coronation in A.D. 78. Under him and his successors the Scythian power reached its zenith. Baniska's kingdom extended from Kabulistan to Mathura, and perhaps farther. According to Hiuen Tsang, it included a considerable part of Central Asia, while some evidence exists for its having embraced Gujarat. A Buddhist Council was held during Kaniska's reign under the presidency of Vasumitra (Shih-yu). 83 Vira Samvat 610 : (i.e. B.C. 527 = A.D. 83) Rise of the Digambara sect of the Jainas under Sivabhuti or Sahasramalla, according to Dharma-sagara's Pravacana pariksa--(BR.1883-4). B.C. 527 has been taken to be the date For Personal & Private Use Only

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Mahaksatrapa Castana, with inscription: Mathura Museum (p. 96) Plate XIII For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XIV Bronze Images and Gold Flowers from the Reliquary, Sopara Stupa. (p. 91) Reliquaries from Sopara Stupa. (p. 91) For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 57 A.D. C. 100 of the death of Mahavira Vardhamana Jnataputra, the founder of the Nirgrantha or Jaina sect. It was 470 years before the Vikrama era, according to the Svetambara Jainas, and 605 years before the Saka era, according to the Digambaras. Jaina tradition gives also the dates B.C. 545 and B.C. 467 for this event; but the latter year is at variance with Buddhist tradition which states that Mahavira died during Buddha's life-time. Bhumaka, the earliest known member of the Ksaharata family of the Western Ksatrapas, ruled over Western India including Gujarat, as may be inferred from the provenance of his coins. He struck coins of copper. The obverse bears' the Arrow, Discus and Thunder-bolt type', which is continued by Nahapana as the reverse type, of both his silver and copper coinages, and which, therefore, seems to be the distinctive badge of the Ksaharatas. The device on the reverse represents the capital of a pillar consisting of Wheel and Lion'. The Kharosthi legend on the obverse runs as Chaharadasa Chatrapasa Bhumakasa', and the Brahmi? legend on the reverse is read as Ksaharatasa Ksatrapasa Bhumakasa', both meaning Of Ksaharata Ksatrapa Bhumaka'. Considerations of the type and fabric of the coins, and of the nature of the coin-legends, undoubtedly indicate that Bhumaka preceded Nahapana; but there is no evidence to show the relationship between them. (Rapson, C.I.C.B.M., cvii f, 63, f;D. C. Sircar, 'The Saka Satraps of Western India', The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 178). 1 In one instance the legend on the reverse is suspected to be in Greek, instead of Brahmi. In the first century A.D. or earlier than that, a group of Jaina nuns started from Soparaka and came to Rajagriha for pilgrimage. Putigandha, a fisherwoman (dhivari) was in this group. In course of time she became a Jaina nun and died peacefully in Nilagupha (cave) of Rajagriha. 2 Vide, Jaina Tirtha aur Unki Yatra by Kamtaprasad Jain, as quoted in JTSS (Vol. II, P. 454). Usavadata, the son-in-law of Nahapana who had married his daughter Daksamitra has many charitable acts and works of public utility to his credit, which are mentioned in Nasik Inscriptions', X, XII and XIV. C. 100 100-20 The charitable acts are the gift of 3,00,000 cows; of gold, and of river-side steps at the Barnasa or Banasa river near Mt. Abu in North Gujarat; of 16 villages to Gods and Brahmanas; the feeding of hundreds of thousands of Brahmanas every year, the giving in marriage of eight wives to Brahmanas at Prabhasa in South Saurastra : C8 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. the bestowing of 32,000 coconut-trees in Nanaingola or Nargol village on the Thana sea-board on the Caraka priests of Pinditakavade, Govardhana near Nasik, Suvarnamukha, and Ramatirtha in Soparaga or Sopara on the Thana coast; the giving of 300,000 cows and a village at Puskara or Pokhar near Ajmer in East Rajputana; making gifts to Brahmanas at Cecina or Cican, near Kelva-Mahim on the Thana coast; and the gift of coconut trees and 70,000 Karsapanas or 2,000 suvarnas to gods and Brahmanas at Dahanu in Thana. The public works executed by Usavadata include rest-houses and almshouses at Bharukaccha, at Dasapura or Mandsor in North Malwa, and gardens and wells at Govardhana and Sopara ; free ferry-boats across the river Iba or Ambika, the Parada or Par, the Daman or Damanganga, the Tapi or Tapti, the Karabena or Kaveri, and the Dahanuka or Dahanu. Waiting-places and steps were also built on both banks of each of these rivers. These charitable and public works of Usavadata, the Hinduised Saka prince, savour much of the Brahmanic redigion-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 25). C.106-30 Gautamiputra extended his sway from Ujjain to the Krsna and from sea to sea, claiming suzerainty over the whole trans-Vindhyan India. He vanquished the Scythians, the Indo-Greeks and the Parthians, and his descendant Yajnasri, completely eliminated the Sakas from Western India and Saurastra. C.119-24 The Nasik cave-inscription incidentally records several benefactions ( danas ) made by Usavadata, son of Dinika, and son-in-law of the Ksaharata King, the Ksatrapa Nahapana (E. I., VIII, 78). The sacred places ( tirthas ) and rivers mentioned therein in connection with the act of benefactions, were all in Western India within the domain of Nahapana, the father-in-law of the Hinduised Saka prince Usavadata. These tirthas included Prabhasa, Bharukaccha, Soparaga, Nanaingola (Nargol near Sanjan) and Dasapura. A post-script says that Usavadata had gone to Puskara (near Ajmer) for consecration after his victory over the Malavas; and hence this place also seems to have lain within the dominions of his lord Nahapana.(Rapson, op. cit., lvi f, cx, f). In about 124 A.D., Nahapana seems to have been defeated by the Satavahana king Gautamiputra Satakarni, who annexed the southern provinces of the Ksaharata dominions; and also restruck the coins of Nahapana for re circulation.--(The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 14). C.119-24 An inscription engraved on the Nasik cave-wall which is in Prakrit language but in Brahmi script, refers to the investment of three thousand Karsapanas (i.e. silver coins). The record appears to have been engraved from a grant For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 59 A.D. inscribed on plates of copper or cloth (D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 157, fn.) Two thousand of the sum were invested at the rate of one per cent. (per month ), and the remaining one thousand at the rate of is per cent. (per month ) for the benevolent purpose of using the interest earned, for meeting the needs of the Bauddha Bhiksus, staying in the layana (Guhavasa). Considerable help in financing works of public utility was rendered by private charity, inspired by religious sentiment which emphasised the spiritual benefit arising from such works as wells, gardens and rest-houses. Such a sentiment could influence even a foreigner like Usavadata, as appears from the numerous benefactions of his, recorded in Karli and Nasik caves : (Cf. ht ag 8a HRT 20:3121f994a RTH TEH 3291772.... Cant adtai hat at F1 .... Nasik, No. 19; Karli, No. 19). C. 119-24 The next known king of the Ksaharata family is Nahapana. The dates in the inscriptions of his reign extend from the (Saka) year 41 (119-120 A.D.) to the year 46 ( 124-125 A.D.). C. 122 The Junnar cave-inscription of Saka) year 46 styles Nahapana a Maha ksatrapa', while a Nasik cave-inscription of year 42 represents him a Ksatrapa'. So Nahapana seems to have attained the status of Mahaksatrapa in circa Saka year 44 (c. 122 A.D.)-( ASWI, IV, 193 ). C. 124 The Andhra king Gautamiputra overcame, about 124 A.D., the Ksaharata king Nahapana. His conquests included Gujarat, part of Malwa, Central India and Berar, the region north of Nasik and the Northern Konkan, most of which were taken from Nahapana. Nahapana's territories north of the Narmada were soon after recovered by Castana, son of Ysamotika, a Saka, whose capital was in Ujjayini. 124-25 Castana, son of Ysamotika, founded another royal family of the Western Ksatrapas, known as the 'Kardamaka' family. (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 182). His capital, according to Ptolemy, was Ujjain.in West Malwa. Probably Castana began his career as the 'Satrap' of the Kusanas by recovering the territories lost by the Ksaharatas to the Satavahana-(Ibid, p. 182). The upper limit of Castana's reign is limited by the (Saka ) year 46 (= 124-25 A.D.), the latest known date of Nahapana's reign. Castana struck coins in silver both as Ksatrapa and as Mahaksatrapa. On its obverse appears the bust of the king surrounded by Greek characters as on the obverse of Nahapana's coins. On the reverse there are two varieties : in the earlier variety the Crescent and Star were adopted, evidently as symbols of the sun and moon, which were probably of Parthian origin; in the later 841. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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60 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. C. 125 variety they, however, assume a subordinate position and eventually become mere adjuncts to large symbols added between them. The central symbol was taken to stand for the caitya; but now it is supposed to represent a mountain. The wavy line beneath this symbol, accordingly, stands for a river or the sea. The device thus consists of symbols of several elements of nature (Moon, Sun, Mountain, Sea) that signify the enduring character of existence. The type thus completed remained the constant reverse type of the silver coins of the Western Ksatrapas till the end of the dynasty, and was subsequently adopted by the Traikutakas. The central symbol is a common type of the Satavahanas and is found in the coinages issued by them in districts which at one time or another were included in the dominions of the Western Ksatrapas." When Nabhovahana was the ruler of Bharukaccha, Satavahana, a king of Pratisthana used to attack this city every year, and return to his native place during the rainy season. Nabhovahana was very affluent; so he used to give as present thousands of rupees to those who could cut hands or heads of soldiers of Satavahana. On the other hand, Satavahana did not do so, even when his soldiers could show some prowess. So his army went on decreasing in number. A minister of Satavahana at last suggested that Nabhovahana should be deceived. For this he said : you should expel me by declaring that I have committed an offence.' The king did accordingly. The minister went to Bharukaccha. Nabhovahana received him personally and appointed him his minister. He advised the king to spend money in religious activities so that merit might be acquired. He thereupon spent money in building temples, erecting stupas, and constructing wells, reservoirs etc. The ditch that was prepared was named as 'Nabhovahana's ditch'. Nabhovahana by spending in this way could not give presents as before, as his treasury was now not so much full. In the meanwhile, this minister sent a word to Satavahana to attack. When he did so, Nabhovahana ran away for life, and thus Bharukaccha was conquered.--( Avassaya-cunni, pt. II, pp. 220-201). 1 JAG (p. 34) Gautamiputra Satakarni, the Andhra king was contemporary with Nahapana the Ksaharata, whom he overthrew shortly before the 14th year of his own reign and after the 16th year of the Ksatrapa or Saka era, probably therefore, in about 126 A.D. The inscription, dated in the 29th year of his son Pulumayi, mentions Gautamiputra Satakarni as the king of Asika, Asaka, Mulaka, Saurastra, Kukura, Aparanta, Anupa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti and lord of the mountains Vindhya, Riksavata, Pariyatra, Sahya, Krisnagiri, Maccha, Siritana, Malaya, C, 126 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 61 A.D. C. 126 C. 128 Mahendra, Setagiri, and Cakora. It also states that he humbled the pride of the Ksatriyas, destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas, exterminated the Ksaharata race and restored the glory of the Satavahanas. Castana, who was the son of Ysamotika, was contemporary and apparently successor of Nahapana. Ptolemy mentions him as Tiastenes, the contemporary of the Andhra king Pulumayi. To the Western Ksatrapa dominions which included, generally speaking, Kaccha and Gujarat, Castana seems to have added the greater part of Western Rajputana and Malwa, making Ujjain his capital. His son Jayadaman succeeded him. (IA, XXI, 205). The legend on the reverse of his coins appears in Brahmi and Kharosthi and seems to run as follows 'Rajno Ksatrapasa Ysamotikaputrasa Castanasa. (Of king Ksatrapa Castana,' son of Ysamotika). As Castana was already reigning jointly with his grand-son Rudradaman I in Saka year 72 (130 A.D.), the former's co-regency with his son Jayadaman may be dated at least a year or two earlier (i.e. circa 128 A.D.). The evidence of coins struck by Jayadaman as Ksatrapa and those struck by Castana as Mahaksatrapa evidently implies that Castana began his career as Mahaksatrapa along with his son Jayadaman as Ksatrapa-( The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 183). The silver coins struck by Castana as Mahaksatrapa are of the same type as those of the later variety struck by him as Ksatrapa. The full legend appears only in Brahmi; while the Kharosthi legend consisted of only the king's name, the titles and patronymic being omitted. Thus Kharosthi was gradually falling into disuse, and it disappeared from the coins of the Western Ksatrapas after the reign of Castana. In the struck legend, the old equivalent for Ksatrapa' is retained and no attempt is made to represent the title Mahaksatrapa' instead.-(Rapson, op. cit., CXV, f; also refer to JNSI, S. IV, 20 ff.). A single specimen of a coin in copper of square form is attributed with some probability to Castana. The reverse is of the usual type; but the obverse is of the Horse type, probably adopted from the Andhras. The coins struck by Jayadaman as Ksatrapa are all of copper and square in form. The obverse is marked with the figure of a humped bull facing a combined trident and battle-axe, while the reverse contains the usual symbols along with the Brahmi legend 1517 4794 Fah FT14H I. The addition of the title 'Svami' deserves special notice. It is also to be noted that with Jayadaman the proper names of the Western Ksatrapas begin to assume an Indian form. A second variety of copper coinage, with Elephant' and 'Ujjain symbol' type, was assigned to Jayadaman by General Cunningham. But the legend is Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. not fully legible and hence the attribution requires a better preserved specimen-(Rapson, ibid, CXV f., CXVII f.). Nahapana struck coins of both silver and copper. The silver coins are apparently imitated, as regards size, weight and fabric, from the hemi-drachms of the Graeco-Indian kings; and in these respects they set a standard which was followed by the Western Ksatrapas for some two hundred and seventy years, and afterwards by their successors the Guptas and the Traikutakas, From the same source too, and probably also partly from the Roman denarii, which were brought in the way of commerce to the Western ports of India, they derived their obverse type: 'Head of king', which became a permanent feature in these coinages. The Graeco-Roman characters of their obv. inscriptions, which, after being used for a short period to transliterate the Brahmi and Kharosthi coin-legend of the rev., degenerated into a sort of ornament, traces of which remained even on the silver coins of the Guptas. The rev. type of the silver coins is substantially the obv. type of the Bhumaka's copper coins. The legend on the rev. is incised both in Brahmi and Kharosthi. It runs as follows : rAjJo kSaharAtasa nahapAnasa | in Brahmi and, rAno chaharAtasa HET I in Kharosthi, i.e. Of king Ksaharata Nahapana'. In the four Andhau Stone-inscriptions, dated $. 52, Falgun ba. 2 ( 131 A.D.), Castana appears as reigning jointly with his grandson Rudradaman. Therein the titles' Ksatrapa' and 'Mahaksatrapa' are not specified; but it is obvious that by this time Castana reigned as Mahaksatrapa and Rudradaman as Ksatrapa. These inscriptions were originally found on a raised spot at village Andhau is Khavada or Paccham Taluka in Kaccha, but were removed and brought to the Bhuj Museum by Diwan Bahadur Ranchhodbhai in 1906. These are the earliest dated inscriptions in Prakrit, influenced by Sanskrit, in Brahmi script, of the Western Ksatrapas of Ujjain. They imply the system of joint rule in this dynasty, and the site indicates the Ksatrapa rule over Kaccha. -(Andhau Stone-Inscriptions : EI, XVI, 19). 131 These four lastis* (memorial pillars) of the same date, were raised during the joint reign of king Castana, son of Ysamotika and king Rudradaman, the son of Jayadaman. Three of these lastis were erected by Madana, son of Sihila in honour of his three deceased relatives, viz. : (1) Sister Jestavira of Opasati * The word ge has been used as af8 (17) in the Suivibara (a ruined Stupa, near Bhawalpur) copper-plate inscription of Kaniska I (CII, II, 141), dated C. 89 A.D, and indicates monumental pillars, which are even now called latha, from Prakrit lathi, and probably contained the corporeal relics of the persons named Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 63 C. 149 gotra, (2) Brother Risabhadeva of Opasati gotra, and (3) Wife Samaeri + Yasadata of Sonika gotra, (4) The fourth lasti was raised in memory of Risabhadeva of Opasati gotra by his father Sramaera Trestadatta. + Samaneri, is feminine of Samanera, meaning 'novice'. A person who has already been admitted into priesthood of the Buddhist church after going through the ceremony called Pabbajja but bas not received the Upasampada, is called 'Samanera'. He becomes a fullyprivileged monk after receiving the Upasampada. The interval may be short or long, The Nasik cave-inscription of Queen Gautami Balasri, the grandmother of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulumayi expressly represents her son Gautamiputra Sri Sa takarni as having rooted out the Khakharata (Ksaharata) family and restored the glory of the Satavahana race (EI, VIII, 60). A comparision of the provinces enumerated in this inscription with Nahapana's dominions implied in the inscriptions of his son-in-law Usavadata, corroborates this statement, as the list of Gautamiputra includes almost all territories possessed by Nahapana; for Suratha ( Surastra ), Kukura, Aparanta, Akara, Avanti and Kanhagiri ( Krssagiri, modern Kaneri) had now passed from the Ksaharatas to the Satavahanas. (Rapson, op. cit., XXX ff.) This is further corroborated by the evidence of a number of coins struck by Gautamiputra over types of Nahapana.-( Rapson, op. cit., 68 ff.) The large hoard of Nahapana's coins discovered at Jogelthembi in Nasik District, shows how Gautamiputra captured the Satrap's treasury and re-struck the latter's coins for re-circulation (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 182). Coins of Satavahanas are obtained from Malwa on one side and South Gujarat ( Karvan) on the other. A few coins are also reported to have been found further north, especially at Anand and Sidhpur. The inscription on the western side of the Asokan rock records that Rudradaman twice defeated Satakarni, Lord of the Deccan, but did not destroy him on account of their near matrimonial relationship. This Satakarni is identified with Vasisthiputra Siri-Pulumayi, and Rudradaman seems to have recovered the territories from his son-in-law and successor of Gautamiputra who had wrested them from Nahapana, the Ksaharata.(Rapson, Ibid, XXXVI ff., CX f., CXVIII ff.) His capital was at Ujjain which was described by Ptolemy (cir. 139 A.D.) as Ozene, the capital of Tiastanes (Castana ). His victories won for him the title of Mahaksatrapa. (Varse dvi-saptatittame 72, Margasirsa-bahula-pratipadi ): On account of excessive rainfall, high floods rose in Suvarna-sikata (Sonarekh ), Palasini (Palasio ?) and other rivers from mount Urjayat (now known as Girnar) and consequently the embankment ( setu-bandha) of Sudarsana lake at Girinagara burst on the above day during the reign of 150 150 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman. The breach was 420 cubits long, just as many cubits broad and 75 cubits deep. The reservoir was laid open down to the bottom of the rivers. The 'Sudarsana' (beautiful) lake then appeared like a sandy desert and became 'durdarsana' (ugly to look at). 150 All the known coins of Rudradamana I are of silver and they are all struck by him as Mahaksatrapa'. The coins are of the usual type. The legend in Greek characters ceases to have any meaning and continues to appear as a sort of ornamental fringe round the bust. The Brahmi legend on the reverse runs as 27571 794 ETHYTTET HET4794 GG1h in the earlier variety, and as T 478 9427TH TITT HEIFH FR in the later variety. In contrast to the strictly classical Sanskrit of the Girnar inscription, Rudradamana's coin-legends like the Brahmi legends of Nahapana, and indeed most of the coin-legends of the Western Ksatrapas, are in a sort of mixed language with some Sanskrit and some Prakrit features.-(Rapson, ibid. CXXI f.). The coins struck by Damaghsada or Damajadasri I, son of Rudradaman I as Ksatrapa, suggest his co-regency with Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman I. The coins are of the usual type of this dynasty. Of these coins there are three varieties, distinguished by peculiarities in their legends. Variety A has Rudradamana-putra, while Variety B has Rudradamasa putras; and Damajdasriya and Damaghsadas. Both are in the usual Sanskritised Prakrit, but the latter shows a further approximation to Sanskrit. The legend in Variety C is in correct Sanskrit-5761974 99979 CH (9....) The original name ended in Ghsada which seems to correspond to the Persian Zada, 'a son'. The un-Indian combination of gh and s is therefore supplanted by the Indian J; and the resultant Jada is further Indianised by the addition of sri.-(Rapson, ibid, CXXII ff.) The Girnar inscription of Rudradaman knows of pranaya, visti and other technical terms of Kautilya's Arthasastra in the sense in which they are employed by him.-(K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p. 192). This inscription provides a welcome peep into the provincial administration of Gujarat under the Mauryas. Junagadh inscription of S. 72 describes Rudradaman I, Western Ksatrapa, as grandson of Castana, the great Satrap under Kadphises II of the Kusana dynasty, and son and successor of Jayadaman. He is described as destroying the Yaudheyas, twice conquering Satakarni, Lord of the Deccan. Earning for himself the title of Mahaksatrapa' le raised his house to the position of a leading power in the West. His son Damazda or Damajala succeeded him in 160 A.D.-(ASWI ii, 128; IA., VII, 257).. 150 150 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD The Girnar rock-inscription of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman inscribed on the western side near the top of the rock, mentions practically the whole of the present Gujarat as the extent of his conquests. His rule extended over nearly the whole of Western India and included the country around Cambay and Saurastra, Sindh and adjacent portion of Western Rajputana and the Northern Konkan. Anarta-Surastra-Svabhra-Maru-Kaccha-Aparanta are among the countries mentioned in order of contiguity. This monument bears the only known epigraphic record containing the names of Candragupta and Asoka Maurya.-(Smith, EHI, p. 133; EI, VIII, 42; IA, VII 257 ). It is the earliest known long inscription in Sanskrit prose. 150 The embankment of the Sudarsana dam burst on account of excessive rain fall and heavy floods in Girnar rivers, in Margasirsa of Saka year 72 (Nov., 150 A.D.). The damage was so great that the Mati-sacivas and the Karmasacivas (Councillors and Executive Ministers) of King Rudradaman opposed the proposal of its repairs. But taking into consideration the despair of the local people, Suvisakha, the Pahlava Minister of Rudradaman I and Governor of Anarta-Surastra, got it repaired within a short period, without levying any tax or forced labour on the subjects. (Junagadh Rock-inscription of Rudradaman, EI, VIII, 44 ff.) Ante Arab settlements existed in Gujarat at Cheul, Kalyana and Sopara before 100 the rise of Islam. Abul Fida speaks of their having settled in Sopara since early times. In the time of Agatharcides (B.C. 177-100), there were so many Arabs on the Malabar coast that the people had adopted the Arab religion. The Arabs were mostly Sabians at that time. It may, therefore, be safely presumed that Arab settlements existed in Gujarat parallel with this. (Reinaud's 'Abul Fida' CCCL.-XXXIV; Vincent's 'Periplus' 154; Bom. Gaz. Vol. IX, pt. II, p. I, ff. 1). c. 100 There is hardly any evidence to know, who were the rulers of Gujarat till the -200 advent of the Sakas on this land. But a dynasty, which may be called by the name of Bodhi', was ruling during the first-second century A.D., somewhere in Western India-Gujarat or Saurastra or some parts of it. Their coins, are the only source of our knowledge about them, as known from the collection of Bhagwanlal Indraji (BMC. A.K., Intro. clxix). They were Sri Bodhi, Vira Bodhi or Vira Bodhidatta, Siva Bodhi and Candra Bodhi. C. 150-78 Damajadasri I, son of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman I, struck coins of silver as Mahaksatrapa between cir. 72 (150 A.D.) and cir. 100 (178 A.D.) of the Saka era. So he seems to have succeeded Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman I in cir., 160 A.D. The legend on his coins runs as follows: 157 HTT47TH Thagara 15 HETH44 CTHEEAAh (Of king Mahaksatrapa Damajadaari, son of king Mahaksa trapa Rudradaman.-( Rapson, ibid, CXXIV). For Personal & Private Use Only

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66 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 151 151 Excepting the Asokan edicts at Girnar, and 200 to 300 years later, the short memorial inscriptions from Andhau and two or three later Ksatrapa records, all other inscriptions, beginning with the famous Rudradaman inscription, are in Sanskrit. This signifies that already in the 2nd Century A.D., fine, chaste, classical Sanskrit had become a court-language in Gujarat, and remained so, for wellnigh a 1000 years and more. If any part of India is to be considered Aryanized earliest on the strength of epigraphic evidence alone, it would be Gujarat or more strictly Surastra ; for the Rudradaman inscription is the earliest long Sanskrit inscription in India-(H. D. Sankalia, Historico-Cultural EthnoGeography of Gujarat, p. 163). Rudradaman boasts that he had no recourse to forced labour or benefactions when he reconstructed the magnificent dam at Girnar. (apIDayitvA karaviSTipraNayakriyAbhiH u151748 58 FatHICHTHEAT A...... AD 919... 1-Junagadh Inscription ). Sanskrit was no doubt known, but was probably confined to the Brahmanas, who used it for purely religious purposes. But it was under the Ksatrapas of Malwa and Surastra, as evidenced by the Rudradaman inscription, that the language began to be used for secular purposes. Sylvain Levi, from the occurrence of certain words, e.g., Svamin, Sugrahitanaman, and bhadramukha, even thought that " it must be in the time and the court of the Ksatrapas that the vocabulary, the technique and the first examples of the Sanskrit drama and everything connected with it, or in other words, those of the really literary Sanskrit literature, were established". [IA, XXXIII (1904), 169; Sankalia, Ibid, p. 163, footnote]. Silver coins were struck by king Ksatrapa Satyadaman, son of king Mahaksatrapa Damajadasri I. (Rapson, ibid, 95). The date conjecturally assigned to the reign of Satyadaman as Ksatrapa was years 119-120, when the coin was first published (R. JRAS. 1899, p. 379). But certain considerations, which were not then taken into account, seem to indicate an earlier date. This was probably concurrent with that of his father as Mahaksatrapa. (Rapson, op. cit. cxxviii f.) S. 10(1)-Date on coins of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I, suggested by D. R. Bhandarkar (ASI. AR. 1913-14, 227 ff.) is hardly acceptable, as he struck coins in year 102.-( Rapson, ibid, 86). S. 100 ( = 178 A.D.) Jivadaman, Western Ksatrapa and Mahaksatrapa, son and successor of Damazada. He was the first of his dynasty to issue dated coins. The Ksatrapa dates, with a few exceptions of Stone-inscriptions, are derived exclusively from coins, it may be noted. C. 160 179-80 178 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 67 180 C. 180-1 181-2 181-2 Rudrasimha I, son of Rudradaman I, began his career as Ksatrapa not later than the Saka year 102, which appears on his coins struck as 'Ksatrapa' for the first time.-(Rapson, ibid. cxxv f.) Rudrasimha I, Western Ksatrapa, son of Rudradaman and uncle of Jivadaman whom he apparently succeeded is styled Ksatrapa' in the Gunda inscription, and Mahaksatrapa' on his coins(IA, X, 157; ASWI, ii, 140 ). Rudrasimha I struck silver coins of the usual type as Ksatrapa in the Saka year 102 ( 180-1 A.D.). The legend on these coins is as follows: 171 HT14798 55h a 1511 4797 GEITHI (Of King Ksatrapa, Rudrasimha, son of King Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman)-(Rapson, ibid, cxxvii, 86). An Abhira Senapati Rudrabhuti, son of Senapati Bappaka, who had the Ksatrapa king Rudrasimha I, son of Rudradaman as his Overlord, dug and got built with stones a well (or a bund) at Rasapadraka, for the benefit and happiness of all creatures (afhearai pengaruh), in the Saka year 103 (181-82 A.D.). This record is known as the 'Gunda Stone-Inscription of the time of Rudrasimha I, which was rescued from an unused well at Gunda (Halar Dist., Saurastra)-(EI. XVI, 235), and is now in the Watson Museum, Rajkot. The influential position of the Abhiras at the Saka court apparently helped Abhira Isvarasena in gaining the throne for himself. The Abhiras, like the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Sibis and others migrated to the south and settled in Rajputana, Sindh and Maharastra, when the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas and Kusanas invaded the north-western parts of India. The Abhiras did not exclusively follow the profession of cowherds; they occupied high political position under the Ksatrapa rulers of Western India, as is known from the Gunda stone-inscription above referred to, purporting that Abhira Rudrabhuti was a general of Ksatrapa king Rudrasimha. The Abhiras were an ancient race which, according to the Mahabharata, Harivamsa and the Puranas, had spread in the western provinces of India from the Punjab in the north to Maharastra in the south. They are, in many passages, conjoined with the Sudras, with whom they appear to be conterminous in the north-western parts of India. They spoke a language which, according to Dandin's Kavyadarsa, was called Apabhramsa'. The Mahabharata and the Vayupurana call them Mlecchas, who were not necessarily foreigners. This term, according to Patanjali, signifies those who could not pronounce the Aryan language correctly. Like the Sudras, therefore, the Abhiras were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country who were gradually absorbed in the Hindu fold. They are not a subcaste included under the genus Sudras', but they are a caste distinct from the Sudras. (Mahabhasya, Vol. I, p. 25/pt. 2.72) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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68 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT The Mahabharata mentions three divisions of the Abhiras dwelling in the north-west of India, viz., those who lived on the bank of the Sarasvati, fishermen and mountaineers. (Subhaparva, adh. 32, v. 10). We are told that while Arjuna was encamped in that fertile country together with the women of the Vrsnis and the Andhakas, whom he was escorting from Dvarka to Hastinapur after the internecine fight amongst the Yadavas, he was attacked by the Abhiras. All these references indicate the eastern part of the Punjab between the Satlej and the Yamuna as the original home of the Abhiras. From there they appear to have spread beyond Matbura in the east and Saurastra, Gujarat and Maharastra in the south. Ptolemy mentions Abiria, which was evidently the land of the Abhiras, which was situated above Pattalene on the Sindhu. According to the Visnupurana, the Sudras and the Abhiras inhabited the provinces of Saurastra, Avanti (Western Malava), Sura (Mathura), Arbud (Aravali) and Marubhumi (Marwad). [Visnu. Pu., amsa V, adh. 38, V. 12). Parasara, cited in the commentary of the Brihatsamhita, groups the Sudra-Abhira country with Saurastra, Maharastra, Sindhu-Sauvira and other countries of the south-west. The Markandeyapurana groups the Abhiras with the people of Bhrigukaccha, Konkana, Maharastra, Karnata, the country on the banks of the Veni (Wainganga), Nasikya and others. (Mark. Pu., adh. 58, verses 21 ff.). These seem to point to the modern district of Khandesh as their stronghold in the south, where the Abhiras or Ahiras predominate.-(V. V. Mirashi: CII, Vol. IV, Intro. pp. xxxi-iii). [For the origin of the Abhiras, and the rise of their power in Western India, see also The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 221-3. ] Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahaksatrapa in the Saka year 103--(Rapson, ibid. 87, f.). This indicates that he rose to the position of Mahaksatrapa in S. 103, some time after Vaisakha su. 5, the date when he is referred to as 'Ksatrapa ' in the Gunda stone-inscription-(EI, XVI, 233). The legend on the coins runs as follows:-rAjJo mahAkSatrapa rudradAmaputrasa rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa TEH -(Rapson, ibid., 87 f.) S. 1(05): Silver coins struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha 1-(D. R. Bhandarkar, ASI. A. R. 1913-14, 227 ff.) S. 106: Silver coins struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha 1-(Rapson, ibid. 88). S. 10(7): Silver coins struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I-(ibid, 88). $. 109: Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I struck coins in silver.-(ibid. 88). 181-2 183-4 184-5 185-6 187-8 For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 188-9 188-9 188-90 S. 110: Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I struck silver coins. S. 110: The evidence of silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Ksatrapa instead of Mahaksatrapa indicates his degradation to the subordinate position of a Ksatrapa. D. R. Bhandarkar assigns this degradation to the suzereinty of Mahaksatrapa isvardatta-(ASI. AR. 1913-14, 227 ff.) The legend on the coins is 11 HT4794 SATHITA (Rapson, ibid., 90 f.) A king named Isvaradatta struck silver coins, which are dated in years 1 and 2 of his reign. The coins are of precisely the same style and type as those of Western Ksatrapas in all respects, except that the legend contains no patronymic, and gives the date in words, and that the coins are dated in regnal years (Rapson, ibid., 124 f.). It is, therefore, certain that he did not belong to the Ksatrapa dynasty and that he was very probably an Abhira connected with the dynasty represented at Nasik by Isvarasena-( Nasik caveInscription: EI, VIII, 88). His appearance as Mahaksatrapa on coins directly imitated from those of the Western Ksatrapas would seem to bear testimony to a successful invasion of their dominions (Bhagvanlal, JRAS, 1890, p. 657). There is, however, a great controversy about his date. Bhagvanlal supposed that his reign would have commenced in 249 A.D. (ibid); but this view rested on the belief that a break of continuity in the reigns of the Mahaksatrapas of the regular dynasty was shown by the absence of dated coins between the S. years 171 ( 249 A.D.) and 176. Further discoveries of coins have, however, proved that there was no such interregnum, but that the dates from 171 to 176 are continuous. (Rapson, ibid, 136-9). Rapson, therefore, consigned his reign to the interval between 158, (the last recorded year of the MKS. Damasena, fn. iii), and 161, (the vear in which his son Yasodaman I appears as Mahaksatrapa, pp. 127-8). -(Rapson, ibid, cxxxvi). The subsequent discovery of the Sarvania hoard has brought to light year 160 of MKS. Yasodaman I; and hence, even Rapson's view is subject to reexamination. D. R. Bhandarkar re-examined this view in detail, and in conclusion was inclined to assign Isvaradatta to the years 110-112, which was a period of MKS. Rudradamana l's degradation to the subordinate position of a Ksatrapa-(ASI, AR 1913-14, 227 ff.; A. S. Altekar: The Vakataka--Gupta age, p. 48; R. C. Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 186). S. 112-Silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Ksatrapa-(Ibid, 91). S. 113-The evidence of silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahaksatrapa since year 113 (Rapson, ibid, 91, ff.) indicates that he succeeded in regaining his full power by this time. 190-1 191-2 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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70 192-3 193-4 194-5 195-6 196-7 196 198 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT S. 114--Silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I, as Mahaksatrapa.---( Rapson, ibid, 92; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) $. 115-Rudrasimha I struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid, 92). $. 116-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahaksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid, 93). $. 117-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I(G. V. Acharya, JRASB, NS, XLVII, 97). S. 118-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahaksatrapa( Rapson, ibid., 93). A fragmentary stone-inscription in Junagadh Museum records some events related to Vastradatta, Vastunandika, Vastusarmaka and Ramaka, and refers it to the reign of Ksatrapa Svamin Jivadaman.-(EI, XVIII, 339). As Jivadaman struck coins as Mahaksatrapa (in years 119-120 ), his reign as Ksatrapa should be dated not later than $. year 118. S. 120--Silver coins were struck by Jivadaman, son of Damajada I as Mahaksatrapa. The coins are of the usual type. The legend is a HTTHETH TAZA putrasa / rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa jiivdaams| rAjJo mahAkSatrapasya dAmajAtasya putrasya rAjJo mahAkSatrapasya jIvadAmnaH / -(Rapson, op cit., 84) Silver coins struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I (G. V. Acharya, op.cit., 98) indicate that Rudrasimha I was succeeded by Jivadaman during this year. The reading of the year 1(00) on his coins led to the assumption of his two different reigns interrupted by the reign of MKS, Rudrasimha I, (Rapson, ibid. CXXIV f.); but the reading now seems doubtful, and Jivadaman seems to have been Mahaksatrapa only in succession to Rudrasimha I. With the reign of Jivadaman, son of Damajadsri I, begins the series of dated coins. From this time onwards, the silver coins of the dynasty regularly have the year of their issue recorded in Brahmi numerals on the obverse, behind the king's head.-( Rapson, loc. cit., p. cxxiv) $. 119-Jivadaman struck coins in potin also. The obverse bears a figure of a humped bull and the legend on the reverse is rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa jiivdaamn....| -(Rapson, ibid, 85). Caitra sukla 5-The stone-inscription of Jayadaman's grandson in Sanskrit from the Bawa Pyara caves at Junagadh records a technical phrase connected with Jainism, meaning those who have acquired 'absolute knowledge' (haa) and is dated during the reign of the grandson of Rajan Ksatrapa Svamin Jayadaman, whose name is lost in the missing fragment of the stone. The king may be either Damghsada I or Rudrasimha I, son of Mahaksatrapa Rudra 197-98 197-8 197-8 For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 71 198-9 199-200 C. 200 daman 1.-(EI. XVI 241). The reconstructed relevent words are als [511] -#(TTCT]at(?) Fiskt or FTATU....' etc. The first wave of Jainism passed over Gujarat-Saurastra when Bhadrabahu went to the south in the 4th century B.C. Evidence is available in this area from the Ksatrapa period which consists of earliest reference to a Jaina technical term Kevalijnana in the stone-inscription of Jayadaman's grandson, Damajasri I, which was found from the Bawa Pyara cave at Junagadh, above referred to. (Banerji and Sukthankar: "Three Ksatrapa Inscriptions", El., XVI., p. 239). S. 120-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Jivadaman. (ibid. 84). S. 121-Rudrasena I, son of Rudrasimha I, struck coins as Ksatrapa(Rapson, ibid, 96: D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227, ff.). The legend is Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudrasihasa putrasa Rajno Ksatrapa Rudrasenasa. This is the earliest known date of his reign as Ksatrapa. The Natyasastra of Bharata (Ch. XVII, verses 59-62 ) supplies some information about the Prakrit languages of this period to be used in a drama. The countries between the Ganga and the sea have a language abounding in 'e'. Surastra, Avanti and the regions situated on the Vetravati have a language abounding in 'cha'. People belonging to Himavat, Sindhu, Sauvira and others use a language abounding in 'u'. Those who reside between Vindhya and the ocean should use a language abounding in 'na'. Durga, the commentator of Nirukta, who is said to be a resident of Jambumargasrama (Jambu-marga in the Narmada valley, according to the Mahabharata, which is being identified with Jambusara in the Broach District ) is assigned to 2nd century A.D.-(U. P. Shah, Gujarat na Ketalak Pracina Pandito' Buddhiprakasa, October, 1952, p. 302). The Mulava-sara inscription, written in Sanskrit and in the Brahmi script refers to the rule of Mahaksatrapa Svami Rudrasena I. This stone-inscription, found on the banks of a large tank at Mulava-sara, a village about 10 miles from Dwarka, is since erected in the Dwarka Library compound. It measures 6'X2'. It was first noticed by Dr. Bhagavanlal Indraji in Bom. Gaz. I, p. 43. The inscription tells us that it is a sepulchral stele of 200 A.D. The single line engraved breadthwise contains the word. Vanijakasya meaning of Vanijaka'. The four lines engraved lengthwise record that the stele was erected by the son of Vanijaka on the 5th day of the dark half of Vaisakha in the year 122 (of the Saka era), which was wrongly read as Saka 232 in the Bhavnagar Collection of Sanskrit and Prakrit Inscriptions (p. 23). This sepulchral stele (Refe) was erected for the son of Vanijaka, who sacrified his own life for the sake of his own friend : C. 200 200 For Personal & Private Use Only

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A.D. 199-222 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT iyaM zilAlaSTi [utthApitA] vANijakasya putreNa pratijIvitaM dattaM svamitre [trAya) hi nijasya / -(A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions : Baroda State, 1943., pp. 1-4). Such lastis or yastis were, it appears, frequently raised during the Ksatrapa times, as can be seen from the Andhau inscriptions of S. 52 also. The only inscribed object found from the ancient site of Intwa (so-called, as it has been yielding bricks of extra size in abundance) was excavated by G. V. Acharya in 1949, who collected relics of a Buddhist monastery in the shape of tiles, terracotta, pottery and the like, and a backed clay-sealing. Intwa, is situated on a hill in the midst of thick jungle, about three miles from the famous rock at Junagadh in Surastra. The Brahmi legend of the clay-sealing reads HERIF-EN-ERFAHTI i.e., the sealing belongs to the congregation of mendicants, at the Maharaja Rudrasena Monastery. This is one of the earliest Bhiksu-Samgha sealings unearthed in ancient India, so far. Rudrasena is taken as Rudrasena I, a descendant of Castana the Ksatrapa, whose reign-period is known to be 199-222 A.D., on paleographic grounds. This sealing which is round in shape, about an inch in diameter and has a caitya symbol in the centre, is the only record that shows that this Rudrasena built a monastery (vihara ) for Buddhist monks at Junagadh-(B. Ch. Chhabra : Intwa Clay-sealing, EI, XXVIII, 174-5). According to the Mulwa-sar inscription, above referred to dated in the month of Vaisakha of the year 122 (A.D. 200-201) Rudrasena had assumed the dignity of Mahaksatrapa by the beginning of this year. Clay-seals belonging to Mahadevi Prabhudama described as a daughter of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha I, and a sister of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena I, have been discovered at Basarh ( ancient Vaisali) in the Muzaffarpur District of Bihar. It is not improbable that she was married to a chief of the Licchavis who appear to have flourished in that region before the rise of the Guptas. Rudradaman is mentioned in Junagadh inscription to have attended several Svayamvaras; and the matrimonial alliances of the Kardamakas point to the gradual absorption of the Scythians into Indian society. There is evidence for the marriages of Kardamaka girls in the families of the Satavahanas of Daksinapatha, the Iksvakus of Andhrapatha and probably also the Licchavis of Vaisali. - The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 185, 187) S. 122--Coins were struck by Rudrasena I either as Ksatrapa or Mahaksatrapa (Rapson, ibid, 97). The king seems to have attained the position of Mahaksatrapa between S. year 121 and 125. S. 125-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa(Rapson, ibid, 97 f.). 200-201 . 200-1 203-4 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XV (A) Talaja-Cave Mandapa, with Caitya-window design Gohilwal, Saurastra. (p. 92) (B) Boria Stupa Railing, Mt. Girnar (p. 90) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XVI For Personal & Private Use Only Khambhalida Cave Facade, Madhya Saurastra. (pp. 93, 314)

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 73 204-5 205 206-7 $. 126-Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa--( ibid., 98). A satra (alms-house) or a memorial was started (or raised, elevated and created utes) by the brothers of Kharaparthat, the son of thc Pratyasaka of Manasa gotra, for getting the happiness of Svarga (911429 ) during the reign of Rajan Mabaksatrapa Svanin Rudrammkla in S. Varsa 127, Bhadrapada bahula 5, ( 205 A.D.)- Gadhi (near Jasilan, Saurastra) Stone-louscription, EI, XVI, 230 Is Sankalia has noted (JBBRAS, XS, SII, 104 f.), this meaning of satra is fully borne out by the phrase sair-pruvallanurlham (for the continuation of the satru) in the Bagumra Plates of Dhruva III, dated S.E. 783, wherein satra' is explained by Buhler as. Sadarruta'alms-house. (IA, XII, 184 1.). Banerji, also connects the word (?) in the inscription, with #7; but the change of into his difficult to explain. The word appears to indicate a lath (ali) raised in memory of Kharapartha by his brothers.--( 1). C. Sircar, Selected Inscriptions, p. 179, fn.). In this inscription the word ' a' is found prefixed to all the names of the Mahaksatrapas given in the geneology. This is, perhaps, the longest pedigree of the Sura tra and Malava Ksatrapas, preserved in an inscription. S. 128--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 98). S. 130---Siiver coins were struck by Rudrasena l as Mahaksatrapa-(ibid., 98). $. 131-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa-(ibid., 98). A potin coin bearing the figure of an elephant on the obv. and the usual symbol of eternity on the rei'. is dated year 131 ; and, therefore, belongs to the reign of MKS. Rudrasena 1-(ibid., cxxx, 105). S. 132-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa-(ibid., 99) S. 133--Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Jahaksatrapa-(ibid., 99 ). A potin coin bearing the figure of an elephant on the obe. and the usual symbol of eternity on the rev. is to be assigned to the reign of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena 1, as it is dated in the year 133- ibid., 105). S. 134-Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa-( ibid., 99 f.) S, 135-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 100 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 277 ff.). $. 136--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa--(ibid., 101). $. 137-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena 1-(Rapsoti, ibid., 102). S. 138--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena l as Mahaksatrapa(ibid., 102). 208-9 209-10 210-1 211-2 212-3 213-4 214-5 215-6 216-7 C10 For Personal & Private Use Only

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74 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 217-8. S. 139-Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena I struck coins in silver--(Rapson, ibid., 103; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) 218-9 S. 140-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena I-(ibid., 103 ). 219-20. S. 141--Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa-(ibid., 104). 220- 1 S S. 142--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa --- . 12_Silver i (ibid., 104; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) Square copper coins of the Bull-type were issued during this year and hence they belong to Rudrasena I.-(J. N. Nanavati, JNSI, XIII, 204). 222-3 S. 1(44)--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahaksatrapa --- (ibid., 104; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227 ft.). In this year silver coins were also issued by Ksatrapa Prithvisena, son of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena l-(ibid., 106). The legend in his coins is 15 HEIkSatrapasa rudrasenaputrasa rAjJo kSatrapasa pRthviisens| This is the only known date of his reign. Rudrasena I seems to have been succeeded by his brother Samghadaman during this year, as a coin struck by the latter as Mahaksatrapa is dated 14(4) -(ibid., 107). The legend on the coins of Samghadaman is-- HEUR147744 x 999 FT mahAkSatrapasya sNghdaamnH| 223-4 $. 145-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Sanghadaman, son of Mahaksatrapa Rudrasimha 1--(ibid., 107). Sainghadama was succeeded by his brother Damasena as Mahaksatrapa in year 145, as is evident from the coins struck by the latter in this year-(ibid., 108 ). The legend on the coins of Damasena is Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudrasimhas putrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Damasenasa--(ibid., 108 ). Mahaksatrapa Samghadaman, the son of Mahakyatrapa Rudrasimha is known from two of his coins, who seems to have reigned for four years. This Samghadaman is identified with the Sandanes, whom the Periplus describes as taking the regular mart Kalyan, near Bombay, from Saraganes i.e. the Deccan Satakarnis; and in order to prevent it again becoming a place of trade, had for bidden all Greek ships to visit Kalyan, and sent under a guard to Bharukaccha any Greek ships that entered its port even by accident. The only possible Lord of Gujarat either in the second or third century who could have adopted such a policy was the Ksatrapa of Ujjain in Malwa and Minnagara or Junagadh in Saurastra. He is the same ruler, who, to encourage foreign vessels to visit Bharukaccha, had stationed native fishermen with wellmanned long boats off the Southern Saurastra coast to meet ships and pilot them through the tidal and other dangers up the Narmada to Bharukaccha. It is 222-6 For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 75 A.D. 223-37 C. 225 225-6 surmised that the Sandanes of the Peripluis and Ptolemy's North Konkan Sadans are the Gujarat Ksatrapas-( Bom. Gas. I, p. 44-45, footnote). After the reign of Mahaksatrapa Damasena ( 234-39 A.D.), the potin coinage of the Kardamakas, which is usually attributed to Malwa or some district of that country, seems to have discontinued. This currency is associated with the Mahaksatrapas. The Ksatrapas, who probably held sway in Saurastra and Gujarat, and not in any part of Malwa, did not issue coins in potin. The discontinuance of this coinage is suggested to have denoted that about that time, part of Malwa was lost to the Kardamaka Mahaksatrapas, or that the potin currency previously circulating in that district was superceded by the widely used silver coinage. (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 188). An inscription of King Isvarasena, the son of Abhira Sivadatta and Mathari (ie. whose mother was of the Mathara gotra) is found in the Nasik cave No. 154 Vide, EI, VIII, p. 38). Isvarasena is put in the first half of the 3rd century A.D.-(Vide, The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 222). S. 147-Potin coins bearing the figure of an elephant on the obv. and the usual symbols of eternity on the rev. which were struck in this year, apply to the reign of Damasena.--(Ibid., 113). The Sonpur hoard of silver coins contains year ( 1(4)7] on the coins 'struck by Mahaksatrapa Damasena.-(G. V. Acharya, JRASB, NS. XLVII. 96). S. 150-Coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Damasena.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit. 227 ff.). S. 151-Damasena struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.--(Ibid., 109). S. 153-Mahaksatrapa Damasena struck coins in silver (Ibid., 110 ) and in potin.--(Ibid., 114). $. 154 : Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Damasena.--(Ibid, 110). Potin coins, struck during this year, also fall within the reign of Damasena. --(Ibid, 114). Silver coins were struck by Damajadsri II, son of Rudrasena I as Ksatrapa. The legend is ist H8141999 a 131 4794 Emira: --(Ibid, 115). S. 155: Silver coins were struck by Damasena as Mahakstrapa--(Ibid, 111); and by Damajadasri II as Ksatrapa.-( Ibid, 116; D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit. 227 ff.). S. 156: Silver coins were struck by Damasena as Mahaksatrapa.--(Ibid, III) and by Viradaman as Ksatrapa.-(Ibid, 117). The legend on the coins of the latter is 11 H14749 cthan 979 9719 atelia: 1--(Ibid, 117). * Viradaman, son of Damasena seems to have succeeded his cousin Damajadasri II as Ksatrapa, either in this or in the previous year. 228.9 229-30 231-2 232-3 233-4 234-5 For Personal & Private Use Only

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76 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D 235-6 236-7 238-9 239-40 $. 137 : Damasena struck coins in silver as Mahaksatrapa.-( Toid, III; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). Viradaman struck silver coins as Ksatrapa.-(G. V. Acharya, op. cit., 96). S. 153: Mahaksatrapa Damasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid, 111). Potin coins, which hear the date 1( 5 )8, also belong to this king.-( Ibid, 114). Coins were struck by Viradaman as Ksatrapa. Ibid, 117, no. 2; D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). $. 160: Silver coins were struck by Viradaman as Ksatrapa.-- ( Rapson, ibid, 120 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). Viradaman was succeeded by his lorother, Ksatrapa Yasodaman, whose coins are dated in year 160.-(Ibid, 126 : D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). The legend on his coins is TT HEA319 9 999 T 1719 311313: 1 In the same year Yasodaman was in turn succeeded by his brother Vijayasena as Ksatrapa. The legend on the coins of the latter runs as follows: 1 HET799 z a 974 418 744 --( Rapson, ibid, 129 ff., D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). Yasodaman rose to the position of Malaksatrapa in rear 160, as known from Uhe Sarvania hoard.- (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 161: Silver coins were struck by king Mahaksatrapa Yasodaman, son of king Mahiksatrapa Dimasena. The legend is rAjo mahAkSatrapasa dAmasenasa putratya gajJo HEUR14749 421121:1 Vijayasena, son of Damasena struck coins as Ksatrapa as well as Mahaksatrapa.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). So he seems to have risen to the higher status of Mabaksatrapa and succeeded Yasodaman during this year, The date 16(1) read by G. V. Acharya on silver coins struck by Viradaman is (op. cit., 98) unacceptable, as Viradaman was already succeeded by Yasodaman in year 160. S. 162: Silver coins were struck by king lijayasena as Mahaksatrapa. The legend is rAjo mahAkSatra rasa dAmasenaputrasa rAjo mahAkSatrAsa vijayamenasa / -(Rapson, ibid, I30 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 163: Silver coins were struck by king Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena.(Rapson, ibid, 131 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 164 : Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 132; D, R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 163: Vijayasena struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.-(Rapson, ibid., 133 ; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 166: Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena.-(Rapson, ibid., 133 : D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 240-1 241-2 242-3 243-4 244-3 For Personal & Private Use Only

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A.D. 245-6 246-7 247-8 243-9 248-9 249 KSATRAPA PERIOD S. 167 Coins in silver were struck by Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena.- Rapson, ibid., 133 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 168: Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena.-(Ibid., 134; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 17 S. 169: Mahaksatrapa Vijayasena struck coins in silver.--(Rapson, ibid., f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 f.). S. 170: Vijayasena struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid., 135., D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdiman as Mahaksatrapa,(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). The Kalacuri or the Traikutaka Era must have originated South of the Narmada. Gujarat, Konkan and Maharastra appear to be the original home of the era, as the earliest records dated in this era come from Central India, Gujarat, Konkan and Maharastra, including the districts of Nagpur, Nasik and Khandesh. No certain dates of this era come from North India until the middle of the 9th century A.D., i.e. until after its introduction in the Cedi country by the Kalacuris. When the Kalacuris migrated to Central India and shifted their capitals to Kalanjara and Tripurf, they took with them the era which they had habitually used in their earlier kingdom, and made it current throughout their dominions.-V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Introduction: Pp. xxiii, xxx). The Kalacuri era: The dates of the Kalacuri era fall into two groups, viz.(1) the earlier ones down to the year 490 which come from Gujarat and Maharastra, where the era had its origin: and (2) the later ones from the year 722 to the year 969 which come from Vindhya Pradesh, Uttara Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh including Chhattisgarh, where the era was introduced with the extension of the Kalacuri power. The first group yields an equation Kalacuri-Sanical om 248-49 A.D. while in regard to the second, the equation is Kalacuri-Samvat om 247-48 A.D. In both the periods the Kalacuri year commenced on Kartika 4u. di. I; but in the earlier period the months were generally amanta, while in the later one they were generally paryimanta. According to the testimony of the five early dates, which come from. Gujarat and Maharastra, the Kalacuri era commenced on the amanta Kartika su di. I(the 25th September) in 249 A.D.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Inscrip tions of the Kalacuri-Cedi Era, Part I, 1955. Introduction Pp. xi, xii.) The earliest known records dated in this exa are those of the Traikitakas, beginning with the year 207. The theory that this Era was founded by the Vakatakas to mark the foundation of their power (Jayaswal, History of India: 150 A.D. to 350 A.D., 108-11) is found untenable, (A. S. Altekar, Vakataka For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHROXOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. 249-50 250-1 C. 219 Gripta Age, p. 94); while the theory of ascribing it to the Abhira king Tsvarasena (JRAS, 1905, p. 566) deserves special consideration.-( ABORI, xxvii, 1 ff.). $. 171- Mahaksatrapa Vijayasera struck coins in silver.-- Rapson, ibid, 135 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 172--Silver coins struck by Vijayasena as Mahaksatrapa.---( Rapson, ibid., 136; D). R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). The Ibhira ruler Isvarasen, who bore the title Rajan' in the Nasik caveinscription of Circa 249 A.D. had his father Sivadatta, with no title. He was probably the originator of the so-called . Kalacuri-Cedi Era'. Though the Abhiras themselves spoke an Apabhramsa language, unlike the Satavahanas, they seem to have patronised Sanskrit. The Nasik cave-inscrip. tion, which though not an official document, is written in a language which is predominantly Sanskrit. Judging by the extent of his era, Isvarasena seems to have ruled over a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Maharasyra. He was followed by nine more kings who ruled for 167 years, and were supplanted by their feudatories, the Traikatakas, in Circa 415 A.D. Several guilds were flourishing in their kingdom, in which people invested large amounts for making permanent endowments. This indicates that peace, order, and a general sense of security prevailed in the country during their rule. .C. 250 Vatsyayana's Kimasatra mentions the Abhira Kottaraja, who was murdered in another's house by a washerman at the instigation of his brother. The commentator Yasodhara says that he was ruling at Kotta in Gujarat, identified with Kotah by some. Kottaraja was probably his personal name. He may have been a successor of Isvarasena.--(1. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro. : Pp. xxi-ir). Isvardatta, a Mahaksatrapa, whose coins dated in 'first' and 'second year, were found with those of the Ksatrapas, seems to have partially overthrown the Ksatrapa power about this date. According to Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji, Isvardatta was the founder of the Traikutaka', i known later as the Kalacuri' or Cedi') cra' originating probably with establishment of his power in the Konkan, with Traikita as the capital. * Under Rudrasena, son of Viradaman, the Ksatrupas appear to have reestablished their soverignty by driving out the Traikutakas, who thus dispossesserl, retired to Central India, assuming the name . Haihaya' or ' Kalacuri'. On the final destruction of the Ksatrapa rule, the Traikutakas apparently regained Traikuta, about which time Dahrasena (A.D. 456 ) succeeded to the throne.-(Bom. Gaz, I, 294 ff:. : : . .. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA -PERIOD: : 79 .250:2 A.D. 252-3 253-4 254-5 255-6 256-7 256 S. 17(2):or 17(3)- Silver coins were struck by: king Mahaksatrapa Damajadasri III, son of king Maha ksatrapa Damasena-( Rapson, ibid., 137). The legend is visit (27772191974 TI #7121717 719572: In the Sarvania hoard, D. R. Bhandarkar has read 17(2) and 17(3) on the coins struck by this king (op. cil. 227 ff.). So it is certain that Vijayasena was succeeded by Damajadasri III during this year, S. 174-Mahaksatrapa Damjadasri III struck coins in silver.-(Rapson, ibid., 137 f.; D, R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 175-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Damajadasri I11. - (Rapson, ibid., 138; D. R. Bnandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 176--Damajadasri III struck silver coins as Mahiksatrapa.-( Rapsan, 139; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 177-Silver coins were struck by Mahak atrapa Damajadasri III (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) as well as by his successor Malaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-(Ibid, op. cit., 186 if.). So it is certain that Damajadasri III was succeeded by Rudrasena II during this year. S. 178-King Rudrasena II, son of Viradainan struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff. }. S. 17(6) or 17(7) or 17(8) or 1709)-Silver coins struck by king Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena 11, son of king Ksatrapa Viradamail.-( Rapson, ibid., 141 ). ___The legend is rAjJo kSatrapa vIradAmaputrasa rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa rudrsens| .. The discovery of the year 178 on the coins struck by his successor (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit , 227 ff. ) removes the possibility of the year 17(9). S. 179--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II. -(D. R. Bhandarkar op. cil., 227 ff.). S. 180---Rudrasena Il struck coins in silver as Mahaksatrapa.-(Rapson, ibid.; 142; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 18(1)-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson, ibid. 142; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 182-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatiapa Rudresena II.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). $. 183-Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II struck coins in Silver.-( Rapson op. cit., 142 ). $. 184--Silver coins were struck by Malaksatrapa Rudrasena II.--(ibid, 142). S. 185---Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, ap. cit., 227.11.:.: . :. :.: .: . 257-8 258-9 259-60 : : 260-1 .** 261-2 262-3 263.4 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT AD. S. 18(6)-Rudrasena II struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.--( Rapson, 264-5 op. cit., 143). The date is definitely read in the Servania hoard.---(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cil., 227 ff.). 265-6 S. 187) -- Mabak atrapa Rudrasena II struck coins in silver.-(Rapson, ibid., 143). The date is definitely read in the Sarvania hoard.-(D. R. Bhadarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 266-7 S. 188-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksalrapa Rudrasena II.-- Rapson, 1bid., 143 ff. ; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., ff.). 267-8 S. 189--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson, ibid., 144) 268-9 S. 19(0) or 19(x)--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II. --( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 269-70 S. 19(1)-Rudrasena II struck silver coins as Mabaksatrapa.( Rapson, up. cit., 144 ). The date is definite in the Sarvania hoard.(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ft.). 270-2 S. 19(2) or 19(3)-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-- Ibid., 144 ff.). 272-3 S. 124-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson, ibid., 145; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 273-4 S. 195-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena Il as Mahaksatrapa.- G. V. Acharya, JRASN. NS XLVII, 96 ). 274-5 S. 196-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.--( Rapson, ibid., 145 ). 275-6 $. 197-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena 11.---( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff; G. V. Acharya op. cit., 97). 275-6 S. 197-Silver coins were struck by Visvasimha, son of Rudrasena II as Ksatrapa.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). Until the time of Visvasinha no coins struck by Ksatrapas have been known for nearly 36 ycars. 276-7. $. 198-Ksatrapa Visvasimha struck coins in silver.-(Ibid.) 276-8 S. 198 or 199-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena II as a Mahaksatrapa. ---(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). 277-8 $. 199-Silver coins were struck by king ksatrapa Visvasinha, son of king Mahaksatrapa Rudrasena II.-(Rapson, op.cit., 147 ff.). The legend is TOTT FE3714 # 999 (D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid., 227 ff.). For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Pot-sherd from Bet Sankhoddhara (pp. 93-94) Reads nanda ka sa / INCHES CMS HV >N (B) Somanatha Pot-sherd (pp. 94, 314) Reads dasa mapusitI / Plate XVII (C) Intva Seal (p. 91) Reads mahArAjarudrasenavihAre bhikSusaMghasya / LAQUIFE MFGRIF Find gutt IS { } [ ], [GEAUCET ITUISCE (D) Ghosundi Inscription (Chitodgadh Dist, Rajasthan) (p. 44) Reads ( 1 ) ...na ... gAjAyanena pArAzarIputreNa sa... ( 2 ) ... jinA bhagavadbhyAM saMkarSaNavAsudevAbhyAM ( 3 ) ...bhyAM pUjA - zilA- prAkAro nArAyaNavaTe kA [ rita: ]

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Plate XVII A ETH MENTREPRESENGE Andhau Stone-Inscription of the Joint Rule of Castana and Rudradaman, dated S. 52, 130 A.D.I Bhuj Museum, (p. 62) The three lines read :-- (1) rAjo cASTanasa yasa / motikaputrasa rAjJo rudradAmasa japadAmaputrasya varSe dvipaMcAze 50, 2 (2) phaguNabahulasa dvitiyaM vA ra yazadatAye sIhamitadhitA senikagotrANa zAmaNeriye (3) madanena sIhilaputrena kuTuMbiniye [laSTi] uthApitA / 3) Fragmentary Ksatrapa Stone-Inscription from Lathi, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p.94) Reads only mahAkSatrA svAmIrudra...jI..... | C) Fragmentary Ksatrapa Stone-Inscription, Rajkot Museum, (pp. 94, 314) Reads clearly only : rAjJo mahAkSatrapasya...sya .dasa... | Jain Education Internatif For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plat, XVIII Seals (1-1) Akota Seal and Sealing: show Prancing horses. p. 95; (2) Timberva Inscribed Seal, seems to read Fifa 14h i p. 94; (3) Vadnagar Terracotta Inscribed Seal: Reads at a FUNAI p. 94; (4) Navsari Lead Seal, with an Iranian horse and Dragon-tail. p. 95; (5) Vadnagar Uninscribed Seal, shows a woman with a flower in hand p. 94; (6) Elephant Seal, excavated by Rev. Father Heras, from Vala (Valabhi Period), p. 197. For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only 13 (A) Painted and Incised pottery from Rosadi, Atkot, Prabhasa (p. 315) (B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojitra, near Cambay (p. 315) (Vallabha Vidyanagar Museum) Plate XVIII A Rastrakuta Seal of a Garuda, the Vahana of Visnu. [See Plate XXVIII (B) Infra]

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 81 Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Ruclrasena TI also.--(G. V. Acharya, op.cit., 96 ) A.D. S. 200--Ksatrapa Visvasimha struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 148 f.; 278.9 D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). The evidence of coins struck by Visvasimha as Mahaksatrapa as well as by Bhartsdaman as Ksatrapa (D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) indicates that the former as Ksatrapa was succeeded by Bhartsdaman as Ksatrapa. And Visvasimha rose to the status of Mahaksatrapa during this year. 279-80. S. 2(01)--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasimha (Rapson, ibid., 149). The date is doubtful, for the king had already risen to the status of Mahaksatrapa in year 200. S. 201--Silver coins were struck by Bhartndaman, son of Rudrasena II, as Ksatrapa. The legend is T MATT : 1779 71:1---( Rapson, 153; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 280-2 S. 20(2) or 20(3)--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Bhartldaman (Rapson, ibid, 154). In the Saryania hoard, the year 202 is definitely read.-( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 281-2 S. 203--Silver coins were struck by Bhartedaman as Ksatrapa.--(Rapson, ibid., 154). 282 Between $. 201 and $. 211--Silver coins were struck by Visvasimha as Mahaksatrapa. The legend is TET H T1A Zana #KTATTI FRUTTI - (Ibid., 152 ). The Sarvania hoard indicates that Visvasimha's career of Mahaksatrapa can be assigned to years 200 to 204--(cf. D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 282-3. S. 204--Ksatrapa Bhartndaman struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 154; D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). In the same year Bhartsdaman struck coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( Ibid). Therefore, it is certain that he rose to the status of Mahaksatrapa during this year. 283-4 S. 203-Silver coins were struck by Bhartndaman as Mahaksatrapa.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 284-5 S. 206-Mallaksatrapa Bhartrdaman struck coins in silver.---(Rapson, ibid.). : D. R. Bhandarkar read year 2006) on coins struck by Visvasena, son of Bhartrdaman, as Ksatrapa.--(op. cit., 227 ff.). 285-6'. $. 207_Bhartsdaman struck silver coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid). CII Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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St A.D. 287-8 287 289-90, 290 290-1 291-2 292-3 293-4 294-5 295-6 CHRONOLOGY OF 'GUJARAT S. 209-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Bhartrdaman.(Ibid). S. 20(5) or 2(06) or 2(07) or 2(08) or 2'09)-Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdaman as Mahaksatrapa. The legend on the coins is rAjo mahAkSasa sena rAz2o mahA bhartRdAmana: / (Zhid 155ff.). S. 211-Bhartrdaman struck coins as Mahaksatrapa.-( Rapson, op. cit., 156; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). This date is read by G. V. Acharya on silver coins struck by Visvasimha as Mahaksatrapa (JRASB. NS. XLVII, 96, ff.); but the reading is unacceptable, as Visvasimha was already succeeded by Bhartrdaman in or before year 204. Rise of the Gupta dynasty founded by the feaudatory Maharajas Gupta and Ghatotkaca. It became supreme under Candragupta I (A.D. 319), whose empire extended under his successors pyer the greater part of Northern India, from Nepal to Narmada and from Kaccha to Western Bengal. The Guptas maintained their sway until the early part of the sixth century A.D.,, when their power, broken at first by invasions of the Hunas under Toramana and Mihirkula, appears to have been finally overthrown by a feudatory king, Yasodharman during the reign of Narasimhagupta Baladitya:-(CI, iii; Int. 17). S. 212-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Bhartrdaman.(Rapson, ibid., 157: D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). S. 213-Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdaman as Mahaksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 157 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). S. 214-Mahaksatrapa Bhartrdaman struck silver coins.-( Rapson, ibid., 158; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). S. 215 (?)-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Bhartridaman. (Rapson, ibid., 158.) The year is definitely read in the Sarvania hoard.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). In the same year Visvasena struck coins as Ksatrapa-(Ibid.). S. 210: Silver coins were struck by king Ksatrapa Visvasena, son of king Mahaksatrapa Bhartrdaman. The legend is rAjJo mAsa rAjo sa Rapson, ibid., 162; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdaman as Mahaksatrapa.-G. V. Acharya, op. cit., 96). S. 217-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Bhartrdaman (Rapson, ibid, 158) and Ksatrapa Visvasena.-(Ibid, 162; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). The office of Mahaksatrapa seems to have been in abeyance for about 50 years after this year. For Personal & Private Use Only

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A.D. 296-7 297-8 298-9 299-300 C. 300 2 C. 301: 313 ..: 300-1 83 S218-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasena.- Rapson, ibid., KSATRAPA PERIOD. : 169). S. 219-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasena.--(Ibid., 262). S. 22(0)-Ksatrapa Visvasena struck silver coins.-(Ibid., 164). The date is definite in the Sarvania hoard-( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 221-Ksatrapa Visvasena struck coins in silver. Rapson, ibid., 165: D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). # Vatsyayana in his Kamasutra, the famous work on Erotics, gives an account of several of the customs of its people; and describes the ladies of Aparanta and Lata country as capable of enduring the nail and other marks in erotic sports ( caNDave mandasIkRta AparAntivAra II 5.26 ) At the Council at Valabhi under Devardhi Gani, not only the work written at Mathura and Valabhi were rewritten and codified, but some more were added to the previous list. A serious attempt was made to reconcile the differences in the two versions pertaining to the two councils held by Skandil Suri at Mathura and by Nagarjuna at Valabhi. In cases where this failed, one of the variants was noted in the original Agamas and the other in the Commentary. Practically in the Jaina council, the literature was written according to the version of Mathura council as a connected link, while the Joisa-Karandaga (treating of astronomical knowledge) is based on the Valabhi version. The practice of referring to a third party for a controversial question was set aside, and codified works were looked upon as the final authorities. The codification acted as a preventive from further modernization of the sacred works. Several Vannaas (descriptions) occurring in more than one Agama and which were written only once at full length but were not reproduced ad. verbatim a second time, were referred to merely by writing the word Vanna and indicating the source of the parallel description. Thus the result of the Jaina council at Valabhi was the enshrining of the sacred lore in a Mss form. S. 222-Silver coins were struck by Visvasena as Ksatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid., 65; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) 2 Jinadasa Gani, in his Cary? (p. 38) on Nandisutta, refers to the Mathuri Vacana of the Jaina canons; but he does not mention the date of this restoration. It took place under the guidance of Skandila and can be assigned to a date sometime between Vira Sari. 827 (A.D. 300) and 840 (A. D. 313).. Strange to say, he is silent about a similar attempt made almost simultaneously by Nagarjuna Suri at Valabhi (modern Vala in Surastra) known as Valabhi Vacana. Fortunately, both these attempts are noted by Bhadresvara Sari in his Kahavall (so far unpublished). Hemacandra Sari in his commentary on For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. 301-2 302-3 303-4 304-5 Yogasastra (III, 120 ) says that the Jaina canon was got written by Suris, such as Vagarjuna and Skandila.--(H. R. Kapadia, 4 llistory of Canonical Literature of the Jainas, pp. 61-62 ). S. 223--Visvasena struck coins in silver as Ksatrapa.- (Rapson, ibid., 163; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) S. 224-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasena.-(Rapson, ibid., 163; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) S. 225-Silver coins were struck by Visvasena as Ksatrapa.--( Rapson, ibid., 165 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) S. 220)--Ksatrapa Visvasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 166; D. R. Blandarkar, ibid.) In the same year silver coins were also struck by Rudrasimha II, son of Svami-Jivadaman (Ibid). Hence Visvasena appears to have been succeeded by Rudrasin la II during this year. With Visvasepa the line of Castana seems to have come to an end. SvamiJivadaman Seems to have belonged to a younger branch of the royal family (JRAS, 1896, p. 660). For, le bears none of the titles which may be regarded as distinctively royal in character.--( Rapson, cf. cit., exli). The history of this royal family is marked by the conspicuous absence of any coins struck by Mabaksatrapa. The office of Mahaksatrapa, therefore, seems to have been in abeyance during the rule of this family.-(Rapson, ibid., cxli f.). S. 227--Coins were struck in silver by Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Svami Jivadaman. The legend on the coins is svAmI jIvadAmanaputrasa rAjo kSatrapasa rudrsiiim| -( Rapson, ibid., 170; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid). The date read by G. 1. Acharya as 22( 2 ) or 227) on coins of Visvasena (op. cit., 98 ) is unacceptable, as lisvasena was already succeeded by Rudra. simha II in year 226. S. Varsa 228, l'aisakha suddha saptame : The Junagadh Museum inscription discovered from excavations in the Bava Pyara Caves refers to the date of the reign of Rajan Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Jivadaman. The inscription, however, contains no reference to any event.-( WMR, AR. 1929-20, 7). S. 228--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha Il as Ksatrapa.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 229--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha. Il as Ksatrapa.( Rapson, ibid., op.cit., 170; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). S. 230--Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.-(Rapson, ibid., 171; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). $. 231--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Rudra sitnha II-(Ibid., 171; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). 305 306 306.7 307-8 308.9 309.10 For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD A.D. 310-1 310-2 312-3 313-4 314-5 315-6 316-7, 317 316-7 317-8 S. 232-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha Il as Ksatrapa.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.) S. 23(2) --Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha II as Ksatrapa.(Rapson, op. cit. 171). $. 234-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Rudrasimha H.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) S. 235-Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.--( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit.). S. 236--Rudrasimha II struck silver coins as Ksatrapa.-( Ibid). S. 237-Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.---(Ibid. S. 238-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II.---( Ibid ). $. 23(9) - Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II.-( Rapson, op. cit., 172 ). S. 238-Silver coins were struck by Yasodaman II, son of Rudrasimha H, as Ksatrapa.-( 1. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). S. 239-Yasodaman II struck silver coins as Ksatrapa. The legend on the coins is T4 999 TETT $1 21121: - Rap:on, op cit, 175; D.R. Bhandarkar, ibid ). From Dasakumiracarita we learn that in the historical age, Valabhi was the capital of Surastra, and prior to it, Girinagara was so. It was destroyed in Vira Samvat 845 i.e. V. S. 375. (= 319 A.D.). This is according to Titthogatis : Prabhandha Cintamani' (1), Puratana-prabandha-sangraha (XXXVII, p. 83) etc. A similar event took place in V. S. 845, (= 789 A.D.)and this gave a fatal blow to this city, from which it could not regain its original prosperity.(JPI, Pt. I, P. 399). The epoch of the Gupta Era is 318-19 A.D., and its first year was 319-20 A.D. It probably dates from the coronation of Candragupta I, Vikramaditya, son and successor of Ghatotkaca, who had married a Licchavi princess of Pataliputia. This Candragupta, chief of a small principality near Pataliputra, and first of the Gupta dynasty, became independent; and founded the Gupta Era' beginning at 320 A.D. The Valabhi Era, it appears, was adopted by the Maitrakas, who were the feudatories of the Guptas. The latter introduced the Era of the Guptas' in Surastra. Their subjects, however, consequently gave it the name of their masters, and referred to it as the Valabhi era'. S. 242-Coins of silver were struck by Ksatrapa Yagoda man II.--( Rapson, op. cit., 177; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid). C. 319 319-20 320-1 For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY.OF. GUJARAT A.D. 321-2 322-3 323-4 324-5 323-6 327-8 330-1 331-2 332-3 310 S. 243-Silver coins were struck by. Ksatrapa. Yasodaman II.-( Rapson, ibid., 17:1). R. Bhandarkar, ibi). S. 244-Yasodaman II, struck coins in silver as Ksatrapa.--(Rapson, ibid., 177; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid). 5. 245--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodaman 11.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid). $. 24(0)-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodaman II.-(Ibid, 177). S. 2467) - Silver coins were struck by Katrapa Yasodaman II.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227 ft. ). S. 249- Ksatrapa Yasodaman II struck silver coins.--(Ibid., 177). S. 252--Silver coin's were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodaman II.-- ( Ibid., 177). S. 253--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodaman II.---(Ibid., 177). S. 254 : Ksatrapa Yasodaman 1struck coins in silver. - (Ibid., 197; 1). R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 fi.!. Mahaksatrapa, Rudradaman II is known only from the coins of his son Svami-Rudrasena III. He appears as.the first Mahaksatrapa? to reign, since the time of Blartsdaman (last known date S. 217). His relationship to his predecessors is quite unknown. From this period all the princes of this dynasty assume on their coinage the title * Svami' prefixed to the proper name.---( Rapson, ibid., csi iii). 'S. 270-King 1!athaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena' III, son of king Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rndradaman II struck coins in silver. The legend on his coins is 29474142146974.. 4614599 101i il, 179; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 #f.). This is the earliest known date on his coins. Between years 254 and 270 there remains a long interval during it hich no coins of Mahiksetrapas i ksatrapas are knah lo hare existed... $. 271--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami Rudtasena III.(Ibid., 179:).. . S. 272--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena III - (Rapson, op. cit., 170;D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). S. 273-Svami-Rudrasena III struck coins in silver as Mahaksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 179; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). . Some of the Jaina monks who could not act up to the conduct prescribed for them in the Jaina Scriptures; began to stay in Jaina temples of Gujarat etc. in Vira Samvat 882 ( A.D. 356). Thus caitva-isa started from this date. Sec. Upadhyaya Ravivardhana Gani's Pattavali-sarodhhara, (p. 151) published in * Pattavall-samucasa' (pl. 1). "Jajpa Tattvadarsa, ard SHJH (p. 137). 348-9 "349-50 C. 350-1 351-2 356 For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD ! AD:-** *Between $. : 27(4) and 27(0) ---Siker roinis: nwere struck' by Mahaksatrapa 337 ... Kudrasena III.- D. R. Bhandarkar,' np. cit., 227*ff. 1. **** ***** 358 : ksamasramana Mallavadin Suri, the author of Djadasara Viyacakra, de feated the Bauddhas in debate which took place in the assembly of Siladitya, a ruler of Valabhi in Vira samvat 884 ( 358 A.D.), and conquered their l'yantara. Thereupon Siladitya expelled the Bauddhas froin Surastra.! . ; 1 Caturoimsatiprabandha ( VII, V. 47-56). For his various episodes, soe the Sanskrit Introduction (pp..9-20 ) to Nayacara (G.O.S., No. XCVI). . 355-64 $. 280 to S. 284--Square coins of lead. were struck, which belong to Svami.. Rudrasena III. The obverse bears the figure of a humped bull and the reverse is marked with the usual symbols of eteruity. The slate is incised on the reverse, which contains no legend.--( Rapson, op. cit., 187). These coins range for five years from S. 280 to $. 284. 362-3 Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Srami-Rudrasena III.- (G. V. Acharya, JRASB. SS. XLVII, 96). 363-4 Year 28(5) has been read on silver coins struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami Rudrasena Ill.-( G. V. Acharya, ibid., go and 98 ). 364-5 S. 286-Silver coins were struck by Svami-Rudrasena III as Mahaksatrapa. (Rapson ibid., 180). Lead coin's bearing this date belong to his regime.-( Ibid., 188). * 365-6 S. 287--Silver coins were struck by Svamt-Rudrasena III as Maha ksatrapa.--(G. V. Acharya, op. cil., 96 ) 366-7 S. 288 - Lead coins of the same type were struck by Svami-Rudrasena III - (Rapson, op. cit., 188 ).. .. $. 28( 4 ) or 2816 ) or 2817) or 28(83 or 2819) --- Silver coins wete struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena III.-Ibid., 181). S. 2(9)0-Silver coins were struck by Syaini-Rudrasena 111 as Maha ksatrapa.--( Ibid., 181). 368-?(?). $. 29()-Silver coins were struck by Svami Rudrasena III as Maha ksatrapa.-(Ibid., 182). .370-1 $. 292-Svami-Rudrasena III issued : silver coins as Mahaksatrapa. - --(Ibid., 182 ff.) 380 Lakulisa or Lakulesa, the founder of the specialised form of the Pasupata system, is believed to have hailed from Karohara or Karavirohana ( modern Karvan) in the Lata-mandala, in about the 2nd Century A.D. Dr. Bhandarkar equates the Lakulisa sect' with the Pasupatas; of which Lakulisa was the first Pasupata, later on known as Lakulisa-Pasupatas.--Si-R. G. Bhandarkar, :Vaisnaresyys, Sauvison and other Sects.:p. 162); ::.. '367 . 367.5 For Personal & Private Use Only

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88 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A definite reference to Dandadhara' Lakulisa is obtained ( 24TH : *FEUE: 98124 Aral) from the Mathura Pillar Inscription of Candragupta II. of the Gupta year 61 (= 380 A.D.). This inscription records the installation of two images of the Pasupata Acaryas: one who is tenth from Kausika, and the other is fourth from Parabara. Their names, however, end in' Vimala' ( Kapilavimala and Upamitavimala), unlike the later names which end in "Rasi' and 'Siva'. The preponderance of Saiva cult in Gujarat was due to the influence of Lakulisa, who was deified before the fourth century. Evidence of Lakulisaworship has been found at many places in India; at Mathura; in Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajputana, and at Bhuvanesvara." In his Saradarsanasangraha, Madhavacarya recognised Lakulisa-Pasupata doctrine as one of the sixteen important philosophical systems of India. Later, the Pasupata sect was associated with the great resurgence which began from the 7th century, and spread over the whole country. "Ganakarika' (G.O.S., No. 11) records the traditional history of Lakulisa, which says that it was the twenty-eighth incarnation of Mahesvara, that took place at Kayavarohana. Fifth century sculptures of Lakulisa have been traced from Gujarat. In the l'ayu Purana, (Ch. 23, verses 210-213 ) Mahesvara is represented to liave declared to Brahma that in the 28th Mahayuga, when Visnu would be born as Vasudeva, he would incarnate himself as a Brahmacarin, by name Nakulin, after entering a dead body in the burial ground of Kayaroliana, a land of the Siddhas. In the inscription dated A.D. 971 in the temple of Nathadwara, ncar that of Ekalingaji, a few miles north of Udaipur, it is stated that Siva became incarnate as a man bearing a club (lakula) in his hand, in the country of Bhrgukaccha. There is another inscription of the 13th century A.D. (the 'Cintra Prasasti') which records that Siva became incarnate in the form of Bhattaraka Sri Lakulisa and dwelt at Karohana in the Lata country. The Pasupata Acaryas from Western India were very much respected, as is known from the Badaun inscription (in Lucknow Museum) of Lakkhanpala (C. 12th century), where Dharmasiva, an acarya who hailed from Asahil pattan was placed in charge of a temple at Badaun.--(Dr. Keilhorn, EI, I, p. 61-66, 1888). S. 293-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatra pa Svami-Rudrasena III.(Ibid., 183) S. 294--Silver coins were struck by Svami-Rudrasena III as Mahaksatrapa.(Ibid., 183 ff.). Lead coins struck it this year, also, belong to his regime.---(Ibid., 188). 371-2 372-3 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XIX Terracotta Figurines from Gohilwad Timbo, Amreli. (p. 95)

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Plate XX A Ksatrapa Male Head from Tapi river, Surat Museum. (p. 315 ) (Front view) (Back view) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXI For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Legged quern from Salad, Baroda Dist., Baroda Museum (p. 97) (B) Legged quern from Karvan, Ramanlal Desai's collection. (p. 97)

