Chronology of Gujarat

Author(s): M R Majumdar
Publisher: Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006799/1

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CHRONOLOGY
GUJARAT
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL
General Editor M. R. MAJMUDAR

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Dr. Vasudeva Sharan Agrawal, M.A., Ph.D., D.Litt. Head, Department of Ancient Indian Culture, Hindu University, Banaras.
"This idea of historical stock-taking is excellent. It will provide a sure foundation for the accomplishment of a comprehensive regional history of Gujarat, which in its turn will serve as an indispensable stone in the edifice of a National History of India, Such invaluable aids would indeed be necessary for each area of our big country. The M. S. University is to be congratulated for planning such a work. I find the entries quite scientific in style and quite explicit."
Prof. Dr. Vittore Pisani, Milano, Via Boccaccio, 43.
"I feel my duty of congratulating on the Chronology, as it does not restrict itself to Gujarat, but, owing also to the importance of this region, provides the reader with large information on the history of the whole of India. Particularly important is
for me the interest which is attached to the history of culture, literature and art."

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HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
[ From Earliest Times to 942 A.D. ]
With Illustrations and Maps
SAIRAO
DIVERSIT
THE NARARA
OF BARODA
'सत्यं शियंसुन्दरम
With Best Compliments from
The Vice-Chancellor,
The M. S. University of Baroda
wy
M. R. MAJMUDAR
M.A., Ph.D., LL.B.
GENERAL EDITOR

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HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT From Earliest Times to End of the Rāştrakūța-Pratihāra period : i.e. upto 942 A.D.)
With Illustrations and Maps
With a Foreword by Dr. J. M. Mehta, M.A., Ph.D., Bar-at-Law, Vice-Chancellor, M. S. University of Baroda
Dr. M. R. MAJMUDAR
General Editor
Board of Contributors (1) Dr. A. N. Jani (2) Prof. H. R. Kapadia (3) Shri Amrit Pandya (4) Dr. H. G. Shastri
.11n
WEPO
THE
सत्यं शिवं सुन्दरम्
Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda
BARODA
1960

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Number of Copies 500
Price Rs. 24.00
Can be had at: The University Publications Sales Unit, Near Palace Gate, Palace Road,
Baroda.
Printed by R. J. Patel, Manager, the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda Press (Sadhana Press ), Near Palace Gate, Palace Road, Baroda and published by Shri B. K. Zutshi, Registrar,
the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Baroda. August, 1960.

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Respectfully Dedicated
To DR. JIVRAJ N. MEHTA, The First Chief Minister,
Gujarat State
Jain Education Intemational

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सर्व यस्य वशादगात् स्मृतिपदं कालाय तस्मै नमः ।
- ieft: 1 [Bow to that Time Eternal, under whose control, everything in this world) is reduced to mere Memory!
-Bhartshari] What is History? History is another Universe, a universe built by Man, with the help of Time and Memory, in answer to the challenge of Death.
– Dr. Zhivago', Boris Pasternak.

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Message
Foreword
Preface:
Historical and Cultural
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
(From Earliest times to 942 A.D.) CONTENTS
.. Dr. Shrimati Hansaben Mehta. Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta.
(i) History of the undertaking; (ii) Scope; (iii) Periods in Political History; (iv) Term 'Gujarat' defined; (v) Aim & Object; (vi) Sources; (vii) Co-operation of Scholars; (viii) Acknowledgments.
List of Illustrations (Art-Plates)
List of Maps
Acknowledgments
I Pre- and Proto-history of Gujarat:
(i) Prelude to Gujarat History, pp.1-9. (ii) Extension of Harappa Culture in Gujarat-pp. 10-14; (iii) Select Bibliography.-pp. 15-17. (iv) Antiquities: Plates I-VIII.
II Pre-Mauryan Period (Traditional History): (-Pre. 322 B.C.)-pp. 19-26.
III Mauryan Period (C, 322 B. C.-185 B. C):

(i) Introductory. pp. 27-30; (ii) Chronology-pp. 30-36; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 36-38. (iv) Plates IX-XI
IV Indo-Greek Period (C. 185 B. C.-78
(i) Introductory-pp. 39-42: (iii) Antiquities-pp. 48-49.
A. D.):
(ii) Chronology-pp. 42-48; (iv) Plate XII
V Ksatrapa Period (78 A. D.-397-8 A. D. ): (i) Introductory-pp. 51-56; (ii) Chronology-pp. 56-90; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 90-104. (iv) Plates XIII-XXIII
VI Gupta Period (C. 400 A. D.-470 A. D.):
(i) Introductory-: pp. 105-110; (ii) Chronology-pp. 110-126; (iii) Antiquities-pp. 126-128. (iv) Plates XXIV-XXVI
VII Maitraka-Gurjara Period (C. 470 A. D.-745 A. D.):
(i) Introductory-pp. 129-137: (i) Chronology-pp. 137-194: (iii) Antiquities-pp. 194-216. (iv) Plates XXVII-LVIII VIII Rastrakuta-Pratihara Period (C. 745-942 A. D.):
(i) Introductory-pp. 217-222 (ii) Chronology-pp. 222-268 (iii) Antiquities-pp. 268-281. (iv) Plates LIX-LXXXIII

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Appendix: Geographical Data from Puranic Tradition: Place-Names-pp. 283-306.
Addenda :
(i) Excavations at Devani Mori: pp. 307-312; (ii) Plates LXXXIV-XC. (ii) Additional Notes: pp. 313-318
:
Index pp. 319-338 Errata: pp. 3:9-342

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MESSAGE
It is gratifying to me that the book on the Chronology of Gujarat is to be shortly out. The book which has taken so long has no doubt passed through a careful scrutiny and should prove an authentic publication on the subject. Such a publication would be of great value to those working in the field of research in the history of Gujarat.
With the advent of the new State of Gujarat it has become a timely publication. The new State needs a proper introduction to the world at large and even to its own people who are not fully aware of their rich heritage. The best way to introduce it is through its social and cultural history. Such a history has still to be written.
Socially, with its various tribes, castes and creeds, Gujarat presents a rich field for research. Culturally, too, Gujarat has much to show by way of its rich architecture; its rich arts and crafts; its folk-lore and literature: and its music, dance and drama.
I hope the Chronology of Gujarat' will serve as a prelude to the publication of a social and cultural history of Gujarat. I am sure the students of history, particularly the history of Gujarat, will find this book most helpful.
29th June, 1960.
SIDDHASHRAMA" CHIEF MINISTER'S RESIDENCE
1 SHAHI BAG AHMEDABAD, 4.
Haneamenta,

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A SA
TREN
सत्यं शिवं सुन्दरम
FOREWORD
It gives me very great pleasure in writing this 'Foreword' to the First Volume of the “Chronology of Gujarat”, which is edited by Dr. Majmudar. The publication of this volume would not have been possible but for the untiring zeal and labour of Dr. Majmudar, assisted by a band of keen scholars like Dr. Jani, Prof. Kapadia, Shri A. Pandya and Dr. Shastri.
Dr. Majmudar, as he acknowledges in his 'Preface', was, from time to time, guided by Dr. Sankalia and Dr. Subbarao, the Head of the Archaeology Department of the M. S. University of Baroda. Dr. Sandesara and Dr. U. P. Shah of the Oriental Institute of the University of Baroda, and Dr. R. N. Mehta of the Archaeological Department of the University, also gave Dr. Majmudar the benefit of their great erudition and scholarship.
This work was started in 1954. It took nearly four to five years in collecting the necessary data. The data, collected by Dr. Majmudar and his colleagues on the Editorial Board, was scrutinized by Dr. Sankalia and Dr. Subbarao. The material in its final form was ready only last year and is now published.
It is needless for me to emphasise the importance of this publication. The chronological information collected in this way provides an important framework in which subsequent scholars can build up the history of Gujarat.
As Dr. Majmudar says in his . Preface', that with the exception of the Historical Introduction to the Bombay Gazetteer Vol. I, edited by Mr. Cambell, no satisfactory and continuous history of Gujarat has so far been written. There have been some excellent works on specific Periods of the history of Gujarat ; but no continuous history of Gujarat from the earliest times till today has yet been written. This chronological framework will be of great service to a future historian of the history of Gujarat.

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The data collected is extremely comprehensive and throws light on the cultural, political and social history of Gujarat. Events in chronological order have been shown only with the beginning of the Mauryan Rule. It is difficult to assign a precise chronological order to data before that period. At the advice of Dr. Sankalia and myself, this earlier material has been shown under the caption of Prelude to History'. Reference has been made to the excavations in Länghanaj in Mehsana District, North Gujarat, and at Lothal.
There is also a chapter on the Traditional history of Gujarat, where the material has been collected largely from the Purāṇas. The historicity of many of these events is debatable, and, therefore, they have also been excluded from the regular chronology.
I would here like to take the opportunity of congratulating Dr. Majinudar for this very bold venture to construct the Chronology of the History of Gujarat from the diffused and varied material available.
1. zn.
mehle
Vice-Chancellor, M. S. University of Baroda.
Jain Education Intemational

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PREFACE
(i) History of the Undertaking:
The idea of compiling a Chronology of the Cultural History of Gujarat', shortly styled 'Chronology of Gujarat,' was primarily taken up by the M. S. University of Baroda, to further the cause of Historical Research in Gujarat, at the instance of Shrimati Hansaben Mehta. The publication of this Volume comes at an auspicious moment, when the new composite State of Gujarat, embracing all Gujarati-speaking people, has come into existence for the first time in its political history.
Our knowledge of the History of Gujarat is based mostly on the Bombay Gazetteer Vol. I (1896) compiled by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji and other scholars. Since its publication, a good deal of research work has been done in various directions throwing new light on History (political, social, economic), Art, Architecture etc. But this is not available in an easy form. Hence the chief object of this work is to make an attempt to bring all these fragments of information together. These are now sufficiently numerous and well-established (in many cases), to enable us to construct a chronological and geographical framework for the political history of Gujarat. Into this framework may be fitted the history of social and religious institutions also. The scheme thus intends to organize some of the accumulated stores of information on the subject, which will present the material in a collective form, and consequently facilitate further research in the subject.
A number of scholars have welcomed this idea of Gujarat Chronology' as, "a concrete form of stock-taking which will provide a sure foundation for the accomplishment of a comprehensive Regional History of Gujarat, and in its turn, serve as an indispensable stone in the edifice of a National History of India".-(Dr. V. S. Agravala). It is urged that such chronological aids would be necessary for the historical sketch of each region of our big country, to which details could be filled in gradually as research advances.
(ii) Scope:
The extant works on Indian Chronology-like the "Chronology of India, up to the 15th Century A.D." by Miss C. Mabel Duff (Mrs. W.R. Rickmeres) published in 1899; the "Chronology of Modern India (A.D. 1494-1894)" by Dr. James Burgess, published in 1913; Dr. L.D. Barnett's Chapter on "Chronology of India, upto the year 1200 A.D." in his book " Antiquities of India" published in 1914; and the latest "Andhra Chronology" (90 A.D.-1800 A.D.) by Sir V. Ramesham of Madras, being a chronological sketch of the Andhra or Telugu country, published in 1946-had the purpose of enumerating briefly, in order of time, mostly the historical events connected primarily with political history; whereas the present volume of "Gujarat Chronology" aims at collecting all relevant data bearing on the history and the culture of Gujarat. It is, thus, intended to be comprehensive in its scope.

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In this volume it is proposed to collect events and dates from the political, literary and cultural history of Gujarat, and tabulate them in chronological sequence, with their corresponding dates given in the margin. These dates represent the years B.C. or A.D. If only approximate, they are marked Circa'. Original dates of the local Eras that were current through the ages are given in the body of the text. In cases where sufficient chronological data for certain events are not available, the approximate period is given. This approximate dating will often help the reader to trace their contemporaneity with known events and objects.
(iii) Periods in Political History: The period covered by the present Volume is of a very wide range, spreading as it does, over more than a millenium. The Chronology of the Pre-historic and Proto-historic periods, is, by nature, vague and unsettled. Even for the historic period included in this volume, there still remain many lacunae and wide gaps, and opinions of scholars are widely divided over the chronology of a number of events during the extensive range from prehistory to history.
The dates and events in this work are, therefore, tabulated by dividing them into different “ Periods" or "Sections ", so as to bring the various dynasties of political history prominently before the readers. Each of these Periods' form, as it were, a Chapter with relation to the entire Volume of the Chronology. Each Period' is prefixed with an
Introductory Historical Note', before the Chronological Years, which are followed by a Note on Antiquities'. The 'Art-Plates' that follow, illustrate the 'Antiquities'. The division in 'Periods' is as follows:
Periods in Gujarat Chronology:
(From Early Times to 942 A.D.) Section :
Prelude to Gujarat History (Pre-and Proto-history). Pre-Mauryan Period:
(-Pre 322 B.C.). III Mauryan Period:
(C. 322 B.C.—185 B.C.). IV Indo-Greek Period:
(c. 185 B.C.—78 A.D.). Kşatrapa Period:
( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.). VI Gupta Period:
(C. 400 A.D.-470 A.D.). VII Maitraka-Gurjara Period: (c. 470 A.D.-745 A.D.). VIII Rāştrakūța-Pratihāra Period: (c. 745-942 A.D.).
(iv) Term Gujarat' defined: The term 'Gujarat' is used in two different senses: firstly, to denote the main land between the areas west of Mount Abu and south of Damangangā. It occupies an important part of the Western sea-board of India from Sindh to Bombay; and secondly, the much larger language field in which Gujarāti is spoken. On account of the political and cultural affinities of Gujarat with Rājasthān and Mālwā, during the period under review, it has been decided to incorporate certain historical data of these areas also, to give a comprehensive picture.
II
V
Jain Education Intemational

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PREFACE
xvii
In terms of Human Geography, Gujarat may be described as a Provincial State' within a National State', thus accounting for the unity in diversity of Indian culture : “Gujarat is bounded by the desert of the Rājputānā and the Rann of Kaccha in the north, by the Sātpurās and the Vindhyas, which join the Arāvallis with small gaps in between, separating Gujarat from the Deccan and the plateau of Malwa in the west ; in the south the Deccan plateau abuts on the coast between Daman and Dahāņu. To the west is the Arabian sea. This whole cultural zone may be really divided into three natural zones, which also constitute the traditional sub-divisions of Gujarat from the earliest times : (1) Kathiawad peninsula called Saurāṣtra, (2) North Gujarat, coinciding more or less with the semi-arid sandy zone called Anarta', and (3) South Gujarat or * Lāța'. The geographic unity of these three sub-divisions, was consolidated during the Solanki rule of Gujarat from 1000 A.D."-(Dr. B. Subbarao, ‘Archaeology of Gujarat, Indian Science Congress Souvenir, 1955, p. 45).
Gujarat consists of regions known in earlier period under different names, such as Anarta, Lāța, Saurāstra, Kaccha, Aparūnta, etc. which are different from one another in some respects. In spite of different traits having developed in these various regions comprising Gujarat, it had an independent social and cultural entity from the earliest times, though it did not exist as a single political unit. As the boundaries of Gujarat have throughout been found to be changing, we have aimed at taking the area of Gujarat at its farthest extent, during the different periods' of its political history.
In the earliest times, the memory of which is preserved in traditional history, North Gujarat was called Anarta, with its capital Anartapura or Anandapura, which formed part of the empires of the Mauryas, Greeks, of the Saka Kșatrapas and of the Guptas. On the decline of Gupta empire, Anarta formed part of the kingdom of Valabhīpura. In the seventh Century, Saurāṣtra, Anarta and the region between the Sarasvati and the Narmadā formed part, first of the kingdom of Valabhi, and later, that of Bhillamāla or Śrimāla, near Mount Abu, which was the capital.
The country south of the Mahi or at times south of the Narmadā upto the Pūrņā or as far as Daman was called Lăța. It is first mentioned by that name in the Mandasor Inscription of Kumāragupta and Bandhuvarman ( 437 A.D.). Bharu-kaccha in Lāța and Śūrpāraka in Konkan were both associated with Paraśurāma, the descendant of the Sage Bhrgu.
A parānta, generally identified with North Konkan, was known in different ages to indicate different geographical concepts. It was known in Buddhist times as a country on the western sea-board of India, of which the chief town was Sürpäraka, now known as Sopārā. With intermittant short periods, North Konkan continued to be included in the kingdom of Gujarat till 1543 A.D., when by the treaty of Bassein, the Sultan of Gujarat ceded it to the Portuguese.
Kuśāvarta is the Puranic name of territory around Dwarka, of which no exact date can be given; whereas, the name Sürāstra occurs in inscriptions, literature and tradi

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
tion. It is also referred to by foreigners like Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, the Periplus and Hiuen Tsang.
When the empire of the Imperial Pratihāras broke up in 940 A.D., Mūlarāja established himself in the Sarasvata Mandala in the principality of Anahilla-pattan. This territory, which came to be known by the word 'Gurjara-Mandala', Gurjara-Bhūmi' or
Gurjara-Deśa' was, after Siddiarāja Jayasimha, applied to whatever territory which the Caulukyas claimed as their domain. The Muslims that succeeded the Rājputs continued to call the region as 'Gujarat'. It is this Gujarat' which is the subject of our study.
In the early historic and the early mediaeval period, Gujarat has mostly been a political annex or an outlying province of bigger empires of Northern and Western India. During the rest of her political history, small local kingdoms flourished, of which Maitrakas alone developed a sufficiently big kingdom which incorporated large areas of Modern Gujarat. Yet the cultural homogeneity of the three sub-divisions constituting Gujarat first asserted itself with the development of maritime trade with the Mediterranian world, in the early centuries of the Christian era. This unity was consolidated by the Solanki kings and the Sultāns of Gujarat, who brought a large part of modern Gujarat under their sway.
(v) Aim
& Object :
This volume purports to be not a mere compilation of so far known material (first put together in 1896 as the Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. I, History of Gujarat); but, also, aims at including fresh data collected from up-to-date historical discoveries and archaeological finds from excavations. The epoch-making new finds from Lothal throw a flood of light on the Saurāșțra-Harrapan Contacts, known recently for the first time. The Art-tradition in Elurā Cave-Paintings, Śāmalāji Sculptures and Akoța Bronzes of Western India, go to illustrate the existence of the 'Art-School of Ancient West', believed to have flourished at Maru in the 7th Century A.D., as noted by the Tibetan historian Tārānátha in 1608 A.D. The fresh discovery of the Buddhist Stūpa and Vihāra, with the terracotta Buddhe statuary, of the late Kșatrapa period, from the village Devani Mori, near Sāmalāji, Säbarkāņthā District, is, equally epoch-making.
About that portion of history, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina Literary Tradition-namely the Epics, the Purāņas and the later literary works inspired by them,- there does not exist any recorded date. However, the geographical data, --consisting of references to villages, towns, rivers, mountains and places of pilgrimage and the various regions of colonisation and the settlements of various tribes, along with the dynastic lists of kings and families-afford rich material for interpretation. It is needless to say, against this general Epic and Puranic background, their account would bring into focus the geographic data on Gujarat. This section on Geographical data from Puranic Tradition has been relegated, for reference, to the end of the volume as an Appendix'.

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PREFACE
(vi) Sources:
The sources of Gujarat Chronology have been, broadly speaking, the ancient and later Tradition as reflected in the works of Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhistic literatures, Coins, Inscriptions on stone and copper-plate, Records of Foreign Travellers and the antiquarian remains in the field of Art and Archaeology.
xix
The compilation of this volume has been accomplished mainly source-wise by the co-operation of scholars as detailed below:
Puranic Tradition and Sanskrit Literature: by Dr. A. N. Jani, M.A.; Ph.D., Kavyatirtha.
Jaina Canonical Literature: by Prof. H. R. Kapadia, M.A.
Coins and Inscriptions: by Dr. H. G. Shastri, M.A., Ph.D.
Pre-History in Gujarat: by Shri Amrit Pandya.
Buddhist Literature, Records of Foreign Travellers, Cultural Data from Events, and Archaeological and Artistic Antiquities: by Dr. M. R. Majmudar, M.A., Ph.D., LL.B.
(vii) Co-operation of Scholars:
In spite of the token honorarium, the contributors have taken this task as their labour of love. I am grateful to them for their co-operation and help during all the different stages of compilation.
Drs. B. J. Sandesara, U. P. Shah, S. C. Misra, R. N. Mehta and Shri J. S. Padel Shastri deserve special mention for having willingly undertaken to scrutinise the sourcewise slips of the Mss. referred to them.
It gives me great pleasure in referring to the contribution of Dr. B. Subbarao to Chapter I on Prelude to History" (Pre and Proto-History of Gujarat), being a connected survey of the work done so far in this field of Pre-History.
When the book was passing through the final stages of printing, Excavations were carried on at Devani Mori, Samalajt area, by the Department of Archaeology, M. S. University, under the guidance of Dr. B. Subbarao, as a result of which, a Stupa and a Vihara of the late Ksatrapa period were laid bare. It is through the warm cooperation and spontaneous consent of Dr. Subbarao that his "Preliminary Note on Excavations at Devani Mori" with illustrations, could be secured and included in the Addenda.
TheNote subscribed at the request of the General Editor, on "Extension of Harappa Culture in Gujarat" from Shri S. R. Rao, the brilliant excavator of the rich. Harappan site at Lothal, has been very opportune for this Volume. I must refer to the permission given to Shri Rao by the Director-General of Archaeology, New Delhi, for subscribing this Note and also for arranging a loan of blocks to illustrate the same.

I am very much indebted to Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri, formerly Government Epigraphist, Government of India, and now Joint-Director, Department of Archaeology,

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New Delhi, for his warm response to the present work. His decipherment of the Seal of the Biksu-Sangha of the Rudrasena Vihāra, excavated from Inţvā, on Girnar Hill in 1949, (See, p. 79), and of the inscription on the pedestal of the Buddha bronze from Bhuj, discovered in 1957, (Sce, p. 215 ) can well be remembered here.
His recent reading, from an ink-impression of the inscription on the back-side of the prabhāvali of the life-size bronze, discovered in 1935 from old Koțyarka temple, Mahudi Village, Vijapur Taluka (N. Guj.), still in situ, has settled, once for all, the identity of the bronze (Plate LIII) as having been Buddhistic, instead of being Jaina, as believed so far.-(See, p. 316.).
I cannot adequately thank Shri B. L. Mankad, Keeper, Art & History Sections, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, for selecting and designing, at my request, the various Illustrative Coin-Plates, entirely based on the rich Coins Collection of the Baroda Museum.
I have been laid under a great obligation by Shri Parameshwari Lal Gupta, Keeper of the Coins Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and Joint-Editor, Journal of the Numismatic Society of India, for having scrutinised the matter regarding coins, included in the Sections on ' Antiquities', and for lending in advance his unpublished material on Coin-Hoards in the Bombay State' for inclusion is this Volume.
(viii) Acknowledgments The Standing Committee of Experts, comprising of Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta, Chairman, the present Vice-Chancellor of the M. S. University of Baroda, Professor H. D. Sankalia, Director, Deccan College Research Institute, Poona, the author of 'Archaeology of Gujarat' (1941 ) and Professor B. Subbarao, the author of The Pesonality of India' (2nd ed. 1958), the Members, have laid me under a deep obligation by closely scrutinising the Mss. as a whole, and making valuable suggestions regarding its revision before it could be sent to the Press.
I am very much indebted to Dr. Jyotindra M. Mehta, the Vice-Chancellor and Chairman, Standing Committee of Experts, for giving the Foreword to this volume.
The interest shown in the entire scheme of Gujarat Chronology from its inception, by Dr. Shrimati Hansaben Mehta, the first Vice-Chancellor of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, and the unstinted help given by her for furtherance of the object cannot be adequately thanked. The Message testifies to her unfailing interest in the cultural study of Gujarat, as a whole.
I thank the Pro-Vice-Chancellor Dr. C. S. Patel for promptly sanctioning my tour-programmes, whenever proposed in connection with the Chronolozy work.
I cannot adequately thank Dr. B. Subbarao, Professor of Archaeology and Ancient History, M. S. University, for the keen and constant interest he has evinced in the final revision and recasting of the MSS., even during all its stages of printing. The selection of representative Illustrations, and the preparation of Maps have obtained the stamp of his critical scholarship.

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PREFACE
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My erudite colleague Dr. H. G. Shastri's uniform interest and hearty co-operation in the work, cannot go unnoticed.
It gives me pleasure to put on record the expert co-operation of the PhotographerArtist Shri Dinabandhu '( Mohanlal Bhav-ar) of Kathlal, who accompained me in most of the Research-tours, and took sharp photographs, some of which are reproduced in this volume.
I thank Shri Batukkumar (Chandramauli) Majmudar, a Post-graduate student, and Kumari Shraddhadovi Majmudar, my children, for materially helping me in the preparation of the Index, which includes names of Books and Articles also, given in Italics.
This project was, from the beginning, carried out under the auspices of the Oriental Institute. So I take this opportunity to thank the ex-Director Professor G. H. Bhatt, and the present Director Professor B. J. Sandesara, and other members of the Staff, who have helped me in various ways.
My special acknowledgment of hearty cooperation is due to Dr. P.M. Joshi, Director of Archives and Ancient Monuments, Bombay State, Bornbay, to Dr. Moti Chandra, Director, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, and President, Museums Association of India, to Shri V. L. Devkar, Director, Baroda Museum and Art Gallery, and Head, Museology Department 'M. S. University, to Shri K. V. Saundara Rajan, Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, Baroda, and to the late Shri P. P. Pandya, Government Archaeologist, Rajkot, of the former Bombay State.
Thanks are due to the Director, Bhāratiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, to the Director, B.J. Research Institute, Gujarat Vidyāsabhā, Ahmedabad, to Shri P.G. Shah, Secretary, Gujarat Research Society, Khar, Bombay, and to the Hon. Curator, Shri Rājendra Surakāthā of Winchester Museum, Surat, for warm cooperation.
Thanks are due to many Institutions, Collaborators and Friends, besides, who have extended to me the loans of photographs, negatives, blocks etc., and have thus enabled me to present the work in this extant form. Their individual help and cooperation is explicitly acknowledged at the proper places.
To the Press-Management of the M. S. University Press, my sincere thanks are due for giving me every facility in printing work, and for offering their expert co-operation in the production of this work, as a whole.
Chronology of Gujarat
Section, Oriental Institute,
Baroda 30th June, 1960
GENERAL EDITOR
Jain Education Intemational

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ART-PLATES
Plate
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Plate
Chapter 1 (Pre and Proto-History) I (A) Rangpur: Dist. Jhālāwār, Saurāṣtra
General view of Excavated Ruins (B) Lothal: Clay-fillings with structures above. II (A) Lothal : Row of Houses
(B) Lothal: Burials III (A) Rangpur: Pottery with Harappan affinity
(B) Lothal: Pottery with Harappan affinity IV (A) Lothal: Copper and Bronze objects
(B) Lothal: Copper-vessel V (A) Lothal: Terracotta Guerilla : Front and Side-views
(B) Lothal: Terracotta Mother-Goddess (C) Lothal: Terracotta bearded figurine
(D) Lothal : Terracotta animal figurines VI (A) Lothal: Painted Pottery
(B) Lothal: Painted and Incised pottery VII (A) Lothal: Chert Blades
(B) Lothal: Terracotta Sealings Vill (A) to (H) Lothal: Seals (Slightly enlarged)
Chapter III (Mauryan Period) .
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
Plate
IX (A) Asoka Inscription on Girnār-rock at the bottom: Rudradāman's and Skandagupta's Inscriptions are on the sides.
(p. 36) (B) Sopārā: Aśoka Inscription, 9th Edict (p. 36) X Uparkot Cave at Girnār Hill, with Pillars and Caitya-window design.
B (P. 92) XI Punch-marked Coins: Post-Mauryan (Enlarged) (p. 37)
Plate
Plate
Chapter IV (Indo-Greek Period )
Plate
XII Indo-Greek Coins (p. 48 )
(1-1) Silver Coin: Eukratides: Obv. & Rev. (2-2) Silver Coin: Apollodotus II: Obv. & Rev. (3-3) Menander (in youth ): Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Menander (advanced in age): Obv. & Rev.
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Chapter V (Ksatrapa Period)
XIII Mahākṣatrapa Castana (Torso), with inscription, Mathura Museum. (p. 96)

XIV (A) Bronze Images and Gold Flowers from the Reliquary, Sopără Stūpa. (Bombay Branch Royal Asiatic Society Collection). (B) Reliquaries from the Sopără Stupa (p. 91)
XV (A) Talaja-Cave Mandapa, with Caitya-window design, Gohilway, Saurastra (p. 92)
(B) Boria Stupa Railing, Mt. Girnår (p. 90)
XVI Khambhalida Cave Facade, Madhya Saurăştra (p. 93. 314)
Flanked by large sculptures, representing the Bodhisattvas and showing devotees under the shelter of trees.
XVII (A) Pot-sherd from Bet Sankhoddhära (pp. 93-94) (B) Somanatha Pot-sherd (pp. 94, 314)
(C) Intva Seal of Rudrasena Vihara (p. 91)
(D) Ghosundi Inscription, Chitoḍgadh Dist., Rajasthan (p. 44) XVII A (A) Andhau Stone-Inscription of the Joint Rule of Castana and Rudradaman, dated S. 52, 130 A.D., Bhuj Museum (p. 62)
(B) Fragmentary Stone-Inscription from Lathi, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p. 94)
(C) Fragmentary Stone-Inscription, Rajkot Museum, (pp. 94. 314) XVIII SEALS.
(1) Akota Seal and Sealing: show Prancing horses (p. 95) (2) Timberva Inscribed Seal, seems to read (p. 94) (3) Vadnagar Terracotta Inscribed Seal: Reads
RA I (p. 94) (4) Navsari Lead Seal with an Iranian horse and Dragon-tail. (p. 95) (5) Vadnagar Uninscribed Seal, shows a woman with a flower in hand. (p. 94)
(6) Elephant Seal, excavated by Rev. Father Heras from Valā (Valabhi Period), (p. 197)
(A) Painted and Incised pottery from Rosadi, Atkot, Prabhasa. (315)
(B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojiträ, near Cambay Vallabha Vidyanagar Museum, (p. 315)
(C) Rāṣṭrakūta Seal of a Garuda, the Vahana of Visņu--[ See Plate XXVIII (B) Infra]
XIX Terracotta Figurines from Gohilwäd Timbo, Amreli, (p. 95)

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ART-PLATES

XX A Ksatrapa Male Head from Täpi river, Surat Museum: Front view and Back view. (p. 315).
XXI (A) Legged quern from Salad, Baroda Dist., Baroda Museum. (p. 97).
(B) Legged quern from Kärvan, Ramanlal Desai's Collection. (p. 97).
XXI A (A) Stone Lion-capital from Baroda (p. 96).
(B) Stone Lion-capital from Baroda (p. 96).
(C) Roman Handle from Akoță, (p. 98).
(D) Figure of Eros plying the oar, on the Roman Handle, Akoță, (p. 98). (E) A Roman Stone Cameo of a Patrician Lady, from Karvan. (p. 98).
XXII Kusana Coins:
(1-1) Wema Kadphises, Obv. & rev. (2-2) Huvişka, Obv. & rev. (3-3) Vasudeva, Obv. & rev.
Andhra and Tribal Coins:
XXIIA Ksatrapa Coins:
Top Row:
XXV
(1) Pulumāvi, Obv. (2) Yajna Satakarni, Obv. (3) Siri Satakarni, Obv., (4) Ujjain Symbol, Reverse of Andhra coins. (5-5) A Tribal Coin, with Ujjain symbol on the reverse.
Bhamaka's Coin: Obv.: Arrow pointing upwards and a thunderbolt.
Nahapana's Coins: Obv.: Bust: Capital of a pillar consisting of a lion with an upraised paw and dharmacakra, with a legend.
Family of Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II
Coins of Svami Rudrasena III. Obv., Obv., Bust; Rev., Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent.
XXIII Ksatrapa Coins:
Obv. Bust; Rev.: Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent. Family of Castana
(1-1) Damasena, (2-2) Viradaman, (3-3) Vijayasena, (4-4) Rudrasena II, (5-5) Bhartṛdāman, (6-6) Viśvasena.
Chapter VI (Gupta Period)
XXIV Temple at Gop, Hälär Dist., Sauråstra. After conservation in 1959.
(p. 126).