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Plate XXI A (A) Stone Lion-capital, from Baroda (p. 96 ) (B) Stone Lion-capital, from Baroda (p. 96) C) Roman handle from Akota. (p. 98 ) (D) Figure of Eros on the Roman handle from Akota. (p. 98 ) (E) A Cameo from Karvan (p. 98 ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 89 C. 375 376-7 378.9 379-80 382-3 384-5 386 If the Sakas mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta be identified with the Western Ksatrapas, the Ksatrapas of Western India were subjugated by Samudragupta, who had subdued almost all kings of India. Could Rudradeva, mentioned among the subdued kings of Aryavarta, be SvamiRudrasena III of this dynasty ?-(Fleet, CII, III 6 ff.). S. 298--Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena III.(Rapson, op. cit., 184). S. 300-Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena III.( Ibid., 185). S. 301-Silver coins were struck by Svami-Rudrasena III as Mahaksatrapa. -(G. V. Acharya, op. cit. 96). $. 304- Silver coins were struck by king Mahaksatrapa Svami-Simhasena, sister's son ( stasriya ) of king Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena III. The legend is: (a) 151 HB14777 van a 15: #514719 144 auf an, or (b) HERTS 497 varft a rateta 751 12974 Fan farmaa - Rapson, op cit., 189 f.). $. 30(6)-The date on a coin struck by Svami-Simhasena is possibly, s. 306.-(Rapson, ibid., 189 n. 2). Between $. 304 or 30(6) and 310 or 31(x)--Silver coins were struck by king Mahaksatrapa Svami-Rudrasena IV, son of king Mahasatrapa SvamiSimhasena: The legend on the coins is rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa svAmI siMhasenaputrasa rAjo mahAkSatrapasa taraft (Ibid., 191). Only a single coin of this king is known and the date cannot be read on this specimen. The reign of this king is, therefore, to be included in the earlier part of the period limited by the region of Svami-Siahasena and Svami-Rudrasimha III.-( Ibid., cxlix ). S. 310---Rudrasimha III, Western Ksatrapa, son of Satyasimha : Satyasimha is known only from his son's coins; his date cannot, therefore, be fixed. As the Western Ksatrapas were conquered by Candragupta Vikramaditya about Gupta Sam. 90 = A.D. 409, Rudrasimha may have been the last of the dynasty. S. Varsa 31 - ) Kartika Sw. 5-A memorial monolith was raised in honour of Abhira Vasuraka of Harihavaka gotra. The date has referred to the reign of Rajan Mahaksatrapa, whose name is untraced. The record makes a reference to Castana and Bhartldaman, but the expression for their relationship is not read satisfactorily.-( WMR, 1923-24, 12). Between $. 304 or 30(6) and 310 or 31(x)-Mahaksatrapa Svami-Satyasimha is at present known only from the coins of his son, Svami-Rudrasimha III. His relation with his predecessors is unknown. He may perhaps have been a brother of Mahaksatrapa Svami-Simhasena. The reign of this king, is, therefore, 388 C. 388 C. 388 CI2 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT to be included in the latter part of the period limited by the reigns of SvamiSimhasena and Svami-Rudrasimha III.--(Rapson, ibid., cxlix). C. 389 C. 390-1 $. 31(0) or 31(x)-Silver coins were struck by King Mahaksatrapa SvamiRudrasimha III, son of King Mahaksatrapa Svami-Satyasimha. The legend on the coins is rAjJo mahAkSatrapasa svAmI satyasiMhaputrasa rAjJa mahAkSatrapasa / -(Ibid., 192). The date which is the last known of the Western Ksatrapas, is uncertain, as it is impossible to ascertain whether there was a unit figure in the date or not. It is more possibly 31(x). $. 312-G. V. Acharya read this date on coins struck by Svami-Rudrasena III (op. cit., 96); but the reading is hardly acceptable, as Rudrasena III was already succeeded by Simhasena in or before year 304. Possibly the coins may belong to Svami-Rudrasena IV. In that case the date on the coins of Rudrasimha III must be 31(x) and not 310. Skandasvami, the author of a portion of a Rigveda Bhasya, and a commentary on Nirukta, was the teacher of Harisvami, the commentator of SatapathaBrahmana, who hailed from Puskara; and called himself a 'Dharmadhyaksa' of the king Vikramaditya, who is very probably Candragupta II.- (U. P. Shah, 'Gujaratna Ketalak Pracina Pandito, Buddhiprakasa, October, 1952, p. 302). In about the 4th century A.D., we find the grandson of a merchant from Surastra, recording the establishment of a Stone umbrella in honour of the Lord Buddha in Kosam (ancient Kausambi.)-(R. C. Majumdar: Kosam Inscription of the reign of Maharaja Vaisravana'; Epi. Ind. XXIV, p. 146). C. 400 C 400 III ANTIQUITIES Vibaras and Stupas : During the Ksatrapa rule in Saurastra in the 2nd century A.D., several Vihara-caves seem to have been carved. The most notable amongst these excavations are the Caves at Junagadh, Sana, Talaja, Dhank, Jhinjhurijhara (Siddhasar ), and those newly discovered at Khambhalia. Not all of them are Buddhistic, as it was formerly supposed; and from their simple architectural forms, it is not always very easy to determine their exact period. But there is reason to believe that many of them belong to the Ksatrapa period. . Boria Stupa : As remains of architecture, the Slupas that have upto now been found or uncovered in Western India are of brick. The great Boria Stupa in the jungles on the Girnar Mt. at Junagadh had a solid burnt-brick core. The relics were imbedded in this brick-structure at a considerable depth above ground level. The find of a few sculptured marble-slabs, however, showed that some stone-work existed, probably as railing and the crowning umbrella. The relics are on view at the Junagadh Museum.-(Plate XIV a) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD gt Sopara Stupa : The relics from Sopara Stupa, which are assigned to the middle of the 2nd Century A. D. were discovered by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji in 1882 at a depth of 12 feet from the top of the mound at Sopara in a regularly built chamber of bricks of the early centuries of the Christian era. They consisted of a large stone-casket with a lid, which when opened disclosed copper-casket; around which, eight bronze images of Buddha were arranged. These images which belong to the 7th or 8th centuries will be referred to in the Maitraka Period of Antiquities. A coin of Gautamiputra Yajnasri Satakarni found inside the silver casket is the only type of Western Ksatrapa fabric issued by the Andhra king; and this happens to be the only coin of this type discovered in the Aparanta or the Konkan country, the two other specimens, which were found in Saurastra and Baroda and now lay in the British Museum, are not so well preserved as this. Yajnasri was a younger contemporary of Rudradaman, and his occupation of the Ksatrapa territories may account for the gap between the earlier and the later reigns of Rudradaman I as Mahaksatrapa. The date of the present coin can then would be Saka 110-112 (188-190 A.D.).-(K. N. Dikshit, Dr. Bhagvanlal Commemoration Volume, JGRS, 1939)--( Plate XIV b) Rudrasena Vihara : The remains of a Buddhist monastery (Vihara) of the time of Rudrasena I (199-222 A.D.) were excavated at Intwa on the Girnar hill, about three miles from the famous rock at Junagadh in 1949 by Shri G. V. Acharya. Tiles, terracottas, pottery etc. were found in the excavation; but the most remarkable object that was unearthed was the baked clay-sealing, round in shape, 1.1" in diameter, 'with a caitya symbol in the centre and a Brahmi legend which states that the seal belonged to the Bhiksusamgha of the Maharaja Rudrasena Monastery. This is said to be one of the earliest Bhiksu-samgha seals unearthed in ancient India so far. (B. Ch. Chhabra, El., XXVIII, 174-5)-( Plate XVIIC). The first trial pit at the depth of 3 feet disclosed a wall 2 or 3 feet deep, built with the bricks 18" X 12" x 3". Ultimately a rectangle measuring 66" X 58" was dug out which exposed brick-flooring of the same size bricks. On clearing the main courtyard upto the floor-level, two steps each on all the four sides were found. The (floor was paved with two layers of bricks. A platform 51' x 81' was also traced touching the western wall, probably meant as a seat for the preacher. Excavation on the eastern outer structure brought to light six rooms (10' X 10' each ) with a verandah in front, 5 ft. wide, in very good condition; the rooms on all sides were then unearthed which were almost of the same dimensions. Among the eastern rooms the fourth from the south turned out to be a double room 26' in length. This peculiarity was noticed also in the eastern rooms of one of the Viharas excavated at Taxila. The verandah opened out into a big room 16' X 3' which contained two water-closets 7" x 5" on the south, Touching the outer wall of the northern rooms, a pucca gutter 10" in breadth ran upto 37" in length. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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92 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Of the antiquities found there, mention may be made of a complete tile reconstructed by piecing together the broken pieces, ineasuring 10" x 7", with two holes. It was probably used for roofing or covering the gutter. Two silver coins were unearthed. A few rusted tiny copper-coins were also picked up at the excavation. An iron dovetail with one nail intact, indicates the existence of a wooden roof. Parts of earthern jugs, cups, bowls, drain-cover tiles, stone weights, four-legged rectangular grinding stone with pestle, pieces of mica etc. were found in large number, which proves the existence of a well-populated ancient Vihara of the Buddhist monks.-(G. V. Acharya : 'Excavation of a Buddhist Vihara at Intwa Hill in Gimar at Junagadh': Gujarat Samachar (Daily), October 1949). Uparkot Caves : The caves at Uparkot in Junagadh are cut into two floors, with a frieze ornamented with caitya-windows and chequer carvings.-( Plate X). Majority of the smaller caves in this group are rectangular halls with a verandah in their front, supported by square or octagonal pillars. This plan of the early vihuras is often met with in the caves of the 2nd century in Maharastra. In one of them we come across a pillar with a pot-shaped capital which can easily be compared with such capitals of pillars in the caves of the Satavahana period in the Deccan.-(M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat,' Journal of Guj. Res. Soc., 1946, Nos. 2 and 3). In these caves are found certain religious symbols, identified as Svastika, Bhadrasana, Nandi-pada, Minayugala and Kalasa, which, however, are common to both the Buddhist and the Jaina. From other architectural features, the caves appear to be Buddhist. The form of these caves is later than that of the earlier caves of Western India; it shows some features of wooden construction, as wooden frames are copied here. But they are earlier than that of the almost identical caitya-window at the Gop temple; and others at Elura and Cave I at Ajanta. It is, however, difficult to date these caves with ornamentation so little, but so varied and rich on the pillars and the Caitya-window. Several phases of the Uparkot caves seem to extend for about seven centuries (100-700 A.D.). These caves, most probably were Buddhistic, Jaina, and then converted to Buddhism as in the 7th century, when Hiuen Tsiang went to Junagadh, he found there convents and monks of the Sthavira sect of the Mahayana.--( Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, pp. 49-51). Talaja Caves : The caves at Talaja in the south-east of the peninsula of Surastra, and at Dhank in the once Gondal State, seem to belong to two or three periods. The 'Caitya'-cave and the plain cells belong to pre-Christian period, when the Buddhist Bhiksus first came over to Gujarat in C. 200 B.C. The cells and halls which have the Jaina symbols and advanced type of pillar-forms, belong to the second period i.e. the period of the later Ksatrapas (Circa A.D. 200-300 ). Out of the 30 caves at Talaja, which are definitely Buddhistic near the mouth of the river Setrunji, on the north-west of the solitary rock, only one needs description and Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 93 comment. It is a large hall ( 75 feet x 67 feet and 17 feet high ) known as Ebhal Mandapa, with no cells, nor any partition walls dividing the verandah and the cells within. On the facade, there are large caitya-windows, with a broad band of Vedika (rail-pattern) below them. The stupa in the Caitya has its capital attached to the roof. This characteristic feature is noticed in many Caityas in Maharastra such as at Karad, Kuda, Mahad and Junnar. (M. G. Dikshit, Ibid, p. 104). The cave appears to have been carved in the early Christian era.- Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 51-52 )-(Plate XV A). Sana Caves : The caves at Sana, near the village Vankia, are 62 in number, assigned to this period. Of them, the largest is similar to the hall at Talaja. The pillars supporting the roof have bulging water-jar shaped capitals and bases resembling those in the Nahapana's cave at Nasik. By the side of this is a Caitya-cave, known as Bhima ni Cori', 18 ft. wide, 31 ft. deep, and 13 ft. high. The Caitya or the votive Stupa is 8 feet in diameter, very plain and without ornament. There is no ambulatory passage in the cave. The caves are Buddhistic and not Jaina as suggested by some.---( Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 52 ). Dhark Caves : The Dhark caves from the old name Dhankagiri' in old Gondal State, 30 miles from Junagadh have indications of early Jaina settlements. Out of the many Buddhist caves near Siddhasar in a ravine called Jhinjhirijhar in Saurastra one is in good condition, containing a Vedika of the early type, with broad bands. Inscriptions noticed on some stones in these caves, assign them a date of 2nd century A.D. ( Burgess, A.S.W.I., II, p. 152). The central figure in the first niche in the cave is identified as being that of Adinatha, and each side-niche has a nude figure seated in a padmasana, its body erect and motionless. The sculpture carved in low relief on the face of the rock higher up the ravine is also of Adinatha. Here, adjoining Santinatha is a figure standing in Kayotsarga pose. It has long ear-lobes, and ringlets of hair on the shoulders, resembling a few images from Mathura. On the simhasana with a wheel and a deer in the centre, and a lion at each end is found a figure of Parsvanatha, with a triple umbrella shown by three strokes. These Dhank sculptures are the earliest Jaina images in Gujarat and Saurastra.--( H. D. Sankalia, The Dhank Caves, J.R.A.S., 1938, P. 426-30 )-(Plate XVb ). Khambhalia Caves : The group of five caves at Khabhalia, a village near Gondal, newly discovered by P. P. Pandya in 1959, belongs to the same or to a later age of the Ksatrapa period. All the caves from Saurastra have generally no sculptural ornamentation, excepting the religious symbols in the Bava Pyara Math cave. One of these caves from the Khambhalia group has, however, an imposing facade to the entrance of an assembly hall with life-size human sculptures on both the sides.- Plate XVI a). Mauryan Inscriptions : Excepting the Asokan inscription at Girnar during the Mauryan period, no other inscribed object has come to light so far from Gujarat. The inscribed potsherd discovered by Hiranand Shastri in 1938 from Bet Sankhoddhara near Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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94 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Dwarka, is written in letters of the early Brahmi script of about the 200 B.C., and reads H277 [ Of Nandaka).-(ARDAB, 1938, PP. 13-14)-(Plate XVII a). The other potsherd of the Mauryan period is discovered from excavations at Somanath, conducted by P. P. Pandya in 1955. It appears to be a fragment of a water pot. These inscribed objects, though belonging to the Mauryan period, are, for facilities of reference, treated with similar inscribed objects of the Ksatrapa period. Ksatrapa Inscriptions : The stone-inscription from Mulavad-sar near Dwarka and the set of four inscribed stones found from Andhau in Kaccha (now in the Fergussion Museum, Bhuj) are memorial stones called Lastis. These are the first examples of inscribed hero-memorial stones, later so common in Rajasthan and the Deccan. The fragmentary stone-inscription from Lathi (Saurastra), now exhibited in the Epigraphical Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, has only a few letters which can be made out; the others are beyond decipherment: The first line reads like H1971 arift * ... ... 14(XVII b). In the Bava Pyara group of caves, one inscription of Ksatrapa Jayadaman has been found on an isolated stone, which seems to have been brought there from outside. From the expressionaria tal', which is particularly used by the Jaina sect, it seems likely that the caves were occupied by the members of that sect at a subsequent date. The other stone-inscription discovered only recently by P. P. Pandya adds to the small group of Ksatrapa epigraphical antiquities, which otherwise are in ample evidence in form of the numerous coin-legends. Inscribed Seals : The Intwa Sealing discovered from excavations at Intwa, on Mt. Girnar, reads HERSE#afael H974, and is assigned to 199-222 A.D. period-(B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri, EI, XXVIII, pp. 174-5)--( Plate XVII c) The terracotta seal from Timberva near Karvan, from the collection of the late Rajaratna Ramanlal Desai, though tentatively deciphered has letters in Brahmi characters of the later period of the Ksatrapa rule. It may be at 4-(R. N. Mehta, JOI-). It was first published in Bom. Univ. Jour., 1950 by M. R. Majmudar-( Plate XVII a) The clay-seal found from the levels dating 200-600 A. D., from Vadnagar excavations undertaken by Dr. B. Subbarao in 1953, is inscribed in characters of the 2nd-3rd centuries which resemble the writings on the early Ksatrapa coins. The words are read as 3747 a FanAI -(of protector--the son of Sabhuta'). It appears to be a sealing of some local governor.-(B. Subbarao & R. N. Mehta, M. S. Univ. Journal, March 1955, pp. 21-35 )-( Plate XVIII a) Impressed Seals : The other sealing from Vadnagar is an impression of the right profile of some individual with rather plain coiffeur, gathered up in a bun at the back; acqualine nose and almost triangular bust. The figure holds in its hand possibly a flower For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD with visible petals, held near the nose, as if smelling it. The motif on it which may be a wine-glass held to drink, looks like an imitation of some Roman figure.-(Ibid, p. 32) -(Plate XVIII b) The excavations at Akota, the site of old Ankottaka, near Baroda, conducted by Dr. B. Subbarao in 1951-52, laid bare two clay-seals struck from the same die, probably made of stone, with prancing horses either fighting or in a romantic posture with a star of a typical Graeco-Roman style. The great vigour and the realistic representations speak highly of the art. One of these seals actually bears the string-marks at the back, showing that the seal was affixed on a lump of clay put on the string.--(Baroda Through the Ages, 1953, pp. 87, 109)--( Plate XVIII c). A lead seal from Navsari ( in the Baroda Museum ) is in a mixed style ( the Iranian horse, but with an Iranian dragon tail), engraved by a Hellenistic Artist.-(H. Goetz, Handbook of Baroda Museum Collections, 1952, p. 16)-(Plate XVIII d). Terracottas : The terracottas which reveal the complex cultural and ethnic set-up of the age are the different types of clay figures which were made for definite vratas, pujas and socio-religious festivities, and were, according to custom, immersed in ponds and rivers immediately afterwards. Terracotta figurines have been found from Junagadh, Amreli, Vala, Rangpur, Prabhasa, Vadnagar, Karvan, Baroda and Kamrej. Terracottas of Ganesa, the Buddha and figures of animals like the ram, the elephant, the dog and the camel were found from Gohilvad Timbo, Amreli, the latter of which appears to have been inhabited about the early centuries of the Christian era. Excavations in 1935-36 at Gohilvad Timbo, outside the town of Amreli, situated between two rivulets, the Thebi and Vadi, yielded two fragmentary terracotta figurines of Buddha and a Bodhisattva, which have been assigned to the beginning of the Christian era. -(ARADBS. 1935-36, p. 21: Pl. VII, fig. 3-4)-( Plate XIX) Conch-shells : Conch-shell ornaments have been found in abundance from Gohilvad Timbo, which is outside the town of Amreli; and it appears, a factory of cutting, polishing and decorating conch-shells was in evidence in this area, the supply of the best conches being from the sea near Bet Sankhoddhara. Pieces of shell-bangles of various type and design are found from all the ancient sites, to which may be added the names of Kotyarka-Mahudi, Vadnagar, Karvan, Nagar, and otlier places-(ARDABS. for 1935-36, 1936-37, 1938 and 1939). In the Kstrapa levels at Vadnagar were found large number of sankhu-conches in various stages of manufacture. The varieties of decorations and designs found here have not yet been recovered from any site in India so far. Red Polished Ware : The Red Polished Ware, the crude red, red and black ware and painted red ware with designs in black are found from layers of the Ksatrapa period at Baroda, Timberva, Vadnagar, Vala and other places which suggests the import and successful imitation of the technique of making a fine pottery resemblying the Roman Samian ware, Red polished ware sites in Saurastra were discovered at Kalavad (Dist. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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96 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Halar) and at Arena, Boricha, Sutrapada and Bhandaria, all in Sorath District-(A. Ghosh, Indian Archaeology, 1954-55-A Review). Red Polished Ware has been discovered from more than 32 sites in Gujarat and Saurastra.---(B. Subbarao, Baroda through the Ages. p. 6; Personality of India, p. 46, 2nd Ed.). The Roman affinity of Red Polished Ware at Vadnagar was confirmed by the associated find of an imitative intaglio in clay depicting a woman with flower in hand- (A. Ghosh, Indian Archeology: A Review : 1953-54). Crystal Reliquary : A crystal reliquary, which is about 3}" high and 3" in diameter and consists of two parts, a body and a lid (now in the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay) was discovered by Pandit Bhagvanlal from the Sopara Stupa (JBBRAS, 1881-82, p. 307). The Stupa from which it was recovered along with other sacred relics could be assigned to the period of Yajnasri, the Satavahana king of the 2nd Century A.D. Another crystal reliquary was excavated at Mirpur-khas now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay). This points out that the art of cutting hard stones is very ancient. Egypt, Chaldea, Ninevah, Babylon, ancient Iran and India produced gems and beads, cameos and engraved seals in hard stone, which must have been held in great demand by the ancient world.-(Moti Chandra, 'Art of Cutting Hard Stone Ware in Ancient India', JGRS, Vol. I No. 4, 1939, P. 73). Sculptures : No sculptures of the Ksatrapa period have so far been published. A small figure of a lion seated on its hind legs with its face partly mutilated, was obtained from the foundation-trench of the Indumati Mahal at Baroda by V. R. Talwalkar, the State Engineer. It was probably once the top-piece of a free standing column. Three more small but beautiful lions, now in the Baroda Museum, were found from Navsari.(Plate XX a). The lion-motif was probably the royal symbol of the Ksatrapas just as the boar was of the Calukyas. The motif of a lion trampling over an elephant seen in early sculptures was possibly introduced by the Ksatrapas or the Sakas, in commemoration of the victory of the foreign Simha-dhraja over the native Gaja-dhvaja of the Satavahanas. The life-size portrait statues of the Saka-Kusana kings-Wema Kadphises, Kaniska, and Castana (See p. 55 infra )-all belonging to the last quarter of the first century, and clad in Central Asian Scythic dress--in the Mathura Museum, are in a class and style apart. The dress and footwear of the Kaniska statue and the inscription across the surface of the lower part of the enormous heavy and angular robe at once indicate that the artist was not an Indian but most probably a Scythic national. The solid and compact drapery is treated in harsh angles and flat lines sharply chiselled. This tradition of angularity was perhaps passed on in the composition of the seated or standing Buddha-Bodhisattva images of Mathura.--( The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 523). The torso of the youthful portrait of Castana, ( Plate XIII) was discovered from the Devakula of the Kusana emperors, unearthed by Pandit Radhakrishna in 1911 from the side of Tokri Tila in Mat village, situated about 8 miles north of Mathura. The life-size sculpture is clad in a long tunic held by a beautiful belt and long trousers. The figure evidently carried a sword fastened by means of a strap. The Brahmi For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 97 inscription on this figure reads Sastana, which is understood as only a different form of the name Castana, founder of the Saka dynasty of Western India with its capital at Ujjain. The statue having been found with others of the Kusanas is suggestive of some relationship with Kaniska (A.D. 78-101 ), who seems to have wielded authority over Western India through Mahaksatrapa Castana.-(V. S. Agrawala, Handbook of Sculplures in Curzon Museum of Archaeology, Mathura, 1939, p. 14). A head from Sojitra, now in the Vallabhavidyanagar Museum, may be assigned to c. 200.-300 A.D. i.e. to the Ksatrapa period from its headdress and other peculiarities. -(A. V. Pandya, Vallabhavidyanagar Bulletin No. II, 1958).-( Plate XX b) Stone Querns : Beads, stoppers, terracotta figurines, querns, bone and ivory objects, pieces of conch-shell bangles, rings etc. and metallic objects of iron, copper, lead and gold of this period have been found in excavations in Gujarat.-(A. Ghosh, Indian Archaeology : 1953-54-4 Review ). A few legged querns with the design of two composite animals facing a tree or a taurine symbol are generally attributed to the Indo-Greek period, because this motif is believed to have developed in the Achaemenian period and was current after that in the distant parts of the Iranian Empire. The elements of this motif are seen on the rhyton from Kuban and the armlet of the Oxus treasure, now preserved in the Leningrad Museum. These affinities suggest that this motif was brought to India by some of the inhabitants of the Oxus area or of the Western Iranian Steppe. The Indo-Scythian stone quern with Achaemenian leographs, having ibex-horns and flanking the sides of a tree was obtained from Salad, a village not far from Baroda.-(H. Goetz, ' An Early Indo-Scythian Monument', Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. III, Pt. I, 1947).- Plate XXI a). A four-legged stone quern with hornless gryphons and with a taurine symbol replacing the tree was found from Karvan, since forming the late Rajaratna Ramanlal Desai's Collection.-(M. R. Majmudar, ' Antiquities from Karvan', Bom. Uni. Journal, January 1950).-( Plate XXI b) Another complete quern of sandstone with a similar, but Indian motifs from Karvan is acquired by the Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda. Legged querns are found from Vadnagar and Amreli in Gujarat and from Karad, Kolhapur, Nasik, Ujjain, Mahesvara and Taxila also. Dr. Sankalia has ascribed a * Maurya-Guptan Age' to such querns, as they come from the early historic periods. --('Cultural Significance of Saddle Querns', Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay, 1950, Ns; Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 35-37 and Plates I to IV). Roman Contacts: The Indo-Greek period in Gujarat history marks the beginning of the trade-relations between Rome and India, which continued during the Ksatrapa period also. A handle of a Roman bronze jug, along with fragments of trefoil-shaped neck of the amphora to which the handle was fitted, was discovered from the site of old Ankottaka ( Akota ) near Baroda. The Roman identity of the handle is known from the CI3 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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98 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT figure of Eros, the God of Love, who as an oarsman is plying with an oar, pointing to the aspect of the Aphrodite taking the role of his mother, the protectress of the Roman and Greek navigators coming to distant India. It is an important material evidence of the Roman trade in Gujarat which once passed through Bharukaccha to Ujjain and Mathura by way of Karvan and Baroda. According to the Periplus, the imports from Barygaza included wine, porcelain, perfumes, vessels of copper and brass.-(M. D. Desai, Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, Pts. I-II, 1949-50 )--( Plate XXI c). Such handles and similar Roman bronze vessels were found from Brahmapuri excavations near Kolhapur, with a typical Hellenistic art-tradition. The beautiful Roman Stone Cameo of some patrician woman was discovered from Karvan, the place of Lakulisa fame.-(R. N. Mehta, M. S. Univ. Journal, 1954)-( Plate XXI d, enlarged) Coins*: The coins of the Ksaharata, Andhra and Kardamaka i.e. the Western Ksatrapas are obtained from various places in Saurastra and Gujarat, mostly from Junagadh and Bharukaccha. In the absence of more details regarding the mode of government, the coins of the Western Ksatrapas form an excellent series; because each coin gives the name of the king, from the legends on which, a connected account and a complete geneology of the dynasty is supplied. These coins are of silver, copper and occasionally of lead; because the coins of Castana's successors bear dates, and each coin gives the name of the king and his father.-( Plates XXII, XXIII) Bodhi Dynasty: The coins of Bodhi dynasty are of lead, hardly half an inch in diameter. They are known so far exclusively from the collection of Bhagvanlal Indraji, which is now in British Museum. Provanance is unknown; but most likely they were found in some region of Western India connected with the Western Ksatrapas, i.e. Saurastra and Gujarat. Of the four rulers known of this dynasty, the coins of three Sribodhi, Sivabodhi and Candrabodhi are of one and the same type. They are blank on one side and on the other they bear a three-arched hill and the legend bearing simply their names viz., Siribodhisa, Sivabodhisa and Siri Candabodhisa. The coins of the fourth ruler fall distinctly in three varieties: (i) tree in railing, man standing to its right on obverse, and on reverse three-arched hill surmounted by crescent ; on either side waved line represented vertically and the legend Virabodhisa on the reverse ; (ii) obverse is uncertain, reverse same as (i), but the legend Virabodhidatasa; (iii) Tree in railing on obverse, three-arched hill surmounted by crescent and legend Virabodhisa on the reverse. Ksaharata Dynasty : The coins of Bhumaka are known exclusively in copper and they have on one side' arrow pointing upward, thunderbolt to its right and in between a * This detailed Note on Ksatrapa Coins is subscribed by Sri Paramesvari Lal Gupta, Keeper of the Coins Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay at the request of the General Editor. For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 99 pellet, probably representing discus with Kharosthi legend Chaharadasa Chatrapasa Bhumakas; and on the other capital of a pillar, consisting of a lion with upraised paw facing right and a wheel and legend in Brahmi, Ksaharatasa Ksatrapasa Bhumakasa. On some coins the legend is supposed to be in Greek, but it is by no means certain. These coins may be distinguished into two varieties on the basis of the reverse. On one the lion-capital is placed to left and the wheel to right; and in the other, the position of the two is interchanged i.e. wheel is to the left and lion-capital to the right. Again, this second variety has another peculiarity. On some coins the lion is facing right and on some to left. Nahapana, issued silver coins, which are believed to be on the patterns of IndoGreek or Roman coins and weigh 34 to 36 grains. They have the portrait of the king on one side with legend in Graeco-Roman characters in which the Prakrit legend Rano Ksaharatasa Nahapanasa is rendered. On the reverse is arrow to the left and thunderbolt to the right and a pellet in between, as is found on the coins of Bhumaka and legend around as above in Brahmi. This coin type was later adopted by the succeeding Saka family of the Kardamakas. A copper coin with an imperfect legend (na) hapanasa was obtained at Ajmer and is now in British Museum. If the attribution is correct, then, it may be said that he issued copper coins also. This coin has on one side thunderbolt to left and arrow to the right, with the above inscription and the other side bears a tree with broad leaves within railing. Kardamaka Ksatrapa Dynasty: The numismatic record of the family of Castana is confined, to a great extent, to silver coinage on the pattern of Nahapana and once it had its beginning in the coinage of Castana, it continued till the end of the reign. Not only that, it was followed by their successors, the Guptas in this region and it remained the currency of a few other dynasties which followed them. The silver coins of Castana are distinguished into two varieties, on the basis of their reverse motifs. On the obverse of all the coins we have the bust of the king and the Graeco-Roman legend Rano K'satrapasa Castanasa ; but on these coins these are found with less completeness. On the reverse, in type (i), we have crescent to left and star to right and inscription in Brahmi and Kharosthi around, as Rajno Ksatrapasa Ghasmotikaputrasa Castanasa. This type has so far been known from a electro-type prepared from a cliche in lead, kept in British Maseum. No original coin was known till recently. The Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay has obtained only recently a coin of this type from Surat. The reverse of the second type has a three-arched hill (which has been called caitya by earlier scholars) surmounted with a crescent; beneath waivy line; crescent to left and a star (or sun ) to right. The legend on these coins may be distinguished in two types (a) Rajno Ksatrapasa Ghsamotikaputrasa Castanasa in Brahmi and Kharosthi both. (b) Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Ghsamotikaputrasa Castanasa, in Brahmi and Cathanasa in Kharosthi. No silver coin of Jayadaman is known; but from Rudradaman I onwards, this coin Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT type was profusely issued by the Western Ksatrapas, with some variations from that of the coins of Castana. They began to give date on the back of the king's head, and the Greek legend became meaningless. It was more or less a conventionalised decoration, now gradually degenerating. On the reverse, Brahmi legend was used exclusively and it had the name of the father as well as of the son with their full titles, viz., Rajo Ksatrapasa Jayadamputrasa Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Rudradamasa. 100 These coins were issued by their issuers either as Ksatrapa or as Mahaksatrapa and accordingly they have either the title Ksatrapa or Mahaksatrapa, as the case may be, on their coins. The coins with the Ksatrapa title are exclusively found issued by the succeeding ruler in the time of the preceding ruler, towards the end of his reign, thereby suggesting that he was nominated as heir-apparent. Rudrasimha I is known as Ksatrapa just before his rise to Mahaksatrapaship. His only known coin as Ksatrapa is dated in the year 101 and the same date is found on his earliest coins as Mahaksatrapa. No Ksatrapa is known during the eighteen years of his Mahaksatrapaship. Satyadaman in all probability, was Ksatrapa for a while towards the end of his reign. Again Rudrasena I was Ksatrapa only for about two years, during the Mahaksatraship of Jivadaman and before his own promotion to Mahaksatrapaship. Not Ksatrapa is known during his reign of 22 years. It is only in the last year of his reign (year 144) and before the beginning of the reign of Samghadaman that we find Prithvisena as Ksatrapa just for a while. Nothing is heard of him later. During the reign of Samghadaman and the early part of Damasena, we find no Ksatrapa. It is only in the latter part of Dimasena's reign that we have a chain of Ksatrapas for about seven years from 154 to 161, viz. Damajadasri II, Viradaman, Yasodaman and Vijayasena; but all of them retained that status for a short period. While the first two are not known as Mahaksatrapa, the latter two rose to that rank. Then again we find Vijayasena ruling for about 12 years, Damajadasri III for about 5 years and Rudrasena II for 22 or 23 years. During these 40 years we have no Ksatrapa. It is only at the end of the reign of Rudrasena II that we have Visvasimha as Ksatrapa and during the latter's Mahaksatrapaship, Bhartrdaman as Ksatrapa. Visvasena was Ksatrapa towards the end of the Mahaksatrapaship of his father Bhartrdaman. But from Visvasena onwards, we find that the title of Mahaksatrapa was abandoned. Only Ksatrapa title was retained; and this title was used by the ruler and his heirapparent simultaneously for short period. Visvasena and Rudrasimha II, both issued coins as Ksatrapa during the years 225 and 226; again Rudrasimha II and his successor Yasodaman II issued concurrently the coins under the title Ksatrapa during the years 237 and 238. The title of Mahaksatrapa was revived during the reign of the 'Svaml' rulers, and they dispensed with the title of Ksatrapa. They do not seem to have the practice of concurrent issue of the coins by the ruler and the heir-apparent. For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD The dates begin to appear from the time of Rudrasimha I on the coins; but it is not unlikely that the earlier rulers also might have the dates on their coins. Very few of their coins are known; and those known, miss the portion where the date could be. Any way, from this date, we find that the coins were issued, every year, without any break till the year, 254. During this period we have not come across the coins only of the following years : Rudrasimha I Jivadaman Rudrasena I Damasena Rudrasena II Bhartrdaman Rudrasimha II Yasodaman II 107, III 121 122, 123, 143 148, 149 192, 193 218, 219 233, 239 246, 248, 250, 251. 101 After the year 254, we do not get any coin till the year 270. In between this period, quite possibly fsvaradatta intruded, whose coins are described below. From the year 270 we have the coins of Svami Rudrasena III till 274. Thereafter again till 282 we have no coins. In 282 the coins of this ruler re-appear and continue till 301. During this period only the coins for the years 283 and 295 are not known so far. Then we have the coins of Svami Simhasena for the years 304, 305, 306 and 310. The coins of his successors do not disclose any date. Coin Hoards: The Ksatrapa coins of the Kardamaka family and the later families are known in a number of hoards found in Gujarat, Saurastra, Malwa and former Central provinces, but only the following hoards found in Gujarat and Saurastra are on record : 1. Junagadh hoard. 520 coins-Rudradaman 1, 3: Damajadasr! I, 1; Rudrasimha, 5; Rudrasena I, 8; Damasena, 3; Viradaman 9; Yasodaman, 2; Vijayasena, 34; Damajadasri III, 9; Rudrasena 11, 86; Visvasimha, 56; Bhartrdaman, 286; unassignable, 86. (N.S., XLVII, p. 97-99). 2. Kaccha hoard (found in 1862). 142 coins-Damasena, 1; Vijayasena, 4: Damajadasri III, 4; Ashadama (?) son of Rudrasena, 5; Rudrasena II, 17; Visvasimha, 20; Bhartrdaman, 48; Visvasena, 21; Rudrasimha II, 11. JBBRAS., (Old Series), VII, P. 161. 3. Uparkot (Junagadh) hoard (found in 1897). 1114 coins-Rudrasena I (MK), 7: Damasena (MK), 5: Viradaman (K), 10; Vijayasena (K), 1, (M.K.), 35: Damajadasri III (MK), 9; Rudrasena II (MK), 109; Visvasimha (K), 51; Bhartrdaman (K and MK), 207; Visvasena (K), 179; Rudrasena II (K), 83; Yasodaman II (K), 108; Rudrasena III (MK), 11: 1svaradatta (MK), 1; unassigned 226. JBBRAS., (O.S.), XX, 201-210]. For Personal & Private Use Only

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102 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 4. Vasoj ( Junagadh ) hoard. (found in 1933). 591 coins---Rudrasiriha I (MK), I; Rudrasena I (MK), 2 ; Damsena (MK), 2; Damajadyri II:(K),2; Viradaman (K), 4; Vijayasena (MK), 8; Damajadyri III (MK), 2; Rudrasena II, 37; Visvasimha 133 Bhartsdaman, 69; Visvasena 44; Rudrasimha II, 10; Yasodaman II, 18; Rudrasena III, 370.; unassigned 2. (N.S., XLVII, p. 98-99). In the year 1878, coins of Western Ksatrapas were recovered from the foundation trenches of the Central Jail and the Baroda College area.--| A. S. Gadre, Important Coins from Baroda State', JNSI, Vol. I, p. 20 ). Besides these, the hoards of Western Ksatrapa coins have been found at Amaravati ( Berar, M. P.) (Bom. Gaz. I, i, p. 49, 57); Sonepur (Dist. Chhindwara ) (N.S., XLVII, p. 95-99); Seoni (JNSI, XII, p. 167-68 ; XVI, p. 207); Arvi (District Wardha ) (unpublished ; T.T. No. 5 of 1918 ): Chhindwara (Proc. ASB, 1882, p. 114); Kamptee (Nagpur) (JRAS, XII, 1850, p. 2); Gondarmau ( Bhopal) ( Indian Archaeology, 1954-55); Sanchi ( Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Sanchi, p. 61-64); Sarvania (Bansawara ) in Rajasthan (ASI, AR, 1913-14); Karad (Satara ) (Bom. Gaz. I, i, 48-49); Shirwal (Junnar ), J.B.B.R.S., (0.S.) II, p. 374-80 ] and Petluripalem in Andhra (1.H.Q. XXXIII, p. 270-71), Some stray coins have also been found in excavations at Kondapur, Maski and Ranigrahi in Andhra Pradesh (JNSI, XV, P, 163-69) and Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) in Maharastra. Potin Coins: A potin series of coins is known to have been issued by Jivadaman, Rudrasimha 1, Rudrasena 1 and Damasena. The coins of Jivadaman and Rudrasimha I have on the obverse humped bull standing to right above date; and traces of Greek characters; and on the reverse, similar device as on the silver coins, but with the shortened form of the legend : Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Jivadamasa on Jivadamana's coins and Rajno Mahaksatrapasa Ruurasihasa on the coins of Rudrasimha I. The date 119 is known on the coins of the first ruler; and the known coins of the second do not bear the unit figure. These coins are few, and were obtained at Puslikar in Ajmer and Ujjain. So they are believed to be Malwa issues. The potin coins of Rudrasena I and Damasena have an elephant standing to right, with star and crescent above on the obverse and on the reverse three-arched hill with crescent, and crescent on left and star on right, waivy line below. Below the device the date is given in numerals. These do not bear the name of the kings and are attributed to these rulers on the basis of their dates. The known dates on these coins are 131, 133, 147, 153, and there are some coins on which the dates 154 and 158 may be read. Copper Coins : Some copper coins are also known to have been issued by these rulers. The earliest copper coins are believed to have been issued by Castana. A single square copper coin is published in the B.M.C., A.K. (p. 75), which is doubtfully assigned to him. This coin bears on the obverse a horse standing to right facing a post, above an inscription in Greek letters which could not be properly deciphered. On the reverse is a three-arched hill surmounted by crescent, crescent to left and star to right, inscription in For Personal & Private Use Only

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KSATRAPA PERIOD 103 Brahmi, of which a few letters have been read as ----_s-tkkpu---castanaka, of which the reading caslana is not certain. The next ruler to issue copper coins is his son, Jivadaman, no silver coins of whose are known. His coins bear on the obverse humped bull to right, facing trident with battleaxe: above the inscription in Greek characters, not intelligible. On the reverse is the hill of six arches surmounted by crescent ; left crescent, right star. Inscription in Brahmi Rajno Ksatrapasa Svami-Jayadamasa. Another coin is attributed to him which has an elephant to right and an inscription in Brahmi, of which only the letter ya is readable on the obverse and Ujjain symbol on the reverse. But this attribution is doubtful. There is another variety of square copper coins, which have a humped bull facing within square border of dots on the obverse and three-arched bill surmounted with crescent and crescent to left, and star to right in a dotted square border. They have neither name nor date. They have been attributed to Saka years 70-125 (148-203 A.D.) by Rapson, on the basis of the motif bull, wbich is noticed on the potin coins of some earlier rulers. Here it may be pointed out that the seals of the Saka princess Prabhudama, who was the daughter of Rudrasimha and the sister of Rudrasena, bear the figure of bull, exactly as on these coins (A.S.I.A.R., 1913-14, pl. XLVII, no 248; pl. XLVIII, no 347). So, it is not unlikely that these coins may either belong to Rudrasimha I or his son Rudrasena I. Lead Coins : Some lead coins are also known to have been issued in this period. They are square coins and have humped bull standing right within square border of dots and the three-arched hill with crescent at top and crescent on left and star on right, and wavy line below, and below it the date as on potin coins. These coins are dated 280, 281, 283, 284, 285, 288 and 294, and may be attributed to Svami Rudrasena III. Traikutaka Coins: These are found in Southern Gujarat, Konkan and Maratha country. Coins of the Traikutaka Dahrasena, son of Indradatta, and Vyaghrasena, son of Dahrasena are known. The names of Dahrasena and Vyaghrasena are mentined also in copper plates of 456 and 480 A.D., respectively. Coins of Isvaradatta : Coins of Isvaradatta are similar to the coins of Western Ksatrapas, with bust of the king and probably dates in numerals (not visible on known specimens) on the obverse and three-arched hill surmounted by crescent; left crescent, right star or sun; beneath waved line; legend arround Rajno Mahaksatrapasa fsvaradattasa varse prathame or dvitiye. These coins are known along with the coins of the Western Ksatrapas in the hoards found at Uparkot (Junagadh ) (JBBRS, XX (O.S.), p. 201 ff), Sarvania (ASI, AR, 1913-14, p. 227 ff), Sonepur (N.S., XLVII, p. 95-97), Shirwal (JBBRS, II. (O.S.), 1: 374-80 ) and Petluripalem (1.H.Q., XXXIII, p. 269-74). The discovery of two hundred and thirty-eight silver coins of the Western Ksatrapa dynasty, found at Petluripalem, Dist. Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, far away from the home province of the rulers is interesting, and shows how coins travelled far and wide.-( Indian Archaeology, 1956-57, p. 77). Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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104 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Stray coins : A coin of Lucius Virus was found at Nagdhara (Surat district ). This suggests that Roman trade continued in this period. A coin of Wema Kadphises, (C. 40-78 A.D.) who was known as a Mahesvara, was found from Karvan, the ancient seat of Pasupata sect (M. R. Majmudar, 'Antiquities from Karvan', bUJ, 1950 January. p. 49). A coin of Siri Satakarni with Bull-mark was secured from the same site. A hoard of lead coins of the Andhras, recovered from Karvan now in the collection of the late Rajaratna Ramanlal De: ai has been described by Dr. M. G. Dikshit (JNSI, 1952.) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXII Kusana Coins (1-1) Wema Kadphises ( 85 A.D.). (2-2) Huviska (150 A.D.). Obverse and Reverse Obv. & Rev. (3-3) Vasudeva ( 180 ) Obv. & Rev. Andhra and Tribal Coins (1) Pulumavi. (2) Yajna Satakarni. (3) Siri Satakarni. Obverse Obverse Obverse (4) Ujjain Symbol: (5-5) A Tribal coin, with Ujjain symbol Reverse of Andhra coins on the reverse. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXII A 2 1114 For Personal & Private Use Only CO Ksatrapa Coins Top Row : Bhumaka's coin: I Obverse : Arrow pointing upwards and a thunderbolt. Nahapana's coin : 2 Obverse : Bust. 3 Reverse : Capital of a pillar, consisting of a lion with an upraised paw and dharmaeakra. 4 Reverse : Arrow and thunderbolt with a legend. Family of Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II : (3-3) (4-4) (5-5) (6-6): Coins of Svami Rudrasena III : Obverse : Bust. Reverse : Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent.

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1 1 3 3 5 5 Family of Castana: (1-1) Damasena Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Rudrasena II Obv. & Rev. Ksatrapa Coins Obverse-Bust, Reverse: Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent. (2-2) Viradaman, Obv. & Rev. (5-5) Bhartrdaman Obv. & Rev. 2 2 For Personal & Private Use Only 4 4 6 6 Plate XXIII (3-3) Vijayasena Obv. & Rev. (6-6) Visvasena Obv. & Rev.

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Plate XXIV 71 Temple at Gop, (Halar Dist., Saurastra): After conservation in 1959. (p. 126) For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER VI GUPTA PERIOD (Circa 400 A.D.-470 A.D.) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Facing Page 107 Fig. 5 n GUPTA PERIOD C 400 A.D. - 470 A.D. S a KARNAL. R. Sindhu * AHICHHATRA * KUSINARA KANYAKUB JA * VAISALI GOPADRI PATALIPUTRA NALANDA PURA ARBUDA. KHEDBRAHMA * VIDISA V VIRAMGAM UJJAYINI Narmada Mama: VALABHI. BHARUKACHHA Tapti R. AMRELI GIRNAR TAMRALIPTI. LE PRATISHTHANA Godavari R. Kisina Cauvery OLOMON Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD (Circa 400 A.D.-470 A.D.) The political disintegration which followed the dissolution of the Kasana empire continued right up to the beginning of the fourth century A.D. The Saka Ksatrapas ruled long over Gujarat and a part of Malwa ; but their power was rapidly on the decline. Rudrasimha III was not only defeated but his kingdom was annexed by Candragupta II, (C. 376-414 ) the Gupta emperor of Magadha, who made a prolonged stay in Malwa for this campaign with his feadatory chiefs and ministers. Thus after more than three hundred years' rule, the line of the Western Ksatrapas came to an end, and the last vestige of foreign rule disappeared from Western India. The term 'Gupta dynasty' is given to the house founded by Srigupta in C. 270 A. D. in Magadha, primarily because the names of most of its rulers ended with the term Gupta. The Gupta-Licchavi matrimonial alliance during Candragupta I's reign (C. 305-325 A. D.) consolidated the sphere of influence and activity of the Guptas. The Gupta Era', it is believed, marks the assumption by him of the imperial title, at his formal Coronation in 320 A.D., when he probably started his gold coinage. The practice of issuing gold coins was started by foreign Greek and Kusana rulers. Candragupta is the earliest Hindu ruler whose inscribed gold coins have been handed down to us. In about 370 A.D. the Western Ksatrapas are described in Allahabad pillar inscription as paying homage to Samudragupta (C. 330-370 A.D.) who changed his capital from Pataliputra to Ayodhya; but actual annexation of Malwa and Saurastra to the Gupta empire took place in the reign of Candragupta II ( Vikramaditya ). The latest dated coin of the Western Ksatrapa Svami-Rudrasimha III, son of Svami-Satyasimha is dated $. 31 i.e. 388-89 A.D., and the earliest coin of Candragupta II bears the date 409-10 A.D. Candragupta II (C. 375-414 A.D.) launched an attack against the Saka Ksatrapas of Western India when encamped at Bhilsa in Malwa. In the campaign he not only defeated the Western Ksatrapas, but completely annihilated their power, and annexed to his empire their dominion consisting of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurastra. This conquest necessitated the issue of silver currency, which was confined to the new provinces of the empire; for, the residents of this area were accustomed to it for more than three hundred years during the Ksatrapa rule. "The empire of Candragupta II who had a long reign of about 36 years was in a prosperous condition, as is shown by the account of the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien. The addition of the maritime provinces of Gujarat and Saurastra, with the new trade openings they secured, must have added immensely to the resources of the empire. Literature and art also flourished under his enlightened patronage. Most probably the famous poet For Personal & Private Use Only

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108 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Kalidasa flourished in his court; and the gold coins issued from his mint are remarkable for their artistic beauty and variety."--A. S. Altekar, Catalogue of the Bayana Hoard of Gupta Gold Coins, Introduction, xxviii, 1954). Candragupta II ruled Gujarat, probably, from Ujjayini, the seat of an intensely fostered Sanskritic literature. From Ujjain by the way of Bagh and Tanda in the province of Rath, he might have entered Gujarat, and would have gone from Broach coast to Saurastra and then wrested the peninsula from its Ksatrapa rulers. The Gupta emperor extended the direct sway of Pataliputra from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Having added the rich provinces of Gujarat and Saurastra to his empire, he controlled to a large extent the Indian commerce with the Western world. Candragupta II bore the proud title of Vikramaditya' ('the Sun of Prowess') which appears on his coins. And his exploits naturally recalled those of Vikramaditya of Ujjayini, who is described in Indian legend as having expelled the first Saka conquerors of India more than four hundred years ago. After Candragupta II, his son Kumaragupta I (C. 414-455 A.D.) born of his chief queen Dhruvadevi, ascended the throne. Kumaragupta I who had a long reign of more than 40 years, is noted for his performance of an Asvamedha sacrifice to establish his sovereign position. By this he gave great prominence to the God Kartikeya, whose name (Kumara) he bore. He issued a new type of gold coins depicting Kartikeya riding on a peacock on one side, and the king feeding a peacock on the other. He also substituted the peacock for Garuda on the silver coins. There was tranquillity and prosperity in his empire which is reflected in his coinage. His gold coinage is extensive and shows as many as 14 types. Their artistic merit is high, and many of their metrical legends have considerable poetical merit as well ---(A. S. Altekar, Ibid., Introduction p. XXX, 1954). Kumaragupta died in G.E. 136 ( 455-6 A.D.) The Guptas rose to the Imperial position by their alliance with the republican Licchavis, who had survived the Maurya and Sunga times, and had grown highly powerful. They had outlived their ancient contemporaries in power and glory, and remained the single and sole representative of ancient republicans. There seems to be a strange fatality in the history of the Guptas that they rose to power with the help of a republic, and they abolished the ancient republicanism! But they in turn were shaken off their foundation by a republic--the Pusyamitras. The defeat inflicted by those who had 'developed great power and wealth' (Agfaa Tia ........ Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta', Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, pp. 53-54) on the Imperial forces under Kumaragupta made the Gupta dynasty, to quote the language of his son Skandagupta, 'totter to its fall' (Ibid, at - gift formaliteta i d e tta oftar MAI LII; facgai teht....1.13; @ Th ..1.14). Evidently Kumaragupta himself was killed [foart Rate (a) etc. ). In the second war Skandagupta remained in the battle-field the whole night, and slept on the bare ground. The next morning when the battle-field continued he succeeded Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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109 in forcing a decision, which entitled him, as the inscription says, to plant his foot on the royal foot-stool, i.e. became entitled to sovereignty. Thus the invading Pusyamitras were stemmed back, and they retired; but the glory of the Guptas never returned. The course of the weakness and decline of the Guptas, consequent on the Pusyamitra and Huna wars could not be checked.-(K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, 3rd Ed., 1955; p. 157). . GUPTA PERIOD India began to be invaded by the Hupas at about the middle of the 5th Century and their hordes soon penetrated within the boundaries of the Gupta empire; and Skandagupta was called upon to face the new menace soon after his accession. The Junagadh inscription, dated in the year 458 A. D., refers to the fame of Skandagupta being sung in the land of the Mlechhas as well, the latter being identified with the Hunas. His empire continued undiminished down to his death; for, he continued to hold effectively even its out-lying provinces like Gujarat and Saurastra. Gupta mints were fairly active during his reign; silver coinage was as copious as that of his father; but his gold coinage is much less copious and shows only three certain. types. The financial strain of the Huna war had told upon the treasury; for, many of his gold coins are heavily adulterated. He, however, introduced the national suvarya standard of 144 grains in the gold currency.-( A. S. Altekar, Ibid. p. xxxiv). Skandagupta's arduous military campaigns against the Hupas, heavily taxed the resources of the empire; and this is reflected in his coinage. His gold coins are comparatively few and belong mostly to a single type; and the deterioration in the purity of gold is also responsible for the financial drain caused by the stress of wars during his reign. The aged emperor Kumaragupta died before Skandagupta ( 455-467 A. D.) return. from his victorious campaign against the Hunas. This heroic feat of Skandagupta that saved India for at least half a century from the scourge of a cruel and barbaric foe, fully justifies his assumption of the title Vikramaditya' in imitation of his grand-father, Happily we have also evidence of great works of public utility executed by his officers even in distant parts of the empire, in the very first year of his reign. The Girnar rock-inscription of 456-57 A. D. refers in detail to such an achievement by his governor Parnadatta and his son Cakrapalita, the local magistrate, who took prompt steps to repair the damage and restore the embankment. Another record in the same place tells us how a similar catastrophe had occurred three hundred years before, when the embankment was repaired by the Saka chief Rudradaman. Two records on the spot thus give us an interesting history of this great irrigation reservoir over a period of more than seven hundred and fifty years. On the very rock near Girnar, which have the inscriptions of Asoka and Rudradaman, Parpadatta has recorded his master Skandagupta's victory over the Hupas (456 A.D.). The inscription of Parpadatta is a beautiful composition and holds out before us. the picture of a strong united empire under the vigorous administration of a benevolent and popular ruler.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, Ch. III, pp. 18-28). For Personal & Private Use Only

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IIo CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Thus Gujarat, for nearly a century remained an integral part of an empire which stood for Aryan culture at its best. The Imperial Guptas were great, not only as conquerors and statesmen, but as patrons of all cultural activities. Their strong and just administration, more than their conquests, brought about the political consolidation of India north of the Narmada. Architecture, sculpture and painting reached a high level of artistic expression. "It is difficult to say what was the exact extent of the Gupta rule in Gujarat. However, Kaccha seems to form the north-west frontier of the Gupta empire. The northern as well as the eastern parts of Gujarat would have been under the Guptas, as most likely from there they had entered the province. But if the Southern Gujarat was under them is doubtful. The Traikutaka ruler Dahrasena, the son of Indradatta, was ruling the south of the Tapti contemporaneously with Skandagupta ( 450-495 ). This Dahrasena appears to have been independent of the Guptas, as he claims of having performed an Asvamedha. Furthermore, he, as well as his successor, date inscriptions in his own era, known as the Traikutaka', later as 'Cedi' or 'Kalacuri'era, commencing on Asvin Sudi I in A.D. 248."-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 11-12). Skandagupta died about 467 A.D., and after a decade of disorder, Budhagupta came to the throne of the Imperial Guptas, and ruled for twenty years or more. Bhatarka, a general of the emperor was appointed a governor of Saurastra, who stayed at Valabhi. His younger son Dronasimha assumed the title of Maharaja '; and it is claimed that the paramount ruler, possibly Budhagupta, in person installed him in royalty by a regular ceremony at about 500 A.D. This may suggest the continuance of Gupta overlordship cver Saurastra, down to the beginning of the 6th Century A.D. But the allegiance was only a nominal formality, for neither the personal name of the emperor nor the name of the dynasty is mentioned in their records. It appears almost certain that the Guptas lost all effective control over Gujarat and Saurastra, and also probably over Malwa soon after 470 A.D. Later on the Valabhi rulers set up an independent kingdom; and the provinces of Gujarat and Saurastra were permanently lost to the Guptas. A.D. A fragmentary copper-plate grant of the 4th Century A.D., from its palaeoC. 400graphy and wording, discovered at Kalacchala near Chhota Udaipur in Central Gujarat, mentions one Isvararata, who meditated on the feet of a lord paramount (parama bhattaraka-pad-anudhyata) i.e., who was a feudatory of some imperial power, probably the Abhiras, was ruling over a fairly extensive territory; for, among the persons to whom he addressed his order are included such high officials of the State as Kumaramalya and Uparika, meaning the Councillor of a Prince' and 'the head of a bhukti or Commissioner or a Magistrate', respectively. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD III C. 400 C. 400 The grant was made at Pracakasa, identified with Prakasa on the Tapi in North Khandesh. The village Kupika granted by the charter cannot now be traced; but Vankika, the head-quarters of the territorial divisions in which it was situated may be represented by the modern village Vankad, about 20 miles from Chhota Udaipur. fsvararata, therefore, appears to have held Central Gujarat and some portion of the Khandesh District. Isvaradatta's family seems to have been ousted by Sarva Bhattaraka (C. 348-378 A.D.), who appears to have risen to power in Circa 400 A.D. The latter's coins, imitated from those of the Western Ksatrapas are found in abundance in Central Gujarat and Saurastra.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro., xxxvii). The legendary accounts contained in the various Jatakakathas, which can be roughly assigned to the Gupta period at the latest, suggest the antiquity of the introduction of Buddhism in Gujarat. Still their trustworthiness is doubtful. Buddha's preachings during his early days mainly extended to the country of his origin, namely Magadha. Such references as credit Buddha's visit to Western India have to be rejected, as Buddha is never known to have crossed the Narmada. However, the repeated mention of the centres Surparaka and Bharukaccha in early Buddhist literature suggests that these two must have been the earliest in Gujarat to receive it. The mention of Surattha (Surastra) as a janapada-desa is found in the Milinda-panha (S.B.E. XXXVI, pp. 211, 311, 359 ), in the Peta-vatthu (P.T.S., II, p. 359), in the Apadana, (P.T.S. II, p. 359) and in the Niddesa (P.T.S.I, pp. 154-55). According to the Peta-vatthu Commentary (P.T.S. p. 244 ), hundred years after the death of Buddha, the king of Surattha was Pingalaka, the tawnyeyed ruler, who was known to have ruled in the times of the Moriyas, (Petavatthu PP. 57-61) and its commentary Paramatthadipani (P.T.S., pp. 244-57), and who was converted by Asoka himself, when he went to Pataliputra for converting Asoka to his own faith.-(M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat', Guj. Res. Soc. Journal, Vol. VIII, 2 and 3, 1946). Sovira, associated with the Sindhu country, which obviously refers to parts of modern Sindh adjoining Saurastra is mentioned in early Buddhist literature. In the Adittha Jataka (No. 424), the capital of the Sovira country is mentioned as Roruva or Roruka as mentioned in the Digha-Nikaya (II, 235; XIX, 36), a place to be visited by the sea. In the Ceylonese Chronicles (Geiger, Mahavamsa, p. 60; Dipavamsa, p. 51) mention of a place like Lala-rattha is made, which indicates Lata, the ancient name for Gujarat. According to the Dipavamsa (p. 54), Sihapura is stated to be the capital of this country. According to the Ceylonese Chronicles (Mahavamsa, Ch. VI; Dipavarsa, Ch. IX ), Sihabahu, a King of Lala-rattha is said to C. 400 C. 400 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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112 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 400 have banished his son Vijaya, the latter of whom heard of Buddha's death on his reaching Lanka (Ceylon) from Bharukaccha. Vijaya is said to have landed and stayed for three months in Bharukaccha, while on his way to Ceylon. By far the most important place mentioned by the early Buddhist literature is Bharukaccha, modern Broach. In the Vinaya Pitaka (Oldenberg, III, p. 39) a story of a Buddhist Bhiksu from Bharukaccha is told, who in a dream saw him self sleeping with another woman, and who accordingly thought himself to be guilty of the Parajika sin. Upali ruled out that he was blameless. (Buddha-ghosa, Samanta pasadika. I, p. 283). In subsequent literature, this incident is referred to as 'Bharukaccha Vatthu'. In the Jataka literature, at least three references to Bharukaccha as a seaport are met with. In the Bharu Jataka (Fonsball, p. 169, No. 213 ) it is told that Bodhisattva once went to the land of Bharu, with a caravan of merchants to buy salt and vinegar, from the Himva region. The Supparaka Jataka (No. 463, IV, p. 137-393) tells us that Bodhisattva was once born as a mastermariner of Bharukaccha. In the Sussondi Jataka (No. 360, Jataka III, p. 188) regular trade between Suvarnna Bhumi and Bharukaccha is mentioned; it also mentions a caravan-route starting from Benares and passing through the deserts of Rajputana, which terminated at Bharukaccha. Frequent trading activities between Suvarnna Bhumi, Soparaka and Bharukaccha are mentioned in Apadana (II, p. 476), Maha-Nidessa (I, p. 155), and Manoratha Puram (I, p. 156). In the Supparaka Jataka (IV, p. 137-39), Bharukaccha is stated to be within one night's journey by sea from Sopara. The geographical interpretation of the word 'Bharukaccha' whose component parts Bharu and Kaccha mean a 'marshy land', according to Panini ( Astadhyayi, 4. 2. 126, and 4. 2. 133 ), is suggested by a story in the Bharu-Jataka to justify the geographic features which refers to the faction between two parties of merchants who came to reside in this city. They sought the help of king Bharu to settle their dispute. The king having decided in favour of the wrong party, the whole land of Bharu, about 300 leagues in length, submerged into the sea by the wrath of gods. According to Hindu Puranas, the name of Bhrigu (and, or) Jamadagnya is said to have been associated with Bharukaccha, which is said to have been sunk into the sea with the arrows of Parasurama. (Brahmanda Purana, III. 57, Vv. 47). People from Bharukaccha are referred to in Atthasalini (p. 305) and Milinda-Panha ( S. B. E., p. 211). Connected with Bharukaccha, in the same context, we find the name of another sea-port in Western India, Supparaka, which also belonged to C. 400 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXV For Personal & Private Use Only Bagh Cave Fresco of Danaa Rasaka, showing six ladies with danda held in either hand, and other six with cymbals. At the Fourth Cave called 'Ranga Mahal' (p. 122)

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Plate XXVI 55 Gupta Coins (1-1) Gold coin of Candragupta II (c. 375-414 A.D.): Obv.-Horseman type ; Rev.-Goddess seated on a stool. (2-2) Gold coin of Kumaragupta I (C. 414-455 A.D.): Obv.-Archer type ; Kev.-Seated Laksmi. (3-3) Silver coins of Kumaragupta I: Obv. & Rev.-Winged Pea-cock type. (4-4) Folded Wings Pea-cock type-First variety. (5-5) >> >> -Second variety. (6-6) Silver coin of Skandagupta, ( 455-467 A.D.): Oby. & Rev. Known as Nandi type'. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXVII X For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Vala Seal of Pusyepa (B) Vala Seal of Pusyena, showing the letters of the seal. (p. 195) Reads : (1) 317546477 378497 215 (2) apk HERTSEH(3) FAETTA HEI... (4) y gorura

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late XXVII A (A) Vala Pot-sherd of Guhasena, dated Valabhi year ( 2 )47 = c. 566 A.D. (pp. 151, 197) Reads [800] You ft Tea qz: (C) Clay-Seal of Siladitya, excavated from Gohilwad Timbo, Amreli. (p. 195) Reads eft aftale 54 (B) Inscribed pot-sherds from Gohilwal Timbo, Amreli, Baroda Museum. (For Readings, See p. 197.) For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD I13 C. 400 Aparantaka, in the latter of which the Southern Gujarat was included. According to a legend in the Divyavadana ( Cowell and Neil, p. 42), Punna Thera from Sopara is said to have visited Savatthi with a caravan of merchants, where Buddha preached him the Punna-Vada Sutta. At his request Lord Buddha is said to have visited Soparaka, where, according to some accounts, he was staying in a Gandha-Kuti built for him. Asoka is said to have sent Yona Dharmaraksita Thera to Aparantaka, a tradition which is narrated in the Ceylonese Chronicles (Mahavamsa, p. 34; Dipavamsa VIII, 7), and in several places in literature such as Milinda-panha (S.B.E., p. 331 ), Thupavamsa (J. Pali, Soc., 1898), and Saddhamma-Sangraha (J. Pali. Soc., 1890), one of which mentions that about 37,000 people were converted in Aparanta by Yonaka Dharmaraksita. The consecration of Aparantaka is believed to have been complete only after the Third Council (Mahavamsa XII and Dipavamsa VII), under the patronage of Asoka, at Pataliputra, which took place in 248 B.C. (Bhandarkar, Asoka). Mogaliputta Tissa, the Head of the Buddhist Church after the Third Council is said to have done independent preaching in A paranta. Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya II ), son and successor of Samudragupta married Dhruvadevi. The extension of the Gupta Empire to Saurastra and Gujarat seems to have taken place during his reign.-(CI, III, 21-36). Malwa and Surastra were conquered by Candragupta II Vikramaditya of Magadha, and were annexed to the Gupta empire. Evidence of the Gupta Occupation of Malwa is afforded by two inscriptions (dated G. E. 82 and 93 or 401 and 412 A.D.) found in caves on the Udayagiri hill (Fleet, CII, III, 25, 31, f. 35); and evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Candragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are directly imitated from those of the Western Ksatrapas.-( Rapson, ibid., cl. f.) When Candragupta II extended his power over Western India, he began to strike silver coins for that region, modelled on those of his predecessors. The conventional head continued to appear as the king's portrait; the date retained its place behind the head on the left, with the letter 'va', a contraction for varse, although the Saka era was replaced by the Gupta era. Traces of the Greek legend were also retained. But the symbol on the reverse was replaced by a figure of Garuda-standing and facing with outspread wings,--the characteristic emblem of the Guptas.-(Allan, C.I.C.B.M.-G.D., XXXVI, f.) Skandasvami, the author of a portion of Rigveda Bhasya and the commentary on Nirukta and the teacher of Harisvami, the commentator of Satapatha Brahmana, was in all probability during this period, as he called himself a dharmadhyaksa of the king Vikramaditya. He hailed from Puskara. (U, P. Shah, Buddhiprakash, 1951 ). C. 400 C15 For Personal & Private Use Only

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114 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT - A.D., Candragupta II (Vikramaditya) in about 380 A.D. succeeded his father 409 Samudragupta, He crossed the delta of the Indus, defeated the Valhikas, marched through Malwa and Gujarat to the Arabian Sea, and annexed Malwa and Saurastra, overthrowing the Western Ksatrapas.-(Barnett L. D., Anti quities of India', Ch. II, Chronology of India', p. 47). 409-10 The earliest date on the silver coins of Candragupta II is year 409-10 A.D. or 90 + x (i.e. 409-13, since the king died in about 413 A.D.). The legend on the reverse has two varieties : (a) HITCT HERTSITIG ft. Grup HATA (:), and (b) sit. T Y HERIFINTE sit. Toua faite -- Allan, ibid., 49 ff.). 413 Kumaragupta I succeeded his father Candragupta II of Magadha. A hoard of 2000 silver coins of Kumaragupta was found from Amreli excavations. (Hiranand Shastri, ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8). 413-14 Candragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. Mahendra and Mahendraditya are his favourite titles corresponding to the Vikrama and Vikramaditya of his father. In his reign the silver coinage was considerably extended and introduced to his central dominions, where the Garuda of the reverse was replaced by a peacock.-( Allan, ibid., XL, iii). The great variety in the silver coins of Kumaragupta I forms a striking contrast to the scarcity of his father's silver coinage. The silver coins of the Garuda type which belong to Western India, fall into three main classes : Class I-Coins which bear close similarity to the silver coins struck by Candragupta II. The legend on these coins is paramabhAgavata mahArAjAdhirAja zrI. kumAraYG HE-SIFERA (:) Class II--Coins which bear no trace of Greek letters, the head and the Garuda on which are very rudely executed, and the inscription thereon is in the square-headed alphabet. The legend is the same as those on Class I, except that the initial word 'Parama' seems omitted on a sub-variety of this class. Class III-The coins are all of small thick fabric, which resembles that of the Traikutaka coins and hence they may have been struck in Southern Gujarat. The legend is the same as on that of Class I, except that in a sub-variety, the word Maharajadhiraja is replaced by Rajadhiraja. The obverse of all these classes bears the word varse on the left, but the figures of the date cannot be traced.--( Allan, ibid., xciii, ff., 89 ff.). 413-14 A large hoard of silver coins of Kumaragupta I was accidently unearthed at Anand (Kaira Dist.) during the excavation of a private building in 1952. The hoard lay in a kuldi (small earthen pot) and contained about two hundred For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD . 115 413-14 C. 426-50 430 coins. They all belong to Class 1.* The diameter of the coins is about 0.5" or 12 mm. Their weight varies from 25 to 41 grains.-(A. V. Pandya, Annual Report of the Bombay Secretariat Record Office and its Subordinate Offices, for the year 1952-53, p. 17). * A. V. Pandya notes that the reverse bears the emblem of a Peacock, but the photographs clearly indicate that the emblem is of Garuda, which is the usual emblem of his silver coins in Western India-(H. G. Shastri). A large series of silver-plated coins with a copper core have been found around the site of the ancient Valabhi. They are a debased issue of the silver coinage probably struck during a period of financial pressure.--(JRAS, 1893, 137 ff.). They bear no date. The legend on them is paramabhAgavata rAjAdhirAja zrI kumAragupta HE SIRETA 1-(Allan, ibid, xcvi, III f.) Maharaja Indradatta's reign is known through the coins of his son Dahrasena.-( Rapson, B.M.C. 198, ff.) He is the earliest known king of the Traikutaka dynasty. The Traikutakas seem to have originally belonged to Aparanta. The extension of their power over South Gujarat may be dated in the second quarter of the fifth century.-- (H. G. Shastri, MG, p. 249). About this time lived Indradatta, of the Traikutaka dynasty, reigning in Southern Gujarat and the Konkan. Dadda I was the Gurjara king of Bharukaccha. The Gurjaras apparently entered Western India from the north, about the first century A.D. They founded two kingdoms--a Northern in the region of Southern Marvad, the Kiu-chi-lo' of Hiuen Tsang, with its capital Pi-lo-mi-lo i.e. Bhillamala (Bhinnamala or Srimala). A Southern kingdom was established at Bharukaccha, which included the whole of Central Gujarat and the northern part of Southern Gujarat, i.e. the present Broach District, the Talukas of Olpad, Chorasi and Bardoli of the Surat District, as well as the adjoining parts of the Baroda State, of the Revakantha and of Sachin ; its boundaries in all probability, being the Mahi river on the North and the Ambika on the south. The Gurjaras of Broach seem to have been feudatories of some larger power, and may have started as vassals of the Northern kingdom of which they were probably an offshoot. During the 7th century, Bharukaccha was attacked by the kings of Valabhi on the one hand, and by the Calukyas of Badami on the other, to the latter of whom a portion of its southern dominions was lost. After being invaded by the Tajikas or Arabs in the 8th century, the Bharukaccha kingdom was finally conquered about 800 A.D. by the Rastrakuta Govinda III, who made over 430 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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116 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 437 Central Gujarat or Lata to his brother Indra, first of the Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty which held that part of the country for more than 100 years.-(IA, XVII, 191 ; Bom. Gaz. I 312, n. 7). A.D. Bandhuvarman, son and successor of Visvavarman, was ruling in Dasapura (Mandasor, in Western Malava) as feudatory of Kumaragupta I. A guild of silk-weavers from Lata (Navasari-Broach region) came to Dasapura (modern Dasor or Man-Dasor in Malwa) and built a temple of the Sun in the Malava year 494 i.e. 437 A.D. Sections of the people who were originally silk-weavers in the Lata country (Southern Gujarat) when they settled at Dasapura, adopted different professions such as that of an archer, a story-teller, an exponent of religious problems, an astrologer, warrior and an ascetic showing that caste-restrictions had not become rigid at least in Western India about the time of this record.-(Mandsor stone-inscription of Kumaragupta I and Bandhuvaraman': D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I., p. 288-297). Although Western coast of India produces no silk of its own, silks manufactured in this region, then known as Latadesa, were known even in the beginning of the Christian era.-( Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Trans. by W. H. Schoff, 1932, p. 45). The region has been mentioned as the original home of the silk-weavers who migrated to Mandsor in Malwa. The artistic silk-weaving has been mentioned as a matter of legitimate pride in the Mandsor inscription, eventhough the word is not specifically mentioned.-(IA., XV, p. 197). The Sanskrit word ' pattolika' meaning a colour-box as used in the Kamasutras (III, 3, 14) is traceable in the word 'patolu' or the special form of silkclothing with variegated colours in its texture, so well-known in Gujarat. Owing to the demands of the ruling princes, silk-weavers who have settled in South India trace their origin from Saurastra, and still use Saurastri language called Patnuli' or 'Khatri', who first migrated to Deogiri in A.D. 1187-8, then to Vijayanagar, and finally to Tanjore, Dindigal, Madura and other places, as a result of Muslim oppression in Saurastra. These silk-weavers can well be linked up with the weavers of Mandsor.-(Randle H. H.; "The Saurastrans of South India ", JRAS., 1944, pp. 151-156 ). 437 and The benevolent efficiency of Candragupta II's administrative organization of 473 - the several guilds and commercial corporations finds support in the fact re corded in the Mandsor inscriptions of 437 and 473 A.D., that a guild of silkweavers belonging originally to Lata found it necessary to migrate owing to disorder prevailing in their native land, and settled down within the Gupta empire with a view to ply their trade of silk-weaving over there, and attain prosperity thereby. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD 117 451 That a guild of weavers should in the course of a generation prosper so well that a considerable section of them could devote themselves to the leisurely pursuit of the study of astronomy, testifies to the fostering care of their trade of silk-fabrics, internally and perhaps even overseas.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptas, p. 92). This shows, also, that the profession of silk-weaving was one of the wellknown professions of the Lata people and that these people were the devotees of the Sun.-(Vide, IA, XV, p. 194). Maharaja Indradatta of the Traikutaka dynasty was succeeded by his son Dahrasena. The type of the Traikutaka coins set by him evidently seems to have been adopted from the Ksatrapa coins which were current in Western India since long. The diameter of these coins varies from 0.45" to 0.55" and it weighs 28 to 35.5 grains. The obverse bears the bust of the king facing right and is surrounded by Graeco-Roman characters which are obscure, as on the Ksatrapa coins. The Traikutaka coins, however, bear no dates. The emblem on the reverse consists of a three-peaked hill, the moon on its summit, a star on the right, a river below and a legend surrounding it. In the legend Dahrasena is styled Maharaja as well as Parama-Vaisnava.-(Rapson, B.M.C. $ 136, 145, 151 ff., 198 ff.). The Mathuri Vacana of the Jaina canons that took place under the presidentship of Skandila Suri did not tally with the Valabhi Vacan, presided over by Nagarjuna Suri in its entirety, as the two leaders Nagarjuna and Skandila could not meet to settle the differences. So a worthy attempt to improve this situation was later on made by Devarddhi Gaoi Ksamasramana of Valabhi, who called a Council at Valabhi in Vira Samyat 980 or 993. He got written the scriptures. The first Council had, however, met at Pataliputra. This momentous event is known as 'pustkarohana' or the 'Redaction of the Jaina Agamas ( Canons)'. This was the third council that tried to restore and carefully preserve the Jaina Scriptures. It is dated as Vira Sam. 980 (A.D. 453) by the followers of Skandila Suri, and Vira Sam. 993 (A.D. 466) by those of Nagarjuna.-(H. R. Kapadia, History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas, pp. 62-67). Kalaka Suri who was a 'Yuga-pradhana' from Vira Samvat 983 to 994, once came to Anandapura (modern Vadnagar) and stayed there for the rainy season in Vira Samvat 980 or 993. At that time Dhruvasena, the third son of Bhattarka Senapati, came to this city and stayed there. After some time, Virasena, his eldest son died. So, to allay his sorrow, this Kalaka Suri read l'ajjosavana-kappa in the presence of the Jaina Church, on the 4th day of 453-466 454 or 467 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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118 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Bhadrapada in Vira Samvat 980 or 993.1 (V. S. 510 or 523=454 or 467 A.D.). Pajjosavana-kappa used to be formerly recited at night in the presence of Jaina monks. But it was publicly read as noted above. Some attribute this event to Dhanesvara Suri, the author of Satyunjaya-Mahatmya. 2 1 Sandehavisausadhi (pp. 118-119), Kalpa-kiranavali (pp. 129-132 ), Dipika' of Jayavijaya (pp. 113-115), JAC (p. 20) and JPI (pt. I, p. 439). Sandehavisausadhi is a com. on Pajjosavanakappa, by Jinaprabha Suri, composed in V. S. 136. From this com. (p. 119) we learn that 'Anandapura' was known as 'Kalanagara' in the days of Jinaprabha Suri. 2 Sce SHJL, (p. 146). Here, the other date Vira Samvat 933, too, is mentioned. 455 Skandagupta ("Kramaditya', Vikramaditya'), son and successor of Kumaragupta I, is said to have restored the fallen fortunes of his family, to have conquered the Pusyamitras and fought with the Hunas. 455 Kumaragupta I who was succeeded by his son Skandagupta had 'Krama ditya' as his Aditya' title; but on some of his silver coins he has also the more famous title. Vikramaditya', which had been borne by his grandfather. The silver coins of Skandagupta fall into two classes : (i) those issued in the Western provinces of the empire and (ii) those issued in the Central provinces of the empire. The former class presents three different reverse types viz. Garuda, Bull and Altar. The Garuda type corresponds exactly in fabric to Candragupta II's silver coins and Class I (a) of Kumaragupta I. The coins of this type are scarce, in comparision with those of the preceding reign. The legend on these coins is parama bhAgavata-mahArAjAdhirAja-zrI-skandagupta-vikramAditya (:) / From this it is inferred that Skandagupta did not retain the territories throughout his reign. 455 The Bull type coin, which is a new type, consists of a small series of coins of very base metal, having the usual bust on the obverse but without traces of Greek legend ; the reverse type is a bull, presumbly Siva's Nandi, couchant to right. The coins are all found in Saurastra and probably belonged to the region around Valabhi. The legend is the same as on the Garuda type. The Altar type represents the commonest type of Skandagupta's silver coinage. It is of rude fabric, bearing the usual bust with traces of a degraded Greek inscription on the obverse and an alter on the reverse. The legend on these coins is of three varieties: (a) TAHITTT at fara fora UGT: (b) R 17 sit T UET ART: 1 and (c) TAHTTaa sit ZUCT: - Allan, Ibid.,'c ff. 119 ff.). 456-57 The earliest known Traikutaka king was Indradatta. The mention of Trikuta in the description of Raghu's digvijaya suggests that Kalidasa, who flourished about 400 A.D. during the reign of the Gupta king Candragupta IlVikramaditya, knew of a Traikuta kingdom on the Western coast. The known inscriptions of the Traikutas, however, belong to a later date.-CII, IV, XL ii). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD 119 Indradatta flourished about 415-440 A.D., as his son Dahrasena's Pardi grant is dated in Kalacuri year 207 ( 456-57 A.D.). Dahrasena is known to have performed an Asvamedha sacrifice (asvamedhaharta, 1.2 of the plate); he is known to be a Vaisnava from his silver coins found at Daman in South Gujarat. The legend on the coins is Maharaja Endradatta--putra-paramavaisnavaSri Maharaja Dahrasena. In his copper-plate he calls himself Bhagavat-padakarmakara, a servant of the feet of Bhagavat.-(CII, IV, XL ii). 457-58 The Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta is seen on the hundred square feet of uneven surface of a large rounded and somewhat conical granite boulder, which records (1) his appointment of Parnadatta as Governor of Surastra and (2) Parnadatta's appointment of his own son Cakrapalita as Governor of Junagadh, (3) the bursting of the embankment of the Sudarsana lake in the Gupta year 136, (4) its repairs by Cakrapalita in the following year, and ( 5 ) the erection by him of a temple to Visnu in the G. year 138.- (CI, iii, 47-68 ). The Girnar rock-inscription of Skandagupta is the only known inscription of the Gupta rule in Gujarat. It records that Skandagupta had, after long deliberation, appointed Parnadatta as the Governor of Saurastra and that the latter put his worthy son Cakrapalita in charge of Girinagara. The embankment ( setu) of the Sudarsana dam at Girinagara, which was reconstructed in $. E. 72 (150 A.D.) in the time of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman, again burst in Bhadrapada of G.E. 136 ( 455 A.D.) during the reign of the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta; and Cakrapalita, the administrator and the son of Parndatta, the Governor of Saurastra, got it promptly rebuilt within two months in the summer of the next year, i.e. G.E. 137 ( 456 A.D.). The new dam was 100 hastas in length, 68 hastas in breadth, and 7 purusas in height. The inscription is styled sudarzanataTAka-saMskAra-grantharacanA (Composition on the repairing of the Sudarsana lake). Copper-plate from Pardi, (fifty miles south of Surat ) shows that Dahrasena, Traikutaka was reigning in (Traikutaka or Cedi Sam. 207) 456 A.D.(JBRAS., xvi, 346; Bom. Gaz. 294-5). 456-57 The Pardi plates (Kalacuri Samvat 207 = 456-57 A.D.) were issued from the victorious royal camp at Amraka which record the donation of a village in the Antarmandali visaya, which on the analogy on the Antar-Narmada visaya in the Sunaokala plates of Samgamasimha (K. year 292), seems to have comprised the territory on both the banks of the Mandali or modern Mindhola river. The places mentioned in the grant can be identified in the country between the Purna and the Mindhola in South Gujarat. Dahrasena may have ruled from Circa 440 A.D. to 465 A.D. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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120 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 457-58 457-58 457-58 The reference in the Junagadh rock-inscription sphuTa madhura citra kAnta zabda samayodArAega points unmistakably to the acquaintance of the author with the Science of Poetics (suhitya sastra) as well as to his knowledge of traditional literary Figures of Speech ( Alankaras). The use of compounds in ornamental epithets, also, appears to have been much in favour.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptus, p. 192-3). As Saurastra was considered one of the most important provinces of the Gupta empire on account of its ports which greatly facilitated foreign trade, Skandagupta had to deliberate considerably for nights and days' over the appointment of its viceroy, and he found a worthy official in Parnadatta to fill the post. The statement in the inscription sag at foreta throws light on the political administration in Skandagupta's time, and indicates that the Gupta sovereign was at special pains to appoint a series of responsible " Wardens of the Marches" to protect his dominions from impending Huna invasions, the danger of which had not been then over.-(R. N. Dandekar, Ibid.) The latter part of the Girnar inscription mentions that Cakrapalita, the administrator of Girinagara, and son of Parnadatta, the viceroy of Saurastra built a temple of Cakrabhrit (Visnu) on the new dam that was built of masonry at the top of the city in G. E. 138 ( 457-58 A.D.). He spent plenty of money and plenty of time for the erection of the temple, which seemed as if rising from the Mountain Urjayat. It is noteworthy that Cakrapalita was an ardent devotee of Visnu (sfarceratuqtada ; and his Emperor Skandagupta also was a Parama Bhagavuta (great devotee of Visnu)(Junagadha Rock-Inscription of Skandagupta, CII, III, 136 ). Bhattarka the founder of the so-called . Valabhi dynasty', was originally a military commandant-Sena pati' sent by Skandagupta to reinforce the civil defence of Saurastra against the possible Huta invasions, who had accordingly scrupulously arranged for the defence of his territories by selecting Viceroys, Governors and Commandants of army. Bhattarka may have been placed in Saurastra in about 462 A.D. [i.e. about two generations ( 40 years ) before Dronasimha, whose date is 502 A. D. ) which roughly corresponds with the date of Parnadatta of the Junadadh rock-inscription, who possibly looked after the civil administration of Saurastra. Bhattarka was possibly later deputed there as a military commandant to reinforce the defence of the province. Later on, the military officer must have been obliged by circumstances to enforce absolute control over the province. And Bhattarka thus ultimately became both Senapati and Governor of Saurastra. In one of the Valabhi copper-plates Bhattarka is referred to as maulabhRtamitrazreNIbalAvAptarAjyazrI : which fact seems to support the above assumption. 462 For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD 121 457 The high posts in the administration of territories were, under the Gupta regime, hereditary. Consequently, Senapati Bhattarka was succeeded in the same office by Dharasena I and the latter by Dronasimha. Dronasimha, however, assumed the title 'Maharaja 'under Gupta suzeranity.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptas, p. 146-47 ). The original capital of Surastra was Girinagara, and Parnadatta (and also Bhattarka) for some time governed the province from that place. An ingenious suggestion has been made by Jagan Nath (Indian Culture, April 1939) that the capital of the province was later on transferred to Valabhi. The Junagadh rock-inscription shows how great a source of danger the Sudarsana lake was to the city of Girinagar. The later governors found it necessary to remove to a lofty place': and Valabhi was such a place. Traikutaka Maharaja Dahrasena issued the grant of the village Tadakasarika situated within Antar-mandali Visaya, to Brahmana Nannasvamin, resident of Kapura in the (Kalacuri) year 207, Vaisakha suddha 13 ( 457 A.D.). The Dutaka of the grant was Buddhagupta. The grant was issued from the victorious camp at Amraka.-( Pardi Plates, EI., X, 51 ff.) c. 467-68 Skandagupta seems to have died in circa 467-468 A.D., the last known date of his reign being G.E. 148 (467-68 A.D.).--(V.A. Smith, JRAS, 1889, p. 134). His death was followed by a rapid disintegration of the Gupta empire. (Dandekar, History of the Guptas, pp. 121 ff.). 479 The Caves of Bagh', so called from the neighbouring village and the river of that name, are situated among the southern slopes of the Vindhya hills and are on the ancient road connecting Gujarat and Malwa. They are nearly 70 miles from Dohad. "It is interesting to note that the country between Broach and Dhar in Malwa in which are the towns of Bagh and Tanda, is still called Ratha."-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 7). The caves which are nine in number extend over a frontage of about 750 yards but are not all contiguous. Out of these, the Fourth cave, known as Ranga Mahal' is the finest of the group for the paintings which still adorn its walls Architecture of the Bagh Caves constitutes an integral and inseparable part of the scheme of decoration. The caves are the work of the Mahayana Buddhists. At Bagh, as at Ajanta, paintings are done in tempera, not in fresco. The best preserved portion of the Bagh paintings is found on the outer surface of the front wall of Caves Nos. 5 and 6. The rock which formed the roof of the continuous verandah supported by pillars in front of the Caves has collapsed, with the result that the upper half of the wall on which the paintings are found has become exposed to the weather, except where protected by the over-hanging CI6 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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122 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A.D. C. 470 rock. As a result of this, the extant paintings are in very fragmentary state and cannot be identified or related to any story. The Fourth Scene ( published as Plate D in The Bagh Caves) consists of a delightful double group of female dancers and musicians. The left hand group comprises seven women standing around an eighth figure, evidently a central dancer, who wears a peculiar kind of costume. Out of the seven female-musicians one plays a hand-drum, three have each two little sticks-dandas, (so wellknown in the danda-rasaka) and three hold cymbals. The palms of the hands are turned upwards in the position assumed in the tala or the tala-rasaka, by the dancers. The second group of female musicians is likewise arrayed round a dancer with long black locks. Of the six women, one beats a hand-drum, two handle small-sized cymbals, and three each a pair of sticks ( dandas). Plates D and E (Bagh Caves) show the bevy of girl-musicians with the two male dancers in their midst, forming, a complete group or a mandala of the Hallisaka' type, referred to in the Harivamsa' when writing about the propensities of the Vtisnis for this circular dance. "The dancers express in a wreath of interwoven line and form the rhythm and music of the dance."-- (E. B. Havell, The Bagh Caves, The India Society, London, 1927). "In this painting in the Bagh Caves, situated on an ancient road connecting Gujarat with Malwa, depicting a music party, is to be observed a typical scene from the life of mediaeval and modern Gujarat. Probably nowhere else in India are women to be seen going round in a dance keeping time with small sticks' dandaka'or'danda' held in either hand. The peculiarity of this dance is that the women sing while they move round and dance. The Bagh picture is unique in the pictorial history of India, as is also Gujarat in its preservation of an old rite and custom, chiefly observed during the Navaratra festival at the end of the monsoon "-(N. C. Mehta : Gujarati Painting in the 15th Century, 1931, p. 26). Western India seems to have thrown off the suzerainty of the Gupta emperors of Magadha shortly after the death of Skandagupta ( 468 A.D.), as no silver coins of his successors are available from this territory. Gujarat attained political independence under the leadership of Senapati (General) Bhatakka or Bhatarka, who, with the support of the devout forces of kaula ( hereditary), Chrita ( mercenary), mitra (allies) and sreni ( guilds) types, secured sovereignty; (Cf: 'Atanaiuftampati 175941:1'). And he founded a royal dynasty at Valabhi, a well-known city on the eastern coast of Saurastra. He belonged to the lineage of the mighty Maitrakas. All the royal sealings of the Maitraka dynasty bear the name of Sri Bhatakka or Bhatarka, the founder of the dynasty. He was a Parama Mahesvara ( a great devotee of Mahesvara or Siva). A Buddhist vihara in Saurastra was named Bhatarka. Vihara', Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD 123 A.D. 470 500 The Maitrakas continued the use of the 'Gupta era ' in their edicts; but its years were now adjusted to the Kartikadi system instead of the Caitradi system. The name of the modified era is left unspecified in the records of the Maitrakas, but from the nomenclature used in the post-Maitraka records, the era seems to have been known as the Valabhi Era'. The Sun-temple at Dasapura, built in 437 A.D. but which had fallen into decay during the reign of Kumaragupta I and Bandhuvarman, was restored in the Malava year ( 473 A.D.) by the members of the same guild. Skandagupta's inscription opens with an invocation to the Vamana incarnation, and mentions a temple of Visnu (Cakrabhrita ) as built by Cakrapalita at Girinagar. Clear indications of the prevalence of Vaisnavism in Gujarat are found after the advent of the Guptas in the fourth and the fifth centuries. The Traikutakas in Lata, who were the contemporaries of the Guptas styled themselves as Parama Bhagavata, and Parama Vaisnava.-( Hultzsch, Surat Plates of Vyaghrasina, EI, XI, p. 219). The title of Dhruvasena I of Valabhi has been a Parama Bhagavata, as is known from the Malia Copper plates Inscription of Dharasena II-(Fleet, CII, III, p. 168 ). According to the Palitana Plates of Simhaditya, dated 574 A.D. (Hultzsch, EI, XI, p. 18), of the Garulaka family, a feaudatory ruler to the Maitrakas, there is a record which says that Krspa lived in Dwarka, which was his capital on the Western coast. This is the first and perhaps the only epigraphical reference to Krsna's Dwarka and its supposed survival upto the beginning of the 7th century A.D. Mention of the word 'Krsna' in one of the Ten Fragments of the Stoneinscriptions from Vala' suggests a probability of the existence of Vaisnavism during this time.--(Diskalkar, 'Ten Fragments of the Stone-Inscription and a Clay-Seal from Vala ', ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. 1). From the victorious Aniruddhapura, the Traikutaka Maharaja Vyaghrasena, son and successor of Dahrasena (C. 465-492) issued the grant of Purohitapallika in Iksarki ahara, which may be identified with Achehharan, about 9 miles north of Surat, to Brahmana Nagasarman of Bharadvaja gotra. The grant was issued on Karttika Sudi. 15 of Kalacuri year 241 ( 490-91 A.D.), and composed by Karka, Minister of Peace and War. The Dutaka of the grant was Halahala.-( Surat Plates, EI, XI, 2r9 ff). Traikutaka coins are found from Kamrej, near Surat.-(ABIA for 1935, p. 34). An inscription dated in the Kalacuri year 245 ( 494-5 A.D.), consisting of a single plate, was found inside a Buddhist monastery at Kssnagiri (modern Kanheri) in North Konkan. It records the construction of a Caitya (i.e., the 490-91 494-5 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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24 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Stupa in which the inscription together with some relics was found), dedicated by a pilgrim from Sindh to the venerable Saradvatiputra, the famous disciple of the Buddha. The inscription mentions only the increasingly victorious reign of the Traikutakas, but does not name any reigning king. It appears to have been issued towards the close of Vyaghrasena's reign by a successor of his. During his reign the Traikuta country was invaded by Harisena, the last known Vakataka king who flourished in Circa 475-500 A.D. After the Vakatakas, the Kalacuris became supreme in Gujarat, North Konkan and Maharastra. The coins of Krsnaraja, the earliest known king of the Kalacuri dynasty have been found in the islands of Bombay and Sasti, and copper-plates recording the grants of villages in South Gujarat have also been discovered. Sankaragana, the son of Krsnaraja is described as the lord of the countries between the eastern and western seas':-( Abhona Plates, K. year 347=596 A.D.). The Traikutaka kingdom at its largest extent seems to have extended from the Kim in the north to the Krsna in the south, and to have comprised South Gujarat, North Konkan, and the Nasik, Poona and Satara Districts of Maharastra. It is interesting to note that the Traikutakas maintained a fleet for the protection of their maritime provinces. During their regime Traikuta seems to have been famous as an emporium of salt. Aniruddhapura seems to have been their capital at least during the reign of Vyaghrasena. It is mentioned as the place of issue in the Surat plates, and is probably identical with the victorious Aniruddhapuri, a Brahmana resident of which received a grant of land in the Surat District from the Sendraka king Allasakti. c. 500 The tendency to add a nasalised intonation in speech by people, especially by ladies of Saurastra has been noted in the * Siksa', a work on Phonetics known as Paniniya Siksa' (c. 500 A.D. at the latest ), and is illustrated with the word 'takra' uttered with a twang as'takranga' by a Saurastra lady: yathA saurASTikA nArI ta] ityabhibhASate / evaM raGgAH prayoktavyAH khe arAiva khedayA / - Mate 1721, T. & c. 500-510 In the 'Padataditaka Bhana', one of the four Bhanas published as 'Caturbhani' of Syamilaka, the son of Visvesvaradatta, an Udicya poet, a chief courtesan of the Surastras, Madanasenika by name, is said to have graced a Brahmin called Visnunaga Taundikoki by placing her lotus-like foot on his headl-(Sivapuri ed. of 1922 by M. R. Kavi and S. K. Ramanatha Sastri, p. 3). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD 125 c.500-10 c. 500-10 c. 500-10 Caturbhani' is the collection of four Bhanas, meaning one-act farces composed during this period. Dr. Dasarath Sharma gives C. 500-510 as the date of Syamilaka's Padataaitaka ( Proceedings IHC Calcutta, 1955, p. 73:) and corrects the hypothetical date C. 410 A.D. (JRAS. 1946, pp. 46-53). While describing the capital, called, 'Sarvabhaumanagara', Syamilaka the author of Calurbhani, speaks of kings of Kaccha and Maru along with others as having assembled there.- op. cit., p. 8). Among the vitas enumerated, one called Kumara Makhavarma from Anandapura and one Jayanandaka from Surastra are mentioned.-(op. cit., p. 7). Syamilaka denounces, in his Bhana called Padatalitaka', the customs and manners of the Lata people in general as follows : "He bathes naked in water, despite the presence of great persons; washes clothes himself; disturbs his hair ; ascends the bed without washing his feet; eats whatsoever even while going along a path; puts on torn clothes and brags even after striking all-of-a-sudden (someone ) in his difficulties":-( Stanza 39, P. 167). Lata people are, also, described as speaking Jakara ( syllable. J') in their speech.- Stanza 51, p. 20 ). In the next stanza the peculiar manner of dressing and speaking of the Latas is described : "Covering both the hands by the upper garment, tying the waist by a clothstring, receiving people by uttering the Sakara (syllable S), ( the Lata ) walks with his shoulders drooped down owing to the fall of his feet."-( St. 52). "Moreover, keeping his hands on his chest as a dove (i.e. kapotahasta which is a peculiar position of hands), he speaks loudly 'Ja''Ja' devoid of Ya' (i.e. speaks 'Ja' instead of 'Ya'); he, with his waist tied properly, walks as if he is touching the mud by the tips of his hands. "--( St. 53, p. 20-21). The heroism of a Lata prince Bhadrayudha, 'the walking Tirtha of the Vitas, and the Lord of Udicya, Balhika, Karusa and Malava countries,' is described in the Bhana thus : "He, who has put both his feet on the heads of the kings of Aparanta, Saka, and Malava countries, went at proper time to the mother Ganges like the mother, and captured (?) the prosperity of the family of the Magadha king. Moreover his adventures are sung by the love-sick Aparanta damsels whose locks of hair are distributed by the gentle breezes on the coasts of the great ocean, where there are rows of the Hintala trees (the marshy date-trees), after supporting themselves by the creepers of the trees. "-(Sts. 54-56, p. 21). c 500-10 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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126 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT This probably suggests that the Lata prince had under his sway not only the countries of Aparanta, Saka and Malava, but that the political boundaries of his kingdom went far beyond up the Magadha country. c. 500-10 A Lata prostitute is described in the Caturbhani as one who has put on golden talapatra (ear-rings ), hanging in both the ears; having bunch of jewels, pearls and gold at the end of her braid ; whose breasts and arm-pits are visible through her bodice having short sleeves, and whose skirt has the end turning over her hips, is dressed in sakaccha fashion.- ( St. 103, p. 39 ). The style of Western Miniature Paintings, which had its origin from the frescoes at Ajanta and Elura, shares common traits re: the dress, hair-dressing and ornaments of ladies of Southern Gujarat as found to have been described in this Sankrit Farce. III ANTIQUITIES Gupta Monuments: Of the Gupta monuments---caves, temples, memorial stones, and stray sculptures and bronzes found in such abundance in Central India, United Provinces, Bihar and Bengal--unfortunately, very few have been found from Gujarat. Temples: That the Guptas built temples in Gujarat is beyond doubt. Skandagupta's inscription at Junagadh regarding the reconstruction of the Sudarsana lake, explicitly mentions the construction of the temple of Cakrabhrit (Visnu) in G. S. 138 ( 457 A.D.) of which, however, few remains-the old black granite images in the temple and the pilaster-are believed to be at the extant Damodara Mandira, as pointed out by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji.-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 70 ). Along the southern shore of Saurastra peninsula are found a few early structural temples, the oldest of which is that at Gop, in the Barda Hills, since conserved by the Western Circle of the Department of Archaeology, India. Gop consists of a square shrine surrounded by a double courtyard, and roofed by a pecuilar Sikhara. It has the caityawindow ornament motif, found also at the earlier Uparkot caves at Junagadh; but has not retained the vedika ( wooden railing ) motif. It is dated to the end of the Gupta supremacy in Western India.--( Plate XXIV) Bricks: Bricks measuring 15" x 9" x 3" are assignable to the Gupta period, and such bricks have been discovered from several old sites like Khedabrahma, Samalaji, Modhera, Nagara, Sojitra, Akota, Amreli, Prabhasa, Vala, Vadnagar and Variav. Frescoes: The frescoes in some of the caves in Ajanta and those in the Bagh caves (the scene depicting the danda-rasaka : Plate XXV) are dateable to the later period of Gupta rule in Western and Southern India. Sculptures : Some sculptures from Samalaji and a few bronzes from Akota, especially the small head of Adinatha, are believed to have been executed during the end of this period, and will be noticed in the next chapter, Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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GUPTA PERIOD Coins: The Gupta coinage adopted many of the existing details of the Ksatrapa coins, with slight modification. Of the existing features, the Guptas kept the bust, bearing, their personality. The symbols of the Gupta coins are Garuda, cluster of dots, wavy line beneath border of dots, bull couchant to right (on the base-metal coins of Skandagupta). 127 The symbols of Bull and Garuda etc. are new to Gujarat. The Garuda is found on early Greek coins, and Bull on those of the Kusanas. The Bull has survived through Valabhi coins and copper-plates, right down to the time of Mularaja, the Caulukya king. "For the first time, the Gupta rulers proclaimed their Vaisnava faith on the coins, thus introducing Gujarat by more ways than one, to their pursuit of the old cults perhaps fallen in abeyance ". On Candragupta II's Saurastra coins, the legend runs: Fina mahArAjAdhirAja zrI candragupta vikramAGkasya / A large series of silver-plated Gupta coins with a copper core have been found around the site of the ancient Valabhi. The Bull type coins are found in Saurastra, and probably belonged to the region around Valabhi. Candragupta II's coins: Candragupta II's several gold coins show a young male figure behind the king, with his right hand laid on the king's shoulders. This youthful figure is Candragupta's son Kumaragupta, who may have acted as the Yuvaraja during the conquest of Malwa. The rareness of Candragupta's coins in Saurastra, together with the date 90 G. E. (A.D. 409) on some of Kumaragupta's coins make it probable that on their conquest his father appointed Kumaragupta, Viceroy of Gujarat and Saurastra. (Plate XXVI). The discovery of nine gold coins of Candragupta II at the village Kumarkhan in Viramgam taluka (Ahmedabad District) is significant (JNSI, XV, 1955). A single coin. of Candragupta II's from Karvan is discussed by M. G. Dikshit. Kumaragupta's coins: Large numbers of Kumaragupta's coins of gold, silver and copper have been found. The silver coins have on the obverse the royal bust in the Ksatrapa style of dress. The bust is a copy of the moustached Ksatrapa face with the only difference that the date is in Gupta, instead of in the Ksatrapa, era. On the reverse is an ill-formed peacock facing from the right as in Candragupta II's coins. Skandagupta's coins: Skandagupta's Western coins are of three varieties: (i) the same as Western coins of Kumaragupta, (ii) with a bull instead of a peacock on the reverse, and (iii) with a plate (with very small leaves) and basin. Coins of the first two varieties are found both in Gujarat and in Saurastra. The third water-jet variety is peculiar to Kaccha, and is an entirely new feature in the Western Gupta coinage. Coins Hoards: A hoard of 2,000 silver coins of Kumaragupta I was found from Amreli excavations.-(Hirananda Shastri, ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8); and another hoard of 200 silver coins was accidently unearthed at Anand, now in Vallabh Vidyanagar Museum. For Personal & Private Use Only

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128 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Silver coins : The following hoards of Silver Gupta coins are known to have been found in Gujarat and Saurastra area* :(i) Ahmedabad, ( found in 1856 ) 65, Kumaragupta [ JBBRAS, VI (O. S.), Proceedings, p. XXXIX-XI ; XLV-VI.] (ii) Sanund, Ahmedabad ( found in 1856 ) Kumaragupta, 1103 along with 283 Valabhi and 9 (?) Western Kshatrapa coins. [JBBRAS, VI (O.S.), LI ; LXXII.] (iii) Kaccha ( probably found in 1856). 236, Skandagupta (fire-alter type ): [ JBBRAS, VI ( 0. S.) LXVIII.) (iv) Bhuj, Kumaragupta : number not known, found some time before 1915. 43 of them are in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. ( v ) Bhavanagar, Kumaragupta : number not known, found in 1914-15. 13 of them are in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (vi) Vala, Kumaragupta : number not known, found in 1914-15. 5 of them are in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (vii) Amreli, about 2000, Kumaragupta, 1936-37. (ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8). (viii) Anand, Dist Kaira, about 200, Kumaragupta (Garuda type ): (Annual report of the Bombay Secretariat Record Office and its Sub-offices, 1952-53, P. 27.) Here it is wrongly described as peacock type. Gold coins : The Guptas had issued gold coins profusely ; but they are extremely rare in Gujarat and its adjoining area. So far they are known by only one hoard of 9 coins found in the village Kumarkhan in Viramgaon taluka of Ahmedabad District in about 1953. It contained one coin of Samudragupta (Battle axe type ), two coins of Kacagupta and six coins of Candragupta II (Archer type). Since this hoard has no coin of Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta, it shows that the hoard was buried during the reign of Candragupta II and he had his sway over this part of the country. Coins of the Traikutakas : The Traikutakas issued silver coins of the type of the Western Ksatrapas. They bear on the obverse the bust of the king facing right, surrounded by Graeco-Roman characters which are obscure, as on later Western Ksatrapa coins. These coins differ from them in having no date. On the reverse is the three-arched hill, with crescent on the right ( some time seen on the top of the hill) and star on the left and a waivy line below. Legend around these coins is as follows :-- The Maharajendradattaputra Parama-Vaisuava Sri Maharaja Dahrasena on the coins of Daharasena; Maharaja Dahrasena (or gana) putra Parama Vaisnava Sri Maharaja Vyaghrasena (or gana ) on the coins of Vyaghrasena. Only one hoard is known to have been found at Poona in 1908, of these coins;* though stray coins were found from various places and are lying in various Museums. This note is based on the Bibliography of Hoavds of Coins found in Bombay State, compiled by Sjt. Paramesvari Lal Gupta, 1or a Monograph of the Numismatic Society of India, made so kindly available to the General Editor in advance. For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER VII MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD (C. 470 A.D.-745 A.D.) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Facing Page 131 KACCHA Dwarka Dhenika RANN OF KACCHA Hariyanaka Bhulambilika Patanaka Kalapaka Kaundinyapura Girinagara MAITRAKA Mangalpura Vamanasthal Bilvakhala pr - Devapalana Thanaka Devisaras vipa .Kiradu (Kiratakupa) salyapura (sachor) Shrimala (Bhinmal). Vardhamana Anhilpura. Valabhi. Simhapura. (c. 470 A.D- C 745 A.D.) Jalor. (Jabalipura) Kisahrada. Frisangamaka Madhumali, GURJARA And Hasiavapra Uppalaheta Khetaka Nagaraka Dobaka Kapik valapadraka Udumbara Korilla. Bharukaccha Suryapura veriyavi *Shraddhika -umela Jambusara Kayanatara Sanga makhelaka *Nandipuri * Shirishap adraka Akrureshvara Kantaragrama Karmaneya *Bagumra Bombay *Navasarika Sanjana Krishnagirt (Kanheri) Maitraka and Gurjara Empires Nadol (Naddula) Godraheka For Personal & Private Use Only chilod. * Nasika *Mandsor Fig. 6 R. Tart Elapura. ujjayini. R.Narbada * Dhara Ajanta.