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xxvi
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Plate
Plate
XXV Bāgh Cave fresco of Danda Rāsaka, showing six ladies with danda
held in either hand, and other six with cymbals : At the Fourth
Cave called Ranga Mahāl'. (p. 122) XXVI Gupta Coins (1-1) Gold Coin of Candragupta II:
Obv.--Horseman type; Rev.-Goddess seated on a stool. (2-2) Gold Coin of Kumāragupta I:
Obv.-Archer type ; Rev.-Seated Lakşmi. (3-3) Silver Coins of Kumāragupta I:
Winged Pea-cock type. ( 4-4) Folded Wings Pea-cock type: First Variety (5-5)
, : Second Variety (6-6) Silver Coin of Skandagupta :
The Nandi type
Chapter VII (Maitraka-Gurjara Period )
Plate XXVII Vāla Seal of Puşyeņa : (p. 195)
(A) The Terracotta Seal
(B) Letters on the Seal Plate XXVII A (A) Valā Pot-sherd of Guhasena, dated Valabhi year (2) 47 =
C. 576 A.D., (pp. 151, 197) (B) Inscribed Pot-sherds from Gohilwad Timbo, Amreli, Baroda
Museum. (C) Clay-seal of Silāditya, excavated from Gohilwād simbo,
Amreli (p. 197) Plate XXX (A) Eka-mukha Linga from Khedbrahmā, Baroda Museum Open
Air Gallery (p. 211) (B) Lakulisa from Kārvan, M. S. University Dept. of Archaeology
Collection, (p. 204 ) (C) Bhairava from Baroda Museum ( p. 275 )
(D) Bhairava from Viśvāmitri river, Baroda (p. 275 ) Plate XXXI Virabhadra Siva from Sāmalāji, Baroda Museum (p. 203 ) Plate XXXII Kşetrapāla Siva from Śāmalāji, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
(p. 204 ) Plate · XXXIII (A) Kārtikeya from Sāmalāji (p. 204)
(B) Siva ( Torso ) from Śāmalāji
(C) Standing Gaņeśa, Sāmalāji (p. 204) Plate XXXIV Umā.Maheśvara from Kapuri, Baroda Dist., Baroda Museum.
(p. 204 )

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XXXVII XXXVIII Plate XXXVIII A XXXIX
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ART-PLATES
xxvii
XXXV (A) Mother and Child, Kotyarka-Mahudi (N. Gujarat), New Temple (p. 206)
(B) Mother and Child, Kotyarka-Mahudi, Old Temple (p. 206) (C) Matrka Mäheśvari from Devani Mori, Šamalāji (p. 205) XXXVI A (A) Mätrkä Värähi, from Devani Mori, Šamalāji ( p. 205) (B) Consort of Agni, Agneyi, from Devani Mori, Šāmalāji (p. 205) XXXVI (A) Kaumāri (standing) from Sämalāji (p. 205) (B) Kaumāri ( seated) from Mt. Abu
(C) Kaumari ( dancing) from Karvan (p. 276) A Standing Lady, Samalāji (p. 207) Mother and Child, Sämalāji (p. 207) Standing Mother Bhadra, Sämalāji
Parvati as Sabarakanyā, Šāmalāji (p. 207)
XL Gangå on' makara', Šāmalāji (p. 270)
Plate
Plate XLIX (Misprinted as XXXIV)
Plate
XLI Stone Plates of Krspalilä from Mandor, Jodhpur Museum (p. 208)
XLII Visnu from Bhinmal, Baroda Museum (p. 208). XLIII Visou on Lotus, Mt. Abu (p. 274)
XLIV (A) Ananta Vispu, from Samalāji (p. 209) (B) Vişņu from Tenna, Surat Dist. (p. 209) XLV (A) Trimurti Head, Limbodrā, Rājpiplā (p. 210) (B) Trimurti from Kathlål, near Kapadvanj (p. 209) XLVI (A) Kesisüdana, from Valā (p. 210)
(B) Mahişamardini, from Vala (p. 208)
XLVII (A) Sage Udumbara, from Meśvo river, Samalāji (p. 210) (B) Yakṣa from near the lake, Bhinmal (p. 210)
XLVIII (A) Vayu (torso) from Samalāji, with name inscribed. (p. 316) (B) A Terracotta Peacock, from Sämalāji (p. 206)

(A), (B), (C), (D): Four Ganas in the Gandhara tradition, Šāmalāji, (p. 211)
L Adinatha Bronze Head, from Akoță Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212)
LI (A) Mahudi Bronze, Pärévanätha, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) (B) Ambika Bronze, Akoță Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212) LII Câmaradhāriņi Bronze, from Akoță hoard:
Front-view and Back-view (p. 212)
LIII A Buddha Bronze from Kotyarka, Mahudi, (Old Temple) with an inscription on the backside of the pedestal. (p. 213, 318)

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Plate
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LIV Inscribed Vasantgadh Bronze, in Kâyotsarga position, now at Pind.
wārā ( Rājasthān) (p. 213) LIVA (A) Tirthankara Bronzes, from Lilvādevā, near Jhālod, Panca.
mahāls. (p. 213) (B) Valā Buddha Bronze, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
(p. 213) LV (A) Pārsvanātha stone sculpture from Dhāńk (p. 213)
(B) A Jaina Kāyotsarga stone Sculpture from Dhānk (p. 213) LVI (A) Maitreya Bronze from Reliquary of the Sopārä Stūpa (p. 214) (B) Seated Buddha (Stone) on a mound at Nagarā, near Cambay
(p. 278 ) LVII Inscribed Buddha Bronze, Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha ),
with an inscription on two sides of the pedestal. (p. 215) LVIII (A) Nandi from Sāmalāji, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay
(p. 21) (B) Bronze Incense-burner from Akoți Hoard, Baroda Museum
(p. 317) Chapter VIII (Rastrakuta-Pratihara Period ) LIX (A) Late Fresco, Ajanta, Cave No. 17 (p. 269 ) (B) A Jaina Fresco from Kailasanath Temple, Indra-Sabhā Hall.
Three-fourths profile faces, and the left eyes being shown
beyond the facial line. LX A Temple with an Amalaka on the Sikhara from Rodā, Idar Terri
tories, (p. 270) LXI ( A ), (B), Osiā Temples, Mārwād (p. 270) LXII (A) Koțțai Temple, Kaccha (p. 270)
(B) Kālikā Mātā Temple, Chitodgadh, (p. 270 ) LXIII (A) Entrance Door-frame, facing the Karvan Lake (p. 270)
(B) Sculptured portion, right side Pillar-bottom, of the Door
frame, (Enlarged). LXIV (A) Torana on Meśvo river, near ruins of Hariscandra Temple,
Sāmalāji (p. 271) (B) Enlarged sculpture from the left Pillar-base, given in the
middle. (p. 271) LXV (A) Architectural Remains from Kadyār, near Prabhāsa (p. 271)
(B) Architectural Remains from Pāțan, Baroda Museum. (p. 270) LXVI (A) Outline Plan : Sun-Temple at Bileśvara near Porbundar
- (p. 272) (B) Sun-Temple at Bileśvara (p. 272) ! LXVII (A) Standing Surya, Vasişthäsrama, Mt. Abu (p. 273)
(B) Standing Sürya, Kārvan, (p. 273)
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ART-PLATES
xxix
Plate LXVIII (A) Seated Surya, from Rapūpipli, Padrā, Baroda Dist. (p. 274)
(B) Seated Surya, Rodā, Idar Territories, Baroda Museum Open
Air Gallery. (p. 273) Plate LXIX (1) Inscription on the pillar at Gop Temple which does not
admit of decipherment. ( 2 ) Inscription on two sides of the Buddha Bronze from
Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha ) (p. 215 & Plate LVII) Plate LXX (A) Dāśarathi Rāma from Varāha Temple, Kadvār. (p. 277)
(B) Haladhara Balarāma from Kāvi, Jambusar Taluka, Dist.
Broach. Dr. M. R. Majmudar's Collection (p. 277) Plate LXXI Kārtikeya, with an attendant, in the rosette frame. From Kapuri
Village, near Baroda, (p. 275) Plate I.XXII (A) Siva-Pärvati from Rodā, now in Baroda Museum (p. 317)
(B) Viņapāņi Siva from Koteśvara,, near Ambāji, now in Baroda
Museum (p. 316) Plate LXXII Dhanapati Kubera, from Kāvi, Jambusara Taluka, Dist. Broach.
Dr. M. R. Majmudar's Collection. (p. 276) (A) Head of a Tāpasa( i), from Kārvan, Side-View and Back
View (p. 275)
(B) Mother-Goddess from Bhinmäl (p. 276 ) Plate LXXV (A) Nägarāja with a triple hood of Nāga, from Vasişthāśrama.
(p. 210) (B) Agni, from Osiā, Mārwād (p. 317 )
(C) Kārtikeya from Baroda, Baroda Museum (p. 275 ) Plate LXXVI (A) Hari-Hara from Osiā Temple, Mārwāờ, (p. 318)
(B) Vāmana becoming Virāța, from Osiā, Mārwāļ, (p. 318) Plate LXXVII (A) A Valabhi Copper-plate
(B) A Saindhava Copper-plate, with a fish symbol, Jāmnagar
Museum. Plate LXXVIII Sculpture of a Music Party, Surat Museum (p. 277) Plate LXXIX (A) Miniatures of Tārā, from an illustrated Palm-Mss. of the
Pāla period, Baroda Museum. (p. 277) (B) Inscription on the backside pedestal of the life-size Buddha
bronze at Old Koțyarka temple, Mahudi, still in situ. (p. 318) Plate LXXX Sculpture of Tārā from Tārangā Hill, with the Buddhist formula
inscribed at the bottom, in the late 9th Century script. (p. 278) Plate LXXXI A Female Sculpture from Paldi, Ahmedabad; H. K. Arts College
Collection, Ahmedabad. (p. 279)
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XXX
CIIRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Plate LXXXII Indo-Sassanian Coins :
(1-2) Early Sassanian Coins, precursors of Gadhia Coins; Reverse
shows the Sassanian Fire-Altar. (3-3) Early Gadhia, Thin Fabric:
Degeneration of the bust on the obverse, and of the altar
on the reverse. (4-4) Later Gadhia, Thick Fabric :
Further deformation of the bust and the altar, shown in lines and dots.
A Coin of Bappa (5-5) A coin of Gurjara-Pratihāra king Bappa : Obverse and
Reverse. Plate LXXXII Sākambhari Inscription of Jayasimha Siddharāja, in Jodhpur
Museum, gives the starting Samvat year of Mūlarāja's reign in symbolic words: (Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi 9) (p. 261)
वसुनंदनिधौ वर्षे व्यतीते विक्रमार्कतः । मूलदेवनरेशस्तु चूडामणिरभूद् भुवि ।।
Addenda
(Excavations at Devani Mori) Plate LXXXIV General view of the Stūpa, Devani Mori, Śāmalāji area. (p. 309) Plate LXXXV (A) General view of the exposed Vihāra, showing cells and two
floors of the Central Court-yard. (p. 309 ) (B) Face of the lower platform, showing the pilasters and the
decorated frieze of the lower platform. Plate LXXXVI (A) (B) Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering both
the shoulders, Devani Mori Stupa Plate LXXXVII (A) Terracotta Buddha Head, Devani Mori Stūpa, śāmalāji.
(B) Terracotta Round Medallian, from Devani Mori Stūpa. Plate LXXXVIII (A) Terracotta Architectural pieces, from Devani Mori Stūpa
(B) Terracotta Filled Arch of the niche, Devani Mori Stūpa,
Sāmalāji Plate LXXXIX (A) Terracotta Head of a Buddha, with the typical upward flow
ing Gandhāra hair-style.
(B) Terracotta Buddha Head, from Devani Mori Stūpa. Plate XC Gadādhara Vişņu, śāmalāji. In the sculptural style of Bhinmal
Vişņu (Plate XLII) and Tenna Vişņu ( Plate XLIV B) (p. 318 ).
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LIST OF MAPS
FIGURE I. Physical Map of Gujarat (Chap. I) -Courtesy “The Personality of India', (2nd Ed.)
Facing Page 3 FIGURE 2. Culture-Sequence in Gujarat (Chap. I) -Courtesy · The Personality of India', (2nd Ed.)
Facing Page 14 FIGURE 3. Map of Mauryan Period (Chap. III)
Facing Page 29 FIGURE 4. Map of Ksatrapa Period (Chap. V).
Facing Page 53 FIGURE 5. Map of Gupta Period (Chap. VI)
Facing Page 107 FIGURE 6. Map of Maitraka-Gurjara Period (Chap. VII)
Facing Page 131 FIGURE 7. Map of Gujarat at Hiuen Tsang's Journey in 641 A.D. -Courtesy, 'Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, Part I'.
Facing Page 171 FIGURE 8. Map of Rastrakuta-Pratibara Period (Chap. VIII)
Facing Page 219

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am very grateful to the following Institutions and Individuals for kindly lending their Blocks wherever possible or otherwise for supply of Photographs :(1) Director-General of Archaeology, New Delhi, for lending the Copyright
Blocks reproduced on Plate I, Plate II, Plate III, Plate IV, Plate V, Plate VI,
Plate VII, Plate VIII. ( 2 ) Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, Baroda :
For lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XVII (A), Plate XXVII A (B), Plate LXXX.
For lending Photographs reproduced on Plate X, Plate XV (A) and (B), Plate XXIV, Plate LV, Plate LX, Plate LXI, Plate LXII, Plate LXIII, Plate
LXV, Plate LXVI, Plate LXIX (A), Plate LXXIX (B). ( 3 ) Government Epigraphist for India, Ootacamund, South India :
For Photograph reproduced on Plate XVII(C). (4) Government Archaeologist, Gujarat State, Rajkot:
For supply of Photographs or Estampages reproduced on Plate XVI, Plate
XVII (B), Plate XVIIA (C). ( 5 ) Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda :
For supply of Photographs reproduced on Plate XVIII (A), (B), (C), (D), Plate XXIA (E), Plate XXX (B), Plate XLIV (B), Plate XLVIII (B), Plates
LXXXIV, LXXXV, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII, LXXXIX, XC. (6) Curzon Archaeological Museum, Mathura: The then Curator, Prof. Krşņa
Datta Bājapeyi.
For Photograph reproduced on Plate XIII. (2) Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay: are thanked for lend
ing Estampages reproduced on Plate IX (B), Plate XVIIA (B), and Photographs reproduced on Plate XXVIII (A), (B), Plate XXX, Plate XXXII,
Plate LIVA (B). (8) Director, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, for lending Photographs, re
produced on Plate XIX, Plate XXVII (C), Plate XLVII (C), Plate LI (B),
Plate LII, Plate LXXI (A), (B), Plate LXXIV (A), (B). (9) Hon. Curator, Rajendra Surakatha, Winchester Museum, Surat for lending
Photographs reproduced on Plate XX, Plate LXXIII. ( 10 ) Curator, Vallabh Vidyanagar Museum, Shri Amrit V. Pandya for lending
Photographs reproduced on Plate XVIII (B), LVI (B). (11) Curator, Jodhpur Museum for lending Photographs, reproduced on Plate XLI.

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xxxiv
(12) Dr. P. M. Joshi, M.A., Ph.D., Hon. Secretary, Bulletin of Museums Association of India, for lending Blocks, reproduced on Plate XXX (A), Plate XXXIII (B), (C), Plate XXXVI (A), Plate XL.
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
(13) Director, Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery Bulletin, for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XXI (B), Plate XXIA (C), (D), Plate XXX (D), Plate XXXIII (A), Plate XXXIV, Plate XXXVIII A, Plate XXXIX, Plate XLI, Plate XLII, Plate XLIII, Plate XLV (A), Plate XLVI, (A), (B), Plate XLVIII (A), Plate XLIX, Plate LIV A, Plate LVIII (A), Plate LXV (B), Plate LXVII (A), (B), Plate LXVIII (A), Plate LXXIV (C), Plate LXXV (C), Plate LXXIX (A).
(14) Director, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda for lending Blocks
reproduced on Plate XXI (A), (B), Plate XXX (C), Plate XXXIV.
(15) Director, Gujarat Vidya Sabha, Ahmedabad for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XLVI (A), XLVI (B).
(16) Editor, Kumar Monthly, Kumar Karyalaya, Ahmedabad for lending Blocks reproduced on Plate XXXI (From the Photograph by Shri Pramoda Chandra, Keeper, Fine Arts Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay), Plate LI (B) (From the Photograph by Dr. U. P. Shah, M.A. Ph.D.), Plate LVIII (B) (From the Photograph by Dr. U. P. Shah, M.A. Ph.D.).
(17) Proprietor, Gurjara Grantha Ratna Karyalaya, Shri Shambhulal Jagashibhai, Ahmedabad for lending Block reproduced on Plate L, and, also, on the Book-Cover.
"
(18) I am obliged to Shri Jagan Mehta, Photographer, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, for lending his Photographs reproduced on Plate LIII, Plate LIV. (19) I am obliged to Shri Laxmidas M. Patel, M.A., B.Ed., Baroda, for Photographs of Samalaji Sculptures, first taken from the old Himatnagar Museum, Idar State, reproduced on Plate XXXVII, Plate XXXVIII.
(20) I am obliged to Shri Dinabandhu (Mohanlal Bhavsar, A.M.) for Photographs reproduced on Plate XLV (B), Plate LVII (A), (B), Plate LIX (A), (B), Plate LXX (A), (B), Plate LXXIII, Plate LXXVI (A), (B), Plate LXXV (A), Plate LXXXIII.
(21) I am obliged to Shri Ravishankar Raval, Ahmedabad, the Veteran Artist and Art-critic for Photographs reproduced on Plate XXXV (A), (B).

(22) I am obliged to Shri Pramoda Chandra, Keeper, Fine Arts Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay for Photograph reproduced on Plate LVI (A). (23) I am obliged to Shri Chandramauli Majmudar B.A., for Photographs reproduced on Plate LVII, Plate LXVIII (A), Plate LXXXI.

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CHAPTER I
PRELUDE TO HISTORY
(Pre-and Proto-History of Gujarat )
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UPPER CONDWANA OF THE PEF DECCAN TRAP (NINSULA E OLIGOCENE & LOWER MIOCENE V BEN COASTAL TERTIARY EPLEISTOCENE E PLEISTOCENE & RECENT
UNCLASSIFIED CRYSTALLINES. Mail EPALA EOCENE E FOCENE 12 CRETACEOUS
SOILS MEDIUM BLACK SOIL DEEP BLACK SOIL COASTAL ALLUVIUM SHALLOW SANDY SOIL SANDY LOAM (AREA OF FOSSIL DUNTS)
RAINFALL
C
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PRELUDE TO HISTORY
The history of man enters on a very crucial phase with the invention of writing, which enabled him to record his intellectual heritage to posterity. But, let it be noted, that this so-called era of civilization is a minute fraction of the total span of time when man emerged on this planet of ours, nearly a million years ago. The existence of these literary records enable the historian to reconstruct a more complete story of our civilization in space, and more important thing, in time.
In this volume dealing with Chronology, naturally, the chronological history is being presented. Hence following the general definition of Pre-history-as the story of man before the advent of writing--the Pre-historic as well as the legendary periods are being treated as a Prelude to the Chronological History'.
Gujarat, like most of the outlying provinces of India begins its history-or historical chronology-with the advent of the Mauryan rule in Western India with Girinagara or Junagadh as the headquarters of a Vice-royalty. The other well-known phase of Indian culture is the civilization which spread from the Indus basin to the peninsula of Saurāṣtra across the seas.
This Chalcolithic culture had a system of alphabets or script, which has not been satisfactorily deciphered yet. Hence this phase, like the one revealed by the Purāṇas and other Sanskrit literature, will be treated as ' Proto-history.' Yet, this too is, in a sense, a prelude to the chronological history of Gujarat.'
Pre-history of Gujarat :
The geologists call the age of man the 'Pleistocene'. This period was characterized by violent fluctuations of climate affecting the land-surfaces, sea-levels and the rivers, which are very sensitive instruments for recording these changes in environment. Besides, the rivers provided the water which attracted man and his prey, the animals whom he hunted and eked out a livelihood.
The Early Man of this period was not very different from the animals which surrounded him. Since he lived on the banks of these rivers, their history gives us an idea of the various vicissitudes through which man passed. Hence the rivers speak of the history of man that lived on their banks.
Gujarat can be divided into two large natural divisions--the plain of Gujarat from the south of the Aravallis upto Daman and the peninsula of Saurāṣtra. Gujarat is drained by the rivers-(north to south ) Sabarmati, Mahi, Narmadā and Tāpi, besides a number

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
of smaller rivers. All these rivers except the Tāpi have been investigated in recent years by Foote, Zeuner, Sankalia, Subbarao, Pandya A. V., Mehta and Malik (see Bibliography). It is not proposed to go into their full details, but a short summary of the main trends uptodate will be discussed here.
From the studies carried out by F. E. Zeuner-we know that Gujarat passed through a series of fluctuations varying from arid dry periods to more wet periods with greater precipitation. These are the results of the survey of portions of the valleys of rivers like Sābarmati, Mahi and Narmadā.
The main phases may be described as follows :1. Formation of lateritic crusts-humid climate with hilly land-surface. 2. Mottled clay-deposition in the rivers--somewhat drier than the previous. 3. Cemented gravel phase--when the river spread large pebbles in the bed. We
have definite evidence of the Earliest Man in Gujarat : and his tools have been
found in these gravel-beds in all the rivers. 4. Beginning of a dry phase, when climate seems to have changed: The rivers
aggrade or build up their deposits---Human tools have been found in the lower
levels of the silt. 5. Return of the wet conditions resulting in the spread of vegetation and the
resultant weathering of the surface of the silt. Resumption of the dry conditions and acute wind-activity resulting in the wide-spread deposition of wind-blown dunes from North Gujarat, almost upto the Narmadā. But we have evidence of a declining wind-activity as we move southwards. There is, so far, no evidence of human habitation in this period. Probably northern Gujarat was uninhabitable, since we have evidence of
human habitation in the South Gujarat and the Bombay area. 7. A wetter phase-particularly noticeable in the Mahi and the Karjan. 8. A drier phase when isolated dunes were blown about upto the river Narmadā. 9. Return to wet conditions indicated by the presence of the Microlithic man
whose contemporary fauna included Rhinoceros Unicornis. 10. Another change towards a drier phase; yet the men of this period were in a
Stone Age', but used better pottery.
Thus we see two main phases in the Stone Age of Gujarat--Palaeolithic and Microlithic periods.
Palaeolithic:
Gujarat shares with the other parts of peninsular India most of the features of its Palaeolithic culture. It consists of Abbevillo-Acheulean tools with some pebble-choppers.
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PRELUDE TO HISTORY
The main tools made of Quartzite and Quarts (rarely) consist of choppers made of pebbles, hand-axes and cleavers, discoid cores and scrapers, and flakes with an occasional retouch.
In view of the various deposits discussed above, there is no doubt about the considerable antiquity of this culture. But since we have as yet no means of correlating with the known sequence in Kashmir with the Glacial periods, nor with the fossiliferous deposits of Narmadā and Godāvari, the exact chronology of this culture remains vague. But on typological grounds it can be equated with the Sohan of Punjab and dated to the Penultimate glaciation. On the basis of the astronomical theory of Milankovitch and Zeuner it can be placed to about 150,000 to 200,000 years.
Microlithic:
We have already discussed the period when the dunes were blown about in Northern and Central Gujarat. When these dunes occur in clusters, blow-outs or depressions are formed in the middle, by the whirling action of the wind. Hence when the climate changed for the better, these blow-outs became the ponds which became the centres of attraction for the next Pre-historic culture of Gujarat, characterized by the use of microliths. These consist of small implements made of semi-precious stones like agate, chalcedony, chert, jasper etc.
These microlithic sites have a very wide distribution in Gujarat and Saurāşțra. All the river-valleys and the isolated clusters of dunes around ponds supported the hunting communities. Besides, there is a concentration of these sites along the eastern stretches of Gujarat flanking the hills. In the central hilly areas of Amreli and Dhāri Prānts, Foote had recorded a large number of sites.
One of the most important sites which has been investigated by Sankalia and later by Subbarao is Lānghộaj in the Mehasana District. Here on a high mound facing the pond lived one of these hunting settlements.
A very interesting evidence of the climate of North Gujarat is provided by the remains of animals discovered there : Rhinoceros, Hog Deer, Black Buck, Indian Buffalo, Nilgāi etc. None of these animals were domesticated, confirming that these people were wild hunters. They used the shoulder-blade of rhinoceros as anvil for making their stone-tools.
About twelve human skeletors have been discovered so far, and they are being studied. The capacity of the skulls compares with that of Europoid ; but “the slight prognathism of the one skull with smooth small rounded forehead suggests negroid affinities, which belief is strengthened by the smallness of the cross-section as compared to the length of the long bones of the upper and lower extremities.”
About the age of this culture, we are not yet in a position to give an exact date; but excavations at Rangpur and Baroda roughly provide the other limit. At the former site, it precedes the appearance of the “Kathiawad Harappan culture". At Baroda and Timbervā, it precedes the Mauryan and Kşatrapa periods.
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
But the recent studies in the Indian Microlithic industries show that the typology of this industry is more or less homogenous throughout the country. In certain parts of the country it survived to later periods. In these late industries, we have evidence of pottery, as at Lānghộaj and in Central India. This proposition seems to be well-founded in view of the distribution of Microlithic culture along the Western Ghāts from Aravallis to Calicut, as the investigations of Todd have shown.
Proto-historic Period
Recent work in Saurastra is bringing to light the extent of the great urban civilization of the Indus basin. One of the most remarkable discoveries is that of SaragvāļāLothal (Tālukā Dholkā) in the Ahmedabad District. At Lothal there is a fairly large settlement showing typical Indus valley seals of steatite and several sealings and extensive mud-brick platforms which seem to have supported large burnt-brick structures, the remnants of which have survived. However, it is on account of this, that the nature of some of these structures becomes enigmatic, to say the least. Large number of antiquitiesbeads of semi-precious stones, gold, gold ornaments, terracottas, bronze vessels etc., have been recovered. A fuller account of these excavations is given in the succeeding Note subscribed by Shri S. Ranganātha Rao, the Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, on special duty, who first investigated this site.
The story of this civilization in Saurāșțra is one of the survival and slow deterioration in their ceramics and material culture. The sequence of Lothal is carried further by the excavations at Rangpur, started in 1934 by M. S. Vats and continued by Ghurye, Sankalia, Dikshit and S. R. Rao. With slight variation, Lothal evidence is carried through to a transitional phase.
Then we go into a phase characterized by the continuation of some of the older forms and the appearance of a new ceramic type, called for convenience, the 'Lustrous Red Ware'. The exact interrelation between the Kathiawad Harappan' of Lothal and the 'Lustrous Red Ware' culture is, as yet, not very clear, though the appearance of a new wave of people or culture is indicated here as well as at Somanāth more clearly.
The most important site in Saurāṣtra from the point of stratigraphic evidence of culture-sequence, is Somanāth. The ancient site, probably identical with ancient Prabhāsa, is situated on the bank of Hiraṇyā to the N.E. of Prabhāsa Pāțana. Here the story begins with a later phase of " Lothal-Rangpur”, “Kathiawad Harappan " and continues without a break right into the 6th century A.D. The importance of this site lies in the fact that, for the first time, the sequence in Saurāṣtra can be roughly equated in time with the Mauryan and Pre-Mauryan horizons all over the country, characterized by the presence of the famous Northern Black Polished Ware.
The Phases at Somanāth may be stated as follows:I-a. Typical Kathiawad Harappan forms with incised decorations, sometimes
like loops-reminiscent of the paintings. Very characteristic cores and flakes with crested ridges suggest the continuity of blade technique.
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I-b. “Transitional' and 'Late' wares of Rangpur (2-b and 2-c) occur with an
entirely new ceramic fabric and forms in curved bowls with panelled decorations. The painting is done in black, or purple, over red and tan backgrounds or red greyish background. Some of the decorations occur at Maheśvar (Dist. Nimād, Madhya Bharat) and Ahar (Dist. Udaipur,
Rajasthan ). II. Lustrous red wares. This phase has been divided into two sub-periods on
the basis of the changes in ceramic decorations and changes in fabrics in the upper levels. Here it seems to be an intrusion as there is a tendency for the
earlier motiffs on the new ware. III. This is very important on account of the occurrence of the Northern Black
Polished ware which enables us to identify the Pre-Mauryan and Mauryan horizons. From other antiquities also, we can definitely date this phase to
a period from 500 to 100 B.C. IV. A coarse gritty and thick Black-and-Red ware: this phase can be linked
up with the rest of Gujarat from excavations at Vadnagar and Timbervā,
and can be dated to about 100 B.C. to 100 A.D. V. The well-established era of contact with the Mediterranean region by the
occurrence of the Red-Polished Ware, which can be dated to between 100 to 600 A.D: The occurrence of large number of Gupta and Valabhi coins
vouches for this date.
Thus the sequence at Somanāth begins to supply important data, which would ultimately help us in tackling the problems of Saurāṣtra. These results are based on the joint work carried out by Dr. Subbarao and Shri P. P. Pandya in 1955, and continued by Pandya in 1956-57.
In conclusion, it is very interesting to note that in Gujarat, as in the other Littoral provinces, separated from the mainland, by difficult communications, the maritime influences have kept the window open and enabled a local or provincial development. Even the earlier Harappan element seems to have penetrated by sea from Kaccha and Sind. Finally the story of the sequence of cultures based on the excavations at Lothal, Rangpur, Somanāth, Amrā and Lākhābāwal gives us a very fine sequence of cultures from about 1500 B.C. or earlier to about 700 A.D. The exact relation between the Harappan culture of Kathiawad to its parent culture in the Indus basin cannot be defined exactly at the present stage of our knowledge.
But a provisional chronology can be reconstructed on the basis of relative stratigraphy. The appearance of iron and the associated dominance of black-and-red ware over such an extensive region covering Central India and the Deccan peninsula, and now its extension into coastal Gujarat, as well as Kathiawad, is of great significance. Even if we assume the beginning of iron about 500 B.C., a reasonable time-scale would be to allot

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
about a thousand years to the whole range of Proto-historic cultures beginning with a Harappan. This would allow for the large number of inter-links or contacts between the Pre-N.B.P. Chalcolithic cultures of Central India and Deccan with Grey wares on the one hand, and the late Harappan sequence of Kathiawad. Recalling the dates suggested by Fairservis for the end of the Harappa in their peripheral zones ( 2100-1200 B.C.), we can at best treat the Harappan culture of Lothal and Kathiawad as a younger contemporary of that of the Cities of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, if it does not represent a southward displacement of the culture, after the advent of the Aryans.
To sum up the position, the archaeological sequence in Kathiawad does not belie its history and its function in the historical geography of India. Hence this long story of survival and deterioration fits better into the geographic picture of Gujarat, as an area of relative isolation from the rest of the country, and a simultaneous window to the influences from across the seas. Further work will be necessary to confirm this hypothesis, and more than any, an independent absolute date for Lothal is a great desideratum.
Tradition and Archaeology
In view of the large amount of traditional material preserved in our Purāṇas and other literature about Saurāṣtra, Lāța and Anarta it is natural for any body to ask, what is the bearing of all this archaeological evidence on this story?
In reply to this, we should understand two important facts. As at present constituted, most of our literary tradition has been consolidated about the beginning of the Christian era. Worse still, on account of the religious sanctity and the function of the Purāṇas as a philosophy by examples, of the kings of the Kali age, we see either a crude repetition of the historical and geographical material of the consolidated texts or a deliberate interpolation to suit or glorify a particular region or religion. Hence one has to be on the guard while trying to interpret tradition and traditional history.
Yet, should we entirely abandon it? Here, a sober attempt is very badly needed. With the recent excavations at the hallowed sites of Hastināpur, Māhismati and PrabhāsaPāțan (Somanāth), the trends are very encouraging. For example, take Saurāṣtra ; according to literature, there are three main incidents: (1) the settlement of the Aryan colonists and the establishment of the kingdom of Ānarta by a son of Saryāta in North Gujarat. (2) The second is the main story of Kțişņa and the migration of his people into Surāṣtra. (3) The last is the establishment of the āśrama by Chyavana, the Bhțigu on the banks of Narmadā, giving rise to a number of Bhộigu-tirthas, of which Bhrigukaccha was one.
These stories have been repeated at great length in various forms and periods by different authors of the Purāṇas. Taking Somanāth, the place where Krişna's mortal remains were cremated, it is possible to attempt a link. If Krişna's story has any validity, it speaks of extensive cultural contacts between Central India and the Gangetic basin with Surāṣtra. Then this contact can be seen approximately at about 1400-1000 B.C.
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CULTURE SEQUENCE IN GUJARAT
SOUTH GUJARAT
PERIOD SOUTH GUJARAT ASA
DATI SAURASHTRA
??
MEDIEVAL EARLY
MEDIEVAL PAINTED WARE (BLACX-ON WHITE ON-RED) GADHIA AND VALABHI COINS
??
100-600 A.D. EARLY HISTORIC II
PLAIN BURNISHED BLACK-ON-RED AND RED SLIPPED PAINTED WARES, WARES RED RED POLISHED POLISHED WAREWARE, KSHATRAPA KSHATRAPA COINS AND LOCAL AND ROMAN COINS-ROMAN ANTIQUITIES ANTIQUITIES. TIMBARVA II VADNAGAR I SOMNATH IV AMRANI,LAKHABAWAL11
NBP
BLACK -ANDRED WARE
IRON
N.B.P SOMNATH II
400B.C.TO 1OO A.D.
PERIODI EARLY HISTORIC
POSSIBLE CONTI BLACK-AND-RED NUATION OF THE WARES, N.B.P. PAINTED TRADIIRON.
-TION IN POTTERY
IN SOUTH TIMBARVA I KATHIAWAD
SOMNATH II
JOE
GWA
POST K. PROTO HISTORIC HARAPPAN HARAPPAN
LATE K.
?
A FEW SITES OF THIS + CULTURE + ARE FOUND ON THE GUJARAT COAST FACING THE GULF OF CAMBAY
A FEW OF
RANGPUR ICE III THE HARAPPAN
SOMNATH II SETTLEMENTS
AMRAT OCCUR IN THE DELTAIC REGIONS OF TAPI AND RANGPUR IIB NARMADA SOMNATH IAEIB
LAKHABAWAL 1 IN THE INTERIOR THERE LOTHAL SEEMS TO BE A RANGPUR II A SURVIVAL OF HARAPPAN LATE STONE EXTENSION AGE HUNTING INTO COMMUNITIES GUJARAT
HARAPPAN KATHIAWAD
V
AGE LATE STONE
GEOMETRIC MICROLITHIC INDUSTRY
AGE EARLY STONE
ABBEVILLO-ACHEULEAN HAND AXE AND CLEAVER INDUSTRY.
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Plate I
(A) Rangpur : Dist. Jhālāwār, Saurāșțra : General view of excavated remains.
K
ONTAK
(B) Lothal : Clay fillings with structure above.

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Plate II
L
ONDON
SH
SEXE
(A) Lothal: Row of Houses.
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(B) Lothal: Burials.

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Plate III
(A) Rangpur: Pottery with Harappan affinity.
(B) Lothal: Pottery with Harappan affinity.

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Plate IV
SNS
3
89
CMS INCHES
(A) Lothal : Copper and bronze objects.
(B) Lothal : Copper vessel.