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD (C. 470 A.D.--745 A.D.) I The Maitrakas: The Gupta emperor Budhagupta was on the throne in A.D. 477, after a decade of disorder subsequent to Skandagupta's death; and he ruled for about twenty years or more. Records of his governors in Malwa and Bengal testify to the continued solidarity of the Gupta empire, at least to a considerable extent. Of all the states that arose out of the break-up of the Gupta empire in the West, the kingdom of Valabhi.proved to be the most durable. Bhatarka, a Gupta general (sena. pati) of the Maitraka clan was appointed by Skandagupta to help governor Parnadatta in maintaining peace and order against the impending Huna invasions. Bhatarka ruled the province comprising of Saurastra and a part of Anarta from the new head-quarters at Valabhipur. His descendants gradually made themselves powerful towards the end of the fifth century A.D. Bhatarka was succeeded by his son Dharasena. Both of them called themselves Senapati ; but the next governor Dronasimha, a younger son of Bhatarka assumed the title Maharaja ; and it is claimed in the official records of the family that the paramount ruler in person installed him in royalty by a regular ceremony. The paramount ruler, referred to, was most probably the Emperor Budhagupta. Thus Dronasimha became a feudal chief rather than a governor, and though the family still paid nominal homage to the Gupta Emperor, the Maitrakas of Valabhi were well on the way to setting up an independent kingdom. With the death of Budhagupta in C. 500, the power and glory of the Gupta Empire vanished. Whatever was left of it was split into two sectors, viz. the Western, consisting of Malwa and Avanti, and the Eastern, comprising Magadha and North Bengal. A considerable part of modern Gujarat formed part of the Western Section. The Gupta emperors maintained a military governor for Anartapura (Vadnagar ) in North Gujarat and at Bharukachha ( Broach ), which then included parts of modern North Konkan. About 465 the Hunas under Toramana entered India, and finally reached Ujjayini (C. 500). The then ruler of Malwa, whose sway extended over Central Gujarat, was forced to retire to Bengal. About 512 A.D., Mihirakula, the son of Toramana, was the most powerful ruler in North-West India. But in C. 520 he was defeated by Yasodharman Visnuvardhana ; and in 533, Malwa was governed by his governor. In 550 Isanavarman overthrew the descendants of Visnuvardhana, made Kanauj the Imperial capital, and became the unchallenged master of North India. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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132 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT The Huna inroads under Toramana and Mihirakula must have contributed further to the disintegration of the Gupta empire, which had begun after the death of Budhagupta. In addition to the Hunas, we know of at least one other foreign invasion. Harisena, the Vakataka ruler of the Deccan invaded Malwa, and established his authority over Malwa and Gujarat. The earliest land-grant of the Maitraka family, so far discovered, is the one issued by Maharaja Drooasimha in 502 A.D. (Valabhi Samvat 183). The most important and definite sources of information for ascertaining the initial year of the Valabhi Era are the two inscriptions found at Verawal, in Saurastra dated respectively in the years 927 and 945 of the Valabhi Samvat (Hultzsch, 'A Grant of Arjunadeva of Gujarat dated 1264 ', IA, XI, pp. 241-45 ; Keithorn, 'The Verawal Image Inscription', EI., III, p. 303). The second of these is also dated according to three other well-established eras, giving three different dates equivalent to the Valabhi Samvat 945. These years are, the Hijari 662, the Vikrama 1320, and the Simha 151. From a comparison of these dates it is clear that the Valabhi era comes 375 years later than the well-known Vikrama era, or in other words, it commenced in the 375th year of the Vikrama Samvatsara, i.e., in about 319 A.D., and was still in current usage during the 13th Century of the Christian era, at least in this part of India.-(Vide, 470 A.D., infra : p. 123) The Maitrakas do not specify the era in dating their records, perhaps owing to its having been well-established in country-wide usage. The earliest known of their grants bears the date Samyat 183 (Bhamodra Mota. Plate of Valabhi king Dronasimha', EI., XVI, p. 18), and was issued by king Dronasimha, who was the third in succession, but the first de jure ruler of that line. The last, dated 477 ( Fleet, 'The Alina Copperplates of king Siladitya VII', CII, III, p. 182) belongs to king siladitya VI (VII) who was probably also the last of the Maitrakas. The conclusion seems to be inevitable that the Maitrakas may have adopted an era started by some other ruling family and already current in Saurastra at the time when they established their rule. The Junagadh rockinscription of the Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman offers a clue to this problem, as it is dated in the year 72 of the Saka era, which was then current in Saurastra during the Ksatrapa period, i.e., from the 2nd to the 4th Century A.D. After this, the country passed into the hands of the Guptas, and the inscription of Skandagupta found on the same rock, and dated in Gupta Samvat 138, is evidence enough that the Gupta era was current during the period. After the death of Skandagupta the Gupta power over this part of the country declined, as the last date of the Guptas recorded in Saurastra is G.S. 138 ( = 457 A.D.), and the earliest known date of the Maitraka king, as given above, is 183 (i.e., 502 A.D.). The interval of 45 years between the two dates is long enough to fit in the two predecessors of Dronasimha, Bhatarka and Dharasena I. Accordingly, we may take it that the era used by the Maitraka kings was the Gupta era- the initial year of both the eras being 319 A.D.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, 1955, pp. 106-109). All the royal grants were issued from Valabhs, which must have been the capital Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MALI RAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 133 city. When or under what circumstances the capital was removed from Girinagar, where Parnadatta, the Gupta governor evidently had his head-quarters, it is difficult to say. It has been suggested that the capital was removed as the bursting of the Sudarsana lake was a standing menace to its safety, as shown by two previous records thereto; one in 150 A.D. and the other in 455 A.D. But this is not sufficiently convincing. After asserting his independence, Bhatarka seems to have transferred his capital from Girinagar to Valabhi. This is confirmed by the epigraphical records, which suggest that Girinagar had lost its importance. We get references of the Brahmanas who migrated from Girinagar and settled down at various places round about Valabhi. One of such examples from the Valabhi grants is found in the Aoastu Plates (EI, XXII, p. 114) where the donee had migrated from Girinagar and resided at Sraddhika. According to the Bombay Gazetteer (I, Pt. I, p. 96) "its (Valabhi's) choice as a capital was probably due to its being a harbour on the Bhavnagar creek. The place was not so much inland as it is now. Since the days of Valabhi kings the silt which thickly covers the ruins, has also filled and choked the channel which once united it with the Bhavnagar creek when Ghala was probably a fair-sized river," An unusually large number of records ( copper-plates) of this family have come to light which enable us to reconstruct the geneology and chronology of the kings with a fair degree of certainty; but these records contain little else of historical value. The final overthrow of the Imperial Gupta dynasty between A.D. 550 and 570, fully explains the absence of all references to its suzerainty in Valabhi records since the time of Guhasena. It is probably for this reason that in later records of the family, since the time of Siladitya I ( 606 A.D.), the conventional geneology of the royal family as given in the land-grants begins with Guhasena, descended from Bhatarka, the names of all the intervening rulers being omitted altogether.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, pp. 60-63). Towards the close of the sixth century A.D., Valabhi had become the most powerful kingdom in Western India. Hiuen Tsang pays high compliments to king Siladitya of Mo-la-po, i.e. of Western Malwa as "a monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion." At the time of the Chinese pilgrim's visit in 640 A.D., Dhruvasena II, the nephew of Siladitya, was the king of Valabhi. It was during the reign of Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, who was the son-in-law of Harsavardhana of Kanauj that Hiuen Tsang visited India. The Valabhi king was a sincere believer in Buddhism, and he attended the religious assembly convoked by Sri Harsavardhana at Prayaga and probably also at Kanauj, early in 643 A.D. During the greater part of the reign of Harsavardhana, Valabhi was a powerful and independent kingdom and exercised supremacy over Northern Gujarat and a part of Malwa. Valabhipura was a city of power, wealth and culture. It had a large library of sacred books. Sthiramati and Gunamati, two Buddhist monks, had composed their For Personal & Private Use Only

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134 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT treatises in its University. Their fame had reached even China, and in consequence they had been invited there. The country was happy and prosperous and its merchants carried on extensive commercial activity. More than a hundred merchants were worth over a lakh. Dharasena IV, who ascended the throne of Valabhi about 644 A.D., assumed Imperial titles and called himself a Cakravarti, though his reign was of a short duration (died c. 653). Whether this led to hostility between him and Harsavardhana, which forced him to take refuge with king Dadda II of Nandipuri, we do not definitely know. But two of his land-grants were issued from the victorious camp at Bharukaccha, within the dominion of the Gurjaras, where he possibly reached in the course of a victorious military campaign. Dharasena's reign thus marks an important epoch in the history of Valabhi, whose power and prestige were increased by him. The great poet Bhatti lived at his court. Siladitya III ( 662-684 A.D.) was another powerful ruler, who granted some lands in the Bharukaccha-visava ( district ), having temporarily conquered the Gurjaras. It was probably during the reign of Siladitya V that Valabhi was first invaded by the Arabs, ( sometime between 725 to 735 A.D.) who, starting from their base in Sindh, overran a great part of Rajputana, Gujarat and Saurastra, and advanced as far as Ujjayini. Although they obtained considerable success at first, their incursions led to no permanent results, and they were ultimately repulsed by the Calukya king of Lata and the Pratihara king of Kanauj. This is learnt from a record of the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV of Broach, that in the city of the Lord of Valabhi he inflicted a defeat on the Tajjikas (Arabs ) who had caused immense suffering to numerous people. -- (EI., XXIII, 151, fn. 7; 154 fn. I). At this crisis, as in the past, the Gurjaras came to the rescue of the Valabhi king. Though the Arabs retired from Saurastra, the Valabhi king was not destined to rule in peace. A record dated 738 A.D. refers to one Jaikadeva of the Saindhava family as the lord of Surastra-mandala with Imperial titles, ruling at Bhumilika (modern Bhumli or Gumli in Porbandar State). The gradual advance, first of the Calukyas and later os the Pratiharas of Avanti and of the Rastrakutas constituted a constant menace to the Valabhi State ; and with Siladitya VII, the rule of the Maitraka family came to an end on the second attack of the Arabs in 776 A.D. The general belief is that Valabhipura was destroyed by the Arabs, as noted by Alberuni ( Alberuni's India, Tr. by Sachau, I, 192 ). The Arab historian of Sindh records that in 758 A.D. Caliph Mansur sent Amru-bin-Jamal with a fleet to the coast of Baradaa name applied to the Porbandar range of hills. About 776 A.D. a second expedition succeeded in taking the town. Some scholars find corroboration of Alberuni's story by taking Barala as a mistaken form of Balaba or Valabhi. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 135 Dr. R. C. Majmudar, disbelieving the above general belief, suggests: "It would not be unreasonable to conclude that the Pratihara king distroyed the kingdom of Valabhi, and set up one or more feudatory families like the Capas and the Calukyas, referred to above, to rule over the kingdom. This seems to be the most reasonable explanation of the downfall of the Maitraka kings."-- The Classical Age, p. 151 ). . It has been also suggested that the rival kingdom of Bhumilika in South-western Saurastra, fought with the Maitrakas and even assisted the Arabs against them, precipitating the final collapse of the Maitraka power. The main contribution of the Maitrakas appears to have been in the field of administration, in which, adopting the machinery as well as the administrative terms of their predecessors, the Mauryas, the Ksatrapas and the Guptas, they moulded it to fit a system which is very near like that of our own times. At their capital, again, flourished that great Buddhist centre of learning, the University of Valabhi, the memory of which has escaped the oblivion to which its patrons and their deeds of bravery are sunk. In other spheres of life, too, they made their contribution, albeit modest, aiding religion and furthering the social life of their people by their generosity and encouragement to learning, among both the Brahmanas and the Sramanas. The Gurjaras :-During the downfall of the Gupta Empire about the second half of the 6th century A.D., the Gurjaras established their political authority in the heart of Rajputana at Mandavyapura ( Mandor) near Jodhpur ; and this region came to be called after them 'Gurjaratra ', a variant of Gujarat'. The province, now known as Gujarat, was not called by that name till a much later period. The term 'Gurjara' primarily denoted a people, and the countries derived their names from them; yet there is no definite evidence that they were foreigners, who came to India in historical times in the wake of the Hunas, the Kusanas or other foreign hordes. The origin of the Pratiharas and of related dynasties, can be traced back to a period immediately succeeding the massive inroads of Hunas (C. 550 A.D.). This period constitutes in many ways, a second dividing line in the history of this part of India. Earlier, in Rajputana and the Punjab the local scene was dominated by a series of oligarchic tribal republics-- Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Pusyamitras etc., which were able enough to retain their identity and status for many centuries. This system we know to have prevailed at least from the time of Panini to the Gupta. As far as great power politics were concerned, it was the foreign invaders who dominated-Yavanas, Sakas, Kusanas : but whether beneath their way, or from time to time independent, the tribal republics maintained their identity and way of life. After the great war of Huna invasion had receded to the northern Punjab, the situation in Rajputana and adjoining regions underwent a marked transformation. In place of the tribal republics there arose the many clans of Rajputs-Pratiharas, Cahamanas, Guhilots, Paramaras and others. The Gurjaras appeared on the scene as if from no-where For Personal & Private Use Only

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135 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT about this time, and this led to the theory that they were foreigners, who entered India in company with or about the same time as the Hunas, settled in the areas which they were later found occupying, and became rapidly Hinduised.-(T. Barrow, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959; Foreword, p. v, vi ). The foreign origin theory of the Gurjaras has received support from many scholars who on the evidence of similar endings-Khazar and Gujar, are supposed to be foreigners, associated with the Hunas in their march towards India. Other scholars have suggested the Indian origin of the Gurjaras; but it has not been possible for them to locate their original home nor to account for the absence of their names in Indian literature, Some even have doubted the Gurjara origin of the Pratihara rulers of Kanauj. The foreign origin theory, however, has been considered afresh; and the probable home of the Gurjaras in the region round about Mount Abu, which is connected with the origin of several other families as well, has been suggested as the probable home of the Gurjaras. Regarding the association of the Gurjaras with the Hunas, as supposed by Hoernle and others, it must not be forgotten that the Hunas, could not be assimilated into Hindu society till the with Century A.D., but, for the Gurjaras, it is rather strange that the dust raised by their inroad took no time to settle down, and they were easily absorbed, as we find references to Gurjara Brahmanas in the 6th Century A.D.; such a thing would have been an utter impossibility if they had been foreigners. In fact, they were very probably tribal people who remained in obscurity for long and were formerly known as the Arbudas. The absence of their name in early Indian chronicles is no ground for doubting their Indian origin. Here an analogy is suggested. The Kharaparikas and Sanakanikasthe tribal peoples mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta-would have been unknown to Indian history except for this solitary reference.---(Baija Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959, Preface, p. vii). The earliest Gurjara kingdom, known so far, is that founded by Haricandra in the modern Jodhpur State in Rajputana, about the middle of the 6th century A.D. Haricandra was a Brahmin, versed in the Vedas and other Sastras. He had two wives. The sons born of the Brahmin wife became Pratihara Brahmins, while those born of his Ksatriya wife became the founders of the royal line of the Pratiharas. Though a man of peaceful pursuits in his early life, when after the fall of the Gupta empire and the empires of Mihirakula and Yasodharman, Northern India presented a favourable field for military enterprise, Haricandra gave up Sastras ( scriptures ) for the Sastras (arms) and founded a kingdom. He had four sons by queen Bhadra, viz. : Bhogabhat, Kakka, Rajjila and Dadda. They conquered and fortified Mandavyapura ( Mandor, five miles north to Jodhpur) which became their capital. The third son (there is no information about his first two sons) Rajjila who ruled from here, was succeeded by his son Narabhata and latter by his son Nagabhata, who fixed his permanent capital at Medantaka (Merta, 70 miles NE of Jodhpur). Hericandra and his three successors, probably ruled between C. 550 and 640 A.D.-(Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihara Bauka', EI. XVIII, 87 ff.). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXVIII For Personal & Private Use Only (C) Calukya and Pratibara Seal of Adi-Varaha, Visnu. (B) Rastrakuta Seal of a Garuda, the Vahana of Visnu. ( See Plate XVIII A, Supra ). (A) Maitraka Copper-plate Seal of a Nandi, with the legend Bhatakkah (p. 197)

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Plate XXIX 1 1 8 2 5 Valabhi Coins (I) Obverse: Sri Bhattarka (Bust) 3 6 Reverse Trident (Trisula) with a long handle. (2-3-4) Busts of different Valabhi kings. Types of faces, and especially noses, differ: Resemble Indo-Greek head-dress. (5) Sarva Bhattarka: Trident with short handle and curved ends. The legend reads zrAdityabhakta zrIzvaMbha... (6-8-9) Legend similar, with slight variants. (7) Fabric like those of Gupta coins. For Personal & Private Use Only 9 4 7

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MAITRAXA-GURJARA PERIOD 137 In addition to the kingdom in Rajputana, there was another principality in the region round Bharukaccha which was ruled over by Gurjara chiefs. The four earliest records of the family, dated between 629 and 641 A.D., were issued by a king named Dadda II Prasantaraga, son of Vitaraga Jayabhata I, and grandson of Dadda I. It appears from these records that this principality extended from the river Mahi in the north to the Kim in the south, and from the sea-coast in the west to the borders of Malwa and Khandesh on the east. As all the grants were issued from Nandipuri, that was probably the capital of the family, which has been identified with Nandod, situated on the Karjan river in the old Rajpipla State. As Dadda I is expressly said to have been born in the family of the Gurjara kings, and must have flourished in the last quarter of the sixth century A.D., he may reasonably be identified with Dadda, the youngst son of Haricandra, the founder of the main Gurjara family. In addition to the kingdom of Bharukaccha we hear of another Gurjara kingdom in Malwa, with its capital at Avanti, at a somewhat later date, where the rulers called themselves ' Pratiharas', suggesting their descent from one of the sons of Haricandra. The inscriptions of the Gurjaras of Broach exultingly mention the fact that Dadda II obtained great glory by protecting (or rescuing ) the lord of Valabhi who had been overpowered by Harsavardhana ( IA, XIII, 77-79). The Latas, Malavas and Gurjaras are referred to as feudatories of Pulakesin in the Aihole Inscription, as they never submitted to Harsavardhana. The territory over which the Gurjaras of Nandipuri ruled was included in the dominions of the Kalacuri kings Sankaragana and Buddharaja. It appears, Dadda I founded a principality somewhere in Southern Rajputana ; and it was only after the collapse of the Kalacuri power that he or his son occupied Broach and the district around it. Possibly the Gurjaras sought the aid of Pulakesin and voluntarily submitted to him in order to over power the Kalacuris. The Nandipuri Gurjaras, Dadda and his successors, are called Samantas or feudatories, as they owed allegiance either to the main Gurjara ruling family in Rajputana or to the Calukyas. II A.D. Traikutaka Maharaja Dharasena was succeeded by his son Vyaghrasena. His coins are almost similar to those issued by his father. In the legend he is also represented as a Parama-Vaisnava Maharaja.-( Rapon, B.M.C. 202-3). 478 S. 400, 415, 417: Copper-plates from Umeta, Bagumra and Ilas are considered to be spurious by some scholars. Dadda II, Prasantaraga, Gurjara of Bharukaccha, was the son and successor of Jayabhat I. c. 480 The kingdom of the Garulakas seems to have been founded by Sura I, shortly after the decline and fall of the Gupta supremacy oyer Saurastra. In 476 His ad shortly after C18 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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138 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 490 the copper-edict of Varahadasa II (A.D. 549), Sura I is represented as having acquired royal power by the prowess of his troops, and styled a Maharaja'. Possibly Rajasthaniya Sura who had repaired Bhatarka-Vihara may be identified with this king, who seems to be a contemporary and ally of Senapati Bhatarka. -(H. G. Shastri, Maitrakakalina Gujarat, 217 ff.) 490 From Vijayaniruddhapura, Traikutaka Maharaja Vyaghrasena issued the grant of Purohita-pallika in Iksaraki Ahara to Brahmana Nagasarman of Bharadvaja gotra. The grant was issued on Kartika su. 15 of (Kalacuri) year 241 (490 A.D.) and composed by Karka, Minister of Peace and War. The Dutaka of the grant was Halahala.-(Surat Plates, EI; XI 219 ff.). Rise of the Calukya dynasty of Badami. Acording to later tradition, the Calukyas were of northern origin. The establishment of their power in the south is ascribed to Jayasimha I, the earliest named prince of the line. In the 6th century A.D. the Calukyas established themselves at the expense of the Pallavas, founding there a kingdom, which in its palmiest days embraced the greater part of Southern India. 495 Sena pati Bhatarka is the accredited founder of the Valabhi dynasty of the Maitrakas. The princes of Valabhi started as feudatories of the Gupta empire, Dharasena IV (641-650 A.D.) being the first of their line to become a Supreme Sovereign. From the time of Dharasena II, the Valabhi rule embraced continental Gujarat as far as the Mahi, and later it extended at least to the Narmada, Bharukaccha being temporarily wrested from the Gurjaras by Dharasena IV. Some of the Valabhi princes, though following Brahmanism patronised Buddhism. Dhruvascna I granted a village to a monastery founded by his sister's daughter Dudda, and his nephew Guhasena gave four villages to the same monastery. Guhasena's mention of the 18 schools represented in the monastery refers to the Hinayana sect of Buddhism, and thus confirms Hiuen Tsang's statement as to the Hinayana doctrine being chiefly studied in the Convents of Valabhi. 492-499 Bhataska was succeeded by his eldest son Dharasena I (492-499 A.D.), who, like his father, did not assume any royal titles, and retained the hereditary title of Senapati'. He is said to have subdued his opponents and had been liberal in donations. 494-5 The Kanheri inscription commemorates the erection of a caitya in the great monastery of Krspagiri ( Kanheri). It is dated in the year 245 of the increasing rule of the Traikutakas.-(Burgess and Bhagavanlal, Care-temples, ASWI, Misc. Rep. No. 10, p. 57). This is the latest known date of the Traikutakas, For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 139 C. 495 Toramana, a Huna chief of Sakala in the Punjab, established himself in Eastern Malava probably succeeding Budhagupta. His reign at Sakala may have begun about 460 A.D., and the death of Skandagupta very likely enabled him to invade and hold Central India. He seems, however, to have been defeated, and the Gupta power was temporarily restored by Narasimhagupta, with the aid of the Valabhi ruler in C. 510 A.D. (CI. III, Int. II: text, 158). An inscription of Toramana at Eran is dated in the first year of his reign in Malava, and a coin bears the date 52 of an unknown era. C. 495 A great invasion of White Huns under Toramana took place about 495, by which time the Gupta empire was overthrown. Toramana became master of Malava, etc. C. 498 An authority on astronomy called Lata, who is also known as Latadeva, Latacarya etc., is mentioned in the Pancasiddhantika of Varahamihira ( 505-587 A.D.), as the commentator of Paulisa and Romaka Siddhanta.--(1.3). In the same work it is further said that Latacarya believed that Ahargana should be measured from the sun-set in the Yavanapura ( which corresponds to the mid-night of Lanka) (14.44). Some calculations of Lata are accepted by Srisena in his Romaka-siddhanta (505 A.D.)-(Cf. Brahmagupta : Brahmasphutasiddhanta'; II. 48). This Lata seems to have written an independent work also, over and above the two commentaries mentioned above, as is clear from references to him in astronomical works. Alberuni says that Surya Siddhanta was a work of Lata. But this 'Surya Siddhanta' written by Lata cannot be the original one, enumerated in the Pancasiddantika' of Varahamihira.---(Cf. S. B. Dikshit : Bharatiya Jyotihsastra, p. 180). If the name Latacarya is a name from the country, then it shows how much active interest the Lata scholar showed in astronomy. C.500-900 Apart from the Mauryan period, which was an Age of Imperialism par excellence, the village was a regular unit of the State and no republic, under the Valabhai, Calukya and Rascrauta kings. The fixed order of officials invariably mentioned in the grants shows that there was a real control from the Central Government.-(Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, P. 126 ). 500-900 Valabhi copper-plate inscriptions from Gujarat and Saurastra of the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries and the Rastrakuta inscriptions of the succeeding two centuries mention the Headman (14) as the most important officer of the village, to whom all others were subordinate. The plates mention the officers according to their grades; and their usual order is rASTra-viSayapati-grAmakUTa-Ayuktaka-niyuktAkAdhikArika-mahantarAdIn ( smaajnyaapyti)| . Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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140 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Payment of taxes continued to be in kind under the Valabhis, Calukyas and Rastrakutas. Their grants distinctly refer to a grainshare in kind : (Cf. the expression 4104124:1). This system continued to be the order of the day in India, while Todar Mall, the Revenue Minister of Akbar, introduced for the first time, the cash payment system in Northern India.- Altekar, ibid., p. 64). Many of the village grants of the kings of the Valabhi, Gurjara, Calukya and Rastrakuta dynasties mention officers called 'cauroddharaNikAH ' and 'daNDapAzikAH' who were obviously, as their names clearly show, police and detective officers appointed to arrest and chastise robbers and desperate characters. Cf. (i) af FTFACTER atafaqniform atitariutut for... 3471941Antroli Chharoli grant of Karkaraja A.D. 450; (ii) gifna sifaria fora. -Valabhi plate of Siladitya I, A. D. 615 (iii) JAFT TATT ETTE -Valabhi plate of Dharasena, A.D. 526 and Ganesagadh plate of Dhruvasena 1.- (Altekar, ibid., p. 62 ). [Vide, for example the Kavi ( Broach Dist. ), Radhanpur and Wani (Nasik Dist. ) plates of Govinda III, Alas ( Khandesa ) plates of Kakkaraja II, etc. ]. The kings were anxious to warn all those officers who might be in a position to disturb the enjoyment of rent-free land or village; i.e. those who were connected with the collection of taxes; and these are mentioned in the grants. - Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 6). C.500-900 In the numerous temple or monastery grants at Nasik, Karli, Kavi, Valabhi etc. extensive properties that were granted for the management of temples and monasteries for their repairs, etc. were conveyed directly and never to any temple committee or village council in trust.- (Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 25). Most of the village grants of the Valabhi and Rastrakuta inonarchs contain an exhortation that the villages granted away were not to be entered into by regular or irregular troops. The precise significance of the expression HTara: can be understood only when we remember that in ancient times, when troops or sepoys were required for any purely local purpose, the inhabitants of the locality had to pay for their help. Villages mentioned in the grants were exempted from this liability. It appears that the visits of such regular and irregular troops must have been frequent enough for the purpose of detection of * crime or the chastisement of robbers.-(Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India p. 56). 500 Sura I in the Garulaka lineage was succeeded by Varahadasa I, who like Dharasena I, is simply styled 'Senapati'. He was a Parama Bhagavata.(H. G. Shastri, MG, 220 f.). Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 141 C. 500 502 502-526 Dharasena I was succeeded by his younger brother Dronasimha (C. 500-519 A.D.) in circa A.D. 499 as borne out by the date of his first grant ( 502 A.D.), as well as by the dates of the grants (525-44 A.D.) issued by his successor. He was the first Maitraka ruler who received the formal ceremony of rajyabhiseka (coronation), which was personally attended by the Parama-Svamin (Overlord), most probably the then reigning Gupta Sovereign Budhagupta. He assumed the royal title Maharaja' and issued grants of land to religious institutions. From Valabhi, Maharaja Dronasimha issued the grant of the village Trisangamaka for the maintenance and upkeep of the temple of Bhagavati Panduraja in Hastavapra Aharani in (Valabhi) year 183, Sravana suddha 15 (502 A.D.). The grant was composed by Kumarilapatika, son of Sasthidatta. -(Bhamodra Mota Plates, EI; XVI 17 ff.) This shows that as early as the end of the fifth century, temples of goddesses existed in Hastavapra, near Bhavnagar. Varahadasa I of the Garulaka family was succeeded by his elder son Sura II. In the copper-edicts of his successors he is styled Samanta, Maharaja and Bhatti. He also was a Parama-Bhagavata.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 221 ff.) The Maitrakas are seen to have assumed the sovereign right of issuing independent grants of land between 502 and 526 A.D. The mask of loyalty was thus later on openly cast aside, and the later Maitraka Maharajas issued grants of land without even referring to the ruling Gupta emperors. Saurastra remained loyal to the Gupta sovereigns during the life-time of Budhagupta and Vainyagupta. During the last days of Budhagupta's regime and the period that followed, the distant provinces of the Gupta empire gradually became independent. Dronasimha, the third Maitraka general of Valabhi, assumed the title of 'Maharaja' and presurnably held independent sway over the provinces of Saurastra and Gujarat. Mihirakula, a Huna chief of Sakala in the Punjab, succeeded his father, Toramana. Mihirakula overthrew the Gupta power in Western and Central India, but was finally defeated at Kahror, about 530 A.D. by Yasodharman, feudatory of Narasimhagupta. He is mentioned by Hiuen Tsang as a king of Sakala who was attacked, on account of his persecution of the Buddhists by Baladitya of Magadha, and defeated; his life was spared by the intervention of the Queen-mother, after which he retired to Kashmir and founded a kingdom. Maharaja Dronasimha seems to have issued a grant to the temple of goddess Kottammahika at Trisangamaka, as is known from the subsequent grant C.515-30 C. 520 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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142 C. 520.0 C. 520 c. 520 525 525 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT issued by King Dhruvasena II in 639 A.D. ie. 119 years after, renewing the previous grant to the goddess of the temple.-( Mota Bhamodra Plates, JBBRAS, XX, 8). The Maliya Copper-plate states that Dropasimha, son of Bhatarka, brother and successor of Dharasena I was "annointed in the kingship by his paramount sovereign in person (akhilabhuvanamaMDalekaravAminA paramasvAminA svayaM upahita rAjyAfa: etc.), this sovereign being possibly identical either with Budhagupta or Yasodharman.-(CI, iii, 168; Vide, References under C. 496 A.D.) Dhruvasena I (C. 519-549) succeeded his elder brother Dropasimha in cir. 520 A.D., as borne out by his copper-plate grants dated 525 to 544 A.D. Like his predecessor, he also owed allegience to some over-lord (Paramabhattaraka). In his grants his name is preceded by five titles in all, viz. Mahasamanta, Mahapratihara, Mahadandanayaka, Mahakarlakritika and Maharaja. Unlike his predecessors who were all Mahesvaras, he professed to be a Parama Bhagavata (a great devotee of Visnu). He took keen interest in the scriptures and was very liberal in endowments. His patronage extended to Brahmanas of Nagaraka and Anandapura as well as to Buddhist viharas. The Jaina tradition represents him, as having been consoled by the public recitation of the Kalpasatra at Anandapura, when he was in grief caused by the demise of his son. Naravardhana, with whom begins the pedigree of Harsavardhana of Thanesvara and Kanauj, reigned about this time in Thapesvara. He was followed by his son Rajyavardhana I, his son Adityavardhana, and the latter's son Prabhakaravardhana (C. 580 A.D.). Maharaja Dhruvasena I (C. 519-549), the younger brother and successor of Dronasimha, issued a grant of lands in the villages Madkana, Tapasiya and Timsaka (or Atimsaka) in Hastavapra Aharani, to Brahmana Kumarasarman and Jarabhajya, residents of Sankaravataka. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 206, Bhadrapada Su. 5 (525 A.D.) and composed by Kikkaka, The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka.-( Palitana Plates; EI, XI, 105 ff.) Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land to Brahmana Rotghamitra (Rogghamitra) resident of Simhapura and belonging to Vrajagana gotra. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 206, Asvayuja Su 3 (525 A.D.), and composed by Kikkaka. The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka.-(Cambay Plates: EI, XVII, 109 ff.). Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I made grant of land to three Brahmanas of Bharadvaja gotra residents of Akrotaka. The land was situated in Aksasaraka mandali in Hastavapra Aharani. The grant was issued from Valabhl, in Valabhi Samvat 207, Kartika Su 3 (525 A.D.), and executed by Manimaka. It was composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana Plutes, EI, 105). For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 143 525 525 526 529 Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhj a grant of land situated in the village Kukkuta of Hastakavapra Aharani to Brahmana Sacitisarman, resident of Hastakavapra, of Dronayana gotra and a student of Atharvaveda. The grant was composed by Kikkaka and issued in Kartika Su. 7 of the (Valabhi) year 207: ( 525 A.D.). The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka. -(Bhavanagar Plates : IA; V, 204 ff.). Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land from the village Jyesthanaka (near Aksasaraka) in Hastavapra Aharani, to Brahmana Madhava, who had been holding it since long. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 207, Vaisakha ba. 5. (525 A.D.) and composed by Kikkaka. The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka.-(Palitana Plates, EI., XVII, 105 ff.) Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land to Brahmana Dhammila of Darbha gotra, resident of Hariyanaka in the village Hariyanaka (near Aksasaraka) in Hastavapra Aharani. The grant was composed by Kikkaka and issued from Valabhi in Vaisakha of the ( Valabhi ) year 207 ( 526 A.D.). The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka.-( Ganesagadh Plates, EI., III, 318 ff.) Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land situated at Cedakapadraka in Hastavapra Aharani, to Brahmana Nanna of Manava gotru, resident of Valapadra. The urant was composed by Kikkaka and was issued from Valabhi in the Valabhi) year 210, Sravana bahula 13 (529 A.D.). The Dutaka was Pratihara Mammaka.-( Bhavanagar Plates : LI, XV, 255 ff.). Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi, a grant of land situated at Bhallara and Vasukiya in Hastavapra Aharani, to Brahmana Visnusarman of Jyavala gotra, resident of Siri hapura in the (Valabhi ) year 210, Sravana Su. 15 ( 529 A.D.). It was executed by Pratihara Mammaka, and composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana Plat?s : EI ; XI, 109 f.). Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi a grant of the village Kalahataka in Hastavapra Aharani to Brahmanas Visvadatta and Vasudatta of Bharadvaja gotra. The Dutaka of the edict was Pratihara Mammaka and it was composed by Kikkaka. The date is illegible ; but from the names of the Dutaka and the Lekhaka the grant seems to have been issued not later than the (Valabhi) year 210 (529 A.D.). Santisarman and Devasarman of Atreya gotra, residents of Nagaraka ( represented by modern Nagara near Cambay) received a grant of land from Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I in the Valabhi) year 210, Bhadrapada ba 9 (529 A.D.), situated near the village Bhadrepika in Saurastra. The edict was executed by Rudradhara and composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana-I yavaj Plates : EI, XVII 108; and EI., XIX 125). 529 c. 529 529 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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144 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 529 529 C. 530 C. 533 Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena issued from Valabhi a grant of land, near the village Bhadrenika in Hastavapra Aharaoi. The receipients of the grants were Brahmana Bhatti and Guhabhatti, both of Bhargava gotra, and residents of Hastavapra. The Dutaka of the edict was Rudradhara, which was composed by Kikkaka and issued in the (Valabhi) year 210, Bhadrapada ba 13 (529 A.D.).--[ JBBRAS, (NS) I, 65). Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I renewed from Valabhi a grant of land in Akrolaka to Brahmana Skanda, who had been holding it since long. It was executed by Rudradhara, composed by Kikkaka, and was issued in the ( Valabhi) year 210, Asvayuja Va. 5 (529 A. D.). - Palitana Plates, El., XI, 112). Kumaragupta II succeeded his father Narasimhagupta of Magadha in about 530 A.D. Siddhasena Divakara, whose principal literary activities were confined to Gujarat was a Brahmana by birth and a Jaina by conversion. He was the author of several prakaranas, i.e., treatises, in which the subject is dealt with in a systematic and scientific form, as distinguished from the diffused or episodical treatment of events favoured by the canonical works. He wrote a well-known textbook on Logic. He headed the revolt in favour of using Sanskrit as against Prakrit, which was liked by the orthodox Sadhus moving among the illiterate, due to the intellectual upheaval which was bringing about a cultural unity in the country through Sanskrit. Manadeva, a pupil of Samudra Suri, became 'Suri' in V.S. 582.1 Owing to illness he forgot Sari-mantra. He thereupon went to Ujjayanta (mount Girnar) and practised penance. 2 Ambikadevi was pleased. She went to Simandharasvamin and got the Suri-mantra from this Tirthankara, and gave it to Manadeva Suri in about 534 A.D. This mantra was thereafter named as "Ambika-mantra ".: 1 Vide, a colophon of Surividyapatha of Bribad gaccha. JPI (pt 1, p. 446). * See, Gurvavali. (v. 40). See, Surividya patha noted above. From the victorious camp at Khuddavediya, Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued the grant of the village Pippalarunkhari to the Buddhist vihara erected by Dudda at Valabhi. The Dutaka of the edict was Bhogika Vaikun. tha ; it was composed by Kikkaka, and was issued in the Valabhi year 216, Magha vadi 3 ( 534 A.D.).-(Vala Plates, IA ; IV, 104 ff.). Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena l's copper-plate dated Valabhi S. 216 (i.6. 535 A.D.) records the gift of a village, issued to a Vihara built by his niece (Sister's daughter ) Dudda, 'Paramopasika' or 'the Great Devotee of the Buddha )'. The grant was specifically made for providing Buddhist bhiksus C. 531 534 535 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXX (B) Lakulisa from Karvan (p. 204) (A) Ekamukha Linga from Khedbrahma, p. 200 (C) Bhairava from Baroda Mus?um, p. 275 (D) Bhairava, from Visvamitri river, Baroda (p. 275) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXI Virabhadra Siva from samalaji, (p. 203) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXII Ksetrapala Siva from Samalaji (p. 204) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXIII For Personal & Private Use Only (B) Siva from Samalaji (A) Kartikeya from Samalaji (p. 204) (C) Standing Ganesa, sa malaji (p. 204)

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536 540 540 541 544 549 CIO MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 145 with the necessaries of life, as well as (mendicants) for worshipping (the idols of) the Buddhas.-(Buhler, IA, IV, 104-7). In course of time, Dudda Vihara' formed the nucleus of an important Vihara-Mandala at Valabhi.-(G. V. Acarya, Gujarat Inscriptions, Vol. I, pp. 36-38). A grant of the village Vataprajyaka was issued by Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I from a military camp in the (Valabhi) year 217, Asvayuja ba 13 (536 A.D.) to a vihara erected by Acaraya Bhadanta Buddhadasa in the vicinity of the vihara built by Dudda, the daughter of the sister of the grantor. The Dutaka of the edict was Rajasthaniya Bhatti, and was composed by Kikkaka. (JRAS., 1895, 379). From Valabhi, Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued to Brahmanas Skandatrata and Guhatrata of Bharadvaja gotra, residents of Anandpura a grant of land which was situated at Samihamoara and Sarasvativata. The Dutaka of the edict was Supakarapati Bhatti, which was composed by Kikkaka, and issued in the (Valabhi) year 221, Asvayuja ba 1 ( 540 A.D.).-( Vavdi Jogiya Plates, VOJ, VII, 297 ). Varahadasa II succeeded his elder brother Sura II in the Garulaka lineage. He was a contemporary of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena I. By means of prowess he took possession of Dvaraka and styled himself Dvarahadhipati (Lord of Dvaraka). In his prasasti ( eulogy) he is said to have built a number of temples, orchards, monasteries, inns, wells, halls and abodes.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 223 ff.). Mahasamanta Maharaja Sangamasimha, of an unknown dynasty, issued from Bharukaccha (Broach) a grant of the village Sonavva (Sunao) situated in Antar-Narmada Visaya. The grant was received by Brahmapas Anantadatta, Prajapatisarman, Sivadeva, Bhanudeva and Bhavaruci. The Dutaka of the edict was Sandhivigrahika Reva. The grant which was composed by Visnusena was issued in Kalacuri era 292, Kartika su. 15 (541 A.D.).-( Sunao Kala Plates, EI., X, 72). Sangamasimha, was probably a feudatory of Krsparaja (Circa 550-575 A.D.)'s father, whose name unfortunately has not come down to us. In the place of the patronymic which occurs in the legend on Traikutaka coins Krsparaja substituted malapitri-pad-anudhyata he who meditates on the feet of his mother and father'. His father's name does not occur even on his coins. Maitraka Maharaja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi a grant of land to a Brahmana of Anartapura in the ( Valabh!) year 226, Kartika su. 15. (544 A.D.). -[Vala Plates, JBBRAS, (NS) I, 16]. From Phankaprasravana, Garulaka ruler Varahadasa II issued a grant of land to the Nuns' vihara built by merchant Ajita, which seems to have been For Personal & Private Use Only

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146 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 550 included in the Yaksasuravihara-mandala at Valabhi. The land was situated at Bhattipadra which the donor had received from Maharaja Dhruvasena I in Valabhi Samvat 230, Magha su. I ( 549 A.D.).-(l'aia Plates, JBU, III. 1.77 ff.) Maharaja Dharapatta, the youngest known son of Senapati Bhatarka (c. 550-553 A.D.), succeeded his elder brother Dhruvasena I in circa 550 A.D. He professed to be a great devotee of Aditya (Surya). The omission of his name and eulogy in the copper-plate grant issued by his successor in 559 A.D. is, in all probability, an error or oversight; as he is regularly represented as a ruler in another grant of his successor dated 567 A.D., as well as in the grants of the subsequent successors.--(H. G. Shastri, MG, 67 ff.) The origin of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, and of related dynasties, is traced back to a period immediately preceeding the massive inroads of Hunas (C. 550 A.D.). That Gurjara' was the name of a tribe of foreigners who came in Ist Century A.D. has been the view of some scholars. (D.R. Bhandarkar: JBBRAS., XXII, 1905; I.A. XL, 1911, Vincent Smith: E.H.I. 3rd Edn. p. 322; W. Crooke : Ed. Tod's 'Annals of Rajasthan'] This tribe of foreigners (Khazars and Scythians) who migrated to India in the ist Century A.D. with Huns (Hunas) during the reign of Skandagupta, gave their name to the different regions where they settled. The Gurjaras later claimed Ksatriya origin, especially in Rajputana where they founded a kingdom, of which the capital was Bhinmal, some 50 miles N.W. of Mount Abu. C. 550 Rajpuhey sets of Sko Other scholars maintain that Gurjaras of India were distinctly Aryan. [Referencs : Mm. Gaurishankar Ojha, History of Rajputana, Vol. I, pp. 155; C. V. Vaidya : History of Mediaeval Hindu India (1934), Vol. II, pp. 32; D. C. Ganguly, IHQ, Vol. X, pp. 337 (Contra B. Ghosh, Indian Culture, Vol. I, pp. 510); Dasharath Sharma, IHQ Vol. X, 582; D. R. Mankad, Ibid, p. 584; and K. M. Munshi: The Glory that was Gurjaradesa, Part 1 (1955), p. 4: S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, quoted in Journal of the Dept. of Letters, Vol. X, p. 3. For a detailed discussion of the various theories connected with the Origin of Gurjaras', Vide R. C. Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya : K.M. Munshi Commeration Vol. II, p. 1-18; and Appendix I, Glory that was Gurjaradesa' Vol. I. ] C. 550 From examination of certain personal names Dr. H. D. Sankalia has, however, come to the conclusion that a part of the population of the old and new Gujarat, was, probably, of foreign extraction. The fact that no allusion to Gurjara Country in the pre-5th Century historical land-marks is found, and a crop of references in the post-6th Century records is visible, makes the presumption natural and strong that the Gurjara country and people came into the forefront of Indian politics during this interval. For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 147 As the Saka Rudradaman in the 2nd Century A.D., and the Kusana Kaniska and his descendants Huviska and Vasudeva were Hinduised, so the Gurjaras appear in the 7th Century, as Aryans, Brahmanas, Ksatriyas or Vaisyas, and promoters of the Varnasrama dharma. Just as Buddhism claimed a number of converts among the Sakas and Indo-Greeks, and now Christianity claims among Kolis and other aboriginal tribes, so Jainism could claim a large share of these foreigners. Some of these became reconverts to Hinduism like the Porvads, who were Jainas 700 years ago, and became Vaisnavas later on. In the earliest epigraphical records of the Gurjaras of Broach, viz., Dadda is described as belonging to the Gurjara-nypati-vamsa, which, as Calukva-vansa or Raghuvamsa, refers not to the country, but to the family or the people; i.e., it stands for the Gurjara family and not the country. Expressions like Gurjaratra or Gurjara-bhumi or mandala would thus only mean 'land or mandala belonging to or occupied by the Gurjara people':-(H. D. Sankalia, On the Origin of Gurjaras', JGRS, 1946, Nos. 2-3). The foreign origin theory of the Gurjaras has, however, been considered afresh by Dr. Baij Nath Puri (The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959, pp. 6-7) who points out that the Gurjaras formed a group or tribe representing people of different castes (who were ) living in Rajputana, from where they migrated and established themselves at different places. In fact, they were very probably tribal people who remained in obscurity for long, and were formerly known as the Arbudas. Moreover, references to Gurjara Brahmanas are found in the 6th Century A.D., which would have been impossible if they had been foreigners.--(Ibid, Preface, vii). Reference to the maritime activities of the people of Valabhi are given in the Buddhist work Manju-Sri-Mulakalpa.-( Jayaswal, Patna, 1934, p. 25). It says that the people of Valabhi reached Sura by crossing the sea, which probably refers to their trade ventures to, and regular commerce with, Assyria. This information of the Buddhist work is further corroborated by Dandin who, in his Dasakumara-Carita, says that there lived in the city of Valabhi a ship's captain (Navikapati), who seems to have been as rich as the god of wealth himself.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, p. 221 ). The Arbudas are mentioned in the Puranas. (Bhagavata, Vol. XII, I. 36; Visnu, Book II, Chap. III; Brahma, Chap. XIX, p. 17). The Ramayana locates the tribe in the West. (Kiskindha Kanda, Canto, XLII). They must have been the people dwelling on and around the Arbuda Mount, which is generally identified with Mt. Abu. The Gurjaras appear to be one of such peoples who later on migrated to other places, known after them. The Jainad inscription ( Bhandarkar's List; No. 2084; Cf. Ibid, p. 399, note 10) from Haiderabad State refers to the wives of the Gurjara warriors shedding C. 550 C. 550 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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148 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT tears in the caves of Arbuda, as a result of the conquest of the Paramara Jagaddeva, who is placed in V.S. 1151. The association of the Gurjaras with the Arbuda mountain is also noticed in the Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala : adyApyudgataharSagadgadagiro gAyanti yasyArbude / vizvAmitrajayojjhitasyabhujayo visphUrjitaM gurjaraH / / (Kavyamaia Series No. 85, I 39) . An early inscription of Varmalata dated in the V.S. 682 from Vasantgarh refers to his feudatory Vajrabhada Satyasraya protecting Arbuda, which is associated with the origin of other ruling families also. The earliest reference to the Gurjara country and its people is noticed in Bana's Harsacarita, and the account left by Hiuen Tsang. (Beal, Vol. II, p. 269). Banabhasta's account credits Prabhakaravardhana with keeping the Gurjara (evidently the king of the country or tribe) awake. Hiuen Tsang distinguishes the Gurjara country from neighbouring kingdoms like Bharukaccha, Malava, Valabhi, Saurastra and Ujjayini, which shows that the Gurjara kingdom at that time comprised Rajputana. It further suggests that there were, at least, two kingdoms in this period, the other one being at Broach. The Aihole inscription ( dated Saka Samvat 566 = 6 34 A.D.) of Palakesin II, the Calukya king (EI, VI, p. 1), mentions the submission of the Latas, Malavas, and the Gurjaras to the Calukya emperor, with a view to seeking his protection. The Gurjaras referred to in this record must be those of Broach. The Rastrakuta inscriptions refer to the term 'Gurjara' implying the Pratihara king of Kanauj, and the Gurjara country establishing the Gurjara nationality of the Pratiharas. The Radhanpur plates of Govind III (EI, VI, 239) refer to the Rastrakuta ruler, defeating a coalition of twelve princes, releasing but imprisoning the Ganga, defeating the Gurjara, and subduing the Malava. Here the names of countries definitely signify their kings. The Deoli plate inscription of Kssna III (EI, V, 235) mentions Klsna II frightening the Gurjara, destroying the pride of Lata, teaching humility to the Gauda, Anga, Kalinga, Ganga and Magadha, where the names of countries are with reference to their kings. The Baroda Copper plate of the Rastrakuta Karka (IA, XII, 160 ) mentions two terms: Gurjuresvarapati and Gurjaresvara-both being used here in the same sense. In the Sanjan copper plate of Amoghavarsa (EI, XVIII, p. 243, V. 9), the Rastrakuta ruler Dantidurga is described as being waited upon by kings led by Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 149 the king of Gurjaradesa, at the Hiranyagarbha-mahadana ceremony performed by him at Ujjayini. The Broach kingdom of the Gurjaras included, according to the testimony of the inscriptions, the whole of the Central Gujarat and the northern parts of Southern Gujarat, the talukas of Orpad, as well as the adjoining parts of the Baroda State, of the Revakantha, and of Sachin. Its northern frontier was probably the river Mahi, and the Southern one the river Ambika. The demarcation of the boundaries of this Gurjara feudatory kingdom made it contiguous to the main Gurjara kingdom in the north, Valabhi in the West, Lata in the South and the Calukyas in the east. Jinadatta Suri in his Ganadharasarasataka mentions Gujaratta (Gurjaratta ) with its capital Anahillavada (Anahillpataka) and with Durlabharaja reigning there.--(Weber, The Sanskrit and Prakrit Mss. in the Berlin Library, II 900). In Dharmasagara Gani's Gurvavali Sutra, Sri Devendrasuri is represented to have gone to Gurjarastra from Ujjayini in Malavaka. In the inscriptions, the Caulukyas are styled as Gurjaras, and the country ruled by them is named Gurjaradesa. Thus we find reference to king Bhima (EI, IX, p. 74; EI, VIII, P. 99), identified with the Caulukya Bhimadeva I, and his son the Gurjara king Karna (Karna Trailokyamalla) of Anahillapataka, and Maharajadhiraja Caulukya Kumarapala as the lord of the Gurjara country--(IA, X, p. 159). The Dohad inscription (EI, XI, p. 55) speaks of the Caulukya king Jayasimha ruling over the Gurjara-mandala from Apahilla pataka. Similarly the Somanath Patan Prasasti (V.O. J. Vol. III, p. 9) of the Valabhi Era 850 (1170 A.D.). mentions the Caulukya prince Kumarapala, who is called the king of the Gurjjaramandala. According to Panini Sutra-Sudranam = Anirvasitanam (II. 4. 10; Keilhorn; Mahabhasya Vol. I, p. 475) with Patanjali's gloss over it, the Yavanas and Sakas were included in the category of Sudras with this much of concession that they were not ostracised, and the plate touched by them was not polluted. There was also no restriction on their residence in the Aryan localities. It is, therefore, clear that all foreigners were accorded the fourth grade in Hindu society, except, of course, the nob le ones who were classed as Ksatriyas later on. There is not one instance of a Yavana Brahmana or a Sake Vaisya or a Huna Brahmana, but there are references to 'Gurjara Brahmanas' which would have been a sheer impossibility, if they were foreigners. The only exception of any foreign tribe being straight way admitted into the Brahmanical class seems to be that of the Magas, but this was probably done under very extraordinary circumstances. The Kysna-treya kula or gotra assigned to the Gurjara Brahmanas has its association with the Brahmanas only; and there are about half a dozen records c. 550 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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150 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 553 from different parts of India, mentioning this gotra for them. As its earliest reference can be dated in the 5th Century A.D., it is highly improbable that it could have any association with the Gurjaras as a Society. This earlier reference to the Gurjara Brahmanas rules out the foreign origin of the Gurjaras. --(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959, p. 4-5; and Fn. on p. 5). Both the Gurjara-Pratihara families of Mandor and Kanauj trace their origin to Laksmana, brother of Rama of the epic fame, which is construed by Scholars as a characteristic of foreign races settling in India. If that be the criterion for assessing foreign origin, many other tribes, including the Candellas and the Kalacuris who trace their pedigree to epic or mythic heroes, would not be able to assert their indigenous origin. The probability is that the Gurjaras, like so many other Indian tribes, were living in obscurity, somewhere in Rajputana, and it was only when lust for power impelled them to rush head-long that they came into contact with others, and carved out a number of kingdoms which ultimately formed the nucleus of the big Gurjara empire. Ajita and Ratna, the two Jaina Sresthins of Kismira, came to Girnar in V. S. 609 ( 553 A.D.). On finding that the lepyamaya image of Lord Nemi had melted, they restored the temple and got installed another image of stone. This he did according to the order of Kusmandi. This is according to JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, pp. 117 & 121) which is said to be the summary from Vividhatirtha-Kalpa (III, V.6); but neither in this work the name of Ajita nor the date 60g is found. According to an inscription on the image in the temple of Lord Rsabha in Talanapura, Candrasimha, a rich person and his wife Jamuna, got prepared an image of Lord Candraprabhra for the temple of Lord Parsva situated in Trapura, lying in the centre of Mandapa-durga, in V. S. 612 ( 555 A.D.); and this image was installed by Jagaccandra Suri." 1 This city is 73 miles from Dohad and two and a quarter from Kuksi. Its old name is Tungiyapattana or Taranapura. Vide JESS (Vol. II, p. 320). * Ibid., 320 Maitraka Maharaja Dharapatta was succeeded by his son Guhasena (circa 553-569 A.D.), one of the greatest kings of the dynasty. In his grants he is eulogized as a virile warrior, popular ruler ( rajan) and peerless patron. His all known grants were issued to Buddhist viharas. Maitraka Maharaja Guhasena issued a grant of land to the Buddhist viharas erected by Dudda at Valabhi. The grant was composed by Visnusisha and issued in the (Valabhi ) year 240, Sravana su. (559 A.D.).-(IA, VII, 66). 555 C. 555 559 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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564 MAITPAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 151 A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Maharaja Guhasena in the ( Valabhi) year 246, Magha ba, ( 564 A.D.). The land was donated to the Sangha ( Congregation) of the Buddhist bhiksus (mendicants) at Dudda-Mahavihara erected by Dudda in the locality of Valabhi; and it consisted of four villagesSamipadravataka in the vicinity of Anumanji and Pippalarunkhari, Sangamanaka in Mandali Dranga and Naddiya and Chossari in Khetaka Ahara. The grant was composed by Skandabhata, the Officer in charge of Sandhi ( Peace ) and Vigraha (War).- Vala Plate, EI, XIII, 338 ). The language of Abhiras must have grown in importance along with their 559-567 political power and influence. Besides the testimony of Bhamaha and Dandin, we find a copper-plate inscription praising the proficiency of King Guhasena of Valabhi ( A.D. 559-567 ) in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhramsa poetry : TEATTY#373191974-4fa4 ealfagoria:CUIT: 1-(Bom. Gaz., I, p. 90) Rudrata in his Kavyalankara (9th century),--not only includes Apabhramsa among his six languages of poetry, but also says that Apabhraisa has several varieties according to countries. C. 566 On a pot-sherd of a clay-pot (ghata ) discovered from Vala, the name of Sri Guhasena' (553-569 A.D.) and the ( Valabhi year (2) 40 ( = C. 566 A.D.] are found inscribed. It reads sit Jahatu : This ghata may have been a pot for water-clock, as suggested by Dr. R. A. Saletore.-(IA; XIV, March, 1885, p. 75). A fragmentary stone-inscription discovered at the village Bankodi in the Raval District of the former Navanagar State, also records the name of Guhasena; and it is assigned on paleographic grounds, to this Maitraka king.-- (Bhavnagar Sanskrit and Prakrit Inscriptions.) 567 A grant of land situated in the village Bahumula near Vatasthalika was issued from Valabhi in the ( Valabhi) year 248, Asvayuja vadi 14 ( 567 A.D.) by Maitraka Maharaja Guhasena to the Sumgha ( Congregation) of the Buddhist bhiksus (mendicants) in Abhyantarika Vihara' erected by Mimma in the vicinity of Bhatarka-vihara'given to Rajasthaniya Sura as a token of favour. The grant was composed by Skandabhata in charge of the Department of Sandhi ( Peace) and Vigraha (War). The grant represents king Guhasena as a Parama-Upasaka (great devotee of the Buddha ).- ( Bhavanagar Plates: 1A., V, 206). C. 570 King Dharasena II (c. 570-589-90 A.D.) succeeded his father Maitraka Maharaja Guhasena in circa. 570 A.D. He was proficient in archery and liberal in donation. The two grants represented as issued by this king in Saka year 400 are obviously forged records.--(IA. X, 277 ff.; Manilal Dvivedi, Puratana Daksina Gujarata, 194 f.) Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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15? CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 571 571 Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II issued from Valabhi a grant of land from Bilvakhata Sthali and Jhari Sthali to Brahmana Chacchara of Bhargava gotra, resident of Brahmapura. The grant was composed by Skandabhata and issued in the (Valabhi) year 252, ba. 5 ( 571 A.D.). The Dutaka of the edict was Cirbira.--( Jhar Plates : IA, XV, 187). From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana a grant of land, situated near Damaripataka of Vatapallika Sthali was issued by Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II to Visakha and Bappa of Kasyapa gotra, on Sam. 252, Vaisakha bahu 5 (571 A.D.):-( Katpur Plates, BPSI., 35 ff.). The following five grants were also issued by him on (Valabhi) year 252, Vaisakha ba. 15 (571 A.D.). All of them record religious endowments of land made on the Amarasya day, which was held especially sacred for the purpose. The royal edicts of all these grants were executed by Cirbira and the grants were composed by Skandabhata : (1) Brahmana Rudragopa of Anartapura received the grant of the village Isikanaka of Ambarenu Sthali.-( Bhadva Plates, ABORI, IV, 33 ff.). (2) Lands situated in Jambuvanaka Sthali, Nimbakupa Sthali and Kadambapadra Sthali were given to Rogha and Syena of Kausika gotra.(Palitana Plates. EI, XI, 80). (3) Land situated in Antaratra was given to Brahmana Rudrabliuti of Kanva-Vatsa gotra, resident of Unnata.-(Malia Plates : CII, III, 104 f.). (4) A land-grant was issued to Brahmana Dusa and Sasthi of Sanailya gotra from Valabhi.- (Sorath Plates : IA, VII 68 ). (5) A grant of land was given to Brahmana Ludra of Keradi gotra and to Dasila of Alambayana getra in the (Valabhi) year 252 (571 A.D.).(IA, VIII 301). Dharasena II, of Valabhi, son and successor of Guhasena was reigning from 571-589 A.D. (G. Sam. 252-272 on copper-plates). He ruled over continental Gujarat as far as the river Mahi.--(IA, I; 17, 60 ff ) A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II from Valabhi on the occasion of the solar eclipse (Suryoparaga) in the Valabhi) year 254, Vaisakha ba. 15 ( 573 A.D.). The recipient of the grant was Brahmana Devadatta of Sanqilya gotra and the land received by him was situated near Bhattakapadra in the North Patta of Kaundinyapura (Visaya) in Surastra. * The royal edict was executed by Skandabhata.-( Bantia Plates : EI., XXI, 179 ff.). The year was first read 257, but later on corrected into 254. The reference to the solar eclipse on the day of the grant applies to the Puraimanta Vaisakha of the Valabhi year 254 ( 573 A.D.).--(H. G. Shastri, MG, 578): 571-589 573 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXIV Uma-Mahesvara from Kapuri, Baroda Dist., (p. 204) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXV For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Mother and Child, Kotyarka. Mahuli (N. Gujarat ), (p. 206) (C) Mahesvari (p. 205) (B) Mother & Child Kotyarka, (p. 206)

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Plate XXXVI A For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Varahi from Samalaji (p. 205) (a) Agneyi (p. 205)

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Plate XXXVI For Personal & Private Use Only SD (A) Kaumari ( standing ) from Samalaji, (p. 206) (C) Kaumari (dancing) from Karvan (p. 276) (B) Kaumari (seated) from Mt. Abu.

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 153 574 574 From Phankaprasravana, Maitraka Maharaja Simhaditya issued a grant of land to Brahmana Bappasvamin of Krsnatreya gotra resident of Elapadra in the Valabhi year 255, Asvayuja su 13, ( 574 A.D.). The land was situated at the village of Darbhacara.-( Palitana Plates : EI., XI, 16). A single copper-plate reveals the existence of a family ( called Garulaka ) of feudatory chiefs consisting of Senapati Varahadasa I, his two sons Bhattisura and Varahadasa II, and the latter's son Simhaditya, the last three having the title Samanta-Maharaja. The change in titles is analogous to that of the Maitraka chiefs themselves. The Grant was issued by Senapati Simhaditya in 574 A.D.; and he was, therefore, a feaudatory of Dharasena II. The Grant mentions that Varahadasa II defeated a ruler of Dwarka, which is on the west coast of Saurastra Peninsula. It tells us that Krsna lived in Dwarka, and at that period (c. 600 A.D.), Dwarka was the capital of the western coast of Surastra. C. 575 This is the first and perhaps the only epigraphical reference to the Dwarka of Sri Krsna and its supposed survival upto the 7th century.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, p. 62 ). From the Sankheda copper-plate we learn that Nirihullaka was ruling over the lower Narmada valley, later, in the heart of the Gurjara kingdom, as a feudatory of the Kalacuri Sankaragana. The Gurjaras came into its possession after the Kalacuris. The sign-manuals of the Gurjara princes are in the northern characters, though their grants are written in the Southern script. This clearly indicates their northern origin. Dr. R. C. Majumdar has shown that Dadda I was probably identical with the homonymous son of the Brahmana Haricandra, from his Ksatriya wife Bhadra, who is mentioned in the Jodhpur inscription of the Pratihara Bauka, and who probably flourished about 575 A.D. He was apparently ruling somewhere in the vicinity of Mandavyapura (modern Mandor near Jodhpur) which he and his brothers are said to have conquered. Samanta Dadda I, with whom begins the pedigree of the Gurjaras of Gujarat, ruled about 580 A.D. He was followed by his son Jayabhata, Dadda II (628 A.D.). This 'Gurjara kingdom' had its capital at Bharukaccha and included Central Gujarat, and the northern territories of Southern Gujarat, Subandhu, author of the Vasavadatta, may have flourished about this date, being mentioned by Bana (A.D. 600).-(JBBRAS, XVIII, 147, 159 ). C. 580 C. 580 C20 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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154 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 585 Prabhakaravardhana of Thanesvara, son and successor of Adityavardhana, and probably the first paramount sovereign of his dynasty, married Yasomatidevi. According to Bana (Harsacarita), he fought with the king of Gandhara and the Hunas in the Himalayas, against the king of Sindh in west, with the Bhinmal and Bharukaccha branches of the Gurjaras, and with the king of Malaya. C. 587 588 He sent his son Rajyavardhana, shortly before his own death, against the Hunas. Prabhakaravardhana's daughter Rajyazri married the Maukari king Grahavarman, who, shortly after his father-in-law's death, was attacked and slain by the king of Malava.-(EI, I, 68). Varahamihira, the astronomer died, according to Amaraja's commentary on Brahmagupta's Khandakhadya : author of the Pancasiddhantika.-( JRAS, NS, i, 497). From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana, Maharaja Dharasena II issued a grant of Mahesvaradasenaka in Hastavapra Aharani and Devabhadrapallika in Dharakheta Sthali to the Bappapadiya Vihara erected by Acarya Bhadanta Sthiramati at Valabhi. The royal edict was executed by Samanta Siladitya, and was issued in the Valabhi year 269, Caitra ba. 2 ( 588 A.D.). It was composed by Skandabhata, the officer in charge of the Department of Peace and War and the Head of the Diviras (Scribes).-( Vala Plates, IA, VI, 11 f.). A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II to the Buddhist Vihara erected by merchant Kakka Mankila within the Dudda Vihara Mandala. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 270, Magha su. 10 ( 589 A.D.). The grant was executed by Samanta Siladitya and was composed by Skandabhata.--( JBBRAS, I, 66 f.) 589 589 The name of the merchant was deciphered later on-(IHQ, XVI-816). This shows the munificence of the Vaisyas in society. From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattanaka, Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II issued a grant of the village Asilapallika in Baddarijidri Pathaka of Khetaka Ahara-Visaya, in the Valabhi) year 270, Falguna ba, 10 ( 589 A.D.) to Brahmana Visnumitra of Sarkaraksi gotra, resident of Khetaka and an emigrant from Anartapura. The grant was executed by Samanta Siladitya and was composed by Skandabhata.-( Alina Plates : IA, VII, 70 f.). From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana, Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II issued a grant of the village Thanaka ( Than) to two Brahmanas of Gahunayana gotra, on Sam. 270, Bhadrapada va. 2 (?) ( 589 A.D.). Samanta Siladitya was the Dutaka of the edict, which was composed by Skandabhata.(IHQ, XV, 284 ff.). 589 For Personal & Private Use Only

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590 C. 590-615 595 595 C. 595 595-96 155 According to the Chinese sources, Dharmagupta, a scholar from Lata (Gujarat), is said to have left his native place, and travelling through Central India, reached the capital of China in 590 A.D.-(Cf. B.E.F.E.O., II pp. 439-40, cited by Nilakantha Sastri, Foreign Notices of South India, p. 14). MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD Dhanesvarasuri, the author of the famous Satrunjaya Mahatmya, describes himself in this work as a tutor of King Siladitya I of Valabhipura. Here, we are told, he euchred the colours of the Buddhists who were puffed up with pride on account of their knowledge; and the ground he took for defeating them was. 'Syad-vada ie. May Be or the Science of Logic. Derabhata, the son of Siladitya I, seems to have inherited from his father the Vindhya territory about the same time when the latter ascended the throne at Valabhi. The Maitraka Maharaja Dharasena II issued a grant of land situated at Hariyanaka. The grant was dedicated to a Buddhist vihara at Valabhi. Samanta Siladitya officiated as the Dutaka of the royal edict and Skandabhata composed the grant.-[ Vala Plates, JBBRAS. (NS) I, 22 1.] King Siladitya I alias Dharmaditya', son and successor of Dharasena II, (c. 590-615 A.D.) acceded to the throne of Valabhi in circa 595 A.D. He devoted himself to the practice of Dharma and issued liberal grants of land to Brahmanas, temples and viharas. His sway extended over Malava (Malwa ). During his visit to Malava in 641, Hiuen Tsang got information about the righteous career of this past king, who convoked a 'Moksa Parisad' every year, and gave liberal donations to mendicants assembled on that occasion. King Sila alias Dharmaraja mentioned in the Aryamanjasrimalakalpa is identified with this king. He had erected a Buddhist vihara by the side of his palace, installed the images of the Seven Buddhas therein, and exhausted the skill of the artisans in its decoration. The Mankani ( Sankheda Taluka) Copper-Plate' grant, supplemented with the other half in Baroda Museum, purports to record the gift of a field of rice (f) in the north of the village of Mankanika, made to the learned Brahmana Jyesthavarma of the Jatukarna gotra, a student of the Vajasneya Sakha of the Sukla Yajurveda, to enable him to perform his 4s for the meritorious gratification of his parents and of himself. The grant was made by Taralasvami, probably a local ruler, son of Sri Maharaja Nanna and Daddha, of the Kalacuris, who established sway in the I.ata-desa under Sankaragana in the 6th century after Christ. Taralasvami was the sister's husband (Bhavaka ) of the illustrious Surya, and he held local sway. The lethaka of the grant in Cedi Samvat 346 ( 595-6 A.D.) was = For Personal & Private Use Only

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156 596 596-97 C. 596 C. 600 C. 600 C. 600 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Adityabhogika, who was the Sandhivigrahika also.-(A. S. Gadre: Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, 1943, p. 4-6). Kalacuri King Sankaragana issued a grant of land in the Bhogasardhana Visaya, which may have been another name of the ancient Govardhana (Nasik Dist.), from his victorious camp at Ujjayini.-( Abhona Plates, EI., IX, 297 f. ). It indicates his military expedition across Avanti in Cedi Sam. 347, Sravana. su. 15 (596 A.D.). The earliest dated record of the Kalacuris is Sankaragana's Abhona grant' of C. 347 (596-97 A.D.) of a land, in a village in the northern part of the Hyderabad State, which was issued from his camp at Ujjayini. It also shows that he ruled over a vast empire which extended from Malwa in the north to Maharastra in the South. That it comprised Gujarat is shown by the Sankheda plate of the General Santilla, which mentions Nirihullaka as his governor in Central Gujarat. Sankaragana is assigned approximately to the period 575-600 A.D., as his son Buddharaja was defeated by Mangalaraja in circa 601 A.D. Santilla, the baladhikrita (Minister for the Army) of Nirihullaka, the head of the Bhogikas and the great lord of Palla (Pala) issued a grant of land at Parnaka (Paniu) situated in Tandulapadraka (Tandalaja), to Anantasvamin. of Kautsa gotra, resident of Pasanihrada. Nirihullaka owed allegiance to Sankargana, son of Krsparaja. The grant was issued from the victorious camp at Nirgundipadraka. The date of the grant is missing on the plates, the lower corners of which are broken and lost.-( Sankheda Plates: EI, II, 21). Dadda I of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty founded a new Kingdom at Nandipuri (Nandod) in South Gujarat. He is probably to be identified with Dadda, son of Haricandra of the Pratihara dynasty of Gurjaradesa. In the edicts of Dadda II he is styledSamanta and represented as holding sway over the Reva (Narmada) river and the Vindhya Valley. He was a devotee of the Sun-god.-H. G. Shastri, MG, 273 ff.). Bhanusakti, of the Sendraka dynasty ruling in the neighbourhood of Bagumra (Southern Gujarat), lived about 600 A.D. He was followed by his son Adityasakti and his son Nikumbhallasakti (A.D. 654). This dynasty seems to have been at first feudatories of the Kalacuris, and later, of the Western Calukyas. Dandin says that the Apabhramsa is, in poetry, an appellation of the speech. of the abhiras and the like, [AbhIrAdigiraH kAvyeSyapabhraMza iti smRtaH / ( I.36) ]. He also speaks of Lati as one of the Prakrita languages: Cf. zaurasenI ca gauDI va lAThI cAnyA ca tAdazI / yAti prAkRtamityevaM vyavahAreSu sannidhim // (I. 35 ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 157 C. 600 C. 600 C. 600 Grahavarman, Maukhari, governor of Kanauj, son and successor of Avantivarman, married Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhakaravardhana of Thanesvara(JBA, LVIII, pt. 1). To this period belong : the poet Bana, author of the Sri Harsacarita, Kadambari, and the Candisataka : Mayura, author of the Suryasataka : Dandin, author of the Dasakumaracarita and the Kavyadarsa, as the contemporaries of Harsavardhana of Kanauj. To the same period belongs Manatunga, author of the Bhaktamara-Stotra. The Jaina tradition makes Mayura, the fatherin-law of Bana. The objects excavated at the site of Valabhi contain a variety of clay-seals with the Buddhist formula ETH: 1 etc. imprinted on them. The references to Ratnatraya (frag. I ), Samgha (frag. 4), and Tathagata (frag. 5) occurring in the fragmentary Stone-inscriptions discovered from Vala (Diskalkar, ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. I ), show the further influence of Buddhism in the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. There are references even to fields belonging to Buddhist monks or to the Sangha in the copper-plates. The earliest reference is found in a grant of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena I (Valabhi S. 216, C. 535 A.D.) wherein he donated villages to the Vihara built by his niece ('Sister's daughter) Dudda, who laid the temporal foundation of Buddhism in or near Valabhi. This Vihara gradually developed into a Viharamandala, containing a number of Viharas within its precincts. Buddhism set its foot in Surastra through the efforts of Asoka ; it might have enjoyed some popularity during the days of Milinda, and may have taken firm root in the region of the early Andhra Kings. But it certainly reached the height of its glory during the rule of the Maitraka kings of Valabhi. We know from Hiuen Tsang's account that most of the bhiksus in Malava, Valabhi, and Anandapura studied Hinayana according to the Sammatiya School, while the Bhiksus of Bharukaccha and Surastra followed the Mahayana, according to the Sthavira school and the bhiksus of Khetaka and Ujjayini studied both the Yanas. The Bappapadiya Vihara was constructed by Acarya Bhiksu Sthirmati at Valabhi and was meant for monks from foreign countries, belonging to the Hinayana Sect. It is identified with the vihara referred to by Hiuen Tsang in the account of Valabhi. This Sthirmati Sthavira was one of the famous disciples of Vasubandhu, the 21st patriarch who wrote commentaries on all the works of his master. Gunamati was also a disciple of Vasubandhu who wrote a commentary on Vasubandhu's Abhidharma Kosa (An Introduction to Mahayana). Jinadeva, a Jaina Acarya, had defeated in disputation, in Bharukaccha, two Buddhist monks who were brothers named as Bhadantamitra and Kunala who thereupon had become his pupils.-(JAG, P. II0). C. 600 For Personal & Private Use Only

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158 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 600 C. 600 As this event is mentioned in Avassaya-cunni (pt. II, p. 201) it must have occurred, not later than the sixth century A.D. There was a temple of Kondalamendhal (Kundamentha"), a Vyantara, near Bharukaccha. People staying in surrounding places, used to visit it and enjoy there a sankhadi (picnic-party). i Bhasa, Cunni and Visesacunni on Kappa. ? JAG, P. 44, pp. 110-III. Attana was an invincible wrestler (Malla) of Ujjayini. Simhagiri, a ruler of Soparaka, used to arrange wrestling, and pay a great sum to the victor. Astana went every year to Sopasaka and came victorious. Thereupon Simhagiri engaged a young fisherman after testing his strength. This fisherman succeeded in defeating Attana who was older than he. Attana started for Surastra as he had come to know that there was a very powerful wrestler. On the way he came across a ploughman in Bharukaccha. He was ploughing with one hand and by the other he was picking up cotton (phalahi). Taking him to be a fit rival for that fisherman, he induced him to learn wrestling. He agreed and became a wrestler. Attana took him to Soparaka. Wrestling took place between this ploughman known as Phalahimalla' and the fisherman (Matsyayika-malla ). But it ended in a draw. In the evening Attana inquired of Phalahi-Malla if any limb or limbs of his body were aching. This wrestler pointed out the limbs, and they were properly attended to. The Matsyayika-malla gave an arrogant reply when a similar question was put to him by Simhagiri, with the result that the next day he got defeated and died.-( Avassaya-cunni, pt. II, p. 152-53). A reference to the Gurjara in the South is noticed in the Tamil poem, Manimekhalai, composed in the 6th century A.D., which mentions one * Kucharakudihai', a temple of Gurjara workmanship. This reference suggests the improbability of a foreign architect of Gurjara Nationality being imported into Southern India as early as the sixth century A.D. ; while we have hardly any reference to the Gurjaras before the time of Prabhakaravardhana; who is eulogized as 'a lion to the Huna deer, a burning fever to the king of the Indus land, a troubler of the sleep of Gujarat (or of the Gurjaras'), a bilious plague to lawlessness of the Latas ("Lata ' in text), an axe to the creeper of Malava's glory':-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 5). According to Javanese tradition, the colonisation of Java by a prince of Gujarat in the beginning of the 7th century A.D. has been generally accepted. In Gujarat also, the wealth brought from Java to Gujarat by its enterprising sons has passed into a proverb. C. 600 c. 603 For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 159 605 605 However, the tradition requires further corroboration by more tangible evidence of culture-contacts. From Valabhi, Maitraka Siladitya I issued a grant of land to Buddhist vihara erected by Queen Dudda at Valabhi. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 286 Jyestha ba 6 ( 605 A.D.). The land consisted in a village along with three fields, two step-wells, and four garden-wells. The Dutaka of the grant was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti, designated Sandhivigrahadhikrita (Minister of Peace and War) and Divira pati (Head of Scribes).-(Vala Flates, IA, XIV 327). A grant of land was issued from Valabhi by Maitraka King Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, in the (Valabhi) year 286, Vaisakha ba. 6 (605 A.D.). It was dedicated to the Samgha (Congregation) of the Bhiksus at a Buddhist vihara. The Dutaka of the order was Bhatta Adityayasas.--( Palitana-Vala Plates, IA, I, 46). In the (Valabhi) year 286, Asadha ba 8 (605 A.D.) King Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, dedicated the village Bhonlanaka in Vatanagara Sthali to fortyfour Brahmanas of various gotras who emigrated from Samgapuri. The Dutaka of the royal order was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti mentioned above.--(Navalakhi Plates : EI ; XI 174). A grant of land was issued by Maitraka King Siladitya I to a Buddhist vihara at Van akata. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 286 Sravana ba 7 ( 605 A.D.). The vihara seems to be identical with the vihara mentioned in another grant (JBBRAS I 31 f.) as erected by the donor at Vamsakata.-( Vala Plates, JBBRAS, I, 26). 605 605 603 606 In the (Valabhi) year 287, Margasira ba 7 (605 A.D.) Maitraka King Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, issued from Valabhi a grant of land to Brahmana Bhatti of Bharadvaja gotra, residing at Valabhi, an emigrant from Anartapura. The royal edict was executed by Bhatta Adityayasas and was composed by Vatrabhatti.-(Vala Plates : JBBRAS, I 28). From Valabhi, King Siladitya I dedicated the village Nirgudaka in Ghasaraka Pathaka to the Samgha ( Congregation of the Bhiksunis (nuns) of Yaksasura vihara at Valabhi. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti and issued in the (Valabhi) year 287, Karttika va. 7, (606 A.D.).-(Vala Plates : JUB; III I, 80). Harsavardhana Siladitya of Thanesvara, succeeded his brother Rajyayardhana II. He extended his sovereignty over the whole of Northern India. Inscriptions record his invasion of Valabhi between A.D. 633 and 640, in the 606 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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160 C. 609 C. 609 609 609 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT reign of Dhruvasena II, who fled for refuge to Dadda IV of Bharukaccha, from whence he submitted to Harsa and married his grand-daughter. He is the hero of Bana's Sri Harsacarita, and was himself a poet and the reputed author of several poems. Hiuen Tsang visited his court, and was present at the religious convocation held by him at Prayaga (C.A.D. 643). The pilgrim represents him as an ardent Buddhist; but Harsa, in his Madhuvan grant, calls himself a Saiva. Calukya inscriptions record Harsa's defeat at the hands of Pulakesin II, when striving to extend his dominion beyond the Narmada. Pulakesin II, Satyasraya, Sri Prithvivallabha, Early Calukya, succeeded his uncle Mangalisa till about 642 A.D. After repulsing Appayika and Govinda, perhaps of the Rastrakuta race, Pulakesin subdued the Kadambas, and reduced their capital Banavasi. He himself attacked and reduced the city of Puri, conquered the kings of Lata, Malava and Gurjara, and repelled Harsavardhana. He then took the title of Paramesvara. Kosala and Kalinga submitted to him, and later, he attacked and beseiged Mahendravarman I, the Pallava king in his capital Kancipuram, and, crossing the Kaveri invaded the country of the Colas, Pandyas and Keralas. These victories were gained, according to the Haidarabad grant of S. 535, before 612 A.D.; probably about 608-9. Towards the close of his reign, Pulakesin suffered reverses at the hands of the Pallavas under Narasimhavarma I.-(IA, vi, 72; Bom. Gaz. I, 349). Buddharaja's power was uprooted by the Calukya King Mangalaraja(Nerur Plates of Mangalaraja, IA, VII, 161; Mahekut Pillar Inscription of Mangaleka; IA; XIX 7). From the victorious camp at Bhadresvara, the Gate of Valabhi, Maitraka King Siladitya I in the Valabhi year 290, Bhadrapada bahula 7, (609 A.D.), issued a grant of village Amadasaputra near Vatadraha in Ghasaraka Pathaka, to the Bhiksuni-vihara' erected by Yaksasura at Valabhi. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti (Valad Plates, JUB, III, 1, 82). A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, in the (Valabhi) year 290, Bhadrapada ba. 8 (609 A.D.). It was dedicated to the temple (devakula) of Mahadeva (Siva) erected by Harinatha and situated in the locality of Balavarmanaka-Vatapadra. The Dutaka was Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti.-( Dhank Plates; IA, IX, 237 ff.) This is the only known Maitraka grant issued to a Siva temple, though almost all the Maitraha kings professed Saivism. For Personal & Private Use Only

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609 610 C. 610 C. 610 C2I MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD From Valabhi, Maitraka king Siladitya I issued a grant, of village Danturaputra in Mandall Dranga to Brahmanas Mitrasarman and Ganesvara of Audaresani gotra, who had emigrated in the (Valabhi) year 290, Bhadrapada su 10 (609 A.D.) from Dasapura and settled at Valabhi. Kharagraha executed the royal edict and Divirapati Vatrabhatti composed the grant.-(Vala Plates: JUB, III, 1, 85). King Bhanusakti founded the Saindraka power in South Gujarat. (H. G. Shastri, MG, 311 f.). 161 About 610 A.D. the Western Calukya Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman I, succeeded Mangalisa. He is recorded to have defeated the Gangas, Maurayas of Konkan, Latas (of Southern Gujarat), Gurjaras of North Gujarat, Malavas, Kalingas, Kosalas, Pallavas of Conjevaram, besides his great victory over Harsavardhana of Thanesvara. Buddhavarman, Calukya king of Southern Gujarat, reigned about 610, in succession to his father Jayasimha. 610 C 600-650 Gurjara king Jayabhata I alias Vitaraga' succeeded his father Dadda I. A School of Painting and Sculpture was founded by Sringadhara of Maru (Marwar), who was an accomplished artist and painter, and worked under Harsavardhan (610-650 A.D.), according to the Tibetan historian Taranath (1608 A.D.). Sringadhara's 'School of the Art of Ancient West' was not confined to Western India; but its traditions seem to have travelled as far as Nepal and Burma (wall-paintings at Pagan), where, according to Taranath, the Earlier School of Art resembled the Old Western School'. The distinguishing features of this School founded in Marwar cannot be surmised, as no painting from Marwar or Western India from this early period has survived. But if sculpture be the index of art-conventions of those times, then the angularity in the treatment of human figures may be counted as the distinguishing features of the Western Indian art of Bundelkhand, Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat. The migration of the art-conventions of this school to the Deccan and the South cannot be studied, as no wall-paintings of the 7th or 8th century have survived from Western India. In the middle layer of the wall-paintings at Kailasa, Elura (9th century), however, the angularity of human figures, pinching of the farther cheek, and the consequent protrusion of the farther eye into empty space are met with. As these conventions are still in embryonic stage in the later cave-paintings of Ajanta, they may be attributed to the extraneous influence, probably of Gujarat and Rajputana. The influence of Western Indian art at a somewhat later period is marked in the Visnu temple at Madanpur in Lalitpur Dist. (U.P.), adjoining Malwa. The For Personal & Private Use Only

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162 C. 610 C. 610 611 611 C. 615 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT battle scenes in the Western porch of Kailasanatha temple, Elura, depicting rows of horsemen and the inscriptional evidence indicating their connection with the Paramaras of Malwa, also show Rajput or Western Indian influence. In the 10th century or even a little earlier, the conventions of the Western Indian style left their homeland and travelled to the remotest corners of India, influencing the contemporary Pala paintings in Eastern India, and penetrated as far as Pagan and Nepal.-( Moti Chandra, 'Jaina Paintings of Western India', p. 17). In Jesalmer there is a MS. of Visesavassayabhasa. In its colophon, dated Saka Samvat 531, there is mention of Valabhl-nagart and Sladitya (?). The missing letters after mahavi may be supplying the name of a Jaina temple at Valabhi wherein this MSS. was then deposited. 1 In JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, p. 115) these verses are quoted. 2 This is the date of the MS. and not that of the work, as suggested by Jinavijayaji. Vide Intro. p. 32 of "Ganadharavada" by Pt. Dalsukh Malvaniya. 3 In JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, p. 113) this samvat is mentioned along with Valabhi Samvat 291. From the above MSS we learn that Kheda and Modheraka (Modhera) along with Mathura are each spoken of as ahara. They are examples for ksetrahara The latter can be interpreted in two ways: (1) the Ksetra (region) where dhara (food?) is done produced and (2) the region which is made enjoyable for (?) a city by means of corn, fuel etc. In the cunni noted above, ahara is equated to visaya (Sk. Visaya), a country. From the victorious camp at Devisaras, Maitraka king Siladitya I issued a grant of land to the temple of Aditya (Sun) situated at Bhadreniyaka in Baravana Sthali. The land was situated in the same place. The royal edict was executed by Kharagraha and the grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti. It was issued in the Valabhi year 291, Caitra su 14. (611 A.D.). -(EI, XXI, 116). From the royal camp fixed at Anandpura (Vadnagar) in the North Gujarat the Kataccuri king Buddharaja issued a grant of land to a Brahmana of Parasara gotra, resident of Dobhaka (Dabka near Padra in Baroda). The grant consisted in a village situated in Gorajja (Goraj) bhoga of Bharukuccha (Broach) visaya. The Dutaka of the edict was Mahabaladhikrita Prasahyavigraha. The grant was composed by Sivaraja, the head of the Department of Sandhi (Peace) and Vigraha (War), on Sam. 362 Karttika ba 15, 611 A.D. -(Sarsavani Plates: EI, VI, 294 ff.). King Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, granted two villages (one probably of Ghasaraka Pathaka and the other possibly of Kalapaka Pathaka) to the Buddhist vihara built by himself at Vansakata. This reminds us of Hiuen For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD * 163 615 616 C. 616-7 Tsang's reference to his having built a monastery by the side of his palace.(Beal, Records II 261 f; Vala Plates ; (NS) I, 33 f.]. Maitraka king Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I (c. 615-621 A.D.), in accordance with the express will of his elder brother. In his eulogy he is said to have topped the list of heroic persons on account of his renowned valour and proficiency in warfare. Dr. K. P. Jayaswal identified him with Capala, mentioned in the Aryamanjusrimulakalpa ; but the wantonness of the latter can hardly fit in with the former's noble character delineated in the copper-plate grants. From the victorious camp at Ujjayani, Maitraka King Kharagraha I issued a grant of land to a Brahmana of Bhaguri gotra, residing at Cincanaka. The land was situated at Cincanaka which was located in Mandali dranga. The Dutaka of the grant was Dharasena and was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti, on Sam. 297 Vaisakha su. 12 (616 A.D.).-(Virdi Plates: AIOC, VII, Pro.; pp. 659-676). A grant, of two field-wells with usual privileges, was issued by Maitraka king Kharagraha I from Valabhi for the increase of the religious merit of his parents. The recipient of the grant was a Brahmana named Gupta, son of Apta of Kaundinya gotra, and a student of Vajasneya Sakha of Yajurveda who belonged to Kasahsada, but had settled at Tramadi. The land was situated in Anumanji Sthali : ( very probably an ancient name of Amreli, as suggested by A.S. Gadre; as it is also mentioned in the grants of V.S. 216 and V.S. 248). The grant was executed by Dharasena and composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti : in Valabhi S. 297, Sravana Su. 10 (616 A.D.)-(Amreli Plates : A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions Baroda State, pp. 7-15). The word "Saurastra" is found used in the Valabhi grants for the first time here. The usual word for the whole country is "Surastra", being used only twice.-( JBU, Vol. III, pt. I, p. 78, n. 4; EI, XVII, p. 109). Harsavardhana of Kanauj was defeated about 620 A.D. by the Calukya Pulakesin II, and his southern frontier was limited to the Narmada. Maitraka King Dharasena III (C. 621-627 A.D.) issued, from his victorious camp at Khetaka ( Kheda), a grant of land in Surastra. The grant was receiv. ed by a Brahmana of Atreya gotra, a resident of Hastavapra (Hathab). The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti. Prince Samanta Siladitya was the Dutaka of the edict. It is dated Valabhi Sam. 304 Magha su. 7 (623 A.D.). -(Bhavnagar Plates : EI, XXI 183). The village of Adrotaka ( Adroda ) situated in Kasahrada Visaya was given as religious gift by Maitraka King Dharasena III to a Brahmana of Gangayana gotra, resident of Anandapura, on Sam. 305 Sravana su. 15 (624 A.D.). The C. 620 623 624 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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164 * CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 625 625 Dutaka of the edict was Prince Samanta Siladitya. The grant was composed by Rogghabhata, official in charge of Peace and War.-( Kasindra Plates : JUB, XIX, 4 1 ff.) Derabhata seems to have been succeeded by his son Siladitya II in C. 625 A.D. He is most probably identical with Prince Samanta Siladitya officiating as the Dutaka of the grants issued by Dharasena III in 623-624 A.D., and Samanta Siladitya officiating as the Dutaka of the grants issued by Dhruvasena II in 629-638 A.D. In the grants of his successors he is represented as 'King' (Ksonipati) of the Vindhya territory. The Gurjara king Dadda II alias Prasantaraga (one whose passion has subsided) who succeeded his father Jayabhata-Vitaraga and flourished from 620 A.D. to 645 A.D. gave protection to the Valabhi ruler Dhruvabhata I alias Baladitya against Paramesyara Harsadeva of Kanauj. His earliest grant is dated in Gupta year 310 (629-30 A.D.) From Hiuen Tsang's account we learn that Harsa, later, made peace with the Valabhi ruler and cemented the alliance by giving his daughter in marriage to him. The grants of Dadda II are the earliest Gurjara records so far discovered in Gujarat. Kielhorn has shown (Ep. Ind., Vol. VI, p. 6) that both in their eulogistic and formal parts, they were drafted on the model of the earlier Kalacuri grants; and from this he rightly conjectured that the family of these chiefs (i.e. the Gurjaras) rose to independence only after the time of the Kalacuri Buddharaja.' The copper-plate inscriptions of the Gurjaras, dated in the Kalacuri era, have been discovered in Western India between the rivers Kim and Mahi. Varmalata, possibly king of Sri-mala (Bhinmala), was reigning in Rajputana during this period. His fedatory Vajra-bhata governed Mount Arbuda (Abu). Dhruvasena II, alias Baladitya, younger son of Kharagraha I, succeeded his elder brother Maitraka king Dharasena III. In his eulogy he is represented as 'proficient in Polity as well as Grammar'. From the copper-plate inscriptions of the successors of King Dadda II, Dhruvasena II is known to have been subjugated by Emperor Harsa and protected by Dadda II. From the records of Hiuen Tsang it is gathered that Dhruvasena II had been the son-in-law of Harsa. According to the identification of his successor's Ajjaka with Harsa, this event seems to have taken place in not later than 628 A.D. August 1st. The Chinese Buddhist, Hiuen Tsang, left China for India. He returned to China in 645 A.D., and between this year and that of his death in 664 A.D., translated 75 Buddhist works into Chinese.-(Beal's 'Si-yu-ki,'). C. 625 628 C. 628 629 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 165 629 629 629 The Navasari grant of Jayabhata IV states that Dadda IV protected the lord of Valabhi ( probably Dhruvasena II), from Harsadeva i.e. Harsavardhana, of Thanesvara. It was perhaps during this reign that Dharasena IV, son and successor of Dhruvasena occupied Bharukaccha, one of his copper-plates of the year 648 A.D. being dated from "the victorious camp situated at Bharukaccha". About the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, the Calukyas seized Bharukaccha, and established their rule in the southern half of the Gujarat dominions.-(IA, xiii, 81-88 Kaira Copper Plates : EI., II., 20; Sankheda grant ; Bomb. Gaz.. I, 314). In the ( Valabhi) year 310, Asvayuja bahu. 5 (629 A.D.), a grant of land was issued from Valabhi by Maitraka king Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, to the Buddhist vihara erected by Gohaka within the vihara-mandala built by Queen Dudda at Valabhi. The grant records the endowment of the village Bhasanta in Kalapaka Pathaka in Surastra. The Dutaka was Samanta Siladitya. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti who is already mentioned in the edicts of his predecessors.-( Bosad Plates : IA, VI, 12 f.). The Gurjara King Dadda II, Prasantaraga, issued from Nandipuri the grant of the village Sirisa padraka in Akruresvara Visaya to forty Brahmanas of Vatsa, Kasyapa, Daundakiya, Dhumrayana, Kaundinya, Mathara, Bharadvaja and Caulisa gotras. The grant was composed by Reva, Minister of Peace and War, and issued in the Cedi year 380, Karttika su. 15 (629 A.D.).-( Kaira Plates : IA, XIII, 82 ff.). Dadda II was the real founder of the Gurjara kingdom in the Lata country. His Kaira Plates (two sets) are dated in K. 380 ( 629-30 A.D.) and K. 385 (634-35 A.D.) and record the grant of Sirisapadraka (modern Sisodra, II miles from Anklesvar in the Broach District ) to certain Brahmanas. Two other sets of plates, issued on the same day in K. 392 (641-42 A.D.), register the grant of two fields in the village Ksirasara in the visuya (district) of Sangama Khetaka (modern Sankheda). He is also mentioned in a fragmentary Sankheda grant of his brother Ranagraha, dated K. 391. Dadda II was obliged to acknowledge the suzeranity of Pulakesin II, soon after he carved out a kingdom for himself in the lower Narmada valley. On the seals of his plates, he is styled Samanta or a feudal lord, while in his grants he is said to have won the Pancamahasabda (the right to use the five great sounds). Like his grand-father, he was a devotee of the Sun. Dadda II heads the genealogy in all later records. His descendants took pride in describing him as one who had a canopy of glory, possessing the grace of a moving large and white cloud, which sprung from his protection of the king of Valabhi when he was attacked by the Emperor, the illustrious Harsadeva.-(57 tarptautia Mi l farasta: 1) 629-30 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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166 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 629 630 631 631 The Gurjara capital till the end of Dadda II's reign was Nandipuri, as all the four grants of his reign are issued from that city. The capital was shifted to Bharukaccha sometime before K. 427 (675 A.D.), the date of the Prince of Wales Museum plates of Dadda III. Dhruvasena II (Baladitya), Maitraka king of Valabhi, was reigning (629640 A.D.) is succession to his brother Dharasena III. Sendraka king Bhanusakti was succeeded by his son Adityasakti.-(Bagumra Plates of Nikumbha-Allasakti : IA., XVIII 265 ff.) Majtraka King Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, issued from Valabhi a grant of land situated in Konaka Pathaka of Khetaka-Aharavisaya in the (Valabhi) year 312, Jyestha su. 4 (631 A.D.) to Brahmana Matrakala of Bharadvaja gotra who emigrated from Girinagara and was residing at Khetaka. The Dutaka was Samanta Siladitya. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti.---( JBBRAS, NS, I, 69). (H. 10) The Brahmana Caca usurped the throne of Sindh on the death of Raya Sahasi II. Shortly after his accession he slew Mahrat Rana of Citor (or Jaipur). Caca is said to have reigned forty years and to have been succeeded by his brother Candar, who died in H. 59, after a reign of eight years and was succeeded by Dahir.-(EHI, i 131 ff., and 406, 414). From Valabhi, Maitraka king Dhruvasena II Baladitya, issued a grant of land situated in the village Bahumula located in Vatapallika Sthali in Saurastra to Brahmana Devakula and his nephew Bhada in the Valabhi) Sravana su. 14 ( 632 A.D.). Samanta Siladitya executed the royal edict and Vatrabhatti composed the grant.-(Goras Plates; JBBRAS, NS, I, 50 ff.). Kings of Lata, Malava and Gurjara succumbed to Pulakesi II, Lord of South India.-(IA; VIII, 242). King Dadda II, Prasantaraga, re-issued a grant of the village Sirisapadraka in the Cedi year 385 (634 A.D.). It makes certain omissions and additions in the list of the donees mentioned in the grant of the year 380, Karttika su. 15 (634 A.D.), the total number being reduced to thirty-four. It was issued from the same place and composed by the same official.-( Kaira Plates, IA, XIII, 88). The Aihole inscription dated $. 556 (634 A.D.) (EI, I, p. I) refers to the submission of the Gurjaras, Latas and Malavas to the Calukya king Pulkasin II. It is clear from Verse 22 of this record that they were not conquered by force but submitted to, or sought the protection of Pulakesin of their own accord ( atgaat 984 Araufiit: V. 5); and in poetic expression, they became, as it were, teachers of how feudatories submitted by force ought to behave 632 634 634 634 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 167 C 635 636 638 (quelya FH-484f nato a 274971 v. 22). It is also noticed in this record that Harsa, the Emperor, from the north did not succeed in penetrating to the south of the Reva i.e. the Narmada, where Pulakesin's armies were encamped. Dhruvasena II of Valabhi, about 635 A.D. was defeated by Harsavardhana and became his feudatory and son-in-law. Harsa apparently became master of Anandapura (Vadnagar), Kaccha and Southern Surastra and finally extended his empire to inclui e the basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to the Narmada, Malwa, Gujarat and Surastra. An expedition was sent in the reign of the second Khalifa Umar bin Khattab, but without his sanction. When he heard that Uthman-ath-Thakafi, his governor of Behrein had returned successful from Hind, the Khalifa wrote to Uthman: "Brother of Thakif! thou hast placed the worm in the wood, but by Allah ! had any of my men been lost, I should have killed an equal number from thy tribe." This is mentioned by the Arab historian Al-Bilazuri in his history, "Futuh-u'l-buldan". This indicates two things: first, Umar had gauged more or less correctly, the possibilities inherent in similar ventures; but, secondly, he considered the risks, in his time, to be above the undertaking of similar expeditions.-(Bom. Gaz. IX. 1 ff. 1). From a victorious camp (the name of the place not read satisfactorily; possibly it is Bhadrapalsana), Maitraka King Dhruvasena II dedicated the village Nagadinnanaka in Rohanaka Pathaka in Surastra to a Bhiksuni-vihara erected by Purnabhatta within the Yaksasura-Vihara-Mandala at Valabhi. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Samanta Siladitya and the grant was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata and issued in the Valabhi year 319, Jyestha su. 7 (638 A.D.).-(Vala Plates, JUB, III, 88). H. 15. Usman Ibn Asi Saqafi, governor of Bahrain and Uman, under the Khalifah Umar, appointed his brother Hakim to Bahrain, and proceeding himself to Uman, sent an expedition to pillage the coasts of India. About the same time Hakim sent a force against Broach, and despatched his brother Mughirah Abu-l-Asi to Dibal where he defeated the enemy. The Cacanama represents him as being slain.-(EHI, i, 415-16). A grant of land which was originally issued by Maitraka Maharaja Dronasimha in the form of a copper-edict (tamrasasana ) and which had been in abeyance in the intervening period, was renewed by king Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, in (Valabhi) year 320, Asadha su.-(639 A.D.). The grant was dedicated to the image of) Goddess Kottammahika installed at Trisangamaka. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Prince Kharagraha. The grant was issued from Valabhi and composed by Divirapati Skandabhata, son of Divirapati Vatrabhatti.--( Jackson, The Two New Valabhi Plates', JBBRAS, XX, pp. 2). C. 636 639 For Personal & Private Use Only

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IOS CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 639 C. 640 In the (Valabhi) year 320, Bhadrapada ba. 5 (639 A.D.), Maitraka king Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, issued a grant from Valabhi, granting land situated in Malavaka Bhukti to Brahmana Agnisvamin of Parasara gotra resident of Agastika-agrahara, an emigrant from Udumbara-gahvara, and to Brahmana Sangaravi of Kausika gotra, resident of Ayanaka-agrahara, and an emigrant from Jambusara. The grant was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata and executed by prince Kharagraha.--[ Nogava Plates : from Navagrama (Nogava), ten miles north of Ratlam; EI; VIII, 188). The period synchronising with the Gupta rule in Saurastra and North India, and the Vakatakas in Central India and the Deccan, was marked by an important development in the history of Buddhism in the country. With the spread of Buddhism in foreign countries, China was getting more and more into touch with India, when a number of Chinese pilgrims visited India with a view to see the Mother Country of Buddhism, and to collect books of the religion which they had adopted as their own. Fa-Hian, the first to visit India in 399 A.D. refers to the countries in Daksinapatha only, in a general way. But the two travellers who followed him have left ample notes about their visit. Huien Tsang who came to India in the middle of the 7th century A.D., when the Calukya king Pulakesin II was ruling over Maharastra, has left his account, known as 'SI-YU-Ki', since translated into English as ' Buddhist Records of the Western World' by S. Beal. Buddhism in Valabhi owed much to the numerous donations by the Maitraka kings, majority of whom were Saivites, and to the liberality of the members of the Royal Family, and to the munificent gifts made by the feudatories and officers of the State under the Maitraka rulers. Many of these donations provided for the daily necessities of the monks in the monasteries such as Pinda-pata (alms), and Sayanasana ( beds), Bhesajya (medicine), Civars ( clothes ) etc. for the worship of the Buddha images and current repairs to the monasteries. Some important variations are met with when the annointing of images [ Dhruvasena III's undated Plate, JBBRAS, (NS.), I, p. 357, performance of dance and music, (Siladitya l's grant), or the covering of the floor with grass (EI, XIII, p. 339; IA. IV, p. 174) is referred to in their copperplate grants. One grant provides for the purchase of religious books for a monastery.- (Guhasena's grant of G.E. 240; IA., VII, p. 67). In some others the fortifications (Siladitya's grant of G.E. 290; IA., IX, p. 237), and the well-laid gardens around the Viharas are mentioned. The Buddhist element in the population of Valabhi is further indicated by references to fields in the grants. Two Ksetras-Samgha Ksetra and Sthaviraka Brahmadeya Ksetras--which were evidently Buddhistic are mentioned in Dhruvasena II's grant of 313 G.E. Another field belonging to a Sthaviraka (teacher) by name Bavya is mentioned in Dharasena IV's grant of 326 G.E. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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A Standing lady, Samalaji For Personal & Private Use Only Plate XXXVII #TTC.

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Plate XXXVIII Mother and Child, Samalaji For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXVIII A w Standing Mother Bhadra, Samalaji For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XXXIX Parvati as Sabarakanya, Samalaji For Personal & Private Use Only

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640 640-41 640-41 C22 MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 169 Buddhism preached at Valabhi, though mentioned as Hina Yana by HiuenTsang, it is evident that the Mahayana sect had also its share in the development of Buddhism at Valabhi. There are direct references to bathing and annointing of Buddha images, and the occurrence of expressions like Buddha Bhattaraka. In the grant of Dharasena IV, we find that the gifts donated to the Yodhavaka monastery were meant for Mahayana monks staying in it. Arya-Manju-tri-mala-Kalpa refers to a famous monk from Valabhi, besides Gupamati, called Pipdacarika, during the days of Siladitya, who is described as follows: tatra deze samAkhyAto bhikSuH piNDa cArikAH / / 590 / / zIlavAn buddhisaMpanno buddhAnAM zAsane rataH / kAlacAri mahAtmA'sau praviSTo piNDacArikam || 592 || 35 paTala || (K. P. Jayaswal, An Imperial History of India, p. 24) From the victorious camp at Vanditappali, a grant of land was issued in the (Valabhi) year 321, Caitra ba. 3 (640 A.D.) by the Maitraka King Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, granting land in Malavaka Visaya to Brahmanas Dattasvamin and Kumarasvamin, of Parasara gotra, emigrants from Udumbaragahvara. The former resided at Ayanaka-agrahara and the latter at Agastika-agrahara. The royal edict was executed by Prince Kharagraha and it was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata.-(Nogava Plates; ET, VIII, 194). Gujarat was visited by the Chinese pilgrim and scholar Hiuen Tsang, who travelled in India with a view to study Buddhism, and collect Buddhist manuscripts and images. From the South, he first came to Bharukaccha, Malava, Atali, Kheta, Valabhl, Anadapura and Surastra; and then proceeded to Gurjaradesa in North.-(Beal, Records II). This part of his travel is dated circa 640 A.D. The account of his travel throws much light on the life and culture of the people in general and on the state of Buddhism in particular.-(Watters, Travels, II). Po-lu-kie-ch'e-p'o (BHARUKACCHA) Barygaza or Broach :-This kingdom is 2400 or 2500 li in circuit. Its capital is 20 li round. The soil is impregnated with salt. Trees and shrubs are scarce and scattered. They boil the sea-water to get the salt; and their sole profit is from the sea. The climate is warm. The air is always agitated with gusts of wind. Their ways are cold and indifferent; the disposition of the people, crooked and perverse. They do not cultivate study, and are wedded to error and true doctrine alike. There are some ten samgharamas, with about 300 believers. They adhere to the Great Vehicle and the Sthavira school. There are about ten Deva temples, in which sectaries of various kinds congregate.-( Buddhist Record of the Western World, Book XI. Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsang, S. Beal, pp. 259-260). For Personal & Private Use Only

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170 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 640-41 Fa-la-pi (VALABHI):--This country is 6000 li or so in circuit, the capital about 30. The character of the soil, the climate, and manners of the people are like those of the kingdom of Malava. The population is very dense; the establishments rich. There are some hundred houses (families) or so, who possess a hundred lakhs. The rare and valuable products of distant regions are here stored in great quantities. There are some hundred samgharamas, with about 6,000 priests. Most of them study the Little Vehicle (Hinayana), according to the Saminatiya school. There are several hundred Deva temples with very many sectaries of different sorts. When Tathagata lived in the world, he often travelled through this country. Hence Asoka-raja raised monuments or built stupas in all those places where Buddha rested. Scattered among these are spots where the three past Buddhas sat down, or walked, or preached the law. The present ruler is of the Ksattriya caste, as they all are. He is the nephew of Siladitya-raja of Malava, and sonin-law of the son of Siladitya, the present king of Kanyakubja. His name is Dhruvapata (Tu-lu-ho-po-tu). He is of a lively and hasty disposition, his wisdom and statecraft are shallow. Quite recently he has attached himself sincerely to faith in the "three precious ones". Yearly he summons a great assembly, and for seven days gives away most valuable gems, exquisite meats, and on the priests he bestows in charity the three garments and medicaments, or their equivalent in value, and precious articles made of rare and costly gems of the seven sorts. Having given these in charity, he redeems them at twice their price. He esteems virtue (or the virtuous ) and honours the good; he reverences those who are noted for their wisdom. The great priests who come from distant regions he particularly honours and respects. Not far from the city is a great samgharama which was built by the Arhat Acara (0-che-lo); here the Bodhisattvas Gunamati and Sthiramati (Kien-hwui) fixed their residences during their travels and composed treatises which have gained a high renown.-( Ibid., pp. 266-268). 640-41 O-man-to-pu-lo (ANANDAPURA) :- This country is about 2000 li in circuit, the capital about 20. The population is dense; the establishments rich. There is no chief ruler; but it is an appanage of Malava. The produce, climate and literature and laws are the same as those of Malava. There are some ten sangharumas with less than 1,000 priests; they study the Little Vehicle (Hinayana) of the Sammatiya school. There are several tens of Deva temples, and sectaries of different kinds frequent them.-(Ibid., pp. 268). 640-41 Su-la-ch'a (SURASTRA):- This country is 4000 li or so in circuit, the capital about 30 li. On the west, the chief town borders on the Mahi river; the Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only Facing Page 171 GUJARAT IN 641 AD KACCHA Gurinagara Devapattana Mandavyapurao Dendavanaka GURJARA o Jabalipura VALAB H.. Ujjayanta Luni Lakharama KINGDOM -------- Yuan Chwang's journey 641 AD VALABHIPURA Hastavapra SURASTRA Bhillamala Arbudagiri Brahmaksetra Medantakapura. ANARTA Apartapura 1 Anandapura M E Asapalli Khetaka Mah Malava MALAVA Jambusara E Bhrgukaccha Akruresvara Naysarika Citra OF AVANTI R.Narmada TARAPATHA -By Courtesy, Glory that was Gurjaradesa'. * Ujjayini EMPIRE R.Taph o Ajanta DAKSTNA PATHA OF NASIKYA MAHARASTRA Fig. 7

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640-41 A.D. 640-41 641 MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 171 population is dense, and the various establishments (families) are rich. The country is dependent on Valabhi. The soil is impregnated with salt; flowers and fruit are rare. Although the climate is equable yet there is no cessation of tempests. The manners of the people are careless and indifferent; their disposition light and frivolous. They do not love learning and are attached both to the true faith and also to heretical doctrine. There are some fifty samgharamas in this kingdom, with about 3000 priests; they mostly belong to the Sthavira school of the Great Vehicle (Mahayana). There are a hundred or so Deva temples, occupied by sectaries of all sorts. As this country is on the western sea-route, the men all derive their livelihood from the sea and engage in commerce and exchange of commodities. Not far from the city is a mountain called Yuh-chen-to (Ujjayanta-Girnar), on the top of which is a samgharama. The cells and galleries have mostly been excavated from the mountain-side. The mountain is covered with thick jungle and forest trees, whilst streams flow round its limits. Here saints and sages roam and rest, and Risis endued with spiritual faculties congregate here and stay. Ibid, pp. 268-269). Kiu-che-lo-(GURJJARA):-Going north from the country of Valabhi 1800 li or so, we come to this kingdom. This country is 5000 li or so in circuit; the capital, which is called Pi-lo-mo-lo ( Bhillamala or Bhinnamala), is 30 li or so round. The produce of the soil and the manners of the people resemble those of Saurasstra. The population is dense; the establishments are rich and well supplied with materials (wealth). They mostly are unbelievers; a few are attached to the law of Buddha. There is one samgharama, with about a hundred priests; they are attached to the teaching of the Little Vehicle (Hinayana) and the school of the Sarvastivadins. There are several tens of Deva temples, in which sectaries of various denominations dwell. The king is of the Ksattriya caste. He is just twenty years old; he is distinguished for wisdom, and he is courageous. He is a deep believer in the law of Buddha; and highly honours men of distinguished ability.-(Ibid., pp. 269-270). When Hiuen Tsang visited Valabhipura in 640 A.D., it was a city of power, wealth and culture, and contained a large library of sacred books. The fame of its University had reached China; for Sthiramati, a Buddhist monk, in the beginning of the sixth century, and another Gupamati, at the end of the same century, were invited to China. Saivism and Buddhism were the favoured religions, and the temples of these faiths were richly endowed. Born in 600 A.D. of an orthodox Confucien family, Hiuen Tsang became a Buddhist Monk at the age of 20. Not being content with the existing translations of Buddhist books in Chinese, he decided to visit India. He started in 629 A.D. by the northern route in Central Asia. He reached Kapisa (Kafiristan) For Personal & Private Use Only

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172 641 C. 641 C. 641 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT in 630 A.D.; and during the next fourteen years travelled all over India. He was highly honoured by the great Indian rulers Harsavardhana and Bhaskaravarman. He visited Western India in 641; and left India early in 644 A.D., with a large number of books and images, and returned to China in 645 A.D. The picture of the 7th century Gujarat has survived in the diary of this eye-witness. The traveller went from Nasik to the region called Bharukaccha, the name by which evidently South Gujarat was then known. As in all international ports, so in Broach, the residents were found by this Pious Pilgrim mean, deceitful, ignorant, orthodox and heterodox. Maitraka king Dharasena (c. 641-650 A.D.)'s grants point to his having temporarily captured Bharukaccha about G. Sam. 330 (648-9 A.D.), apparently during the reign of the Gurjara king Dadda IV. His own reign must have ended shortly afterwards. He was succeeded by Dhruvasena III, his cousin, twice removed, and the grand-son of Slladitya I. The fact, that the imperial titles of Dharasena IV are not assumed by his immediate successors Dhruvasena III and Kharagraha II, though they are revived by Siladitya II and his successors, suggests Dharasena's power having met with some temporary reverses.-(IA. i, 14 and 45; IA, xvii, 196). According to Hiuen Tsang, the first Chinese traveller to visit the Valabhi Vidyapitha, the number of students at the Viharas was very great. "It had about 100 Buddhist monasteries with 6000 Brethren adherents of the Hinayana Sammatiya School".-( Watters, op. cit., II, p. 246, Beal, op. cit., II, p. 266). Each of the monasteries of the Valabhi Vidyapitha was like a separate college. There was equality of opportunities made available both to rich and poor to attend these Institutions as the students were not required to pay any fees. We have epigraphical references to show that both the kings and the rich citizens made benefactions for the Viharas either from the foundations of the Viharas or by supporting the Vikaras built by the monks and named after them. (K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, p. 195, fn. ). In I-Tsing's time there were two Universities one at Nalanda in the East and other at Valabhl in the West, which the students generally attended to acquire the stamp of culture and refinement, after finishing the usual secondary education. These Universities were large brotherhoods of monks who went in for congregational education, the method of teaching being tutorial as well as professorial. "Thus instructed by their teachers and instructing others, they (the stu dents) pass two or three years, generally in the Nalanda Monastery in Central India or in the country of Valabhi (Vala) in Western India ".-(lakakusu, I-Tsing's, Records of the Buddhist Religion', p. 177). For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 173 Valabhi had acquired prominence as a seat of learning, universal in spirit, without any leaning towards any particular sect only. Accordingly, Valabhi could be a nursery of Brahmins, which supplied learned priests to different parts of India, (Fleet, 'Baroda Grant of Karka I, Rastrakuta', IA, XII, p. 160), as the religious emphasis was put on the educational system. The tradition of Valabhi as a centre of Hindu studies is probably preserved in the Katha-Sarit-Sagara (Taranga, 32 ), a work of the eleventh century by Somadeva, which narrates a story of Visnudatta, a Brahmin youth from Antarvedi, who went up to Valabhi for prosecuting higher studies, eventhough centres like Banaras and Taxila were nearer to his home on the banks of the Ganges. The existence of a library at Valabhi similar to the one mentioned for Nalanda, may be inferred from the grants of the Maitrakas, which record donations made for the collection of books.-(Buhler, Additional Valabhi Grants : IA, VII, p. 67, ff; M. G. Dikshit, Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhistic University', Historical and Economical Studies, p. 59). Fa-Hian, an early Chinese traveller, says that "the kings of various countries and the head of the Vaisyas built Viharas for the priests and endowed them with fields, houses, gardens and orchards, along with the resident population and cattle, the grants being engraved on plates of metal, so that they were handed down from king to king."-(Legge,' Fa-Hian's Record of Buddhistic Kingdom', p. 43). Brahmana Adityasarman received a grant of land from Ranagraha the son of Vitaraga Jayabhatta II in the Cedi year 391, Vaisakha va. 15 (641 A.D.) with the approval of Gurjara king Dadda II. The edict was composed by Matnibhata, Minister of Peace and War. The other details are not known as the first plate is missing.-(Sankhela Plates, EI, II, 20). Gurjara king Dadda II, Prasantaraga, issued from Nandipura two grants of land in the Cedi year 392 ( 642 A.D.), to one Brahmana Surya of Bharadvaja gotra, who had emigrated from Dasapura and settled at Ksirasara. The land mentioned in one grant was situated at Suvarnarapalli and that mentioned in the other was situated at Ksirasara. Both the places were located in Sangamakhetaka (Sankheda ) Visaya. The edicts were composed by Reva, Minister of Peace and War.-(Sankheda Plates, EI ; V 37-41 ). 641 642 643 Vijayavarmaraja, Calukya, son and successor of Buddhavarman, was governing Gujarat. According to Fleet, there were three Gujarat branches of the Calukya dynasty, the first consisting of Jayasimha, his son Buddhavarman and grandson, the above-named Vijayaraja; the second of Jayasimha Dharasraya, brother of Pulkesin II and his son Nagavardhana (Nirpan grant); and the third of Jayasimha Dharasraya II (brother of Vikramaditya I) and his Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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174 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 643 D . . 648 sons.--( gth April Cedi Sam. 394, Vaisakha, = 643 A.D.)-(Kaira copper-plate : IA., vii, 241 ff; IA, ix, 1233 ; EI, iii, 2). Maitraka king Dhruvasena II was succeeded by his son Dharasena IV, who assumed the Imperial titles Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Paramesvara and Cakravartin. He seems to be the son of the daughter of Harsa who may probably be identified with his ajjaka (maternal grand-father) referred to in his earlier grants. Raviprabha Suri installed a Jaina temple and an image of Lord Nemi in V. S. 700 ( 644 A.D.) in Naddulapura' (Nadola ). 1 Dharmasagara's Com. (p. 41-42) on his own work 'Guruparivadi' (v. 10 ) and JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 155. p. 223). 2 This is 8 miles from the station of Rani. Vide, JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 225). Two land-grants were issued by Maitraka Maharajadhiraja Dharasena IV from the victorious camp at Bharukaccha in the (Valabhi) year 330. One was issued on Margasira su. 2 in favour of Aditisarman of Parasara gotra, resident of Khetaka, granting him a field in the vicinity of Vaddasomalika in Kolamba in Khetaka Ahara and two fields in the vicinity of Duhuduhu in Nagaraka Pathaka.-(IA, XV, p. 335). The other grant was issued next day i.e. Margasira su. 3 granting land in the village Desuraksitijja in Simhapallika Pathaka in Khetaka Ahara to Brahmana Narayanamitra of Sarkaraksi gotra, who had migrated from Anartapura and was residing at Kasara.-(I.A. VII, 73). Both the grants were composed by Divirapati Skandabhatta and their dutaka was Princess Bhupa. The date in these grants applies to the intercalary month calculated according to the old system of mean intercalation. Since these grants were issued from the victorious camp of the Emperor at Bharukaccha, within the dominion of the Gurjaras, it is believed that he temporarily occupied Broach, the Gurjara capital -(IA, XVII, p. 196). But as the donated lands lay in Khetaka visaya (Kaira district) outside the territories of the Gurjaras, these grants do not conclusively prove that Dharasena had conquered the Gurjara kingdom. It is quite possible that he was enjoying the hospitality of the friendly Gurjara king in the latter's territory when these grants were issued. The Maitraka Emperor Dharasena IV, in all probability died without any .son to succeed him. So the line of succession passed to the family of Derabhatta, the second son of Siladitya I, Dharmaditya. The choice fell on his youngest son Dhruvasena III (650-654-5 A.D.), who succeeded Dharasena IV, as he had acted as dutaka in some of the royal grants issued by Dharasena IV. He did not assume the Imperial titles of his predecessor. So it is suggested that his powers met with some reverses. 650 For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 175 A.D. 644 A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara Dharasena IV donating the revenues of the village Yodhavaka to: a Buddhist vihara erected by Divira pati Skandabhata at Yodhavaka in Hastavapra Ahara in Surastra. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Prince Dhruvasena, and it was issued in the (Valabhi) year 326 (644 A.D.) and composed by Divira pati Skandabhata.-(Bhavanagar Plate ; IA., I, 45). 645 From Valabhi, Maitraka Maharajadhiraja Dharasena IV granted to Brahmana Arjuna of Bharadvaja gotra, an emigrant from Simhapura, a land situated near Sarkarapadraka in Kalapaka Pathak in Surastra, and to Brahmana Mankasvamin of Bharadyaja gotra, an emigrant from Simhapura, a land situated near villages Kikkataputra and Sarkarapadraka. The royal edict was executed by Prince Dhruvasena, and issued in the (Valabhi) year 326, Asadha su. 10 ( 645 A.D.). It was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata.-(JBBRAS; X 66; IA; I 14). The Gurjara king Dadda II Prasantaraga was succeeded by his son Jayabhatta Il at about this time. 646-650 Ravana-Vadha by Bhatti, popularly known as Bhatti-Kavya, the story being drawn from the Ramayana, was composed at Valabhi, the capital of the Maitraka kingdom, during the regime of King Dharasena who was, in all probability, Dharasena IV (641-650 A.D.). The Bhatti-Kavya has 22 cantos narrating the story of the Ramayana and at the same time supplying illustrations on grammar, figures of speech and other rhetorical devices. It has, therefore, justifiably been honoured by being commented upon by Mallinatha, the reputed commentator of the Pancha Mahakavvas. It is most probably the earliest known specimen of this type wherein the threads of the plot of a story and illustrations on grammar and rhetorics are interwoven. On this model Hemachandra modelled his Dvasraya Kavya. It was composed with the two-fold purpose of illustrating the rules of Sanskrit grammar and rhetoric, and of providing literary entertainment. In such a work naturally the poet is smothered by the grammarian. Tradition gives a great position to Bhatti, for his skill in achieving this dual purpose of dubious literary value. The list of Alankaras given by Bhatti is in a certain measure original, when compared with those of Dandin and Bhamaha. Its source is still unknown. It is said of this poem that "it is a lamp in the hands of those whose eye is Grammar, but a mirror in the hands of the blind, for others" -(Bhattikavya, Vol. II, verse 33, p. 310): dIpatulyaH prabandho'yaM zabdalakSaNacakSuSAm / hastAdarza ivAndhAnAM bhaveda vyAkaraNAdRte // 33 // For Personal & Private Use Only

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176 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 650 650 C. 650 C. 650 651 In the colophon it is said : (Bhattikavya, sarga 32, pp. 42-43): that the poem was composed when king Dharasena was ruling at Valabhi: kAvyamidaM racitaM mayA valabhyAM zrIdharasenanarendrapAlitAyAm / kIrtirato bhavatA nRpasya tasya premakaraH kSitIlo yataH prajAnAm // 36 // About 650 A.D.: the Rastrakuta dynasty began with Dantivarman I, of the Satyaki race of Yadavas, who was succeeded by his son Indraraja I. Mahesvaradaman founded the Cahamana power in South Gujarat.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 306, 310). Jayabhata II succeeded his father Dadda Prasantaraga. Bana in his Kadambari, informs that the religious works like the Mahabharata etc. were read in the afternoon in the Mahakala temple of Ujjayini where the people of higher rank such as queens etc. also came to hear it. Bana speaks of the queen Vilasavati having gone to the Mahakala temple on the Caturdasi day, when the Mahabharata was being read and that she was dejected when she heard therefrom that the sonless do not reach heaven. -(I., para 54). Dhruvasena lIl of Valabhi, successor of Dharasena IV-(Unpublished copper-plate of Sam. 332, IA, XVIII, 197 note 50; copper-plate Sam. 334, EI, i, 85) is known to have issued a copper-plate grant of land in Valabhi S. 332 (650-51 A.D.).-(BG; II, 92). From the victorious camp at Sirisimminika, king Dhruvasena III issued a grant of land to Brahmana Bhatti of Kausika gotra resident of Mahichaka, in Magha of the (Valabhi) year 334 (653 A.D.). The subject of donation was the village Pattapadraka situated in south Patta of Sivabhagapura visaya. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Pramatoi Srinaga, which was composed by Divirapati Anahila, the son of Divirapati Skandabhata.-(Kapadavanj Plates : EI., I, 85 ) Magha wrote his Sisupalavadha, a maha kavya of 20 cantos, under the literary influence of Bhatti and Bharavi which relates the episode in the Mahabharata, of Ksspa's slaying of Sisupala at the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhisthira, where Sisupala's misbehaviour became the immediate cause of the conflict. He was the son of Dattaka Sarvasraya and the grandson of Suprabhadeva, the minister of Varmalata, of Bhinnamala (called Bhinnamalava) on the boundary line between Gujarat and Marwar, whose inscription dated Vikrama S. 682 (C. 625 A.D.) has been recovered. The Jaina Prabandhas make him a resident of Bhillamala or Srimala. His association with Bhoja is clearly legendary; for the great Mihira Bhoja lived in 653 C. 653 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XL Ganga on makara, Samalaji For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XLI 22 Stone Plates of Krsnalila from Mandor, Jodhpur Museum, (p. 208 ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XLII Visnu from Bhinmal, Baroda Museum For Personal & Private Use Only

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Piate XLIII Visnu on lotus, Mt. Abu For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 177 C. 653-54 C. 654 C. 655 655 655 the middle of the gth Century and the Paramara Bhoja in the 11th Century. The poet was rich and liberal, and his wife Malhanadevi also shared the generous instincts of her husband. Poet Magha is placed in the latter half of the 7th century A.D.-(M. Krisnamachari, Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 154-57). The word ' agrahara' has been applied to the grant of lands or villages to Brahmanas, from very ancient times. -(EI, i, 88: grant of the Valabhi king Dhruvasena III in G. S. 334 i.e. 653-654 A.D.). The Sendraka Nikumbhalla-sakti, son of Aditya-sakti, was, reigning in the neighbourhood of Bagumra (Southern Gujarat). He was a great devotee of the Sun-God.-( Bagumra Plates, IA, XVIII, 265 ff.). Dharasraya Jayasimhavarman, younger brother of the W. Calukya Vikramaditya I, ruled as his feudatory in Gujarat about this time, or somewhat later. Prithivivallabha-Nikumbhalla-sakti of the Sendraka family was ruling in the province of Lata. (8th Aug. Cedi Sam. 406 = 655 A.D.)-(Bagumra Copperplate : IA., xviii, 265). Maitraka King Dhruvasena III granted to a Buddhist vihara at Valabhi a village in Kasahrada division of Khetaka , hara. The details about the vihara, the Dutaka, the Lekhaka and the date are not legible.- Vala Plates, JBBRAS, (NS) I 36 f. ] Maitraka king Kharagraha II (655-658 A.D.) succeeded his younger brother Dhruvasena III. Like Siladitya I, he was ardently devoted to the practice of Dharma and had won the second name' (apara-nama) of Dharmaditya. After the overthrow of the Kalacuris, Pulakesin II divided their extensive kingdom among his relatives and trusted chiefs. Southern Gujarat extending from the Kim in the north to the Damanganga in the south was placed in charge of a Sendraka chief. The Sendrakas ruled over this country for three generations. Sendraka King Nikumbha Allasakti of the Sendraka dynasty gave a religious grant of the village Balisa situated in Treyanna Ahara, on the Full-Moon day of Bhadrapada in K. E. 406, (655 A.D.), Samvatsara-sata-catustaye saduttara Bhadrapada suddha Pancadasyam, to Diksita Bappasvamin of Bharadvaja gotra, resident of Vijayaniruddha-puri. The royal edict was executed by Masambha and composed by his younger brother Devadinna, the Officer in charge of Peace and War.-(Bagumra Plates; IA ; XVIII 265). Nikumbha' was only a biruda prefixed to the name of Allasakti as well as to his son Jayasakti also.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro., lviii, fn.). The writer of the Maitraka king Kharagraha II (655-658 A.D.)'s grant has praised him very much by the Vyatireka (excellence) figure of speech ( in which 655 655 655-58 c23 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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178 656 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT a comparison is made) wherein the king is represented to excel Visnu through a number of Siesas (puns), e.g., it is said that this "king has distributed 'Laksmi (here it means wealth) among his pranayinas (suppliants), has turned out 'gada' (disease), has raised up the chakra (whole number) of 'Sudarsanas' (good scriptures), has given up sports of a child, has not cast down (adhah) the Dvijatis (Brahmanas) has conquered the world by a single 'vikrama' (exploit ), has not taken to a jala ( dull) bed, and thus has been an extraordinary Purusottama (the best of men); while the traditional PuruSottam (Visnu) has not imparted Laksmi (his wife) to the Pranayins (suitors), has not turned out the 'gada' (mace), has not raised up the Sudarsana cakra (wheel), has not given up sports of a child, has not cast the dvijati (bird) beneath him, has conquered the world not by one Vikrama ( stride) and has taken to a jala (water's) bed. C. 660 What the passage implies is generally to show that the king was liberal, healthy, learned, respectful towards the Brahmanas, valiant and active, and all the qualities of a great king, according to the description, were found in him.(Fleet, C II, III, p. 185). From the victorious camp at Pulendaka, a grant of land was issued by the Maitraka king Kharagraha II in the (Valabhi) year 337 Asadha ba. 5 (656 A.D.), giving land situated in the village Pangulapallika in Ghritalaya Bhumi of Sivabhagapura visaya to Brahmana Narayana of Sarkaraksi gofra, who had emigrated from Anandapura and was residing at Khetaka. The grantee seems to be the same as the recipient of a grant issued by Dhruvasena IV in 648 A.D. The Dutaka and the Lekhaka are the same as mentioned in the grant of the previous king Dhruvasena III.-(IA, VII, 76). C. 660-665 In the time of the fourth Khalifah, Ali, an officer was appointed to superintend Sind-Gujarat coasts regularly; but he was killed. (AH 39/660 AD-AH 42/ 663 A.D.). In AH 44/665 A.D., Amir Muawiya appointed an officer known as Muhallib to guard the eastern frontier of the Caliphate; and subsequently this appointment was given a permanent character.-[Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, (in Hindi), Allahabad 1936; p. 13]. From Kharagraha II the throne of Valabhi passed to Siladitya III, son of his elder brother Siladitya II who was probably dead and gone by this time. As the Vindhya branch of Derabhata's line can no longer be traced after the reign of Siladitya II, it seems that it now probably merged into the main line at Valabhi. In that case the merger may be dated along with Siladitya III's accession to the throne of Valabhi; since, as the son of Siladitya II, he would also have inherited the Vindhya territory. All kings of the Maitraka dynasty henceforth uninterruptedly continue to assume the popular name of Siladitya". For Personal & Private Use Only

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661 662 664 664 665 666 179 MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD Aparajita, the earliest known king of the dynasty of Guhils of Mevad, was reigning. The next on record in this family is Bappa (C. 661 A.D.). Sath. 718: Udaipur Inscription of the Guhila king Aparajita, and of the commander of his troops, the Maharaja Varahasimha.-(EI, iv, 29). A village named Sthanaka in Surastra was dedicated to two Buddhist viharas by king Siladitya II (C. 658-685 A.D.) in Second Asadha of the (Valabhi) year 343, Dvi. Asidha ba. (662 A.D.). One vikara was erected by Acarya Bhiksu Sthiramati and the other by Acarya Bhiksu Vimalagupta, resident of Kukurapaka. Both were situated within Duddavihara mandala at Valabhi. The grant was composed by Anahila. The name of the Dutaka is illegible. (JBBRAS, NS, I 37). The intercalation of the month applies to the old system of mean.-( H. G. Shastri, MG, 578, f. 7). A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Siladitya III from the victorious camp, the name of which is illegible, in the (Valabhi) year 346, Margasira ba. 3 (664 A.D.), to Brahmana Yajnadatta of Gargya gotra, resident of Valabhi, The land consisted of two fields and two step-wells in Saurastra. The Dataka of the royal edict was Prince Dhruvasena. The grant was composed by Divirapati Apahila.-JBBRAS, (NS) I, 71). A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Sladitya III in the (Valabhl) year 346, Pausa su. 7 (664 A.D.), to three Brahmanas: (i) Soma of Bharadvaja gotra and an emigrant from Kasahrada, (ii) Brahmana Pittalesvara and (iii) his son Naga, of Vatsa gotra, emigrants from Girinagara (Junagadh) and residents of Simhapura (Sihor). The land was situated near Daccanaka in Hastavapra Ahara in Surastra. Prince Dhruvasena was the Dalaka of the royal edict. The grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila.-[JBBRAS, (NS), I 73).] The Kheda (Kaira) Plates record the grant of land issued by king Siladitya II in Vaisakha of the (Valabhi) year 346, Vaisakha Su. I, (665 A.D.). The year was originally read 365, but the numerals indicate that it is 346. (H. G. Shastri). The grant was received by Brahmana Nadhulla who had emigrated from Girinagara and settled at Khetaka, of a field (divided into six pieces) situated at Deyapalli in Nagaraka Pathaka in Khetaka Ahara and another field at Jambuvanaka in Kalapaka Pathaka in Surastra. The edict was executed by Prince Dhruvasena and the grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila.(JBAS, VII, 968). From the victorious camp at Pundhikanaka, the Maitraka king Siladitya II issued a grant of land situated at Kakkapadra in Kalapaka Pathaka in Surastra to a Brahmana of Kausika gotra, an emigrant of Pusyasambapura and resident of Valabhi. Prince Dhruvasena officiated as the Dutaka. The grant was composed by Divirapati Apahila.-(EI, XXI, 208 ff.). For Personal & Private Use Only

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180 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 667 C. 669 669 669 670 670 (G. Sam. 348-356 ) Siladitya II of Valabhi, nephew and successor of Kharagraha II, and son of a Siladitya who according to the grants, did not reign at Valabhi.-(IA, V, 208, n; El, iv, 74). Sryasraya Siladitya; son of the Calukya Dharasraya Jayasimhavarman, was ruling in Gujarat (669-691 ), as heir-apparent. Vil ramadit Vikramaditya I, successor of Pulakesi II, extended his sway over South I Gujarat and put it under the charge of his younger brother Jayasimhavaraman alias Dharasraya.-(Navsari Plates; EI; VIII, 229 ff.). The Lunsadi Plates record a grant of land, issued by the Maitraka king Siladitya III in the (Valabbi) year 350, Phalguna ba. 3 (669 A.D.), from his victorious camp at Khetaka, to Brahmana Bhatti and Isvara of Daundavya (?) gotra, who were emigrants from Dvipa (Div]). The land consisted in three pieces of fields and one step-well, situated in Desenaka near Madhumati (Mahuva) in Surastra. The Dutaka was prince Dhruvasena. The grant was composed by Divirpati Anhila.-(Lunsani Plates, EI, IV 74). The Cahamana ruler Mahesvaradaman was succeeded by his son Bhimadaman.-(Hansot Plates of Bhartsivaddha II: El ; XII 197 ff.). The Gurjara ruler Jayabhata II was succeeded by his son Dadda III alias Bahusahaya'. He was a 'Parama Mahesvara' (great devotee of Mahesvara or Siva). I-Tsing was another Chinese traveller, who following in the wake of Fa-Hian and Hiuen Tsang, came to India, early in 671 A.D. Unlike both these pilgrims who were Mahayanists, I-Tsing belonged to the Mula-sarvasti-vada school of Hina Yana. Though he did not actually visit the Western sea-board of India, he has left important notes for the study of two important Buddhist centres of his time, viz., Nalanda in Bihar and Valabhi in Saurastra. I-Tsing records in his book ' A Record of the Buddhist Religion' (translated by Takakusu, Introduction, p. XXII) that the Aryya Sammatiya sect was the most flourishing in Lata ( Gujarat ) and Sindh, during his days. He asserts that there were a few monks belonging to the Aryya Mahasamghika, Aryya Sthavira and Mula Sarvastivadi sects in these two countries. I-Tsing, recognised the real merit of Valabhi as an educational centre of Buddhism, when he tells us that " during his life-time ( 671-695 A.D.) Valabhi and Nalanda were the only two monasteries which compared favourably with the universities like Chin-ma, Shin-chu, Lung-men and Chine-li in China. Eminent scholars and accomplished men used to gather there in crowds to discusss possible and impossible doctrines. They proceeded to the Royal Court to try the sharpness of their wits, to present their schemes and to show their 671 671 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 181 political talent with a view to be appointed in the Government political services, " ( Takakusu, Records of the Western World, 1890, p. 177 ), only after they were assured of the excellence and correctness of their opinions from the learned in Valabhi, and after having spent at least two years in their monasteries. The name of Valabhi, which in later times became one of the most important centres of Buddhism worthy to be called a Buddhist University, is not heard of till the beginning of the 6th Century A. D. From the copperplate grants of the Maitraka kings of Valabhi, we know of at least 14 Viharas in the neighbourhood of Valabhi, which may be enumerated as under : (1) Dudda Vihara, (2) Buddha-Dasa Vihara, (3) Bhattarka Vihara, (4) Abhayartarika Vihara, ( 5 ) Kakka Vihara,(6) Gohaka Vihara, (7) Vimalagupta Vihara, (8) Sthiramati Vihara, (9) Yaksa Sura Vihara, (10) Purnna Bhatta Vihara, (11) Ajita Vihara, (12) Bappa-padiya Vihara, (13) Vamsakata Vihara, and (14) Yodhavaka Vihara. Of these, the most conspicuous one seems to be the one built by Dudda, wife's sister of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena. It was the head of a ViharaMandala. Dudda-Maha-Vihara, as it later on came to be called, included in it many others built by several devotees, (Vide, Nos. 2-8 above). This DuddaVihara seems to have received numerous grants from the Maitraka kings, at least for 140 years (from G.E. 216 to 356) since its foundation, and must have been, therefore, the most active centre of Buddhism in Valabhi. Another Vihara-Mandala' known from the Valabhi grants is that built by Yaksa Sura, which included in it the Viharas built by Purnna Bhatta and Ajit. This Vihara-Mandala was meant for the use of Buddhist nuns, and like the Dudda Vihara was situated in the svatala of Valabhi. In one of the copperplate grants referring to this monastery, we find that some nuns had come to stay in it, for want of accommodation in another.-(A. S. Gadre, 'Five Vala Plates ', BUJ., p. 79). The Yodhavaka and the Vamsakata Viharas were situated in the villages of their respective names near Valabhi.-[M. G. Dikshit, 'Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhist University', Historical and Economic Studies, Silver Jubilee Volume, Fergussion College, Poona. 1947; (IHQ. XVI, p. 816-18)]. On the scholastic and educational activities in Valabhi, the accounts of the Chinese travellers are an important source of information. Hiuen Tsang, who visited Valabhi in 640 A.D., describes that there were over 100 monasteries in Valabhi with 6000 Sammatiya adherents. He refers to the famous Acarya Sthiramati and Gunamati, who resided in a monastery outside the town. Sthiramati was the pupil of Vasubandhu, a well-known Pandit from Nalanda, and had writteen a treatise called Abhidharma-kosa, which was already translated into Chinese when Hiuen Tsang visited India. The Vihara mentioned by Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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182 C. 670 671 671 C. 671 675 675 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT the traveller has been identified with the Bappa-padiya Vihara mentioned above, and constructed by Sthiramati. It has been suggested that it might be located in the group of the Buddhist caves at Talaja, in the neighbourhood of Valabhi. Hiuen-Tsang's references to monks from foreign countries and belonging to the Hina yana sect visiting Valabhi are borne out from the expression like - , occurring in Maitraka copperplates.-M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat' Journal Gujarat Research Society, 1946, pp. 95-113). The Sanjan plates of Salukika Budhavarsa (c. 670 A.D.) mention g##LIKTfast: officers of the elders of the families, immediately after the Gramakuta or the Village Headman. The gentlemen who constituted the village assemblies in Southern Gujarat were known as H. These Mahattaras or their executive (af) are referred to in inscriptions from the 8th to the 12th century A.D., which indicated, the house-holders or the heads of families residing in the village. (Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 205). A grant of land was issued by Calukya Crown-prince Sryasraya Siladitya from Navasarika in the (Cedi) year 421, Magha suddha 13 (671 A.D.), during the reign of his father Dharasraya Jayasimhavarman, in the village Asatti in Kanhavala Ahara in Bahirika Visaya, to Bhogikka-svamin of Kasyapa gotra, resident of Navasarika. The grant was composed by Dhananjaya, the Minister of Peace and War.-( Navsari Plates: EI, VIII 229). From the victorious camp at Meghavana, Maitraka king Slladitya II issued a grant of land situated at Lusa in Surastra, to Brahmana Maga alias Upadatta of Gargya gotra, an emigrant from Anandapura and resident of Valabhi. Prince Dhruvasena executed the royal edict. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 352, Bhadrapada su. 1 (671 A.D.) and composed by Divirapati Anahila. -(Lunsadi Plates: IA, XI, 305). Siladitya Sryasraya, Calukya of the third Gujarat branch, governed Gujarat as Yuvaraja, under his father Jayasimha Dharasraya.-(JBRAS, XVI, 1 ff.). (30th January, Cedi Sam. 421, 443-Grants from Navsari and Surat). Manadeva Suri composed Laghu-Santi-stava in Nadola, near Nadulai, a village in Marwar, who died in V. S. 731 (675 A.D.), on mount Girnar. In Nadol there are four Jaina temples. One of them pertaining to Lord Padma is very old. There is a bhumigrika (subterranian cell) in it. long and very deep." 1 JPI (pt. I, p. 656). Ibid. (p. 361). Ibid. (p. 606). In the (Valabhi) year 356, Jyestha-7 (?), (675 A.D.) Maitraka king Siladitya III issued a grant of land in village Kasaka in Surastra, to a Buddhist Vihara erected by Acarya Bhiksu Vimalagupta (resident of Kukkurapaka) near Dudda-Vihara at Valabhi. The royal edict was executed by For Personal & Private Use Only 3

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 183 675 676 676 prince Kharagraha and the grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila. The king was then at some military camp, the name of which is read as Picchi (Paji).-( JBBRAS, NS, I, 57). From the victorious camp at Meghavana, Maitraka king Siladitya II issued a grant of a step-well and a field of five pieces situated at Madasara in Madasara Sthali in Saurastra, to Brahmana Diksita of Kusika gotra, an emigrant from Pusyasambapura. The Dutaka of the edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Mammaka.-(Jesar Plates ; EI, XXII 114). It was issued in the second (intercalary) Pausa of the Valabhi year 35, Dvi. Pausa va. 4 (675 A.D.). The date applies to the system of mean intercalation. --(H. G. Shastri, MG, p. 57, ff.). From Bharukaccha, the Gurjara king Dadda III, Bahusahaya, granted to Gangaditya, son of Dundubhibhatta of Bharadvaja gotra, land in the village of Uvarivadra in Korilla Caturasiti (a district consisting of eighty-four villages) in K. Samvat 427, Magha-suddha-Rathasaptami (676 A.D.).-(EI; XXVII 199 f.). From Dhananda, Maitraka King Siladitya III (son of Siladitya II who never ascended the throne) issued a grant of land to a Brahmana Balasarman, of Upamanyu gotra, son of Adityasarman who migrated from Giginagara and settled at Sraddhika (Sadhi near Padra) as a member of the Caturvedis, studying Yajurveda in order to enhance the religious merit of his parents. The grant consisted of a rice-field in two pieces, and a deserted orchard which lay near the village Antika (Anti) in the vicinity of Sraddhika in the Bharukaccha district. Prince Dhruvasena officiated as the Dutaka of the grant, which was composed by Aoahil, a minister of Peace and War and son of Skandabhat, who preceded him in that office.-G.S. 357, Magha su. 7 ( 676 A.D.):-( A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, p. 16). The Gurjara-Pratihara king Bhojadeva, son of Ramabhadra from Appadevi, possibly the greatest Emperor of Northern India in the early Mediaeval period, is known to history by several names-Prabhasa, Srimad Adivaraha, Paramesvara and Mihira. The two birudas-Adivaraha and Mihira, if interpreted literally, might signify that he was a devotee of Visnu, and of Sun; but, unlike his father Ramabhadra, who was a votary of Sun, or his great grand-father Devasakti who was a devotee of Visnu, this king was a sakta, attached to Bhagavati. The birudas thus appear to be formal. Diva? (Sk. Dvipa) is mentioned in Visesanisiha cunni (pt. II, p. 225), where it is said that it was situated inside the sea at a distance of one yojana, 1 The modern city of Diva is 8 miles from Una, 6 from Ajara and 5 from Delvada. Vide JTSS- Vol. I, pt I, p. 136. 676-77 679 For Personal & Private Use Only

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184 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 685 685 to the south of Saurastra. In the Bhasa (v. 952) on Nisiha, there is a reference to a silver coin of Diva ( diviccaga )2. This coin, current in those days, is named as Sabharaka'. Further, in this Bhasa it is said : 2 Sabharakas = 1 Rupaka of Uttarapatha, and 2 Rupakas of Uttarapatha = I of Pataliputra. Moreover, Sabharaka is compared with other coins as under :2 Rupakas of Daksinapatha = 1 Nelaka of Kancipura in the Dravida country, 2 Nelakes = 1 Rupaka of Pataliputra. 2 In visesa-nisiha-cunni (pt. II, p. 125--we have Sagarako nama rupakah; so it is taken to be a silver coin. 8 See Bhasa (v. 3891-92) on Kappa and its Sk. Com. (pt. IV, p. 1069). A village in Surastra was given as gift to Dudda-Vihara at Valabhi by Maitraka king Siladitya III, son and successor of Siladitya II. The information about the Dutaka, the Lekhaka and the date is illegible.--( JBBRAS, I, 40 ). According to a Calukya record dated 685 A.D., Dharasraya-Jayasimha, a son of Pulakesin II, defeated and exterminated the whole army of Vajjada of the Rastrakuta records, in the country between the Mahi and the Narmada. He was probably the Valabhi king Siladitya III who had occupied this Gurjara territory.--(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, p. 149 ). Siladitya IV, the son and successor of Siladitya III, seems to have begun his reign in circa 685 A. D. In the copper-plate edicts of the Maitrakas it is henceforth found that every king regularly and expressly, affixes the imperial titles P. M. P. ( Paramabhhttaraka Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara ) to his name, and also adds the suffix 'deva' to it. The Vasantagadha Jaina bronze image was cast by an artist Sivanaga by name, and installed in the Samvat 744 (688 A.D.) according to the inscription on its pedestal. This bronze, cast by wax-process with heavy black core inside, was first discussed by Muni Kalyanavijayaji.-[Nagari Pracharini Patrika (Hindi), Banaras, New Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, pp. 221-231). The Cahamana king Bhartsivaddha I succeeded his father Bhimadaman.(Hansot Plates of Bhartrivaadha II : EI, XII, 197 ff.). The Gurjara king Dadda Bahusahaya was succeeded by his son Jayabhata III, who was a 'Parama Mahesvara'. C. 685 688 690 690 690 The poet Bhavabhuti flourished under Yasovarman of Kanauj, author of the Mahaviracarita, Malatimadhava, and the Uttararumacarita : Contemporary with Vakpatiraja, author of the Gaudavaho.--( Prof. Bhandarkar, MalatiMadhava edition, Preface, ix ). For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 185 C. 690 691 693 From I-Tsing who visited India just before the Rastrakuta period, we learn that towards the end of the 7th century A.D., the scholars of the Valabhi University used to proceed to the royal courts after their education was over, in order to show their abilities and talents with a view to be appointed to practical government. These scholars used to recive grants of land or government service. Distinguished scholars used to be appointed by the Valabhi administration to responsible posts. (EI, IV, p. 181 ).-(Elliot, I, p. 176; Altekar, The Rastrakulas, p. 325 ). From the victorious camp at Baladitya-tataka, Brabmana Bhutakumara of Bharadvaja gotra, who had migrated from Gomutrika and settled at Valabhi, the headquarters of Lonapadraka Sthali in Surastra, received the grant of the village Lonapadraka, from P.M.P. Siladityadeva IV. The Dutaka of the royal edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Haragana, son of Bappa Bhogika, who officiated as Baladhikrita ( Minister in charge of the Army). The grant is dated the (Valabhi) year 372, Sravana ba. 9 ( 691 A.D.). The year was read 342 and the grant was ascribed to Siladitya III. But the grant belongs to Siladitya IV and the correct date is 372.-(H. G. Shastri, IA., V, 207 ). The Calukya Crown-prince Sryasraya Siladitya, son of Dharasraya Jayasimhavarman, issued a grant of land from Osumbhala Karmaneya Ahara, in Sravana of the (Cedi) year 443. Sravana su. 15 (693 A.D.)-(Surat Plates, VOC, Aryan Section, 225). From the victorious camp at Puroika, P.M.P. Siladitya IV issued a grant of land in the village Maranjijja in Antaratra in Surastra to Brahmana Devila of Sandila gotra, an emigrant from Dasapura and resident of Vansakata. The Dutaka of the edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Haragana, son of Bappabhogika, minister in charge of the Army. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 375, Jyestha ba. 5 (694 A.D.).(Devali Plates; BPSI 54). A set of two copper-plates inscribed on the inner sides and joined with a ring and the Valabhi Seal of Bhatakka and Nandi on it, of the time of Siladitya IV, has been accidentally discovered while tilling a field in Kunkavav in Central Saurastra in 1957, and is made known through the courtesy of Mr. Tekchandani, the Gir Forest Officer. The donee is a learned Brahmana Sankara coming from Anandapura, and the grant is of the field comprised in the village Ikolla in the Kalapaka pathaka. The dataka was prince Kharagraha and the divirapati was Sankaragana, the son of Haragana. The grant is dated Valabhi year 376 (V. S. 751 Pausa Suda 1; 694 A.D.). The donor is Siladitya IV.. 694 694 C24 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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186 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT - 695 695 696 C. 696 C. 700 Five copper-plates of Siladitya IV have so far been published, executed in the Valabhi years (1) 372, (2) 375, (3) 376, (4) 381 and (5) 382. This is the sixth.-(H. G. Shastri, Buddhiprakasha, January 1958, pp. 9-11). P.M.P. Siladitya IV is known to have issued from Valabhi a copper-plate grant on Sam. 376 Margasira su. 15 ( 695 A.D.). The Dutaka of the grant was Prince Kharagraha.--(EI, V, App. 69). (V. Sam. 752) Bhuraja, Bhuyada or Bhuvada, of Kalyanakataka in Kanauj, according to the Gujarat Chroniclers, held Gujarat and destroyed Jayasekhara of Pancasar. His successors in Kalyana were Karnaditya, Candraditya, Somaditya, and Bhuvanaditya, the latter being the father of Raji whose son Mularaja, in 942 A.D., conquered Gujarat and founded the Caulukya dynasty.-(IA, 182). Vijayaditya Satyasraya, Western Calukya, succeeded his father Vinayaditya. -(IA, 112; Bom. Gaz. ; 370). Rupasundari, wife of Jayasikhari,' ruler of Pancasara and sister of Surapala, gave birth to a son named. Vanaraja' in V. S. 752" (696 A.D.). He died in V.S. 862 3 at the age of 110. 1 He was killed by Bhuvada, ruler of Kanauj in a battle. : JPI., pt. I p. 493. 3 Ibid., p.-456. Dhanesvarasuri, the author of Satrunjaya Mahatmya, who describes himself in this work as a tutor of king Siladitya', defeated the Buddhists by taking the Syad-vada i.e. 'may be' or the Science of Logic as his ground. - ( Satrunjaya-mahatmya, p. 769). Buddhist monk Gunamati was invited to China. He belonged to the Valabhi University. Mallavadin was one of the greatest Jaina dialecticians and the author of Nayacakra. The title of 'Vadin' was conferred on him when, according to tradition, he defeated a Buddhist monk in a controversy on the superiority of a religious question at Valabhi. Three different stories have been current for Mallavadin at Valabhi. According to Pral havakacarita (Sringa X, V, 10) Malla was the youngest of the three brothers. They lived at Valabhi with their mother Durlabhadevi. Their maternal uncle was a Svetambara monk Jinanandasuri. When defeated by a Buddhist monk Buddhananda in a public disputation at Bhrigukaccha, he left that city and came to Valabhi, where he made his nephews his disciples. All the three received high education at Valabhi. Malla wrote his famous treatise on Jaina philosophy known as Nayacakru. Malla went to Bhrigukaccha and defeated his uncle's opponent Buddhananda in a public debate in token of which he was given the title of Vadin'. 700 700 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 187 C. 700 C.700 0.700 The other stories about Malla given by Merutunga in Prabandha Cintamani and by Rajasekharasuri in Prabandhakosa agree on the main point.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, pp. 181-82). Existence of Mallavadin sect in Western India is recorded in an inscription. :-( Altekar, Surat Plates of Karkkaraja Suvarnavarsa, Saka 743'. EI, XXI, p. 135). Modheraka (modern Modhera') is a small town of northern Gujarat. It is referred to in Suyagada-Cunni (p. 348) Silanka Suri mentions this city as Moherakahara in his com. pt. II, p. 87 a) on Vijjukti (v. 170) on Suyagada (II, 3). In some of the Puranas we come across the word Moheraka. "For its history, see 'Modhera' by Manilal M. Mistry (1937); JAG. (p.149). Rastrakuta Govindaraja I succeeded his father Indraraja I about 700 A.D. He was followed by his son Kakkaraja I, who was succeeded by his son Indraraja II. Dandin says that the Apabhramsa is in poetry, an appellation of the speech of the Abhiras and the like, [Cf. straffefiti: 1690 sfa : II.......(I, 36)] He also speaks of Lata as one of the Lovers of Prakrita languages: - zaurasenI ca gADI ca lATI cAnyA ca taadshii| . wat Ta r g Ara 11 (, 36) Dandin's Dasakumara carita (a work almost contemporaneous with the Maitraka dynasty, p. 225) refers to Valabhi as a prosperous centre of trade and commerce where even private individuals possessed ships of their own : " There is a city named Valabhi in Surastra. In it there is an owner of ships (Navikapati) named Gtihagupta who can vie with Kubera in riches. He had a daughter named Ratnamati. A merchant-prince named Balabhadra from Madhumati (Mahuva ) comes to Valabhi and marries her."-(Ibid., p. 173). Gurjasa king Jayabhata III (706-736 A.D.) was reigning in Gujarat, in succession to his father Dadda III. A grant of land at Samipadraka in Korilla (Koral) Pathaka was issued by the Gurjara king Jayabhata III to Brahmana Devasyamin who emigrated from Girinagara (Junagadh) and settled at the Agrahara of Sraddhika (sadhi). The royal order was issued from Kayavatara (i.e. Kayavarohana, represented by modern Karvan) and executed by Baladhikrita Bavull. The grant was composed by Mahabaladhiksita Kesava and issued on the occasion of a lunar eclipse (Candroparaga) in the Cedi year 456, Magha su. 15 Bhaumavara.* (706 A.D.)-( Navsari Plates; IA, XIII 70 ). * The initial letter of this word is illegible and is supposed to be either or it. The specified day actually falls on Tuesday and hence the word should be restored as (Bhau )mavara. 706 706 For Personal & Private Use Only

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188 CHRONOLOGY QE GUJARAT 709 710 710 710 710 710 712 Maitraka king Siladitya IV issued from Valabhi, a grant of land to a Brahmana who had emigrated from Anandapura and settled at Valabhi. The details of the donee and the land are not clear. Prince Dharasena was the Dutaka. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 381, Margasira su. 6 (709 A.D.). It was composed by Divirapati Adityala, the adopted son of Divirapati Haragana. - (JBBRAS, NS, I, 75). The Cahamana ruler Bhartsivaddha I was succeeded by his son Haradaman. He was a 'Parama Mahesvara'.-( Hansot Plates of Bharirivaddha II : EI, XII, 197 ff.). The Calukya Viceroy Jayasimhavaraman was succeeded by his son Mangalaraja. It seems that the Crown-prince Sryasraya Siladitya had predeceased his father. Mangalaraja was known as Jayasraya Vinayaditya' and Yuddhamalla 'also. From Valabhi, P. M. P. Siladitya IV issued an edict of a grant of land, which was executed by Prince Dharasena in Sam. 382 Margasira su. 6 ( 710 A. D. )-(EI, V, Appendix 69 ). . P. M. P. Siladitya IV was succeeded by his son P. M. P. Siladitya V. Gurjara king Jayabhata III was succeeded by his son Ahirola. (H. 93 ) Campaign of Muhammad ibn Qasim in Sindh. Fall of Dibal early in Rajab (April). Muhammad defeats and slays Dahir, the Hindu king of Sindh at Rawar, roth Ramjan ( 20th June ) and takes Alor, the capital in the same month. After this, according to the Caca-nama he reduced Multan, and sent a force towards Kanauj under Abu Hakim Shaibani.--( EHI, 309 ). Rayal Bhartrlhata I, son of Khumana, and a great-grand-son of Bapa Raval (Gupta Samvat 191- i.e. V. S. 566 ) of the Surya Vamsa of Mewar, was a Jaina King. [Vide, an inscription of Trailokya-dipakaprasada of Ranakapura, a Note of Mm Pt. Gaurishankar Oza to Tod Rajasthan in Hindi, JPI-pt. I, p. 389]. He built a fort of Bhartsbhata (Bhatesvara). In this fort he got constructed Guhila-vihara and got installed an image of Lord Risabha, by Budha Gati of Caitrapuriya gaccha, a contemporary of Silaguna Suri. This Gani was a religious teacher of the rulers of Chitod.-(JPI-pt. I, pp. 471 & 496 ). Settlement of the Iranians at Sanjan is believed to have been accomplished in 716 A.D., according to Dastur Aspandiraji Kamdin, who gives a specific date Samvat 772 ( = A.D. 716) in a book published in A.D. 1826, relying upon a much older tradition. However, this date seems to be too early, if one were to believe in the Iranian tradition that the emigrants wandered for a considerable period in Iran before leaving for India. The details about month and tithi, given along with this date, do not fit in with this year. 714 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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721 722 722 724 C. 725 189 MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD Prof. S. H. Hodiwala (Studies in Parsi History, 1920) suggests that the figure for the year is really 992, the figures 9 and 7 being written very much alike, and the details of the date given, fit in with the Samvat year 992. So the date of the first Parsi settlement in India (at Sanjan) may, therefore, be provisionally fixed at Samvat 992 (= 936 A.D.). From the victorious camp at Khetaka, P.M.P. Siladitya IV issued the grant of the village Antarapallika to Bhatta Vasudevabhuti of Gargya gotra, who had emigrated from Vardhamana Bhukti and settled at Liptikhanda. The village was situated near Dinnaputra in Saurastra. The Dutaka of the grant was prince Sladitya. The grant was composed by Baladhikrita Gillaka, son of Buddhabhata and issued in the (Valabhi) year 403, Magha ba. 12 (721 A.D.). -(Gondal Plates, JBBRAS, XI, 335). The grant of the village Kandhajja near Uasingha in Saurastra was issued by P. M. P. Siladitya IV on Vaisakha suddha 13. (Valabhi) year 403, (722 A.D.). The donee, the dutaka and the lekhaka are the same as those mentioned in the grant issued a few months earlier in the month of Magha by this king. The king was still encamped at Khetaka.-(Gondal plates: JBBRAS, XI, 335). Rastrakata king Indraraja, son of Kakkaraja, carried off the Calukya princess Bhavanaga from Khetaka-mandapa and married her under Raksasa form of marriage (EI, XVIII, 243. ff. IA, 112 ff. and EI, XIV, 121 ff.). This Khetaka is generally identified with Khetaka (Kheda) in Central Gujarat (A.S. Altekar, The Rastrahatas, 31); but it is hardly possible to conceive that a Calukya royal family had settled at Khetaka at this time, as it was still under the Maitrakas. Mandapa' may probably be Mandala', and Khetaka Mandala should be better looked for in the Deccan, the home of the Calukyas. -(H. G. Shastri's paper on The Rise of the Rastrakala Rule in Gujarat, XVIIth Indian History Congress). (H. 106) Junaid ibn Abdu-r-Rahman of al Marri, who had succeeded. Amru in the command of the Indian frontier under Umar', governor of Iraq', and was confirmed by the Khalifah Hasim, sent expeditions against Broach, Ujjain and other places,-(EHI, i, 441) and attacked Kaccha from Sindh. (Syed S. Nadvi, op. cit. p. 15). Vakpati wrote probably about 750 A.D., the Gauda-vaho, a poem commemorative of the exploits of his patron Yasovarman of Kanauj, a contemporary of Lalitaditya-Muktapida of Kashmir.-(726-760 A.D.). The poet Bhavabhati, is stated by Rajatarangini to have been patronized by Yasovarman. He, must, therefore, have been a contemporary of Vakpati's, though possibly a generation older.-(See 690 A.D.). For Personal & Private Use Only

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190 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 730 730 ine 730 c. 731 The Cahamana ruler Dhrubhata succeeded his father Haradaman.-( Hansot Plates of Bhartrvaddha II ; EI, XII 197 ff. ): The invasion of Gujarat by the Tajikas or Arabs seems to have occurred in his reign. It is mentioned in the grant of the Gujarat Calukya Pulikesin (738 A.D.), which states that Sindh, Kaccha, Saurastra and the whole of Gujarat as far as Nausari were subdued, and that the Gurjara king was one of the conquered princes.-(IA, V, 110, Kavi copper-plate ; xiii, 70; Nausari copper-plate). After being invaded by the Tajikas or Arabs in the 8th cenrury, the Bharukaccha kingdom was finally conquered about 800 A.D. by the Rastrakuta Govinda III, who made over Central Gujarat or Lata to his brother Indra, first of the Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty, which held that part of the country for more than 100 years.-(IA, XVII, 191; Bom. Gaz. I 312, n. 7). The Gurjara ruler Ahirola was succeeded by his son Jayabhata IV. Jayabhat IV, latest known Gurjara of Bharukaccha, son and successor of Dadda V, is represented in Kavi grant (V.S. 486 ) as quieting the impetuosity of the lord of Valabhi (Siladitya V or VI ). The Calukya king Jayasraya Mangalaras, younger son of the Calukya Dharasraya Jayasimhavarman, was ruling in Gujarat as feudatory of the W. Calukyas. King Jayasraya Mangalaras, was the donor of a grant of four villages dated Saka year 653 ( 731 A.D.) who was the son and successor of DharasrayaJayasimha, progenitor of the Calukyan branch, established to rule over South Gujarat, North Konkan and the Nasik Dist. The donee was Bhatta Sridharagupta, a resident of Kancipura. The grant was made on the occasion of a lunar eclipse in Asvayuja of Saka year 653 (731 A.D.) Jayasimha himself ruled over the Nasik district from about 671 to 695 A.D. The Yuvaraja ( crown-prince) Srasraya-Siladitya ruled over South Gujarat, at least upto 693 A. D., while his younger brother JayasrayaMangalarasa ruled over North Konkan upto at least 731 A.D. In South Gujarat Srasraya-Siladitya predeceased his father and was succeeded by his younger brother Avanijanasraya-Pulakesin. Mangalerasa is already known to have issued two grants of land-one in the Saka year 613 (691 A. D. ), and the other in the Saka year 653 ( 731 A. D.). The earlier grant which is published in detail (EI, XXVIII, 17 ) records the grant of land, situated in the Kurata visaya ( in North Konkan ). Dr. Bhagvanlal's notice in JBBRAS, Vol. XVI, p. 5 mentions it as issued from Mangalapuri, while this grant was issued from Sripura.-(H. G. Shastri, " Kaccha Plates of Jaysimha-Mangalarasa of $. 653"-Summary of Papers, XXth All India Oriental Conference, 195), p. 118.). 731 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 191 731-32 733 733 734 The Calukya Viceroy Vinayaditya Yuddhamalla Jayasraya Mangalarasa and not Mangalaraja, son of Jayasimhavarman, issued a grant of land from Mangalapura in the Saka year 653 (731-32 A.D.).-( Balsar Plates : JBBRAS, XVI 5). The Calukya Viceroy Mangalaraja Jayasraya was succeeded by his younger brother Pulakesi Avanijanasraya. He distinguished himself by vanquishing the Tajjika army which had subdued Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurastra, Cavotaka, Maurya, Gurjara and other kingdoms that had come to Navasarika with a view to enter Daksinapatha. On account of this exploit he received from the Calukya ruler Srivallabha-Narendra, i.e., king Vijayaditya, four titles viz., Daksinapatha-sadharana, Calukkikulalankara, Pythvivallabha and Anivartaka. nivartayitru.--(VOC., AS. 230 ). The Gurjara ruler Jayabhatta IV inflicted a defeat on the Tajikas ( Arabs ), who had caused immense suffering to numerous people, in the city of the lord of Valabhi (E.I. XXIII, 151, fn. 7; 154, fn. I). But the Arab invasion is not referred to in the Valabhi records. Virabhadra, vidya-guru of Uddyotana Suri (C. Vikrama Samvat 835) got built a magnificent temple of Lord Risabha in Jabalipura wherein there were good many Jainas, which was as it were Astapada and which was fascinating on account of Jaina temples.---(Colophon-v. 18-19 of the Kuvalayamala ). Ranaka Bhartsbhata, a descendant of Bapa Raval, got built a Jaina temple of Lord Risabha, named as 'Guhila-vihara,' in the fort of Bhatevara built by him. Its installation-ceremony was performed by Budha Gani in V.S. 791 (735 A.D.) -(JPI-pt. I, p. 496 and JTSS-Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 155). , Maitraka P.M.P. Siladitya VI succeeded his father P.M P. Siladitya V. Guhila, son of Bappa, said to have taken Citor from Manmori, the last of the Paramara dynasty. (V. Sam. 701-735 A.D.)-( Kaviraja Syamaldas). The Srimala Brahmanas and the Pragvata. Brahmanas of Bhinnamala accepted Jainism, on their coming in contact with Udayaprabha Suri of Sankhesvara gaccha, in V.S. 791 (735 A.D.).- ( JTSS, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 177). King Pusyena alias Pusyadeva of the Saindhava family, son of Maharaja Ahivarman who claimed its descent from Jayadratha (the Saindhava king of the Mahabharata) founded a kingdom at Bhutambilika (modern Ghumli) in Western Saurastra. From the dates of his successor's grants, he seems to have ruled from circa C. E. 415 to 435 ( 734-754 A.D.). He is identified with Pusyena, mentioned in the clay-seal which was found from Vala, (IA, XII) wherein he is styled Maharaja as well as a Mahasenapati. The Saindhavas claimed to be masters of the Western Ocean, and selected fish' as the emblem of their royal seal.-(EI, XXVI, pp. 185). n 735 735 735 735 734-54 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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192 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 736 736 The temple of the Asramadeva installed at Kemajju, not far from Kavi in Bharukaccha Visaya, received a grant of land from the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV, on the occasion of Karkasankranti je. Sun's entering the sign of Cancer, ( which fell on Asadha Sudi dasami) in the Cedi year 486 ( = 736 A.D.). The royal edict of the grant was executed by Kandakanaka.--( Kavi Plates, IA, V, 109). This plate, dated K. 486, was for a long time ascribed to Jayabhata III, whose reign was supposed to have begun shortly before K. 456. But the Prii.ce of Wales Museum plates, recently discovered, show that it belongs to his grandson Jayabhata IV. Gurjara king Jayabhata IV issued, only three months and a half later (i.e. in asvayuja va. 15 of K. 486 ) than the Kavi plates of the same year, a grant of land to Bhatta Acchada, the son of the Brahmana Adityanaga of the Hetavaka sub-caste, of Kaundinya gotra and a student of the Madhyandin sakha of the Vajasneya (or White Yajurveda ), to provide for the performance of the five great sacrifices and other rites. The donee was an immigrant from Lohikaksa--pathaka-ahara. The land consisted in the village Mannatha (identified with modern Magnath on the right bank of the Dhadhar, about 2 miles from Jambusar, perhaps the corrupt form of Magnanatha' god submerged by the Dhadhar), situated in the Bharukaccha visaya. The grant was composed by Sangulla, the son of the official in charge of the army, Alla.-- (EI, XXIII, 147 ff; CII, IV, pp. 102-107). In both the above grants, verse 2, in a corrupt form, refers to an historical event. We learn from it that Jayabhata, by the edge of his sword, forcibly vanquished in the city of the lord of Valabhi, the Tajikas who oppressed all people. Buhler, who edited the Kavi plate, having no correct text with him then, drew the conclusion that this Jayabhata inflicted a defeat on the contemporary ruler of Valabhi. The correct reading of the verse which can now be restored with the help of the better preserved Prince of Wales Museum plates shows, on the other hand, that Jayabhata went to the rescue of the king of Valabhi, when his capital was attacked by the Tajikas or Arabs, and inflicted a defeat on the enemy. This encounter can be placed between 720 A. D. and 735 A. D. The correct reading of the verse in ofta metre, as restored by Principal V. V. Mirashi, is as under: asidhArAjalazamitaH prasabhaM valabhIpateH pure yen / FF FFCT 197691EGALO ST 747 F 99: 11- cii, iv, pp. 99, 106 ) The only period, during the interval from 720 A. D. to 735 A. D. when the Arabs followed a vigorous policy, was that of the governorship of Junaid. Al Bila duri (E. D. H. I., VOL. 1, p. 126 ) tells us that after defeating Jaishiya and 736 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XLIV For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Ananta Visnu from Samalaji (p. 209) (B) Visnu from Tenna (Surat Dist.') (p. 209)

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Plate XLV For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Trimurti head : Limbodra, Rajpipla (p. 210) (B) Trimurti from Kathtal, near Kapadvanj (p. 209)

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Plate XLVI For Personal & Private Use Only (B) Kesisadana, Vala (p. 210 ) (A) Mahisamardini from Vala (p. 208)

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Plate XLVII For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Sage Udumbara from Samalaji (p. 210) (B) Yaksa from Bhinmal (p. 210) (C) Sculpture from Dwarka (p. 274)

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738 739 739 C25 MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 193 storming Kiraj, Junaid sent his officers against Marvad, Mandal, Dahanaj and Barus. He also sent forces against Ujjain, Maliba [ Prof. Hodivala suggests that it may be Baliba-( Valabhi)], and Baharimad, and conquered Bailaiman and Jurz. During one of these raids, his forces must have attacked Valabhi. Jayabhata IV, realizing the common danger, seems to have gone to the help of the king of Valabhi and defeated the Arabs. Now, Junaid was appointed Governor of Sindh by Umar and confirmed by Khalif Hasham (724743 A.D.). As he was succeeded about 726 A.D. by Tamim, the raid of Valabhi can be placed in circa 725 A.D. The contemporary king of Valabhi who was thus saved by Jayabhata IV was probably Siladitya V, who was ruling in G. 403 (722-23 A.D.). But the Arabs were not completely vanquished. Before long they overran the kingdom of Jayabhata himself, and pressed forward as far as Navasarika, at which point their further advance was checked by Avanijanasraya Pulakesin, who inflicted a crushing defeat on them, some time before 740 A.D., the date of his Navsari plates. Dhiniki grant of Jaikadeva, Paramabhattaraka and Maharajadhiraja of Saurastra. Jaikadeva's capital was Bhumilika i.e. Bhumli or Ghumli, the deserted capital of the Jethvas, an ancient Rajput clan, since represented by the former Rapas of Porbunder (Nov, 16th, Vikrama Sam. 795, Kartika Vadi 15, 738 A.D.)-(IA, xii, 151 ff.). (Cedi Sam. 490) Navsari grant, Avanijanasraya Pulakesivallabha, Western Calukya. Third Gujarat branch: brother and successor of Mangala. The Tajjkas or 'Arabs, having overrun Sindh, Kaccha, Saurastra, Cavotaka, the Maurya and Gurjara kingdoms, seem to have invaded the Navsari district, and to have been defeated by Pulakesin.-( Navsari grant). The Navsari plates of Avanijanasraya Pulakesin record his grant of a village in the ahara and visaya of Karmaneya (modern Kamrej, ro miles north-east of Surat). They are dated in K. 490 (739 A.D.). Their historical importance lies in the graphic account they furnish of Pulakesin's victory over the Tajjikas or Arabs. The Arabs, we are told, had already conquered the Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurastra, Cavotaka, Maurya, Gurjara and other kings before they invaded the district of Navasarika in the course of their campaign to conquer all the kings of the Daksinapatha. We find this description fully corroborated by the account of Mahomedan chroniclers. The Gurjara kingdom was, thereafter, probably annexed by the Gujarat Calukyas, after whose overthrow by the Rastrakuta prince Dantidurga, the country to the north of the Kim was occupied by a feudatory Cahamana family with its capital at Bharukaccha. These plates are the last record of the Gurjaras dated in the Kalacuri era. For Personal & Private Use Only

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194 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 739 739 Junaid, the Governor of Sindh under the sway of the Arab Khaliphat (Empire) sent forces to invade Marvad, North Gujarat, South Gujarat, Malwa, Saurastra and Gurjara-desa. The Navsari grant, dated Kalcuri Era 490 ( 739 A.D.) states that the Muslim army which had afflicted the kingdoms of Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurastra, Cavodaka, Maurya, Gurjara and others, met with disaster near Navasarika, when it attempted to enter Maharastra. Similar claim is also made by the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV of Nandipuri (736 A.D.). He is said to have gone to Valabhi to help its ruler against the Tajjikas.(Bom. Gaz. Vol. I, p. 109; EI. XXIII, 151 ). Avanijanasraya Pulakesiraja, successor of Jayasraya Mangalaraja gave a village (Padraka) in Karmaneya Ahara-Visaya in gift to Brahmana Angada of Vatsa gotra, an emigrant from Vanavasi. The grant was composed by Samanta Bappa and issued on Kartika suddha 5, (Cedi ) year 490 (739 A.D.).-(Navsari Plates; VOC, Aryan Section, 230 ). Bappabhatti Suri was born in 743 according to Jaina tradition and died in 838 A.D. He is the author of the 'Sarasvatistotra'. According to Rajasekhara Suri's Prabandhakosa, Bappabhatti converted Amaraja, son and successor of Yasovarman of Kanauj ( 725 A.D.; V. Sam. 800 ). These dates of his birth and death are, however, doubtful.-( Peterson Report, IV, Ind. lxxxii). 743 III ANTIQUITIES Archaeology : Gupta-Maitraka Periods : Our knowledge of the Pre-historic and Historic archaeology of Gujarat has fortunately been enhanced by a series of excavations carried out since 1930. The explorations in the river-valleys of Sabarmati, Mahi, Orsang, Narmada and Tapi were first started since 1891 by Foote, and the excavations at Vala (1930-34), Rangpur ( 1932 ), Amreli (1935), Kamrej (1938),Kodinar ( 1936 ), Bet (1939), Sopara (1940), Intwa ( 1949 ), Akota ( 1952 ), Vadnagara (1935), Timberva (1954), Lothal ( 1955 ), Somanatha, Prabhasa (1956), Mahesvara ( 1957-58 ), Rosadi (1959), Devani Mori (1960) and at a number of other minor sites (not to mention the earlier small-scale excavations by Dr. Princep at Boria Stupa on Mt. Girnar and by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji at Sopara ), followed in succession, in the wake of studies in Ancient Indian Culture introduced in the University Curricula. Yet the material relics and their bearing on the cultural life of Gujarat during the Gupta-Maitraka Periods have still got to be systematically studied. The age of the Imperial Guptas ( 300-600 A.D.) was an age of great cultural activity and evolution in art and literature. The centre of origin of the new art-traditions in the Gupta Age is not known, but it could be imagined to be near Avanti-Malwa or Ujjayini, the capital city of Candragupta II. Before one can locate this centre of art, a chronological study of art-specimens of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods for the dating of For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 195 its art-heritage is necessary. The best Gupta specimens date from the latter part of the reign of Candragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Red and Black Ware: A typical mediaeval pottery having red slip and design in black over white background becomes profuse in this period. The mediaeval red and black ware, red burnished and black burnished wares are also found from old sites. They continue in the subsequent period also. Inscribed Seals : Numerous Mahayanist votive clay-seals bearing the images of Buddha and Stupa, inscribed with the Buddhist creed in the characters of about the sixth century A. D. were discovered from excavations at Vala, carried out by Rev. Fr. Heras. One of this variety is exhibited at Bhavnagara Gandhi Smtiti Bhavan (Old Barton Museum Section ). The objects excavated at the site of Valabhi contain a variety of clay-seals with the Buddhist formula THTH9: etc. imprinted on them. The reference to 'Ratnatraya' (Frag. 1), Samgha' (Frag. 4) and Tathagata' (Frag. 5) occurring in the ten fragmentary stone-inscriptions discovered from Vala (Diskalkar, ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. 1 ) further show the influence of Buddhism in the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. There are references even to fields belonging to Buddhist monks or Samgha in copper-plates. Clay Seal of Pusyena: This seal found from the ruins of Valabhi, measures 2.9 inches by 2.6 inches on the face, and about 24 inches high, bearing on the face a rude impression of the sun and the moon, and below it an inscription in 4 lines : (1) 371 37474T agafya..cu (2) ASTRI STAERFITA (3) THERTS HEI.... (4) wat op ( The seal) of the Maharaja Maha( sena) pati Pusyena, the son of the glorious Maharaja Ahivarman, whose family of kings ( i. e., whose pedigree of royal ancesters) is uninterrupted from Jayadratha downwards (who was a mythical king of Sindhu-Sauvira, and was killed by Arjuna in the Mahabharata war). The letters of the inscription are sunk in and reversed. Consequently the letters of the metal or stone matris, of which an impression is taken on clay, must have borne raised letters, which had not been reversed by the engraver. It appears the impression was made for the purpose of stamping the legend on document, cloth or any other nonmetallic substance. The seal shows the legend which can be read direct, and not in reverse as it does on the original. The letters closely resemble those of the land-grants of Dhruvasena I of Valabhi ( 519-549 A.D.), matra being represented by a curve.-( Buhler, IA., XII, p. 274; E. Hultzsch, IA., XXXVIII, p. 145 )-( Plate ). Amreli Clay-die of Siladitya: A clay seal bearing the legend "Sri Siladitya" was found from the old mound of Gohilvada Timbo, which is situated on the fork of the two rivulets Vadi and Thebi, near Amreli in Saurastra, just about 40 miles to the east of Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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196 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Vala, the ancient Valabhi, which was the seat of the Maitraka rulers till about 776 A.D. Various antiquities have been unearthed from this site, consisting of terracotta images, both Hindu and Buddhistic, carved and plain pottery, remains of burials in graves and urns, beads, coins, carved bangle-pieces-entire and fragmentary. These also include a goldsmith's terracotta mould and a clay-die of Siladitya.--( Hiranand Shastri, Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Baroda State, 1937-38, p. 16 ) In the absence of more details or the date of the seal, the question as to which of the seven Siladityas of the Maitraka dynasty this seal belonged, remains unsolved. However, it may be assigned to Siladitya I ( C. 590-615 A.D.) bearing the other title Dharmaditya', and as such believed to have been referred to in the Arya Manjusri Mula Kalpa ( Jayaswal, Ibid, p. 2 4, slokas 586-601 ) as a notable ruler.-( Plate ) Kampilya Vihara seal: A small clay votive seal was found from the site of the Kampilya Vihara, situated on the banks of the Puravi river, near Navsari, by Manilal Dvivedi, containing seven lines, which, however, do not admit of decipherment. Among the clay seals and dice that have been discovered some bear the well-known Buddhist formula : ye dharmAH hetu prabhavA hetu teSAM tathAgato hyavadat teSAM ca yo nirodha yevaM vAdI HET HU: These seals are obviously religious signets of the Buddhists. They are circular and tablet-like in shape, and are about the size of an eight-anna piece. Besides, a specimen of a non-sectarian seal has also been found from Vala. It is of black clay measuring 4 X 2 inches. It contains five incomplete lines written in Sanskrit, the meaning of which is unintelligible. Inscriptions on Stone and Clay-die: A few Maitraka epigraphs are inscribed on stone and clay-die. But these are in a fragmentary condition. One of the stone inscriptions is at the village Bankoai in the Raval District of the former Navanagar State.( Bhavnagar Prakrit and Sanskrit Inscriptions p. 30). It measures 7 inches by 18 inches and records the name of Guhasena, which has been assigned on paleographic grounds to this Maitraka king ( 553-569 A.D.). It is on a polished surface of a slab, and is neatly engraved in straight lines, like other stone-inscriptions from Vala. (Diskalkar, " Ten Fragments of Stone-Inscriptions and Clay-Seal from Vala", ABORI, XX, p. 1.). Unfortunately no information could be gathered from this or the ten other finds from Vala, the inscriptions yielding disjoint words like 'Tathagata' or names of persons. Inscribed Potsherds from Gohilvada Timbo : Amreli: Further explorations at the Gohilvada Timbo near Amreli in 1938-39 yielded many inscribed potsherds, giving the names of some individuals or localities from which they hailed. These potsherds are Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 197 believed to be fragments of vessels which might have belonged to some Buddhist monks and have been assigned to the Maitraka period.-( ARDAB, 1938-39, pp. 5-7). The inscriptions read: (i) Sri Gira (i ) nagara, (ii) Vajapa...., (iii) Sri-Vighra..., (iv) Sri-Panda, (v) Ghahta ..., (vi) Vakrumidrukaya (?).-( Plate ) Potsherd of Guhasena from Vala: We are here reminded of the potsherd of Guhasena's time. A fragment of what seems to have been a huge earthen pot, was discovered from Vala, with the following inscription on it in Valabhi characters; the first symbol that is lost is, however, surmised : [800] yo u situga: T: 1 It has the name of Sri Guhasena', along with the (Valabhi ) year ( 2 ) 47 ( = C. 566 A.D.) inscribed on it.-(E. Hultzsch, 'Potsherd of Guhasena: Vala, Fragmentary Inscription' (553-569 A.D.), IA., XIV, 1885, p. 75).- Plate ) Vala Seal with Elephant : Excavations at the basements of an ancient building at Vala, conducted by Rev. Father Heras in 1934, yielded parts of a damaged terracotta Stupa, and a clay-seal bearing the effigy of an Elephant, it being the symbol of Buddha's mortal forin in the previous birth, now in the Bombay Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College (originally founded by Father Heras). Valabhi Copper-Plates : The chief epigraphical sources for the history of the Maitrakas of Valabhi are their copper-plates. These copper-plates are records of their donations made to the Brahmanas and to the Viharas. The donations usually consist of villages, fields, vapis, kupas and vapikas. In one case, however, it is a rupaka or a silver coin, to be given daily from the State Treasury, a gift which may be termed a Nibandha as given in the Dharmasastras.-41 PEPATAR 1975 at afaggia Fyn am ftatcaa aar: Theater fare qat a palaa #aftaghi (G. V. Acharya, Inscriptions of Gujarat, Vol. I, No. 67 : Inscription of Dhruvasena II, G. S. 320, 639-40 A.D.). The Valabhi plates are incised on one side only, linked by two rings, the edges of which are slightly raised in the form of a rim so as to protect the inscription. Of the two rings which are used to fasten the plates, one is plain and circular in shape, with its ends either riveted or joined in a knot. It is about it inches in diameter, and about 5 inches in length. The other ring consists of a longer piece and forms an elliptical top. Its ends are joined to the socket of the royal seal which is generally made of bronze. Valabhi Copper-Plate Seal : Valabhi Copper-plate Seal has the device of a seated Bull the sacred vehicle of Siva with the legend 'Sri Bhattakah' (the name of the founder) inscribed below it.--( Plate ). Similarly the trisula ( trident) on the Valabhi coins represents another emblem of Saivism. Coins : Of the ruling dynasties of this period of Gujarat and Saurastra, the coins, mainly of the Maitrakas, are known and only in silver. These coins are in the continued traditions of the Western Ksatrapas, which were followed by the Guptas and the Traikutakas. Valabhi coins are perfect imitations of later Gupta coins, which, do not give the Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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198 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT year of issue. They have the head of the king on one side, and the legend in current Brahmi script on the other side. The Maitrakas introduced a new device of their own of the trident (trisala) in the middle. The trident on these coins may be distinguished in two types (i) a trident with two dots in place of handle; and (ii) a trident with a battleaxe attached to the handle. The coins bearing the first type of trident resemble the Ksatrapa coins, as regards the shape and size, and also the form of the letters. These coins according to the reading of G. V. Acharya, bear the legend Maharajno Maha-Ksatrapa parama-samanta maha-sri Bhattarakasa. The coins of the second type are more like the dumpy and irregularly shaped coins of the later Gupta period. They are a little smaller in size and bear the legend, according to Acharya, Rajno Mahaksatrapa Parmaditya Rajno Samanta Maha-Sri Bhattarakasa. He gives the final reading on these coins (probably on both types) as Rajno Mahaksatrapa -Dharanudhyataka samarasaha Sri Sarova Bhattarahasa.-(N. S., XLVII, pp. 99-103). V. V. Mirashi has read the legend as Rajno Mahaksatrapa ParamadityabhaktaMahasamanta Sri Sarvva-Bhattarakasa (JNSI, VI, 14-18), and he thinks that these coins were issued by a king named Sarva, who might have been a ruler flourishing about 400 A.D. (?), owing allegience either to the Guptas or to the Traikutakas. He thinks that the Maitrakas of Valabhi did not have the coinage of their own; but adopted this coinage and made it the currency of their kingdom. The legend on the Valabhi coins has been the subject of interesting controversy for those interested in Numismatics, since the time these coins were first brought to light by James Princep, and the more so, after the different scholars like E. Thomas, Newton, Cunningham, G. V. Acharya, and V. V. Mirashi gave different interpretations of the legend on these coins. The Valabhi coins in the Baroda Museum are broadly divided into ' types," by B. L. Mankad, from a comparative study of the fabric, weight, size, legends, bust of kings, and the types of tridents. One set resembles the Ksatrapa coins in fabric and epigraphy, and the other resembles the Gupta coins. The Ksartapa type of coins has a trident on the while the Gupta type has a trident combined with a battle-axe. The Ksatrapa type of coins are grouped into several varieties according to their legends: some bear the name Sri-Bhattarka, some of Sarvva-Bhattarha with the title Mahasamanta, and some have only the name Bhaffarka. The legends thus show that there were different kings who issued these coins; but it is difficult to identify them. The last one may be attributed to Sri-Bhattarka, the founder of the Valabhi dynasty, as this title on the seals of Valabhi copper-plates refers to him. Those referring to Sarvva may be a descendant of his, who was a Mahasamanta in the beginning, but became independent Others refer to other different kings who may have been the issuers of such coins. The legend on these coins are generally found deflected, often missing a letter or two from a word, and no satisfactory reading of the coin has come forward so far. For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 199 The study of the different legends and the busts of kings on these Valabhi coins reveals at least four (probably six ) different rulers who issued these coins.-(B. L. Mankad, Journal of the Numismatic Society, Vol. XV, 1953, Valabhi Coins in the Baroda Museum', and Plate No. IV ):-( Plate ) Traikutaka Coins : Traikutaka coins are found in Southern Gujarat, Konkan and the Maratha country. Coins of the Traikutaka kings Dahrasena, son of Indradatta, and Vyaghrasena, son of Dahrasena are known, whose names are mentioned in copper-plate grants of 456 and 480 A.D., respectively. Coins of the Kalacuri King Kssnaraja, the father of Sankargana, are known from the Gujarat area. They were first published by Dr. Bhau Daji (JBBRAS, XII (O.S.), p. 213-14). But he could neither read the correct legend nor attribute them properly. These coins are in the same tradition of the Western Ksatrapas, having the head of the king on the obverse, and a seated bull on a platform as the central device on the reverse. The legend on these coins is Parama-Mahesvara Mata pitripadanudhyata Sri Krsnaraja, as read by Fleet (1A., XIV, p. 68 ), and confirmed by N. L. Rao (JNSI, XVI, p. 107-8). Temples: There was great architectural activity in Western India during this period. As early as the end of the 5th Century, Hindu temples of Goddesses (Panduraja and Kottammahika for example), of Siva, Surya, Ganesa and other gods are known to have been in existence from the records of donations by the Maitraka kings and the kings of other dynasties. However, no remains of these temples have been traced so far. A few temples are known mainly on the western and southern sea-board of Saurastra. A few solitary shrines are also found at Than and Kottai in Kaccha. These might have been built during the supremacy of the Maitrakas of Valabhi, or during the rule of the Jethvas of Ghumli; and later, those near Somanatha and Prabhasa, at Sutrapada, Kadvar, etc. under the suzerainty of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Further development of the pre-Caulukyan temple architecture is illustrated by the temples at Visavala, 15 miles N.W. of Porbunder, Bilesvara, in the Barala Hills and Than. The temples at Kinderkhela, about 12 miles north of Porbunder, Sona Kansari and Pasthur, which form another group, are of the same period. The pre-Caulukyan temples that are in existence even today, can be treated together as they have an essential oneness with some points of difference. These small-scale temples, as arranged in their development of style, are grouped in two batches: the one group includes the Visavada, Bilesvara, Sutrapada and Than temples; the other includes those at Kadvar, Kinderkheda, Son Kansari and Pasthur.. As to the plan of these temples, a square shrine is placed among two courtyards, inner and outer, which may be either square or rectangular. The tendency is towards the latter, which subsequently became the gudha mandapa of the later Caulukyan temples having a number of pillars. The inner courtyard in every case served as a pradaksinamarga. -( Plate ) For Personal & Private Use Only