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9
Most of our orthodox historians are reconciling themselves to a date of the Mahābhārata War almost to this period of time. Hence it is a possible line of investigation which may yield ample results.
The archaeologist can, however, only point out the shadows; but, he is not yet in a position to designate the actors of this shadow-play. So, unless we solve the more complex problems of the Aryans and equally terse problems of archaeology, we can only plead for a little more patience.
Link with History:
Thus we have seen how from Pre-history and Proto-history of Gujarat, we come through Archaeology into History; and the Pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan periods inaugurate the main chronology discussed in the succeeding chapters.
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II
EXTENSION OF HARAPPA CULTURE IN GUJARAT*
Introduction :
The discovery of Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro in the years 1921-22 revealed the existence of a highly developed urban civilization in the Indus Valley during 3rd and 2nd millenium B.C. The recent discovery of Lothal in the Peninsula of Saurästra has extended the zone of the Harappa culture as far south as the gulf of Cambay, and the excavations at Rangpur and Lothal have thrown new light on the circumstances leading to the disappearance of the Harappans. Secondly, it has been possible to narrow the gap between the supposed end of the Harappa culture in circa 1500 B.C. and the beginning of the Buddhist period in circa 6th century B.C. Lastly the vague Harappan affinities in the late chalcolithic cultures of the first millenium B.C. can be explained from the Harappan traditions found surviving at Rangpur, Lothal, Prabhasa etc.
Rangpur:
Rangpur is a small village in Limdi Taluka of Zalawad District in the Bombay State, a reference to which has been made in previous pages. The cultural sequence arrived at as a result of the excavations (Plate I a) carried out by Shri S. R. Rao between 1953 and '56 may be summed up as follows:
Long after the microlithic-using folk of Period I left Rangpur the Harappans came to settle down at the sight in circa 2000 B.C. and continued to live upto 1500 B.C. Their earthen-wares, tools, weapons, personal ornaments, toys and objects of domestic use were identical with those of their neighbours at Lothal. The first occupation by the Harappans is assigned to period II a. Owing to the total destruction of their township by a flood in circa 1500 B.C. they had to face many hardships.
The material equipment of the post-flood Harappans is in many respects poorer than that of the early Harappans. This degenerate phase of Harappa culture extending from circa 1500 B.C. to 1100 B.C. falls in period II b. Subsequently an attempt to revive painted traditions and to evolve new ceramic forms was made in period II c. Side by side certain Harappa ceramic forms such as dish-on-stand, jar, bowl and basin did continue to be in use. The Black and Red Ware emerged as a popular ware in period II c which is deemed to represent a Transition Phase of the Harappa culture. Locally available agate and jasper were preferred to imported chert for making lithic implements. Copper celts, pins and razors continued to be in use. Ceramic wares were frequently painted with geometric and animal motifs such as deer, peacock, bull and black buck. At the close of the 2nd millenium B.C., a new culture was being slowly evolved at Rangpur and several other

The absolute chronology of the Harappan culture of Saurastra is yet in a fluid stage. The dates given in the text are those of the author.-Editor

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11
late settlements of the Harappans in Saurāşțra. Period III of Rangpur which is approximately dated between 1000 B.C. and 800 B.C. is noted for the exuberance of the Lustrous Red Ware. Black and Red Ware is also a popular ceramic ware of the period. (Plate-b):
A village-to-village survey of the peninsulas of Kaccha and Saurāşțra was made during the years 1954 to 1958 when it was found that the early settlements of the Harappans ware made on the coast-line only. They must have taken a sea-route from Sind to Saurāṣtra. Curiously enough no Harappa settlement contemporary with Lothal or Rangpur II a, is encountered in region between Viramgam and Surendranagar or even further south until one reaches Lothal. Being a sea-faring people the Harappans preferred a sea-route to a land-route and settled themselves on the fertile coastal strip during their south-ward movement. Bhagatray in the Kim estuary near Surat is the Southernmost Harappa settlement known so far. Lothal:
The discovery of the Lothal mound in Saragvala village of Dholka Taluka in Ahmedabad District of the Bombay State in November 1954 has not only extended the limits of the Harappa Empire but also added much to our knowledge about the maritime activities of the Harappans. Lothal has yielded seals and sealings and a distinct ceramic ware known as the Black and Red Ware in addition to the usual Harappan ceramic wares, tools, weapons and ornaments. The sealings have, for the first time, helped to understand the purpose with which seals were prepared. With a rich wheat and cotton-growing hinterland and easy access to the sea, Lothal occupied an important position for developing overseas trade.
The extent of the mound so far known is about half a mile in length and a quarter mile in width. It is 12 ft. high, from the surrounding area; but the total occupation deposit is 28 ft. Owing to sheet flooding the slopes of the mound are silted up. It is said that only 50 years ago, country crafts used to anchor at a distance of half a mile from Lothal. Through the Gulf of Cambay and the Sābarmati and Bhogāvo rivers they might have been able to reach Lothal, it is so surmised.
At present three main phases of occupation with five building periods can be distinguished. In the first phase the houses did not stand on any platform nor did they have a high plinth. But soon the township came to be destroyed by a flood.
In the second phase the inhabitants are found to have devised various measures of safety against inundation. One of the steps taken by them was to construct a protective wall of mud-bricks around the town and platforms of mud-bricks within the town to raise their dwellings over them. The habitation area was further extended; but once again a great flood destroyed the structures. There was an elaborate system of drainage. Clearance of manholes and soakage-jars must have also existed. Houses were built in rows on either side of the streets. (Plate II)
One of the most important structures uncovered at Lothal is what is supposed to be a kiln built on a platform in the south-east corner of the town. There are twelve solid cubical blocks built in three rows of four each with an intersecting channel between each
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
block. The channels are paved at the ends with kiln-burnt bricks. Ash, cinders, charcoal, baked lumps of clay, terracotta objects such as ovaloid balls, triangular "cakes" and sealings were found in the channels. The most important find was, however, a hoard of seventy-five terracotta sealings which carry the positive impressions of the Indus seals, bearing script and animal figures. It is surmised that this mud-brick structure with twelve blocks must have served the purpose of a kiln for baking small clay-objects like sealings, toys, etc. on a mass scale.
The third and last phase of occupation provisionally equated with the fifth period of constructional activity witnessed a decline in the prosperity of the town. The eroded face of the platforms in the main section gives an idea of the severity of floods. In this third phase houses and drains were shabbily constructed and soakage jars were placed at the end of the narrow drains to drain off water from the bathrooms.
From the foregoing description of the town-planning of Lothal and the nature of construction of houses, drains and platforms it should be evident that the Lothal folk closely followed their contemporaries at Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro in town-planning, and adopted identical safety measures against floods. The personal ornaments, tools, weapons, toys,ceramic wares, objects of domestic use and the products of the artists of Lothal bearing close resemblance to those found at Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro are mentioned below:Tools and Weapons :
Copper celts and arrow-heads (Plate III) and terracotta sling balls have been found at Lothal. (Plate IV) They might have been used for defensive purposes. Long blades of chert rarely retouched and occasionally polished were used as pen-knives with or without hafting. (Plate Va) Arts and Crafts :
The gold and steatite beads of Lothal are the smallest in size ever found. A necklace made of such micro-beads gives an idea of the personal ornaments in use 4000 years ago. (Plate V b). Lothal is wellknown for a large variety and number of beads of topa, carnelian, agate, jasper, shell, ivory, faience and copper. Even etching was known in those days.
The art of modelling was widely practised. Animal and human figures were prepared to cater to popular taste. Torsos of male and female human figurines including a bust of a foreigner with a long beard, sharp nose and sunken eyes deserve special attention.
The art of painting on earthen vessels was also highly developed. The colour scheme is in black over red or chocolate over buff. Peacock, crane, deer, stag, sparrow, snake, pipal-leaf and palm-tree are some of the naturalistic designs painted on the Lothal vessels. Entire vessels' surface is often painted and the designs are repeated as in Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro. (Plate VI)
Figurines of swan and dog in copper are good examples of the art of metal-casting. Occupations :
The chief occupations of the Lothal folk were fishing, agriculture and trade. A large number of fish-hooks of copper and vast quantities of fish-bones recovered in the excavations establish that fishing was an important occupation.
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13
The prosperity of Lothal was primarily due to trade and commerce. Finished products like beads might have been processed at Lothal and exported, as is even now the case at Cambay. 'Bhāla' being a rich cotton-growing area, cloth might have been one of the goods exported. A standard of weights was stipulated. The sealings were used for sealing packages of goods exported. Bullock-carts and boats were in use as means of transport, and their terracotta representations are encountered at Lothal. Script :
No clue has been found so far to enable scholars to decipher the indus script. The seals and sealings of Lothal bear Indus script and animal figures. Unicorn, bull, goat, elephant, birds and swastika are some of the designs beautifully engraved on seals. (Plates VII and VIII)
The discovery of terracotta sealings bearing positive impressions of the seals has established that the seals were meant to be used for sealing pakages and not merely as intaglios. In the graffiti marks on the pottery of Rangpur II c and III, Somanath II and Rozdi I, some of the Indus symbols can be seen. They suggest a survival of the script. Religion :
In one place an enclosure of mud-bricks built on a small platform was found to contain ash, charred animal bones, a gold pendant with two holes, beads, etc. The altar appears to have been specially built for a ritualistic purpose. Secondly certain animals seem to have been held in veneration. When they died, their bones were deposited in earthen vessels. Such urn-burials containing animal bones were also found at Lothal. Funerary Method:
Burial was the normal method of disposal of the dead. A cemetery was recently discovered in the north-western parts of the Lothal mound. Out of three burials opened up, two were greatly disturbed. As such, the burial urns were found missing. In Burial No. 2, however, two bodies were found placed close to each other. They were extended burials with head to the north. Conclusion:
The discovery of a large number of proto-historic sites in Saurāştra and Gujarat and the excavations conducted by the M. S. University, Baroda, and the Archaeological Department of the former Saurāṣtra Government at Prabhāsa, Amra, Lakhabaval and Rozdi have confirmed the findings of Shri Rao at Lothal and Rangpur that the Harappa Culture survived in a degenerate form in the 2nd millenium B.C.
The bearing which the exploration and excavations of proto-historic sites in Gujarat, Saurāşțra and Kaccha has on the proto-history of India can be summarised as follows:
The Harappans moved south of the Indus estuary and made settlements on the Western sea-board of India in the 3rd millenium B.C. Lothal was their earliest settlement in the peninsula of Saurāṣtra. Desalpar in Kaccha and Bhagatrav near Surat in the Kim estuary in the south may be slightly later settlements. In due course, the Harappans mov
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ed further inland and settled down at Rangpur. An unprecedented flood destroyed all the early Harappan settlements in Gujarat, Saurāṣtra and Kaccha, but they continued to live in poorer conditions.
A large number of small late Harappa settlements sprang around Jamnagar, Porbandar, Somanath, Kodinar and Mehgaum in the post-flood days as a sequel to an influx of panic-stricken Harappans from the Indus Valley. They had only a material equipment; but most of the Harappan traditions still survived with them.
In the course of the five centuries following the devastation of the major cities and towns of the Harappans in the Indus Valley and in Saurāṣtra, a gradual degeneration in the material equipment of these Harappans can be seen at Amra, Lakhabaval and Rozdi, Rangpur, Lothal, and Prabhāsa. But they revived their traditions of painting on earthen wares and even new motifs were introduced.
The lithic appendage of the surviving Harappans consisted of scrapers of agate and jasper instead of ribbon flakes of chert. Spheroid weights of sandstone came to be used instead of cubual weights of chert and agate. Copper celts and pins continued to be in use, but certain terracotta objects such as triangular cakes were given up. In the beginning of the first millenium B.C. they established contacts with other chalcolithic folk living in Mewad and Malwa plateau and in the Deccan.
Thus it is now possible to tell a continuous story of the expansion of the Harappa culture over space and time, and its survival in different parts in Gujarat and Saurāṣtra for nearly eight centuries even after the destruction of Harappa and Mohen-jo-daro. It made substantial contributions to the physical and metaphysical aspects of Indian culture. A reappraisal of the evidence of survived Harappa culture in the Ghaggar Valley and in the East Punjab may reveal a parallel development.
This note does not go into the details of the discoveries made in recent days. Some of the statements made above may have to be modified in the light of further evidence, if any, coming up at Lothal. †
Sir Mortimer Wheeler's impressions about a trip to Lothal in March 1959 are recorded by Uma Anand (The Illustrated Weekly of India, April 12, 1959) as under:-"It has been the most interesting and exciting of the new sites. Lothal belongs quite definitely at the earliest levels to the Harappa culture, about 2200 B.C., and, what is so much important, lasts well beyond the latest dates of the Indus civilisation as previously indicated by the excavations at Mohen-jo-daro and Harappa.
Did the forces that destroyed these northern cities compel the people to migrate to the southwest coast? Or, did the Indus-valley civilisation originally have a two-pronged movement: one extending about 800 miles from the west up north-east towards the Himalayas, the other along the west coast? Perhaps new sites will continue to follow these distant trails of the past.
The digging at Lothal has revealed a rectangular construction like an artificial inlet or harbour for small ships. The trench that is now uncovered measures 716 feet North-south, and 116 ft., Eastwest. The total height of the walls is 12 ff. It has an inlet in the embankment and a spill channel in the southern embankment. Marine shells have been found from insidle, of what can be called, the harbour.-General Editor.

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III
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY*
Dikshit, K. N.
The Dawn of Civilization in India'. Bulletin of the Baroda State Museum-II i, pp. 3-14, 1944-45.
Dikshit, M. K.
"Excavations at Rangpur". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, XL, 1951.
Foote, R. B.
(1) On Pre-historic Man in the old alluvium of the Sabarmati
river in Gujarat, Western India'. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Transactions, p. 664,
1894. (2) Geology of the Baroda State, Baroda State Press, 1898. (3) Indian Pre-historic and Proto-historic Antiquities-Notes on
Ages and Distribution: (IPPA) Madras, 1916. Catalogue
Raisonne, (IPPA) Madras, 1917. Ghosh A.
(1) Indian Archaeology-a Review : 1953-54. Summary of Rang
pur Excavations: by S. R. Rao. 1954. (2) Indian Archaeology--a Review : 1954-55. Summary of the
Further Excavations at Rangpur by S. R. Rao. 1955. (3) Indian Archaeology-a Review : 1955-56. Summary of the
Excavations at Lothal by S. R. Rao; and Summary of the Excavations at Amra, Lakhabawal and Somanath by Subba
rao and Pandya. 1956. (4) Indian Archaeology: A Review : 1956-57–Summary of Ex
cavations by S. R. Rao at Lothal ( Saragvala ), Dist., Ahmedabad, resumed after 1955-56; and Summary of Excavations at Prabhāsa Pāțan, Dist. Sorath, by P. P. Pandya. 1957* * Special mention must be made of the very recent discovery of two sites Mehgam and Telod, both near the Narmada estuary. A preliminary examination of their material indicates that both of them contain late Harappan pottery. Subject to confirmation by a detailed study, the sites would seem to represent the southernmost stations of the late Harappa culture till now known, and would be of great signi.
ficance."--(Indian Archaeology: 1956-57: A Review, p. 1.) • Since it is very difficult to be precise in chronology when we deal with Pre-history and Protohistory, our extant knowledge is summarised in a running account; and a Select Bibliography of Original Papers is given for reference.

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Ghosh, A.
(5) Indian Archaeology: A Review : 1957-58. Summary of
Excavations at Rozdi, Atkot, Pithadia and Exploration of Harappan sites in Saurāșțra : by P. P. Pandya.
Ghurye, G. S.
"Excavations at Rangpur", Journal of the Bombay University; VIII, No. 3. 1939.
Heras, H. Rev.
(1) “ The Origin of the Round Proto-Indian Seals discovered in
Sumer". B. B. & C. I. Annual, 1938. (2) "A Proto-Indian Sign from Valā". Quarterly Journal,
Mythic Society, Bangalore. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3. 1941. “Prehistory in India ". Ancient India, No. 3, New Delhi, 1947.
Krishnaswamy V. D.
Logan, A. C.
Old Chipped Stones of India, Calcutta, pp. 31-2.
Malik, S. C.
"Palaeolithic Industries of Bombay-re-evaluation". Journal of the Maharaja Sayajirao University; 1957.
Mitra, P.
Pre-historic India, Calcutta University, 2nd Ed., 1927.
Pandya, A. V.
(1) Series of articles on "Pralaya-pūrva-nu Gujarat." in the
Gujarati monthly Navachetan, Calcutta. 1938. (2) "In Search of the Past", Kumār Monthly (Gujarati), 1941. (3) "Pre-historic Cultures discovered On the Narmadā,"
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Bombay Session,
1947 (4) Saurāṣtra before the Dawn of History' Part I, Journal of
the Gujarat Research Society XII, No. 3. 1951. (5) Saurāstra before the Dawn of History' Part II, Journal of
the Gujarat Research Society XIV, No. 1., 1952. (6) "Babylonian cities in the Purāņas". Proceedings of the
Indian History Congress, Waltair Session, 1953.
Pandya, P. P.
(1) “Explorations in Hālār and Sorath Districts of Saurāştra ".
Journal of the Maharaja Sayajirao University, III. 2; 1954.
(2) 'A Harappan Village Settlement: Rozdi': Journal of the
Saurastra Sansodhan Mandal, 1959 March.
Rao, S. R.
The Excavations at Lothal'. Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, April 1956March 1957

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Plate v
(A) Lothal: Terracotta Guerilla : front and
side-views (ht. Il in.)
(B) Lothal: Terracotta mother goddess (ht.
(C) Lothal: Terracotta bearded figurine (ht.
2} in.)
ES
(D) Lothal: Terracotta animal figurine (ht. 2 in )

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Plate VI
(A) Lothal : Painted pottery.
(B) Lothal :
Painted and incised pottery.

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REAL FOUR
1
For
LI
(A) Lothal : Chert blades.
(B) Lothal Terracotta sealings.
Plate VII

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Plate VIII
(immy
SI女的
.
H
Lothal: Seals (slightly enlarged).

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Sankalia, H. D.
PRELUDE TO HISTORY
17 (1) 'In Search of Early Man along the Sābarmati.' Journal of
the Gujarat Research Society, 1941-42. (2) Report of the II nd Gujarat Pre-historic Expedition. In Search
of Microlithic Man'. The New Indian Antiquary, 1944. (3) Preliminary report of the IIIrd Gujarat Pre-historic Expedition,
1945. (4) Investigation into Pre-historic Archaeology of Gujarat. Baroda,
1946. (5) The Microlithic Industry of Lānghộaj', (North Gujarat).
Journal of the Gujarat Research Sociely, October, 1956.
Sankalia and Karve, I.
Primitive Microlithic Culture and People of Gujarat.' American Anthropologist. LI. 1949.
Starr, Richard F. S.,
Indus Valley Painted Pottery, Princeton, 1941.
Subbarao, B.
(1) “Archaeological Explorations in the Mahi Valley". Journal
of the M. S. University of Baroda, I. 1952. (2) “New Light on the Archaeology of Gujarat". Paper read
at the Gujarat Research Workers' Conference, Ahmedabad,
1932. (3) Baroda through the Ages, M. S. Univ. Archaeology Series
No. I., Baroda, 1953. (4) The Personality of India, M. S. University Archaeology Series
No. 3, 1956: Revised 2nd Edition, 1958.
Tod, K. R. V.
(1) Palaeolithic Industries around Bombay'. Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute, 1939. (2) "Microlithic Industries around Bombay", Ancient India,
No. 6, New Delhi, 1951.
Vats, M. S.,
Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India : 1934-1935. First Excavations at Rangpur.
Zeuner, F. E.
(1) Stone Age and Pleistocene Chronology in Gujarat, Poona. 1950. (2) “Microlithic Industry of Länghnaj ”, Man, No. 182, 1952.
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CHAPTER II
PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD (Traditional History:- Pre circa B.C. 322)

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PRE-MAURYAN PERIOD
(Pre Circa B. C. 322 )
The oldest Pauranic legend regarding Gujarat appears to be that of the holy king Ānarta, son of Saryāti, and grand-son of Manu. The first reliable land-mark in the history of Gujarat, however, is the establishment of the Mauryan rule by Candragupta.
Before this event, we have to fall back on literary tradition, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina works—the epics, the Purāṇas and later literary compositions inspired by them.
Most of these traditions, particularly of the Purāṇas refer to the advent of the Aryan tribes into Gujarat. These traditions have been carefully analysed by K. M. Munshi. (Early Aryans in Gujarat ).
Accordingly, the bare facts have been summarised in this section. A few references from Pāṇini regarding Western India have also been included.
I The Purāņas say nothing about the original home of the Aryans. The scene of traditional history opens in India with the division of the territory, comprising the whole of North India extending in the east upto Orissa, among the ten sons of Manu, the first King and Common Ancestor of the ruling families in India.
The traditional account of the expansion of the Aryans and Aryan culture is identical with the geographical background of the Aryan conquest of India given in the Purāṇas. From this starting point, the traditional history possibly enables us to trace the progress of Aryan advance during the four Ages-Kộta, Tretā, Dvāpara, and Kali. Kings Sagara, Rāma, and Kțşņa are said to have flourished respectively at the end of the Krta, Tretā and Dvāpara Ages, so that the Kộta Age covers roughly 40 generations, Tretā 25 and Dvāpara 30. The Kali Age set in after the Bhārata War.
By the end of the Kșta Age, we find the Aryans in occupation of the whole of North India including Sind and Kandahar in the west, and Bihar and West Bengal in the east. In the south, Gujarat, Saurāṣtra, the Western Coast south of Bombay and Berar were colonized by the Aryans, and their southern limits had extended beyond the Vindhya and the Narmadā, down to the Tapti and the Sātpurās.
The Aryan occupation during the Tretā Age extended further east and south, embracing in addition the territories occupied in the Krta Age. The southern territories of Janasthāna, Kişkindha, and also Lankā came under the sphere of Aryan influence during the days of Rāma. By the time of the Bhārata War, which marked the close of the Dvåpara Age, the Aryans had extended over the whole of India, and even beyond its frontiers in the west.

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This traditional account of the Aryan expansion is, however, in conflict with the evidence of the Vedic texts, and also with that of the Brāhmaṇas. It is generally assumed that the Aryans had not advanced beyond the middle region of Northern India till all the traditional royal dynasties who ruled had ceased to exist.
The Smyti texts quote verses defining Āryāvarta or the land of the Aryas as coextensive with North India. As to the expansion of the Aryan culture to the Deccan and South India, the evidence of Pāṇini's Astödhyāyī and Kātyāyana's Vārtikas on Pāṇini, seem to be fairly conclusive. The only country in the Deccan south of the Narmadā mentioned by Pāṇini is Aśmaka, whereas Kātyāyana knows Pāņdya, Cola, and Kerala. This shows that the Aryans came into contact with the South Indian peoples during the time intervening between Pāņini and Kätyāyana, i.e., some time between the 6th and 4th centuries B.C. Yet the Purānas and the Rāmāyaṇa would have us believe that the whole of South India, including Ceylon, was colonized or brought under their sphere of influence by the time of Rāmacandra in the Tretā Age !-(The Vedic Age, pp. 311-313).
II
Śaryāta Mānava is the first Aryan associated with Gujarat, as his son (Ānarta) gave it its first Aryan name. Saryāta occurs in the Rgveda as the name of a singer, and the Brāhmaṇas mention Saryāta in connection with rejuvenation of Cyavana, proving the historicity of Cyavana's connection with Śaryāti. Cyavana is always connected with Gujarat; and the Bhrgus (closely connected with Gujarat) were the descendants of Cyavana.
While Paraśurāma is generally associated with the Creation of Sūrpāraka, a stanza in the Mahābhārata (Mbh. (Cr. Ed.) III, 86.9 ] shows that it was colonized earlier by Jamadagni. Parasurama is credited with the Aryanization of the whole of the western coast of Bombay, especially the Konkan, the Karhāța, the Tulava and the Kerala. The traditions, at any rate, indicate the important rôle played by the Bhargavas in the colonization of the Deccan.
Among the Aryan tribes, the Bhrgus and the Saryātas seem to be the earliest ones connected with Gujarat. Tradition ascribes that Anarta, the son of Saryāti, gave his name ( Ānartadeśa) to Gujarat, and his son Revata founded Kuśasthali, the capital, on the ruins of which was erected later Dvarka, the capital of the Yādavas. Balarama, the elder Yādava brother of Sri Krşņa accepted in marriage the daughter of Kakudmin Raivata and the latter gave his kingdom of Kuśasthali to the Yådavas.
The Yādavas have a long history of their own, which goes back to the period of the Rgveda, as the word 'Yadu' occurs in the Rgveda as the name of a king and his tribe (Vedic Index, p. 185). The Purāṇas divide the family of Yadu or the Yādavas into many septs such as the Vitihotras, Haihayas, Sātvatas, etc.; and the Sātvatas have further been subdivided into general branches, viz. : Devavěddhas, Andhakas, Bhojas and Vșşņis. -(Matsya, 43-44; Vāyu, 94-96). The Andhakas and Vrşnis are mentioned in the
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23
Aşťādhyāyi of Pāṇini, (IV, 1. 114; VI, 2. 34) and the latter are described as a republican corporation (Samgha ) by Kautilya (Arthaśāstra 1. 6, p. 12).
The migration of the Yādavas from the holy land of Kurupancālas had already begun since Vedic times, on account of the constant raids of the Blatas; and the Satapatha Brāhmana actually refers to the defeat of the Sātvatas by Bharata. (XIII, 5. 4. 21). So, the emigration of the Yādavas had commenced much earlier than the age of Krşņa, whose exodus to Dvārkā may be taken to represent a wholesale migration. Jarāsandha, the Magadha king invaded Mathurā several times to avenge the death of Kamsa, his son-in-law. His invasions were resisted for some time, but finally the Yādavas decided to leave Mathurā in a body and settled in Dvārkā on the west coast.
III
Krşņa appears for the first time in the Mahābhārata story at the svayamvara of Draupadi. He was a friend and councellor of the Paodavas, and his sister Subhadrā was married to Arjuna. The coming of Arjuna to Aparānta, and the royal reception that Kțşņa and other Yādavas gave him is described in the Mahābhārata (Adiparva, Adh. 218-221).
King Jarasandha of Magadha was killed by Bhima under Kșspa's directions. At the rājasūya yajna performed by the Pāņdavas, Krşņa was offered the first worship. This enraged the Cedi king Siśupāla who heaped vile abuse upon Krşna and was killed by him. This has been the theme of Māgha's siśupāla-vadha-mahākāvya ( 8th century A.D.). After the period of the Pāņdavas' exile was over, Krşņa acted as their emissary of peace to Duryodhana ; but all his efforts at conciliation proved futile. In the great Bhārata War, Krsna offered his personal help as a charioteer to Arjuna, while the army joined the Kauravas. Krsna helped the Pandavas a number of times during the great war, and it was due to the part played by Krsna in the great war that the Pandavas emerged victorious. Krsna returned to Dvārkā after Yudhisthira was installed on the Hastinapura throne. He revived the stillborn child of Abhimanyu's widow Uttarā, later known as Pariksita.
Towards the close of Krşņa's life there was a fratricidal struggle among the Yādavas in which practically the entire Yādava males were destroyed. Then Krsna sent a messenger to Hastināpura inviting Arjuna to come to Dvarka and look after the women and children; and asking them to accompany Arjuna, Kțşņa retired to the forest. Krsna, when in deep meditation, was hit by the arrow of a hunter who mistook him for a deer. Thus passed away Kșşņa of the Purāṇas and the Mahābhārata. Arjuna came to Dvarka, took with him the remnants of the Yadu family and installed Vajra, the only surviving grandson of Krşğa, on the throne.
IV
The deification of Vāsudeva Krsna as an incarnation of Vişnu is dated before the period of the Mahābhāsya, i.e. 2nd century B.C.-(The Vedic Age, pp. 298-299). Krşņa

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is mentioned as 'Devakiputra' in the Chhāndogya Upanişad, the Mahābhārata and the Purānas; and the last two sources call him also Vāsudeva, i.e. the son of Vasudeva. Pāṇini refers to Väsudeva and Arjuna as objects of worship, Kșatriya heroes raised to divinity.
In the Ghața Jātaka Vāsudeva is described as a scion of the royal family of Upper Madhura' and receives the epithet Kanha (Krşna). The Jaina Uttarādhyayana Sutra (Lecture XXII) states that Vasudeva was a Ksatriya prince and its twelfth Upanga deals with Balarāma and Kanha (Krsna) Vāsudeva of the Vrşņi dynasty. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador shows that Krşņa Vāsudeva was already deified in the 4th Century among the people of Mathura, and that he was connected with the Pandavas.
V
The earliest historical record about Surāşțra is that of the Vrşņis of the Yādaya clan. These Vrsnis, according to the Mahābhārata and the Jātakakatha, left Mathura and settled themselves in Dvarka when pressed by Jarāsandha, the Magadha king. The musical propensities of the Vrsạis are a familiar feature in Sanskrit literature, The Hari-Vamsa describes their dancing sports such as the dance with accompaniment of sticks—the Dandarāsaka, and the one with accompaniment of clapping of hands-the Tāla( i )rāsaka.
Bhāsa refers to Hallisaka dance in his drama Bālacarita, Act III. The Bhagavata purāņa (not later than 8th Century A.D.) has a section on Rāsapancadhyāyi (Xth Skandha), wherein this sport of dancing is described at length,
VI The contribution of the Yādavas in carrying the banner of Aryan culture over large tracts of land in the South-West and in Rajputana, Gujarat and Malwa, and the Deccan, which came under their occupation, needs special mention. It was due to the activities of the Yādavas that these regions were brought under the Aryan way of life.
The peculiar feature in the career of the Yādavas is the considerable mixture they had with the non-Aryans, though they trace their descent from Pururavas through Yadu. This fact coupled with the possible looseness in the observance of the Aryan Dharma led the Epics and Purānas to call the Yādava branches' Asuras', and to class them with the tribes of the extreme north-west and west among the Nichyas and Apācyas. The fact that they mixed freely with the non-Aryans, with whom they had marital relations and some of whose customs they incorporated, facilitated the Aryanization of the so-called outsiders, and thus spread Aryan culture far and wide.
Krsna of the Yādavas, well-known as a politician, warrior and religious teacher was a national hero, who was regarded as an incarnation of Vişnu. He held liberal and catholic views, and his doctrines helped in the spread of Aryan ideas among the so-called Śūdras.-(The Vedic Age, pp. 311-315, abridged).
The Araṇyaka-parva (Vanaparva) of the Mahābhārata contains a narrative of Yudhisthira's pilgrimage through Gujarat. (Mbh, III, Adh. 118-121). When this eldest
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25
son of Pāņdu visited the land, he found Aparānta, the sea-board to the north of Bombay, studded with Aryan colonies. Mārkandeya had an aśrama or hermitage on the Payoșni, identified with the river Tāpi by some and with the river Pārņā by others. The Bhrgus had āśramas on the Narmada.
VII From tradition preserved in the Mahāvamsa and the Dipavamsa it appears that Ceylon owes its name 'Simhaladvipa', its language Simhalese and its Aryanisation to a prince Vijaya of Lāļa'or Lāța '-a name by which Gujarat was often referred to in early times. Prince Vijaya the son of Simhabăhu who ruled at Simhapura (modern 'Sihor' near Bhavnagar not far from the sea ), having been banished for his lawlessness, departed from Siṁhapura, with a band of adventurers and sailed southwards. After stopping at *Sūrpāraka' (modern Sopara in Thana Dist., Bombay State) he continued his voyage to Ceylon, where he arrived very shortly before the death of Gautama Buddha in 483 B.C. On that basis the event is tentatively dated circa 443 B.C. (Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 605-607; History of Bengali Language (1924) pp. 72. 73, fn.: Suniti Kumar Chatterjee). Since then, Ceylon had a close maritime intercourse with Bharukaccha and Śūrpāraka. According to Vividhatirthakalpa, a princess from Ceylon built a Jaina temple known as Sakunikā vihāra at Broach.
VIII Pāṇini in his Astādhyāyi mentions Kaccha (Cf. Kacchādibhyaśca-IV. 2. 133). "Kaccha represented the water-logged portions in the south as against the dry desert area in the north. Kaccha was historically connected with Sindh forming its province in the seventh century when Yuan Chwang visited the country. Cunningham says that Kaccha and Parkar have always been linked together (Ancient Geography, p. 347 )”.-(V. S. Agrawala, India as known to Pāņini, pp. 51-52).
Pāṇini also refers to the names of towns ending in Kaccha. (Cf. Kacchāgnivaktragartottarapadāt-IV. 2. 126). These were "mostly situated along the coast from BhrguKaccha to the province of Kaccha" (Ibid., p. 52).
Pāṇini also instances places which have lent their names to persons as the places of their own residence, or of their ancestors (IV, 3. 90). Besides persons, commodities and animals were also called sometimes after the places of their origin. Thus the word Kaccha denoted a bull of Kaccha country (IV, 2. 134). The reference shows thae the bull of Kaccha was famous for its strength and vitality and must be in wider use for many purposes.
There may also be other associations of names with places. "An assemblage of meanings can be seen in the word Kacchaka which used to denote (a) an inhabitant of Kaccha, (b) the turban (Cūdā) peculiar to its people, (c) their mannerisms in speech (Jalpita), and (d) laughing (Hasita )-(Ibid. p. 52)”. Thus the word Kacchaka shows that people of Kaccha were putting on a peculiar type of turban and that their way of speaking and laughing were equally peculiar to them.
C4
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Pāṇini refers to the compound names Kunti-Surástrah and Cinti-Surāşțrah (IV, 2.37). The names indicate the period when the royal houses of Kunti and Cinti were tied to Surāșțra, (Ibid., p. 60). The Gana-pāțha enumerates Anarta country under Dhūmādi (IV, 2. 127); and the river Mahi under Nadvādi (IV, 2.97).
IX
The period B.C. 550-500 is lit up by the personality of two great reformers, Buddha (Traditional date of death B.C. 544-43 ) and Mahāvira (Traditional date of death B.C. 528 ). Both were Kşatriyas; both organised wandering ascetics; both ignored God and denied the Vedas; and while admitting the fourfold order of society, both led a revolt against the superiority of Brāhmaṇas over the Ksatriyas and derided the four stages of life, stressing only the life of an ascetic. Buddhism, for instance, was a protestant movement within the fold of Dharma; and its ready sympathy for suffering was its refreshing attraction.
It is significant that the heterodox religious tenets of Buddhism and Jainism grew among the small non-monarchical states ruled by semi-independent or autonomous clans, like the Sākyas and the Licchavis, and found in them their chief supporters and patrons. It illustrates the great principle that political freedom is the great nursery of freedom of thought.
According to the tradition preserved in Avaśyakacūrni, king Pradyota alias CandaPradyota of Ujjayini who ruled over Bhārata, was a contemporary and a devotee of Lord Mahāvira. The former died on the very night the latter attained salvation in B. C. 528(Abhidhāna Rājendra, Vol. I, 494). Bharukaccha was under Pradyota's power,
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CHAPTER III
MAURYAN PERIOD
(Circa 322 B. C.-185 B. C.)
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Facing Page 29
Fig. 3
GOOG
ALAGHMĀNS SHĀHBĀZGARHI AMÂNSHERĀS
TAXILA
MAURYAN EMPIRE SHOWING MAURYAN SITES
AND ANTIQUITIES
TOPARAT
I MIR ATH
R. Sindhu
NIGLI VA
-
-
-
-
-
-
A BAIRĀTU
RUMMINADEI CIRANPURVA IL AURIYA NANDANGARH ILAURIYA ARARAJA
ALLĀHADI SARNATH PAT LIPU A GUJJARAT A
SAHASRAM ABARĀBAR
I SĀNCHI
wadā
A RUPNĀTH
JARAT
KĀRVAN
R.Narmada
a
IS
GIRINAGAR
Eri TIMBARVĀL
SOMNATH
PRAKASHA KAMREJ
honak RT
DHAULI
SOPARĂ
B JALGAD
Godavari R
AMĀSKI GOVIMATHA
A RAJULA MAND AGIRI PAKIGUNDA
ERRAGUDI SIDDAPUR JATINGA-RAME SWARA BRAHMAGIR! ------
duver
.ROCK EDICTS MINOR ROCK EDICTS PILLARS MAURYAN SITES
OVAT
ORN
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MAURYAN PERIOD (Circa 322 B. C.-185 B. C. )
After the destruction of the Yādavas a long blank occurs in the traditional history of Gujarat. It is probable that many foreigners settled in Saurāṣtra and South Gujarat owing to the long sea-board suitable for trade; and it is because of the foreign element that the Hindu Dharma-śāstras considered Gujarat a mleccha country and forbade visits to it except on pilgrimage.
The fact also that Asoka, the Mauryan Emperor chose among the Buddhist Sthaviras sent to various parts of his kingdom a Yavana Sthavira (Thera ) named Dhammorakkhito as evangelist for the western sea-board, possibly indicates a preponderating foreign element in these parts.
It is possible that these foreign settlers may have been rulers. In spite of these possibilities, however, we have no traditions between the fall of the Yādavas and the rise of the Mauryas. (Bom. Gaz. I, p. 13).
Gujarat's political history dates from the rule of the Mauryan dynasty, the only early Indian dynasty, the record of whose rule has been preserved in the writings of the Brāhmaṇas, the Buddhists and the Jainas.
The supremacy of Candragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.), extended over both Anarta and Surāşțra. The Junagadh rock-inscription of Rudradāman not only specifically names the Maurya Emperor, but affords an interesting glimpse of the extent of his conquests and methods of administration.
The continuance of the Mauryan rule over Gujarat under Asoka, the grandson of Candragupta (273-236 B.C.), who was previously the viceroy at Ujjayini and at other times at Takşašilā during his father Bindusāra's reign is proved by his 14 edicts on Girnar. The Prince (Viceroy ) of Ujjayini may have had the responsible control over Mālava, Gujarat and also over Surāştra. Asoka ruled over Surāştra through an Ionian governor, Yavanarāja Tuşāśpha by name.
Since all the rock-edicts of Asoka have been found on the frontiers of his empire, the Girnar and the Sopara edicts leave no doubt that Gujarat, Surāştra and North Konkan sea-board were in Asoka's possession.
A bilingual Greco-Aramico inscription of Asoka, called 'Piodasses' (Piyadas or Priyadarsi), engraved on a block, being part of the mountain at the entry to the old city of Kandahar is found in 1949 in the neighbourhood of Laghmān in Afghanistan and is now kept in Kabul Museum. Herein Asoka announces his view on mercy, at the roth year from
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30
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
his consecration, an abstention from doing harm or injury to living beings, and asks even hunters and fishermen 'to cease their sinful activities,' and expresses the wish that 'his subjects comply with the rules and be obedient to their parents and old men'.
The good sentiments and ethical principles found enunciated in this Afghanistan record are in a way an echo of similar ideas found expressed in the Edicts discovered in India proper.-( Radhagovind Basak, Asokan Inscriptions, Introduction pp. xiv, xv, 1959)
The material achievements of the Mauryan rule, and particularly of the reign of Asoka include the irrigation projects like the well-known Sudarśana lake which were carried out with great care. It was the construction of a reservoir by artificially damming up some of the streams flowing from Mt. Girnar, and equipping the lake with well-provided conduits, drains, and means to guard against foul matters'.
As regards cultural unity of India, the findspots of Asoka's records prove that one language and one script were used, or at least understood, by common people all over India in the third century B.C. Since then, the Sanskrit language and literature have throughout been a common bond of culture in addition to religious and social ideas and institutions. -(The Vedic Age, p. 105-6 fn.)
II
B.C.
Surāştra was under the sway of Candragupta Maurya (c. 322-298 B.C.) and C. 322-298 was governed by his rāştriya Vaiśya Puşyagupta. He constructed a dam ( setu )
across Suvarṇasikatā, Palāśini and other rivers of mount Urjayat, and built a beautiful reservoir named 'Sudarśana Tațāka' in the vicinity of Girinagara. It was defended by embankments (pālikās) and provided with well-arranged conduits (praņālis), drains (parivāhas ) etc. The waters of Suvarṇasikatā ( Sonarekhā), Palāśini (Palāñsio ) and other rivers were stored up in the reservoir. (EI, VIII, 44 ff.)
This information is recorded in the Junagadh rock-inscription of Mahāksatrapa Rudradāman, which deals with the accidental destruction and the reconstruction of the dam during the reign of that Mahākṣatrapa. (EI, VIII, pp. 36 ff.)
Girinagara, which seems to be the head-quarter of Surāşțra, probably stood at the foot of mount Urjayat represented by modern Girnar. The river Suvarṇasikatā is identified with modern Sonarekhā which flows by the rock, bearing the two inscriptions.
The proper regulation of irrigation was a matter of prime importance even during the Maurya period-(Vide, Vincent Smith, E H I. p. 132). The needs of the local farmers did not escape the notice of the Mauryan Government, though Surāşțra was a very remote province of the empire.