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200 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Viharas: We know from numerous epigraphical references that a number of Buddhist Viharas Gohaka-Vihara (probably built by a monk), Abhyantarika-Vihara ( built by the Mm. Mimma), the Ajita and Kakka Vihara (built by traders), the Vimalagupta Vihara (built by Acarya Bhiksu Vimalagupta), Sthiramati-Vihara, Yaksasura-Vihara, Purnabhatta-vihara, Yodhavaka-Vihara (built by Divirapati Skandabhasta ) and Vamsakaka Vihara (built by king Siladitya I )-were built during this period; but unfortunately, nothing of their architectural remains is in evidence. The earliest reference is found in a grant of Dhruvasena I (Valabhi Samvat 216, Circa 535 A.D.) wherein he donated villages to the Vihara built by his niece ( Sister's daughter ) Dudda, who laid the temporal foundation of Buddhism in or near Valabhi. This Vihara gradually developed into a Viharamandala, containing a number of Viharas within its precincts. Nothing, however, can be traced of these structures. All these show that both the kings and the rich citizens made benefactions for the Viharas, either from the time of their foundation, or by supporting those built by the monks, and named after them. The existence of the Kampilya Vihara, founded by one Buddhist Acarya Kampilya, is known to have situated on the banks of the Puravi river, identified with the Purna river near Navsari. A small clay votive seal was found from the site by Manilal Dvivedi ; containing seven lines, which do not admit of decipherment. Plates of Rastrakuta king Dantivarma mention a grant to this vihara in $. 789 (924 A.D.)-(EI, VI, p. 285 ). Rastrakuta King Dhruva II, son of Akalavarsa had granted a village to the same vihara in S. 806 ( 941-A.D.)-(EI, XXII, 64). The site of the vihara has yielded other antiquities also; but no traces of the vihara have been found so far. The names of the viharas, recorded in the Maitraka copper-plates, almost in a stereotyped way, give us very little information about their structure and their activities. They afford us, however, glimpses into the life and the conditions in them. One grant provides the location of religious books for the monastery.-(Buhler, Guhasena's Grant of Valabhi Samvat 240; 'Additional Valabhi Grants', IA., VII, p. 67). In some, the fortifications (Buhler, 'A Valabhi Grant', IA., IX, p. 237) and the well-laid gardens ( Bhandarkar's List, Nos. 1333, 1341, 1360) around these viharas are mentioned. Elsewhere we get interesting description of the tasteful decorations in them. (Jayaswal, Imperial History of India, p. 24). Hiuen Tsang in his account refers to images of Seven Buddhas in a vihara built by the king Siladitya (Watters, p. 169). Nothing of these can be traced now. The Cullavagga adds that the viharas were full-fledged houses where verandahs, covered terraces, overhanging caves, store-rooms and service-halls, gradually came to be built, as the number of Bhikkus went on increasing. (The Cullavagga, VI 3, 5, 6). The existence of similar viharas at Valabhi may be inferred from the Maitraka grants. Hiuen Tsang's general description of monasteries at Nalanda and at other places For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate XLVIII For Personal & Private Use Only ANCHES, (A) Vayu, from Samalaji (p. 316) (B) A Terracotta Peacock from Samalaji (p. 206)

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Plate XXXIV Four Ganas in the Gandhara tradition, Samalaji (p. 211) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Piate L Adinatha Bronze Head, from Akota Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LI For Personal & Private Use Only Ar-598. (A) Mahudi Bronze, Parsvnatha, Baroda Museum (p. 212) (B) Ambika bronze from Akota (p. 212)-

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 201 (Watters, I, p. 147; Beal, p. 74) can be remembered here for providing an idea of the architecture of the Viharas at the Valabhi Vidyapitha: "They have a tower at each of the four corners of the quadrangle and three high walls in a tier. The rafters and roofbeam were carved with strange figures, and the doors, windows and walls were painted in various colours. The houses of the ladies were sumptuous inside and economical outside. The inner rooms and the central hall varied in their dimensions. The doors opened to the east and the thrones faced east." Art School of " Ancient West": Taranatha, the Tibetan historian referred to the "School of Ancient West" in his History of Indian Buddhism', written in 1608 A.D. (from Heeley's translation of Schiefner's German translation ) as follows: "In the time of the King Sila lived an especially skilful delineator of Gods born in Marwar, named Sungadhara; he left behind him paintings and other masterpieces like those produced by the Yaksas. Those who followed his lead were called the "Old Western School". Stngadhara, born in Marudesa, lived either in the court of Bhinnamala or of Valabhi or worked for both of them. Taranatha is explicit in his description of "The School of the Ancient West", when he states that the school came after the school of Bimbisara in the reign of Budhagupta, and this is confirmed by the fact that he expressly states that Stngadhara of Marwar, the founder of this school, lived in the reign of king Sila, i, e., Harsa of Kanauj (606-647 A.D.) or may be the Maitraka king Siladitya I (c. 590-615). Ajanta of the Vakataka period and Bagh, be it remembered, were already a fact accompli before the birth of Taranatha's School of the Ancient West'. That this school founded by Stragadhara was greatly influenced by the late Gupta art and its tradition, is abundantly clear. Even the beautiful Jivantasvami torso from Akota with marked Gupta influences is no earlier than the early 6th century A.D. The Pindavara (Vasantgadh) bronzes, cast by Sivanaga in 687 A.D., probably represented the last works of "The School of Ancient West ", and that perhaps, the masterpieces of this school were represented by works such as the Samalaji Sculptures from Idar State.-(Karl Khandalavala, Commentary on Taranatha's Chapter on Buddhist Art', Marg, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 62-63 ; Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, p. 128). The Akota bronzes ( the broken Jivantasvami torso and the Rsabhanatha) can be assigned to the earliest period of this school, at the latest, i. e. of the late 6th and early 7th century A.D. The Samalaji sculptures from Idar (probably early 7th Century A.D.) may well be representative of the best products of Taranatha's School of Ancient West'. Those who date the Samalaji sculptures earlier are overlooking the entire historical background of cultural development in Idar State, it is alleged. Jaina painting of the 9th Century in the Indra-Sabha and Cave 32 at Ellura are much more than .Traces', and are of the highest interest in the history of Indian Wallpaintings', and also in any discussion on the origin of 'Manuscript-Illustrations' both on palm-leaf and paper, especially preserved at the various Jaina Bhandars in Western India. C26 For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Western School of Indian Sculptures: Three decades ago, i. e., before 1930 or so, the art-history of Gujarat proper, previous to the rise of the Caulukya Solanki dynasty (middle of the roth Century A.D.) had been almost a blank. Systematic investigations, however, have since resulted in the discovery of quite a series of sculptures in the KsatrapaKusina, late Imperial Gupta and post-Gupta, Calukya and Rastrakuta and the classic. Pratihara and Paramara style. Some of these are of exceptional artistic beauty. 202 A flourishing Gupta (300 A.D.-600 A.D.) and post-Gupta (600 A.D.-900 A.D.) school of Sculpture was discovered in the Mesvo valley, from where the Samalaji sculptures have been found, and similar early sculptures and bronzes were discovered from the valley of Sabarmati and Hathmati, near the ruins of the Kotyarka temple in Mahudi village, (Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat). Sculptures and bronzes have also been found from the territory, south of Baroda i.. in the Lata-mandala, say from the banks of the Visvamitri and from the villages of Akota and Kapurl, which point out the artistic activity in this area during the post-Gupta period. The discovery of stylistically similar images from Kavi, near Jambusar (Dist. Broach), carries the tradition further south. The Lakulisa images from Karvan and Avakhal, also, can be roughly assigned to this period. Sculptures from the valleys of Sabarmati and Hathmati, Mesa (Mesvo) and Majam and other minor streams in Eastern Gujarat deserve special notice in the history of Western Indian Sculptures, as retaining the artistic traditions of the Gupta art with local variation and colour, during the Valabhi period. The Gurjara-Pratihara variations, later succeeded. the post-Gupta art-traditions. The phase of architectural and sculptural art with Gupta affinities was not confined to Dungarpur, Samalaji, Roda and Kotyarka areas only. It possibly extended upto the Parel image in the south of Gujarat, not to by-pass the intervening Lata sculptures from Karvan, Kapuri, Kavi, Tenna etc. The Sculptures at Mandor, Bhinmal, Kiradu and Osia to the extreme north, and those from Sarasvata Mandala, Arbuda Mandala and Saurastra in the West are known to have equally shared the common Gupta and post-Gupta traditions in Western India. Samalaji in the old Idar State was possibly on a caravan route from Mandsor or Kotah area via Dungarpur to Bharukaccha via Kapadvanj (ancient Karpatavanijya), Kathlal, Nadiad (in the Khetaka-mandala) etc. From Idar and Kotyarka, sites of the river-valleys of Sabarmati and Mesvo, the art seems to have spread by a westward route to Saurastra, and by a north-westward route to Abu, the ancient Arbudamandala, towards Bhinmal. The dark-blue or greenish-blue schist used in the sculptures obtained from Samalaji and Devant Mori areas was possibly obtained from Dungarpur territory adjoining Samalaji on the east. It is in evidence even around Kiradu in Rajasthan. The dark-blue schist, from which the specimens of the late Gupta period from Samalaji (Idar), Roda and Devani Mori are carved, is available in large quantity even to-day; and it is not unlikely that the images of the Idar group were manufactured either at or from the stone in the Dungar For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 203 pur district of Rajasthan, and thence removed to various places in Western India.-(R. C. Agrawal, Skanda-Kartikeya in Sculptures from Rajasthan', Lalit Kala Nos. 3-4, 1959). Saivite Sculptures: The cult objects in the Siva temples at Valabhi were lingas and not images. Along with the linga, the Nandi is always associated with Siva. Some of the Nandis strewn over the ruins of Valabhi, may be dated back to the sixth and seventh centuries. They are life-size (about 6 feet) ones, from which the dimensions and the grandeur of the temples can be imagined. Nandi: A huge massive representation of Nandi, designed from the local breed of Kankarej type from Idar, has been removed to the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (S. N. Chakravarti, Guide to the Antiquities of the Historic Period, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, p. 30, Plate XIII). A band goes round the horns and ears, and a chain round the neck. A garland, like the later embroidered carpet, encircles the body. It is assignable. to early 8th Century A.D., and is a fine specimen in animal-studies.(Plate LVIIIa) Although the rulers of Valabhi were broadminded and altogether catholic in their outlook, Saivism was the royal religion of the Maitrakas. The Bull and the Trident', the well-known emblems of God Siva, which were usually found on their seals and coins, and the term parama-mdhetvara used before the names of the Valabhi kings in their copper-plates go to prove the same.-(Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Sects, p. 119). Samalaji, according to the later 'Gadadhara Ksetra' tradition, was a Vaisnavite site, and the sculpture of Anantavisnu is one of the earliest known specimens of Visnu cult in Western India. However, the sculptures from Devani Mori, a village nearby, are mostly Saivite, consisting of some huge Sivalingas. The Nandi, referred to above, illustrates the fine local breed of a Kankareji bull. The mutilated group of Matrika sculptures including the most striking of the Kaumari Sakti and the figure of Kumara Kartikeya testify further to the Saivite leanings of the place. Eka-mukha Linga from Khedbrahma :-The huge Eka-mukha linga discovered from Khedbrahma (now in the Baroda Museum, Open Air Sculpture Gallery), about 5 feet high, has the head of Siva carved on the front side. The oblong face, though partly mutilated is remarkable for the modelling of the head-dress of the type, met with on Kusana sculptures from Mathura. Carved out of a huge block of greenish blue-schist, this linga is assigned a date of Saivite or Brahmanical revival, when worship of Eka-mukha lingas was. common in other parts of Northern and Central India. It dates a bit earlier than the group of Siva and Matrikas from Devani Mori.-(Plate XXIX). Virabhadra Siva :-Probably the finest image in the Idar group is the figure of Virabhadra Siva (first brought to light by Inamdar in 1935: Sculptures from Idar State), with Urdhva linga seen through the transparent drapery, which is again tied with a tiger skin. It stands in a tribhanga pose against a bull, and carries a trident (trisula) in his upper right hand. The beautiful hair-locks (jasa-mukula) fall gracefully on the shoulders, with the crescent moon on one side, and the face expressing bliss by a catching smile. The For Personal & Private Use Only

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204 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT one-row necklace (ekavali ) and the armlets are the sparse ornaments on the body. The sculpture is datable to the late Gupta period (C. 550 A. D.).-(Plate XXX). Lakulisa from Karvan-Timbarva :-The seated human image of Lakulisa from Timbarva, 2 miles from Karvan (now in the M.S. University, Archaeology Collection ) is shown against the linga of black granite. The locks of jata are visible as having spread over the shoulders. It very probably belongs to the 6th Century A. D. at the latest. (M. R. Majmudar, ' Antiquities from Karvan', JBU, 1950).-(Plate XXXI a). Avakhala Siva: The image of Siva from Avakhala, the Ulkagrama' of the Puranic tradition is, however, a seated human image of Lakulisa, with the citron in one hand and the lakula or the danga in the right hand. It differs from the Karvap image in that it has a halo at the back, and is not carved on the linga. The locks of jata are spread over the shoulders. The ekavali and the yajnopavita are very near the Karvan image. This may be not earlier than the 8th century.-(R. N. Mehta, JOI, Dec.-March, 1956-57). Ksetrapala Image: This is a form of Bhairava, flanked by two attendants with a back-ground of mountain, from a small temple at Samalaji, and belongs to the middle of the 8th Century. The face has the complacent expression. The sculptor has cleverly shown the nudity of the standing image by depicting a'wet', the closely fitting diaphanous robe, without any fold lines.--(Plate XXXI b) Dancing Ganesa from Idar: Ganesa, one of the earliest image of Siva-pantheon, in a dancing posture and discovered from Tintoi in the old Idar State is probably dateable to C. 650 A.D. The folds on the drapery are artistically depicted. Ganesa from Samalaji is a very well-preserved specimen of the Siva Pancayatana and belongs to the period of the Matrikas from Devani Mori.-(Plate XXXII b). The collosal representation of two images of Ganesa from Harsola and Kandola in north-east Gujarat, pleases the eye by its mass and volume. They are dateable in the latter part of the 8th century A.D.-(S. N. Chakravarti, Guide to Prince of Wales Museum Sculptures, Plate XV). Kumara Kartikeya :-Sculptures of Kumara Kartikeya, son of Siva, reminding us of the rule of Kumaragupta in Western India, have been obtained from Samalaji, Kapuri, Karvan and Baroda, all being very good sculptures of the post-Gupta sculptural art. In the Kartikeya's image from Samalaji, the warrior's nature is emphasised by prominent eye-balls, strong shoulders, massive arms etc. The rope-like scarf with a loop on the person of Kartikeya is noticeable in the front. The image might, perhaps, be assigned to the latter period of the reign of Kumaragupta.-(Plate XXXII a). Uma-Mahesvara from Kapuri :-Uma--Mahesvara (without the head) standing against the Nandi in embrace, is represented in the stone sculpture from Kapuri, a village in Lata-mandala near Baroda. The figures are tall and stout, but the beautiful sweeping curves of the tribhanga have been skillfully utilised by the artist in making the figures look graceful and charming. The simple ornaments, the ekavali on the neck of Siva Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 205 and the long pearl necklace of Uma reaching her navel add to the grace and beauty of their figures. Image is assignable to 7th century A. D., probably to the rule of the Kalacuris over Lata."(U. P. Shah and R. N. Mehta, JOI, Vol. I, 2, pp. 160).-(Plate XXXIV). Matrika Sculptures :- The Matrika' and the Mother and Child'sculptures from Idar and Kotyarka have several of the motifs common to the late Gupta sculptures. Nanda, an ancient Hindu goddess is identical to Parvati, whcm Buddha converted, according to one tradition, to Hariti in Buddhist worship. Hindu Gauri or Parvati, the Buddhist Hariti and the Jaina Ambika are virtually identical forms evolved under different religious pantheons. When in the Gupta age, the older Yaksa cult was being replaced by neo-Hinduism, the ancient Mother-goddess cult came to be replaced by a new set of Matrikas, Jaina Ambika, Buddhist Hariti etc. The types of Mother and Child' represented in sculptures appear to be a result of this process. The stylistic analysis and the interpretation of the Western Indian Sculptures by a comparison with the Gupta Sculptures of more or less known dates from the adjoining territories of Uttara Pradesa and Madhya Pradesa should convince us, at least tentatively, that the best of the Samalaji group of sculptures might fall generally in the late 6th century-(Plate XXXV). Matsikas from Devani Mori: The mutilated sculptures of Saktis, recovered from the village Devani Mori near Samalaji, having been almost without the head and even the complete torso, cannot be definitely identified as Matnikas. These, originally beautiful images were perhaps hidden underground, as they were not considered fit to be worshipped. The Mahesvari is evidently with a child held by the hand resting on the hip. The Varahi figure has also the vestige of a child's leg by her side. The Aindri has the elephant as her vahana. Agneyi depicts the Sakti of Agni. It can be surmised that the other mutilated Matrika images also may have held the child in the fragments now lost to us.--( Plate XXXVI) All of them evince the characteristic features of the current Gupta tradition. There is aesthetic sobriety in the treatment of drapery, ornaments and other decoration. The transparent drapery marked with schematic folds enhances the loveliness of the modulating lines of the figure and conceals the charm of the flesh. The sparseness of ornaments imparts a graceful touch to the body which is so restful to the eyes.-(M. R. Majmudar, Gujarat Research Society Journal, April, 1950). Brahmi from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu: Loose sculptures in the compound of Vasisthasrama at Mt. Abu and those at Kotesvara, the source of the Sarasvati, now removed to Baroda Museum, include three-headed Savitri, with the swan by her side, Varahi, Mahesvari and others. Delvada Matnikas: Out of the three sculptures of Matnikas of the post-Gupta period, preserved in the nitches of the Jagannatha temple at Delvada, Mt. Abu, that of Kaumari is closely allied to the Idar group in modelling and style. These are made from green schist.-(Journal Indian Museums Association, Vol. VIII, ix). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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206 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Kaumars from Samalaji:-The two hands of Kaumari from Samalaji, Devani Mori, are mutilated; but the peacock is significant. The ekavali necklace, the beaded armlets, the lower fine texture garment with numerous creases, the beautiful modelling of the torso, the graceful locks of hair falling over shoulders--these are undoubtedly Gupta features. The goddess has a charming round face, with broad forehead adorned with a round tilaka and large eyes : the lower lip is thick and a little protruding. A scarf running across her legs and passing over her left hand is remarkable. The girdle with central tassellike hanging is also noteworthy. Peacock is of a fine workmanship.-( Plate XXXVII) It is noteworthy that Samalaji sculptures abound in the delineation of peacocks. A big terracotta of a peacock found from this site supports this statement. Kotyarka Parvati: Kotyarka Parvati (transferred to the new Kotyarka temple at Mahuli, Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat) with a peacock behind her, is fondling and feeding the child held on the shoulders of an attendant gana. Her round smiling face with broad forehead, and the curly heir parted in the middle and the plaited hair arranged in spirals on the head, falling on the shoulders, are the main remarkable features. She wears an ekavali with a small pendant and beaded armlets, which are the familiar ornaments of the Gupta period. The lower garment of the gana is of transparent and plain material, while the sari of the mother is of exquisite fine muslin with many folds ( vallis).-(M. R. Majmudar, Sculptures from Kotyarka', JISOA, 1941 )-( Plate XXXV b ). The proportion of the female form which is thick-set and rather stunted (the torso below the breasts being rather short) is a characteristic of some of the late female forms. The stump-like appearance of the leg at the end near the anklet, is a characteristic feature of late Gupta sculptures; while in the more evolved early classical specimens, this part becomes more natural by narrowing towards the end at the anklet. The eyes are open and not meditative or slightly closed. All these characteristics, cumulatively go to suggest that this sculpture be assigned to the end of the Gupta age i.e. 600 A.D. The paryastaka (covering) with delicate folds, hangs on her right leg. This particular feature, which continued also in later Jaina bronzes from Vasantgadh, is assignable to C. 7th to gth Century A.D.-(Plate XXXVIII a). Kotyarka Mother and Child :- Mother and child' from old Kotyarka temple at village Mahudi, 6 miles from Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat, still in situ, may be somewhat later in age, on account of the rather heavier torso and the double string of pearls, and the peculiar bun on the head. It possibly belongs to early 7th century A. D., as the modelling is still chaste and graceful. The beautiful big bun on the head, with ornate front of jewels and pearl-strings is not uncommon in the Gupta paintings at Ajanta. The folded apparel on the left leg, with two ends hanging in graceful curves appears to be an uttariya or an extra-piece hanging from the girdle, a peculiarity noticeable in sculptures from Gujarat and Marwar, illustrated in various forms, like that on the sari of the Mother from Kotyarka (now in the new temple ), and on the dhotis of some of the Tirtharkara bronzes from For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD Vasantgadh and Akota-(M. R. Majmudar, 'School of Western Sculpture IHQ, 1957)(Plate XXXVIII b) Samalaji Mother and Child :-In the Mother and Child' sculpture from Samalaji, (only the upper part above the navel being in tact), the mother has big circular kundalas on the ear-lobe and a heavy single-pearl ear-ring on the ear-top, which have been the characteristic ornaments of Western Indian ladies. The coiffeur is arranged elaborately with curls in front, and a bun-like top from which issue the ringlets. The bun tied by a wreath of flowers has a central crest ornament of cakra motif. The sculpture may not be later than the 7th century A. D. The cylindrical tress of hair arranged in pradaksina twists, hanging loosely on each shoulder is noteworthy. From the right end of the wreath a small creeper issues out in a beautiful sweep and dangles behind the ear, emphasising the beauty of the slightly bent posture of the mother. The decorative creeper hangs at the back from the braid of of hair, known to Gandhara school, as also' to the Kusaga art at Mathura. The cakra-plaque in front of the bun on the hair is also noticeable in the Gandharan art.-(Plate XXXVIII b). 207 Standing Mother: Of about the same period is another image of a standing mother from Idar group of sculptures with the playful child holding her right finger and the transparent lower garment, gathered in folds to her left.-( Plate XXXVI). Parvati as Sabara-Kanya from Idar: The superb image of Parvati as Sabarakanya stands in tri-bhanga pose, with the right hand resting on the hip in an elegant way, just with a feminine grace. The hand has only one Kankana at the wrist. The single ornament in the neck has a necklace, of the indigenous style worn by village-folk called hansdi in common parlance, on this side of India. The two feet are adorned with anklets (nupuras). The hair are not tied in a knot so as to be called a mukufa, but are resting loose on the shoulders. The artist has shown the minutest details of the wavy hair. The gentle and bewitching smile on the face makes the figure quite of a (saumya) nature, as contrasted against the stern and excited face of a fighting Goddess. The third eye in the middle of the forehead is closed. The mellow lines on the slender white neck, resemble similar series of lines on a conch (Sankha). The muscles of the belly are realistically depicted; the depression of the navel adds a special grace to the simplicity and the classical grandeur of the female form. The full and healthy bust is quite in contrast to the shrunken waist so as to be styled Kriodari'. The tiger-skin is wrapped round the waist with a reef-knot by the legs of the animal, the paws of which dangle down, the face of the tiger being in full view in the front.. The skin-garment reaches as far down as the knees and falls in schematic outline, centring towards the knot; only the lower part of the legs excepting the rear part is covered by the remaining two hind legs of the animal. A similar vydghra-carma is seen round the waist of Virabhadra Siva referred to above. The hound is by the side of the Sabara-Kanya, the huntress, ready, as it were, to do the bidding of its mistress. The elegance, on the whole, of the sculpture is remarkable. It evinces most of the For Personal & Private Use Only

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208 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT characteristic features of the classical Gupta Art. There is aesthetic sobriety in the treatment of drapery, ornaments and other elements of decoration. The transparent drapery marked with schematic folds enhances the loveliness of the modulating lines of the figure, and conceals the body of the flesh. The sparseness of ornaments imparts a graceful touch to the body which is so restful to the eyes. But the slightly still treatment of legs and the right arm show a decadance of the Imperial Gupta style of late 6th Century A.D. --(M. R. Majmudar, Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. XV, No. 1, 1954).-(Plate XXXIX ). Vala Mahisamardini :-The sculpture of Goddess Mahisasuramardini from Vala, with thin drapery and the self-same loop at the waist is shown in the act of the trisulathrust and evinces a happy blending of physical energy with spiritual grace and beauty. (U. P. Shah ).- Plate XLIV a). The other two sculptures recovered from Vala, done in the self-same style and of the same period of Maitraka rule, can be passingly remembered here. One is a mutilated figure, which has an attendant by his side, possibly some divinity. The other is a portraitsculpture of a young warrior or prince which has been retouched by modern hands. The head-dress of the figure is, however, remarkably antique. Vaisnava Sculptures-Krsna-Lila from Mandor : The two massive stele from Mandor (old Manda vyapura ) near Jodhpur, about 9 feet high and two feet broad ( since removed to the Jodhpur Museum ) contain the panels of incidents from the child-sports of Sri Krsna viz., the lifting of Govardhana, the upturning of the cart, the fights with Canura, Dhenuka, Kesi, and the like. What may have been the actual location of these stele, and the person who got them installed cannot be known. These are the earliest sculptural remains of Krspa-worship in Western India, eventhough the early reference to Vasudeva and Sankarsina worship in Western India is known from the Ghosundi inscription of c. 150 B.C. from the old Madhyamika Nagari, near Jaipur-(Vide c. 150 B.C.). These were first noticed by D. R. Bhandarkar (ASWI, 1905-06). They are assigned to the end of the 5th Century A.D. The early style in the treatment of human figures and animals is noteworthy-(Plate XL). Visnu from Bhinmal : Visnu (four-armed) from Bhinmal wears an ekavali of an early type, obtained on Gupta sculptures. The broad heavy shoulders are reminiscent of the early Kusana sculptures. The armlets worn near the shoulders also suggest an earlier tradition. The crown is a high cap, richly decorated with two ornamental straps, crossing each other, in front with a beautiful rosette in the centre at the crossing-point. On two sides of the cap-like crown are the flames, suggesting Visnu's association with the Adityas or the Sun-worship. The lower garment with elegant wavy lines indicating folds, suggests the waning of the Gupta Age tradition. The thick rope-like scarf running across the thighs is in the style of the Mathura Sculpture of the Kusana age. The Scythian influence in Western India is fully borne out by the long Ksatrapa rule in the first three centuries of the Christian era.-(Plate XLI). * Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LII Ac 12 (Front view) Camaradharini Bronze, from Akota hoard. (p. 212) (Back view) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LIII A Buddha Bronze from Kotyarka, Mahudi. (Old Tample) (pp. 213, 318). For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LIV (A) Inscribed Vasantagadh Bronze, in Kayotsarga position, now at Pindwara, (Rajasthan). (p. 213) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LV SA (A) A Jaina Kayotsarga Stone Sculpture from Dhank (p 213) (B) Parsvanatha from Dhank (p. 213) For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 209 Vishnu from Tenna (Surat Dist.), discovered by Dr. R. N. Mehta, (now in the M. S. University Archaeology Collection), though of smaller dimensions, it very closely resembles. the style of the Bhinmal Vispu, and is probably of the same period. The image may have been designed for a family temple-a Ghara derasara. This village Tenna near Kamrej is mentioned in an inscription of the Rastrakuta king Indraraja III of Manyakheta as having been gifted over in 915 A.D. (S. 836).-( Plate XLIV a). Ananta-Vishnu from Samalaji: An elaboration of the crown accomplished towards the end of the Gupta period, i. e. the middle of the 6th century A.D., is discernible in the Ananta-Vistu image from Samalaji. Eight hands suggest four faces, the forth being at the back. The drapery and the rope-like girdle with a loop, the excellent modelling of the torso with broad shoulders, and expression on the face suggest Gupta influence. The deity's feet rest on Ananta Sesa. Four-armed Varaha and two-armed Rama on left side can be identified. This bears close resemblance to the Maha Vispu from Kanauj.-(K. M. Munshi, Saga of Indian Sculpture, 1957, Pl. 60). The Parel image of Siva, it may be suggested, probably, derived its inspiration from the Samalaji images of Ananta-Vispu. The stylistic affinities are more clear in this case than in that of the Mahesa-murti at Elephanta. In dating the Parel Siva, the rope-like girdle with a big loop and the dhoti with vallis and the posture of the two figures springing from the shoulders of Siva are the features which demonstrate the continuity of Samalaji art-traditions at Parel i. c. upto the Surparaka area. Parel image (C. 600 A.D.) may be earlier than Elephanta, but is possibly contemporary with the Samalaji Visvarupa.-(M. R. Majmudar, Samalaji: Bombay State Transport Review, November 1957).-(Plate XLIV b). e. Vishnu from Idar seated on Ananta ( Serpent) is eight-armed and seated in Virasana posture with attendants flying along, and some gods issuing out on all sides and a few attendants near the legs; but it is largely defaced. The well-preserved sculpture at Samalaji has three faces which are very close to those of Mahesamurti at Elephanta; excepting that, this image of Vispu wears elaborate conical mukutas. The crown of Visnu is of the early type, comparable with a similar crown on a loose schist head from Samalaji, now in Baroda Museum. The high crown of Jivantaswami bronze, from Akota, (Few Brahmanical Sculptures in the Baroda Museum'; Vol. X-XI) is comparable to the head from Elephanta. The high cap of Saka or Iranian origin is possibly the basis of some of the crowns of early images. It was turned into a squarish high crown in the Jaina bronze from Akota. Kathlal Vishnu Trimurti: The massive figure of Visnu Trimurti, in tact upto the navel only, measuring 3.5 feet high and 2.5 feet broad, and carved from green schist was discovered by the local Artist Sri Dinabandhu in 1948, from Kathlal from Mohor river, a few miles from Kapadvanj. It is now deposited in its High School compound. The crowned mukufa, the ekavali and the yajnopavila are greatly reminiscent of the Samalaj AnantaVispu; the thick lips resemble those of the Elephanta Mahesamurti and human figures C27 For Personal & Private Use Only

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210 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT in Ajanta frescos; however, the more elaborate treatment of ornaments relegates it to a later period, may be the end of the 8th century A.D.-(Plate XLV a ). Limbodra Trimurti Head: The three-faced head only, from village Limbodra in Rajpipla territories, being the remnant of a Trimarti, since transferred to the Baroda Museum, supplies a link to the Trimurti tradition from South-Eastern Gujarat also. It may not be later than the middle of the gth century A. D.-(Plate XLV b). Sesasayi Vishnu from Mt. Abu :-Sesasayi Visnu ( mutilated) from the Jagannath temple at Delvada on Mt. Abu, appears to be one of the early examples of the Old Western School, which had for its background the Gupta tradition of Central India. Modelling of the figure of Visnu is comparable to the Virabhadra Siva from Samalaji. It has some attendant figures, out of which one by the side of Laksmi is noteworthy, being very much akin to the Gupta style. The deeply incised beautiful creeper design at the lower end of the panel is assigrable to C. 650 A.D. It seems the Jagannath shrine in the Arbud mandala was an old Vaisnava or Hindu site, which flourished for about six centuries, out of which Vimalasaha was obliged to acquire land for building the Jaina shrines at a heavy price. An identical sculpture at the new Kotyarka temple, Mahudi, may be remembered here.-(U.P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1957). Kesisudana from Vala :-The headless sculpture of a stout figure called Krsna, slaying demon Kesi, as identified by D. R. Bhandarkar in 1910, was obtained from Vala along with other unidentified sculptures. It is allied to the Samalaji group of images of Siva and the Matnikas; but may be slightly later, i. e. about early 7th century. The drapery is simplified here, and the marks of the folds are a bit fainter, with an identical loop in the front at the waist. The Vala sculptures show a happy blending of physical energy or mass with spiritual grace and beauty.-(Plate XLVI b ). Miscellaneous Sculptures : Sage Udumbara from Samalaji : The massive figure of Sage Udumbara, discovered by M. R. Majmudar at Samalaji, lying on the banks of the river Mesvo is most remarkable. The locks of the jata-mukuta are spread out on the sholders and are represented in interwoven ringlets. The yajnopavita runs from the left shoulder and passes through the chest and the pot-belly. This sculpture is datable to the early 6th century A.D., on stylistic grounds.-(Plate XLVII a). Bhinmal Yaksa : In the massive seated figure, greatly mutilated and with worn out features, is seen the life-size sculpture, probably of Kubera or of a Yaksa, which is still lying near the lake at Bhinmal. This was mentioned in the 'Note on Bhinmal' in the Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. 1, in 1896. The features have been broken off, and the left lower arm and leg and both feet have disappeared. This sculpture could be assigned to circa 7th or 8th century A.D.-(Bom. Gaz., Vol. I, Part I, Appendix III, p. 454, 1896).-(Plate XLVII b). Nagaraja from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu : The sculpture of Nagaraja lying at Vasisthasrama on Mt. Abu is one of the earliest known specimens. of Naga worship in Guja Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 211 rat and Marwar, which might possibly be identified with Arbuda-Naga. The Nagaraja is seated in the lalitasana. Below the legs are the figures of a niga and nigini, with their lower halves-snake-tails entwined in a single knot. The Nagaraja himself carries a lotus in his right hand, and another lotus with a long stalk is seen near the left shoulder. There is a canopy of a three-hooded naga on the head of a figure, which makes him a Nagadevata. He wears an ekavali and a yajnopavita.-( Plate XLVIII a). Ganas from Samalaji : The figures of Ganas from Devani Mori near Samalaji Hills, ( now in the Baroda Museum, Sculpture Gallery), with caps resembling Central Asian types, obviously betray the Huna influence. On the pedestal of another of these ganas, but without head, two letters Vavu' are inscribed clearly in the Gupta script of the late fifth or early sixth century. (Plate XLVIII b)-(H. Goetz : 'Gupta Sculptures from Northern Gujarat', Journal Gujarat Research Society, Vol. XIV, No. 1, and Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, p. 25).-(Plate XLIX ). Bronzes of the School of Ancient West': There was an accidental discovery of a hoard of more than one hundred metal images-some totally worn out, some inscribed and a few dated also--from the old site of Ankottaka or the mound at Akota village on the other side of the Baroda railway line, where earth was being dug out for brick and tilemaking in 1952. This discovery revolutionised the views about the sculptural art in metal, of Western India. It has been an uncontroverted proof of the existence and the prevalance of the "School of Ancient West", mentioned by Taranatha. The Rastrakutas were great patrons of Jainism. During the reigns of Dantivarman, Govinda III and Amoghavarsa, Digambara Jainism from Karnataka spread to Malwa and Magadha. Karka Suvarnavarsa, whose grant is found at Baroda, refers to Jaina temples (Caityalayayatana ) monastery (Vasahika), and Senasamgha at Navsari ( 738 Saka).-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, pp. 234-35). Svetambara Jainism had a great stronghold in Gujarat, specially due to the activities of Haribhadrasuri. We get, however, definite literary evidence about Jaina temples and Jaina scholars during the succeeding Caulukyan period. But a few of these bronzes specifically refer to a Jaina monastery at Akota (Cf. oM zrImaddoNAcAryaiH aMkoTTakaanfaa1214...... ! Inscription on the image of Adinatha ); and probably these bronzes were kept in these Jaina temples at Akota. Akota Bronzes : Jivantasvami: The beautiful Jivantasvami torso discovered from Akota hoard, is the finest bronze ever discovered in Western India, with marked Gupta influences. It wears a high, four-sided richly ornamented crown. It also wears a torque and a broad (golden ) necklace. The hair-locks fall in three tiers over the broad shoulders, the upper end of the locks being surrounded by a fan-shaped ornament. The circular tilak-mark on the forehead, the eyes inlaid with silver, and the effective use of copper on the lower lip and the floral design of the crown add to the charm of this bronze from Western India, which is not later than the middle of the 6th century A.D.-( Karl Khandalawala, on Dr. U. P. Shah's Studies in Jaina Art' 1955, Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, pp. 126). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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212 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT The hair arranged in short schematic curls, drawn in very fine lines, the Usnisa, the long-ear-lobes, half-opened eyes, and above all, the serene, graceful and charming face engaged in meditation, expressing the joy of spiritual bliss and the three lines on the conchlike neck relate the bronze to the classical Gupta art.-( U. P. Shah, 'A few Early Sculptures from Gujarat', JOI., Dec. 1951 ). This inscribed, standing, Jivantasvami bronze from Akota is about 30 inches high, and has on its pedestal an inscription in Brahmi (Valabhi) characters of the Western script, ascribable to about the middle of the sixth century A. D. on paleographic grounds. According to Karl Khandalawala, it is, in all probability, an early 7th Century image, removed about half a century from the two bronzes of the Vasantagadh hoard, dated 637 A.D.--(Lalit Kala, Nos. I & II, Pl. IX, Figs. 1 & 2). The bronze represents Mahavira in a standing pose ( Kayotsarga mudra), wearing a dhoti, adorned with a girdle. On his left, Mahavira is shown wearing a bracelet and an armlet, while the right hand is missing. The Jina wears a crown, besides two circular ear-rings and a neck-lace. The eyes are studded with silver, now only slightly preserved, This Jivantasvami image represents an image of Mahavira fashioned in his life-time, before the great Jaina teacher had turned a recluse. The title thus applies to an image in the life-time of a Jina, whose image should therefore show the ornaments of a royal prince.(U. P. Shah,' A Unique Image of Jivantasvami', JOI., September, 1651). Adinatha Head from Akota: Though assigned to Circa 450 A.D., this is at least a hundred years later, if not more. While it is a beautiful piece, it has already developed that marked facial stylization which is not inconsistent with the Gupta style of the 5th Century A.D. The serene and pleasant smile on the face is bewitching.-( Plate L). Ambika :-Ambika bronze from Akota (inscribed at the back in characters of C. 550-600 A. D.) when compared to the Kotyarka mother and child in stone is found to be less graceful. It is surmised, the two sculptures might have belonged to different styles, represented by the skill of different artists. Kotyarka image is earlier and executed at the hands of a superior artist.-(U. P. Shah, JOI, Vol. I, p. 72; and for another bronze, Vide, Bulletin Museums Association, Vol. I, No. I).-(Plate LI ) Camaradharini from Akota :- A female chowri-bearer from Akota is the most elegant and artistic specimen of the art of casting in Western India. The front as well as the back views of this piece testify to the interesting details, which the artist was capable of designing and transferring them to metal.-(Plate LII). Mahudi Jaina Bronzes : Four bronze images were unearthed from the templewall of the old temple of Kotyarka, which is situated on the top of the high mound on the right bank of the Sabarmati at Mahudi, a village in Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat. Of these, the three were brought to the Baroda Museum in 1935, and illustrated in the Baroda State Archaeology Report for 1937-38. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 213 The fourth, big and almost life-size seated bronze image of Baddha (or Jaina) has on the back of its prabhavali, an inscription probably in Prakrit, in late Brahmi characters of the 7th century, one line of which is partially readable. Dr. Hiranand Shastri was inclined to call it Buddhistic. However, it is generally taken to be Jaina.-(A. S. Gadre, Buddhist Influence in Gujarat and Saurastra', Journal Gujarat Research Society, October, 1939, p. 65; M. R. Majmudar," Sculptures from Kotyarka-Mahudi," BUJ, Arts Number, 1939)-( Plate LIII). Lilvadeva Jaina Bronzes: Seven images of Jaina Tirthankaras were discovered from a mound in Lilvadeva, a village, 3 miles north of Lunda in Jhalod Taluka, Panch Mahals, approachable by a bus from Dohad Station (a distance of 14 miles). These bronzes closely resemble the Akota hoard. These are all beautfully moulded, and they indicate a high attainment of casting images. They perhaps represent some local school, which flourished from the 8th to the 13th centuries. Bronzes have been found from several sites, notably Mahudi, Akota, Lilvadeva and recently at Dharnoj. The Tirthankaras have no Lanchhanas, as is common with the images of the 7th and earlier centuries, where these signs are not found.-(S. R. Rao, Journal Museums Association of India, Vol. XI, 1955; U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin ).-( Plate LI b). Vasantagadh Bronzes: Bronzes from Vasantagadh near Pindwara are noteworthy specimens of the Western Indian School. They are big bronzes of the Jaina. Tirthankaras, cast by the artist Sivanaga in Samvat year 744, i. e., in 686 A.D. They were obtained from Vasantgadh hoard and are now in worship at Pindwara, near Sirohi. Three bronzes of standing Tirthankaras are assignable to C. 8th century A.D.-(U. P. Shah, Bronze Hoard from Vasantgadh: Lalita Kala, Nos. 1-2, 1957).-( Plate LIV b). " Vala Jaina Bronzes: The Ebbhal Girasia's field in Vala had yielded five bronze images of the Buddha, now exhibited in the Prince of Wales Museum (Pro. Rept. ASIWC, 1915). They belong to the 7th century at the latest; but they, however, lack the artistic effect of casting. On the pedestals of these images, Dr. Bhandarkar has deciphered a Mahayanic inscription as a [] -etc.-( Plate LIV a). Jaina Stone Sculptares: Dhank Caves: The central figure at the Dhank caves inside the cell is identified by Dr. H. D. Sankalia (Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 166) as being] that of Adinatha, and each side-niche has a nude figure seated in padmasana, its body erect and motionless. The sculpture that is carved in low relief on the face of the rock higher up the ravine is definitely of Adinatha. Here, adjoining Santinatha is the figure which is standing in kayotsarga pose. It has long ear-lobes, and ringlets of hair spread on the shoulders, which symbolises an event in the life of Adinatha, as found portrayed on a few images from Mathura. (Plate LV a, b). On the simhasana with a wheel and a deer in the centre, and a lion at each end, is found a figure of Parsvanatha, with a triple umbrella shown by three strokes. These Dhank images are the earliest Jaina sculptures in Gujarat and Saurastra. As the carving. For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT is crude, they should be relegated to the 7th Century A. D.-(H. D. Sankalia, The Earliest Jaina Sculptures in Kathiawar', JRAS, 1938, pp. 126-30; & Pl. III-IV). 2:4 Mirpurkhas Hindu Bronze: A beautiful bronze image of three-faced Brahma from Mirpurkhas in Sindh, now in the Karachi Museum, dated by art-critics to the Gupta Age (300-600 A. D.), is a typical specimen of the art of the Ancient West'. Sopara Buddha Bronzes: Dr. Bhagvanlal visited Sopara in 1882 and dug the large brick mound, known as Buruda Rajaka Kota, which he immediately recognised to be the ruins of an ancient Stupa. He was able to establish that a circular drum about 18 ft. high and 268 ft. in circumference supported a terrace 18 ft. wide, from which rose the curve of the drum. The terrace may have been a processional path, but there were no indications of steps on it. The structural Stapa, which has a claim to the Satavahana date, resembled the Sanchi type. Exactly in the middle of the Stapa, a little below the level of the terrace, was a small brick-built chamber. Within the chamber was a large circular stone-box with lid. In the centre of the box stood an egg-shaped copper casket, enclosing one within the other casket of silver, of terracotta, of crystal, and of gold. A coin of Yajna Satakarni (C. 175-203 A. D.) was found in the copper casket. Reference to the people of Sopara, and their religious endowments are found in inscriptions of the Satavahana period at Karle, Nasik, Nanaghat and Kanheri. The caskets in Sopara Stupa were probably deposited in Yajna Satakarni's reign.-( Plate XIV). The egg-shaped copper easket was surrounded by a circle of eight copper images. The most important of the images is a Maitreya Bodhisattva, which faced west, seated on a lotus in lalitasana, his right foot resting on a lotus. His right hand is in the varada mudra, his left holds a bunch of flowers-nagapuspa. The remaining 7 images represent the Seven Manusa Buddhas. They are seated in dhyana asana on an oval throne. Above the oval prabha-mandala rises a tuft of foliage carefully varied to represent each of the Buddhas. Dr. Bhagvanlal realised that the images could not have been deposited in the Satavahana period. The affinities of the Sopara images lie with the bronze of the Eastern School, particularly those from Nalanda where they were probably brought for enshrinement. The style of the upper garment which hangs over the left shoulder, the semi-circular prabhavali or aureole in the background, the cross stem seen from behind in the Maitreya image, are all features which betray a close affinity with the work of the Eastern Indian craftsmen. (Plate LVI a). It is probable that when the Mahayana form of Buddhism became rampant in Western India, and the sacred places of the Buddhists, such as the rock-cut Caityas and Viharas at Kanheri were covered with figure-sculptures, the reliquary at the Sopara Stupa may have been reopened and reconstructed with the addition of the images, and, perhaps, also the copper casket. The thin gold plate with the image of Buddha on lotus seat in the vyakhyana mudra may also be of this period. It is the Buddhas which exhibit a feature of For Personal & Private Use Only

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD 215 great importance for dating : the end of the robe is drawn over the left shoulder, and hangs in a short pleated fold. This feature is known in Pala images, where it first made its appearance in about 800 A. D., or a little earlier.-('The Buddhist Group of 8 Bronzes from Sopara', Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4). Bhuj Buddha Bronze: The small bronze of Buddha discovered by M. R. Majmudar from Fergussion Museum, Bhuj in 1957 has an inscription on the front and the right hand side of the pedestal in the Brahmi characters of the 7th century. It has been deciphered by Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra as under : (1) [de] yadha (rmo ] yam Nagasi ( m ) gha bhiksuh tasya bhiksunikasamah(1) deya dharmo'yaM nAgasiMgha bhikSuH tasya bhikSuNikAsamAH (2) mata.....d[e] va [sya] Kirtt [i] h s[th] ap (ita). (2) ART. ...gara la: yrat This image was dedicated by one Nagasigha Bhiksu in memory of his mother-like Devakirti, who had entered the order of Bhiksunis (the female order of the Bauddha mendicants). It appears, the instinct of motherly love was not considered antagonistic to the rules of discipline prescribed for people who had renounced the world, and entered the Holy Order. The bronze, which at first sight appears to be old from the style of its casting, measures 8 inches for the standing Buddha in the Samabhanga pose, the lotus pedastal on which he is standing being 3 inches high. The encircling oval prabha frame around the figure is in tact on the right hand side ; of the left nearly half is lost. The figure of Buddha has the right hand in abhaya mudra preaching No-fear. The left hand appears to hold, may be a lotus-stalk, now lost beyond recognition. The proverbial spiritual smile on the face with eyes half open creates a pleasing sense on the onlooker. The Yajnopavita running from the left shoulder across the right side of the chest is very clear. The body is covered with a thin semi-transparent loin cloth below the shoulders reaching the legs. In the moulding of the lines of the body, the 'wet-drapery style'is introduced in which the robe appears to cling to the body.--(Plate LVII). On stylistic, as well as on paleographic grounds, the bronze appears to belong to that period of the heyday of Buddhism in Western India when the Maitrakas, the great patrons of Buddhism, ruled at Valabhipura. The Chinese pilgrim-scholar Hiuen Tsang visited Western India during the middle of the 7th Century A. D., sometime in 641 A. D. The bronze can be roughly dated to this period. The image has stylistic affinities with some of the beautiful Jaina bronzes discovered from the Akota hoard near Baroda, and the Vala bronzes from Valabhipura. The discovery of this bronze, in a way, testifies to the existence of the School of Ancient West' in the late 6th and early 7th century A.D., whose founder, Spingadhara of Marwar lived in the reign of king sila, [identified with Harsha of Kanauj (606-647 A. D.) Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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216 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT by K. Khandalawala, or with king siladitya I (Circa 590-615 A. D.) of the Maitrakas of Valabhipura, as identified by U.P. Shah). It is noteworthy that the name Siladitya' was a favourite with the Buddhists who valued virtue (zIla) more than valour (vikrama). The old Western School of Sculpture both in stone and in metal is gradually asserting its prevalance since recent discoveries, which are not even two decades old. And the Bhuj bronze affords an interesting addition to specimens of this period. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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(B) Vala Buddha Bronze, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (p. 213) Plate LIV A (A) Tirthankara Bronzes, from Lilvadeva, near Jhalod, Pancamahalas. (p. 213) For Personal & Private Use Only Wat

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For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Maitreya Bronze from Reliquary of the Sopara Stapa (p. 214) Plate LVI (B) Seated Buddha (Stone) on a mound at Nagara, near Cambay, (p. 278). 1

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Plate LVII Inscribed Buddha Bronze, Fergussion Museum, Bhuj ( Kaccha). (p. 215) Inscription on the two sides of the pedestal reads : (1) deyadharmo'yaM nAgasiMghabhikSuH tasya bhikSuNikAsamAH (2) mAta...devasya kIrtiH sthaapitaa| For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LVIII (A) Nandi from Samalaji. (p. 203) Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (B) Bronze Incense-burner from Akota Hoard, (p. 317) Baroda Museum. For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHAPTER VIII RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD (C. 745 A.D.--942 A.D.) Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Facing Page 219 Fig. 8 Durusapura RASHTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD w (c.745 A.D. - 942 A.D.) R Sindhu . Gopagiri Kalanjara. V Mulasthanapura * Prthudaka Sthanvisvara * Ghatiyala Rajorar Mondavyapura "Sekambharina Mathuramane in Mahodaya * Jabalipura Kanyakubja Gorakhpura . Bhillamala! Paharpura. Mansurah Gopagiri Varanasi Kharjuravahaka. Jejabhukti R. Idar Ramagaya *Vidis' Harsol. Tujjayini Vardhamanapura vafapadra Narm Briarkhetakapura Tripuri A Nandipuri Tapti R Devapattana .Nagasarika By Psuren Ajantachala Nasikya Narmada R. Anchalapura Surparaka Elapura Poonaka Kalyani Karahataka Lattalur Godavari R. Manyakheta Kurundhaka vatapi. A Sugandhavati Banavasi Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD (C. 745 A.D.-942 A.D.) *The Age of Imperial Kanauj' as named in the History and Culture of the Indian People', i.e. the Empire of the Gurjara-Pratiharas saw the rise and fall of three great empires in the country: of the Rastrakutas, founded by Dantidurga (c. 737-757 A. D.), and his successor, Krsna I (c. 757-773 A. D.) which dominated the South till its collapse in the year 974 A. D.; of the Palas in the East, which saw its zenith under Dharmapala (c.770810 A. D.), though it revived a little at the end of the tenth century; and of the Pratiharas of the West and North founded by Nagabhasa I, which saw its zenith during the reigns of Mihira Bhoja (C. 836-885 A. D.) and Mahendrapala (C. 885-908 A.D.), who went under, on account of the catastrophic blows dealt by the Rastrakuta raids, but retained a shadowy imperial dignity to the end.-(The Age of Imperial Kanauj, 'Foreword' p. vii). This Age of Kanauj or Kanyakubja, the imperial city of Isanavarman, dominated Madhyadesa, the heart of India. It was the coveted prize of the three Imperial powers racing for all-India supremacy. Ultimately it passed into the hands of the Pratibin Gurjaresvara about 815 A.D.; remained the metropolis of power till 950 A. D., and continued to be the most influential centre of culture till 1018 A. D. when it was destroyed ty Mahmud of Ghazni.-(Ibid, 'Foreword', viii). Rastrakuta Dantidurga, the son of Indra I by a Calukyan princess of Gujarat, began his Napoleonic career in Circa 733 A. D., became the master of the whole of Maharastra by 753 A. D., and destroyed the Calukyan Empire to assume an Imperial status. He was succeeded by his uncle Kssna I, the king-builder of the Kailasanatha temple of Elura. Thus, the empire of the Calukyas of the South including South Gujarat and parts of Malwa passed into the hands of the Rastrakuta conquerors. And for two hundred years South Gujarat became a battle-field between the Imperial Rastrakutas of the South and the Gurjaras of the North. Nagabhata, who belonged to a branch of the royal Pratihara family of Bhillamala*, the capital of Gurjaradesa, rallied to his banner the warriors of the allied clans of Prati * " That Bhils (or Bhillas ) and Kiratas once lived in Rajputana and its neighbourhood, particularly its hilly tracts is shown by instances from later Rajput history, but particularly by the names Bhillamala (modern Bhinmal), Kiratakupa ( modern Kiradu) and Mundasthala. The first name occurs in the Saindhava plates from Saurastra. The mala ending in the same Bhilla mala is non-Sanskritic. The former is supposed to be a Dravidian word mal meaning upland, plateau. Thus both linguistically and culturally the word is non-Aryan, indicating that in the distant past the country was inhabited by non. Aryans, very likely Austro-Asiatic Tribes.- [ Sankalia, Studies in Historical Geography and Cultural Ethnography of Gujarat. (JGRS, VII, No. 4, Nov. 1955), Poona, 1949). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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220 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT haras, Cahamanas, and also, perhaps, all of whom had their home in the region of Mount Abu. He fought the invading army of the Arabs about 725 A.D. which had overrun Saurastra, Bhillamala, the capital of Gurjara ( the Abu region), and reached Ujjayini. Nagabhata fought this invading army, flung it back and destroyed it. This victory welded the clans of Gurjaradesa into a hierarchy. During Nagabhata's time, however, Dantidurga, the Rastrakuta king, with his conquering army swept over the North, captured Ujjayini, where the Pratihara played the host to the conqueror, his fortunes having been temporarily eclipsed. Vatsaraja, the son of a nephew of Nagabhata I conquered Anarta and Saurastra in C. 780 A.D. and became the suzerain of most of the kingdoms of North India. He, however, suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Rastrakuta Dhruva, and had to take refuge to some unaccessible region. Undaunted by reverses, the next ruler, Nagabhata II (792 A.D.-834 A.D.) consolidated the territory which comprised Marwad, Malava and modern North Gujarat. After many efforts, ultimately Kanaaj passed into the hands of the Pratiharas, and about 815 A.D. it became their capital. A triangular contest for all-India supremacy began between Vatsaraja of Gurjaradesa, Dharmapala of Bengal, and Rastrakuta Dhruva of Badami. North Gujarat continued to remain within the domains of Nagabhata II (792-834), the son of Vatsaraja, who vanquished the Pala kings of Bengal. In C. 807-8 A. D. Govinda III, the Rastrakuta, overran the North, and lived for some months at Sribhavana (Sarbhon, in the Broach District). But he died in 814 A. D. and Nagabhasa II captured Kanauj, transferred his capital there and became the 'Emperor of the North'. Medapata, Gurjaratra, Sapadalaksa, Anarta, the mainland up to the Mahi and Malwa formed part of his empire which stretched from Multan to Bengal and the Himalayas to the Mahi.-(K. M. Munshi: Glory that was Gurjaradesa, III, p. 72 f.). South of the Mahi ran the writ of the Rastrakutas. About 835 A. D., Nagabhata's son, Mihira Bhoja (C. 835 A. D.-888 A.D.), referred to in Gujarati tradition as Bhuyada of Kalyanakataka ( Kanauj), had to subdue Anarta and Saurastra again. He appointed military governors at Junagadh and Wadhwan. The river Mahi divided the Gurjara empire of the North from the Rastrakuta empire of the South, South Gujarat changing hands from time to time. Mihira Bhoja, the Gurjaresvara, was one of the greatest emperors in history; and the Arabs, who dreaded him most, called his empire Jurz' or 'Gurjjara'. He was succeeded by Mahendra pala (888 A.D.-- 910 A. D.) and he, by his son Mahipala, the last Maharajadhiraja of Aryavarta'. At the time of the death of Mihira Bhoja in 888 A. D., the banner of the Gurjaresvaras flew over an empire larger than, perhaps, those of the Guptas and Sri Harsa. It comprised North India from the Himalayas to a little beyond the Narmada, from East Punjab and Sindh to Bengal, South was quiescent. The Palas were no longer a power. Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD The Arabs on the north-west frontier were kept at bay; Sindh had been wrested from them. Madhyadesa was at the height of its power'.-(The Age of Imperial Kanauj, Foreword, ' xiii). Mihira Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala, a fearless military genius, who extended his father's empire to the Karnal district in the Punjab, the Nepalese terrain and the Rajasahi district of Bengal. In 910 A D. he was succeeded by Mahipala, who also, like his father, was educated by the poet Rajasekhara. 221 Within a few years of Mahipala's coming to the throne of Kanauj, however, Indra III, the Rastrakuta Emperor, marched to the North and occupied Kanauj. Though the Rastakuta empire was disintegrating in 940 A.D., Krspa III again re-appeared in the North, overrran Malava and Gurjaradesa, and gave a shattering blow to the Pratihara empire. Two successive invasions by the Rastrakutas, one in 915 A.D., the other in 940 A.D. broke up the empire of Gurjaradesa. Its political fabric went to pieces. Every feudatory asserted his independence and there began a fresh struggle for supremacy among the chiefs of the small principalities, like the regions of Sapadalaksa with Sakambhart (modern Sambhar) as its capital; Gopagiri (modern Gwalior); Kiradu near Jodhpur; Marwad, with its capital at Naddula; Jabalipura (modern Jhalor); Abu, with its capital Candravati; Sarasvata-mandala or the valley of the Sarasvati river, with its capital at Anahilavada Pattana; Vagada or Dungarpur and Banswara; and Malava, with Dhara as its capital.-(Glory that was Gurjara Desa, Part I, p. 8, 1951). In 940 A.D. Krspa III, the Rastrakuta, invaded the North and in a swift campaign destroyed the empire of Gurjaradesa. It was a historic event. Most of the feudatories as mentioned above became independent. The military governors of Junagadh and. Wadhwan disappeared. The Rastrakutas occupied parts of Rajputana, so far ruled by a feudatory of Kanauj. The main-land of Gujarat and Malwa were ruled by the Paramara king Slyaka II, as the viceroy and the feudatory-in-chief of the Rastrakuta emperor Krsna III, who defeated emperor Mahipala, and ruled over Anarta to the south of Sarasvati, Khetaka Mandala, West Malwa and Lata. The story of Jayasekhara and Vanaraja Cavada and his descendants ruling from Anahilavada Pattana between Circa 765 A.D. to 942 A D. appears to be but a vague relic of some minor dynasty of local chiefs and of the conflicts between them and Mihira Bhoja of Kanauj, who survives in the tradition as the Bhuyada of Kalyanakataka. The Valabhi Kingdom received intermittant shocks from the Arabs and also from the Pratihara kings, which ultimately led to the fall of Valabhipura in Circa 776 A.D. Their glory passed on to the Pratiharas of Kanauj. In C. 780 Vatsaraja, the Pratihara, king. of Gurjaradesa, conquered Anarta and Saurastra. Thus when the Empire of Gurjaradesa fell about 940 A. D., the feudatories of For Personal & Private Use Only

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222 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Sakambhari ( Ajmer) and Medapata ( Mewar ) became practically independent. Marwar possibly passed into the hands of some Rastrakuta feudatory. Mularaja, the son of Raji, the Caulukya, and the grandson of Mahipala or Mahendrapala, the Pratihara emperor of Kanauj in the daughter's line, was driven out from Gurjaratra. Fleeing south, he established himself at Asahilvada Pattana, and occupied Sarasvata Mandala, the valley of the river Sarasvati in 942 A. D. This date is definitely known from the sakambhari (Sambhar) inscription of Siddharaja Jayasimha.-(IA, LVII, 234).(Plate LXXXIII). Under the inspiration of the Imperial Gurjaras of Kanauj, life in Western India reached a high level of art and learning : Bhavabhuti (C. 700) and Vakpati (C. 750) of Kanauj, Magha (C. 700 ) of Srimala, Haribhadra (C. 700-70 ) of Citrakuta, Medhatithi and Devala the great law-givers, and Rajasekhara (C. 900), the poet-laureate of Mahipala, the grand-son of Mihira Bhoja, are the representatives of a great age of intellectual and cultural activity. II A.D. The Capotkata dynasty is said to have been established in Gujarat by C. 746 Vanaraja, son of Jayasekhara of Pancasara in V.S. 802 (C. 745 A.D.), which ended in V.S. 998 ( 942 A.D.). The tradition, as recorded in Prabandha-Cintamani, Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, Vicara-sreni, Kumarapalaprabandha, Dharmaranyamahatmya, Mirat-i-Ahmadi, etc., gives certain specific years for the Chronology of the Cavada kings of Anahillavadapattana (N. Gujarat ); but their reliability has been doubted since long. Munshi (Glory that was Gurjaradesa, Part III) has examined this problem in detail and established that king Ama who destroyed Pancasara is to be identified with the Pratihara king Nagabhata II, and King Bhuyada with his grandson Mihira Bhoja, who reigned in about 836-888 A.D. This, however, conflicts with the traditional dates for the beginning of the Cavala dynasty. To get over this difficulty and reconcile the traditional dates, it has been suggested by Dr. H. G. Shastri that the early date 802 Vikrama Samvat, may be taken to be saka Samvat 802. The error of ascribing known years to a wrong era is not uncommon in the history of Gujarat. The years 753 and 802, when ascribed to the Saka era will correspond to 830 and 880 A.D. respectively; and accordingly, the date of the fall of Pancasara and the coronation of Vana. raja will then fall within the reigns of Nagabhata II (C. 792-834 A.D.) and Mihira Bhoja (C. 836-888 A.D.) respectively. Thus if the early years were ascribed to the Saka era, the total period will be of 132 years ( 810 to 942 A.D.), and the average for the seven or eight kings will be of about 15 to 17 years each.-( H. G. Shastri, "The Problem of the Chronology of Cavada Kings', Indian History Congress, Ahmedabad Session, 1955). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA--PRATIHARA PERIOD 223 746 746 746 751 Vanaraja established the city Aoahillapura. This city was founded in place of Lakharama, situated on the bank of the river Sarasvati in V.S. 802 (746 A.D.), in commemoration of his young friend Anabila, a shepherd. Vanaraja Cavada, the founder of the line, was installed on the throne, according to the Jaina Prabandhas, by his Jaina Guru, Silagunasuri. Though the official religion was Saiva and sakta, most of the influential persons in the realm, like the Mahajanas, were Jaina and occupied high position in the State. Vanaraja's prime-minister was a Jaina Vaaik named Campa, the founder of Campaner. Ninna a merchant-prince, whom Vanaraja regarded as father, built a temple of Rsabha at Anhilvala. This Ninna or Ninnaya's son Lahara was a general in Vanaraja's army. Sulaiman ibn Hasham was the Governor of Sindh under the Khalifah Marwan II (744-750 A.D.)-(Elliot, Arabs in Sindh, 37; EHI., i, 443). Bappabhatti Suri was born in V. S. 800. His spiritual teacher, Siddhasena Suri had given him diksa in Modhera in V. S. 807 ( 751 A. D.). Ama, (according to JTSS-Vol. II, pt. 6 & 7) was born in V. S. 807 and died in 895. In course of time he became a king. He is named Nagabhata and Nagavaloka also. He belonged to the Pratihara dynasty of Bhinmala, a boy in Ramasainyapura.--( Prabhavakacarita-Synga-XI, v. 49). This city is referred to as * Ramasainya' in Gurvavali, (v. 57), which is ten Gavyutas from Disa and twelve Gavyutas to the north of Bhilaaiya.-(Vide, JTSS, Vol. I, pt. I, p. 38). Rastrakuta king Dantidurga, son of Indraraja, led an expedition across the Reva (Narmada) and Mahi (Samangadh Plates of 754 A. D., IA, XI, iii), and conquered Lata and Malava (Elura Cave-inscription, BAS. No. 10, 92 ff.). He subjugated kings of Gurjara and of other kingdoms, and celebrated the 'Hiranyagarbha' ceremony at Ujjayini on the Rathasaptumi day of 754 A.D., when he weighed himself against gold and distributed the same among the Brahmanas.-(Sanjan Plates; EI, XVIII, 243 ff.). This appears to be the earliest extension of the Rastrakata power over South Gujarat.-(A. S. Altekar, The Rastrakutas and their Times, p. 33 fn.) Rastrakuta king Govindaraja, son of Dhruvaraja and grandson of Kakkaraja I, assumed power in South Gujarat, shortly after Dantidugra's conquest of Lata. Maritime activities of the people of Valabhi are given in the Buddhist work Manju-sri-Mulakalpa. People of Valabhi reached Sura by crossing the sea which probably refers to their trade ventures to and regular commerce with Assyria.-( Jayaswal, op. cit., p. 25). This information is further corroborated by Dandin in his Dasakumaracarita. 754 750 C. 750 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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224 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 750-790 That Mt. Abu was rich in various shrines, tanks, stepwells etc. frequented by pilgrims, tourists etc. and was resorted to by saints of peaceful meditation, is attested by a long description of it given by the Kashmiri poet Damodaragupta (c. 750-790 A.D.) in his Kuttani-matam, (pp. 54-59, VV, 238-261 ).( U. P. Shah, 'Early Sculptures from Abu ', Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1957, p. 46). 750 The Cahamana king Dhrubhata was succeeded by his son Bhartsivaddha II. He was a 'Parama Mahesvara' (a great devotee of Mahesvara Siva ). C. 754 About 754 A.D., the Rastrakuta king Dantivarman II, who had succeeded his father Indraraja II, overthrew the W. Calukya Kirtivarman II and became paramount in the Deccan. He is said to have conquered Conjeevaram, Kosala, Kalinga, Sri Saila, Malava, Lata and Tanka. He was followed by his uncle Klsnaraja I, the son of Kakkaraja I, who is recorded to have defeated a king named Rahappa. Pusyadeva was succeeded by his son Kssnaraja I.-( Ghumli Plates of Jaika II; EI; XXVI, 223 ff.). A number of pupils of Yaksadatta Gani, pupil of Sivacandra Gani, adorned Gujarat by getting Jaina temples built in this province in $. 675 = V. S. 810 ( 754 A.D.).-(Vide, Colophon of Kuvalayamala). -For details see Year 779 A.D. 756 Rastrakuta king Kakkaraja II, son of Govindaraja, grandson of Dhruvaraja and great-grandson of Kakkaraja I, succeeded his father in South Gujarat. He was possibly the scion who attempted in vain to usurp the power of Krsparaja, the uncle and successor of Dantidurga.--(A.S. Altekar, The Rastrakutas, 41 f.) He seems to have held full independence in South Gujarat; for, in his edicts he does not express allegiance to any overlord and assumes imperial titles of Paramabhattaraka', Maharajadhiraja' and 'Paramesvara'. 756 King Bhartlvaddha II of the Cahamana family, a feudatery of the Gurjara Pratihara Nagabhata, issued from Bhigukaccha (Broach) a grant of a village in Akruresvara visaya. The recipients of the grant were Brahmanas of different gotras, residents of Saujnapadra ( possibly modern Sajod in Ankleswer Taluka ) and Bhatta Lalluva officiated as the Dutaka of the edict, issued during the reign of Nagavaloka, who is identified with Pratihara sovereign Nagabhata I. The grant was composed by Bhatta Kakka of Valabhi, on the occasion of a solar eclipse ( adityagrahana ) in V. S. 813 ( 756 A. D.):-( Hansot Plates, EI, XII, 197 ff.) The power of this Cahamana dynasty can be traced no longer. The Rastrakuta P. M. P. Kakkaraja II, the son of Govindaraja, gave in grant the village of Sthavarapallika situated in Kasakula Visaya to Kukkesvara 757 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LIX For Personal & Private Use Only A Jaina Fresco from Elura, Kailasanatha Temple, Indrasabha-Hall. Late Fresco, Ajanta, Cave No. 17 Three-fourths profile faces, and the left eyes being shown beyond the facial line. (p. 269)

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Plate LX A Temple with an Amalaka on the Sikhara, from Roda, Idar Territories (p. 270) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXI For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Osia Temple, Marwad. (p. 270) (B) Osia Temple, Marwad. (p. 270)

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Plate LXII (A) Kottai Temple, Kaccha (p. 270) (B) Kalika Mata Temple, Chitodgadh (p. 270) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXIII For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Entrance Door-frame, facing the Karvan Lake. (p. 270) (B) Sculptured portion, Right side Pillar-bottom, of the Door-frame, (Enlarged).

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 225 757 Diksita of Vaccha (Vatsa) gotra, resident of Jambusara, on the occasion of Visuva Sankranti in the Saka year 679 pausa tithi 7, ( 757 A.D.). The Dutaka of the charter was Adityavarmaraja, and was issued by Bhodalla, the son of Baladhiksta Tatta.-( Antroli-Chharoli Plates, JBBRAS, XVI, 105 ). 757 The Antroli-Chharoli grant ( 24th Sept. SS. 679) supplies information that Kakkaraja II, of the First Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty had as his immediate predesessors his father Govindaraja, married to a daughter of Nagavarman, his grand-father being Dhruvaraja, and great-grand-father Kakkaraja I.-(EI, iii, 54). During the Rastrakuta period the police officers were known as Coroddharanikas or Dandapasikas. The former are actually mentioned in the AntroliChharoli copperplates of Karkkaraja of Gujarat. (JBBRAS, XVI, p. 106), and the latter in several Valabhi records, (e.g., Valabhi Plates of Dhruvasena, dated 526 A.D.). Crimes, that could not be locally detected, must have been investigated by these Coroddharanika and Dandapasika officers, who possibly worked under the directions of the Rastrapatis and Visayapatis, who being also at the head of local troops, could have afforded military assistance to the police department in cases of desperate robbers or dacoits. Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 261). 759 The village Bahuvataka was given in gift by the Maitraka P.M.P. ( HERC mahArAjAdhirAja-paramezvara) Siladitya VI to Brahmana Sambhulla of Parasara gotra resident of Dahala, on Karttika Su. 5 of the (Valabhi) year 441 ( 759 A.D.). The village was situated on the bank of Vappoika river in Suryapura Visaya. The royal edict was issued from the victorious camp at Godrahaka (Godhra) and was executed by Ganjasati (?) Jajju. The name of the person who composed the grant is not deciphered satisfactorily.-( Lunavala Plates : IA., VI., 16). C. 760 Rastrakuta King Krsna I, Vallabha, Subhatunga and Akalavarsa, uncle and successor of Dantidurga is stated in various grants to have reduced the Calukyas, conquered Rahappa and caused to be excavated a temple to Siva, that of Kailasanatha at Elapura (Elura ), which is one of the architectural wonders of the world, since the whole structure is hewn out of solid rock.- (IA, xii, 228; Bom. Gaz., 390 ). C. 760 The Elura rock-temples are Buddhistic, Brahmanical and also Jaina. These contain frescoes in continuation of the Ajantan style. The peculiar characteristics of some of these frescoes reveal pointed nose, circular earrings, and the eye going further beyond the facial line. This is traceable to Ajanta and Bagh also. These characteristics are found continued in the Western Indian Miniature Paintings, transferred from the wall to the palm-leaf in the first instance, and to paper in later times. Elura frescoes are, as it were, the parent of the Western Indian miniatures. C29 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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226 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 760 The Pratihara king Deva-Sakti, with whom begins the dynasty of the Pratiharas of Kanauj, lived about 760 A.D. He was of the Gurjara-Pratihara family, and ruled at Bhinmal. Siladitya VI, Maitraka king of Valabhi, was reigning in successien to his father Siladitya V. 765 In Brahmana-vataka ( modern Brahmana-vada) there was a Jaina temple. It was restored in V. S. 821 ( 765 A.D.) by Porvada Mantri Samanta, who restored goo Jaina temples at the instance of Jayananda Suri.-( JTSS-Vol. I, pt. II, p. 271). 766 The Alina plates record a grant of land by Maitraka P. M. P. Siladitya VI. The royal edict of the grant was issued from the victorious camp at Anandapura and executed by Siddhasena, designated Mahapratihara, Mahaksapatalika, Rajakula. It was issued in Jyestha su. 5 of the (Valabhi) year 447 (766 A.D.). The subject of donation was the village Mahilasabali in Uppalaheta Pathaka in Khetaka Ahara. The donee was Bhatta Akhandalamitra of Sarkaraksi gotra, resident of Anandapura. The grant was composed by Gadaha, designated Pratinartaka, Kulaputramatya.--(CII., III, 171 ff.). This is the last known copper-plate inscription of the Maitraka dynasty. 766 (G. Sam. 447 ) Alina copper-plates : Siladitya VI, Dhruvabhata of Valabhi, son and successor of Siladitya V. The Maitraka family of Valabhi was overthrown after this time by an expedition from Sindh under Amru ibn Jamal.-(IA, VII, 79; CI., ii, 171 ). Niya, also called Ninnaya, and popularly known as Nina, was a Srimali by caste. He, as a minister of Vanaraja Cavada, got built a temple of Lord Rsabha in Anahilvala Patan, (See, the colophon-v. 9, of Mallinahacariyam of Haribhadra Suri, quoted in JTSS-Vol. I, p. 57-and SHJL-p. 173, in about V. S. 825) for Vidyadhara gaccha. This Nina, a predecessor of minister Vimala was first staying in Srimala. Later on, he settled down in Gambhu. Vanaraja invited him to come to Patan. Nina's son Lahara was made a danda-nayaka by Vanaraja.-(Ibid, -p. 69). Descendants of Nina were ministers one after the other for Caulukya rulers upto Kumarapala.-( JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 57; Vide, Pandit Lalchand Gandhi's paper on Mantri Vimala and his Mantri-Vamsa': Gujarat Itihasa Sammelana Proceed ings, 1945.) 4 The city of Osia, formerly known as Melapura Patsana, is the original place of the Osavala Jainas. There is a Jaina temple having a very big image of Lord Mahavira. According to Pt. Gaurishankar Ojha, this temple was built in circa V. S. 830 in the time of King Vatsaraja. In the N. E. of this temple there is a manastambha, a pillar. It has an inscription dated V.S. 952 (896 A.D.) (JTSS-Vol. I, pt. 2, 174). 769 For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 227 C. 774 Ama, the Pratihara king of Kanauj got installed a lepya image of Lord Mahavira, 23 hands in height, in the fort of Gwalior in the temple, at the hands of Bappabhatti Suri in about V. S. 830 ( A.D. 774).-(JPI-pt., p. 526). C. 775 Haribhadra Suri, pupil of Jinabhata and known also as 'Virahanka', was the writer of the Jaina school, which became alive to the use of Sanskrit as the cultural language of the nation; for, the Prakrits had passed beyond the stage of a spoken language. Haribhadra describes himself as the son of Mahattara Yakini, who, an ordinary nun had become instrumental in his conversion to Jainism according to tradition. He lived in the latter half of the 8th Century A.D. and wrote many commentaries of the Agamas in Sanskrit, following Siddhasena Divakara who had turned to Sanskrit for the propagation of his faith and philosophy. These texts before him were generally explained by means of Prakrit commentaries like Niryukti, Curni and Bhasya. Haribhadra's example was followed by others; and the tendency culminated in the great Hemacandra Suri of Gujarat, who lived at the courts of the Caulukya kings Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th Century A.D. C. 776 A poor Marwadi from Pali, called Kaku Ranka, came to Valabhi to try his fortune there. Within a short period he prospered ; and it is narrated in bardic tradition, that once dissatisfied with the king, he invited the Mlecchas to destroy the city and assisted them with money. This is believed to have happened in C. 776 A.D.-(Merutunga, Prabandha cintamani ; Sachhau, Alberuni's India, I, P. 192). C. 776 Siladitya VI ( 762 A.D.-C. 776 A.D.), the last Maitraka king had all the imperial titles of the family (P.M.P.) as known from the Alina plates of Valabhi Samvat 447 (766 A.D.). Thus, though the Valabhi kingdom had suffered a contraction, the Maitrakas had not yet bowed to the Rastrakutas. Saurastra was again invaded by the Tajjikas (Arabs) in 159 A.H. (776 A.D.) (Elliot, Vol. II, p. 245), this time with great force, so that the township of of Barada easily fell to them. The Mleccha armies under Hammir invaded and destroyed Valabhi, and, in consequence, the Hindu and the Jaina statuary had to be removed to Srimala.-( Jinaprabhasuri, Vividhatirthakalpa). The exact date of the sack of Valabhi is still undetermined. In the Jaina authorities it is variously stated to have taken place, in Vikrama Samvat 375 ( 319 A.D.)-( Jinavijayaji, Puratanaprabandha Samgraha ); in Vik. S. 475 (419 A.D.)-(Merutunga, Prabandha Cintamani); in Vik. S. 573 ( 517 A.D.)(Rajasekharasuri, Prabandha Kosa); and in Vik. S. 845 ( 789 A.D.)-(Jinaprabhasuri, Vividhatirthakalpa). The last date ( 789 A.D.) seems to come closer to the truth. But even this is unacceptable, as the Valabhi kingdom was not in existence in 783 A.D. when Jinasena wrote his Jaina Harivamsa in Vardhamanapura, (Wadhwan) which For Personal & Private Use Only

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228 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT was finished in S. year 705 (expired) i.e. 783 A.D., when there were reigning, in various directions, determined with reference to Vardhamanapura--in the north, Indrayudha; in the South, Srivallabha; in the east, Vatsaraja, King of Avanti; and in the west, Varaha or Jayavaraha, in the territory of the Sauryas, identified with Saurastra.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, pp. TOI-103). C. 776 The rulers of Valabhi were broad-minded and altogether Catholic in their outlook. However, Saivism was the royal religion of the Maitrakas. The Bull and the Trident, the well-known emblems of God Siva, were usually found on the seals and coins, respectively, and the term paramamahesvara before the names of the Valabhi kings in their copperplates, go to prove the same.-(Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Sects, p. 119). All the Valabhi rulers with the exception of Dhruvasena I (519-40 A.D.), who was a 'Bhagavata', and Dharapatta (550 A.D.), who was a devotee of the Sun, were followers of the Saiva cult. Guhasena ( 553-569 A.D.) has, however, in one of his inscriptions called himself a Buddhist'-a paramopasaka, perhaps to please his cousin Dudda (who may have been either a child-widow or a maiden, and had become a Buddhist nun ), and also out of regard for the learned and virtuous Buddhist monks, who were his contemporaries. C. 779 The Saindhava king Agguka I, (774-794 A.D.) son and successor of Krsnaraja I, seems to be an important king of the Saindhava dynasty.-(A. S. Altekar, EI, xxxvi, 192 ). 779 The Rastrakuta practice was to depute younger princes and cousins as Provincial Governors. Indraraja of the Gujarat Branch had appointed his younger son Govinda as a Provincial Governor.-(EI, III, p. 53: Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 153). C. 780 In C. 780 A.D. Vatsaraja, the Pratihara king of Gurjaradesa, conquered Anarta and Saurastra, and became the suzerain of most of the kingdoms of North India. It was during his reign that Uddyotana Suri wrote his Kuvalaya mala at Jhalor, and Jinasena wrote his Harivamsa Purana at Wadhwan. A.D. Under orders from the Khalifa Mahdi, the successor of Khalifa Mansur, the 778 Governor of Sindh, Abd'ul Malik attacked Gujarat again, and conquered Barbut near Broach. This was, however, followed by an epidemic in the Arab army which compelled them to return (778 A.D.).--Sir William Muir, The Caliphate : Its Rise, Decline & Fall, Edinburgh, 1924. p. 471., S. S. Nadwi, op. cit., p. 16). 779 The Kuvalayamala composed at Jabalipur (modern Jhalor in N. Rajputana) in $. 700 ( = 779 A.D.), when one day was less in Saka year 700 (i.e. 835 Vikram Samvat) is a religious tale ( Dharmakatha ) narrated in prose and verse on the pattern of Sanskrit Campu-Kavya. Its author is Uddyotanasuri, also, called Daksinyacinha, pupil of Tattvacarya. He lived when Sri Vatsaraja ruled For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 229 779 779 the city. He was very well-versed in all Prakrits, and pretty well acquainted with the important provincial languages current in his times.-(Muni Jinavijayaji, Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. II, Pt. I, November 1940). He mentions 18 such provincial tongues, quoting 2 or 3 characteristic words from each, in the course of the story of his hero, as he visits a busy market of a great commercial town.-( Pandit Lalchand Gandhi, Introduction, p. 93, to A pabhramsakavyatrayi, GOS. No. 17). The difference in the general traits of people staying in different areas are expressed by the author of the Kuvalayamala thus: "There I saw the Gurjjara people (people of Southern Rajputana and Maru ) : they have strong bo lies; are nourished by ghee and butter; are devout, clever in negotiations, and speak 'nau re bhallau'. Then I saw the people of Lata; they part their hair; they besmear their bodies with scent; their bodies are beautiful to look at; they speak 'amhe kaum tumehan'. Virabhadra, a Jaina monk had got built a magnificent lofty temple of Lord Rsabha in Jabalipura.-(Colophon V. 19 of Kuvalayamala, quoted in JTSS Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 188). This temple must have been built not later than V. S. 835, the year in which Kuvalayamala was completed. Khalifah Mu'tamid appointed Yaqub ibn lais Saffari, Governor of Sindh, from which date it became virtually independent of the Khilafat.-( H. 157). -(EHI, i, 453). The Pala king Dharmapala ( who is referred to as the Lord of Northern India'-Uttarapathasvamin in Udayasundarikatha by Soddhala, a Gujarati --Kayastha poet of the 11th Century A.D.) founded the Vikramasiia Vidyapitha in the North, on the top of a mountain, near the river Ganga in Magadha. His father Gopala (C. 750-770 A.D.), the founder of the Pala dynasty, had revived the Nalanda University, The claim of Ujjayini, the capital of Avanti, rests on a much strong piece of evidence than Jhalor, where one Ranahasti Vatsaraja ruled, according to the text of Kuvalayamala. Nagabhat's grandson Vatsaraja is described as Avantibhubhrta in the colophon of the Jaina Harivansa, which also notices the the location of other kingdoms : zAkeSvadvazateSu saptaSu dizAM paJcottareghUttarAm / pAtIndrAyudha nAmni kRSNanRpaje zrIvallabhe dakSiNAn / / pUrva zrImadavantIbhUbhRtanRpe vatsAdhirAje paraM / sauryAnAmadhimaNDale jayayute vIre varAhe'vatI // The passage informs us that Harivamsa was completed in Saka Samvat 705 [(expired ) = 783-784 A.D.] when these kings were ruling in various parts, determined with reference to a place named Vardhamanapura, (Wadhwan, in 770-810 783-784 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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-30 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 788 Jhalavad Division of Saurastra ); in the north Indrayudha (identified with Indraraja, the brother of the Rastrakuta king Dhruva), whom he had left in charge of Latesvara mandala, with presumably Gujarat and other Rastrakuta possessions in the north.-(R. C. Majmudar, Journal Department of Letters, Vol. X, p. 37, fn.2); in the South Srivallabha; in the east Vatsaraja, king of Avanti (Ujjayini), and in the west Varaha or Jayavaraha in the territory of the Sauras, i.e., the Southern part of the Saurastra peninsula. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar has suggested an amendment to the translation as: "In the east the illustrious king of Avanti ; in the West, king Vatsraja : and in the territory of the Sauras, the victorious and brave Varaha."-( JBBRAS, XXI, p. 421, fn. 4). This Jaina Harivamsa mentions the name of Vatsaraja of the Pratihara family as king of Avanti, and a contemporary of Dhruva, the Rastrakuta ruler of the Deccan (called in this stanza stagit of the South). This reference strengthens the inference that the Pratiharas were established at Ujjayini before they migrated to Kanauj.-(IA., XV, p. 147). P.M.P. Karkaraja II of South Gujarat extended his sway over Central and North Gujarat and shifted his capital to Khetaka (Kheda ), as implied by the references in the Hilol plates of Mahasamanta Candraditya-( Buddhiprakasa XCIX, 294 ff.). This must have been facilitated by the sudden fall of Maitraka power at Valabhi.-(H. G. Shastri,' Rise of the Rastrakuta Rule in Gujarat'. XVIIth session, I.H.C., 1954). Sankaracarya, the famous Brahmanical reformer went to establish the Saradamatha at Dwarka; and his visit strengthened the position of Saivism in this part of the country. His visit to Dwarka is mentioned by Madhavacarya in the poem Sankaravijava.--( Also see, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XI, p. 186; Durgashankar Shastri, Saivadharma no Sanksipta Itihasa, pp. 45-6). Sankaracarya who hailed from Kaladi in Cera country (Kerala State) revolutionised the spiritual outlook of men in India within a very short life of thirty-two years. His death is placed in $. 742 ( 820 A.D.). There are various views about Sankara's date, placing him between sixth and ninth Century A.D.. Justice Telang, places Sankara as early as 590 A.D. (IA., XI, 175, 263; See, Winternitz's History of Indian Literature, III, 434, fn. I). Among the disciples of Sankara, the most prominent was Suresvara. He is identified with Mandanamisra, who was placed in charge of the Saradamatha at Dwarka. Out of the four Pithas (centres) or Mathas believed to have been established by Sankara in the four corners of India, the one at Dwarka, had its spiritual jurisdiction extending over the region of the Sindhu river, the country of Sauvira (including Kaccha and Rajasthan), Saurastra, Maharastra and the intervening territories in the West : 788-820 For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 231 788 C. 790 sindhu-saubIra-saurASTra-mahArASTrastathAntarAH / dezAH pazcimadiksthA ye zAradApITha-satkRtAH / / -HOTF119, . 80. A decree (agnapatra ) from it was respected by society as implicitly as the command of the king. Mahasamanta Candraditya, who ruled over Harsapura (Harsol) Visaya under the supremacy of Paramarajadhiraja Kakka II, issued a grant of land to a Brahmana of Kasyapa gotra, who was an emigrant of Sanand. The land was situated at Hilohila ( Hilol in Ahmedabad District.)-(H. G. Shastri, Hilol Plates, Buddhi-Parkasa', XCIX, 294 ff.). Revenue records were carefully preserved in the Rastrakuta administration, as well as during the Maitraka regime. A renewal of a grant of land by king Dhruvasena II in 639 A.D. is recorded; because the previous grant issued by Dronazimha had been in abeyance during the intervening period. Dhruva I of the Gujarat Rastrakuta branch had alienated a village named Trenna in favour of a Brahmana. This grant was renewed by his grandson Dhruva II when he ascended the throne. When Gujarat Branch came to an end by the annexation of its dominions by the Malkhed house, a descendant of the previous donees is seen approaching Indra III to get his title confirmed by the new administration.-(EI, IX, p. 24). According to a Jaina tradition, Hammira, a ruler of Gajjana (Gazni) destroyed the city of Valabhi in V.S. 845 ( 789 A.D.)-(Vividhatirthakalpa-XVII, p. 29). A number of Jaina idols etc. were removed from Valabhi to Bhinnamala.-(SHJL, P. 146). In Modhera which is six to seven gavyutas from Patan, (Vide JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 71 ), there was a Jaina temple of Vijayadeva described in Jiva Jivabhigama (JPI-pt. I, p. 522 ). Jinaprabha has referred to Modhera as a modern tirtha' of Lord Mahavira in Vividha-tirtha-kalpa.-(IX, p. 19). According to Prabhavakacarita (srriga XI) Bappabhatti Suri (born V. S. 800, died V.S. 895 ) used to daily visit this tirtha, where at the age of six, he came across Siddhasena Suri of Modha 'Gaccha. This Suri had come there only a day earlier, from Padala, four miles to the east of 'Sankhesvara tirtha.-(Ibid, p. 525). The Gurjara-Pratihara king Mihira Bhoja, king of Gopagiri (Gwalior), respected as Gurus, Govinda Suri and Nanna Suri, the spiritual brothers of Bappabhatti Suri.-(JPI, Pt. I, p. 534). Nanna Suri had composed a drama, narrating the life of Emperor Bharata; and he, along with Govinda Suri as chief author, staged this drama in the presence of King Ama ( Nagavaloka or Nagabhata II). 789 C. 794 794 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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232 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 794 Nagarjuna, pupil of Bappabhatti Suri belonged to village Dhankapuri (Dhanka), which is near Dhankagiri, 30 miles N. W. from Junagadh and six miles from the station of Panoli.-(Vide JTSS, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 131). The two rasakuppis prepared by this Nagarjuna, were kept in Dhankagiri.-( JPI, Pt. I, p. 336). Dhanka and four other kulas (summits) had, as stated in Vividhatirthakalpa (I, v. 9 & 10), rasa-kupis, mines of jewels, and various sorts of medi cinal herbs. C. 794 The Rastrakuta king Govinda III, ( Prabhutavarsa I, Jagattunga I, Vallabha narendra, son and successor of Dhruva) attacked the Gurjara king; and some time before 812 A. D. conquered the province of Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat), which he made over to his brother Indra, who founded there the Second Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty of Gujarat. Malava next submitted to him, and advancing to the Vindhyas, he received the submission of a king, Marasarva.-(IA. vi., 59 ff; Radhanpur Copper-plate, S. 794 A. D.). 794 The Rastrakuta king Govindaraja III (Jagat-tunga I) was reigning (794 813), in succession to his father Dhruvaraja. He defeated a league of twelve princes, reduced the Gurjaras, and also the provinces of Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat) and Malava. C. 800 Carakasamhita, while speaking on the adverse effects of the excessive use of salt, enumerates the people of Saurastra, along with those of Valhika and Sindhu-sauvira, as taking salt even with milk. This medical treatise has been placed in and or 3rd Century B. C. by Dr. P. C. Roy; Dr. Keith, however, places it in the 8th Century A.D.-( Vimana-sthana, I, 21 ). It is said in Carakasamhita of the people of Asmaka and Avanti, that the oil and ghee are wholesome to them.-(Cf. 373 tafutat a TF 4148 ya 1) (Cikitsasthana XXX-300). C. 794-814 The Saindhava king Ranaka, son and successor of Agguka I, seems to have reigned circa G.E. 475-495.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 192). 800 Kalla, described as a great king (Mahamahapati), founded a Calukya dynasty in Saurastra.-(EI., IX, 2 ff.). C. 800 The Rastrakuta king Govindaraja III, successor of Dhruvaraja, vanquished king Dharmapala of Gauda as well as King Nagabhata II of Malava, who had conquered Turuska, Anarta, Malava etc.-(A. S. Altekar, The Rastrakutas, 64 ff.). He passed the rainy season at Sribhavana (Sarbhon near Amod), and entrusted the territory of Lata to his younger brother, Indraraja, who became the founder of the Gujarat Branch' of the Rastrakutas.-(Ibid, 68 ff.). C. 800 The Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakutas commences with Indra II who was the younger brother of Govinda III, who had put Indra in complete charge of Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXIV VLON Torana on Mesvo river, near ruins of Hariscandra Temple, Samalaji. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXV (A) Architectural remains from Kadvar, near Prabhasa. (p. 271) COOLING CENTURY, FROST PATAN, (B) Architectural remains, from Patan, Baroda Museum. (p. 270) For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 233 Southern Gujarat. The Surat Plates describe this event in the words &744 HECH 98 1048 - rareft-ze 7 | This event took place in C. 800 A.D. C. 800 Upendra-raja (Krsnaraja ), with whom begins the pedigree of the Paramaras of Malava, lived about 800 A.D. He was followed by his son Vairisimha I, his son Siyaka I, his son Vakpatiraja I, his son Vairisimha II (Vajrata), his son Siyaka II, etc. Jejja Rastrakuta, was reigning in Central India, (C. 800 ). His elder brother defeated Karnata armies and became king of Lata. About this time lived Kapardin I, with whom begins the dynasty of the Silaharas of the Northern Konkan. C. 800 Haribhadra Suri, a Brahmin of Chitod and son of the royal purohita, in spite of his background and training as a Brahmana, was attracted to Jainism and was converted by the nun Yakini Mahattara. He spent the best part of his life in Gujarat and the adjoining parts of Rajasthan. He wrote many treatises on the Nyayapravesa of the Buddhist logician Dinnaga, and many Jaina canonical works. His principal contribution was to bring the thought of the Svetambara Jainas to the high intellectual level of the Hindus and the Buddhists. He is remembered for his Samaraicca-kaha and Dhurtakhyana, both composed in Maharastri Prakrit. C. 800 The Gurus practising Daksinacara' and coming from the West are des cribed as the best in the Brihat Gautamiya Tantra, those from the South are middling, those from Gauda and Kamarupa are inferior to the preceding, and those from Kalinga are the worst. An amplified description in Jabala' puts the Gurus from Madhyadesa ( Aryavarta ), Kuruksetra, Lata (Nata, Nata ), Konkana, Antarvedi, Pratisthana and Avanti at the top; those from Gauda, Salva, Sura (?), Magadha, Kerala, Kosala and Dasarna in the middle; and those hailing from Karnata and the banks of the Narmada, the Reva, and Kaccha and the Kalindas at the bottom of the scale.-( The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 321-22). C. 800 Vamana, author of the Kavyalankaravritti, may have flourished about this date. He cannot be placed later than the middle of the tenth century, since he is quoted by Abhinavagupta ( 993-1013 A. D.). He must have flourished before Anandavardhana ( C. 850 A. D.), who, according to Abhinavagupta, composed a verse about him. He quotes in his Kavyalankaravyitti from Magha's Sisupalavadha, which is then the other limit. Magha is believed to have flourished in the latter half of the 7th century. C. Poets of Lata appear to possess distinctive literary traits. A kind of poetic 800-850 ctyle or diction ( Riti) favoured by the authors of Lata had acquired the name C30 For Personal & Private Use Only