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MAURYAN PERIOD
31
B.C. 315
305
C. 300
Candragupta established the Maurya dynasty of Pāțaliputra. The chronology of this dynasty and that of Buddha's death are determined by the initial date assigned to this king.-(e.g. B.C. 477).
Candragupta's life-history is the subject of Višākhadatta's play-the Mudrārākşasa.
Seleukus Nikator, king of Syria, is said to have undertaken an expedition against Candragupta about this time in order to recover the Indian conquest of Alexander. The result was a treaty that the territories on the west bank of the Indus were to be retained by Candragupta in exchange for 500 elephants.
About this time, or a little later, Megasthenes was sent by Seleukus as ambassador to Candragupta at Palibothra (Pāțaliputra). His Indika, of which a few fragments remain, gives a valuable picture of the life and customs of the Hindus at that date.-(M. Duff, Chronology of India, p. II).
About the corporations or guilds of warriors (Ksatriyaśreni), Kautilya says that the corporations of warriors of Kamboja and Surāsțra etc. live by agriculture, trade and by wielding weapons :
41795-HTTE 477 Vaiza atafretusifaa: 1 (Ch. 135, p. 378) As early as the times of Mauryan supremacy, Kautilya mentions the Saurāștriyans as a 'republic'-a Rajanyagaña; and the republican people of Surāṣtra are mostly known as a group of agriculturists, traders and warriors.
The names of republics actually mentioned by Kautilya fall into two groups: (i) one devoted to economic pursuits and subsisting by fighting with weapons, like the Kāmbojas, Surāştra, Kșatriyaśreņi and the like; (ii) the others who used the title of rāja', apparently for marking the status of the members of the executive body of the republic, such as Licchivika, Vrijjika, Mallaka, Madraka, Kukura, Kuru, Pāñchala and others.-(K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p. 173).
The Arthaśāstra certainly existed before Bāņa (7th century A.D.), the Nandisūtra of the Jainas (not later than the 5th century A.D.), and possibly the Jātakamālā of Arya Sura ( 3rd or 4th century A.D.). In the Junagadh rock-inscription of Skandagupta reference is made to the testing of officials by upadhās, as we find in the Arthaśāstra. Again verse 10 of the same record reminds us of Arthaśāstra I.
The prevalence of the study of Arthavidyā in still earlier days is proved by the Junagadh rock-inscription of Rudradāman I (2nd century A.D.), which mentions such technical terms as pranaya, vişti etc. It is noteworthy that the Kauțiliya Arthaśāstra, which purports to be a compendium of pre-existing Arthaśāstras, does not quote the views of previous writers in the chapter on
C. 300
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
B.C.
C. 300
Kośābhisamharaṇam which deals with pranaya (Book V, Chap. II). It is therefore, not unlikely that the knowledge of the term in the days of Rudradāman I was derived from the Kautilya itself, and not from any pre-existing treatises. An carly date is also suggested for the absence of any reference to the Denarius (Bk II, chaps. 12 & 19) in the sections dealing with coins and weights.
Regarding the terminus a quo there are grave doubts as to whether, in its present shape, the famous book is as old as the time of the first Maurya (c. 300 B.C.). At least, the kernel of the book is contemporary with Candragupta Maurya-(K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, pp. 190-201).
Kautilya informs us that the cotton of Madhura (Madura), of Aparānta (Konkana), of Western parts, of Kalinga, of Kāsi, of Vanga, of Vatsa (Kaušāmbi), and of Mahişa (Māhişmati ) is the best. (Ch. 32, p. 81 )
Arthaśāstra of Kautilya, while speaking about the qualities of elephants from different countries remarks that the elephants of Surāştra and Pancajana (v. 1. Pañcanada) countries are of low or middle quality, the best being those bred in Kalinga, Anga, Karusa and the East, the elephants of the Aparānta being of middle quality. (Ch. 23, p. 50, Mysore Ed. of 1924).
While speaking on the quantity of rain in different countries Kautilya informs that the quantity of rain in Avanti is 23 droņas, while it rains immensely in Aparānta regions (Ch. 45, p. 116), which denote the west-coast line.
Surāstra continued to be under the Mauryan sway during the reign of Asoka Maurya, the grandson of Candragupta Maurya. It was governed by his rastriya Tuşāśpha, whose name is mentioned in the Junagadh rock-inscription of Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman. (Vide, EI, VIII, p. 43). In the record he is styled a Yavanarāja, but his name seems to be of Persian origin (Bom. Gaz. I, I, 14). He adorned the lake with conduits (praņālis) constructed in a manner worthy of the king.
Asoka mentions in his Rock Edict No. 2, his importing and planting of medicinal herbs in those parts of his wide dominions where they did not exist, just to increase the medicinal stores. There is no reference, however, to physicians.
The Maurya Emperor Asoka (c. 273 or 272-232 B.C.) ruled over a vast Indian dominion from the Maurya capital, Pāțaliputra in Magadha (modern South Behar). The distribution of the hitherto known inscriptions of his is the best guide for forming an idea of the extent of his empire. If may briefly he said that his empire lay within the limits of modern Afghanistan in the North-west to Orissa (Kalinga ) in the South-east, and again from the Himālayas in the north to Mysore in the south of India.
273-236
259
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Plate
IX
(A) Aśoka Inscription on Girnår-rock at the bottom. (p. 36) Rudradāman's and Skandagupta's Inscriptions are on the sides.
(B) Sopārā : Asoka Inscription, 9th Edict (p. 36)

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Plate X
Uparkot Cave, at Girnär Hill, with Pillars and Caitya-window design. (p. 9)

B

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B.C.
252-1
15
33
Junagadh Edicts are a set of fourteen rock-edicts of Aśoka incised on a rock situated on the right-hand side leading to the hill, about a mile to the east of modern Junagadh, the headquarter of Surāṣṭra. It is the earliest epigraphic record as yet discovered in Gujarat which is unique for the history of India also, as it bears side by side inscriptions of kings of three dynasties-Aśoka Maurya, Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman and the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta. It thus reveals a glimpse of the early history of Gujarat from the third century. B.C. to the fifth century A.D.
MAURYAN PERIOD
These Aśokan edicts are incised on the eastern side of the rock. The characters of the edicts are clearly and deeply cut. They are about" in height and uniform in size. A portion of the rock bearing parts of Edicts V and XIII had been blasted with gunpowder to furnish materials for the adjoining road. Two fragments of the missing portion which were discovered later on, are now preserved in the Junagadh Museum.
Since these edicts are inscribed in a form of Prakrit' closely allied to Pāli, containing dialectical peculiarities of the province, and are recorded in the Brahmi alphabet which is the prototpye of almost all modern Indian Scripts unlike those at Shahbazgarhi which are inscribed in the Kharosthi script, it can be presumed that it was current in Gujarat as early as the Mauryan period. The language of this version differs from that of the other versions in using some peculiar forms, such as the locative singular in mhi instead of si. There are also differences in the forms of the letters, especially in that of r, which is here formed by a wavy line instead of the rigidly straight upright stroke on the other rocks. (Cunningham, CII, I, pp. 14 f.)
Among the many inscriptions and minor edicts of Asoka, the 14 Rock-Edicts are found in seven more or less complete versions at Girnär, Kälsi, Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra, Dhauli, Jaugada and Yerraguḍi, not to speak of the small fragments of the 8th and the 9th rock-edicts found in Sopara. These were issued about the 14th year (252-1 B.C.) after his coronation.
Sopara Edicts were known through the discovery of a broken block of basalt bearing a fragment of Edict VIII also in Prakrit language and Brahmi script from Sopara, the ancient Sürpäraka, the headquarter of Aparanta. (D. R. Bhandarkar, Asoka, pp. 270 f.).
Another fragment of Aśoka's IXth Edict was recently discovered (1956), (Impression published in Indian Archaeology, 1956-57, Plate LXXXIX and also in Lalit Kala, Nos. 3-4, 1957, by S. N. Chakravarty). The two stones. bearing fragmentary edicts at Sopara prove that a copy of the 14 Edicts existed there. These are now preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay.

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
B.C. 252-1
Herein the king says that men practise various ceremonies during illness, or at the marriage of a son or a daughter, or at the birth of a son, or when setting out on a journey. In the opinion of the king these ceremonies bear little fruit. But the following religious practices bear much fruit, viz. proper courtesy to slaves and servants, reverence to elders, gentleness to animals and liberality to Brāhmaṇas and Sramaņas.
Śūrpăraka seems to be the headquarter of Asoka's Western Provinces, Girinagar being the Northern one (Bom. Gaz., Vol. II, pt. 1, p. 14). The form of the letters and the language of the inscription resemble those of the Junagadh Version. (Bhagvanlal Indraji, Antiquarian Remains at Sopara, p. 11).
The edicts, styled dhammalipis in the text, are intended to propagate dhamma (dharma) among people. This dhamma consisted in the highest common factors of all sects, viz., self-control and purity of thought (R. E. VII). Asoka enjoined his officials to instruct people in dhamma when they would go out on tours in districts (R.E. III). He also appointed special Mahāmātras (High State-functionaries) of dhamma, during the thirteenth year after his coronation (R.E.V.). He prohibited, as far as possible, animal-slaughter for sacrifices, festival meetings and meals in the royal kitchen (R.E.I.). He established medical treatment for men as well as animals, everywhere in his own dominions and also in the dominions of other kings like the Yona (Greek) king, and Antiyoka ( Antiochus ) of Syria (R.E. III).
Everywhere he sent envoys for instruction in dhamma (R.E. XIII) and exhibited representations of aerial cars, elephants and other divine objects that might lead people to the path of dhamma (R.E. IV). His instruction in dhamma mainly consisted in obedience to mother and father, liberality to Brāhmaṇas and Sramaņas as well as to friends, acquaintances and relatives, proper behaviour to slaves and servants, and abstention from killing animals. (R.E. III, IV, IX, XI).
In the reign of Asoka the sound of drums became the sound of dhamma, pleasure-tours (vihāra-yātrā) were replaced by tours for dhamma (R.E. VIII); and the practice of dhamma was regarded to be the most fruitful ceremony (mangala ) (R.E. IX). Glory in the propagation of dhamma was considered the gift par excellence (R.E. XI); the conquest by dhamma was regarded to be the real conquest to be desired. (R.E. XIII).
The king desired not only that all sects should reside everywhere (R.E. VII) but also that they should learn and respect each other (R.E. XII). The king was so much devoted to the welfare of the people that he gave access to the reporters everywhere and at all hours, in order to expedite the disposal of state business (R.E. VI). Asoka got these edicts engraved on stone with a