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234 C. Udbhata, in his Kavyalankarasamgraha (Ch. I) speaks of a variety of Anu800-850 prasa (alliteration) called Latanuprasa, which is mentioned again by Bhoja (11th Cent. A. D.) in his Sarasvatikanthabharana (Ch. II). 806 806 807 808 C. 808 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT of Lati' or Latiya'. Rudrata (C. 800-850 A. D.) was the first to enumerate 'Latiya Riti in his Kavyalankara. 808 The Lati Rili is found mentioned again in the Agnipurana (beginning of the 9th Century); in Bhoja, who added two more to the existing list, viz. Magadhi and Avantika; in older Vagbhata (first half of 12th Cent.), the author of Vagbhatalankara, and in Visvanatha, the author of Sahityadarpana (first half of the 14th cent.). These references show that the Lata poets had, formed a peculiar style (Riti) and a peculiar way of expression (Alankara) which were so striking as to get a place among the standard works on Rhetorics, in the beginning of the 9th Cent. A. D. This will date back the literary activity of the Latas by a century or two. Thus at about the 7th or 8th Cent. A.D., the literary activities in the Lata were going on a larger scale, both qualitatively as well as quantitatively. A Persian poem, ' Qissa-i-Sanjan' composed by Bahman Kaykobad Sanjana about the year 1600 A.D., recounts the tale of the wanderings of the band of Iranians who ultimately settled at Sanjan. The author does not give any specific date, but mentions the duration of the stay of the emigrants in different places, mostly in round numbers. Emigrants are said to have arrived at Diu. in Saurastra about 806 A.D. year, and after staying there for 19 years settled at Sanjan in 825 A.D. Scholars, however, are not inclined to take the poem as historical.(See Year 716, infra). Yogaraja, the Capotkata king of Aphilvad, is said to have succeeded his father Vanaraja.-(Ref; 746 A.D.). About this time the Rastrakuta Govindaraja III wrested Lata from the Capotkatas, and made his brother Indraraja its viceroy. Bagumra Copper Plate Inscription of Dhruvaraja of S. 789 (807 A.D.)(IA., XII. p. 170). Radhanpur Copper Plate of Govinda III of S. 730 (808 A.D.).-(EI, VI, p. 236). About 808 A. D., the Gurjara Pratihara power suffered a severe blow from the Rastrakutas. Pratihara king Nagabhata II was defeated by the Rastrakuta king Govinda III. Their rivals, the Palas took advantage of this, to establish their supremacy in Northern India. It was during the stay of the Rastrakuta king Govinda at Sribhavana. (modern Sarbhon in Broach Dist.) when he was welcomed by king Marasarva For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA---PRATIHARA PERIOD 235 808 C. 810 C. 811 812-813 that Amoghavarsa was born in the monsoon of 808 A.D. - Sanjan Plates, EI., XVIII, p. 246). The Paramara king P. M. P. Psthyivallabha: Prabhutavarsa Srivallabha Narendradeva, successor of P. M. P. Dharavarsadeva, in an edict issued from Mayurakhandi gave in grant the village of Rattajjuna ( Ratajan ) in Rasiyana (Rasin) Bhukti, to Paramesvarabhatta, resident of Tigavi (Tugaon). The grant was issued on the occasion of a solar eclipse in $. 730 (Sarvajit) Sravana ba. 15, Surya-grahana-parva ( 808 A.D.).--( Radhanpur Plates : EI, VI, 239). Halayudha, author of the Kavi-rahasya or Kavi-guhva; according to a Gujarat copy of this work, its hero was one of the Ktsnas of the Rastrakuta line, possibly the first of that name ( 760-80 A. D.). One Halayudha is reputed to be the author of the Abhidhana-ratnamala : these two may be identical. Weber placed the latter work to about the end of the 11th century. The Rastrakuta king Indraraja was succeeded by his son Karkaraja Suvarnavarsa, who served to Govindaraja III, of the main line, for the protection of Malava, as a bolt of door against the king of Gurjara-desa, i.e. Nagabhata II. This power was shared by his brother Govindaraja Prabhutavarsa. The Rastrakuta viceroy Karkaraja Suvarnavarsa of Lata issued from Siddhasami the grant of Vatapadraka grama, situated within the 'Ankottaka Eighty-four'. The site of Vatapadraka is represented by modern Baroda (the headquarters of Baroda District) and that of Ankottaka by the village of Akota lying to the west, opposite the railway line, as specified in the grant. This was possibly on the trade-route from Central India with the ancient port of Bharukaccha at the other end. The excavations near Akota bear testimony to the antiquity of the site.-(B. Subbarao, Baroda Through the Ages, M. S. University of Baroda, 1952). Karkaraja (Kakka ) Suvarnavarsa was ruling in 812-817 A.D. as Rastrakuta Viceroy of Gujarat, in succession to his father Indraraja. Karkaraja's brother Govindaraja was co-viceroy in 813-817. Govinda III, the Rastrakuta, attacked the Gurjara king, and some time before 812 A.D., conquered the province of Lata (Central and Southern Gujarat), which he made over to his brother Indra; and founded there the Second Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty of Gujarat. The recipient of the grant was one Brahmana Bhanu of Vatsyayana gotra, an emigrant from Valabhi. The grant was issued on the occasion of Mahavaisakhi ( the Full Moon Day of Vaisakha ) in S. 734 (812 A.D.) and composed by Nemaditya, son of Mahasandhivigrahadhikrta Durgabhata. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Prince Dantivarman.-( Baroda Plates, IA., XII 156 ff.). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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236 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 813 814-880 Mahasamanta Buddhavarsa of Salukika dynasty, (who was ruling over Siharakkhi-Twelve', received from King Govindaraja, the younger son of Indraraja of Lata), issued the grant of village Govattana situated in Siharakkhitwelve' on the occasion of Vijaya Saptami' in the Saka year 735 Nandana ) Pausa Suddha 7 (813 A.D.). The grant was received by several Brahmanas of different gotras. It was composed by Kssna, son of Nanna.-(Torkhede Plates, EI, III, 53). Amoghavarsa I was a devout follower of Jainism, and yet he was such an ardent believer in the Hindu goddess Mahalaksmi, that he actually cut off one of his fingers and offered it to her, being led to believe that an epidemic from which his kingdom was suffering would vanish away by that sacrifice.-( Sanjan Copperplates, EI., XVIII, p. 248; Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 273). Part of the donation of Bhadravisnu, given to the Buddhist Vihara at Kan. heri, in the reign of Amoghavarsa I, was for purchasing books. This monastery like the one at Valabhi was obviously maintaining a library, which was very probably required for the school connected with it.-(Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 402; IA, VII, p. 67). Krsnaraja II, who succeeded his father Ranaka in cir. G. E. 495, seems to have reigned for a short period of about ten years only.-(A. S. Altekar, EI; XXVI, 193 ). Nagabhata II of the Pratihara dynasty extended his sway over Gujarat, Malava and Saurastra.--(Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradesa, III 62 f.). 814 c. 814-824 815 815 815 Nagabhata, Pratihara king of Bhinmal, was reigning in succession to his father Vatsaraja. He conquered Cakrayudha of Kanauj, and establishad himself in the latter's capital. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra and grandson Bhojadeva I (843 A.D.). Guvaka I, of the dynasty of Cahamanas (Cohans ) of Sakambhari (Sambhar ) in Rajputana was reigning about this time, apparently as a feudatory of the Pratihara Nagabhata. We notice in the Buchkala ( Bilara Dist., Jodhpur State) inscription of V.S. 872=815 A.D. (EI, IX, p. 199) in the time of the Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Paramesvara Nagabhata, son of the M.P. Vatsaraja, that some image was set-up after building the temple in the village of Rajyaghangakam-the old name of Buchkala, in Bhumbhuvaka of the Avanganaka sept, whose queen Jayavati was the grand-daughter of the Pratihara Bapuka, and daughter of Jajjaka. It is, thus, clear that Nagabhata's empire included in 815 A. D. Buchkala, which is further down Merta in the Jodhpur State.-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 26) Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA--PRATIHARA PERIOD 237 816 817 818 The Rastrakuta King Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja issued to Brahmana Bhogika, an imigrant from Gaudadesa, the grant of a village in Vahaula Eighty-four', on Saka-nrpa-kalatita S. 739, Vaisakha bahula 7 (816 A. D.). The grant was composed by Mahasandhivigrahika Jajjulla.-(Dabhoi Plates, H. I. G., 3, 125 A ). The Rastrakuta king Suvarnavarsa Karkaraja of Lata, issued from Khetaka the grant of the village of Samipadraka situated in the region between Mahi and Narmada, as well as the village Sambandhi in Mankanika Bhukti on the occasion of the Lunar Eclipse on the Full Moon day of Magha in S. 738 (817 A.D.). The grantee was Govaddi, son of Upadhyaya Badaddi of Bharadvaja gotra, resident of Badavi. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Dronamma, which in its turn was composed by Sandhivigrahika Nemaditya.-( Navsari Plates, JBBRAS XX, 131 ff.). The copper-plates, with a ring and a seal of Garuda with folded hands, found from Anustu (near Karjan) of the Rastrakuta king Karka Suvarnavarsa were issued from the capital Khetaka, which was the head-quarters of the Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakutas in the Lata-mandala. It records the gift of a village Majjargaoi, which was included in the Bharukaccha District, to a Brahmana Batta-Sri Bhatta, son of Kukkura, a resident of Bharukaccha, who belonged to the Vasistha gotra, and was a student of Rgveda, for the augmentation of religious merit and renown in this world and in the next, of our parents and of ourselves', by the performance of the five Yajnas, by the king : ( ATTIMET a teng (6h goratii) The dutaka was Battasri Dronamma and the chief scribe was Sri Nemaditya, son of Sri Durgabhatta. The record ends with the sign-manual of Karkarajadeva, son of Srimad Indraraja. The date is the full-moon day of Vaisakha of $. 739 (= 24th April, 818).- A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, p. 25-34). Five grants of Karka-Suvarnavarsa are known as shown below:-. . (1) The Baroda Plates of $. 734 (IA, XXI, p. 156); (2) The Navsari Plates of S. 738 ( JBBRAS, XX, p. 131 ); (3) The Anastu Plates of S. 739 (Important Incriptions, Baroda State, p. 25-34); (4) The Surat Plates of $. 743 (EI, XXI, p. 133 ); (5) The Brahmanapalli Plates of $. 746 (EI, XXII, p. 77). Out of these, only the Surat Plates of $. 743 record a gift of a field to a Jaina teacher; the rest are grants made to learned Brahmanas.. Govindaraja Prabhutavarsa, son of Indraraja, issued to Brahmana Soma, who hailed from Valabhi and belonged to sanpilya gotra, the grant of a field adjoining the Satrunjayi (Satrunji) river, on the occasion of a solar eclipse in 819 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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238 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 820 C. 820 821 the Valabhi year 500 ( 819 A.D.).-(Devali Plates: JUPHS, XXIV-XXV 196 ff.) This grant contains the earliest specific reference to the Valabhi Era (aut HTCT). Kalla was succeeded by his son, whose name is not legible in the inscription. -(EI., IX, 9 ff.). The Capa prince Vikramaditya was ruling at Vardhamana (modern Wadhwan) about 820 A. D. His son was Addaka, his son Pulakesin, his sons Dhruvabhata and Dharanivaraha ( 914 A. D.). Karkaraja Rastrakuta, was reigning in Central India (C. 820 A. D.) in succession to his father Jejja. He defeated Nagavaloka (apparentiy Nagabhata of Bhinmal). Gopala I, with whom the Pala Dynasty of Bengal first rose into prominence lived about 820 A. D. Apparently he obtained Magadha (Bihar); but was defeated by Vatsaraja, the Gurjara king of Rajputana. The Rastrakuta king Suvarnavarsa Karkaraja issued, from the victorious camp on the bank of the river Vankika (Vanki), the grant of a step-well at the village of Ambapataka in Nagasarika on the Full Moon day of Vaisakha in S.E. 743 (821 A. D.). Aaba pataka is represented by modern Amadpur on the bank of the Purna river (to be identified with Puravi river mentioned in the grant). The opening verse in the Rastrakuta copper-plates pays homage to both Siva and Visnu. Their seal is sometimes the Garuda, the vehicle of Visnu, and sometimes Siva in the posture of a seated Yogin. However, there is a verse in the Surat plates of Karka ( 821 A.D,; EI., XXI ), stating that Indra, the father of the donor, did not bow his head even before any god, Sankara excepted, which smacks a little of sectarian narrowness : muktavA ca sarvabhuvanezvaramAdidevam / ala-arahisar haft || EI, XXI. Karka Suvarnavarsa of the Gujarat Branch of Rastrakutas, himself a staunch Saiva, had given a field to a Jaina Vihara at Navsari.-(Surat Plates of 821 A.D., EI. XXI ). It is also known that the contemporary Hunas, Toramana and Mihirakula were, both, worshippers of the Sun. The reference to a private Sun-temple in a copper-plate of the Majtraka King Siladitya I further support the existence of Sun-worship ( Buhler, Dhank Plates of 290, A IX, p. 237). The Gurjara kings-King Dadda I and Dadda II who were in possession of land round about Bharukaccha were also devotees of the Sun during that period. The grant is dedicated to A parajitaguru for the maintenance of the vasatika (monastery) at Sambapura ( that lay to the north of Ambapataka) and the 821 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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824 824 C. 825 C. 825 827 827 RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD Caityalava which was situated in the locality of Nagasarika (Navsari). The grant was composed by the Mahasandhivigrahadhipati. 2.9 The grant opens and ends with an invocation to Jina. It records the gift by the king of a field to a Jaina teacher.-(Surat Plates; EI, XXI 133). Krsparaja II was succeeded by his son Agguka II, who was a minor.(A. S. Altekar, EI, XXVI, 193). The Rastrakuta king Suvarnavarsa Karkaraja issued to Bhatta Nagakumara of Kaundinya gotra a grant of the village Brahmanapallika situated in 'Mahisaka Forty-two. The grant was made on the occasion of the Full-Moon day of Vaisakha in S. 746 (824 A.D.). The Dutaka of the edict was Durgaraja. The grant was composed by Sandhivigrahika Narayana, and was attested by Amoghavarsa.-(EI, XXII, 77). Rise of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa. It was founded by Krsna Upendra, a prince belonging probably to a branch of the Paramara rulers of Acalgadh or Mount Abu, on his conquest of Malava, early in the ninth century A.D. His immediate suceessors were Vairisimha I, Siyaka I, Vakpati I, and Vairisimha II or Vajratswamin,-all directly descended, one from the other. The early Yadavas, ancestors of the Yadavas of Devagiri, ruled the district of Sennadesa, a region which extended from Nasik to Devagiri or Daulatabad, and was partly covered by the present Khandesa. Hemadri's Vrata-khanda represents them as migrating thither from Dvaravati or Dwarka, in the reign of Drdhaprahara, their first seat having been at Mathura. A gift, to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya) at Kavi by the Rastrakuta King Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja, shows that princely support was not all-together lacking. The Sun-cult must have existed prior to the rise of Bhagavatism; for the Chhandogya Upanisad, one of the oldest Upanisads, refers to Krsna Devakiputra as a disciple of Ghora Angiras, a worshipper of the Sun. The Mandsor stone-inscription of the time of Kumargupta I, and Indore copper-plate grant of Skandagupta show that the Sun-worship which prevailed in Central India was patronised by the guilds. The Rastrakuta king Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja at Bharukaccha dedicated the village Thurnavi (represented by modern Thanavi in Jambusar Taluka) to the temple of the Sun-God Jayaditya situated at Kotipura in the Kapika (Kavi) division. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Kumuda. The edict was issued on the occasion of Mahavaisakhi (the Full-Moon day of Vaisakha) in S. 749 (827 A.D.) and composed by Yogesvara, son of Avolokita, the Head of the Department of Peace and War.- Kavi Plates: IA, V, 144 ff.) For Personal & Private Use Only

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240 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 830 830 832 834 Vikramarka of Capa family, founded a royal dynasty at Vardhamana ( Wadhvan). Bahukadhavala, the grandson of Kalla seems to be a powerful feudatory of the Pratihara sovereign Nagabhata II (Munshi, GG., III, 70). He destroyed in battle Dharma (Dharmapala ), conquered kings of high status, and vanquished the army of Karnataka.--(EI., IX, 2 ff.). A grant of land situated in Pacchatri (Pachtardi) Visaya was issued to a Brahmana of the Sankstya gotra, a resident of Somesvara (Somanatha), by Mahasamant Jaika ( Jayasena ) I during the reign of his nephew Agguka II, on the occasion of Uttarayana of Samvat 888, ( 832 A.D.) on the 12th day of an unspecified month ( which seems to be Pausa). The Dutaka of the charter was Poet Bala, and was composed by Kapila, a Saka.-(Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI 197 ff.). Jaika I, the step-uncle of Agguka II, completed his plans of usurping the throne of his minor nephew. In a later grant which is undated, he mentions himself as the ruling king, and omits all reference to his elder brother and his son in the genealogy. The grant was issued to a Brahmana of the Vatsa gotra, a resident of Bhillamala (Bhinmal). The land was situated in the Pacchatri visaya mentioned in his earlier record. --( Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI, 203 ff., 193 ). Bappabhatti Suri succeeded in regaining Girnar tirtha from the hands of the Digambaras.--( Prabhavakacarita XI, v. 691-701). This event may be assigned to a date not later than V. S. 890 (834 A. D.) when Ama ( who had been to Girnar along with Bappabhatti) died.-(Vide, three verses of Siddhastava', in Caitya-vandana--- Prabhavakacarita XI, v. 702). According to the Jaina traditions, Ama alias Nagavaloka and Nagabhata II, king of Kanyakubja ( Kanauj ) died in V.S. 890 (Prabhavakacarita--XI, v. 719721). He got built Jaina temples in various places such as Anahillapura ( Patan), Modha ( Modhera ), Satarakapura, Mathura and Kanyakubja (Kanauj).-( Ibid. XI, v. 857-659). Further, at the instance of Bappabhatti Suri, he went to Satrunjaya and Ujjayanta for pilgrimage.-( Ibid, v. 684-685 ). Dhruvaraja I, younger brother of Karkaraja and Govindaraja, was ruling * as Rastrakuta Viceroy in Gujarat, in succession to the latter. He was succeeded by his son Akala-varsa Subhatunga. The Rastrakuta king Dharavarsa Dhruvaraja II issued from near Khetaka the grant of the village Pusilavilli in Kasahrada Desa, which was executed by Devaraja and composed by Sandhivigrahika Narayana to Jyotisika Yoga, resident of Vadarasiddhi ( modern Borsad, in Kaira District ), on the occasion 834 835 835 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXVI For Personal & Private Use Only 1 CARA REM TUOTETIT That TOGO (A) Sun-Temple at Sutrapada, Saurastra. (B) Sun-Temple at Bilesvara, near Porbundar.

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Plate LXVII For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Standing Surya, Vasisthasrama Mt. Abu (B) Standing Surya, Karvan

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 241 of Mahakartiki parvan ( the Full Moon day of Kartika) in $. 757 ( 835 A.D. Baroda Plates; IA, XIV 196). 837 Bauka, a descendant of Haricandra, the Pratihara, was ruling over Gurjaratra or Gurjara-bhumi, from Mandor, (old Manavapura ) near Jodhpur : V. S. 894 (= 837 A.D.):-( Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihara Bauka ; JRAS, 1895, p. 513; EI, IX, p. 210 ). This inscription of Bauka and that of Kakkuka ( EI, IX, p. 210 ) ( V. S. 918, 859 A.D.) which begin with a salutation to Visnu give very interesting details regarding Haricandra, who was a Brahmin, versed in the Vedas and Sastras. He had two wives, one a Brahmin and the other a Ksatriya. The sons born of the Brahmin wife became Pratihara Brahmins, while those born of the Ksatriya wife became the founders of the royal line of the Pratiharas. Though a man of peaceful pursuits in his early life, when after the fall of the Gupta empire and the empires of Mihirakula and Yasodharman, Northern India presented a favourable field for military enterprise. Haricandra gave up Sastras ( Scriptures) for the Sastras ( arms) and founded a kingdom. By his Ksatriya wife, named Bhadra, he had four sons: Bhogabhata, Kakka, Rajjila and Dadda: vipraH zrI haricaMdrAkhyaH patnI bhadrA ca ksstriyaa| tAbhyAM tu ye sutA jAtAH pratihArAMzca tAn viduH / / This suggests that Bhadra belonged to Pratihara clan and that one of her sons had succeeded his meternal uncle. The term 'Pratihara' perhaps meant that they were descended from Laksamana, who once acted as a Pratihara, i.e. a chamberlain, to his eldest brother Rama. It has been suggested that Haricandra began his life as a chamberlain to some king; and later on carved out a principality for himself; but there is no sound reason to accept a king to perpetuate his humble origin. C. 840 The Pala king Dharmapala of Bengal, son and successor of Gopala I, married Rannadevi, a Rastrakuta princess--perhaps a daughter of Govinda III (795-814 A.D.). He is stated to have conquered Indraraja of Mahodaya or Kanauj, and to have given the sovereignty of Kanauj to Cakrayudha, perhaps Bhoja ( 860-882 A.D.). Bhatta Narayana, the grantee of the Khalimpura copper-plate grant, which gives the above reference of Dharmapala, was the author of the Sanskrit drama Venisamhara. C. 841 Ksemaraja, Capotkata of Anahilvad succeeded Yogaraja: till A.D. 866. - Ref. 746 A.D.). 843 The Daulatpur (Jodhpur State), now Ajmer Museum Plate of the Pratihar: Maharaja Bhojadeva I ( 840-890 A.D.), surnamed Prabhasa, issued from Mahodaya, and dated V. S. 900 ( 843 A. D.), records the renewal of a grant of Siva C30 For Personal & Private Use Only

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242 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT grama (modern Siva) in the Dendavanaka Visaya (modern Dindwana) in the Gurjaratrabhumi which had been made by the king's great-grand-father Maharaja Vatsaraja, and continued by his grandfather, Maharaja Nagabhatadeva, but which had fallen into abeyance in his reign.-(EI, V, p. 211; JBBRAS, XX, p. 440). King Bhojadeva is mentioned as granting a village called Sivagrama, situated in the Dendavapaka Visaya, which, it is stated, formed part of the Gurjaratra bhumi'.-Cf.' TATHAT Tosatua728-73 M ATER EI., V., p. 211). Since it is clear ( as pointed out by Dr. Kielhorn) that Dend, vanaka is the town Didwana in the old Jodhpur State and Sivagrama, the village of Seva, 7 miles north-east of Didwana, it follows that the territory round Jodhpur in Rajputana was known in the 8th century A.D., as the land of the Gurjaras'. 844 The Eastern Calukya, Vijayaditya III, Gunaka, eldest son, succeeded his father Visnuvardhana V, till 888 A.D. The Idar grant of Amma I says of Vijayaditya that " Challenged by the lord of the Rattas, he conquered the unequalled Gangas; cut off the head of Mangi in battle; and frightened the firebrand Kssna (probably Krsna II, Rastra kuta ), and completely burned his city."-(IA., XX, 102-3). 844 During the Rastrakuta regime, roads to adjoining villages were laid out and kept in repairs by the village settlements. The road going from one village to another is often mentioned in inscriptions as a boundary on one direction of the fields, given in charity :-(Cf. qaa: 117 raaifaqet: i fa: 447acia a graif 041: 1-( Kavi Plates of Govinda III, S. 749).-(IA, V, 145 ). 845-46 The Partabgarh inscription ( 845-46 A.D.) of Pratihara king Mahendra pala II shows that the Pratiharas had recovered possession of Malwa including Mandu and Ujjain; however, their hold over Gujarat and Saurastra grew precarious. They could not effectively checkmate the northern campaigns of the Rastrakutas, their southern rivals.-(DHNI, Vol. II, p. 582-83, 585-87). C. 850 The literary tradition about the 'Danda Rasaka' (found illustrated as a tempera painting at Bagh, see year C. 470 ) is referred to by Abhinavagupta (9th century) in his commentary on Natya Sastra, while discussing the peculiarties of Rasaka and Hallisaka. Practically he quotes from ancient texts : ago fotoga: 1 maNDalena tu yannRtyaM hallIsakamiti smRtam / ekastatra tu netA syAd gopastrINAM yathA hariH / / anekanartakIyojyaM citratAlalayAzritam / AcatuHSaSThIyugalaiH rAsakaM masRNoddhatam / / The dance in the circular motion, wherein one leads and others follow, jut as Sri Klsna led the Gopis, is called 'Hallisaka'. In this variety of the dance, Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 243 nbellished by various rythmical strokes and melodies (971971) many dancers could join. The maximum number of couples that could partake in this dance was fixed upto 64; the minimum being either 16, 12 or 8, the dancers being of either sex. The dance had two varieties : one tender, the other vehement or violent. Hallisaka ' has been described by later authors and lexicographers as gopalokAnAM krIDAprakAra : / maNDalena strINAM nRttam / That this Hallisaka or Rasaka, was a upa-rupaka of 'Natyarasaka ',-a very old primitive dance-type, associated with Klsna's dance-is referred to by Sanskrit dramaturgists also.-(See Bhavaprakasana by Saradatanaya, GOS, P, 268 ). Jayadeva in his 'Astapadi' of the 'Gitagovinda' refers to this dance-sport : ( RRT Ahad 1) 849 The kingdom of Jaika I seems to have been divided between his two sons Camundaraja and Agguka.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 193 ff.). 850 Vikramarka was succeeded by his son Addaka. C. 50 Rudrata, son of Bhatta Vamuka and author of Kavyalankara, probably flourished about this date, since Pratiharenduraja ( 850 A.D.) quotes him as a standard author. C. 850 The taxes named Udranga and Uparikara ( as additional tax paid over and above the normal land-tax) are mentioned very frequently not only in the grants of the Rastrakutas but also in those of the Maitrakas. The Sasvatakosa gives Uddhara or Udgraha as a synonym of the term.-(Referred to by Dr. Buhler at I. A., XII, p. 189 N. 30). In the Samangadh plates of Dantidurga (IA, XI, p. 111 ) and the Kapadvanj plates of Krsna II (EI., I, P. 52), the term 'sabhagabhogakarah' is used; but the expression sodrangah and soparikarah are missing. It appears, therefore, clear that bhaga and bhoga are nearly synonymous with udranga and uparika, a, and stand for taxes that were universally levied. The bhaga-kara must be standing for the land-tax, which is mentioned as 'sastnamsa' or the 6th part of the produce of the land. Bhoga-kara represents the petty taxes in kind that were to be paid to the king every day; and failing him, to the local officers. (A. S. Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 213-15). C. 851 Silanka Suri alias Tattvaditya of Niovati Kula, both the Suyakkhandhas of Ayara ( the first Anga out of twelve, collectively known as 'duvalasa ganipidaga', and on suyagada', both the suyakkhandhas), too. In the composition of both these commentaries he was helped by Vahari Gani. For discussion, see H. R. Kapadia's paper "Two copper-ptates of the Solanki aye", 'Buddhi Prakasa' of V.S. 2007 (1951 A.D.) wherein villages surrounding Gambhuta are mentioned. Text of these copper-plates is reproduced in JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 68, and the villages are identified on p. 67). For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 851 The com, on Ayara was finished in Gambhuta (Gambhu ), a place 24 miles from Patan and six miles from Dhinoja. It is between Dhinoj and Modhera.(Vide JTSS - Vol. I, pt. I, p. 68). The colophons of the com, on Ayara differ regarding the date of composition of this com. In the beginning Gandhalasta is inentioned as a commentator of Sastraparijna, a portion of Ayara. Four dates are mentioned: they are : 772, 788 and 898 and Gupta Samvat 772. (See DCGCM - Vol. XVII, pt. I, p. 13 and Gupta Samvat 772 is equal to V.S. 772 +241 = 1013.-[In Alberuni's India', as quoted in JTSS - Vol. I, pt. I, p. 69-in JPI pt. I, p. 379, the date is given as Saka 784 i.e. V.S. 919 ). Among the Mahomedan geographers, the merchant Sulaiman is the earliest writer with his Salsilatu-t-Tawarikh ( 237 A.D.=851 A.D.), wherein he describes the king of Jurz as having great riches, and had numerous camels and horses. His reference to the king of Jurz maintaining numerous forces, with an uninatched fine cavalry and numerous camels is very interesting. Rajputana is famous for its camels even now. From a story in the Pancatantra, it appears that there was a place called Gurjaragrama' where camels could be purchased. The rathakara is mentioned as having gone to a Gurjara village in search of camels. (2720 Tartu FCATA tal Tat: Faitar: 1 atas 4T 28). In the same Katha, the camel is also called Trach, and it is likely that the name is given after the country called dazeraka. An estimate of Bhoja, as a conqueror and as an administrator, is given by this Arab historian Sulaiman, who has dubbed him as 'hostile to the Arabs, and the greatest foe to the Mahomedan faith; ' but there was no country in India more safe from robbers.-( Elliot and Dowson, p. 4). He is called Baura, though the correct reading, according to Hodiwala (Studies in Indo-Muslim History, p. 25) should be Bozah, Bozoh or Bodzah, i.e. Bhoja. His empire included Kaccha and Saurastra. He had appointed feudatories in different parts, viz., Gunambodhideva, Bauka and Kakkuka, Harsaraja, and Bahukadhavala, who accompanied him in his campaigns and helped him in building a vast empire.--(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 65 ). In V. S. 909 ( 853 A.D.) there lived in Viramapura (modern Nakoda, also known as Mevanagara, 6 miles to the south from the station Balotra) 2700 Jains families.-(Vide, JTSS- Vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 183). At that time Harakhahand got repaired a Jaina temple situated in this city and replaced a broken image of Lord Mahavira. - Ibid. pp. 183-4). In a West Indian record of 854 A.D., belonging to the reign of the Rastrakuta Amoghavarsa, the donor endowing a certain sum of money in favour of a monastery, declares that after his death the interest (Kari) is to be fixed by competent persons.-(IA, XIII, 134). 853 854 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 245 556 C. 857 C. 859 859 859 C. 860 Avanivarman I succeeded his father Bahukadhavala.-(EI., IX, 2 ff.). Upadesamala of Dharmadasagani, which is a work of very early origin consists of over 500 stanzas in the Gatha metre. A Prakrit commentary on it was composed in Sam. 913 ( cir. 857 A.D.) by Jayasimhasuri. Agguka II, who possibly continued to rule as his uncle's feudatory for about 25 years after his supercession in cir. 834 A.D., was succeeded by his son Ranaka. Jaysimha Suri, pupil of Klsna Rsi, commented in Prakrit ( while introducing the original verses, a few lines are written in Sanskrit on his own Prakrit work 'Dhammovaesamala' of 98 verses in all ), in V. S. 215 ( 859 A.D. ) in Nagaura ( Nagapura ; Guj. Nagor) during the reign of King Bhoja. Bhoja who is known as Mihira and Adivaraha, too and who seems to be the grandson of king Ama, alias Nagabhatta II ruled from V. S. 900 to at least 938 and perhaps upto 950.-(SHJL, Pp. 179-180 ). In the Ghatiyala inscription of Kakkuka, dated in the ( Vikrama ) Samvat 915, ( 859 A.D.), Gurjaratra is mentioned along with Travani, Mada, Arya, Lata and Pravara, in the ordinary sense of the 'Settlement of the Gurjaras.'-- (EI, IX, Pp. 210). Gunabhadra flourished in C. 860-380 A.D. and being tutor to Krsna II, Rastrakuta ( 875-911 A.D. and pupil of Jinasena. He wrote the Uttarapurana, a continuation of the latter's Adipurana, also the Atmanusasan.- JBBRAS, xviii, 225 ). The Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsa, dated in Saka era 783 ( 861 A.D.) inform us that just when he ascended the throne, some of his feudatories, ministers and relations became disappointed and raised the standard of revolt (verses 35, 36 ); but it was through the help of Arya Patalamala that he succeeded in quelling the rebellion (verse 41 ). One verse refers to some public calamity, and the king, called here Vira-Narayana, cut off his finger and dedicated it to the goddess Mahalaksmi. It would not be unwise to suggest that Karka of the Surat plates ( 821 A.D.) and this Patalamala were identical.- Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurj ira-Pratiharas, p. 60 fn. I) Krsna Rsi installed an image of Lord Mahavira in Nagapura (i.e. Nagor) in V. S. 917.-(Kumarapalacarita-Dhammorasamala.). The Vinayaka (Ganapati) image was established at Rohjosa Kupa by the Gurjara-Pratihara king Kakkuka of the Jodhpur line in 861 A.D.-(EI, IX, p. 279). The Deogarh Jhansi dist.) Jaina pillar inscription of the time of Bhojadeva, and of the Mahasamanta Visnurama refers to the Jaina temple of Santinatha at 861 861 861 862 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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246 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 865 865 867 867 Luacchagiri --the old name of Deogarh, and the pillar was set-up near the temple of holy Jaina Arhat by Deva, a disciple of Acarya Kamaladeva, dated V.S. 919 ( 862 A.D.).-(EI, IV, p. 310 ). Bhuyada, Capotkata of Anhilvad, succeeds Ksemaraja; till V. sam. 922 = 865 A.D. He is said to have conquered Dvaravati and the whole country westward to the seacoast.-(Ref. 746 A.D.). The Naiatas, who were formerly an important class of Muslim merchants and ship-captains of Gujarat but who have now virtually disappeared, are reported to have emigrated from Madinah, flying from the persecution of Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the Governor of Iraq on behalf of Abdul Malik, the fifth Umayyad Khalifah. The Naiatas marched from Madinah to Kufa where taking a ship, they reached the shores of Indian Ocean about AH 252/865 A.D.-(Bom. Gaz. IX, II, 14-5 ff. 3). The Rastrakuta king Dantivarman of the Gujarat Branch himself a Hindu, donated a village to a Buddhist Vihara.-(EI, VI, p. 292 ). Dhruva II, Nirupama, Dharavarsa, of the Gujarat Rastrakuta Second branch, son and successor of Akalavarsa Subhatunga, claims to have subdued Vallabha of the Gurjaras (probably the Cavadas of Anhilvad ), and a king named Mihira. A grant of land was issued by Dharavarsa Dhruvaraja on the occasion of the Solar Eclipse that took place on the Amavasya of Jyestha in $. 789 (867 A.D.). The donor took a bath at the Mulasthana tirtha in the Narmada at Bharukaccha (Broach). The donee was Brahmana Jojibha of Laksayana gotra resident of Bhadrapalli. The grant consisted in the village Parahanaka situated within Karmantapura (Kamrej), One-hundred-sixteen.' Govindaraja, the younger brother of the king, officiated as the Dutaka of the edict, which was composed by Sandhivigrahika Kalyana.-( Bagumra Plates ; XII 173). The Rastrakuta king Aparimitavarsa, Dantivarman, brother of Dhruvaraja II, having bathed in the Puruvi river (identified with the Purana ) issued the grant of the Village Cokkhakuti in Sarthatailata Forty-two' on the occasion of Uttarayana day which fell on Pausa bahula 9 in $. 789 ( 867 A.D.). The grant was dedicated to the Revered Samgha of the Vihara at Kampilya Tirtha. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Mahamatya Klsnabhatta. The grant was com posed by Sena-Bhogika Golla, son of Ranappa. The edict was endorsed by king - Dhruvaraja.-(EI, VI, 285 ). There were educational centres in India at this period, one such being at Kampilya Monastery of Gujarat, which probably represented one of the last strongholds of Buddhism. Our record states that 500 monks were living in this vihara.--(A.S. Altekar, EI, XII, No. 12, 1935).-See also 884 A.D. Supra. 867 867 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA---PRATIHARA PERIOD 247 869 The Saindhava king Mahasamanta Ranaka, son of Agguka and grandson of Krsnaraja, issued from Bhutambilika ( Ghumli) the grant of a village situated in Pacchatri ( Pachtardi ) Visaya. The details about the donee, the date, the dutaka etc. are not available, as the second plate of the grant is not recovered. The concluding portion on the first plate contains some reference to Queen Ksemesvari, who was, very probably, a daughter of king Ksemaraja of the Capa dynasty.-( Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI 207 ff.) 869 The Saindhava king Agguka, son of Jaika I, abdicted the throne in favour of his son Ranaka and participated in his coronation himself. This may, probably, be due to Agguka's apprehension that his elder brother may resume his principality after his death.-( A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI 194 f. 870 Addaka was succeeded by his son Pulakesi. 871 The Rastrakuta P.M.P. Prthvivallabha Amoghavarsa I from the metropolis Manyakheta issued the grant of the village Jharivallika in Sanjana Twentyfour', to four Brahmanas who hailed from Karahada. The grant was made on the occasion of the Uttarayana Parvan in the Pusya (Pausa) month of Nandana Samvatsara, corresponding to $. 793 ( 871 A.D.). Mahattama Gogu Ranaka was the Dutaka. The grant was composed by Dharmadhikaranika Gunadhavala, born in the Valabha Kayastha lineage.-- Sanjan Plates : EI, XVIII, 235; JBBRAS, XXII, p. 116). The traditional account of the origin of this lineage is given in detail in the Udayasundari-Kutha by Soddhala, of the same Valabha Kayastha lineage, composed some time between 1026 A.D. and 1050 A.D.--(C. D. Dalal, G.O.S., No. 11, 1920). C. 873 A fragmentary inscription (EI, XIX, p. 175), now deposited in the Barton Museum at Bhavnagar, mentions the name (Va )raha which reminds one of Adiraraha', the biruda of Bhojadeva. It is very likely that the inscription is meant for the Pratilara ruler of Kanauj. It also mentions the hasty retreat of Krsparaja to his country, who may be identified with the Rastrakuta king Akalavarsa Krsna II (875-911 A.D.), a contemporary of Bhoja. 874 The Saindhava king Camundaraja was succeeded by his son Agguka III. -(A. S. Altekar, EI, XXVI, 195). 874-5 A village in the Svarnamanjari visaya was granted by the Saindhava king, Mahasamanta Ranaka in G.S. 555 ( 874-5 A.D.). One-half of its revenues was assigned to a group of temples dedicated to Hari ( Visnu ), Haridasva (Surya), Vinayaka (Ganapati) and the Matois (Mothers), which were created on the outskirts of the city by Sivarudra, a karpatin of Vasistha gntra. The other half of the revenues was assigned to the head of a matha (monastery) whose name is left unspecified. Prince Jaika himself officiated as the Dutaka of the Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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248 876 876 877 877 879 880 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT edict, which was composed by Vakula, the scribe.-(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 212 fl.) Calukya Mahasamanta Avanivarman I was succeeded by his son Balavarman. Two records from Gwalior (Gopadri) are dated in the month of Vaisakha V. S. 932 (876 A.D.), and Magha Sukla dvitiya, V S. 933, respectively. The first one of the time of Adivaraha (Bhojadeva) (EI, I, p. 156), refers to Nagara Bhattakumara of the Varjjara family, originally from Anandapura in the Lata province, and mentions the appointment of Vaillabhatta as Warden of Marches (g) by Ramadeva (evidently Ramabhadra ), and his son Alla, who succeeded him in that office to the guardianship of Gopadri (Gwalior) by Adivaraha. It further refers to the construction of a Visnu temple by. Alla, which was consecrated in the Vikrama year 932 (876 A.D.). The other record from Gwalior dated in the V. S. 933 (877 A.D.) and of the time of the Pratihara Parmesvara Bhojadeva, (EI, I, p. 159) records four donations to the two temples which had been built by Alla, the son of Vaillabhatta, called in this record the guardian of the fort (g) of Gopadri (Gwalior ). The donee of the first record (875 A.D., EI, I, p. 159: Cunningham ASR, II, 332) was the Navadurga temple, situated beyond the Vriscika river (probably another name of the river Suvarnarekha), while the donees of the three remaining grants were the Navadurga temple of the earlier record, and the Visnu temple called Vaillabhattasvamin. The donors of these four endowments were the inhabitants of the place (Sthana). The inscription also furnishes material, dealing with the economic life of the period. --(Baij Nath Puri (The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 53). The Rastrakuta king Krsna II, Vallabha, Akalavarsa II, son and successor of Amoghavarsa I, son-in-law of Kokkalla I of Cedi (S. 799-833): He is stated to have made subject to him the Andhra and Ganga kingdoms, as well as those of Kalinga and Magadha, and to have engaged in contests with the Gurjaras, Latas and Gaudas. The grant describes him as having put an end to the arrogance of Lata. - Deoli Grant of Krsna III). Krsna's son Jagattunga died before his father. He had married Laksmi, a daughter of Ramavigraha, son of Kokkala of Cedi, and had by her a son, Indra, who succeeded Krsna.-(IA., 220). Sripati Rathor, is said to have ascended the throne of Kanauj, on which occasion he feasted eighty-four tribes of Brahmanas and bestowed sixteen villages in Sasan, North Gujarat, on the sixteen branches of the Cibadia Brahmanas. (V. Sam. 936, 879 A.D.).-(I.A., III, 41). The Una inscription (EI, IX, pp. 6) dated in V.S. 936 (880 A.D.) of the Pratihara P.M.P. Bhojadeva, and issued by his feudatory the Calukya Maha For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 249 880-937 882-883 samanta Avanivarman II, mentions that Balavarman, father of Avanivarman II had defeated a certain Visa dha, and, by slaying Jijjapa and, other kings, 'freed the earth from the Huna race'-( UTAHAT 20-43areta! ?9). This clearly suggests that the Hunas were still looked down upon as a nomadic and barbarous race. The person who dealt the blow, and freed the earth from the menace of this race was-the feudatory of the supposed ally of the Hunas--the Gurjara king of Kanauj. This political and social complex, rule out the possibility of Huna-Gurjara alliance, as proposed by Jackson and others, and there is not a shadow of a sound reason for thinking that the Gurjaras accompanied the Hunas as particeps criminis, when the evidence is to the contrary.-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959, p. 4). The various Gacchas of the Jaina Yatis originated in the north with the 84 disciples of Udyotana Suri. According to the Kharataragaccha-pattavali (IA, XI, 248 ) he flourished 500 years after Devarddhigaai. He became Acarya in 880 A.D. lattavalis give 994 V.S. i.e. 937 A.D. as the year of his death. Uddyotana Suri died on a pilgrimage which he had undertaken from Malavadesa to Satrunjaya. A temple of Visnu as Yajnavaraha was built by Bhuvaka in the time of the Gurjara-Pratihara king Bhoja at Prithudaka, near Praci-Sarasvati in 882-883 A.D.-(EI, I, p. 187; Cunningham, ASR II, p. 224). The Rastrakuta king Dharavarsa Dhruvaraja issued, from the camp at Khetaka, a grant of the village Dhadyasaha situated in Suhila visaya, and dedicated it to the Kampilya-tirtha ( containing a Buddhist Mahavihara and a shrine of Buddha Bhattaraka ) on the bank of Madvapi in the Kantaragrama Division. The grant was made on the occasion of Dhanus-Sankranti on the second day of the bright half of Margasira in $. 806 (884 A.D.). Prince Karkaraja officiated as the Dutaka. The grant was composed by Dindetana, the Official in charge of Sandhivigraha and Aksapatala (Records ), a resident of Valabhi.-(EI., XXII 64; EI XXVII p. 320). See, also 867 A.D. A village in the Svarnamanjari (?) visaya was granted by Mahasamantadhipati Agguka III of the main Saindhava line on the occasion of the lunar eclipse * in G. E. 567 ( 886 A.D.). The unspecified month seems to be Margasira. The donees of the grant were two Brahmanas of Vatsa gotru residing at Gomutrika (Gomta). The charter was composed by Jojjha.(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 217 ff.). * It was not a New Moon day as mentioned by Dr. Altekar (EI., XXVI, 218 ), 'for, the conjunction of the Moon was with Svarbhanu ( Rahu ) and not with Sun.-(H. G. Shastri). The Rastrakuta king Akalavarsa Krsparaja, residing at Ankulesvara (Ankleshvar ), having bathed at Bhagavatatirtha in the Narmada river, issus 884 886 888 C32 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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250 888 888 890 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT the grant of land on the occasion of a solar eclipse on the Amavasya day of Caitra in S. 810 (888 A. D.). The grant consisted in the village Kavithasadhi situated in Variavi One hundred-sixteen' of Konkana Visaya. It was issued to two Brahmana brothers of Kundina getra, residents of Variavi (Variav). The grant was composed by Jajjaka, the Official in charge of Peace and War.- (Bagumra Plates: IA., XIII, 65). Krsna Akalavarsa of Ankulesvara was a prince of the Second Branch of the Rastrakuta dynasty of Gujarat, a successor of Dhruva II, and possibly the son of his brother Dantivarman. Krsna Akalavarsa is the latest known of the Gujarat Rastrakutas. Between S. 810 and S. 832 Gujarat seems to have ben recovered by the Rastrakutas of the main line under Krsna II.-(Bagumra Copper-plate; Monday April 15th, S. 810). His Kapadvanj Grant of S. 832 represents him as Sovereign of Gujarat.-(IA., xiii, 65; IA. XVIII, 90 L EI, III, 54; Bom. Gaz. 303). From the Bagumra plates of Krsna (IA., XIII, p. 68) of the Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakutas, dated 888 A.D., we learn that the land-tax was collected in three instalments: one in Bhadrapada or September, one in Kartika or November, and one in March. This record, it is interesting to note, partially confirms the statement of Bhattasvamin, the commentator of the Arihasastra, that the kara or the landtax was paid in the months of Bhadrapada, Caitra and the like, (Arthasastra, II, 15), and the statement of Kulluka (on Manu, VIII, 307) that the tax was gathered every year in Bhadrapada and Pausa. Such arrangement for the farmers by the government was inevitable, since the tax was usually collected in kind and not in cash-(Altekar, The Rastrakalas, p. 227-28). Dhruvabhata, the elder son of Pulakesi, succeeded his father. Mahendrapala was not only a good administrator, but also a patron of literature, as we find that literary activities were not stagnant in his period. We notice that Rajasekhara, the dramatist and poet, was his Guru or spiritual teacher. The colophon of the Karpuramanjari runs: 890-920 iti zrImAn mahArASTracUDAmaNinA mahendrapAlopAdhyAyena rAjazekhareNa bAlakavinA kavirAjena viracite caturtha javanikAntaraM samAptam / The gradation is significant, as it suggests that Rajasekhara was successively appointed to the offices of Junior Poet, Chief Poet, and Preceptor. The poet calls himself the son of a Mahamantri or high minister, the Guru or Upadhyaya of Nirbhayaraja alias Mahendrapala and the Guru of Mahipala, the crest jewel of the family of Raghu. Rajasekhara himself traces his poetic descent from Valmiki through one Bhartrimeytha, and the well-known Bhavabhuti. He enjoyed the patronage of Mahendrapala and his son Mahipala, at whose For Personal & Private Use Only

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$90-920 890-920 890-920 890-920 890-920 251 court, or by whose command, the Balabharata was staged. The 'Prologue' of the Balabharata or Pracandapandava contains an eulogy of Mahipala. RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD Rajasekhara, the teacher of king Mahendrapala of Kanauj, says in his Karparamanjarl that his accomplished wife Avantisundari was descended from the Cahuana family (i.e. from a Ksatriya family). This shows that intercaste marriages were in vogue in his times. The people of Lata are haters of Sanskrit, and so they employ the Prakrit for the sake of grace and beauty', says Rajasekhara in his Kavyamimansa, Adh. VII: paThanti laTa lATA prAkRtaM saMskRtadviSaH / hriyA lalitopalabdha-saundaryamudrA // kAvyamImAMsA, a. 7 The people of Lata country are described as fond of Prakrit language (Ch. X, p. 51): gauDAyAH saMskRtasthAH paricitarunayaH prAkRte lATadezyAH / sApabhraMzaprayogAH sakalamarubhuvaSTaka nAdAnakAzca // The poet Rajasekhara, author of the Kavyamimansa, the Balaramayana, the Viddhasalabhanjika, and the Karpuramanjri, flourished under Mahendrapala and his son Mahipala, who ruled over the country of Madhyadesa, with its capital at Kanauj.-(IA., xvi, 175 ff.; 170-1). From the 'Asni inscription' (V.S. 947 917-18 A.D.) and the 'Siyodini inscription' (EI, Vol. I, p. 171) it is known that Mahendrapala (890-908 A.D.) and his son Mahipala (910-940 A.D.) belonged to the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Rajasekhara belonged to the courts of both the father and the son; but the major part of his life was spent in the court of Mahendrapala, who is said to have been his disciple in all his plays. Mahipala seems to have maintained the poet only in the earlier part of his reign, since Balabharata, the only drama to be performed in his presence remains incomplete, and appears to be the poet's last composition.-(K. S. Ramaswami: Introduction, 3rd Edn. 1950, Kavyamimansa, p. xii-iii). kAvyamImAMsA, a. 10 = A Kesara flower falling from the stem, is compared by Rajasekhara with the naval of a Lata lady while describing the full-blossom spring: lATInAbhinibhaM cakAsti ca patad vRntAgrataH kesaram / - a. 18 At another place, while describing the splendour of the cold months of the year, the stray lock of a Lata lady is described as dancing by the gale of wind : (......... .........marut / lalATe lAdInAM luThitamala tANDavayati // a 18 ) Both these references suggest the exquisite beauty of the Lata ladies. Rajasekhara, the author of the Kavyamimansa, mentions among products of Western India (Pascaddesa) varieties of bamboos, palm-trees, and date-trees. For Personal & Private Use Only

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252 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Regarding the complexion of the people of different countries, Rajasekhara remarks that the Paurastyas (Eastern people ) have dark-black colour: the Pascatyas (Westerners) have white colour, the Udicyas ( Northerners) have got fair complexion; and the Madhyadesyas (mid-Indians) have got dark-black, black and white colour.-(Kavyamimamsa Ch. XVII, p. 96). 890-920 Lata ladies are described as bathing in the river Reva (i.e. Narmada) in the afternoon (Kavyamimamsa p. 68), in a verse quoted by Rajasekhara : -- 'revAjalAnyaviralaM grahilI kriyate lATAGganAbhiraparAGanimajjaneSu / kAvyamImAMsA, a. 12 890-920 The Surastra people along with those of Travana and others are described by Rajasekhara as speaking Sanskrit fluently with Prakrit accents: surASTtravaNAdyA ye paThantyarpitasauSThavam / apabhraMzAvadaMzAni te saMskRtavacAMsyapi / / -kAvyamImAMsA, a.7 890-920 The Karpura-manjari of Rajasekhara refers to the Kaulas and the super natural powers possessed by Bhairavanatha. While one may not rely on the evidence of a drama, one can "hardly question the existence of the Kaulas in the religious life of the people. They combined pleasure with salvation, religion with indulgence in wine and women, and repute for piety with most unrestricted sensuality":-( Karpura I, 22-24). As such, they were looked down upon in high society. 890-920 Rajasekhara had a partiality for Latadesa. Karpuramanjari, the heroine of the play of the same name, is the daughter of the king of Latadesa. Viddhasalabhnjika also refers to the king of the same country. In the Balaramayana (Act X, 48-49), Lata is described as the crest of the Earth'. The elegance of speech and beauty of its ladies are dilated upon by him in his Kavyas. Rajasekhara represents the people of Lata as preferring Prakrit and hating Sanskrit. Humour, was then, another peculiarity of Lati.-(Vide, Simhadevagani's commentary on Vagbhatalarkanu (C. 1230 A.D.) : e tra gli afa: qart 1 892 From Naksisapura Mahasamanta Balavaraman of the Calukya dynasty, who owed allegiance to P.M.P. Mahendrayudhadeva ( i.e. Mahendrapala of the Pratiharas), dedicated the village of Jayapura in Naksisapura Eighty-four', to the sun temple of Tarunaditya situated on the bank of the river Kanavirika. The grant which records the witness of certain Brahmanas, Vanikas and Mahattaras, was composed by Dharaditya and issued in the Valabhi year 574, Magha Suddha 6 (892 A.D.), it being attested by Dhiika.-(Una Plates, EI, IX, 1 ff.). The earliest record of the time of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Mahendrapala, successor of the P.M.P. Bhojadeva of Kanauj is the Una (Saurastra) Plate 892 For Personal & Private Use Only

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896 897 899 899 899 C. 900 RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 253 dated in the Valabh! Samvat 574 (= 892 A. D.), which records a grant of land by the Mahasamanta Balavarman, son of Avanivarman (I) of the Calukya lineage, to a temple of the Sun, named Tarunadityadeva.-( EI, IX, p. 4). C. 900 These Una grants of the Calukya feudatory show that the whole of the region, upto the southernmost part of the Saurastra peninsula, was included in the empire of Mahendrapala I.-(C. 898-997 A.D.) Balavarman was succeeded by his son Avanivarman II. He was also known as Yoga'. He defeated kings Yaksadasa, Dharapivaraha and others (EI, IX, 2ff.). The latter must be identified with Mahasamantadhipati Dharanivaraha of Wadhvan.-( Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradska, III, 69). Parsva Suri (pupil of Yaksadeva Suri) commented upon Vandiflusutta' in S. 821 (897 A.D.) in Gambhu. Mahasamanta Avanivarman II alias Yoga of the Calukya lineage, who owed allegiance to P.M.P. Mahendrapala, issued the grant of the village Amvulaka ot Naksisapura Eighty-four in Surastra-Mandala to the image of Tarunaditya installed on the bank of the river Kanavirika in Samvat 956, Magha Sudi 6, (899 A.D.). The grant was approved of by Dhiika the Antapala (Warden of the Frontier) of the suzerain.-(Una Plates, EI., IX, p. 6). Another inscription from Una (EI, IX, p. 4) dated Vikram Samvat 956 (899 A.D.) on the sixth day of the bright half of Magha (incidentally the same tithi as noticed in the earlier Una record) of the time of the Pratihara P.M.P. Mahendrapaladeva, and issued by his feudatory the Calukya Mahasamanta Avanivarman (II) is very important, as it traces the relation between this feudatory of the Calukya family of Saurastra and Gurjara-Pratihara family of Kanauj. The Samanta-ship appears to have been hereditary. Avanivarman II-Yoga, who succeeded his father in the hereditary office of Samanta," vanquished Yaksadasa and put to flight Dharapivaraha. He made the grant of the village of Amvalaka in the Saurastra mandala to (a temple of) Tarunaditya. King Agguka III was succeeded by his son Jaika II.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 195). Among the occasional exactions referred to in records of village-grants, is mentioned. This means exemption to the donee from the exactions levied at the time of the arrival of regular and irregular military and police forces. Catas and Bhatas were the members of the police and military forces of the State; and when they were quartered in a village while on the march, the villagers had to meet a number of demands of their unwelcome guests. The proprietory right in the soil was never transferred to the donce, as is For Personal & Private Use Only

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234 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT seen from the numerous grants of lands made by the Valabhis, Gurjaras and Rastrakutas. The grantee is entitled only to the land-revenue. Compare, Nilakantha's observations in 49 HTC (Fararam4 472) : " saMpUrNapRthivImaMDalasya tattadgrAmakSetrAdau svatvaM tu tattabhaumikAnAmeva / rAjJAM tu karagrahaNamAtram / ata eva grat ac aa 9 TOFTHOI T rafale: fara a fare HTATI "-( Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 86). C. 900 That Svetambara scholars of Valabhi were given importance is gathered from the Bhadrabahu carita (Ch. IV, verse 133 ) which states that king Bhupala of Karahata invited the Svetambara monks of Valabhi, probably for performing some religious practice. This was done at the request of his queen Nokuladevi. ( Luders, Kadamba Plates of Prabhutavarsa', E.I., IV, p. 333 ff.). C. 900 Bengal rulers used to recruit soldiers from Karnataka and Lata (Bhagalpur Plates, IA, XV, p. 305), a procedure which clearly shows that the Rastrakuta dominions were inhabited by races, famous all over the country for their martial qualities. Rajasekhara pays a compliment to the bravery of the Karnatas in his Viddhasalabhanjika when he observes that they were naturally brave ( for Papier a ufzt: 1 Act IV):-( Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 247). C. 900 The Devala-Smrti records the changed social outlook of the Hindus which reclaimed those who were lost to the alien faith. This Smyti opens with a question by the sages put to Devala, who was sitting on the banks of the Sindhu at ease, as to how Brahmanas and members of other varnas, when carried off by Mlecchas, were to be purified and restored to caste : sindhutIre sukhAsInaM devalaM munisattamam / sametya munayaH sarve idaM vacanamabuvan / / bhagavan mlecchanItA hi kathaM zuddhimavApnuyAt / brAhmaNAH kSatriyA vaizyAH zUdrA caivAnupUrvazaH / / -utat ataq: 31196791H DYATI, 3** , 4. <4.69 The advice given by Devala constitutes the end and scope of the Smrtia neat and tiny composition not exceeding 90 verses. In the Smyti there is a distinct reference to cases of persons whose parents had embraced the Mleccha religion, as well as to those women who had been ravished, and had also conceived. The Smrti also taboos visits to some frontier provinces like Sindha and Sauvira which one could do only on pain of performing suddhi on return. Purificatory rites are prescribed for persons who returned back to their country from Mlecchadesa : " Just as a Brahmana seized by the Mlecchas and afterwards undergoing the appropriate atafaga does not become confounded with the Mlecchas, but returns to his original status of being a Brahmana), the intelligent soul is not really to be confounded with the body and other material adjuncts.' --[P. V. Kane, History of Dharmasastras, Vol. II, Pt. 1, 391. Cf. 1783 (fagfarata), 389]. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 255 The interesting information is with regard to women in general, and to those who had conceived while in the Mleccha custody in particular. Women who were ravished became pure after the period of menstruation (7541), with a three days' fast; but those who had conceived could be reclaimed back to their original fold after the delivery of the child. The foetus in the womb of such women, according to Devala, is like a thorn (Salya) in her body, and when this foreign substance is removed, and she has had her courses, she becomes pure as gold: vinisRSTe tataH zalye rajaso vA'pi darzane / tadA (tataH ) sA zudhyate nArI vimalaM kAJcanaM yathA ||-shlo. 51. The confirmation of this social phenomenon is available from the accounts of the Arab historians. Biladuri and Al-Biruni have mentioned this fact, and they suggest that attempts were made to reclaim back the Hindus who were lost to the alien faith. During the Caliphate of Hasham (723-43 A.D. ) Junaid, the governor of Sindh had sent expeditions into the interior of India and spread terror in Rajputana and Gujarat. His successors were Tamin and Hakim. " While Hakim was the governor ", writes Biladuri," the people of Al-Hind apostatised and returned to idolatory excepting those of Kassa; and the Musalmans had no place of security in which they could live".-(Elliot and Dowson, Vol. I, p. 126). The reclamation of the Hindus had become a regular feature till the time of Al-Biruni (Circa 1024 A.D.): "I have been repeated told", says the Muslim historian, " that when Hindu Slaves ( in Muslim countries) escape and return to their country and religion, the Hindus order that they should fast by way of expiation, then they keep them in dung stale, and milk of cows for a certain number of days, till they give similar dirt to eat, and more of the like":-( Translation, Vol. II, p. 162 ). The Devala Smrti mentions fasts, like those of Candrayana and Paraka, and Padakycchra, and the use of cow urine (gomatra) and cow-dung ( gomaya ). (Verse 65). These two independent pieces of evidence, thus, corroborate each other.- Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Praliharas, p. 116-118). The indigenous ( Desi ) dance, music and musical instruments, as described by Sarngadeva ( 12th century A.D.) based on old traditions (742 a t taraft: 1 Tahuet, steht I) are those that catch the popular ear and touch the very heart of the people of various lands and climes : deze deze janAnAM ca yad rucyA hRdraMjakam / nRtyaM gItaM ca vAdyaM ca taddezItyabhidhIyate / / Such local tunes are consequently named after their place of original birth, for example, Gurjari, Malavi, Mara, Khambhayati, Bilaval (from Veraval), Varadi, C. 900 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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256 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Karnataki, Gaudi and the like.-( M. R. Majmudar, Tradition of Folk-dances in Gujarat', JISOA, 1949). C. 900 The three Muslim historians-Ibn Khurdadba, writer of Kitabu-l Masalik Wa-l Mamalik (died in 300 A.D.=912 A.D.); Al Biladuri, author of Fatuhu-l Buldan (died in A.H. 279=892-3 A.D.); and Al-Idrisi who was born towards the end of the eleventh century A.D., and wrote Nuzhatu-l Mushtak-had no occasion to visit India, but they have mentioned the political state in that period. They are unanimous with reference to the king of Jurz or Jurr, who was antagonistic towards Balhara and Islam. Balbara was the Rastrakuta king, with his capital at Mankir (Manyakheta).-(Sprengers: Masudi, Preface, quoted by Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 12). Merchant Sulaiman, the writer of Salsila-tu-t-tawarikh ( 237 A.H.=851 A.D.) describes the king of Jurz having great riches, and having numerous camels and horses. C. 900 The Capa king Dhruvabhata was succeeded by his younger brother Dharari. varaha. C. 900 From the synonyms given in the Abhidhanaratnamala of Halayudha we learn that Surastra was famous for its bell-metal, while Vanga was well-known for its tin-industry. 904 King Jaika of the Saindhava dynasty issued a grant of land to two sons of Sihaditya on the occasion of a solar eclipse in the G.E. 585 (904 A.D.). The grant was composed by Jajnagya (Morbi Plates : EI., II, 257). The donor seems to be identical with Jaika II, son of Agguka III, whose Ghumli copperedict is dated G. E. 596 ( 915 A.D.):-( A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 195 f.). The Upamiti-bhava-prapanca katha is composed by Siddharsi (Thursday, Ist May, V. Sam. 962=906). According to the Prabhavakacarita of the Jainas, Siddharsi was the grandson of Suprabhadeva, who had two sons, Datta and Subhankara, the latter being Siddha's father. The same authority makes him a cousin of the poet Magha, who in his Sisupalavadha calls himself a son of Dattaka and grandson of Suprabhadeva. But it is difficult to reconcile this date with those of the various authors who are said to quote from him, as the period of Magha's activity falls considerably earlier.-(Ref. circa 650-700 A.D. 910 Kapadvanja copper-plate of Pracanda, son of Dhavalappa, of the Brahma vaka family, feudatory ruler of a part of Gujarat under Kssna II, Rastrakuta -S. 832. (910 A.D.).-(EI, i, 52). 910 Subhatunga Akalavarsa Kssnaraja II issued a grant of land from the terri tory under the charge of Candragupta, the Dandanayaka of Mahasamanta Pracanda (son of Dhavalppa of Brahmavaka lineage). The grant consisted in the village Vyaghrasa ( Vaghas) situated in Ruriddha Ten, in Karpatavanijya 906 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXVIII For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Seated Surya, from Runu-Pipli, Padra, Baroda Dist. (p. 274) (B) Seated Surya, Roda, Idar Territories, Baroda Museum Open Gallery. (p. 273)

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Plate LXIX For Personal & Private Use Only STYLE: 4X4ule (1) Inscription on the pillar at Gop Temple, which does not admit of decipherment. (2) Inscription on two sides of the pedestal of the Buddha Bronze from Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha). (See p. 215 & Plate LVII).

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(A) Dasarathi Rima from Varaha temple, Kadvar. (p. 277) Plate LXX (B) Haladhara Balarama from Kavi, Jambusar Taluka, Dist. Broach. (p. 277) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXI For Personal & Private Use Only Kartikeya with an attendant, in the rosette frame. From Kapuri Village, near Baroda. (p. 275)

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910 913 C. 914 RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 257 (Kapadvanj) Eighty-four,' in Harsapura (Harsol) Seven-hundred-fifty'. It was received by Brahmana Brahmabhatta of Bharadvaja gotra, resident of Vallurika. The grant was made on the occasion of the Full Moon day of Vaisakha in $. 832 (910 A.D.). The grant was composed by Kulaputraka Ammaiyaka. It was authenticated by the autographs of Akkuka, brother of Pracanda and Candragupta.-(Kapadvanj Plates : EI., I, 52). Members of the District Council, f4q-heaRT: are referred to in the Kapadvanj grant of Krsna II dated 910 A.D. (EI., I, p. 55); and those of the Provincial Council EHEFIT: in the Dhulia plates of Kakka, son of Dhruva (EI., VIII, p. 186). These bodies were not innovations of the Rastrakutas; for the Vadner plates of Kalacuri king Budharaja, dated 60g A.D. (EI, XII, p. 130 ) also refer to ICAE ERIT TU: - Altekar, The Rastrakutas, p. 158-59). Muni Yasobhadra of Sanderaka gaccha became 'Suri' in Pallika (modern Pali), which is one mile from the Pali station of Rajasthan.-(JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 175). This name occurs in an inscription lying in the temple of Navalakha Parsva) of this place, in V.S. 969 (913 A.D.). This is what we learn from Upadesaratnakara.-(Ibid, p. 175). S. 836: Grant from Haddala : by Dharanivaraha, Capa chief of Vardhamana ( Wadhvan) in Eastern Saurastra, brother and successor of Dhruvabhata, whose immediate predecessors were : his father, Pulakesin, grandfather Addaka, and great-grand-father Vikramarka, who may be placed about 800 A.D.. Dharanivaraha was the vassal of Mahipala, probably a prince of the Cudasama dynasty of Junagadh.-(IA, xii, 190 ; XVIII, 90 ). The practice of performing the 'tula-purusa'' and the 'hiranyagarbha'? ceremony is referred to in the following Rastrakuta incriptions : Rastrakuta king Indra III performed 'tulapurusa' in $. 836 (915 A.D. )-- (EI, ix, 33 f.). Rastrakuta king Govinda IV performed 'tulapurusa' in $. 850 (928 A.D.) - (EI. VII, 36). Rastrakuta king Dantidurga performed hiranyagarbha ':-(EI, xviii, 243 f.). Rastrakuta king Suvarnavarsa Prithvivallabha celebrated pattabandha festival with tulapurusa in $. 852 (930 A.D.).-(EI, VII, p. 26). 1 Tula purusa involves the weighing of donor on scales against gold, which is thereafter distributed among the Brahmanas. 9 Hiranyagaibha involves the performance of Sacraments on the donor, seated in a gold Vessel, which is thereafter cut up and distributed among the Brahmanas. The Bagumra Plates of Indra, inform us that old men vividly remembered in 91.4 A.D. ( when the Plates were issued) the brave feats of the Rastrakuta emperors in the sanguinary wars with the Gurjaras. The Crown Prince Jagat 915 914 For Personal & Private Use Only

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258 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT tunga also participated in these wars, and so also did the Cedi ruler.-(IA., XII, p. 265). 914 914 C. 914 As against the evidence adduced by the Rastrakuta records, the Barton Museum inscription mentions Kssoaraja (the last known ruler of the Gujarat Branch of the Rastrakutas ) retreating hastily to his country. The Haddala grant of the Capa Mahasamantadhipati Dharanivaraha, feudatory of the Rajadhiraja Mahipaladeva of $. 836 ( 914 A.D.) indicates that Mahipala held at least Gujarat up to 914 A.D. The grant was issued from Vardhamana.--(IA., XII, p. 193; IA., XXIII, p. 114). The invasion of the Rastrakuta Indra III (c. 915-17 A.D.) and the defeat of Mahipala I (c. 914-43 A.D.) soon after 915 A.D. had very serious consequences for the fortunes of the Gurjara-Pratihara empire.-(DHNI, P. 934). The earliest known date of Mahipala is $. 836 ( 914 A.D.) furnished by the Haddala plates. It seems clear from Aryaksemisvara's Candakausika that Mahipala bore the name of Karttikeya; for the poet refers to his patron as Mahipala ' in the Prologue of his play, and as 'Karttikeya ' in the last verse of the 5th Act. Trivikramabhatta, son of Nemaditya, and author of the Damayantikatha flourished under Indra III, being the author of Nausari grants'. He is possibly identical with the Trivikrama, mentioned as the sixth ancestor of the astronomer Bhaskara and father of Bhaskarabhatta, a contemporary of Bhoja of Dhara. The authorship of a Madalasacampu is also ascribed to him.-(EI, i, 340 ; Weber, Catal. ii, 1205 ). Rastrakuta king Indra III, Nityavarsa, succeeded his grand-father, Krsna II, his father Jagattunga having previously died. Married Vijamba, daughter of Anangadeva, son of Arjuna of Cedi.-( JBRAS, xviii, 253, 257, 261: IA., xii., 224) The Haddala (Saurastra) grant of the Capa Mahasamantadhipati Dharanivaraha, a feudatory of the Rajadhiraja Mahipaladeva was issued from Vardhamana. The inscription, written on two elliptical plates beginning with an invocation to Dhanadesvara (Siva ), gives the legendary origin of the Capa from the bow (Capa) of Sambhu. In that family was born Nripa Vikramaka-his son Raja Addaka followed by Pulakesi and Dhruvabhata, and the latter's younger brother king Dharaoivaraha residing at Vardhamana (modern Wadhwan in East Saurastra ); who was a feudatory of Rajadhiraja Parmesvara Sri Mahipaladeva, as is evident from the expression: afetante-HETTS HETATHafayfa: I. The country ruled by him was named after his grandfather (Addanadesa ). This feudatory prince granted to Mahesvaracarya on the day of the Winter Solstice, the village named Vinkala connected with the Kanthi 914 For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 259 915 kaschali, on the fourth of the bright half of Pausa, Saka Samvat 836 ( 23rd December 914 A.D.). This inscription mentions a number of village officials gramapati ( the lord of the village), mahaitara ( the headman), Kutumbika and madhyaga. It is also mentioned in this inscription that the proprietor of the land had a right of forced labour, which was conferred along with the gift. The village of Vinkala was conveyed as a reward for learning (alat) to Mahesvaracarya, the son of Sivadevacarya who belonged to the Amaradaksamsthana, a name of Kalabhairava ; and among the rights and privileges associated with the transfer were the share of the produce ( sAmANi bhogAbhogaH / ), and of forced labour (fa feh). This Brahmana could not cultivate the land himself, and so he had to depend upon his rights to produce and forced labour. This fact is also noticed in the Sanjan Plates of Amoghavarsa (EI, XVIII, p. 235, 1.67 ) which mentions fafez-forced labour-as the right accruing from the ownership of the land, and it passed on with the change in proprietorship. Mahasamantadhipati Jaika II of the Jayadratha dynasty at Bhutambilika (Ghumli) issued a grant of a village in Svarnamanjari visaya. Three-fourths of the revenue of the village were to be spent for the Nanna-Mathika, which had been founded by a merchant Nanna of Bhillamala (Bhinmal), and onefourth of the revenue was to be utilised for feeding Brahmanas every day. (S. 836 Asadha sudi 15=915 A. D.).-(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 222 ff.) This is the last known date of the Saindhava dynasty. Six copper-plate inscriptions of the early Saindhava rulers of the nagari of Bhutam bilika, have been published (See CI, XXVI, pp. 185 ff.). The latest of the Ghumli plates of the Saindhava kings belongs to the reign of Jaika II, and is dated in the Gupta year 596, which is given in the record, both in words in a verse and in numerical figures of the decimal system, and not in symbols. The date of the said record, therefore, falls in 915 A.D. The Ghumli Plates of Baskaladeva (V. S. 1045; 989 A.D.) record the grant of a village, made by Ranaka Baskaladeva, surnamed Kumkumalola, for the merits of his parents, in favour of a Brahmin in 989 A.D.. Baskala, whose capital was at Bhutambili, within the Mahadurga Adhikarana in Jyestukadesa, is stated to have made the grant after taking a bath in the Yajnavatatirtha (the Kunda near the Pindara temple) at a holy place called Pindataraka (modern Pindara on the Gulf of Kaccha, about 10 miles north of Bhatia). The word 'Adhikarana' seems to be used in the sense of an administrative unit, probably lying around the durga or fortress at Bhutambili where Baskala resided. The gifted village belonged to Navasurastra mandala. The name 'Navasurastra' occurs several times in the Ghumli copper-plate inscriptions of the Saindhava 989 For Personal & Private Use Only

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260 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT kings of the Jayadratha-vamsa. The donee was Srotriya Damodara, son of Candaita, an adhvaryu Brahmana of the Bhardvaja gotra, and an inhabitant of Anhilapura. Baskala may have been a feudatory of Mularaja Caulukya (C. 961-996). This inscription discloses the existence of a new dynasty of rulers at Bhutambili in the second half of the 10th Century, which was previously the capital of the Saindhavas of the Jayadratha-vamsa. " An interval of nearly three quarters of a century is known between the records of Jaika II and Baskala, both issued from the same city. During this interval the dynasty of the Saindhavas of the Jayadratha-vamsa, seems to have been extirpated and new rulers were established in the city, which is described here as a smaller geographical unit round Bhutambili, called Jyesthukadesa, which name reminds us of the Jethvas, who are among the inhabitants of the area even today. According to tradition, Ghumli was the capital of Jethya Rajputs, the Ranas of Porbunder. If Baskala was a Jyesthuka, the Jethva Ranas of Porbunder may be regarded as his distant descendants. Jethvas' were so called, because they ruled over Jyesthuka-desa. In the grant of the village, the western boundary is given as Paura-velakula, i.e. the modern Porbunder (literally, the harbour of Por = Paura). Thus this inscription points to the existence of Porbunder as a harbour, as early as the 10th Century A.D.-(D. C. Sircar, 'Ghumli Plates of Baskaladeva', CI., XXXI, No. 1, January 1955). The Rastrakuta P.M.P. Psthvivallabha Nityavarsa Indraraja III issued from his capital Manyakheta a grant of land to Prabhakara Bhatta of Laksmana gotra in the $. 836, Phalguna suddha 7 (915 A.D.). The grant was made by the king when he came to Kurundaka, and undertook the tula-purusa ceremony on the occasion of Pattabandha and made a donation of 400 villages (including Kurundaka ) along with an amount of 20 lacs of drammas. The land consisted in the village Umbara Bagumra) near Kammanijja (Kamrej) in Latadesa. The grant was composed by Trivikrama Bhatta, indentified with the author of Madalasacampu.-( Bagumra Plates, EI, IX, 24 ff.). The Rastrakuta P.M.P. Nityavarsa Narendradeva (i.e. Indraraja III) of Manyakheta issued in S. 836 (915 A.D.) another grant of land on the same occasion. The grant consisted in the village Tenna (Ten) near Kaimanijja (Kamrej) in the Latadesa and was received by Sidha Bhatta, an emigrant from Pataliputra. This grant also was composed by Trivikrama Bhatta,--- (Bagumra Plates, EI., IX, 24 ff.). From this Tenna a sculpture of Visnu, of an earlier period is discovered by Dr. R. N. Mehta.-( See Antiquities'; p. 209 infra). 915 915 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 261 915-945 The Karda plates of the Rastrakuta king Karka II state that Yuvarajadeva gave his daughter Kandakadevi in marriage to Baddiga alias Amoghavarsa III, the Rastrakuta king of Manyakheta, who was an old man when he ascended the throne after his nephew Govinda IV. As he was reigning from circa 935 A.D. to 939 A.D., his father-in-law Yuvarajadeva I might have flourished in the period 915-945 A.D.. Yuvarajadeva was a patron of men of letters. Rajasekhara flourished at his court. In his early days the poet was attracted by the more prosperous court of Kanauj, where he wrote his Sanskrit plays Balaramayana and Bala Bharata (or Pracandapandava ), and the Prakrit drama Karpuramanjari during the reigns of the Gurjara- Pratihara Emperors Mahendrapala I and his son Mahipala. But as the glory of the latter prince declined, owing to the invasion of his kingdom by the Rastrakuta king Indra III, and, later on, due to the raids of Yuvarajadeva I, Rajasekhara seems to have returned to Tripuri, the home of his ancestors Akalajalada and others, in the train of the victorious Kalacuri king. There he composed his third Sanskrit play Viddhasalabhanjika and the rhetorical work Kavyamimamsa. The former was staged at the Kalacuri court, and contains a poetic account of certain political events of Yuvarajadeva l's reign. It is a play of harem-intrigue. C. 917 Allataraja, son of Bhartsbhata I and his queen Mahalaksmi of Rathod dynasty was a Jaina king of Chitor. He ruled from V. S. 922 to 2010. A wife of Allataraja was suffering from Revati-dosa. Balibhadra once came to Hatthundi and while staying there, he cured the wife of Allataraja of the disease. -(JPI-pt. I, p. 590 ). Predecessors of persons of Hatthuli, gotra, now-a-days residing in Bali, Sadadi, Sanderaka and Mewar, became devotees of the Balibhadra Suri, in Circa V.S. 973 ( 917 A.D.).-(Ibid, p. 601). Mahasamantadhipati Dharanivaraha at Vardhamana (Wadhwan), feudatory of Rajadhiraja Paramesvara Mahipaladeva donated the village of Sthali, to Mahesvaracarya, on the occasion of Uttarayana in S. 839, Pausa sudi 4 (917 A. D.). The grant was composed by Sandhivigrahika Mahindaka.-( Haddala Plates, IA, 190 ff.). 917 C. 916 Ranteja, also called Ratnavali, is situated in Chanasma taluka. It appears, that village came into existance in about V.S. 900 to 950. For, in one of the Jaina temples of this village, we come across two inscriptions (See, Prachina Jaina Lekha-Samgraha Pt. II, Nos. 466-467 and JTSS-Vol. I, p. 76) dated V.S. 1157, wherein the name of this village is recorded as Rantaija. These inscrip. tions mention the installation of two Jaina images, one of Lord Suparsva and the other of Lord Parsva. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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262 920 928 928 930 930 930 930 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Ratnaditya, Capotkata of Anhilvad succeeded Virasimha, (V.S. 976, 920 A.D.). (See, A.D. 746). Grants of the Maitraka kings as well as those of the Rastrakutas given to Brahmanas were to enable them to discharge their religious duties; but these duties were generally of the Smarta rather than of the Srauta character. The Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsa (IA; XVIII, p. 235) and the Cambay plates of Govinda IV (EI; VII, p. 41) are the only two exceptions, where it is expressly stated that the grants were made to enable the Brahmanas to perform Vedic sacrifices like Rajasaya, Vajapeya and Agnistoma. In all other cases the grants were made for discharging purely Smarta duties connected with bali, caru, vaisvadeva etc. This analysis is a convincing proof that in spite of Kumarilla's efforts, the Srauta religion almost died down in the Rastrakuta period.(Altekar, The Rastrakatas, p. 278-79). Camby Plates of the Rastrakuta king Govinda IV state that the king was weighed against gold, as enjoined in the Dharmasastra in S. 850 (928 A.D.), the cermony being known as the maha-dana' or a 'tula-purusa'.-(See 915 A.D.). The Rastrakuta P. M. P. Suvarnavarsa Prthvivallabha Narendradeva celebrated Paffabandha festival with tulapurusa, and made grants of 600 agraharas and 3 lacs of suvargas to Brahmanas as well as 800 villages, 4 lacs of suvarnas and 32 lacs of drammas to temples, in S. 852 (Khara Samvatsara Jyestha Suddha 10 Somadine) 930 A.D.. On that occasion he also issued a grant of the village Kevanja (Kimoj) in Khetaka Mandala of Latadesa to Nagamarya of Mathara gotra, who had left Kavika (Kavi) and settled at Manyakheta. The grant was composed by Nagavarman, son of Gangadhararaya.-( Camby Plates: EI., VIII, p. 26). Cambay Plates of the Rastrakata king Govinda IV, dated 930 A.D. inform us that this monarch gave away (the revenue of) 400 villages and 32 lakhs of drammas or suvarnas for the different temples in his domains. The revenues of an average village in the time of Govinda IV was 500 suvarnas ie. Kalanjus, gold coins, weighing each about a quarter of a tola,-( Altekar, The Rastraktas, pp. 219, 290). The Cambay and Sangli plates of the Rastrakuta king Govinda IV state that Laksmi, the wife of the Rastrakuta prince Jagattunga, was the daughter of Ranavigraha (Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, p. 38 and Ind. Ant., Vol. XII, p. 250); while .the Karda plates of Karka II say that she was the daughter of Sankaragana, the lord of Cedi,-(Ind. Ant., p. 264). Rapavigraha' was, thus, known to be a biruda of Sankaragana. Nagamarya, the donee of Cambay plates of the Rastrakuta king Govinda IV was an immigrant from Kavi in Gujarat who settled in Malkhed. This shows For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 263 that Gujarat Brahmins were settling down in Karnataka and were being honoured with brahmadaya grants. Epigraphical records prove that Brahmanas of one province were freely going to permanently settle in another. The donee of the Begumra plates of Indra III was an immigrant from Pasaliputra, which indicates that provincial barriers of castes had not arisen in the Rastrakuta period.-(Altekar, The Rastrakutas, P. 335). 933 In Devasena's Nayacakra, a Prakrit work on Logic, we are told that the work was originally composed in the Doha metre; but it was subsequently transformed into Gathas by Mailladhavala, because a critic remarked that Doha metre was not suitable for a serious subject like Logic. The date of Devasena, as recorded in one of his works, is V. S. 990 ( = 933 A. D.). 933 Harisena, a Digambara monk, pupil of the poet Bharatasena and grand-pupil of Sriharisena, composed Byhat-katha kosa (having 157 stories) in V. S. 989 ( 933 A. D.) at Vardhamanapura, which is identified by Dr. A. N. Upadhye, its editor, with a place near modern Wadhwan in Saurastra.-( Intro., p. 121 to Byhatkathakosa). Dr. Hiralal Jain, however, strikes a different note, as can be seen from his erticle The Chief political divisions of India during the 8th century.-(Indian Culture, Vol. XI, No. 41) C. 934-40 The Karhal plates of Krsna III (c. 940-56 ) seem to show a renewal of Rastrakuta pressure on the northern provinces of the Gurjara. Pratiharas in the reign of his father Amoghavarsa III (C. 934-40). That the Rastrakutas advanced so far as Citrakuta is confirmed by the Ahmedabad plates (949-70 A.D.) of the Paramara Siyaka II (EI, XIX, p. 177-79), a feudatory of Akalavarsa Klsna III. These struggles between the Gurjaras and the Rastrakulas produced disorder and anarchic conditions in this area, which indirectly helped the immediate rise of the Caulukyas in Gujarat.-( Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, p. 934). 935 Samantasimha Capotakata of Anbilvad, succeeds Ratnaditya till V.S. 991 1.8. 942 A.D. First Settlement of the Parsis at Sanjan, according to Prof. S. H. Hodiwala. (See Infra, year 716 A.D., and 866 A.D.. See, also Dr. I. J. S. Taraporewala's paper on 'The Exact Date of the Arrival of the Parsis in India', Kane Festschrift, pp. 506-414). The Parsi tradition mentions that the ruler who gave permission to the first emigrants to settle at Sanjan was named Jadi Rana. According to the Qissa-;-Sanjaan, this ruler belonged to the race of the Shahrayas'. Neither the name nor the race is otherwise known. It is suggested that the original 936 For Personal & Private Use Only

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264 939 939-965 940-950 940 C. 940 942 941-943 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT word Shahrayan is a misreading for Shilharayana which denotes the Silaharas, whose king was Vajjada-deva. Vajjada might have become Jadi, and the emigrants fresh from Iran, not liking to address their benefactors as 'deva', which had in Zoroastrian literature a meaning reverse of that which it bears in Sanskrit, they perhaps preferred to call him 'Rand.-(Hodivala, Studies in Parsi History, 1920 p. 74). Devagupta Suri, a Ksatriya by birth, had a fascination for playing on a lute. This he continued to do and thereby violated the rules meant for the Jaina clergy. The Jaina community, therefore, so pressed him that he gave up the designation of 'Suri', appointed another monk as his successor, and went to Lata. Henceforth it was decided that in the Upakesa gaccha, the leader to be appointed should have his pityhula (paternal descent) and matykula (maternal descent), too, pure.-(JPI-pt. I, pp. 26-27). The greatest Apabhramsa poet, who has so far come to light is Puspadanta, who wrote his Mahapurana, Jasahara-Cariu and Nayakumara-cariu at Manyakheta under the patronage of the ministers of the Rastrakuta king Krsna III, and his successor. Slyaka II, a Paramara Chief ruled over a considerable portion of Saurastra and the peninsular part of modern Gujarat as a vassal of the Rastrakutas between 940 and 950 A.D. His principality can be said to have included, at one time or another, Lata, Khetaka-mandala, modern Malava and Saurastra.(Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradesa, Part, I, p. 8-9). Mammataraja added some amount to the donation given by Vidagdharaja for the temple at Hastikundi (Hathundi), as is known from an inscription dated V. S. 996 (940 A.D.)-(JTS8, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 512). Vira Gapi had been to Tharapadra (Tharada) some time in the 10th century of the Vikrama era.-(JTSS, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 512. ). The Sakambharl Inscription of Caulukya Solanki Jayasimha Siddharaja gives the definite date of Caulukya Mularaja's accession, as Samvat 998-942 A.D. (Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi-9: giving the figures, to be read in the reverse order) : vasunaMdanidhau varSe vyatIte vikramArkataH / mUladevanarezastu cUDAmaNirabhUd bhuvi // -(Vishvesvara Nath Reu, Sambhar Inscription of Jayasimha, IA. LVII, 234.) The contemporary Arab observers were greatly impressed with the military strength of the Imperial Pratiharas, whom they called Baurah and Kings of Jurz. The high tribute paid by one of them to the efficiency of the Pratihara For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Siva-Parvati from Roda, now in Baroda Museum. (p. 316) Plate LXXII (B) Vinapani Siva from Kotesvara, near Ambaji, now in Baroda Museum. (p. 316)

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Plate LXXIII ME Dhanapati Kubera, from Kavi, Jambusara Taluka, Dist, Broach. (p. 276) For Personal & Private Use Only * P /

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Plate LXXIV Side-view (A) Head of a Tapasa (i) from Karvan (p. 275) Back-view Mother-Goddess from Bhinmal (p. 276) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXV ( A ) Nagaraja with a triple hood of Naga, from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu. (p. 210) (C) Kartikeya from Baroda, Baroda Museum (B) Agni from Osia, Marwad. For Personal & Private Use Only

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942 943 RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 265 administration is noteworthy." There is no country in India ", says Masudi, "more safe from robbers":-( HIE, I, 4, 21, 23). The Gujarat chronicles give a romantic, if unreliable, story of the Caulukya dynasty's origin. The Capotkatas (also Cavodakas) commonly known as Cavadas, ruled in Pancasara in the period Circa 720-956 A.D. During the reign of Samantasimha alias Bhuvata, the last prince of this line, Raji, Bija, and Dandaka, the 3 sons of Bhuvanaditya, the ruler of Kalyanakataka in Kanauj started incognito, in the guise of beggars on a pilgrimage to Somanatha. On their way back they attended a cavalry-parade held by Samantasimha. A criticism made by Raji, on some of the cavalry movements pleased Samantasimha, who taking him to be the scion of some noble family, gave him his sister Liladevi in marriage. Liladevi died pregnant, and the child, who was taken alive from his dead mother's womb, was called Mularaja, because the operation was performed when the Mula constellation was in power. Mul..aja grew up an able and popular prince who succeeded his uncle who was a vassal of the great Gurjara-Pratihara Empire.-( Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, pp. 934-35). Mularaja I, son of Raji of Kalyana (probably Kanauj) conquered Sarasvata Mandala (Samvat 998) and founded there the Caulukya or Solanki dynasty of Anhilvalpattan, and reigned till 996 A.D. The direct descendants of Mularaja ruled Gujarat until V.S. 1299 ( 1243 A.D.). They were succeeded by the Vaghelas, whose last king Karna (or Laghukarna ) Vaghela was defeated and routed by Alapkhan, a commander of Allauddin Khilji in 1298 A.D. EPILOGUE A village-chief (gramapati) granted in 945 A.D. lands to a community of Scholars (Vidyarthi Samgha) and a dwelling house to the teacher of a School ( Sala ), which had been founded by a minister of the Rastrakuta King Krsna III. It was further agreed that the Brahmanas of this village were to contribute, to the scholarly body, sums at stipulated rates on occasions of tonsure, investiture with the sacred thread and marriage, while the Parisat was to feast the same body whenever a feast was given to Brahmanas. The school was afterwards rebuilt by another chief.--(EI., IV, 60 f.). The Harsola Plates of the Rastrakuta king Kssna III (949 A.D.) throw light on the Gujarat policy of the later Rastrakutas, by revealing the existence of a family of feudatories, who appear to have supplanted the line of Indra. The Mahamandalika-culamani M. Siyaka, his father Vairisimha, and his grandfather Bappairaja of this inscription have been identified with the Paramara rulers Vakpati I, Vairisimha III, and Harsa-Siyaka II.-( Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, p. 840 ). 945 949 C34 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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266 C. 950 C. 950 C. 950 C. 950 959 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT A passage from the Vastrapalha mahatmya, a section of the Probhasa-Khanda of the Skandapurana, deals with the sacred sites of Girnar, tending to show that Bhoja's authority extended upto Saurastra.-(K. C. Rayachaudhari, IHQ, V, pp. 129-135). It is needless to go into the story centring round a woman with the face of a doe accompanying a herd of deer in the forests at Raivataka, her capture by the Baladhyaksa, and her revelations at Kanyakubja, referring to the sanctity of the waters of the Suvarnarekha. The story is uncredible, but it adduces the following points which deserve consideration: firstly, it refers to Bhoja's connnection with Saurastra where he appointed a Vanapala, and despatched his army (AI. 25); secondly, Bhoja is mentioned as the Emperor of Kanauj: kAnyakubje mahAkSetre rAjA bhojeti vizrutaH / purA puNyayuge dharmyaH prajA dharmeNa zAsati // VI, 201 The Una Plates of Bhoja clearly mention that his empire extended up to Saurastra, and ascended the throne at Kanauj. Thus the date presented by the passage from the Skanda Purana is in conformity with facts known from other sources.(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, p. 59). No less than five centres that were manufacturing swords are mentioned in Agni Purana, along with the distinctive qualities of their products. These are Surparaka (Sopara), Khatikhattara and Risika (Khandesh), Vanga (East Bengal) and Anga (Monghyr and Bhagalpur Districts).-( The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 400). Laksmanarajadeva, Kalacuri or Cedi, son and successor of Yuvaraja I, married Rahada. The Bilhari inscription records his defeat of the lord of Kosala, and his expedition to the very pleasant Western region, during which campaign he worshipped the God Somesvara in Gujarat. His daughter Bonthadev!, was the mother of the Western Calukya Tailapa II (973-997 A.D.).-(EI, ii, 174). Sri-Harsadeva, Siyaka II or Simhabhata, Paramara of Malava, son and successor of Vairisimha II; married Vadaja; he took in battle the wealth of (the Rastrakuta) king Khottiga.-(Udayapura Prasasti). Dhanapala's allusion in his Paiyalacchi namamala (V.S. 1029) to the plunder of Manyakheta by the lord of Malava probably refers to this conflict.--(EI, i, 225). Dhanapala who was a protege of Munja and Bhoja of Dhara, wrote the Risabhapancasika and also the Tilakamanjari-(IA, ii, 166; iv, 59). A flood of light is thrown on the state of Jainism during the 9th and 10th century by Yasastilaka campa, a literary romance in Sanskrit prose and verse, composed by Somadeva Sari in 959 A.D. For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 267 971 972 999 The Ekalinga (Udaipur ) inscription of the time of Naravahana of Nagadhara dated in V. S. 1028 (971 A. D.) refers to Siva becoming incarnate' as a man with a club (lakuta ) in his hand, in the country of Bhrigukaccha, and propitiated by Bhrigu.-(JBBRAS., Vol. XXII, p. 166). The other inscription, usually called Cintra Prasasti mentions Siva, becoming incarnate in the form of Bhattaraka Sri-Lakulisa, dwelling at Karohana in the Lata country. There appeared in bodily form four pupils of his of the names of Kusika, Gargya, Kaurusa and Maitreya for the strict performance of the Pasupata views, and they became the originators of four branches.--(EI., I, p. 271):-( See pp. 87-88). The invasion by Siyaka II of Dhara and the ravages made at Manyakheta, the capital of the Rastrakuta king Khottigadeva the successor of Kssna II, by the Malava king, are referred to by Dhanapala, the author of Paiyalacchinamamala V. S. 1029 (= A. D. 972 ). These ravages are mentioned by Puspadanta also, in one of the verses prefixed to the 'Sandhis' of his Mahapurana, completed in Saka 887 ( 965 A. D.). The earliest positive date for the settlement of the Iranian emigrants in India is furnished by two inscriptions found in Kanheri caves. These record the names of two parties of Iranian tourists who had visited the caves, and, like many modern visitors, chiselled their names on the rocks. The first inscription gives the names of 17 men, and the second, of 10 men including 4 of the first; and these are dated respectively in 999 and 1021 A. D. The script as well as the language of both the inscriptions is Pahlavi and the personal names are, without exception, purely Iranian. As the Parsis in India freely adopted Hindu surnames (their names being Iranian even now), it has been argued that the arrival of the Iranians in India could not have been very old at the time the inscriptions were engraved. This, in a way, supports the date 936 A. D., as suggested above. A list of ports on the Gujarat coast is available from the accounts of the early Arab geographers, during the repulse of the Arab invasions on the mainland of India in the beginning of the 8th century upto the fateful year 997 A.D., when Afghanistan passed into the hands of the Turks. Kambay, Thana and Sopara and further South Sindan (modern Sanjan, 88 miles north of Bombay, from which port was exported pepper) are mentioned by them.-( The Age of Imperial Kanauja, p. 402) The sects of Candi and Ganesa hold good ground in the Kali age ( offatt) ie, in the mediaeval period of Hindu history. Out of the gallery of the Hindu Pantheons these two are the only powerful and serviceable Gods. While locating the cult of Sakti over the different provinces in C. 1000 C. 1000 For Personal & Private Use Only

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268 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT C. 1000 India, the Sakta Pandits are fond of reciting the following sloka : gauDe prakAzitA vidyA maithilai: prabalIkRtA / kacit kvacinmahArASTra gurjare vilayaM gtaa|| The cult was proclaimed in Gauda (Bengal ) and was developed by the Maithilas : it is only occasionally met with in Maharastra; but has completely disappeared in Gujarat. Verily, true Saktas are not at all numerous in Gujarat. A kindred verse occurs in the Bhagavata Purana-Mahatmya from Padma Purana ( 12th century A.D.) with reference to the prevalence of Bhakti ( absolute attachment to God ), where Bhakti personified declares as under : utpannA drAviDe sA'haM vRddhiM karNATake gtaa| kvacit kvacinmahArASTra gurjare vilayaM gtaa| This verse is supported by facts.--(M. R. Majmudar Devi-Mahatmya and Sakti-worship, with reference to Gujarat', JISOA, 1938). The early Arab writer of the ninth and tenth centuries refer to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation, both of grain and fruits, specially, in Western India with which they were particularly acquainted. Some cities in Gujarat grew mangoes, coconuts, lemons, rich and in great quantities, and likewise produced quantities of honey. One such city also grew canes and teak trees, while Malabar produced pepper and bamboo.--(HIND, I 15-16, 24, 27-8, 35, 37-40; Ferrand, 117). Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara (Taranga, 22) refers to one Vidyadhara, who was born in the family of a rich merchant of Valabhi, named Vasudatta. This Vidyadhara was ordered by his father to go to another country where he had some business interests. Somadeva ( Katha, Taranga 29) refers again to a merchant named Devasena of Pataliputra as going to Valabhi on business, and leaving his wife Kirtisena to the tender mercies of his mother. Nitivakyampta' or the Nectar of the Sayings of Polity' was composed by the Jaina monk Somadevasuri. The Bhavisayattakaha of Dhanapala is an Apabhraisa poem in twenty-two sandhis, and narrates the life of a merchant who suffered immensely on account of the jealousy of his step-brother, and is assigned by Dr. Hermann Jacobi to the tenth century A.D. III C. 1000 C. 1000 C. 1000 ANTIQUITIES Western School of Wall Painting;: Srogadhara's 'School of Ancient West' referred to by Taranatlia, the Tibetan historian, in 1508 A.D. does not seem to have been Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 269 localised in Western India; but its traditions seem to have travelled as far as Nepal and Burma (in the wall-paintings at Pagin ), where the earlier school of art resembled the Old Western School. The distinguishing features of this school founded in Marwar cannot be surmised, as no painting from Marwar or Western India from those early times has survived. But if sculpture be the index of art-conventions of those times, then the angularity in the treatment of human figures may be counted as the distinguishing features of the Western Indian art of Bundelkhand, Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat. Jaina Frescoes at Elura : In the middle layer of the wall-paintinga at Kailasanatha, Elura (9th century), however, the angularity of human figures, pinching to the farther cheek, and the consequent protrusion of the farther eye into empty space are met with. As these conventions are still in embryonic stage in the later cave-paintings of Ajanta, (Plate LIX a, b) they may be attributed to the extraneous influence, probably of Gujarat and Rajputana. The Bagh fresco of the Dandarasaka on the ancient route connecting Malwa with Gujarat may be again referred to here. The influence of Western Indian art at a somewhat later period is marked in the Visnu temple at Madanpur, in Lalitpur Dist. (U.P.), adjoining Malwa. The battle scenes in the Western porch of Kailasanatha, Elura, depicting rows of horsemen, and the inscriptional evidence indicating their connection with the Paramaras of Malwa, who were feudatories of the Rastrakutas, also show Rajput or Western Indian influence. In the roth century or even a little earlier, the conventions of the Western Indian style left their homeland and travelled to the remotest corners of India, influencing the contemporary Pala paintings in Eastern India, and penetrated as far as Pagan and Nepal.-( Moti Chandra ; Jain Paintings of Western India, 1952, p. 17). From the study of the wall-paintings, roughly from the gth to 12th Century, found in the South, the Deccan and as far as Malwa, we are struck with certain characteristic features which are common to all. The crude colour-modelling, the linear quality of the drawing, the protuberance of the farther eye into space, pointedness of nose and chin, the conventional treatment of trees, animals and birds are common features of all. There are, of course, local variations in the details of costume and also of human types; but the similarity of technique is so great that all these wall-paintings bear the stamp of a common stock. These wall-paintings, are, thus, the harbingers of nex conventions in Indian art, which became stereotyped in Western Indian Miniatures. Miniatures from Western India conserve rich material for the study of Western Indian costumes and textile designs. Gujarat, as we know, was a great centre of calicoprinting, and it exported printed calico to Africa and Asiatic countries from the 10th to 16th century. No textile material has survived from this period in Gujarat proper, and the only source for the knowledge of the patterns and colours employed by the textile printers of Gujarat are these Miniature Paintings. That the printers took the designs from the contemporary art of textile-printing is supported by the actual appearance of such Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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270 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT designs on the contemporary printed calico-pieces from Gujarat discovered from excavations in the sands of Fustat near Cairo in Egypt. - (R. Pfister, Les Toiles Imprimess de Fustat et l'Hindoustan, 1938). Architecture : The late Gupta-Ca potkata architectural art of Anhilwad Patan is in evidence by way of architectural remains that have been recovered from this area ; and are on view at the Baroda Museum Sculpture Gallery. The early Pratihara architecture that flourished under Devaraja and Vatsaraja during the latter half of the 8th Century, is noticeable in the Karvan door-frame, facing the entrance to the lake. The style of these temples is unintelligible without the assumption of a certain Calukya influence. Temples: Among extant temples that have somewhat survived the ravages of time can be mentioned the Osia group of Surya and Visnu temples, 35 miles from Jodhpur, (Plate LXI), the Roda group of Siva and Sakti temples in the former Idar State, (Plate LX), the Kottai temple in Kaccha (Plate LXII a ), and the Kalikamata temple at Chitorgadh (Plate LXII b), retain many of the post-Gupta characteristics, wherein the sculpture plays an indivisible part of decoration of these temples. These small-size temples at Roda, Osia, Kiradu, and Delvada (Mt. Abu), belong to this period of the Rastrakutas and the Pratiharas. Ganga-Yamuna Motif on Door-frames : The presence of the Ganga and Yamuna, on the door-frames of Osia temples, standing respectively on a crocodile and a tortoise, evince a continuance of this Gripta motif so far. This motif is also traced on the door-frames at the Varahamandira, Kadvar, the Sun temple at Than, the temples at Roda, the entrance door-frame on the lake at Karvan and at the Siva temple at Limkheda,and the temple at Kalesari, 15 miles north of Lunavada. Ganga from Idar: A loose sculpture of Ganga on Makara from Idar has also been recovered.-( Plate XL). Door-frame at Karvan Lake: The magnificent door-frame-the two stele of a gateway still on view in situ, leading to the lake at Karvan, are the interesting architectural remains, with the Gupta-motif of Ganga on makara and Yamuna on a kurma, both holding pots of water, on either side of the door-frame. It is assignable to early 9th Century A.D. -(U. P. Shah, JOI, Vol. I, No. 2, p. 254, 1952-53).---( Plate LXIII). Architectural Remains from Patan: The discovery of a few pieces of late Gupta architectural remains of early 9th century, from a temple nearby Anahilval Patao, has been remarkable both for its tiny size as well as for its sculptural decorative art. These remains consist of the upper part of two door-jambs, a yaksa-bracket piece, two slabs representing step-roofs with image-niches, a panel of five Matrikas and an image-niche, between two makara-heads. The seated figure of Siva as a Yogi is typically post-Gupta in execution, full of strength and serenity. The sculptural art in these specimens represents a later phase of the School of Ancient West, said to have been founded by Sringadhara of Marudesa.-(H. Goetz, Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, P. 25).- Plate LXV b.). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 271 Architectural Remains from Kadvar: The stray sculptures of Vamana and Rama with the architectural background from Varaha temple at Kadvar, near Somanatha, belong to this period. - (Plate LXV a). Torana at Samalaji: The torana, the pratolyaka, the kirlistambha, or the arched gateway on the other side of the Mesvo river, near Samalaji is believed to be one of the earliest in Western India. The primitive wooden pallisades which enclosed the early settlements of the Vedic Aryans were built of bamboo and teak. The Buddhist toranas of stone at Sanchi and Bharhut are supposed to have been evolved from these wooden gates, which were erected as gateways for going round the Stupas. They added beauty and grandeur to the simple hemi-spherical structures of the Stupas. With their height and elegant plastic art they attracted and impressed the incoming worshipper. The temple architecture of the Hindus adopted this essential item; and that is how we come across arched gateways erected before temples, varying in style, size etc. according to their geographical provenance. Under the royal patronage of Gurjara-Pratiharas of Mandor and Bhinmal and the Paramaras of Malwa, and the Caulukyas of Gujarat and Abu, architecture and sculptural art of Rajasthan, Marwad, Malwa and Gujarat developed on regional lines. The toranaarchitecture developed side by side with temple architecture. The torana at the entrance of Mahavira temple at Osia, dated Samvat 1013 ( 947 A.D.), and the toranas at Modhera, Vadnagar, Siddhapur, Piludra and Kapadvanj in North Gujarat are the extant examples of torana-architecture. However, the Samalaji torana being earlier, varies greatly from them in shape, proportion, treatment of sculptures and other decorative motifs. The central double semi-circle arch is unique in design. The torana standing on the southern bank of the river is about 20 feet above the river bed, and measures from the debris 11" in height and 10" in width. The torana is an ultunga type of arched gateway of a temple facing the north. The whole structure is composed of a pitha or udumbara (base), two stambhas (pillars) and patta (lintel). The surmounting superstructure or Kutachhidya is known to have existed from the surviving fragment of the cornice, overlying the lintel. From two makara-mukhus in the lintel and other decorations on the pillars of this torana, it is definitely known that it is a temple gateway (Cf. dalasatami AITOT APTITUTI -F ATTA, IV, 64,93). The striking difference between the Caulukyan and the Samalaji torana is the shape and decoration of pillars which are square, as distinguished form Osia and others which are octagonal. The graceful temple figure on the side of the torana facing the south holding a flower in her right hand, with typical headdress and ornaments, and the style of showing schematic folds of the sari clinging to the body shows a close resemblance to the post-Gupta sculptures so common in the vicinity, and thus this lorana can be assigned to a period between the 8th and gth Century A.D.-(Suryakant Chowdhari, 'A Torana at Samalaji, North Gujarat', Journal M. S. University Baroda, Vol. VIII, No. 1, March 1959).-(Plate LXIV). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Sun-temples: The gift of the Rastrakuta King Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya) at Kavi shows that princely support was not all-together lacking and even the Valabhi rulers could be occasionally found to patronise this faith. The multiplicity of the Sun-temples on the southern coast of Saurastra, where tribes emigrating from Kashmir and worshipping the Sun probably lived, indicates that the Sun-cult was quite vigorous here. The temple at Visavada (Plate LXVI a), Bilesvara (Plate LXVI b), Kinderkheda, Modhera, Somanatha-Pattana, Than, Sutrapada and other places are fairly well packed in time to justify this conclusion. 272 An early tenth century temple at Osia, and temples in old Jodhpur, Sirohi, and other States in Western India indicate the prevalence of the cult in north-western and western India during mediaeval times. The small temple at Kalasar, probably a Suntemple, near Mahuva on the sea-board, resembles that of Gop, as far as it retains the Caityawindow motif on the facades of the sikhara. It was discovered by Ravishankar Raval.(Journal Gujarat Research Society, April, 1919). Sun-cult: The Sun-cult must have existed prior to the rise of Bhagavatism; for the Chandogya Upanisad, one of the oldest Upanisads, refers to Krsna Devakiputra as a disciple of Ghora Angiras, a worshipper of the Sun. That Kaniska should have coins struck with the image of Mithra, with the name Miiro (Mihira) added, proves that the Persian solar cult had infiltrated into Brahmanical belief by the first century A.D. The Puranas, like Bhavisya, Samba, Varaha and others, narrate the story of the introduction of the cult into India from Sakadvipa (Eastern Iran), and the Brihat-Samhita expressly lays down that the images of the god should be duly installed by the Magas who are none other than the Sun and Fire-worshipping Magi of ancient Iran. The 57th chapter of the Brihat-Samhita and many iconographic texts again. emphasise such alien features of the Surya figures, as udicyavesa (northern derss), avyanga (the Indian form of the Iranian airyaonghen, the sacred woollen waist-girdle, which a Zoroastrian is enjoined to wear), etc., which are almost invariably present in the extant North-Indian specimens.. The Mandsor stone-inscription of the time of Kumaragupta I (451 A.D.) commemorating the building of a sun-temple by silk-weavers who had migrated from Lata, and the Indore copper-plate grant of Skandagupta show that the sun-worship which prevailed in Central India was patronised by the guilds. It is also known that the contemporary Hunas-Toramana and Mihirakula-were both worshippers of the Sun. The reference to a private Sun-temple in a copper-plate of King Siladitya I further supports the existence of Sun-worship (Buhler, Dhank Plates of 290, A IX, p. 237). The Gurjara kings-King Dadda I and Dadda II,-who were in possession of land round about Bharukaccha were also devotees of the Sun during that period. The word 'Maitraka' itself is believed by some to have been derived from mitra, the Sun, and is taken to be supported by the ending word Aditya' as in 'Siladitya'. However, out of about twenty Valabhi kings, For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXVI For Personal & Private Use Only 0000OOOOOO (B) Vamana becoming Virata, from Osia Temple, Marwad. (p. 272) (A) Hari-Hara from Osia temple, Marwad. (p. 272)

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Plate LXXVII yunazywayasantennisyear 356maja vasavA2454041 9ey! 1kasa gineyouare Py TOIRE WARANGAL 28) up 2: egyen-yudent? lookaaN nuuN see mU B phrabrmwsree8jean 03 s kh l k wy' U4Wj 20 take jInaZ564)3YSuzey Y&&JANIEL phaaodny piinythiibM Seo 1 yo naanaan ( aan aaw>> ayezuzf Va somswn kaanmaa ayneb paMane pIsa meyye Jyel a=861 navema HENAJAY TYTANZRESZCENTAL SEMANA nykaanknnbn9s`dthng 2 nkwd888 kaang ay BIJUTERII ngaiyal's? AGENTAN YA FO =play&quo 13 MONTANAGEME v {V} } returYE CONT THAN eilapnnyaabndaaaabiithii 4 pii 1 aid ph miikum3 m ewlaa braam2 cchasaa Teen DTCIALS MY2218 5 saalabnnyaakaad 39 pay =ER=36 namana ya ra =uCx-se FESTON IS/10nA nAma JANE TALENIA. ay to in SEA 7deg29' (A) A Valabhi Copper-plate shdh : (B) A Saindhava Copper-plate, with a fish symbol. Jamnagar Museum. For Personal & Private Use Only 7 v

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Plate LXXVIII Sculpture of a Music Party, Surat Museum. (p. 277) For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Miniatures of Tara, from an Illustrated Palm-Mss of the Pala period, Baroda Museum. (p. 277) Plate LXXIX (B) Inscription on the backside pedestal of the life-size Buddha bronze at old Kotyarka temple, Mahudi, still in situ. Reads the Buddhist formula ye dharmAH hetu prabhavAH evaM vAdI mahAzrava] [ma] (P. 318)

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 273 only the fifth king Dharapatta seems to have professed the faith of the Sun, as he styled himself as 'paramaditya-bhakta'. Standing Surya from Karvan, assignable to the gth Century at the latest, wears an ekavali and a golden chain-girdle, with a chain hanging on each thigh, and the beaded armlets which have been common to sculptures of the Samalaji group. The oblong halo with a lotus-petal border at the end is remarkable. The Surya holds the lotus. The smaller figures of Danda and Pingala still retain the earlier Gupta traditions. The crown appears to have evolved from the crown of Visnu from Bhinmal, and the stone-head from Samalaji, which is again comparable with the high crown from Elephanta Mahesa-murti and the crown of Jivantasvami bronze from Akota.- Plate LXVII b). Standing Surya from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu: Two-armed standing Surya, rather stunted in height, located at Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu, is later than the one at Jagannath shrine, probably of C. gth Century A.D. The forms of attendant females here are common to the art of the Gurjara-Pratihara period in Western India. The double neck-ornament and the necklace with bell-design are noteworthy.-( Plate LXVII a). Standing Surya from Delvada is also noteworthy.-(Plate LXVII c). Sculptures of Seated Surya : Our knowledge of sculptures of seated Surya from Gujarat is limited. The panel on the door-frame of the Varaha temple at Kadvar (near Somanath ), assigned to the 8th Century A.D., has an image of Surya, first from the right. It is seated on a lotus in the utkatika (raised hips) pose, and seems to have two hands only, which bear a lotus each, held as high as the shoulder. On a stone door-frame, (C. 12th Century) at the Junagadh Museum, in a nitch on the arch of the torana is found a seated Surya, in a chariot drawn by seven horses. Seated Surya from Prabhasa : A composite figure of Surya from Prabhasa, seated in padmasana has three faces, the profile ones being in tact, and the front disfigured. There is a halo round the face. It is a tri-murti with Surya (Visnu) in the middle, the lotus-stalks being visible. It has perhaps six hands with dhyana mudra, two each for the three forms of Brahma, Visnu and Mahesa. It has worn an udarabandha and a girdle. The figure is seated on a chariot with the avyanga. Heads of the seven horses are in view, and are driven by a small charioteer, seated in front of the figure. It, perhaps, cannot be earlier than 8th century.-(Sankalia, Archaeol gy of Gujarat, p. 162, fig. 74). Seated Surya from Unza : The seated figure of Surya with a beautifully shaped round face from Unza belongs to this period; as it has all the artistic characteristics and stylistic affinities of the pre-Solanki sculptures. It has, however, no prabha-mandala. The rosette-frame round the sculpture is noteworthy.-(Plate LXVIII a). Seated Surya from Roda: Seated yet headless Surya images from Roda, about 9 miles east of Himatnagar, in the old Idar State, (now in Baroda Open Air Sculpture Gallery') are assigned to the late 9th Century, roughly to the pre-Solanki period. The composite sculpture when entire, must have been a superb specimen of Indian art. The C35 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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274 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT modelling, the configuration, the balance and the proportions can be clearly discerned even from its mutilated condition.-(B. Chhabra; Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. XII, 1955-56). ---( Plate LXVIII C). Ranu-pipli Seated Surya : The discovery of the magnificent sculpture of seated Surya of fine sandstone from Ranu-pipli, ( Padra taluka, Baroda Dist.) on the border line of Lata, separating it from Central Gujarat, (discovered by Chandramauli Majmudar in 1959), is one of the finest pieces in good preservation from this area. It is about 3.5 ft. high and 2 ft. broad. The one-wheeled chariot, ornamented with lotus-petals is shown yoked with seven horses, with the fore-legs raised, suggesting to be in action, on which is seated Aruna, in the centre, with two sets of reins held by the left hand. On the right stands Una and on the left Pratyuna, their loose skirt floating in the air owing to the chariot in motion. The other two figures on each of his sides are those of Danda (Yama) and Pingala (Agni) with swords in hand. Surya is shown with a halo, supported by a makara torana demarcated by two rows of lotus-petals. The kirita mukuta adorns the head. The oval face has eyes in dhyanamudra. The kundalas are round and elegant. The yajnopavita shown by three minute threads hangs down from the left shoulder. In the neck is an ekavali. Out of the two hands the left holding a lotus-stalk is in tact. The Sun is seated cross-legged in the fadmasana, the legs being shown covered by a semi-transparent cloth, and not the usual boots. The sculpture is assignable to the Pratihara period, i.e. not later than 9th Century A!)-(Plate LXVIII b). Six-armed Seated Visnu: Six-armed (all mutilated ) Visnu, seated in padmasana on a broad lotus, supported with a long thick stalk at Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu, is a beantiful figure, about 3 feet high. Below the lotus are two Nagas and two Naginis, sitting with folded hands. There are also ayudha-purusas. The cap-like crown, richly decorated and having a central gavaksa-motif with a makara head in the centre, is noteworthy. The crown-design compares well with the Ananta-Visnu of Samalaji. Though not representing Buddhavatara, it may be compared with the Buddavatara-Visnu from Dindavana in Rajasthan.-(R. C. Agravala, Journal Museums Association, Vol. IX, Fig. 46, Pl. XXII)(U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1955-56, Fig. 12).-( Plate LXIX). Sculpture from Dwarka : A sculpture from Dwarka (Baroda Museum ) identificd with Sibi by some, is a mere bust ( the lower part mutilated ) of a royal figure adorned with a crown, a necklace set with big gems, circular ear-rings on long ear-lobes reaching the shoulders, and heavy bracelets. The modelling is somewhat crude, as the heaviness of the limbs is emphasised. The face has features of a foreigner, broad (thin ) lips and chin and a squarish face and jaw-bones. The figure holds a bird close to the breast, may be a falcon or a fowl. Flames issuing out of the shoulders suggest another identification of Agni with a cock. However, the effect of holding the bird is to suggest an act of offering protection. It can be assigned to the late post-Gupta age, C. 8th century A.D.(Plate XXXII b). Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA--PRATIHARA PERIOD 275 2 ) Standing Bhairava from Baroda : A big image of a standing Bhairava, probably from the temple of Bhimanatha on the other side of the Ankotaka mound, discovered from the banks of Visvamitri by M. R. Majmudar ( now in Baroda Museum Gallery ) has an elaborate and heavy jata, a terrific appearance with protruding teeth, a third eye on the fore-head, and the two wide rolling eyes. He carries a khadga ( sword) and the shield in the two upper hands, and the staff (danda) and the snake in the two lower ones. The ekavali (necklace ), the turbanlike elaborate head-dress and the attendant gana on the right, suggest a late 7th or early 8th century A.D. date for its execution. The modelling of the figure is heavy and crude, and the shoulders are broad and stiff, but these features are probably introduced to emphasise the ugra (violent) form of the image. - ( Plate XXX) Bhairava from Baroda Museum: A big bust of a Bhairava in Baroda Museum Gallery, apparently in the same style, is however, less terrific in appearance, with a plain halo (prabha mandala) and the head artistically turned slightly to the right from the centre of the halo. The braided hair is treated more tastefully.- (Plate XXX). Head of a Tapasi from Karvan: The centre of Lakulisa worship has yielded a beautiful head of a Tapasa or may be a Tapasi, showing an artistic knitting of hair, which can be seen from both, the front and the back, views of the head.-(Plate LXXIV a, b). Kartikeya Sculptures : The worship of Kartikeya related to the Siva pantheon was popular in Western and Central India, perhaps under the influence of the Lakulisa sect. The rule of Kumaragupta over Western India also gave an impetus to this worship. Kartikeya from Baroda: A beautiful but headless image of Kartikeya was discovered from Baroda by U. P. Shah, which is now in the Baroda Museum. It has two arms, one holding the spear and the other a bowl. The twin necklace, the waist ornament, known as uru-jalaka, as well as the armlets suggest a period in the early 9th century A.D. The modelling is chaste and retains the grace of the earlier period. However, the crude representation of the peacock slightly mars the beauty of the sculpture.- Plate LXXI a). Kartikeya from Kapuri: The other figure of Kartikeya, from Kapuri near Baroda, set in the rosette-frame could be assigned to the latter half of the 8th Century. The rosette-frame has a common motif with the panel of Lakulisa ( standing), Visnu, and Brahma in the compound of the Kamanatha temple on the banks of Visvamitri river, Baroda.-( Baroda Museum Bulletin ).-( Plate LXXI b). Kartikeya from Karvan: This belongs to 8th Century A.D. and probably it formed a part of the old temple, stray loose sculptures from which are seen even today in the temple. This sculpture has already been noted in the previous period. Siva-Parvati from Roda: Siya-Parvati, carved out of a greenish-blue schist block, from Roda is later in date, and assignable to the end of 9th Century.---(Plate LXXII a). Vina-Pani Siva from Kotesvara: The four-armed Siva carries the vina in two hands, and the trisula and the naga in the other two. Nandi is at the back. The Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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276 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT sculpture conies from Kotesvara, Banaskantha District, since removed to Baroda Museum. -(LXXII b). Uma-Mahesvara from Karvan: Uma-Mahesvara, standing against the Nandi, also from Karvan is a beautiful specimen of sculpture under the Gurjara-Pratihara rule in C. gth Century A. D. Kaumari from Karvan: A loose sculpture of Kaumari at a temple in Karvan in a dancing pose, perhaps belongs to the unknown pantheon of Lakulisa sect from Karvan, executed during this period.-(Plate LXXII a). Sakti from Bhinmal: Sakti, Gauri or Parvati from Bhinmal, represents fertility and vegetation. The peculiar seating posture of the goddess comes from a very old tradition, tracing back to the Indus-Valley Civilization. The origin of these types of figure has been suggested by Dr. Stella Kramrisch to be the Vedic conception of Aditi, the Earth, the All-Mother. The two lotuses show that she was regarded as a form of Gauri. The beautiful head-dress, the long eyes, the squarish face with a broad fore-head, the meagre Ornaments etc. enable us to assign the sculpture to at least the C. 8th Century A. D., on stylistic grounds.-U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1955-56)-( Plate LXXII b). Kubera from Kavi : There have been a few sculptures discovered from Lata or Southern Gujarat which could be assigned to the late Gupta or to the Rastrakuta period, as suggesting a good deal of artistic activity and advanced taste in this area. A wide popularity of the Saivite or Pasupata cult is in evidence in Lata in the Gupta and postGupta periods. Sculptures from Karvan testify to the prevalance of the style of sculptures executed under the Gupta traditions. Ancient Kapika is the same as the modern town Kavi in Jambusar Taluka, Broach District, situated not far from the Gulf of Cambay. From this place was discovered by M. R. Majmudar in 1940 the tiny sculpture of Kubera executed on a piece of green schist. It measures 12 inches by 8 inches. In this magnificently conceived figure of the pot-bellied god Kubera, the Kalasodara, a somewhat stout type of anatomy is adopted by the sculptor to convey the beautyform and pose of remarkable charm and dignity. In the figure, all the lines balance and harmonize in a scheme of plastic composition which has a logic entirely of its own. A subtle sense of restraint and a skilful welding of the different plastic values of the limbs keep the artist from stepping into the abyss of the grotesque, or the quagmire of the ludicrous. This points out that it is not by the use of a conventional anatomy, a thinwaisted frame or exquisitely posed figure that the Indian Sculptor attains his consummation. He is as happy in expressing spiritual values through his thin-waisted figures as through those with thick-waisted and stout proportions. The right leg of the figure is so held up as to place the foot at a point which furnishes an artistic device to indicate the plumb-line, the vertical axis running through the centre of the composition, with reference to which the limbs, the other elements of the composition, are skilfully related. This happily translates the idea of serenity and repose, Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 277 the underlying motif of the iconographic conception. The smile on the face is remarkable. -- Plate LXXIII).. A somewhat crude figure of Kubera was noticed in a step-well at Bhinmal (Southern Marwar). It has all the outlines of the contour in high relief. The ekavuli and the deep navel on the pot-belly arrest our attention. However, the general pose of the sculpture affords a good contrast to the Kavi image. Rama from Kadvar Varaha Temple: A loose Sculpture of Rama, with a bow and arrow in hand is lying at the Varaha temple at Kadvar, four miles from Prabhasa.(Plate LXX a ). Balarama from Kavi : The sculpture of Haladhara Balarama actually shown with a tracter (hula) in the right hand, secured from this site, evinces the self-same postGupta affinities of style and is made from the same green stone. Both these pieces are in Dr. M. R. Majmudar's collection.-( Plate LXX b). A Music Party Sculpture : in green schist from the Winchester Museum Collection, Surat, has great stylistic affinities with the Kubera from Kavi. It measures 10" X 12". This is being illustrated through the kind offices of Shri Rajendra Surakatha, the Honorary Curator of the Surat Museum.-( Plate LXXVIII). Collosal Jaina Images : Round about the end of this period, many Jaina images in stone were produced employing the formula of the Buddha or the cult of the gigantic Yaksa image. Those at Taranga, Patan, Satrunjaya, Abu and Girnar, to mention the most known, possess undoubted simplicity of form and considerable feeling ; but they are usually marked by a rigidness which make them unimaginative and monotonous. The execution of images of this period, however, seems to be perfect, but gaudy and much stereotyped. The figures are generally beautifully and delicately ornamented, the expression being natural, serene and peaceful. The frame of the body, the garments, the various ornaments and the symbols are faithfully depicted according to the dhyana prescribed in the Silpa texts; yet they lack something very vital. Buddhist Sculptures: Tara : In the Pala period, i.e. especially during the reign of the Pala king Ramapala, people in Bengal knew of the existence of at least three Buddhist temples in Gujarat, containing images of three Buddhist deities: Tara, Kuru. kulla and Cunda. This is known from the three miniatures of an illustrated Mss of Pancavimsati Sahasrika Prajnaparamita (now in Baroda Museum), copied in Circa 1092 A.D., which throw light on the state of Buddhism in Latadesa or Gujarat. These miniatures illustrate the three deities in the three principal Buddhist temples in Gujarat. The legends below them read as follows : (1) Lahtadese Tarapure Tara (2) Lahtadese Kurukullasikhare Kurukulla (3) Lahtadese V umkaranagare Cunda As the artists could depict the deities and temples in their miniatures, (Plate LXXIX) it is not nnreasonable to suppose that Bengal Buddhists used to come on pil Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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278 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT grimage to Tarapura, Kurukulla Sikhara and Vumkara Nagara in Gujarat, which were held sacred under the Buddhist Tantrism. Tarapura can be identified with the village near Cambay, and Kurukulla Sikhara may be the Taranga hill. The third cannot be traced.--( B. Bhattacharya, 22 Buddhist Miniatures from Bengal', Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. I, No. I, 1943-44).- Plate LXXIX ). Jaina Tirtha of Taranga: At Taranga Hill, which is a Jaina tirtha since Kumarapala (1143-1174 A.D.), who restored the temple of Ajitanatha, is situated near the small village of Timba among the hills, on the west bank of the Sabarmati river, in N. Gujarat. There are three peaks, and in the basin of it are situated the Jaina sanctuaries. Near the ravines are two shrines which are Buddhistic. In the Kumarapala pratibodha of Somaprabhacarya ( 12th century A.D.) in Prakrit-Apabhramsa, in the story of Khaputacarya, a king named Vatsaraja is mentioned, who though converted a Jaina, had built the temple of Buddhist Tara: tArAi buddhadevIi maMdiraM kAriyaM puvvaM / Asannagirimmi tao, bhannai tArAuraM ti imo / / and the city was called Tarapura. After becoming a Jaina, Vatsaraja built the temple of Siddhayika, the Yaksi of Mahavira. Thus, even according to the Jaina tradition, Jainism followed Buddhism even on this hill. Tara on Taranga Hill: Image of Tara (4' height), locally known as Dharanamata is housed in a small shrine near the Tarana-mata temple. Nine Buddhist images including one of Avalokitesvara Padmapani were noticed. The goddess Varada-Tara is seated in the lalita pose, on a lotus seat, on which her left leg is folded, with her right foot hanging down and resting on a small lotus. Her right hand, the palm of which is broken off and rests on her thigh, must have been in the varada pose. The left hand, though broken, shows the remnants of the lotus and its stalk. Over the halo of lustre behind her head, there is a picturesque ornament with a double-winged bird, over which on a lotus-seat is seated Amitabha, perhaps, because, she is the counter-part of Avalokitesvara, who emanates from the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. Just on the pedestal, in the characters of the late 8th or early 9th century A.D. is inscribed the Buddhist creed : ye dharmA hetuprabhavA hetuM teSAM tathAgato hyavadat / teSAM ca yo nirodha evaM vAdI mahAzramaNaH / / There are also four seated Buddhas in a dark cave nearby.-(Plate LXXX). Buddha from Nagara : A seated image of a Dhyani Buddha is situated on a small hillock in Nagara, the ancient site of a city about four miles from modern Cambay. The full-size sculpture can be seen even today in situ.-( Plate LVI b). Statue of Buddha on Isalva Hill: A full length statue of the Buddha, which was mistaken for Dhundhalimalla, a local saint, was reported to have been found lying on the top of the Isalva hill, near Vala.--( Annual Report, Watson Museum, Rajkot, 1938-9; p. 29). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 279 A Female Sculpture from Paldi: This was unearthed from Paldi, the site of old Karnavati, and is at present located in the H. K. College Collection, Asrama Road, Ahmedabad. It has all the stylistic peculiarities of the pre-Solanki sculptures, assignable to the Pratihara period, not later than early roth century A.D.-(Plate LXXXI). Adi-varaha Coins : Base Silver and Copper Coins with the figure of Adi-varaha an incarnation of Visnu-on the obverse, and a Nagari legend in two lines, mentioning the name of the ruler of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty on the reverse, are known for a long time, and have engaged the attention of several scholars.--['Note on Adi-varaha Coins', K. M. Munshi, Glory that was Gurjara Desa (1955), Appendix VI, Pp. 215 ). Some of these coins are reported to be in the Baroda Museum, but they could not be traced. The coins issued by Bhoja have the legend Srimad-Adi-varaha on the reverse, while those of Vinayakapaladeva have the boar on the obverse, and the king's name on the reverse. The full obverse device does not appear in its entirety on any single coin; and it has to be pieced to-gether from a number of specimens. The reverse has an inscription in two lines, written in the characters of the gth and roth Centuries. The first line mentions that and the second fake. Below the legend is an altar in between two other devices. Coins of Bappa Raval : Pandit Gaurishankar Ojha had illustrated and described a gold coin of Bappa Raval (JASB, 1927: Numismatic Supplement, No. XXIII, p. 14-18). Dr. A. S. Altekar published another coin of the same ruler Vopparaja in 1933 (Proceedings, VII All-India Oriental Conference, Pp. 703-5) with a revised and reconstructed reading of the legend, originally published with the reading by Dr. Hoernle, with a drawing, as Sri Dhairyaraja in 1881 (Proc., A.S.B.), and by R. Burns in 1904 (JASB, 1904, p. 65; Pl. I, No. 2) as Sri Vigharaha. Altekar proposed a third reading Vopparaja, which, in a way, is the name of the same king whose coin is published by Ojhaji. The obverse of both these coins is identical. Immediately below the legend, at the left end of the coin, there is a trisula, and then to its right a Sivalinga on a platform of two steps. To the right of the Sivalinga is the sacred Nandi, his effigy being worn out in Ojhaji's coin, but quite clear on the present one. Below Siva and Nandi, in both the coins, there is a man lying prostrate. Both the coins have a dotted border. The reverse of the two shows a slight variation. The devices are the same in two, but the cow faces the right in Ojhaji's coin, it faces to the left in the second one. Of the three symbols above the cow, the chhatra is very clear in the present coin. The chhatra and cauri are to the left and right, respectively of the sun. The period of the coin is early mediaeval. The emblems on the coin-Siva and Nandi and a man lying prostrate before them, the cow and the calf on the reverse, makes it probable that it belongs to Bappa Raval of Chitor. Nandi represents Ekalingaji, the deity of king Bappa, and the man lying prostrate before them is probably the king himself. The cow is Kamadhenu cow of Harita Rsi, the preceptor of the king. The wheel above the cow stands for the sun, and suggests the solar descent of the king issuing the coin, while Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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280 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT the 5 and 17 testify to the independent sovereign position of king Bappa.--( Plate LXXXII a). Indo-Sassanian Coins :--These coins of different patterns and sizes were current in Rajputana, Malwa and Gujarat between the 8th and 11th centuries A.D. These are thick and circular pieces bearing a crude head of the king of Sassanian pattern on one side, and a series of lines and dots all over the other side. These lines and dots represent the fire-altar of the Sassanian coins. Bhandarkar presumes (Carmichael lectures ', 1921, p. 208) that the Gurjaras strongly imbibed the Sassanian coinage, and that is why the standard weight of a dramma comes to 65 grains, quite near to the Greek drachma, weighing only 66 grains. The name dramma was restricted to silver coins alone. Various rulers of this period issued drammas named after them. Thus we find-Srimadadivaraha dramma, (EI, I, p. 175, 1. 27), called after Bhoja-Adivaraha of the Pratihara dynasty. Gadhia Coins :-One popular tradition in Gujarat ascribes gadhia coins to Gardhabhilla, who is mentioned in the Jaina story in Kalakacarya Kathanaka, as living in ist Century B.C. But this does not seem to be plausible as these coins cannot be so early. From the beginning, Cunningham, and Bhagvanlal Indraji maintained and demonstrated how these coins were mere copies and subsequent degraded forms of the Indo-Sassanian coinage. According to Wilford, Gardabhi is the name of a Sassanian dynasty and is identified with Varaharan Gur ( 420 A.D.). According to Taylor, the latter was fond of hunting wild ass; and the Huras, in derision, might have called his coinage as " Ass-money", and it was Sanskritised in India. He derived Gadhia' in this way: Gardabhiya < Gaddhahiya Page #419
Plate LXXX Sculpture of Tara from Taranga Hill, with the Buddhist formula : T9791: etc. in the late sth century script, at the bottom. (p. 278) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXI A Female Sculpture from Paldi, Ahmedabad, H. K. Arts College Collection, Ahmedabad, (p. 279) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXII Indo-Sassanian Coins ( 1-2) Early Sassanian Coins, precursors of Gadhia Coins. Reverse shows the Sassanian Fire-altar. (3-3) Early Gadhia, Thin Fabric: Degeneration of the bust on the obverse, and of the altar on the reverse, can be marked. (4-4) Later Gadhia, Thick Fabric : Further deformation of the bust and the altar, shown as lines and dots. A Coin of Bappa (5-5) A Coin of Gurjara-Pratihara king Bappa : Obverse and Reverse. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXIII Sakambhari Inscription of Jayasimha Siddharaja in Jodhpur Museum, gives the starting Samvat year of Mularaja's reign in symbolic words, which are underlined. (Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi 9) (p. 264) vasunaMdanidhau varSe vyatIte vikramArkataH / mUladevanarezastu cUDAmaNirabhUd bhuvi / / . For Personal & Private Use Only

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RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD 281 the dots and lines displaced the early forms, till the whole thing became a caricature of the fire-altar. Bhagvanlal Indraji arrived at the chronological range of these coins by a process of elimination. In Gujarat, he found a great gap in the numismatic tradition between the Valabhis and the Muslims. Hence he attributed this coinage to this intermediary period. The White Huns (Ephthalites ) who invaded India in the middle of 5th Century during the reign of Skandagupta, were responsible for introducing this coinage in India. The Huna domination of Persia was completed during the reign of Firoz (470-481 A.D.), and his coinage seems to have been copied by the Huna rulers in India, specially Toramana ( 490-515 A. D.). Hence the beginning of this coinage may be dated to the 6th Century or later. But unfortunately, as these coins are not inscribed, the Gadhias have become an enigma, though its long allotted range can be justified on the grounds of gradual deterioration of a well-established type with a sufficiently large geographic distribution. We have, however, literary referer ces from Arabic travellers of the oth Century that these coins were definitely being used in Western India. These coins were referred to as Tatariya Dirhams, by Ibn Khorodbeh ( who died in 912 A. D.), and Sulaiman, who specifically says that they were current in the Rastrakuta kingdom (Balhara ) and Gujarat.---( Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, P. 313). The first imitations of Toramana were current in Western Rajputana till the sack of Valabhi in 776 A.D. or in 789 A.D. Vincent Smith ascribed the coins with a clear profile to the 8th and the beginning of the gth century. The Gadhiks were current in Gujarat and Malwa upto the beginning of the Muslim rule. Hence the rough chronology of these coins is suggested as follows:-(1) The coins with the clear profile may be ascribed to the 8th to 9th centuries, (2) A transitional form with a rough profile, but clear perceptible features like the nostril, mouth and chin to the oth-11th centuries.- B. Subbarao, Baroda Through the Ages, pp. 79-81 )-( Plate LXXXII). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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APPENDIX GEOGRAPHICAL DATA FROM PURANIC TRADITION Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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INTRODUCTORY In the absence of the critical editions of the Puranas, it is very difficult to say which portion is genuine and which spurious. Hence it becomes a difficult task to give the exact chronology of the Puranas. Under these circumstances, for the material taken from the Puranas for the Chronology of Gujarat, the dates of the Puranas are accepted as given by the late Sri Durgasankar Sastrl, in his standard book Purana-vivecana. These dates. are, therefore, subject to later modification in the light of further research in the field of Puranic Studies. About this portion of data, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina Literary Tradition-namely the Epics, the Puranas and the later literary works inspired by them, there does not exist any recorded date. However, the geographical data-consisting of references to villages, towns, rivers, mountains and places of pilgrimage and the various regions of colonisation and the settlements of various tribes, along with the dynastic lists of kings and families-afford rich material for interpretation. It is needless to say that against the general Epic and Puranic background, this account would bring into focus the geographic data on Gujarat. For Personal & Private Use Only

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SANSKRIT TEXTS Abbreviation Name Edition Approximate Date Ast. Astadhyayi of Panini Mahabharata 500 B. C. C. 200 A. D. m'h. (1) B.O.R.I. ed. ( 2 ). Kumbhakonam ed. Venkatesvara ed. Nirnayasagara ed. Venkatesvara ed. Va. C. 330 A. D. C. 400 A. D. 5th Cent. A. D. Venkatesvara ed. Vs. Venkatesvara ed. 6th Cent. A. D. Venkatesvara ed. 7th Cent. A. D. Hv. Harivamsa Ram. Ramayana Vayupurana 6 Raghu. Megha etc. Works of Kalidasa Br. Brahmapurana Bd. Brahmandapurana Ak. Amarakosa Visnupurana Brih. Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira Aya. Cunni Avassaya cunni Vam. Vamanapurana Mkd. Markandeyapurana Krm. Kurmapurana Vrh. Varahapurana Mts. Matsyapurana Bhagavatapurana Kvm. Kavyamimansa of Rajasekhara Agni. Agnipurana Garga. Gargasanhita Grd. Garudapurana Skd. Skandapurana Bhvs. Bhavisyapurana Pdm. Padmapuranta Vtki Vividha Tirtha Kalpa 8th Cent. A. D. Bhg. Nirnaya Sagara ed. G. O. Series 9th Cent. A. D. Venkatesvara ed. foth Cent. A. D. Itth Cent. A. D. 13th Cent. A. D. Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES Acalesvara --referred to in Skd. I. ii, 29. 88. Amarakantaka-referred to in Skd. V. i. 16; 15. 16. Attalaja -Attalaja (Skd. 66. 110 ) or Alalayijagrama or Attalayajagrama.-(Skd. I. ii. 66 111;) -Amalaya-(Skd. I. II. 66.-113) or Alalija v. I. Adyalaya.-(Skd. I. ii. 66. 110). Anupa -(Mbh. 1. 209. 17) Cf. AMRITA adtaifa afa a i --(Mbh. II. 23. 19); (Mbh. III. 116. 19); -(Hv. II. 66. 103); (Va. I. 45. 134); (Bd. I. ii. 16. 66-67) as situated on the slopes of the Vindhya.-(Skd. I. ii-1, 73). - Anupa and Kaccha are mentioned as the regions, in which water prepon derates. Thus they are mere general terms and do not refer to a particular country. 1999 ringle estretay: 1-(Ak. II. 10). Ambuda ---for Arbuda ( Mt, Abu).-(MBh., I. 245. 30 ) (Kumbha. ed). Aparanta -(MBh. I. 210. I) Cf. soparAnteSu tIrthAni / ___ tAni sarvANi gatvA sa prabhAsamupajagmivAn // -mentioned as including following countries :-Surpakara (i.e. Surparaka), Kelavana, Durga, Kalitaka, Puleya, Surala, Rupasa, Tapasa, Turasita, Paraksara, Nasikyadya, Antaranarmada, Bhanu ( ru ) kaccha, Maheya, sasvata (i. e. Sarasvata ), Kacchiya, Surastra, (Nor th Gujarat) and Arbuda.-(Va. I. 45.128-131 ). -as including-Suryaraka (i.e. Surparaka, modern Sopara ), Kalivana, Durgala, Kuntala, Pauleya, Kirata, Rupaka, Tapaka, Kariti, Karandhara, Nasika, Antaranarmada, Kaccha, Maheya, Sarasvata, Kacchiya, Surastra, Anarta (North Gujarat), and Arbuda.--(Bd. I. ii. 16.60-64). -Sea-coast line including Anarta, Saurastra, Kaccha etc. ).-( Raghu.). -as including--Surparaka, Kalidhana, Lola,(?) and Talakata countries. -(Br. 25. 58-59). -as including Va ( Na )sikya, Antaranarmada, Bharukaccha, Maheya, Sarasvata, Kacchika, Saurastra, A narta (North Gujarat), and Arbuda. ( Mts. 114.50-51 ). - as including Surparaka, Varidhana, Nasikanta, Sunarmada, Da( Bha)ru Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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288 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT kaccha, Maheya, Sarasvata, Vatsiya, Surastra, Avantya and Arbuda countries.-(Vam. 13.51-53 ). -as including the following countries : --Suryaraka (Surparaka), Kalibala, Durga, Camikata, Pulinda, Sumina, Rupapa, Svapada, Kurumin, Kathaksara, (Karaskara), Lohajamsa, Vajiya, Rajabhadraka, Tosala, Kosala, Traipura, Vidis, (Tusara, Tumbura, Karaskara), Nasikyava( dya), Uttaranarmada, Bhi(a) rukaccha, Maheya, Sarasvata, Kasmira (ie. Kacchika), Surastra, Avantya and Arbuda.-(MKD. 54-59-63). - included certain countries either in the North or in the North-West. (MKd. 54.36-42 ). Aparantya - when the eclipse happens in Tula rasi, people of Aparantya (Western border) will suffer.-(Brih. 5-40). Arbuda - Arbuda region was popular for good horses, according to Pargiter, whose remark is based on the MBh. II.-4726 n. - described as a country presided over by Saturn.-(Brih. 16.31 ). - when Saturn is eclipsed, the people living in the regions surrounding the Arbuda mountain, suffer.-( Brih. 5.68). the asterisms Abhijit, Sravana, Dhanistha, Rohini, Jyestha, Asadha and Anuradha appertain to the circle of Indra. This circle brings trouble to the people of the Arbuda region.-( Brih. 32.19). -Mt. Abu (MBh. III. 80.57); Mt. Abu (Skd. I. 11-29-71). -In Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa (VIII. v. 25 ) it is said that Arbuda was formerly known as Nandivardhana'. Further, this work gives a non-Jaina version as to why it was named as Arbuda'. Moreover, it says that this mountain is born of Himadri.-(VTk. V 25). -Spoken of as a country in the Madhyadesa.-(MKD. 54. 36-42 ). Arbudaksetra-Described in detail, the region at the peak and round about Mount Abu. --(Skd. VIII. iii). Avanti -While describing the journey of the Kavyapurusa,' Rajasekhara says that the former went to 'Avanti countries' which consist of Avanti, Vaidisa, Surastra, Malava, Arbuda and Bhtgukaccha. (Cf. 6: Asafa saya 499-afat-972-731 731741 ART 1-(KvM. ch. 3, p. 9, GOS. 1934). This shows the wide range of the Avanti Kingdom of which Surastra, Arbuda and even Bhrigukaccha formed parts. Anarta -Region comprising North Gujarat and Surastra whose capital was Kucasthali or Dvaraka.-MBh. I. 244.5; I. 246.19; 1. 245.29; Kumbha. ed.); For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 289 V'a. 86, 24; Va. I. 45, 131; Bd. I ii, 1663; Mts. 114, 51; Bhg. X 67, 8; Bhg. IX 3, 28; Bhg. I, 14, 20. -Region comprising North Gujarat and Surastra, the capital of which was Kusasthali or Dyaraka.-(MBh. III. 14.14; 15.9, 18; 16. 14; 180. 25). -as combined with Nairsta country Anartanairytah.-(MBh. VI. 9-51; (Pdm. III, 6-46). -explained as a country of Anarta, the son of Manu's son Saryati.-( Hv. I. 10. 31-33). -enumerated among the countries in the South-West.-( Brih. 14. 17). -mentioned among the countries, the kings of which are destroyed when asterisms, viz: Visakha and Anuradha are hurt by malefic planets.-( Brih. 14. 32-33). ---classed among the countries presided over by Saturn.-( Brih. 16. 31). -when Rahu is seen eclipsing the Sun or the Moon in the lunar month of Asvayuj, the people of Anarta will perish.-( Brih. V. 80). -stands for a battle, a dancing hall, and also for the country in the Amarakosa. staaf: ZEYTafaqaat: 1-( Ak. III. 63). -Anarta is the first country conquered by Arjuna during his conquest of the West.- (MBh. II. 23. 14). Gurjara people are mentioned along with the people like Maruka, Kasika, Darda, Bhaumeya, Natanartaka, Karnata, Kamsyakutta, Padmajala, Sutivara, Barbara, Yavana and Abhiraka.-(ii. 48. 20 ). [This portion, however, cannot be earlier than the 7th Century A.D. as is clear from the names of some later tribes mentioned here. ] - people are described as 'Nata', 'Nartaka' and 'Gayaka', and as being driven out of the city as a measure against the attack of Salva.-(MBh. III. 15.12-13). Anartaka - meaning warriors. Here 'Anartaka' seems to refer to North Gujarat. -(MBh. VIII. 80.17). Anartapura - Another name of modern Vadnagar (North Gujarat).-(Skd. VI. 196 ; 211-4). Anartapuri -i.e. Kusasthali or the ancient Dvaraka.- Bhg. I. 14.25). Kusasthali was constructed, in the ocean by Anarta's son Revata : (Sce, also Bhg. IX. 3.28). Anandapura - Modern Vadnagar in North Gujarat.-(Krm. I. 35.15; Skd. VI. 40, 50-51). Abhira -A country in the South.-(Bd. I. ii. 16.57.). It may be taken as a country in Gujarat ; ( Va. 46.124). C37 For Personal & Private Use Only

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290 Abhiras Amrakuta CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT -enumerated among the countries in the South-West.-( Brik. 14.18). -classed among the countries situated in the South.-(Brik. 14.12). -enumerated among the countries presided over by Saturn.-(Brih. 16.31). -when the Sun or the Moon is eclipsed in sign Karkata, the Abhira people will suffer. Brik. 5.38). Bhuja -The five asterisms beginning with Jyestha, constitute the fifth Mandala. If Venus be overpowered here, he destroys the Abhira people.-(Brik. 9. 19). -are cow-herds; and the Abhira wife of a Mahasudra is called 'Abhiri'. [Cf. gopagopAlagosaMkhyA godhugA bhIrabalavA - ( 4k. II. 57 ) and AbhIrI tu mahAzUGgI jAtiga: --(4. II. 13).] The camp of the Abhiras is called 'Abhirapalli'. Cf. ghoSe AbhIrapakSI syAt / ( Ak. II. 20). Bharukaccha -Region surrounding modern Broach.-(MBk. II. 28. 50, 28.47 n., 50 n.; Mkd. 55.21; Bhg. VIII 18, 20). -described as one of the countries situated in the South-(Brih. 14. II). -Moon is described to be the Lord of Bharukaccha and other countries, as presiding over them.-( Brih. 16. 6). -Amarakantaka, the source of the river Narmada.-( Megha). B -A person of the Malavya type (as described in 69.10), proves to be a cultured king, and rules over the countries such as Malava, Bharukaccha, Surastra, Lata, Sindhu, and the regions of the Pariyatra mountain, having amassed wealth by dint of prowess.-(Brih. 69. 11). -This gives us a fair idea about the geography of Gujarat in the days of Varahamihira. He seems to refer to that region which is surrounded by Malwa in the North-East, Broach in the South-West, Surastra in the West and Sindh in the North-West. Bhrigutirtha Modern Broach.- Krm. II. 41. 1-5); (N. B.-Umashankar Joshi (PG., 169 n.) and Dr. Altekar: (ATCGK, 4) are not correct when they say that there is no clear reference to Lata in the Brhatsamhita). bhRgutIrthaM prabhAsaM ca tathA cAmarakaNTakam / - ( Agni. 219-66). -The story of its origin is also given.-( Skd. V. i. 181-182). -Known after the name of Sripati's son Bhujavarma who conquered the Bhillas and established the kingdom'.-(Bhus. III. iv. 2. 31-32: bhujavarmA tato'bhavat / jilA sa zavarAn bhiThAn tatra rASTramakArayat / bhujadezastato jAtaH prasiddho'bhUtmahItale / For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 291 --Modern Khedabrahma in the old Idar State.-( Pdm. VI. 134-34 ). Brahma khetaka s Camatkara- - Modern Vadnagar.-(Skd. VI. 13.28 ). pura - Described as situated in the Hatakesvaraksetra, where is Anartesvara. (Skd. VI. 65.2) As the city derived its name 'Anandapura' from the Anandesvara.(Skd. VI. 40-50-51 ), the name Anartapura may have come from Anartesvara. -Hatakesvara Ksetra round the modern Vadnagar. Its extension is five kosas.-(Skd. VI. 16. 3. 6). It was established for the Brahmins by king called Camatkara, whence its name.-(Skd. VI. 16. 6). Campaka- (Modern Campaner). A city on the bank of the Vetravati (Vatraka) nagara where Vidaruna, a wicked king was cured of his leprosy, by taking bath in that river.- Pdm. VI. 133. 5). Candrabhaga -a river near Dvaraka, invoked by the sage Angiras and constituting the Pancanadatirtha' with other rivers.-(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 47-48). --a river meeting Sabaramati, to the west of Ahmedabad, near Dudhesvara i. e. near the Harijana Asrama.-( Pdm. VI. 155. 3). Its greatness is due to the Lord Candresvara on its bank.-(Pdm. VI. 156. 4). D Dharmaranya--Its origin; its different names during the four ages; its holy places; a list ksetra of 55 villages presented by Rama to the Brahmins; the villages which were rehabitated by the Brahmins and so on.-(Skd. III. ii. chs. 9 to 39). -The region surrounding Modhera in the North Gujarat. It is called Dharmaranya, Satyamandira, Vedabhavana, and Moheraka respectively in the Satya, Treta, Dvapara and Kali ages.--(Skd. III. ii. 40.67). Its origin is ascribed to Dharma, the son of Sun.-(Skd. III. ii. 8.44). Durjayanta -This seems to be another name of the mountain Ujjayanta (modern Girnar), as it is mentioned along with Puspa, Raivataka, and Arbuda mountains.-( Mkd. 54.14). Dvaraka -Krsna is described to have brought Arjuna at Dvaraka through Prabhasa and Raivataka.-(MBh. I. 210. 8, 15). There was a garden between Raivataka and Dvaraka. On their return journey from a festival at Raivataka, the Yadavas saw Arjuna, in the guise of an ascetic.-(MBh. I. 240.2-3 Kumbha, ed.). There was an island in the ocean, near Dvaraka. A festival of Mahadeva, for the good of Subhadra, was celebrated in the Antardvipa.-(MBh. I. 241.71 Kumbha. ed.). The citizens reached there by boats.-(MBh. I. 241.76. Kumbha. ed.). When Arjuna came out of Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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292 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Dvaraka Dvarka after having kidnapped Subhadra, he was all along looking at the Raivataka gate.--(243.38 Kumbha. ed.). -According to another reading, Subhadra was kidnapped by Arjuna, when he was returning to Dvaraka, after having worshipped the Raivataka mountain.-(244.6-7, in the footnote, Kumbha. ed.). -Arjuna reached Hastinapura, from Raivataka, after having crossed the Ujjayini peak, the wells etc. of Anarta, the Ambuda (i.e. Abu) mountain and the countries like Salva, Nisada and so on.-( 245. 28-29 Kumbha ed.). - A place resorted to by Krsna, who left Mathura for Dvaraka, to protect the Yadavas from the repeated attacks of the powerful king Jara sandha. -(MBh. II. 13. 65 ). The Yadavas went to the west and took shelter in the Kusasthali. They repaired the fortress, which was now unaccessible even to gods: and resorting to which, even the ladies could face the enemies boldly. Yadavas were now free from danger. They rejoiced on seeing the tall mountain and the Madhava-tirtha ( Acc. to v.l. in the Kumbha ed., they thought that they have crossed the fear of Jarasandha.) - MBh. II. 13. 49. 52). -Krsna informs the kings that 'Sisupala burnt Dvaraka, though he was our own nephew, when Bhojaraja was playing on the Raivataka mountain, and when he knew that we had gone to Pragjyotispura'.-(MBh. II. 42. 7-8). -Was destroyed by Salva, to avenge the death of Sisupala at the hands of Krsna, when the latter was yet at Indraprastha.-( MBh. III. 15. 5-7). -Measures were taken to protect Dvaraka against the attack of Salva: Bridges were destroyed; transport by boats was prohibited; ditches were made unassailable by nails; the surrounding land was made uneven on all sides upto one kosa. Of course, the fortress of Dvaraka was naturally well protected and unassailable. This shows its strategic importance. - (MBh. III. 16.15-17). --Mentioned after Prabhasa, Pindaraka and Ujjayanta among the holy places of Surastra as situated in the South.-(MBh. III. 80.82; 86.21 ). It is also called 'Dvaravati :-( MCh. III. 80.82 ). --Balarama went to Dvaraka after the Gada Yuddha of Duryodhana and Bhima.-(MBh. IX. 61.38). -Immediately after his residence in Dvaraka, Asvatthama went to stay just at the back of it, where the sea ends.-(M Bh. X. II. II-12). - Krsna visits Dvaraka once after the destruction of the Yadavas.-( MBh. XVI. 5.7). Arjuna, coming from Hastinapura, sees Dvaraka,' disfigured like a widow':-(MBh. XVI. 6.4). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NA ES 293 Dvaraka -Vasudeva informs Arjuna that when he arrives at Dvaraka, the ocean will gulp away the entire city with fortress etc.-(MBh. XVI. 7.22); Arjuna accordingly warned the inhabitants to come out.-(MBh. XVI. 8.11 ), and as soon as they came out, the ocean began to flow over it.-( MBh. XVI. 8. 42-44). -Yadavas established Dvaraka, not because of the fear of Jarasandha only-(Hv. I. 56.35), but also of Kalayavana.-(Hv. I. 35.20-22). It was a pleasure-spot in the land of king Sindhuraja. The Raivataka mountain was not very far from it.-(Hv. I. 56.16-30). -had a vast sea-coast; was situated in the midst of the ocean; and was unaccessible, even to the gods.-(Hv. II. 55.103). Excellant Mountain Raivataka served as an ornament to its city-gate.-(Hv. II. 55.110 ). It is described as a 'Varidurga':-( Hv. II. 57.5). Garuda informs Ktsna that the ocean will provide more land if required.-(Hv. II. 55.13). Klsna accordingly asks for twelve yojana land and Dvarka came into existance. It was decorated not by one mountain (Raivata) only, but by five mountains.--(Hv. II. 63.22). Pindaraka does not seem to be too far from Raivata, as in the description of water-sport at Pindaraka, many are de scribed to have gone to Raivataka and returned.-(Hv. II. 88.52). -rebuilt by Visvakarma at the instance of Indra on Krsna's return after the destruction of Vajranabha.- Hv. II, 98.4-5). Raivataka was in the East, Pancavarna in the South, Ksaya in the West and Venuman in the North. There were five forests such as Pancajanya etc.-(Hv. II. 98.1417). Mahanadi flowed through it.--(Hv. II. 98.23). Dvaraka extended upto eight yojanas. Its length was twelve Yojanas: and its suburbs occupied double the space than the city itself (Hv. II. 98. 27). Even the ladies could fight with the enemies--such well-built it was.--(Hv. II. 98. 29). - In the fight with Paundra, who invaded Dvaraka, the horses faced the horses and elephants faced the elephants.-(Hv. III. 94. 10). Ktsna had adopted the 'Mudra' (passport) method, and without it none could enter or leave Dvaraka.-(Hv. III. 74. 24-25). There were other islands also, surrounding Dvaraka; as Ekalavya when defeated by Balarama is described to have entered one at a distance of five yojanas.-(Hv. III. 102. 5-6). -Salt was profusely available at Dvaraka, as is seen from Hamsadimbhaka's request to Krsna to bring ample salt during the sacrifice of Brahmadatta. -(Hv. III. 115. 28). -Reva the son of Anarta, finds, on his return from Brahmasabha, that Kusasthali, the capital of his country Anarta, is inhabited by Yadavas, that it has many doors and that it is known as 'Dvaramati':-( Va. I. 86. 27). For Personal & Private Use Only

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294 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Dvaraka -identical with Kusasthali in the Anarta country.:-( Mts., 12. 22; 69.9); also called as 'Dvaravati':-( Mts. 13. 38). -Kssna asked the ocean to give twelve yojana land; and created, when his request was granted, Dvaraka, with an irresistible fortress. This was done to save the Yadavas from the attacks of Jarasandha and Kalayavana. -(Vs. V. 23. 9-13). --On his return, Raivata finds that his Kusasthali is changed into Dvaraka and that Balarama is residing there.-(Vs. IV. 1.91 ). - In the absence of Raivata, Kusasthali was destroyed by Punyajana demons.-(Vs. IV. 2.1). -Dvaraka was destroyed by the ocean. The ocean, however, could not destroy till today, the dwelling of Krsna, who is always present there. This holy place destroys the sin of those who see it.-(Vs. 38. 9-11). It is also called 'Dvaravati'.-(Vs. V. 24.7). -Constructed by Krsna due to the fear of Jarasandha and Kalayavana. He created a water-fortress in the ocean. It was twelve yojana long.(Bhg. X. 50.50; 72.31; 74.37; 77.4; Bhg. XI. 30.10). Formerly it was known as Kusasthali created by Revata, in the ocean.-(Bhg. IX. 3.28). -as Dvaravati, the holy earth, from which it is powerful to remove the sins of Kali age.-(Skd. II. 2.9). Rama asks Vasistha about the Adidyaraka (Skd. II. 32.48); a holy place where people get liberation, if they give up their body there.--(Skd. III. ii. 26 ). -Kusasthali', got its name from Rama's son Kusa, who established it. The river Gomati flows by the side of the ocean.-(Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4); by the side of it, there is the 'Pancanada-tirtha' made up of five rivers : Gomati, Laksmana, Candrabhaga, Kusavati and Jambavati.-(Skd. VII. iv, 14. 47-48). -Kselra, a holy place extending upto five Kosas.-(Skd. VII. iv. 4.52). --Its various Tirthas are described in the Adh. 3 to 20. -A name of Dvaraka (Bhg. III, 3, 12, XI. 30. 5). (Cf. Fart fuadelacali Bhg. III. 3. 12. a I Heratat atati quaa: 1 (Bhg. XI. 30.5); -A holy place on the bank of the Sarasvati.-(Skd. III. ii. 25. II; Skd. * VII. i. 35-75). Dvaravati Girinagara Girimunja ---described as one of the countries situated in the South.-( Brih. 14. II). -the mountain near Pancanada, and on the way from Dvaraka to Arbuda. This seems to refer to the mountain Orjayat.-( MBh. III). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 295 Gomati --a river flowing near the temple of the Lord Visnu at Dvaraka.-(Skd. III. ii. 31. 15; Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4). Also known as Purvaganga.-(Skd. VII. iv. 5. 49). Its greatness is extolled.-(Skd. VII. iv. 6. 7). Its origin is described as 'Cakra-tirtha' from where the Disc of Visnu viz., the Sudarsana' came out of water.-(Skd. VII. iv. 5. 42). -A river flowing by the side of Western Sea near Kusavati established by Rama's son Kusa ( 2.3-4). It merges into the ocean, near Dvaraka, after having washed the feet of the Lord.-(Skd. VII. iv-5.47). It is one of the four rivers giving rise to the Pancadanada-tirtha'; was invoked by the Prajapati Marici.-(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 47-48). - river Gomukhi on Mount Abu (Skd. 3.42, 6.2.3); countries on the bank of this river are described as presided over by Mars.-(Brih. 16.12). Gujari. -a place in the Hatakesvara Ksetra where the Goddess of that name presides.--(Skd. VI. 254, 42). Gurjara ---mentioned as a country along with the Barbara, Yavana and Abhiraka countries.-(MBh. II. after 48, 20, p. 475 n.). --a country, where Bhakti becomes defunct : (Pdm. VI, 193-52) : utpannA drAvIDe sA'haM vRddhi karNATake gtaa| kvacit kvacinmahArASTra gurjare vilayaM gtaa| Gurjaratra -A country having seventy thousand ( 70,000) villages.-(Skd. I. ii. 39.141 ). n Hastimati --A river (modern Hathamati), got dried up by the curse of sage Kaundinya. --(Pdm. VI. 145-14). It meets, Sabhramati-ganga, where the 'Sangamesvara-tirtha' is also mentioned.--(Pdm. VI. 145-16). This Sangamesvara may be identified with Sangamanatha in the Bhiloaa district of the Idar State. Hatakesvara--Ksetra round modern Vadnagara (N. G.), south-west of Arbuda (Abu) ksetra mountain, situated in the Anarta country.-(Skd. VI. 4.42). - Later on it was called as "Camatkarapura ksetra' also. Its length and breadth were five Kosas.--(Skd. VI. 16.3.6; 20.72, 73.37). Gayasirsa, Haripada and Gokarnesvara are to the east, west and south-north of it. -( 16.40 ). -Different Tirthas-such as Baktasonga, (Skd. VI. 7.11-31 ), Sankhatirtha (VI. 10), Pitrakupika (VI. 19, 25-32). Bala-Mandava-tirtha, etc. are described.-( VI. 20 f). Hataki - A river in the Hatakesvara Ksetra. It yields gold.-(Bhg. V. 24.17). Hiranya- -The river Haranava, flowing near Khedabrahma in Idar State.-( Pdm. Hiranmayi VI. 134. 56; 136-3; 140-3-5). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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296 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT J Jayanta -Another name of Ujjayanta (modern Girnar); as it is mentioned with other mountains of Gujarat.-( Vrh. 85.3). k Kaccha -Panini refers to place-names ending with the words 'Kaccha', 'Agni', Vaktra' and Garta' (IV, 2.126 ). No examples of these names are found in the Sutras and in Patanjali Bhasya ; but there was the wellknown seaport called Bhrgukaccha (Bharukacch, Jataka No. 463 ) or Broach. The Kasika instances under ! Kaccha', Daru-Kaccha and Pippala-Kaccha; under 'Agni', Kandagni and Vibhujagni; under Vaktra', Indra-Vaktra and Sindhu-Vaktra; under Garta' Bahugarta and Cakragarta. While identifying these various names, Dr. Agrawala says :-" Here we have four pairs of eight geographical names, preserved as grammatical examples from antiquity. A careful glance at the map of Western India affords clue to their identification. Standing at the head of the Gulf of Cambay we have to our left, Pippali-Kaccha, the sea-coast of Pippali, comprising the delta areas of Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmada and Tapi rivers of which the old name is still preserved in Pipla or 'Rajpipla'. To our right is the sea-coast of Kathiawar, literally equivalent to Daru-Kaccha (Daru-Kastha ).-(V. S. Agrawala : India as known to Panini, pp. 65-66). Kaccha-Bhuj - Agni-Purana refers to a burning sandy tract equivalent to Skt. Irina or Ranna. Vibhujagni' refers to the great Rann of Kaccha-Bhuja in the north-west, and Kandagni' to the little Rann of Kaccha towards the north-east, traces of its names being preserved in the sea-port of Kandala. Kaccha -(MBh. VI. 10.55); one of the countries of the Aparanta (Bd. I. ii, 16. 60-84). It, also mentions 'Kacchipa' in the same place; enumarated among the countries in the South.-(Brih. 14.16). -when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Kaccha will be subject to all sorts of miseries for seven months.-( Brih. 4.22). Kacchapa -When the eclipse happens in Tula rasi, the people of Kacchapa will suffer. -(Brih. V.40). Kacchamandala-(modern Kaccha) mentioned as one of the countries.-(Skd. I-ii-1-73). Kacchiya -(modern Kaccha )-as one of the countries of the Aparanta.-(Va; I. 45. 128-131 ). Kacchika - Modern Kaccha)- as one of the countries of Aparanta.-(Mts; 114. 50-51). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 297 Kacchara -Enumerated among the countries in the North.-( Brih. 14.27). For quotation, vide under "Malava'. This shows that it is different from Kaccha, which is in the south. Kapadavan- - Modern Kapadvanja. The MBh. (II. 29.6) mentions it in the west, aka, Karpata along with Malava and other countries. It may, therefore, stand for the region near Malava country. -- Modern Kapadvanja.-(Skd. III. ii. 39.27; III. ii. 39.123). Karnata -A demon of this name was attacked by Goddess Srimata, near Satya mandira (i.e. Modhera). The demon ran in the form of a disease, went to the sea-coast in the south and established in the Karnata country.-- (Skd. III. ii. 18. 75-77). This story, apparently of not before the time of Kumarpala, suggests either that North Gujarat had to face an attack of Karnataka or a group of people being troubled by diseases and other difficulties, left Modhera and established themselves in the South. Kasmira ---( corrupt form for modern Kaccha) as one of the countries of the Apa ranta.-( Mkd. 54-14). Kukura - A country to the north of Gujarat.-( MBh. VI. 9. 42, Kumbha ed.). Kusasthali -The Mbh. describes it as situated in the West near Raivataka mountain, on the sea-coast.-( MBh. II. 13. 49. 65). - Dvaraka described to have been constructed in place of Kusasthali (Hv. I. 35. 22-22), as belonging to Raivata (Hv. II. 55. 7); and the Raivata mountain is described as an ornament to the city-gate of Kusasthali(Hv. II. 55. 110). It is also described as situated in the midst of the ocean.-( Hv. II. 55. 101-103 ). On his return from Brahmaloka, Raivata saw it altogether.-( Hv. I. ii. 4; Br. 5-37). -Ruled over by Revata.-(Va. I. 86. 24), who saw it surrounded by the Yadavas, and having many doors and looking beautiful, was given the name Dvaravati':-(Va. I. 86. 27; Mts. 12. 22; 69. 9). - describes Dvaraka as situated in the place of Raivata's Kusasthali, and as occupied by Balarama.-(Vs. IV. I. 91). It was destroyed by Punyajana demons before Kakumdmi Raivata returned from Brahmaloka.-(Vs. 2. I). On his arrival, he saw it different altogether.-(Vs. IV. 1. 94). Raivata's father Revata, the son of Anarta was enjoying the Anarta country, and staying in Kusasthali. Thus it seems to be a capital of Anarta.-(Vs. IV. 1. 64-65 ). ---Situated on the coast of Western sea; was established by Kusa, where the river Gomati flows. It is in the Anarta and is also known as Dvaravati.(Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4). C 38 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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298 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Kusavati -One of the five rivers in the Dvaraka-ksetra giving rise to 'Pancanada -tirtha':-(Skd. VII. iv, 14-47-48). Khetaka -(modern Kheda) as situated in the North.-(Vam.), on the Vetravati (Vatraka) river.-( Pdm. VI. 133. 19). Korillapura -a place on the bank of the river Narmada, (modern Koral), where one and half crore latent holy places are existing.-(Skd. V. i. 231-45). Krtasmara -a huge mountain on the border line of the sea in the Prabhasaksetra. It was burnt by the Vadavanala, which he wanted to take from Sarasvati, who thus clearly avoided his proposal to marry her. Its stones are used by the artists in constructing the houses and temples.-(Skd. VII. i. 33.64-90 ). At present there is no such mountain, not even a hill, in that place. It may be the quarry of the Porbunder stone. L Lada -ie. Lata-as having 21000 Villages.-(Skd. I. ii. 39.146 ). Lata -This is South Gujarat.-( Brih. 69.11). See, Bharukacca' (iii above). -Name of a country, (Grd., 55.16) which evolved a particular literary style of expression: ta 2 : 1 -(Agni. 340.4). M Mahanadi - Modern Mahi river; spoken as originating from Pariyatra mountain. (Bd. I. ii. 16.27-28). Mahi -Sugriva, while showing the way to Vinata--one of the monkey-chiefs-for the search of Sita, speaks of the river Mahi, along with which, another river Kalamahi is also mentioned.-(Rama, IV. 40.20 ). -the river.-( Br. 25.24 ; Vam. 13.24 ; Mkd. 54.19). Mahinagara - An ancient name of Cambay.-(Skd. I. ii.-42; 244; 48. 21; 49. 2, 3; 56.5; 57.1, 7; 66.117, 129). Mahi and are frequently referred to.-(Skd. I. ii-3, 23-29). MahisagaraSangamaKsetra - The place where the river Mahi meets the ocean.-- Skd. I. ii, 66.125 ). Mahita - Modern Mahi river.-( MBh. VI. 10.20 ). It is also called Mahi': (Mbh. VI. 10.49 ). Mahati - Modern river Mahi.-( Va. I. 45.97 ; Mts. 114.237). Mahi-tatajah -The persons dwelling on the banks of river Mahi are presided over by Saturn.--( Brih. 16.32 ). Maru -Sandy region in the north of Mt. Abu ( modern Marwada). It is men tioned as one of the western regions conquered by Nakul.-( MBh. II. 29.5; 48.20 after n.). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 299 -Classed in the Brihatsamhita among the countries presided over by Ketu ( Brih.. 16.38 ), when the eclipse happens in Tula rasi, the people of Maru will suffer (Brih.. 5.40 ); enumerated among the countries in the Central region (Brih. 14.2); when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Maru i.e. Marwad will be subjected to all sorts of miseries for seven months.-( Brih. 4.22 ). Marukaccha -Enumerated among the countries in the North-West.-( Brih. 14-23 ). Malava -Enumerated among the countries in the north.--( Brih. 14. 27). Moheraka Modern Modhera (in N. G.), a very prosperous city.-(Skd. III. ii, 2-1). N Nagara - Modern Vadnagar, a nagara (city) constructed by king Camatkara, hence known as Camatkarapura':-(Skd. VI. II. 64); later on, the word 'Nagara' is used not in the sense of a city, but for a place of that name. Its etymology is explained as Na-gara' (poison) and the Lord is described to have promised that by uttering the formula 'Na garam' the serpents will run away from there.-(Skd. VI. 114. 76-78, 149. 107-108, 176. 3 etc.). Maulisthana -A town near Nssimha tirtha, where the Sabarmati meets the sea. (Pdm. VI. 174. 88). Narmada -Raghu. VI. 42, 46 Malavika.-P. 9; river Narmada -Narmada and holy places on its bank are described in Mts. (Chs. 190 193), also in Krm. (II. 41, 42), going round the Vindhya mountain and merging into the Western sea. (Kum, Ch. 12, p. 68). -According to Brihat Samhita the regions of the eastern half of the Narmada district, are described as presided over by the Sun.-( Brih. 16. I), while those in the western half of the Narmada are described as presided over by the Mars.-( Brih. 16. 9); -If at the time of an eclipse, Mars also, by his conjunction with the Sun or the Moon as the case may be, be eclipsed, the people living at the banks of the Narmada will suffer misery.-( Brih. 5. 64). Nisada -A country forming the northern boundary of Gujarat.-( MBh. II. 28-5; MBh. VI. 10. 50 ). Pancanada -A Tirtha near Dvaraka, where five rivers-viz. Gomati, Laksamana, Kusavati, Candrabhaga, and Jambavati-meet. The rivers were invoked by five Prajapatis, viz., Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha and Pavana respectively.(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 45-48). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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300 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Parnasa Pascaddesa - Modern Banas river in the North Gujarat.-( MBh. VI. 10.30; 9. 31, Kuinbha ed. ; Pdm. III. 6. 26; Vam. 13. 24). . Kavyamimansa (Ch. 17, p. 94) furnishes valuable information as regards the countries, mountains, rivers and products of Western India. - Pascaddesah', is situated after the region called Devasabha, which " is also the name of a mountain in the Western India, and as such, this may be identified with the mountainous parts of either the Dewas state or Udaipur where the Dhebar lake is situated. The countries in this part are given in the following order : Devasabha, Surastra, Daseraka (Malava ), Travana, Bhrigukaccha, Kacchiya, Anarta, Arbuda, Brahmanavaha and Yavana. A good picture of Western India is given here by Rajasekhara. (Kum., Chap. XVII). -The region has following mountains :-Govardhana, Girinagara, Deva sabha, Malyasikhara, and Arbuda. NameGirinagara' originally denoted a city near that mountain called Raivataka. -The rivers of this region are:-Sarasvati ( near Patan ), Svabhravati ( Sabarmati at Ahmedabad ), Vartaghni (Vatraka, a tributary of Sabarmati), Mahi which falls into the Gulf of Cambay, and Hidimba ( either the river Chambal which flows through the Hidimba forest, or the river Gambhira, a tributary of Sipra in Central India ). -This region is further described as producing Karira, Bamboo or thorny plant growing in deserts and fed upon by camels, Pilu, (A tree : careya Arborea or Salvadora Persica ), Guggulu (Boellium ), Kharjura ( Date tree), and Karabha ( particular plant ). --Classed as a city presided over by Saturn.--( Brih. 16.32 ). The reference in singular (Prabhasam) shows that it refers to the city only. --Origin of Prabhasa-tirtha is narrated as under, in Avassaya-cunni (pt. II, p. 197):-In the vamsa of the Pandavas, there flourished a king named Pandusena. He had two daughters named Mati and Sumati. They were once coming to Saurastra in a ship. On their way the sea became stormy. At that time Mati and Sumati acted as if they had taken diksa, while other passengers began to offer salutation to Skanda and Rudra and the like. After some time a ship-wreck took place, and both the sisters died and became finally emancipated. Susthita, the presiding deity of Lavana sea, celebrated the event of their salvation. A celestial light took place there; and henceforth this place (Prabhasa) became a tirtha named as " Prabhasa-tirtha ".-( Ava; Pt. II. 197). -Bhasa (v. 3150) on Kappa' mentions Pabhasa (Sk. Prabhasa) and Abbuya (Sk. Arbuda mountain). In its Cunni and Visesacunni it is Prabhasa Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Pariyatra Prabhasaksetra-of Surastra is described in detail.-(Skd. VII. i. 4-365). -the mountain range surrounding the south-west regions of Malava. -When Saturn is eclipsed, the inhabitants of the Pariyatra mountain suffer loss very soon.-( Brih. 5.68); enumerated among the countries etc., situated in the Central region.-( Brih. 14.4). -The region known as Hatakcsvara ksetra where modern Vadnagar (North Gujarat) is situated.-(Skd. VI. 1.63-65 4.51-55). Patalavadava -A city on the bank of Sabhramati (modern Sabarmati).-( Pdm. VI. 134-58). Pindarka -A tirtha on the sea-coast near Dvarka or Prabhasa.-(MBh. III. 80.82; 86.18; Hv. II, 88.4; Vs. V. 37.6). Patala Raivata Raivataka PLACE-NAMES 301 stated that in a pilgrimage sankhadi used to take place in Pabhasa and mount Abbuya. -It was convenient for Jalakrida (water-sports) also. Yadavas were enjoying the bath in it; and it was not far away from Raivata and Dvaraka.(Hv. II. 88.52). R -It was a mountain different from Ujjayanta (Girnar) near Dvaraka. During a festival people went there on foot, as well as with the help of different vehicles.-(MBh. I, 211.3: 211.6). -It was a hill-station as well as a place of religious importance.-(MBh. I. 210. 9-10; 211.6; 212-1). It was also important from the military stand-point. Viprthusrava was kept there for watch.-(MBk. I-244. I-4 Kumbha. ed.). -It was placed near Dvaraka by Raivata, the son of Anarta. This Raivatal is described as the son of Srisaila.-(Garga. XII. 14.6-36; 9.32-33). -Narada describes it as a 'hand raised by Prithvi to invite virtuous people.(Shd. I. ii. 5. 1-2). -A mountain near the Ujjayanta (Girnar) in the west.-(Skd. VII. ii. 16. 72-73; 26.83) -Damodara form of Visnu is installed there.-(Shd. VII.ii.g. 229). -During the abduction of Subhadra, the Mahabharata describes Arjuna going to Indraprastha via Raivataka, the peak called Ujjayini, the lakes of Anarta, and Ambuda i.e. Arbuda.-(MBh. I. 245. 27-29 Kumbha. ed.). The critical edition (p. 965, para 115, line 32) reads' munjavata. i.e. the Mt. Raivata.-(Bhg. V.19.16). -Brihatsamhita classes it among the countries presided over by Saturn. (Brih. 16.31). Raivataka is here mentioned not as a mountain but as the region surrounding the mountain Raivataka (Modern Girnar); enumerat For Personal & Private Use Only

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302 Reva Riksa Riksavat Setika Surparaka -(modern Sitapuda mountain) mentioned as one of the seven Kulaparvatas. (MBh. III. 58. 20). Rullapura -Modern Jhillatirtha, well-known in the Vadhiyar District.-(Skd. VII, i). S -River Sedhi-one of the currents of the river Sabarmati.-(Pdm. VI. 136-3). -A city in the Thana district, 37 miles north to Bombay and four miles in the north-west from Bassein.-(MBh. II. 28. 43; MBh. III. 118. 8, 14). -Parasurama had lived there (MBh. III. 83. 40; 86. 9), on the Caturangana mountain (MBh. XII. 49. 67). This Tirtha is placed in the north of Gokarna.-(Bhg, X. 79. 20). Surpara Surparaka Sarasvati Sabarmati CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT ed with Surastra and other countries, as lying, in the south-west.-( Brih. 14.19). -The holy places on its bank are described in the Revakhanda'.-(Skd. V; Raghu. VI. 43: Megha. 19) or Santami, (Sakuntala. p. 42). -The river Narmada, is described as a beloved embracing her lord, the Vindhya mountain, which was stemmed by the sage Agastya.-( Brih. 12. 7). -Modern Satapuda mountain)-mentioned as one of the seven Kulaparvatas-(Bd. I. ii-16. 34; Mts. 114. 28; Vam., 46. 103). -The diamonds got from this country are spoken of as having dark colour. -Brih. 8o. 6). -Enumerated in the Geographical chapter', among the countries in the Daksinapatha (southern India).-( Kvm. Ch. 17, p. 93). The rivers Narmada and Tapf are also included in this region.-(Cf. Narmada-Tapi-payosni-Godavari Gangadya Nadyah: (Ibid., p. 94). -A river meeting the ocean near Prabhasa in Surastra.-(MBh. IX. 35.22! 36.33): -The country where the Sarasvati river disappears, is presided over by Saturn.- Brih. 16.31). The Sarasvata countries (i. e. countries surrounding the river Sarasvati) are described as situated in the central region of India.-( Brih. 14.2). -The pair of names Vatraka' and 'Garta' refers to Bahugarta' and Bahugarta refers most likely to the Svabhramati, literally the river of holes Cakragarta refers to the region of Cakratirtha on the Gomati, near Dvaraka in Prabhasa-Ksetra. The two in Cakragarta', (IV. 2.126). " valley of the Sabarmati, Skt. or pits (Svabhra hole, pit ). 4 For Personal & Private Use Only

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Sabhramati -An account of its origin, given :-Vasistha seated under a plaksa tree, looked, with the Varupa-mantra, at Visvamitra, with the great sambhrama (confusion). He gazed there, and from two holes on the ground, arose two streams of water, one was called: 'Sarasvati' the other Sabhramati', as it was caused through Sambhrama.-( Skd. VI. 173.14) Sarasvata PLACE-NAMES 303 dicated the peculiarity of the natural terrain formed by undulating loessic dunes. (V. S. Agravala ; India as known to Panini, Pp. 65-66). -flowing near Ahmedabad. Originates from Nandikunda, crosses the Abu and meets the Daksinodadhi.-(Pdm. VI. 135. 1; 136.2). Its four names in four ages are Kritavatl, Girikarnika, Candana and Sabhramati.-(Pdm. VI. 134. 25-26). -Its seven currents-viz. Sabhramati, Setika, Valkini, Hiranmayl, Hasti mati, Vetramati and Bhadramukhi-meet at Vikirnatirtha (Pdm. ch. 136). Different tirthas on it are described in chs. 136-174, among which Vamanatirtharaja (Modern Vautha) (Pdm. Ch. 160) and Vartraghni(Modern Vatraka )-sangama tirtha (Pdm. Ch. 168) are also included. -Sabhramati's original name was Svabhravati-( full of caverns). Its surrounding region was also known as Svabhra' as is clear from Girnar rock-inscription of Ksatrapa Rudradaman (150-A.D.)-(See, Sankalia, Studies in Historical and Cultural Geography of Gujarat, pp. 86-87). Skandapura Modern Vadnagar (N.G.). An idol of Kartikeya and his vehicle peacock are seen even today in the remnants of the Kirtistambha there.-(Skd. VI. 71.38). Surastra -The region round the river Sarasvati of Gujarat.-( Bd. I. ii. 16. 27-28). -The region is included in the Aparanta region along with Anarta and Surastra. (Mts. 114. 50-51; Mhd. 54.19). Stambhatirtha-Modern Cambay or Khambhat.-(Skd. I. ii-31 58. 27. 37, 58, 59, 66). Its other names were:-Khambhayata, Trambavati or Tamralipta, Mahanagara, Bhogavati, Papavati, and Karpavati.-(Vide, R. B. Jote, Khambhat no Itihasa. p. 14). Stambhapura-Modern Cambay-( Skd. I. ii. 21). A deity there was known as Stambhesvara. (Skd. I. ii. 3. 40; 35. 10). Its various Tirthas are mentioned in Chs. 13-64 of Skd. I. ii. -(MBh. II. 38. 39-40; MBh. III. 86. 16, 20; MBh. VI. 10. 47; Bhg. III. 1. 24). -It is also called 'Svarastra' (MBh. VI. 10. 47 n.). Enumerated among the countries in the south-west.-( Brih. 14. 19). -According to Brhatsamhita when Saturn is in Punarvasu, the people of Surastra will come to grief.-( Brih. 10. 6). For Personal & Private Use Only

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304 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT -The diamonds (precious stones) got from Surastra are having reddish lustre.-( Brih. 80. 6). - Surastra will be in trouble during the circle of Indra to which belong the asterisms such as Abhijit, Sravana, Dhanistha, Jyestha, Asadha and Anuradha.-(Brih. 32. 19). -During an earthquake of the wind-circle, the people of Surastra will suffer. --(Brih. 32. II). -the Surastra country will be affected when the eclipse happens in the lunar month of Bhadrapada.-(Brih. 5.79). --Surastra is enumerated among the eight countries which are the sources of best pearls.-( Brih. 81.2), others being Simhalaka, Paraloka, Tamraparni, Persia, the North country, Pandyavataka and the Himalayas.-( Brih., 81.2). The pearls of Surastra are further described as neither too big nor too small, and hued like butter. (81.4). -A man belonging to the Malavya type reigns over Surastra country along with other countries.-(Brih., 60.11); when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Surastra will be subjected to all sorts of miseries for seven months.-( Brih. 4.22). Surastra -is classed among the countries presided over by the Mercury.-(Brih. 16.17 ) by Saturn (Brih. 5.69). Umashankar Joshi (PG, 40) says that according to Brih., 16.15-19, the regions of Sindhu and Sarasvati and of Surastra were preponderating in Natas and Nartakas. But it is difficult to derive such a conclusion, as the work only mentions these regions as well as some persons like Natas etc. which are presided over by Mercury. - The people of Surastra will be immediately destroyed, when Saturn is eclipsed.-( Brih. 5.68). -If Venus is overpowered in the fifth Mandala, consisting of five asterisms beginning with Jyestha, the people of Surastra will be destroyed. -( Brih. 9.19). Saurastra -Consisting of 55,000 villages.-( Skd. I. ii. 39.145 ). It formed, the part of Aparanta, and was known as 'Surastra' also. Suvarnarekha-A river to the north-east of Vamananagara or Vanasthali, modern Vanthali.-(Skd. VII. ii. 14.2). t Talasvami -It may refer to Tulasisyama, in the Prabhasaksetra.-(Skd. VII. i. 330. -2-3). Tarattaranga - One of the Tirthas on the river Sarasvati. This may refer to Taranga in the North Gujarat,- Skd. VII, 1. 35.46). Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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PLACE-NAMES 305 Tapi Tarakapura -One of the rivers rising from the Vindhya Mt.-( Va. I. 46.102; Be. I. ii, 16.32; Mts. 114.27; Mkd. 54.24; Krm. I. 47-34). -- The river is described as Sutoya' (having good water) and the regions on its banks are included among the rivers and countries presided over by Mars. The adjective 'Sutoya' suggests the abundance of water in that river and the prosperity of the regions on its bank.--( Brih. 16.12). - Mentioned as a daughter of Chaya by the Sun, with her twin brother Sanaiscara.-(Skd. V. i. 56. 50 ). - Mahinagara is also known as "Tarakapura':-(Skd. I. ii. 31. 28). . U -a variant reading for Ujjayanta', a big mountain near Somanatha ; and Raivataka is spoken of as situated in the West of it.-(Skd. VII. ii. 1. 68). -i. e. Giranar mountain is mentioned as one of the holy places of Saurastra. -(MBN. III. 89. 18-20 ). -Also spelt as Ujjanta (Va. I. 45-92 ) and mentioned along with the Puspagiri and Raivataka mountains.-(Va. 1. 77. 52; Bd. I. ii. 16. 22; Vam. 13. 18). - Modern Unjha, a place of Umadevi, near Hatakesvara ksetra (modern Vadnagar ).-(Skd. II ; Skd., Venkatesvara Press ed.). Udayanta Ujjayanta Umapura V Valabhi Valkini Vastrapatha Vamananagara Vataghni -a capital of King Saryati who gave his daughter Sukanya to Cyavana Bhargava.-(Skd. VII. i. 282. I). It is modern Vala in Saurastra. Sarasvati and its Tirthas are described.-(Skd. VII, 1. 35). - This may refer to the river Vekali in the old Idar State. - The region surrounding Girnar in Saurastra. It is mentioned here along with other Tirthas.-(MBh. III. 80. 108; Skd. VII. ii. 16. 72-73). -Also called 'Raivataka-ksetra.'-(Skd. VII. ii. 1-2). Its extant Tirthas etc. are described in detail in this Khanda. ...Vamanasthali or modern Vanthali in Saurastra was established by Vamana after having suppressed Bali.-(Skd. VII. ii. 10. 13). - Modern Vatraka river. Both the rivers are described as originating from Pariyatra mountain.-(Br, 25. 28). -Satapula range.-( Megha 19). - This may refer to river Visvamitri flowing near Baroda.-(MBh. VI. 6. 26; Pdm. JII, 6-21). - Modern Vatraka river meeting Sabarmati. (Pdm, VI. 133.1, 18; 136.4); on its bank Khetakanagara ( Modern Kheda ) is situated. (Pdm. VI. Vindhapada Visvamitra Vetravati c39 For Personal & Private Use Only

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306 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT 133.19 ). Originally the term Vetravati denoted the river Betva which meets Yamuna and flows near Bhopal. Vetravati of the Meghaduta (Pdm. VI. I. 26 ), is this river. The reference of the Padmapurana', however, shows, that in later times, Vatraka was known as Vetravati'. -Described as presided over by Mars.-( Brih. 16.9). -This seems to be another name of Ujjayanta,( modern Girnara ), mention ed with the Puspagiri, Raivata and Arbuda mountains.-( Brih. 25.27). - Modern Vatraka river as flowing from the Pariyatra mountain meeting Sabarmati (Va. I. 45.97; Mts. 114-23; Vam. 13 23-24; Mkd. 54.19; Krm. I. 47-29; Pdm. VI. 134.56, also called 'Vartrighni' Padm. VI. 168). Vaijanta Vritraghni Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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ADDENDA EXCAVATIONS AT DEVANI MORI': [Discovery of a Stupa and Vihara of late Ksatrapa Period ] & ADDITIONAL NOTES For Personal & Private Use Only

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ADDENDA EXCAVATIONS AT DEVANI MORI': [ Discovery of a Stupa and Vihara of late Ksatrapa Period ] Devani Mori, Taluka Bhiloda, District Sabarkantha, was excavated by Professor Dr. B. Subbarao, Dr. R. N. Mehta and Shri S. N. Chowdhary under the auspices of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. This is a Buddhist monastic settlement with the remnants of a large stupa and a few viharas. During this season, the stupa and the vihara were exposed. In the local tradition, the site is described as " Bhojaraja no Tekro" (mound of Bhoja ). Site : The site is picturesquely situated to the east of the gorge, through which the river Mesvo (a tributary of Sabarmati) cuts through the Aravallis to enter the plains of North Gujarat.-( Plate LXXXIV). To the west and north of the proposed dam at this gorge is the old pilgrim-town of Samalaji, which is already well-known for its wealth of sculptures with strong Gandhara and Gupta traditions. Samalaji is a small fortified town of the Ksatrapa period, and recent diggings in the village have revealed parts of the ramparts-wall of the Ksatrapa period. Hence it is natural that the Buddhists chose the site east of the gorge, away from the town of old Samalaji. Stupa : Stupa is a massive structure with two square platforms on which the cupola rested. At its base it measures 86 feet square and its height, as it stands today, is 34 feet above the ground level. The top of the lower platform, which is 7'-10" high, serves as the pradaksina-patha also. The face of this platform is divided into eleven bays by 12 pilasters with modified "Indo-Corinthian" capitals. Above the capitals is a decorated frieze of three rows of bricks. The lowest course consists of bricks of chequer-pattern with alternate grids made deep. The next one is a floral pattern (vine-motiff?). Finally comes the row of recessed projections. This entire face of the platform has several recesses and mouldings and stands 7'-10' above on a foundation of pebbly gravel in concrete. The second square platform has ten pilasters on each side and they are located exactly as the lower ones with intervals of 6-8". These ten pilasters have nine bays for decoration. Unfortunately, this platform has suffered great destruction, and only the lower three feet are intact. But here again there was a round moulding in the middle, and there is a row of well-burnt off-set bricks projecting above the wall. On this row have been found nearly ten pilasters still in situ.-( Plate LXXXV). From the way in which the collapsed figures of the Buddha, the fragments of the arches of the niches (Chaitya-arch ) and a number of smaller pilasters, which fit in with the base of these arches, have been found, it is possible to reconstruct the position of the images. All the figures of the Buddha have tapering tops. In the arch-fragments also, we noticed that some of them are complete with a medallion (Plate LXXXVI) or have wedge-shaped For Personal & Private Use Only

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310 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT cuts to take the top of the Buddha image. From the four sides of the stupa, fragments of about 17 images have been found, out of which nearly 13 could be reconstructed fully. -(Plate LXXXVII). Three loose heads were also found.-(Plate LXXXVIII). Besides in the central bay, the lower fragments of a true arch with beautiful decorations were found. The arch from the east face has a diameter of 3'-6". There were in all four arches in the four directions. Two of them show the purna-kumbha motiff. One of them has two sitting lions on either side. The pattern of the image niche is also to be conjectured on this basis.-- (Plate LXXIX). In the centre of the larger pilasters were two smaller pilasters with plain bases and Indo-Corinthian caps, 16 inches long and located 2'-10" apart. The arch, made in two pieces, rested on these capitals. As there are roughly equal number of empty and full arches, it is possible to conjecture that there were in all about 16 figures on the four sides. These details are being worked out carefully. The exact decoration above these niches is purely conjectural, but a large number of decorative patterns of the type found on the lower platform were also found, suggesting the possiblity of repetition of the same pattern. Phases: As the stupa is very much damaged, there is no convincing evidence about the exact phases. But the round moulding on pradaksina-patha is considerably damaged, and at places we see a restoration. In the course of this restoration, they indiscriminately used decorated and plain bricks. Similarly, in one of the sections where a part of the lower platform is damaged we see a similar mixture. Finally, during the last phases of the stupa, they re-erected the images of Buddha by increasing the number of courses of bricks above the off-set bricks, containing the bases of the pilasters. Looking at the range of evidence from the vihara as well as the stupa, it is possible to postulate at least two phases of the stupa for the present. Buddha Figures : (13" x 24" ): From the plan of the stupa, as well as the evidence of drapery etc., it is possible to derive the stupa and the art it represents from the Gandhara region. In his latest study of the Gandharan art in Pakistan, Ingholt divides it into four phases represented by four groups of decorative features. Itlay Lyons and Harold Ingholt, Gandharan Art in Pakistan, New York, 1957). The latest group dated by him between 400-460 A.D. is characterised by drapery indicated by paired parallel lines. Of the 17 images in Dhyana mudra recovered so far, 14 of them belong to this group. But the most interesting image is one with very prominent ribbed drapery and a platform with double lotus-pedestal. We have another image with slightly raised folds of the drapery. But the most noteworthy feature is the absence of the folds of the sanghati covering the foot. In all the images both the legs are bare. Even in the drapery, both the styles are represented. Some of them have both the shoulders covered, while the right shoulder is left bare in some of the images. In the matter of hair-styles also, there are two distinct traditions. Majority of them have the usual hair-style in spirals turning right and usnisa. But one, the most For Personal & Private Use Only

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ADDENDA 311 beautiful of all, has the typical upward flowing Gandhara hair-style, highly conventionalized.-(Plate LXXXIX). A Terracotta Seal-Tablet : One of the most important finds is the Seal depicting the complete Stupa. Looking at the whole group of images, their drapery, hair-style, usnisa etc., it is possible to date this group to the Late Gandhara period ( 'Indo-Afghan School of Marshall ) or to the 4th Group of Ingholt. Some of the images with ribbed drapery and the Gandhara hair suggest Group III, which he dates from 300-400 A.D.. Since Group III of Gandhara is already acknowledged to show features of the Mathura school, we see here also Central Indian influences. Thus we have a phase of Art of the Late Ksatrapa period and showing blending of Gandhara and Early Gupta traditions. It is difficult to be dogmatic at this stage, as these finds arouse profound questions of the relation between the Western Indian and Central Indian art-traditions. As Marshall put it in connection with the finds from Taxila of the Indo-Afghan School, "Both in pure decorative beauty and in the expression of religious sentiment and in these spheres, it established new and far-reaching traditions, which profoundly influenced the character of the Gupta and the later Medieval art of India."-(Taxila, p. 522). In view of the chronological overlaps between the Late Ksatrapa, Late Gandhara with the Early Gupta, it is possible to visualize certain regional diversities and other affinities without any dogmatic assertions of origins. Thus we can see that this stupa with its square platforms essentially belongs to the Gandhara tradition. Its nearest parallel is the one at Mohra Moradu at Taxila. For the sheer beauty of its terracotta and brick-work it is nearer to the stupa at Mirpur Khas in Sind. Almost all the decorative motiffs on the bricks of Mirpur Khas are repeated here, but these are, possibly earlier in date. In Gujarat this represents the heyday of the Ksatrapas and the Maitrakas of Valabhi. Vihara : The Vihara, which is situated to the south of the stupa, measures about 120 feet square. Unfortunately the vihara has suffered tremendously at the hands of the brick-robbers and the entire outer walls have been more or less destroyed. The monastery contains eight cells each, on each of the four sides, with a brick-paved court-yard in the centre. On the southern side, the central cell has a platform with moulded bricks on all the four sides and it has a very fine stone-paved floor. This suggests the Shrine-room. Similarly, on the western side of the court-yard there is a small platform in the centre, probably to serve as a stage, as in other monasteries outside Gujarat. The bricks measure 16" X 10" X 3', and they fall within the known brick-sizes of the Ksatrapa and the Maitraka period. Phases of the Vihara: In the first phase, the monastery was slightly smaller and it had a compound-wall in addition to the outer wall of the monastery. The main drain from the court-yard flowed out on the North-West corner of the monastery. In the second For Personal & Private Use Only

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312 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT phase, the whole level of the monastery was raised by about 4 feet by filling with fresh yellow silt. At this phase the outer wall of the monastery and the compound-wall were joined, and a thick outer wall about 12 feet wide, with mouldings on the outer face, was constructed. The last phase of the stupa marks a definite deterioration of the maintenance, and the walls were reconstructed in a very crude way; sometimes even broken bricks were used. Besides, the sizes of the bricks on the floor of the third period were slightly smaller than the rest. The most interesting evidence, however, is provided by the main drain in the NorthAs the floor-levels and plinth-levels were raised, the drain-level was also raised. Thus we see the drains of the three periods at one spot on the outer wall. Coins: A number of coins were found from the debris of the stupa as well as of the Vihara. On the floor associated with the 2nd phase were found nine silver coins of the Ksatrapas. As the regnal years are not given, it is not possible to assign the exact years. However, one of them belongs to Visvasena, who ruled from 293-305 A.D.. The other coins belong to Rudrasena; but it is difficult to decide to which Rudrasena of the Western Ksatrapa dynasty it belongs. Similarly, there is another name ending "Dannah" which is equally vague. The most interesting coin is one of Sarva Bhattarka, the founder of the dynasty of Maitrakas of Valabhi, found in the debris of the stapa. Thus on numismatic evidence it is safe to infer that the stapa and the vihara were built in the early 3rd century and it lasted upto the beginning of the 7th century A.D.. Pottery: This numismatic evidence is also borne out by the pottery. It includes large number of fragments of the Red Polished Ware, dated from a number of sites in Gujarat to the 1st five centuries of the Christian Era. A number of typical sprinklers and spouts were recovered, one of the sprinklers is in the characteristic Kaolin ware as at Vadnagar and Kopdapur (Andhra). Other antiquities: The most interesting one was a Terracotta Seal showing the figure of the stapa in the centre with two Bodhisattvas (?), referred to above. One of them seems to be Bodhisattva Padmapani. This figure will be very useful for the ultimate. reconstruction of the stapa, and agrees very well in proportions to the remnants of the stapa. A large number of iron-nails and tile-fragments suggest the nature of the roof. The tile is a flat one, about 10" X 6", and has two holes similar to the tiles of the Satavahana period from Kolhapur and from Intva, near Girnar. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXIV For Personal & Private Use Only General view of the Stupa, Devani Mori, Samalaji area. (P. 309 )

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Plate LXXXV (A) General view of the exposed Vihara, showing cells and two floors of the Central Court yard. (p. 309) (B) Face of the lower platform, showing the pilasters and the decorated frieze of the Lower platform. (p. 309) For Personal & Private Use Only

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Piate LXXXVI For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering both the shoulders. -Devani Mori Stupa. (B) Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering both the shoulders.-Devani Mori Stupa.

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Plate LXXXVII For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Terracotta Buddha Head, Devani Mori Stupa, Samalaji. (B) Terracotta Round Medallion, from Devani Mori stupa.

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ADDENDA 313 ADDITIONAL NOTES Page 14 : Footnote : The discovery of a large dockyard attested to the water borne trade practised by the inhabitants of Lothal. Situated at the eastern end of the mound, it was roughly trapezoid on plan, its eastern and western embankments were each 710 ft. long; the northern measured 124 ft. and the southern 116 ft. The greatest extant height of the embankment was 14 ft. Boats could enter the harbour at high tide, through an opening in the eastern embankment, the dwarf-wall near the entrance being meant to retain water even at low tide. A spill-channel existed in the southern embankment for the outlet of excess water ; at the mouth of the channel could be seen two grooves for a sliding door. Narrow steps at the end and grooves at regular intervals in the side-walls of the channel suggested that a door could have been made to rest against wooden logs at desired places to maintain the required level of water.-( Indian Archaeology- A Review, 1958-59 : p. 14). Page 34 : Line 10: Reference : JBBRAS, XV, pp. 273-328. Page 44: Line 7: Reference : EI, XVI, 1919. Page 44 The Ghosundi Stone Inscription (C. 100 B. C.): by K. P. Jayaswal-(El; XVI, pp. 25-27, 1919)-( See-p. 44 supra). The inscription is in the Northern Brahmi of the late Maurya or Sunga period. The age of the inscription is between 200 B.C. and 150 B.C., (since put at C. 100 B.C. in The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 438). It is post-Asoken in its script. The inscription is important from the point of view of the language employed. This is a pure Sanskrit record. In the word 14, it seems, the third conjunct letter () is omitted through mistake; because in inscribing a conjunct of three letters, the smallest member is omitted. The three lines read as under : (?) ... 75147a yrightga ..... (2) ...Feat Ta[ ]x40 #410-419&at 21 () ...-PISI-PERT F1702 FT Ra:] Page 56: Add 80 A.D. Devasenasuri, in his Darsanasara ( V. 11) and Bhavasangraha before 83 A.D. (Vs. 52-75 ) ascribes the origin of the Seva da' (Svetapata Svetambara ) Sect to Valabhi, and assigns it to V.S. 136 ( 79.80 A.D.) C40 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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314 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Page 59: Line 15 : Page 60 : Line 29: Page 62 The Digambara tradition pertaining to Bhadrabahu, ascribes the origin of the Svetambara Sect to a king of Valabhi. The Digambara Sect assigns the origin of the Kambalika Sect' to Vira S. 609 (82-83 A.D.)--Harisena, Byhatkathakosa, Bhadrabahu Kathanaka, Vs. 69-80 ).--(Shastri, H. G., Maitrakakalina Gujarat, p. 417-18.) . Add on the coins ' after 'inscriptions' Add, whose name is identified with Nahapana', before 'Nabhovahana'. Andhau Stone-Inscript on of the time of Rudradaman (dated 130 A. D., S. year 52) by R. D. Banerji :-( El., XVI, pp. 19-25)-( See P. 62-63 Supra ). The mention of Castana, son of Ysamotika, immediately before the name of his grandson Rudradaman, son of Jayadaman, in the four lithic records from Andhau, without any connecting link, has led scholars to make a number of conjectures; because the word age is probably omitted. The date of these inscriptions had better be ascribed to the conjoint reign of Castana and Rudradaman. Eventhough Rudradaman was an independent monarch, he never used the title 794 alone. This is true of all princes of this dynasty and of FIAT Sath. There is not a single coin or inscription of this dynasty, in which the title 159 is used by itself, and not in combination with the titles HE 1974 or 479. In fact, Andhau inscriptions are the only records known, which mention Castana or Rudradaman as rAjan s and not as mahAkSatrapa s. Inscription, described as 'C', which contains three lines, has been illustrated (See Plate XVII A), and reads as under :(1) rAjJo cASTanasa yasa[1]motikaputrasa rAjJo rudradAmasa jayadAmaputrasa varSe dvipaMzAze 50,2 (2) phaguNa bahulasa dvitiyaM vA 2 yazadatAye sIhamitaghitA senikagotrANa zAmaNeriye (3) madanena sIhilaputrena kuTuMbiniye [ laSTi] uthApitA / Add' as Ksatrapa' before 'coins.' Add on his coins and before ' Ksatrapa'. Add. like the fall of Valabhi' before' a similar event'. Add 'Kartikadi' before 'The Valabhi Era'. This date, however, does not hold good, in consideration of the chronology of the Maitraka kingdom, which was not even founded by this time. Page 66: Line 34 : Page 67: Line 5: Page 85: Line 23 : Page 87: Line 3: Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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ADDENDA 315 Page 93 : Add Khambhalida Caves ; Buddhist Caves in District Madhya Sau"astra : Sri P. P. Pandya discovered groups of Buddhist caves at Khambhalina, carved in the banks of a stream, meeting the Bhadar river, four miles up-stream from Jetpur. These are ascribed, on grounds of the sculptural style, to the Third-fourth Century A.D. There are five groups of caves : the first group consists of seven caves of varied dimensions which were probably meant for the Bhiksus, as resting places. The second group seems to be the most important : it consists of three caves, the central one of which was the Caitya-hall, flanked by large sculptures, representing the Bodhisattvas, Padmapani Avalokitesvara on the left and Vajrapani on the right, showing devotees under the shelter of trees, and having a worn-out Stupa at its apsidal end. The third group is totally hidden under heaps of stones and earth. The fourth one consists of three small caves on the left bank, while the fifth one comprises of a single cell on the right bank up-stream.-(Indian Archaeology-A Review : 1958-59, p. 70.) An Inscription on terracotta flesh-rubber pot-sherd, excavated from Prabhasa Patan Excavations in 1956-57 is deciphered by the late P. P. Pandya as Z A Hg full-( See, P. 94, Supra). The fragmentary Rajkot Museum Stone-Inscription of the Ksatrapa period, was first noticed by the late P. P. Pandya in 1959. An estampage of the same was kindly supplied by Shri J. M. Nanavati, Officiating Government Archaeologist, Gujarat State. This has been read by Dr. H. G. Shastri as under :(?) [1]T HET47969...... 74.........7 (?) ...... .............. # 9754 (3) ......... la..........F# E T'F....... Excepting the words Rajno Mahaksatrapasya, nothing can be made out. Antiquities : Ksatrapa Period: Impressions, received from the Director of Archaeology, Baroda, under Bombay State, Baroda District : Findspot, Amreli': were deciphered and printed in the Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy for 1953-54, published in 1960: as under : Page 94 : Line 4: P. 94: Line 19: Page 95: Antiquities : Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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316 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Page 95 : Terracottas : (1) Pot-sherd: Ring of an earthen pot : Letters in Sanskrit, Brahmi Script. Seems to read ( Ma) gha-yukta (Sukla)] in characters of about 3rd Century A.D.-( See, A. R. Ep. 1952-53, App. B, No. 38.) (2) Clay-Seal: Sanskrit, Northern Alphabet : Reads Aji[ta]sya, in characters of about 5th Century. (3) Lead-Seal: Reads Isvarasya, in characters of about the 4th Century. (4) Terra-cotta Seal: Seems to read Dasu [ka], in characters of the 3rd Century. . In the excavated deposits of earth were found (by Shri K. V. Saundara Rajan, Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, from the top of the Buddhist caves at Uparkot, Junagadh, and in rock-cut wells and pits,) the Red Polished Ware, Ksatrapa coins of lead, largely belonging to Rudrasena II (348-78 A.D.), terracotta figurines, including Yaksas, sealings, bullae with Yaksa and a Ksatrapa ruler. These datable objects pertain broadly to the second half of the 4th century A.D. A terracotta figurine was reclaimed from the debris around the Khapra-Koaia caves at Junagadh, ascribable to the Secondthird Century A.D.. It had similarity with the statue of Kaniska from Mathura on the one hand, and with the Scythian warrior from Nagarjunakonda on the other.-( Indian Archaelogy--A Review, 1958-59, PP. 70-71 ) Items left out from the detailed Note in the 'Antiquities Section ', are mentioned below for reference, as under :Plate XVIII A (A) Painted and incised pottery from Rozdi, Atkot and Prabhasa in Saurastra. Sculptures : Ksatrapa Period : Plate XVIII A (B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojitra near Cambay, discovered by Dr. Bhailalbhai Patel, ex-Vice- hancellor, Vallabha Vidyapitha,- now in the Vallabha Virlyanagar Museum : -(C. 200-300 A.D.) Plate XX: A Ksatrapa head, obtained from the Tapi river, is now in the Surat Museum.-(Front & Back Views). Plate LXXXVI : Two Terracotta Seated Buddhas from Deyani Mori Stupa. P. 96 Add : Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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ADDENDA 317 Page 227 : Add in 776 A.D. P. 269 Ajanta Scene: Plate LXXXVII: Two Terracotta Buddha-heads, from Devani Mori Stupa. Plate LXXXIX: A Terracotta Head of Buddha, from Devani Mori Stupa, with Gandharan hair-style. Plate LVIII: (B) Incense-burner from Akota hoard of Bronzes and Metal work. Besides the gods of the pantheon, it is noteworthy that objects useful in daily worship were also dealt with artistically. Fall of Valabhi : On examining the different dates given in the Prabandhas, Dr. H. G. Shastri has observed that the year mentioned in the Prabandha-kosa is, in fact, 375 and not 573, as read by the Editor, that the real date for the Fall of Valabhi is V. S. 845, and that the other date, viz., Vira S. 845 = V. S. 375 is simply caused by mis-ascribing the year 845 to the Vira era. The Mleccha-pati who destroyed Valabhi is identified with the Arab Governor of Mansura in Sindh, on the evidence of Alberuni ( Vol. I, pp. 192 f.).-(H. G. Shastri, Maitrakakalina Gujarat, I, pp. 195 f.). The most probable date for the fall of Valabhi, is, therefore, 789 A.D. Plate No. LIX (A): The illustration, wherein the germs of the style of Western Indian Miniatures, viz., the angularity of faces and the protruding of the further eye beyond the facial line are visible, is taken from Ajanta Cave No. 17. The identification of the scene kindly supplied by Shri R. A. Thatte, Artist-Modeller, Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda, is as under : On the left side of the Shrine-wall, on the lower portion, the Scene is 'Buddha putting Questions to Mahamoggalayana. and Sariputta,' wherein people of different countries, like the Scythians, Persians and Arabians are depicted, who had gathered for listening to the Questions and Answers. The faces are shown in wrapt attention, and the treatment of their eyes is noteworthy. Plate LXXII: (A) Siva-Parvati from Roda. (B) Vinapani Siva from Kotesvara, near Ambaji. Plate LXXV: (A) Agni, as a Dikpala from Osia temple, Marwad. Plate LXXIV: (A) Vamana becoming Virata, from Osia temple, Marwad. P. 275: Sculptures : P. 277: Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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318 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT P. 213 and 277 (B) Hari-Hara, a composite sculpture of Visnu and Siva, from Osia temple, Marwad. Plate XLVIII: (B) Vayu, from Samalaji, with name inscribed. Plate LXXIX: (B) Inscription on the back-side of the Life-size Kotyarka Mahudi Bronze (Plate LIII). The one line inscription on the back of its Prabhavali, which could not be deciphered so far, has been read by Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri as under : "From the ink-impression of the inscription, it can be made out that it contains the well-known Buddhist formula, namely, Ye dharmah etc. It ends with Mahasraranah instead of the more common form Mahasramanah. The characters belong to a later period, say, after 800 A.D." Another ink-impression, bit less clear, was sent to Dr. D. C. Sircar, Government Epigraphist for India, Ootacamund, South India, the too well-known Scholar-Editor of "Select Inscriptions". He was requested to decipher the same, so as to afford a clue regarding the identity of the bronze. Dr. Sircar writes "Two of the words in the inscription appear to read Ch [ai] tya and Srava [ka]. From the latter word, it may be possible to infer that it is a Jaina epigraph. ... The characters belong to the Southern alphabets and may be assigned to about the 8th or gth century A.D." The word, however, read as Srava [ka] by Dr. Sircar has been read as Mahasravanah by Dr. Chhabra, his ink-impression, perhaps, having been more clear. The conjecture of the letter [ka] may have been for [na] h. Thus the reading which Dr. Chhabra has given, may be accepted for our purpose. This reading, conclusively settles the question regarding the religion to which the bronze belongs. It is purely Buddhistic. - See, Plate LII). Plate XC: The image of Gadadhara Visnu, known as Samalaji, from the long Gada reaching the feet, and still in regular worship at the shrine of rather a later date, is in the sculptural style of Visnu, from Bhinmal (Plate XLII) and Tenne (Plate XLIV.), illustrated above. It may not be later than Sth century A.D. The shrine, on the banks of the Mesvo river has come to be more known after the recent discovery of the late Ksatrapa Period Stupa and Vihara at Devani Mori, the site of the village nearby. P. 312 For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX A Abhidhana Rajendra I, 26 Abhidhanaratnamala of Halayudha, 256 Abhinavagupta, Com. on Natya Sastra, 242 Abhira, 289 Abhiras, 67, 78 , Abhira Vasuraka, 89 Abhona Plates, 124 Acharya, G. V., 70, 72, 91, 92, 145, 198 Adinatha Head from Akota, 212 A few Early Sculptures from Gujarat', Journal Oriental Institute, Dec. 1951, 212 Age of Imperial Guptas, 194 Age of the Nardas and Mauryas : 31, - 32, 36 'Agrahara', 177 Agrawala, R.C., 203, 273 Agrawala, V.S., Dr.: 25, 97 Ahar (Rajasthan), 7 A History of the Guptas, 117, 120, 121 Ahmedabad Plates of Siyaka II, 263 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi, 137, 166 Aiyangar, S. Krisnaswamy, Dr., 146 Akalavarsa Krsnaraja, 249 Akota Bronzes, 201 - Jivantasvami, 211 Akota Clay-seals, 95 Akota Excavations: 95 Alberuni, 134 Alexander, 41 Alina Plates of Siladitya V, 154, 226 Allahabad Pillar Inscription, 89, 107 Allan, J., 43 Allasakti, Sendraka King, 124 Allataraja, 261 Altekar, A.S., Dr., 69, 77, 108, 109, 139, 140, 182, 185, 223, 224, 225, 228, 232, 236, 243, 246, 247, 252, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 262, 279 Ambika Bronze, 212 Amreli, 37 Amreli Plates, 163 Amreli Seal of Siladitya, 195 Amreli Terracottas, 95 Anahilapattana, 221 Ananta-Visnu from Samalaji - Mahavisnu from Kanauj, 209 Ancient Geography of India, 25, 281 Ancient History of Saurastra, 132, 147, 172, 228 Andhakas, 22 Andhaka-Vrspi, 43 Andhau Inscriptions, System of Joint Rule, 62 An Imperial History of India, 169 Anthropological Society Journal, 97 Antiquarian Remains at Sopara: 34 'Antiquities from Karvan': 104 Antiquities of India: 'Chronology of India': 114 Antroli-Chharoli Plates, 225 Ann. Rep. Arch. Dep. Baroda, 37, 95, 114 Annual Report Arch. Survey of India, 37 Ann. Rep. Bombay Record Offiee, 115 Anupa, 54, 287 Anustu Plates of Karka, 237 Apabhramsakavyatrayi, 229 Aparanta, 25, 287 Apollodotus II: 41, 42 Arbuda, 288 Arjuna, 23 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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320 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Arthasastra, 31, 43, 250 -Age of, 32 Art School of Ancient West', 201 Asoka : 29, 32, 33, 34, 65, 113 Asoka, 113 Asokan Inscriptions, 30 Astadhyayi, 22 Asvamedha--of Kumaragupta, 108 - of Dahrasena, 110 A Terracotta Peacock from Samalaji, discovered by S. N. Chaudhari, 206 A Torana at Samalaji', N. Guj., Juurnal M. S. Univ. Baroda, Vol. VIII, 1959, 271 Attana, a wrestler : 158 A Unique Image of Jivantasvami': Journal Oriental Institute, Sep. 1951, 212 Avanti, 288 Avakhala Siva, 204 Akara, 54 Ama alias Nagavaloka, 240 Amra, 7 Anandapura, (0-man-to-pu-lo) 170 Anarta, 8, 21, 26, 288, 289 Anarta, King : 21 Andhras, 54 Andhra Inscriptions, 55 Andhra lead Coins, Ramanlal Desai's Collection : 104 Arbudas, 136 Archaeology of Gujarat, 37, 53, 45, 92, 110, 213, 273 Archaeological Survey of Western India II: 93 Architectural Remains at Kadvar and Patan, 270 Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha (Hindi), 178 Arab Settlements : 47 Arab (Tajjika) Invasion of Gujarat, 190 Arab Invasion on Valabhi, 134 Arya Khaputa Suri, 45 Aryaksemisvara's Candakausika, 258 Arya Manjusri Mulakalpa, ref. to King Sila, 155 Aryans, 21 Aryans, home of, 21 Avasyakacurni, 26, 158 B Badaun Inscription, 88 Bagumra Plates, 166, 177, 246 Barton Museum Inscription of Bhoja deva, 247, 258 Balarama, 22, 277 Balasri Gautami, Queen, 63 Banerji and Sukhtankar, 71 Banasa, river, 57 Bappabhatti Suri, 194, 223, 240 Bandhuvarman, 116 Basak, Radhagovind, Prof., 30 Bibliography of Coin-Hoards in Bombay State, 128 Barala (Balaba or Valabhi), 134 Baroda Grant of Karka I, 173, 235 Baroda Museum Bulletin, 37, 97, 98, 208, 210, 213, 270, 274, 275, 276, 278 Baroda Through The Ages, 95, 96, 235, 281 Baba Pyara's Matha, Junagadh : 37, - Inscription, 70, 94 Bagh Fresco, Fourth Scene : 121, 122 Bala-Bharata or Pracanda-Pandava, Sanskrit Play, 261 Balacarita, 24 Bala-Ramayana, Sanskrit play, 261 Bana, author of Kadambari', etc. 148, 157, 176 Barnett, L. D., Dr., 114 Bantia Plates, 151 Besanagar, 38 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXVIII (A) Terracotta Architectural pieces, from Devani Mori Stupa. (B) Terracotta Filled Arch of the niche. Devani Mori Stupa, Samalaji. For Personal & Private Use Only

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For Personal & Private Use Only (A) Terracotta Head of a Buddha, with the typical upward flowing Gandhara hair-style, from Devani Mori Stupa. (B) Terracotta Buddha Head from Devani Mari Stupa, Samataji.

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Plate XC Gadadhara Visnu: Samalaji, (p. 318) In the sculptural style of Bhinamal Visnu (Plate XLVII) and Tenna Visnu ( Plate XLIV B) For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 321 Bet Pot-sherd: 94 Barygaza; 41, 44, 47 Bodhi Dynasty, Coins, 65, 98 Bombay Gazetteer I: 29, 48, 49, 56, 58, 75, 78, 116, 121, 126, 151, 160, 210 Bombay Gazetteer, IX, pt. II, 65, 167 Bombay State Transport Review, Nov., 1957, 209 Bom. Univ. Journal, 37, 97, 104 Boria Stupa Relics : 90 Buddha, 26 Buddha on Isalva Hill, Annual Report, Watson Museum, Rajkot, 1938-39, 278 * Buddhist Influence in Gujarat and Saurastra ', Journal Guj. Res. Soc., 1939, 213 Buddhist Records of the Western World -Si-yu-ki', 168, 169 Budhagupta : 110, 131 Buddhist Council, 56 Buddhavarman, Calukya, 161 Buddhiprakasa, 71, 113 Bulletin Museums Association of India, Vol. I, No. 1, 212 Buhler, Dr. 238 Burrow, T., Prof. 136 Burgess : Dr., 93 Burgess and Bhagvanlal, 138 Baudhayana Dharma Sutras : 35 Bhagvanlal Indraji, Dr.: 34, 65, 69, 71, 78, 91, 98, 126, 214, 281 Bhatarka, 110, 120, 122, 131 Bhatti, poet, 134 Bhattacarya, B., Dr., 278 Bhatta Narayana, author of Veni samhara ', 241 Bhadramukha 'in Ksp. Geneology, 73 Bhartsdaman, 77, 81, 82, 100 Bhartsivaddha, 224 41 Bhavabhuti, 184, 222 Bharukaccha, 26, 36, 54, 58, 112, 290 Bharukaccha, Geographical Interpreta tion: 112 Bharukaccha, Barygaza, Po-lu-kie ch'e-po',-169 Bharukaccha, (residents): 47 Bhavisayatta Kaha of Dhanapala, 268 Bhagatrav ( on Kim), 11, 13 Bhagavata Purana, 24 Bhandarkar, D. R., Dr., 33, 66, 113, 208, 230 Bhandarkar, R. G., Sir, 87, 228 Bhalva Plates, 151 Bhamodra Mota Plates of Drona simha, 132 Bhanusakti, 156 Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. II, Pt. 1, 229 Bharatiya Vidya : K. M. Munshi Commemoration Vol. II, 146 Bhavnagar Plates, 143, 163 Bhavnagar Sanskrit and Prakrit In scriptions, 71, 151 Bhavaprakasana' of Saradatanaya, 243 Bhilsa, 38 Bhinmal Yaksa, 210 Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta : 108 Bhuj, 290 Bhuj Buddha Bronze, 215 Bhumaka ( Ksatrapa!, 53 -Copper Coins, 57, 98 Bhumilika, 134 Bhuyada, Capa, 246 Bhuyada of Kalyanakataka (Mihira Bhoja ), 221 Bhojadeva, Gurjara-Pratihara, 183 Bhogavo (river), II Bhrgus, 22, 25 Bhrigukaccha, 8 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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322 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Brahmagupta, 139 Brahmapuri Excavations: 98 Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, 139 Brahmanda Purana, 112 Brahmanas, 22 Brahmi Matrika from Abu, 205 Bhrahmi Script: 33, 53 Bronze Head of Adinatha from Akota Hoard, 126 * Bronze Hoard from Vasantgadh': Lalit Kala, Nos. 1-2, 1957, 213 Bronzes, School of Ancient West, 211 s Caca, usurper of Sindh, 166 Caitya-Vasa among Jaina Sadhus, 86 Cakrabhsit (Visnu) Temple on Sudar sana lake, 120 Cakrapalita, son of Parnadatta, 109, 119 Cambay Plates, 143 Cambridge History of India, 25 Camaradharini Bronze, 212 Candragupta, I, Maurya: 29, 30, 31, 65 Candragupta I: Issuer of Gold Coins : 107 Candragupta II, Vikramaditya' 89, 107, 108 -silver coins, 113 -gold coins, 114 Canda Pradyota, 26 Carakasamhita, 232 Castana, son of Ysamotika -54, -portrait-statue, 55, 59, -silver coins of, 99 Catalogue of Bayana Hoard of Gupta Gold Coins : 108 Catalogue of Indian Coins, 43 Catholicity of Valabhi Rulers, 228 Caulukya Dynasty, Origin of, Story :, Cave Temples : ASWI, 138 Cedi, 78 Ceylon, 43 Chhabra, B.Ch., Dr., 72,91, 94, 215, 274, 318 Chief Political Divisions in India dur ing 8th Century': Indian Culture, Vol. X1, 263 Chhandogya Upanisad, 24 Chakravarti, S.N., 203, 204 Chalcolithic Culture, 3 Chatterjee, S.K., Dr.: 25, 33, 36 Chronology of India, 31 Chowdhari, Suryakanta, 271, 308 Cintra Prasasti Inscription, 88, 267 Clay Seals & Sealings, 196 Clay-Seals of Mahadevi Prabhudama, 72 Classical Sanskrit Literature, 177 Colonisation of Java, 158 Commentary on Taranatha's Chapter on Buddhist Art', Marg IV ,--201 Conch-shell Ornaments: 95 Coroddaranikas or Dandapasikas, 225 Crystal Reliquary, 96 Cultural Unity of India, 30 Cultural Significance of Saddle Querns': 97 Cunningham, A., Sir, 33, 198, 281 Cyavana, 22 D Dabhoi Plates of Govindaraja, 237 Dadda I, Samanta, 153 Dadda II, 134, 164, 165 Dahrasena, Trikutaka ruler, 110, 121 Dalal, C.D., Editor, of 'Udayasundari katha', 247 Danda Rasaka', Literary Tradition, 242 Dandekar, R. N., Dr., 117, 120, 121 Dandin, 147, 156, 187 Dantidurga, Rastrakuta, 219, 223 Dantivarman II, 224 265 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 323 Darius I, 41 Dasakumara carita, 147 Dasapura, 54, 58 Dasaratha Sharma, Dr., 125 Daulatpur Inscription of Bhojadeva I, 241 Delvala Matnikas, 205 Deogarh Jaina Pillar Inscription, 246 Deoli Grant of Krsna III, 248 Derabhata, 155 Desai, M. D., 98 Desalpur, (in Kaccha ), 13 Description of Gurus in Jabala ', 233 Description of Monasteries, 200-201 Desi Music, 255 Devakula at Mat: 96 Devala, author of Devala-Smriti, 222, 254 Devali Plates, 185 Devali Plates : Specific ref. to Valabhi Era, 237, 239 Devarddhi Gani, Ksamasramana, 117 Devasakti, Pratihara, 226 'Devi-Mahatmya and Sakti-worship, with reference to Gujarat', Journal Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta, 1938, 268 Dhammalipis, 34 Dhanesvara Suri, Author of Satrunjaya Mahatmya, 155 Dhankagiri ( Dhank), Jaina Sculptures 45, 232 Dhanapala, author of Paiyalacchi Namamala, 148, 266 Dharanivaraha of Wadhwan, 239, 261 Dharapatta, youngest son of Bhatarka, Dharasraya-Jayasimha, 184 Dharmadasa Gani, 245 Dharmagupta, a scholar from Lata, 155 Dharmapala, the Pala king, founder of Vikramasila Vidyapitha, 229, 241 Dharmaraksita, 113 Dharmaranya-ksetra, 291 Dharmaranya Mahatmya, 222 Dahanuka, 54 Damajadasri I, 64, 65 Damajadasri II, 75, 100 Damajadasri III, 79, 100 Damasena, 74, 75, 76, 100 Dhank Caves, 93 Dhank Plates, 238 Dhiniki Grant of Jaikadeva, 193 Dhruva I, 231 Dhruvadevi, 113 Dhruvaraja I, 240 Dhruvaraja II, 240 Dhruvasena I, 142 Dhruvasena II, 164, 166 Dhurtakhyana, 233 Digambara Sect, rise of : 56 Dikshit, K, N., Rao Bahadur:6, 15,91 Dikshit, M. G., Dr.: 104, III, 127, 173, 181, 182 Dikshit, M. K., 15 Dinabandhu, Artist, 209 Dipavamsa, 25 Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa, 35 Disintegration of Gupta Empire, 132 Diskalkar, D. B., 123 Diva (Dvipa), 183 Door-frame at Karvan, 270 Drachms, 42 Dronasimha, younger son of Bhatarka, 110, 132, 141 Dvaraka, 23,291-92-93-91 Dvasraya Kavya of Hemacandra Suri, 175 146 Dharasena, son of Bhatarka, 131 Dharasena II, 151 Dharasena III, 163 Dharasena IV, 134, 174 Jain Education Interational For Personal & Private Use Only

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324 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Fleet, J., Dr., 108, 113, 123, 178 Foote R. B., 4, 5, 15 Foreign Notices of South India, 155 Formula of the Buddhist Creed, 278 Four Ages, 21 Four Pithas' of Sankara, 230 Fourteen Viharas, round about Valabhi, 181 Dvivedi, Manilal 151 Dudda, niece of Dhruvasena I, 144 Dudda-vihara, 145 Duff, Mabel : 31 Durga, Commentator of Nirukta, 71 Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, 242, 263, 265 E Earliest Maitraka Grant, 132 Early Aryans in Gujarat, 21 Early History of India, 30, 65, 166, 167 Early Man, 3 'Early Sculptures from Abu ':. Baroda Museum Bulletin, 224 Eka-mukha Linga, 203 El., VIII, 53, 58, 63 Elliot and Dowson, 255 Elura Frescoes, Parent of Western Indian Miniatures, 225 Elura Rock-temples, 225 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, XI, 230 Eukratides, Coins : - found from Gondal and Juna gadh : 48 Excavation at Gohilvad Timbo, Am reli: 95 Excavations at Intva Hill : 92 Excavations at Timberva, 38 *Excavations at Vadnagar': M. S. Univ. Journal: 38 Excavations in Gujarat, ---Series of : 194 F Fa Hien, 107, 168 Fall of Valabhi 845, Samvat 85 First Council of Jainas at Pasaliputra, 117 Fish'emblem of the Saindhava Royal Seal, 191 tournal Five Vala Plates', Bom. Univ. Journal, 181 Gadha Stone-Inscription, 73 Gadre, A.S., 72, 102, 156, 163, 181, 183, 213, 237 Ganadhara-sarasataka, 149 Ganakarika, 88 Gana patha, 26 Ganas from Samalaji, 211 Gandharan Art in Pakistan, New York, 1957, 310 Ganesa from Harsol, 204 Ganesagadh Plates, 143 Ganga-Yamuna Motif on Door-frames, 270 Garuda on Coins, 127 Gautamiputra Satakarni, (Andhra ), 54, 55 59, 60 Gandhi Lalchand, Pandit, 226, 229 Ganguly, D. C., Dr., 146 Ghaggar Valley, 14 Ghata Jataka, 24 Ghatiala Inscription of Kakkuka, 246 Ghosh, A., Dr., 15, 16, 96, 97 Ghosh, B. 146 Ghosundi (Chitodgadh Dist., Rajasthan) Inscription : 44 Ghumli Flates of Baskaladeva, 259 Ghumli Plates of Jaika II, 224, 240, 247 Ghurye, G.S., Dr. 6, 16 Girinagara, 3, 30 Girnar Inscription of 150 A.D., 55, 65 Glui v that was Gurjaradesa, I, 221 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 325 Glory that was Gurjaradesa, III, 220, 222, 236, 240, 253, 264, 279 Goetz, H., Dr., 95, 97, 211, 270 Gomati, 295 Gondal Plates, 189 Gopala, revivor of Nalanda University, 229 Gop temple, 126 Goras Plates, 166 Govindaraja I, Rastrakuta, 187 Govinda III, Rastrakuta, 190, 220, 232 Graeco-Aramico Inscription of Asoka, Kandahar, 29 Grahavarman, Maukhari, 157 Grants to Brahmanas: Maitraka & Rastrakuta : Object of, 262 Greenish-blue Schist from Dungarpur, 202 Guhasena, 150, 151 Guide to Antiquities, Historic Period, Prince of Wales Museum, 203 Gujarat Inscriptions, Vol. I, 145 Gujarati Painting in the 15th Century, 122 Gujarat Research Society Journal, 1939, Gupta Silver Coin-Hoards, 128 Gupta Temples, 126 Gupta, P. L., 37, 38, 128 Gurjaras, 135 Gurjara Brahmanas, 149 Gurjaradesa, 149 Gurjara kingdom, Earliest : 136 Gurjaras, Foreign Origin Theory, 136 Gurjaras, Their Origin, 146 Gurjaras of Nandipuri : 115 Gurjjara (Kiu-che-lo) desa, 171 Gurjaratra Bhumi', 241 n Haddala Grant of Dharani Varaha, 257, 258 H. K. Arts College, Ahmedabad, Col lection, 279 Halayudha, author of 'Kavi-rahasya', 235 Hallisaka', 24, 242, 243 Handbook of Baroda Muscum Collection, 95 Handbook of Sculptures : Curzon Museum, Mathura, 97 Harappa, discovery of, 10 Harsavardhana, 133 Harsavardhan Siladitya, -hero of Bana's 'Harsacarita' 96 159 Gujarat, Two Natural Divisions, 3 Gulf of Cambay, 47 Gunamati, 133 Gunda Stone-Inscription, 67 Gupta Coins, 7 Gupta Dynasty, rise of : 82 . Gupta Empire, Western Section : 131 Gupta Era, 85, 107 Gupta Governor at Anandapura, 131 Gupta Inscriptions, 108 Gupta-Licchavi alliance, 107 Gupta Sculptures from Northern Gujarat', Journal Guj. Res. Soc. XIV & Baroda Museum Bulletin VII, 211 Harsavardhana, pedigree of, 142 Harsacarita, 43, 148 Haribhadra Suri, Virahanka', 222, 227, 233 Haricandra, 136 Harisena, author of Brihat-katha kosa,' 262 Hastimati, 295 Hastinapur, 8 Hatakesvara-ksetra, 295 Hatthundi Gotra, 261 Havell, E. B., 122 For Personal & Private Use Only

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326 Hansot Plates of Bhartrivaddha II, 180, 224 Hathab, 37 Hiranyagarbha ceremony, 223, 257 Hina Yana, reference to: 138 Hinayana, study of, acc. to Hiuen. CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Tsang, 157 Hemacandra Suri, 83, 227 'Head of King' on coins, 62 Hemadri's Vrata-khanda', 239 Heras, H., Rev., 16 Hilol Plates of Candraditya, 230, 231 Hindu Polity: 109 Hiuen Tsang, Pilgrim-Scholar, 56, 133. 148, 155 -Visit to India, 164, 171 -Visit to Harsa's Court, 160 History of Bengali Language, 25, 36 'History of Buddhism in Gujarat', Gujarat Research Society Journal, III, 182 History of Dharmasastras, Vol. II, 254 History of Jaina Canonical Literature, 84, 117 History of India, 150-350 A.D., 77 History of Mediaeval Hindu India, Vol. II, 146 History of Rajputana, Vol. I, 146 History of Village Communities in Western India, 139, 140, 254 Historico-Cultural Ethno-Geography of Gujarat, 66 Hodiwalla, S. H., Prof., 189, 244, 263, 264 Hultzsch, Dr., 123, 132 Hupas, 109, 118 I Imperial History of India, 200 Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, 72, 156, 163, 237 Impressed Seals, 94 'Important Coins from Baroda State': 102 India as known to Panini, 25 Indian Archaeology-A Review: 33, 96, 97, 103 Indian Culture, Vol. I, 146 Indian History Congress, Proceedings Calcutta, 125 Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. X, 146 Indian Palaeography, 44 Indika, 31 Indo-Sassanian (Gadhia) Coins, 280, 281 Indra III, Rastrakuta, 258 Indradatta's reign: 115 Indus basin, 3, 6 Indus Script, 13 Ingholt, Harold, 310 Inscribed pot-sherds, Amreli, 196 Inscribed pot-sherd of Guhasena, 197 Inscribed Seals: 94 Inscription of Pulumavi, C. 126 A.D., 60. Inscription re: Investment, 58 Inscriptions of the Saindhavas, 259 Intva Seal of Rudrasena-Vihara, 72, 94 Invasion of Manyakheta by Siyaka II of Dhara, 267 Invasion of Valabhi by the Tajjikas, 227 Iranians, Settlement of, 188 Isanavarman, 131 Isvaradatta, MKs. 69, 78 Coins of, 103 Isvarasena, Abhira ruler, 78, 67 J Jackson Two New Valabhi Plates', 167 Jacobi, Hermann, Dr., 268 Jadi Rana, identified with Silahara King Vajjada-deva, 264 For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 327 Jagan Nath, in Indian Culture, 1939 -I2I Jaina Frescoes at Elura, 269 Jaina 'Harivamsa', 229 Jaina Miniature Paintings of Western India, 162, 269 Jaina Monastery at Ankottaka, 211 Jaina Sculptures, Dhank Caves, 213 Jaina Wall-Painting in the Indra Sabha, Cave 32, Elura, 201 Jainism, first wave, 71 Jambumargagrama, 71 Jarasandha, 23 Jayabhata I, Gurjara, 161 Jayabhasa II, 175 Jayabhasa III, 187 Jayabhata IV, 134, 191 Jayadaman, Castana's son, 55 Jayadamn, Silver coin : 99 Jayadeva, Gitagovinda ', 243 Jayasekhara, 221 Jayaswal, K. P., 77, 109, 147, 169, 200, 223 Jayaditya Temples at Kavi, 239 Jayasraya Mangalarasa, 190 Jabalipura (Jhalor ), 228 Jaika II, 259 Jaikadeva, 134 Jatakas, 36 Jesar Plates, 183 Jhar Plates, 151 Jhote, R. B., author of Khambhat no Itihasa, 303 Jinadatta Sresthin, 47 Jinadatta Suri, 149 Jinadeva, 157 Jinavijayaji, Muni, 229 Jinasena, author of 'Harivamsa', 227 Jivadaman, Maha Ksp., Svamin - first to issue dated coins, 66, 70, 100 Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihara Bauka, 136, 241 Joshi, Umashankar, author of Purano man Gujarat, 304 Journal Bombay University, 163 Journal Indian Museums Association, Vol. VIII, 205 Journal Indian Museums Association, Vol. IX, 274 Journal Indian Museums Association, Vol. XI, 1955, 213 Journal Numismatic Society of India, 74 Journal Oriental Institute, Vol. I, No. 2, 1952-53, 270 * Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 116 Junagadh Rock-Inscription of Asoka, 23, 33 Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman, 65 Junagadh Rock-Inscription of Skanda. gupta, 109, 119 --the only Gupta Inscription in Gujarat, 119 Junagadh Museuin Inscription, 70, 84 Junaid, Governor of Sindh, 189, 194 Junnara Cave-Inscription, 59 Jurz' or 'Gurjjara ', 220 Jyesthuka Desa, --of the Jethyas, 259 k Kaccha, 25, Kacchaka, 25, 55 Kaccha Plates of Jayasimha Mangala rasa, J.O.I., Jan. 1960, 191 Kadphises, 56 Kaira Copper-plates, 165, 174 Kakkaraja II, 224 Kalacuri, 78 Kalacuri Era, 77 Kalacuri Inscriptions : II Kalacchala Copper-plate of Isvara datta : 110 For Personal & Private Use Only

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328 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Kalsar Temple, 272 Kaniska, accession of 53, 56 -successor of Kadphises, 56 Kanha, 24 Kanauj, Imperial Capital, 131 Kapadvanj Plates, 176 Kapadvanj Plates of Krsna II, 257 Kardama, river, 54 Karjan, river, 5 Karkaraja Suvarnavarsa, 235 - his five Inscriptions, 237 Karpuramanjari, Colophon of, 250 Kathlal Visnu Trimarti, 209 Katpur Plates, 151 Kapadia, H.R., Prof., 84, 117, 243 King Sila, 201 Kosam Inscription, 90 Kottaraja, Abhira, 78 Kottammahika, Goddess, 141 Kotyarka Mother & Child, discovered by Ravisankar Raval, 206 Kumara (Kartikeya ), 108, 204 Kaumari from Samalaji, 206 Kumaragupta I, 108 Kumaragupta : Coins --Amreli hoard, 114 - Anand hoard, 114 Kuinarapala-prabandha, 222 Kumarapala-pratibodha of Somapra bhacarya, 278 Kusana Empire, dissolution of, 106 Kusasthali, 22, 297 Kuvalayamala, 228 Kuvalayamala (Colophon ), 191 Kuttani-matam, 224 Kaulas, 252 Kautilya: 23, 31 Kadamba Plates of Prabhutavarsa, 254 Kaku Ranka, 227 Kalaka Suri, 117 Kalakacarya Katha, 56 Kalidasa : 108 Kamboja : 43 Kampilya Vihara, 246 Kampilya Vihara Seal, 197 Kamrej, 37 Kamasutras, 78, 83 Kane, P.V., Dr., 35, 254 Kardamakas-Western Ksatrapas, 53, 54, 55 Karda maka Ksatrapa family : 99 * Kari' or Interest on loan, 244 Karli, 54 Kaili Inscriptions, 59 Karvan, 37 Kasindra Plates, 161 'Kathiawad Harappan Culture', 5 Katyayana's Vartika, 22 Kavi plates of Jayabhata IV, 192 Kavi Plates of Prabhutavarsa Govinda raja, 239 Kavi & Navsari Plates, 190 Kavyamimansa, 3rd Ed., 251, 252 Kavyalankara, 151 Keilhorn, Dr., 88, 132 Kesisudana from Vala, 210 Keith, B., Dr., 232 Ksaharatas, 53 Ksaharata Ksatrapa family: 98 Ksatrapa-53 Ksatrapa dominion, extent, 55 Ksatrapa Copper Coins: 102 Ksatrapa Potin Coins : 102 Ksatrapa Coin-Hoards : 101 Ksatrapa Lead Coins, 103 Ksatrapa Inscriptions : 94 Ksemaraja, 241 Ksetrapala Siva, 204 Krsna, 23 Kespa I, Rastrakuta, 225 Krsna, Rasti akuta : the king-builder of Kailasanatha Temple, Elura, 219 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 329 Krspa III, 221 Krsnagiri (Kanheri) Copper-plate, 123 Klsnswamy, V.D., 16 Klsnamachari, M., 177 Kharosthi (Script ), 53 Kharosthi, use of; 55 Kharosthi inscription of Eukratides Coins: 49 Khambhalida Caves; 93 Kharagraha I, 163 Kharagraha II, Dharmaditya, 177 -praised by vyatireka alan kara, 178 Kharataragaccha-patlavali, 249 Khandalavala, Karl: 201, 216 Khetaka, New Capital of South Gujarat, 230 Lakulisa, 87, 88 Lakulisa from Karvan, 204 Laksmanarajadeva, Kalacuri, 266 Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4 33, 201 Land-tax collection in three instal ments, 250 Lastis (memorial pillars), 62, 72, 73 Lahara, son of Ninna, 223 Lakhabaval, 7. Lala-rattha (Lata ): 111 Langhnaj, 5 Lata or lala, 8, 36, 296 Latadesa, partiality for, . to Raja sekhara, 252 Lata lady, 251 Lata people, 125 Lata people : profession of Silk weaving, 117 Latacarya, 139 Latanuprasa ', 234 Lati, 187 Lati, as one of the Prakrits, 155 Latiya Riti, 234 Lathi Inscription: 94 Legge, Fa-Hian's Record of Buddhistic Kingdom': 173 Legged Stone Querns: 97 Licchavis, 26 Lilvadeva Jaina Bronzes, 213 Limbodra Trimurti Head, 210 Lion-Capitals from Baroda : 96 Location of Bhakti in Regions of India, - 267 Location of the Sects of Candi and Vinayaka, 267 Logan, A. C., 16 Lothal (mound), discovery of, 10, II Lothal,-drainage system, II -houses built in rows, II -drains, II ---terracotta, 12 -micro-beads, 12 - painting on earthen vessels, 12 -seals and sealings, 13 -burial, 13 Luders, Dr. 254 Lunsati Plates, 180 Lunayada Plates, 225 Lustrous Red Ware, 6 M Madhyamika, 42 Magnanatha (Mannatha ), 192 Mahattaras', 182 Mahabharata, 22, 23, 24, 35 Mahabharata War, date of, 9 Mahabhasya, 42 Mahaksatrapa, 55 Mahaksatrapa, Office of : 82 Mahavamsa, 25, 35, 113 Mahavira, 26 Mahayana, studied at Bharukaccha and Surastra, 157 Mahendra, son of Asoka: 36 Mahendrapala, Pratihara, 220, 221, 250 Mahesvar, 7, 8 42 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

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330 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Mahipala, Pratihara ; 220, 221, 250, 251 Mahipala, Earliest known date, 258 -- bore the name Kartikeya, 258 Mahi River, dividing line, 3, 220 Mahisamardini from Vala, 208 Mahudi Buddha Bronze, 213 Mahudi Jaina Bronzes, 212 Maitraka Administrative system, 135 Maitraka Grant to a Siva temple, 160 Maitrakas, 131 Maitrakakalina Gujarat: 44, 123, 138, 140, 141, 145, 146, 156, 161, 179, 183, 185, 186 Majmudar, Chandramauli, 274 Majmudar, M. R., Dr., 97, 204, 205, 206, 207, 256, 267, 275, 276, 277 Majumdar, R. C., Dr., 69, 90, 109, 133, 135, 146, 152, 184, 230 Malia Plates, 151 Malik, S. C., 4 Mallavadin Suri, 87 Malwa, 55 Manimekhalai, a Tamil poem, 158 Mandor Stone Plates of Ksisna-Lila, 208 Mandsor Inscription, 116, 272 Manju-Sri-Mulakalpa, 147 Mankad, D. R., Prof., 146 Mankad, B. L., 199 Mantri Samanta, Porvada, 226 * Mantri Vimala and his Mantri Vam sa', Gujarat Itihasa Sammelana Proceedings, 1945, 226 Maritime activities of the people of Valabhi, 223, 147 Marshall, J., Sir : author of Taxila : 311 Maru, 296 Masudi, 265 Mathamnaya, 231 Mathura, 42 Mathura Museum, 55, 96 Maudgaliputra Tisya, 36 Mauryan Inscriptions: 93 Mauryan rule, 3 Mauryan rule in Gujarat, 21 Magha, 176, 222, 233, 256 Malavagana: 44 Manadeva Suri, 144, 3 Manatunga, author of Bhaktamara Stotra, 157 Manadeva Suri, author of Laghu-santi: Stava, 182 Mandavyapura ( Mandor ), 135 Mankani Copper-Plate, 155 Markandeya, 25 Mathuri Vacana, 117 Matrika Sculptures, 205 Matrika Sculptures', Gujarat Research Society Journal, 1950, 205 Matrikas from Devani Mori, 205 Mc Grindle, Periplus': 49 Medapata (Mewar ), 222 Medhatithi, 222 Megasthenes, 24, 31 Mehta, N. C., 122 Mehta, R. N., Dr., 4, 39, 98, 204, 260, 308 Memorial of Abhira Vasuraka, 89 Menander, 41 -- Various poses on coins, 42 Menander, Coins of: found from near Broach, Junagadh : 48 Microlithic industries, 6 Mihira Bhoja, 220, 221 Mihirakula, 131, 141 Milinda, 42 Miinda panho, 43 Miniatures of Tara-Temples in Lata desa, 277 Minnagara: 46 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #481
Mirashi, V. V., Principal, -who reconstructed the giti, 68, 77, 78, III, 192, 198 Mirat-I-Ahmadi, 222 Mirpur Khas, Brahma Bronze, 96, -Stupa terracotta, 214 Mistri, M. M., 187 Mitra, P., 16 Mleccha country Gujarat: 29 Modha Gaccha, 231 Mohen-jo-Daro, discovery of, 10 Moheraka (Modhera), 37, 187 Mohra Moradu Stupa at Taxila, 311 Moksa Parisad', 155 Moti Chandra, Dr., 96, 162, 269 M. S. University Journal 1954: 94.98 Muir, William, Sir, 228 INDEX Mularaja, 222, 265 Mulva-sara Inscription, 71 Munshi, K. M., Dr., 21, 146, 209, 220, 221, 222, 236, 240, 253, 264, 279 Murrhine (agate and cornelian), 47 N Nabhovahana, 60 Nadvi, S. S., Prof., 178, 189 Nagaraka, (Nagara), 143 Nahapana, 53 Nahapana, Silver Coins: 99 Nandi, an animal-study, 201 Narmada (river), 3, 25, 299 Narain, A. K., Dr., 41, 42 Navalakhi Plates, 159 Navsari, 37 Navsari Lead Seal: 95 Navsari Plates of Avanijanasraya Pulakesi; their historical import ance, 193 Navsari Plates of Jayabhata III, 187 Navsari Grant of Jayabhata IV, 165 Nayacakra of Devasena, 263 Naiatas, Muslim Ship Captains, 246 Nagabhata II, Pratihara, 219, 220, 234. 236 Nagarjuna 45, 83, 232 Nagaraja, Mt. Abu 210 Nandipuri, 134 Nandipuri, Capital of Gurjaras, 137 Nandipuri Gurjaras, 137 Nanavati, J. M., 74, 31 Nasik, 54 Nasik-Cave Inscription, 69, 78 Nasik Inscriptions, 57, 58 Natyalastra, 71 Nerur Plates of Mangalaraja, 160 Newton, 198 331 Nihirullaka, 152 : Nikurhbha Allasakti, 177 Nilakantha Sastri, K. A., 31, 32, 36, 64, 155 Nilivakyamrita of Somadeva Suri, 268 Nogava Plates, 168 Northern Black Polished Ware, N. B. P. Ware',-6, 38 Ninna or Ninnaya, 226 O Ojha, Gaurishankar, Pandit, 146, 226 'On the Origin of Gurjaras': Guj. Res. Soc. Journal, 147 Osia, Melapura Pattana, 226 P Paccaddesa, 300 Pallas Athene, figure of, on Indo-Greek coins; 49 Panca-nada, 299 Panca siddhantika, 139 Panca-lantra, 244 Pandit Radhakrsna, 96 Pandya A.V., 4, 16, 97, 115 Pandya, P.P., 7, 16, 93, 94, 315 P.M.P. (Paramabhaffaraha, Maharaja dhiraja, Paramesvara), 225 Paramara Dynasty, rise of, 239 For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #482
334 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Parasurama, 22 Parnadatta, Governor of Saurastra, 109, 119 Patanjali, 42, 43 Patanjali, Mahabhasya, 67 Pattolika, 116 Paura-Velakula (modern Probundar), 260 Padalipta Suri, 45 -author of Tarangavai : 45 Pada-taditaka Bhana, 124 Palitana-Iyavaj Plates, 143 Palitana Plates, 123, 143, 151 -refers to Krsna's Dwarka, 123 Palitana-Vala Plates, 159 Pandurajja, Goddess, 141 Panini, 21, 22, 23, 25, 41, 149 Paniniya Siksa, 124 Parada, 54 Pardi Plates, 119 Pariyatra, 43 Parsis, First Settlement of, 263 Parvati as Sabarakanya, 207 Pasupata Acaryas, 88 Pataliputra, 32 Peacock on Kumaragupta's Coins, 114 People of Lata , 251, 252 Periplus (Guide-book) of the Ery thraean Sea : 41, 46, 53, 65, 116 Pindaraka, 301 Plutarch, 42 Poets of Lata, 233, 234 Portrait Sculptures of Saka-Kusana: 96 Potin Coins of Kardamakas, 75 Pot-sherd of Guhasena, 151 Prabandha Cintamani, 222, 227 Prabandhakosa, 227 Prabhakaravardhana, 154 Prabhasa, 54, 300 Prabhasa Patan, 8 Prabharaka carita, 223, 240 Prakasha, 37 Pratiharas, 137 Pratibaras ', Origin of : 241 Pracina Jaina Lekha-Sangraha Pt. II, 261 Prakrit in Drama, 71 - Prakrit, language of Edicts : 33 Pre-history-definition, 3 --culture, 5 Princep, James, Sir, 198 Prince of Wales Museum, 33, 94, 96, 98, 213 Prince of Wales Museum Plates of Dadda III, 166 Prince of Wales Museum Plates, 192 Prithvisena, 74, 100 Proprietory right of the Soil, 253, 254 Pro. Rep., Arch. Sur. India, Western Circle 1915, 213 Proto-history, 3 ---culture, 8 Pulakesin II, Calukya, defeated Harsa, 160, 161, 163 Pulakesi's feudatories, 137 Pulumavi, Siri, 54, 63 Punch-marked Coins in Baroda Museum', 37 Puranas, 8, 21 Purana Vivecana, 285 Puratana Daksina Gujarat, 151 Puratana Prabandha samgraha, 227 Puri, Baij Nath, Dr., 136, 147, 150, 158, 236, 244, 246, 248, 249, 255, 265 Puskara, 54 Puspadanta, the greatest Apabhramsa poct, 264 --author of 'Mahapurana', 'Jasahara Car u', & Nayakumara Cariu' .-26.4 Pusyagupta, Vaisya, 30 Pusyamitras, 108, 118 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #483
Pusyena, Saindhava family: --clay-seal from Vala 191, 194 Putigandha, 57 Q Qissa-i-Sanjana, 234 R Raivata (ka), 301 Ranchhodbhai, Divan Bahadur, 62 Randle, H. H., 116 Rangpur 5, 7, 10, 13 Ranu-pipli Seated Surya, 274 Rapson, 63, 64, 65 Rao, S. R., 6, 13, 16, 213 Raviprabha Suri, 174 Radhanpur Copper-Plate, 232 Rajkot Museum Inscription, 94 Rajanyagana, Republics, 31 Rajasekhara, the poet, 221, 222, 250, 251, 252 Rajasekhara, patronised by Yuvarajadeva, 261 Ramaswami, K. S., Pandit, 251 Ranaka, Saindhava King,-donations to temples, 247 Raval, Ravishankar, 272 Ravana-Vadha or Bhattikavya, 175 Recruiting of soldiers from Lata, 254 Red Polished Ware, 95, 96 Red & Black Ware, 195 Removal of Jaina Idols from Valabhi, 231 Reu, Visvesvara Nath, Pandit, 264 Revata, 22 Reva, 302 Revenue Records, keeping of, 231 Right to Forced Labour-Vistika, 259 Rigveda Bhasya, author of, go 'Rise of the Rastrakuta Rule in Gujarat-XVII Indian History Congress 1954. 189, 230 Roman Handle from Akota, 97 INDEX Rsabhadatta (Usavadata), 53. 54 Rudrabhuti, Abhira Senapati, 67 Rudradaman I, Mahaksatrapa, 30, 31, 33, 99, 109, 119 Rudradaman --accomplishments, 55 Rajan, 55 -Coins, 64 Rudramukha Svamin, 73 Rudrasena, 78 Rudrasena I, 72, 73, 74, 100 Rudrasena Vihara, 91 Rudrasena II, 79, 100 Rudrasimha I, Son of Rudradaman, 66, 67 -silver coins, 68, 72, 100 Rudrasimha II, 56, 84, 85, 100 Rudrasimha III 106 Rudrat, 151 S Saivadharma no Sanksipta Itihasa, 230 Saivite Sculptures (Maitraka Gurjara Period), 203 Sakas, 42, 89 Saka era, 53 " Saka Era, Sakabda', 56 333 Sakunika Vihara, 25 Sankaragana, 137 Sankaracarya, 230 Sarva Bhattarka, III Sack of Valabhi, Date of: 227 Saga of Indian Sculpture, 209 Samaraicca-kaha, 233 Samghadaman, Sandanes', 74, 100 Samprati, grandson of Asoka: 41 Samudragupta: 107, 114, S.nderaka Gaccha, 257 Sangama-khetaka, 165 Sangamasimha, 145 Sanjan Plates of Govinda III, 235 For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #484
334 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Sankalia H. D., Dr., 4, 5, 6, 16, 37, 45, 53, 66, 73, 92, 93, 97, 110, 146, 213, 219, 273 Sankalia and Karve, 16 Sankhela Plates, 159, 173, Sanskrit Inscriptions, 66 Sanskrit Language, use of : 30 Sanskrit, the Cultural Language of the nation, 227 Saragvala-Lothal, village, II Sarsavni Plates of Buddharaja, 162 Sarvadarsanasamgraha, 88 Sarvania Hoard, 79 'Satrap' of the Kusanas, 59 Satyadaman, 66, 100 Saurastra, 8 Sabarmati (river), 3, II, 303 Sakambhari (Ajmer) 222 Saketa (Ayodhya), 42 Sakyas, 26 Saletore, R. A., Dr., 151 Samalaji, 308 Samalaji Sculptures, 201 Samanera, 63 Sambhar (sakambhari) Inscription of Jayasimha Siddharaja, 264 Sana Caves : 93 * Sarada Matha' at Dwarka, 230 Schoff, W.F., Trans. Periplus.' Intro duction : 46 School of Western Sculptures', IHQ, 1937, 207 Sculpture from Dwarka, 274 Sculpture of Ganga, 270 Sculptures from Kotyarka' Bombay Univ. Journal, 213 Sculptures from Samalaji, 126 Sculptures of Bhairava, 275 Sculptures of Kartikeya, 275 Sculptures of Kaumari, 276 Sculptures of Seated Surya, 273 Sculptures of Standing Surya, 273 Sesasayi Visnu, 210 Seated Buddha from Nagara, 278 Seated Surya from Prabhasa, 273 Select Inscriptions, : 55, 59, 73, 116 Settlement of Iranian Emigrants, 267 Shah, U. P., Dr., 71, 113, 205, 208, 210, 213, 216, 224, 270, 274, 275, 276 Shah, U. P., Dr. & Mehta, R. N., Dr., 204 Sharma Dasharath, Dr., 146 Shastri, Durgashankar, 230, 285 Shastri, Hirananda, Dr., 93, 114, 197, 213 Shastri, Hariprasad G., Dr., 44, 45, 115, 123, 138, 140, 141, 145. 146, 156, 161, 179, 183, 185, 186, 189, 190, 222, 230, 231, 249, 316, 317 Siladitya I, Maitraka, 159 Siladitya II, Derabhat's son, 161 Siladitya, son of Dharasena II, 155 Siladitya III, 134 Siladitya IV, 185, 188 Siladitya V, 189 Siladitya VI, 225 Silanka Suri, 243 Sisupalavadha, 176 Siva-Parvati Sculptures, 275 Siddharsi, 256 Simhabahu, 25, 36 Simhala, 35 Simhapura (Sihor), 36 Simbaditya of Garulaka family, 123 Sircar, D. C., Dr., 55, 56, 57, 59, 73, 116, 260, 318 Si-yu-ki, Trans. by S. Beal, 164 Siyaka II, Paramara, 221, 263 Skandagupta, 33, 118 Skanda-Kartikeya from Rajasthan' Lalit Kala Nos. 3-4. 203 For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #485
INDEX 335 Skandasvami, 90 Skandasvami, author of Rigveda Bha sya, 113 Smith, Vincent, 30, 65, 121, 281 Soddhala, Kayastha poet, 229, 247 Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara, 268 Somanath, 6, 38 Somanath Potsherd, 94 Sopara Buddha Bronzes, 214 Soparaka, 57 Sopara Edicts, 33 Sopara Stupa, 91 Sorath Plates, 151 Sovira, III Sri Bhattarka, -Sarva Bhattarka, 198 Sribhavana (Sarbhon), 234 Srigupta, founder, Gupta Dynasty, 107 Sringadhara's School of Art of Ancient West', 161 Sryasraya Siladitya, 180 Standing Mother, Sculpture, 207 Sthiramati, Acarya Bhiksu, 133, 157 Stone Age of Gujarat, 4 Strabo, 41 Studies in Historical Geography and Cultural Ethnography of Gujarat' Journal Guj. Res. Soc., Nov. 1955, 219 Studies in Indo-Muslim History, 244 Studies in Parsi History, 189, 264 Sura I, Garulaka, 137, 140 Suvisakha, 55 Subandhu, author of Vasavadatta, 153 Subbarao, B. Dr., 4, 5, 7, 17, 94, 95, 96, 235, 309 Subbarao, B. and Mehta, R.N., 94 Sudarsana lake, 30, 37, 64, 119 Sulaiman, author of Salsilatut Tawarikh', 244 Suleiman Ibn Hasham, 223 Sun-temples, 272 Sun-worship, reference to, 238 Supparaka, 112 Surakatha, Rajendra, 277 Surat Plates, 123 Surat Plates, gift to Aparajaguru, a Jaina Teacher, 237, 238 Surat Plates of Vyaghrasena, 123 Surastra, 32, 303, 304 Surastra as. Janapada-desa': 111 Surastra, famous for bell-metal, 256 Surastra (Su-la-ch'a ), 170 Suresvara, identified with Mandana misra, 130 Suvarnasikata, river, 30 Surparaka, 34, 54, 302 Svetambara Scholars of Valabhi, 254 Syamilaka, author of Caturbhani, 125 Svami Rudrasena III, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 Svami Rudrasena IV, 89 Svami Rudrasimha III, 56, 107 Svami' rulers, 100 Svami-Satyasiinha, father of Rudra simha III, 89 Svami Simhasena, 89 Sylvain Levi, Dr., 66 T Takakusu, I-Tsing's Records of the Buddhist Religion', 172, 180, 181 Talwalkar, V. R., 96 Talaja Caves, 92 Tajikas, 115 Tapi, River, 3, 305 Tara on Taranga Hill, 278 Taranatha's History of Buddhism ', 161 Taraporewala, I.J.S., Dr., 263 Temple Architecture, Pratihara Period, 270 Temples (Maitraka-Gurjara Period), 199 Temple of Rsabha at Jabalipura, 229 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #486
336 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Temples on Western Sea-board, 199 Ten Fragments of Stone Inscriptions' --reference to Krsna, 123 Terracottas, 95 The Age of Imperial Kanauj. 219, 221, 233, 267 The Age of Imperial Unity, 36, 44, 56, 58, 59, 61, 68, 69, 72, 75, 96 The Age of Imperial Unity, saka-sat rapas of Western India', pp. 178-190 The Age of Nandas and Mauryas, 64 The Arbudas, 147 The Bagh Caves, 121 * The Buddhist Group of 8 Bronzes from Sopara': Lalit Kala Nos. 3-4, 215 The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline and Fall, 228 The Classical Age, 109, 133, 135, 152, 184 The Cullavaga, 200 The Dhank Caves : JRAS: 93 The Ekalinga (Udaipur ) Inscription of Naravahana, 267 The Glory that was Gurjaradesa Pt. I, 146 The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 136, 147, 160, 185, 236, 244, 246, 248, 249, 255, 266 The Indo-Greeks : 41, 42 * The Problem of the Chronology of Cavada kings', Indian History Con gress, Proceedings, 1955, 222 The Rastrakutas, and their Times, 182, 223, 224, 225, 228, 236, 243, 250, 257, 262 The Sanskrit and Prakrit MSS. in the Berlin Library, 149 The Saurastrans of South India', 116 The Scythian Period, 56 The Vakataka-Gupta Age, 69 The Vedic Age, 22, 23, 24, 30 Tilakamanjari, 148 Timberva, 5, 7, 38 Tirtha of Taranga, 278 Title of Mahaksatrapa : 100 Title Svami for MKsp., 86 Thomas, E., 198 Three Ksatrapa Inscriptions', 71 Todd, K.R.V., 6, 17 Torkhade Plates of Buddhavarsa, 236 Toramana, the Huna, 131 Toramana, -Eran Inscription, 139 Torso of Castana, 96, 97 'Tula-purusa ' Ceremony, 257, 260 Tusaspa, Yavanaraja Governor, 29, 32, 41 Tradition, 8 * Tradition of Folk-Dances in Guja rat': Journal Ind. Soc. Oriental Art, 1949, 256 Traikutakas, 61, 78, 118 Traikutaka Coins : 103, 117, 123, 198 Traikutaka Dynasty, 115 Traikutaka Era, 77 Traits of people noted in Kuvalaya. mala' 229 Trenna, village gifted over, 231 Trisangamaka, 141 Trivikramabhatta, author of Dama yanti katha, 253 'Two Copper-plates of Solanki age', Buddhi Prakash, 1951, 243 'Two Sculptures of Parvati, 'Bharatiya Vidya, 1954, 208 U Udbhata, author of 'Kavyalankara samgraha', 234 Udayagiri Cave-Inscriptions, 113 Udayaprabha Suri, 191 Udayasundari Katha, 229 For Personal & Private Use Only

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INDEX 337 Udranga'and Uparikara' taxes, 243 Uddyotana Suri, author of 'Kuvalaya mala', 228, 249 Udumbara, Sage, 210 Ujjain, 38, 55 Ujjayini, Capital of Avanti, 229 Ujjayanta, 305 Uma-Mahesvara from Kapuri, 204 Una Plates, 252 Una Inscription of Bhojadeva, 248 Upadesamala, 245 Upamiti-bhava-prapanca-katha, 256 Uparkot Caves, 92 Upadhyaya, S. C., Dr., 30 Usavadata, public works of, 57 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 24 Vadnagar, 7, 37 Vadnagar Clay-Seal, 94 Vadia, (Taluka Palanpur), 37/ Vaidya, C.V., Rao Bahadur, 146 Vaisya donations, 154 Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Sects, 87, 203, 228 Vajrasena Suri: 47 Valabhi, 110, 170, 305 Valabhi Kingdom, 221 Valabhipura, Selection as Capital, -city of culture, 133 Valabhipura, Headquarters of Senapati Bhatarka, 131 Valabhi Council, 83 Valabhi Vacana, 83 Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhistic Uni versity': 'Historical and Economical Studies ', 173 Valabhi Coins, 7, 197-98 Valabhi, Coins in the Baroda Museum': Journal Numismatic Society of India, XV, 199 Valabhi Copper-plate seal, 197 Valabhi Era, 85, 123, 132 Valabhi Vidyapitha, 135, 172, 173 Vallabha Vidyanagar Bulletin, 97 Vala Plates, 144, 154, 160 Vala Bauddha Bronze, 213 . Vala Elephant Seal, 197 Vanaraja Cavada, 221, 222, 223 Varahadasa, Senapati, 152 -Ref. to Dwarka, 152 Varahadasa's Copper-plate, 138 Varahamihira, 139 Varmalata, 164 Vasantagadh Jaina Bronzes, 213 Vastrapatha, 305 Vastrapatha Mahatmya : Prabhasa khanda, Skandapurana, 266 Vasumitra (Shih-yu), 56 Vats, M.S., Dr., 6, 17 Vatsaraja, 220, 221 Vatsaraja, Pratihara king, 226, 228 Vagbhatalankara, 252 Vakpati, author of Gaudavaho: 189, 222 Vamana, author of 'Kavyalankara vsitti', 233 Vasudeva Krsna, Deification of : 23 Vatsyayana, 78, 83 Vavdi Jogiya Plates, 145 Vakatakas, 124 Vakataka-Gupta Age, 78 Veni-Vatsaraja : 46 Vicarasreni, 222 Viharas, 90 Viharas (Bauddha), 200 Viharas at Valabhi Vidyapitha, 201 Vihara-mandala', 157 Vijaya, prince: 25, 35 Vijayasena, 76, 77, 78, 100 Vikramaditya, personality of: 44 Vikramarka, Capa of Wadhwan, 240 Vikrama Samvat, 44 Vikramasila Vidyapitha', 229 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #488
338 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Vinayapitaka : 112 Western School of Wall-Paintings, 268 Vinapani Siva, Sculpture of, 275 Western Ksatrapas, 54, 89 Virabhadra Siva, 203 Winternitz, History of Sanskrit LiteViradaman, 75, 76, 78, 100 rature, 230 Viroi Plates, 163 Y Virji, Krisnakumari, J., Dr., 132, 147, Yajnasri, Satavahana, 58 172, 228 Yajnasri Satakarni, Coin of: 90 Visnu from Bhinmal, 208 Yajnavaraha Visnu, temple of : 240 Visnu on Lotus, 274 Yaksadeya Gani, 224 Visnu from Tenna, 209 Yaksadeva Suri III : 46 Visnu Purana, 35 Yavana, 41 Visvasena, 56, 82, 83, 84, 100, 312 Yavana Invaders, 41 Visvasimha, 80, 81, 100 Yasodaman, 76, 100, 131 * Visaya-Mahattaras' and 'Rastra- Yasodaman II, 85, 86, 100 Mahattaras', 257 Yasastilaka Campu, 266 Vividha-tirtha kalpa, 25, 222, 227, 232 Yadavas, 22, 23, 24, 29 Vrsnis, 22 Yadavas, Migrations, 239 Visni-Rajanya Gana Coin, 43 Yakini Mahattara, 233 Vsitraghni, 306 Yogaraja, 234 Vyaghrasena Traikutaka, 123 Yona (Prakrit) : 41 W Young Princes as Provincial Governors, Watters, Travels II, 169 228 Weber, J., 149 Yuvarajadeva, father-in-law of AmoWema Kadphises, Coin of: 104 ghavarsa III: a patron of Men of Western Indian Paintings, Style; Ref. letters, 261 in Caturbhani', 126 Western School of Sculptures, 202 Zeuner, F.E., 4, 17 Z Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #489
ERRATA P. 25 : Line 14 : Read C.543 B.C. for C.443 B.C. 1 Line 32 : Read that for thae P. 26: Line 4 : Read Nadyadi for Nadvali P. 29 : Line 29: Read Graeco for Greco 30 : Line 31 : Read Orjayat for Urjayat Line 35: Read Mauryan for Maurva P. 31 : Line 3 : Read Buddha for this king P. 32 : Line I : Read Kosabhisamharanam for Kosabhisam haranim P. 33: Line 29 : Read 259 B.C. for 252-1 B.C. P. 34 : Line 21 : Omit and P. 35: Line I: Read successors for successor P. 36 : Line 20 : Omit 244 (Black) P. 36 : Line 33 : Omit very P. 44: Line 18: Read Maitrakakalina for Maitrakalini : Line 36 : Read 27 for 21 P. 61 : Lire II : Read Castanasah for Castanasa P. 62 : Line 26 : Read 'in' for 'is' P. 63: Line I: Read Samaneri for Samneri , : Line 3 : Read Sramanera for Sramnera , : Line 8 : Read Balasri for Balasri , : Line 29: Read Satakarni for Siri-Pulumiyi >> : Line 36: Read dvisaptatitame for dvi-saptittame , : Line 38 : Read Orjayat for Urjayat 64 : Line 5: Read Rudradaman for Rudradamana ,, : Line 10: Read 7sit for 51 . : Line 19: Read damna for damana ,, : Line 19: Read Damajadasriya for Damajsriya , : Line 22 : Read thTy for 5211Agaka , : Line 23 : Read ghsada for Ghsada , : Line 24 : Read zada for Zada P. 65: Line 38 : Read TF34 for 514TH P. 66: Line 17 : Read Saurastra for Surastra ,, : Line 19: Read Sugrahita for Sugrahita , : Line 34 : Read struck coins as Ksatrapa for struck coins P. 67 : Line 5: Read after Ksatrapa, on his coins, and P. 68 : Line 13: Read Saurastra for Saurastra Line 14 : Read Arbuda for Arbud P. 70 : Line 14 : Read in the years 119-120 for (in the years 11)-29 ) ,, : Line 17 : Read 1952 for TATA . : Line 18: Read 1957 for 795798 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #490
340 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT P. 73: Line 14 : Read This word 37H (?) for The word ,, : Line 21 : Read Silver for Siiver P. 74: Line 21 : Read Samghadaman for Samghadama P. 75 : Omit Lines 12 to 16 P. 83: Line 12 : Read Nagarjuna for Devardhi Gani P. 85: Line 33: Read continued' for 'introduced P. 91: Line 27 : Read 66' X 58' for 66" X 58" , : Line 37 : Read 7' X 5' for 7" x 5" P. 93 : Line 31 : Read Khambhalida for Khambhalia P. 102 : Line 24 : Read Jivadaman's for Jivadamana's P. 107 : Line 4: Read Kusana for Kasana ,, : Line 24 : Read $. 310 for $. 31 P. 109: Line 22 : Read returned for return P. 110: Line 33 : Read Isvaradatta for 1 svararata P. 113: Line 18: Read Candragupta for Chandragupta P. 114: Line 6: Read gold for silver P. 116 : Line 28 : Read Khatri'. They for 'Khatri', who P. 118 : Line 13: Transpose who after Skandagupta P. 119 : Line 5: Read Indradatta for Endradalta , : Line 14: Read CII. for CI. : Line 31 : Read 456-57 A.D.. above 457-58 A.D. P. 120 : Line 26, 31, 34, 37 39: Read Bhatarka for Bhattarka . : Line 26 : Read 470 A.D. for 462 A.D. P. 121 : Line 2,7: Read Bhatarka for Bhattarka P. 122 : Line 34 : Read maula for kaula P. 123: Line 7: Read after for during : Line 17 : Read his inscriptions, ( M.G., p. 65) for the Malia copper-plate Inscription of Dharasena II'. P. 137 : Line 17, 20: Read Nandipuri for Bharukaccha : Line 37 : Read Ilao for llas P. 138 : Line 17 : Read C. 470 (Ref. M. G., p. 48) for 495. Add Reference. , Line 31 : Read C. 480 for 482-499 P. 141 : Line II: Read Pandurajja for Panduraja Add Reference--( M. G., p. 374) P. 142 : Line 8: Read CII. for CI. ,, : Line 9: Read C. 500 for C. 520 Add Reference : Coronation of Dronasimha,-(M.G., pp. 45, 54-52). P. 145 : Line 1: Transpose word ' mendicants 'as to begin the line. , : Line 4: Add, Reference: (IA ; IV, 104 ff; HIG, I, No. 27) ... : Line : Read Anandapura for Anand pura .: Line 12 : Read Samihambara for Samihamoara is : Line 13: Read Supakarapati Bhatfi; it for Sapakarapati Bhatti ; which. P. 145 : Line 23: Read Sonavva for Sona vva For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #491
ERRATA 341 P. 151: Line 29: Read Mimmi for Mimma P. 153 : Line 32 : Read Jayabhata I, father of Dadda II-( 628 A.D.)-(M.G., p. 266) : Line 33 : Read Nandipuri for Bharukaccha P. 154 : Line 8 : Read Maukhari for Maukari ,, : Line 14 : Read Bhadrapattana for Bhadrapattana P. 155 : Line 6: Omit T'after Siladitya ,, : Line 9: Add Reference-( See, C. 700 Infra) P. 162 : Line 8: Read There is mention of Valabhinagari and king siladitya. It refers to the temple of santinath at Valabhi.-( M.G., p. 493 ). : Line 30: Read Anandapura for Anandpura P. 164; Line 8 : Add Reference-( M.G., p. 120 ) P. 166 : Last Line . Read Last word as xstag: 1 for xtz1: 1-(M.G., p. 286, fn. 146 ) P. 169: Line 14 : Read Vandita palli for Vanditappali P. 178 : Line 38 : Add Reference-(M.G., p. 120 ) P. 179: Line 26, 36 : Read Siladitya III for Siladitya II P. 180 : Line 10 : Read Siladitya II for Siladitya III P. 182 : Line 38 : Read Siladilya II for Siladitya III P. 183: Line 20: Read Caturvedins for Caiurvedis >> : Line 25: Read Anahila for Anahil , : Line 25: Read Skandabhata for Skandabhag P. 186 : Line 13 : Add : However, refer to p. 222, infra. P. 187 : Line 6 : Add: - See, p. 87, Supra M.G., p. 491-92 for various dates ) P. 188 : Line 4: Read 699 A.D. for 709 A.D. ,, : Line 15: Read 700 A.D. for 710 A.D. P. 189: Line 6, 14 : Read Siladitya V for Siladitya IV P. 190 : Line 17, 20: Read Mangalarasa for Mangalaras , : Line 22 : Omit South Gujarat' P. 191 : Line 5: Read Mangalarasaraja for Mangalaraja P. 191 : Line 12 : Add and correct as Pulakesi Avanijanasraya succeeded Dharasraya Jayasimha, because the crown-prince had predeceased the father :-(H. G. Shastri, Kaccha Plates', Journal Oriental Institute, Jan., 1960). P. 193 : Line 16, 17 : Read Jaikadeva for Jaikadeva : Line 22 : Add as on P. 191, line 12 , : Line 34 : Read Muslim for Mahomedan P. 195 : Line 21 : Read 15 - for 70 ,, . Line 37 : Read Plate XXVII for PlateP. 196 : Line II: Read Plate XXVII A for Plate , : Line 20: Read vi fort P. 197 : Line 4, 12 : Read Plate XXVII A for Plate : Line 35: Read Bhatakkah for Bhattakah P. 213 : Line 24 : Read Bauddha for Jaina P. 224': Line 7: Read C. 750 for 750 . : Line 15: Read C. 754 for 754 Jain Education Intemational For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #492
342 CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT P. 226 Line 19: Read Siladilya VII for Siladitya VI P. 231: P. 268 : P. 274 P. 277 P. 290 P. 2 295 : P. 295 22 2 P. 299 P. 302 P. 303 Line 12: Line 30: Line 28: Line 31: Line 19 : Line 20: : ,,: : Line 33: : 33 34: Line 15: Line 33: Line 28: Add-(For details, see M. G., p. 422) For 'Fall of Valabhi', See M. G., pp. 155-160, and also Addenda on 776 A.D., p. 317 Read jIrNatAM for dilayaM., and add vRndAvanaM punaH prApya navIneva surUpiNI // 49 // Read Plate No. XLIII for LXIX Read Miniatures for Sculptures Read Bhrgu for Bhrigu Read drAviDe for drAvIDe Read via for jIrNatAM bilaba And Add vRndAvanaM punaH prApya navIneva surUpiNI / Read Vadnagar for Vadnagara Read Rakta for Bhakta Read Bala-mandana for Bala Mandava Read Na-gara (poisonless) for Na-gara (poison) Read Sabhramati for Sabarmati Read Khambhayat for Khambhayata Read Plate No. XLIX for XXXIV. Plate XXIA (D): The Block, showing Eros plying the oar, should be upside down. Read on Plate LVI Bilesvara for Sutrapada For Personal & Private Use Only

Page #493
For Personal & Privale Use Only www.lainelibrary.org

Page #494