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MAURYAN PERIOD
35
B.C. view that they may last long and that his successor may conform to them for
the welfare of all people. (R.E. IV, V, VI). C. 400-200 In the Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtras (I, 1-2-14) people staying in Surāşțra
are mentioned as of mixed blood, owing, perhaps, to the influx of foreigners both by land and by sea :
अवन्तयोऽङ्गमगधाः सुराष्ट्रा: दक्षिणापथाः । उपावृतसिन्धुसौवीरा एते संकीर्णयोनयः ।।
-(P. V. Kane: History of the Dharmaśāstras) The Baudhāyana Grhya Paribhasāsūtra (I, 12, 6) gives a verse as a corollary to his 'Dharmasūtras', that having travelled among the people of the countries inhabited by people with non-Aryan ways of living, Brāhmins should undergo purification once more :
सुराष्ट्र सिन्धुसौवीरमवन्ती दक्षिणापथम् ।
एतानि ब्राह्मणो गत्वा पुनः संस्कारमर्हति ॥ C 400-200 As Gujarat was away from Madhyadeśa, the home of the Aryans, the
culture she received, suffered both in purity and vigour in the process of transplantation. The Mahābhārata ( XIV, 23, 13-16) states that the ksatriyas of this land had lost their status as they had no Brāhmins to perform their ritual, so very essential in the life of an Aryan. The Visnu Purana (IV, 24) enjoined
that those who visited Surāṣtra should undergo purification. C. 246 Events from the death of the Buddha were recorded in Ceylon by the
Buddhist Church after its introduction in 246 B. C., and later incorporated into the Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa, composed respectively in the 4th and 6th century A. D.
The earliest historical tradition that we have is of the colonisation of Ceylon by people from Bengal under the lead of Vijaya, as narrated in the Mahāvamsa. This colony is said to have started from the wellknown port of Tāmralipti, the Tāmluk of modern times. The occasion for this emigration from Bengal was the banishment of prince Vijaya, for his evil conduct, by his father. Vijaya sailed with 700 companions and, after a long voyage, landed in the north coast of the island. They settled there, founding numerous towns such as Tambapanni, Anuradhagama, Ujjeni, Uruvela, etc.
According to the Mahāvamsa, prince Vijaya landed in Ceylon on the very day that the Buddha died. This would date the Aryan settlement back to the fourth or even the fifth century B.C.
Since these adventurers were all of the male sex, they felt the need of women-folk. As the story goes, they applied to the nearest kingdom across the sea, and had 1,000 families along with a number of maidens sent across.
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B.C.
246
241
C. 200
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
They entered into marital relations with them; and thus both north and south Indian elements constitute, according to tradition, the more civilized elements in the population of Ceylon. From Simhabahu or Simhala, the father of Vijaya, the island received the name Simhala-dvipa'.-( The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 234-35)
The other view shared by some scholars holds that Ceylon owes its name 'Simhaladvipa ', its language Simhalese and its Aryanisation to a prince Vijaya of Lala' or Lata'-a name by which Gujarat was often referred to in early times. Prince Vijaya, the son of Simhabahu who ruled at Simhapura (modern 'Sihor' near Bhavanagar, not far from the sea), having been banished for his lawlessness, departed from Simhapura, with a band of adventurers and sailed southwards. After stopping at Sürpāraka' (modern Sopara in Thana Dist. : Bombay State), he continued his voyage to Ceylon, where he arrived very shortly before the death of Gautama Buddha, in C. 487 B.C. On that basis. the event is tentatively dated circa 443 B.C. [Cambridge History of India, Vol. I, pp. 605-607; Suniti Kumar Chatterjee, History of Bengali Language (1924) pp. 72-73, fn. ]
The so-called Third Buddhist Council was held at Pațaliputra in the 7th year of Asoka's reign, under the presidency of Tisya Maudgallputra.
The Buddhist Council sent Mahendra, a son of Emperor Aśoka, as missionary to Ceylon, where he introduced the Buddhist religion in the reign of Devanampiyatissa.

The Jatakas have preserved memories of voyages of daring Indian merchants voyaging from Campå or even Banaras to the mysterious land of 'Suvarnabhami' which has been proved to be a generic title in those days for Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Archipelago. We hear of merchants voyaging from the great western sea-port Bharukaccha to the same destination, obviously by a Ceylonese port.-( K. A. Nilakantha Shastri, Age of the Nandas and the Mauryas, p. 270).
III
ANTIQUITIES
Of the Mauryan remains-pillars, caves and rocks-Gujarat has only rocks which bear the edicts of Aśoka: one at Girnar (Plute IXa) and the other found in fragment at Sopara (Plate IX6). The Sopara fragments include the remnants of the 8th and the 9th. rock-edicts (the latter discovered in January 1956, and both deposited in the Epigraphical Section, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay).

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12
3
4
1
2
3
4
Punch-marked Coins: Post-Mauryan (Enlarged)
(p. 37)
Obverse: A group of five symbols. Reverse Minute symbols.
And no legend.
Plate XI

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Plate XII
YPATIA OY
TO
Indo-Greek (Enlarged ) :
(p. 48 ) (1-1) Silver coin : Eukratides (c. 175 B.C.)
Obverse and Reverse (2-2) Silver coin : Apollodotus II
Obverse and Reverse (3-3) Menander (in youth ) : Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Menander (advanced in age) : Obv. & Rev.
(Died c. 130 B.C.)

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MAURYAN PERIOD
37
Of the two centuries preceding the Christian era, we have some more evidence. The first excavation of the earliest series of caves known as Bābā Pyārā's Matha at Junagadh is assigned by some to Asokan times or to the end of the Mauryan age, as they exhibit the early simplicity and primitiveness associated with the first abodes of the Buddhist or Jaina monks. (H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, 1941, p. 49).
These caves show on the walls a Caitya-window ornament with a rail-design in the lower part, and two ladies in the upper one, looking out of the window. Female figures and couchant lions on the capitals of some of the pillars of this group are regarded as the earliest known sculptures in Saurāştra and Gujarat. These pillars are unique with tastefully decorated bases. (Plate X)
No trace of the famous Sudarsana lake built by Candragupta, and improved with canals under Asoka can be traced now.
The earliest coins, known in India before her contact with the Greeks were those, which are called 'punch-marked' coins, as they bear symbols, stamped from various punches separately, but have no legends. They are found mostly of silver and rarely in copper. The silver punch-marked coins that are found through-out India are of the weight standard of 32 ratis or 57.8 grains and have uniformly a group of five symbols on the obverse. The reverse of these coins bear either minute symbols which are innumerable in most cases or have a bold symbol. In some cases they are found blank also.
These coins differ variously in size and thickness and are of irregular shapes. They originated during the ascendency of the Magadha empire in the middle of the sixth century B.C. and spread all over India with the expansion of the empire ; and they remained in currency till about second century B.C.
These were probably stamped by the issuing authorities in order to guarantee their genuineness. The authorities might have been kings or States, which also included individual merchants, trade-guilds, city-corporations and similar bodies ; for, the idea of a Statemonopoly of minting coins was yet unknown.
Only two hoards of silver punch-marked coins have so far been found in Gujarat. Of them one contained 58 coins and was found somewhere in the old State of Baroda during the last quarter of the last century and is now in the Baroda Museum (Gupta, P.L., "Punch-marked coins in Baroda Museum". Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. X-XI, 1953-55, pp. 63-72.)
The other was found in 1917 in the village Vadia in Depdar Taluka of Palanpur district ( Annual Report of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1917-18, Pt. I, p. 30). A few stray coins are also known from Kamrej and Navsari. (Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1953-55, p, 67). Stray punch-marked copper coins are known from Amreli (ARADB 1935-36, p. 18), Hathab (with S. C. Upadhyaya), Kamrej (ARADB, 1935-36, p. 45 and 1936-37, p. 9), Karvan (Antiquities from Karvan', Bom. Uni. Journal, 1941 ), Modhera (with A. V. Pandya ), Prakasa ( with Sivalal Das Desai of Nandurbar) and Vadnagar ('Excavations
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
at Vadnagar', M. S. Uni. Journal, Vol. IV, No. 1, March 1955). These copper coins are of a single variety having five symbols on the obverse and are of the type that have been found at Ujjain, Bhilsa and Besanagar in the Madhya Pradesh. (Plate XIa). The symbols found on these coins are very interesting. (Plate X1b).
Uninscribed cast coins of copper bearing symbols similar to those found on the punch-marked coins were also issued in this country during the Mauryan period; and are found in many parts of India, but none is recorded so far from Gujarat.
The Northern Black Polished (N.B.P.) ware that was widely distributed in India during this period is discovered from Timbarva (Baroda Dist.) and Somanath (Dist. Sorath).
Associated with these ware have been discovered beads, conical terracotta objects and cylindrical cones, flesh-rubbers, mother-goddess figurines, arrow-heads and blades of iron and a copper ring. (Vide, R. N. Mehta, Excavations at Timbarva: p. 21, 23: 1955).
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CHAPTER IV INDO-GREEK PERIOD
(Circa 185 B.C.-78 A.D.)

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD (Circa 185 B.C.-78 A.D.)
Mauryan rule in Gujarat did not last after Samprati (c. B.C. 200 ), the grandson and successor of Asoka. One of the factors that led to the extinction of the dynasty of the Imperial Mauryas was the advent of the Yavana invaders through the north-western gate of India. After the break-up of the Mauryan empire (c. 185 B.C.), the distant provinces of Western India were ruled by the Bactrian Greek generals,
The word Yavana was derived from the Old Persian form Yauna, signifying originally the Ionian Greek, but later, all people of the Greek nationality. The Greeks of Ionia in Asia Minor, between the Aegean Sea and Lydia and the people of North-western India came into contact with each other as subjects of the Achaemenian Emperors of Persia since the time of Darius I ( 522-486 B.C.).
The word was used in mediaeval Indian literature as a synonym of mlecchha, and indicated any foreigner'. The Muslim rulers of India were often called Yavana and sometimes also Saka or Yavana-Saka. The earliest use of the Sanskritized form Yavana can be traced in the Astādhyāyi of Pāṇini (c. Fifth century B.C.), and that of the Prākrit form Yona in the inscriptions of Asoka-(A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, Appendix I, Pp. 165-9).
Although Alexander did not penetrate so far south as Surāstra, this region came into contact with the Greeks as early as the time of Asoka's Yavana governor Tuşāspha. The author of the Periplus also speaks of later Indo-Greek rulers such as Apollodotus and Menander, whose coins were in use in his time at Barygaza or Bharukaccha.
The belief of the Indo-Greek conquests in the Indus delta and Gujarat was, however, based mainly on the references in Strabo and the Periplus. The evidence relating to Barygaza in the Periplus does not, however, prove the rule of either Menander or Apollodotus II there; the reference merely states that some coins which bore Greek inscriptions and the devices of Apollodotus and Menander circulated in Barygaza, which was known to be a trading centre. The passage clearly implies that these coins came from some outside area, probably from where the 'warlike nation of the Bactrians' ruled.
Or, it may be that the author of the Periplus had seen the coins of a certain Apollodotus and Menander, and noticed similar coins in Barygaza not necessarily of their own minting. The name of Apollodotus mentioned in the Periplus evidently refers to the later king of that name whose coins are more numerous and widely spread than those of the hypothetical Apollodotus I, and who, like Menander was more closely in touch with India proper.
c6
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Apart from this, the silver coins of the later Śaka Satraps of Mahārāșțra and Ujjain are held to be inspired by the drachms of Apollodotus, that is, of Apollodotus II, who alone of the two put his portrait on his coins. The coins of these saka Satraps also bear traces of Greek legends. The author of the Periplus, who was a trader, may have noticed the similarity and mentioned the coins as a curiosity. Even if some coins of Menander and Apollodotus were actually found at Barygaza by the author of the Periplus, this gives no proof that they ruled there, since the coins are said to have been brought to Barygaza, almost certainly by way of trade.
Thus there is hardly any evidence that either Alexander (as suggested by some ) or the Indo-Greeks conquered Gujarat, because the account of the Periplus is just a sailor's story. There is no evidence for the existence of an early Apollodotus I as a king of the Indo-Greeks, also. (A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, pp. 68-9, 93).
The representation of Menander in various poses on his silver coins reflects his vigorous career. He used two epithets, 'Soter' (Saviour ) and 'Dikaios' (Dhramika) on his money. The fact that Menander appears on his coins both as a youth and as well advanced in middle age shows that he must have had a long reign ( Plate XIII). Probably he died in C. 130 B.C. The Buddist tradition would have us believe that he handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the world; but it is more likely that he died in camp, as Plutarch says, (Moralia, 821 D-F); and, on the evidence of coins, that he left only a minor son to succeed him.--(A. K. Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p. 100).
II
B.C. About 150-140 B.C. began the invasion of India by the Sakas from the C. 150-40 North-west. A large part of the North and West came under their control;
and they established Satrapies in the North and at Mathura, and in the West (Surāșțra ), which were more or less under the suzerainity of the kings of Parthia.
C, 144
Menander, seems to have been one of the most powerful of the GraecoBactrian kings. The number of his coins, and the wide area over which they are found, point to a long reign and an extended sovereignty. Traditions of some of his conquests have been preserved by Strabo ; and Plutarch mentions him as a Bactrian king; and states that, on his death (B.C. 130 ), several towns contended for his ashes. The passages in Patanjali's Mahābhāşya recording the beseiging of Sāketa ( Ayodhya ) and the conquest of Madhyamikā by the Yavanas, are supposed to refer to Menander's conquests. He is also identical with the Milinda of the famous Buddhist work, the Milinda.panho.
The work is a conversation between Milinda of Sagala (the Greek ruler Menander) and Therā Nāgasena on a number of problems and disputed points of Buddhism. In the arguments, the Buddhist doctrine of the impermanence

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INDO-GREEK PERIOD
43
B.C. of the Ego is expounded and Milinda is converted. The Milinda-panho origi
nated in north-west about the beginning of the Christian era, and was written probably in Sanskrit or some North-Indian Prākrit. The original text is lost, and the present work is merely a Pāli translation of the original made at
a very early date in Ceylon. C. 140-20 Patanjali, the grammarian, author of the Mahābhāsya flourished about B.C.
140-120. His date has been fixed by scholars from the passages in the Mahābhasya which show him to have been contemporary with Menander, and Puşyamitra, who founded the Sunga dynasty in Magadha by overthrowing Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryas. Patanjali was a native of Goņārda in Eastern India, and lived for a time in Kashmir. (JBRAS, xvi, 181, 199).
The Mahābhāsya corroborates the statement of Nirukla (II.2) that the country of Kāmboja was outside the limits of the country of Āryas (Aryavarta) and further adds that Surāṣtra was not an Arya country (vide, Vol. I. p. 9).
This shows that during the period of Patañjali Surāstra might not have developed its culture, might have been inhabited mostly by the non-Aryans, and, as such, was considered to be outside the pale of Āryāvarta, which was situated to the north of Pāriyātra. This also shows that the Aryāvarta extended in south only upto the Pāriyātra mountain. (Vide, Vol. I, p. 475 on II 4.10 ;
Vol. III. p. 174 on VI 3. 109.) C. 100 In the first century B.C. we have a coin type with the legend Vysni-rajajko
gaṇasya tratarasya. (Allan J., A Catalogue of the Indian Coins in the British Museum, Ancient India, Intro., P. clvi). Significantly the legend on these coins is both in Brāhmi and Kharoşthi.
The legend means 'the coins of the gana (republic) of Vrsni and Rājanya.' Vrşņi were a well-known people, who according to Mahābhārata lived in Mathura; but went to Dvarka, when they were hard-pressed by Jarāsandha. They were, according to the Pauranic traditions, an offshoot of the Aila race. Vrsņi, the founder of the clan is supposed to be the brother of Andhaka, the founder of the clan of the same name. In the literary works, Andhaka and Vrspi are mentioned together, which shows that they had a federal organisation. Vasudeva (Kțşņa ) is described as a Samgha-mukhya. Pāṇini also makes a mention of Andhaka-Vrşņi league.
Rājanya, as a tribal republic is known from its coins, which may be dated to circa 200 B.C. Therefore, it can well be inferred from the coin that Vrsņi and Rājanya had formed a confederation among themselves and issued coins in their joint name and called themselves a' gana'. Kautilya refers to Vrsņi as a Samgha (Arthaśāstra, P. II). It is also found as a name of a tribe in the Harşacarita.

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B.C. C. 100
The Ghosundi (Chitodgarh District, Rajasthan) inscription of the first century B. C. refers to the construction of a pājā-sila-prākāra (a stone enclosure for the place of worship, or better, an enclosure for the sacred stone Śālagrāma) probably styled 'Nārāyaṇavațaka', by a Bhagavata performer of the Aśvamedha sacrifice, in honour of Sankarşaņa and Väsudeva who are called bhagavat, anihata (unconquered or respected) and sarveśvara ( supreme lord). - (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 438).
The traditional date for Vikrama Era is 58 B.C. The era is believed to have been founded by the Mālavagaņa to commemorate its victory over the Šakas, whose expulsion from India freed the country from foreign invasion and inaugurated an era of peace and prosperity, which figuratively was also called Kytayuga. In the last decade of the ninth century the Mālavagana was entirely merged into the luminous personality of Vikramāditya and the era was called after him. (R. B. Pandey : Indian Palaeography, 198 ff.).
This Vikrama Era' is current in Gujarat. Its year begins with Kārtika and its months are amânta. In Rajasthan its years are Caitrādi and months pūrnimānta. In the early records of Gujarat the months seem to be pārņimānta. (H. G. Shastri, Maitrakālīna Gujarat, p. 598).
Thursday, September 18th : Commencement of the Samvat era 'is attributed to Vikramāditya, which is prevalent in Western India, and probably originated in Mālava. In Northern India it follows the pūrņimānta reckoning, and the year begins with the full-moon of Caitra (instead of Kārtika), making the epoch Sunday, February 23rd, B.C. 57, or Kaliyuga 3044 expired. As the first year of the era is reckoned as corresponding to 57-56 B. C., the era seems to have commenced in 58 B. C.
Indian tradition ascribes the foundation of the Vikrama Samvat' to the hero King Vikramāditya, around whose memory succeeding ages have woven a long string of legends and romances. The vitality of this tradition is vouched by the recent celebration of the bimillenary of the Vikrama era. Nevertheless, sober history still refuses to recognise the existance of a king Vikramaditya in 58 B. C. for lack of positive evidence. Even eminent scholars treat him as a myth and attribute the foundation of the so-called Vikrama era' to a foreign ruler. All agree, however, in denying the existance of a king Vikramāditya. (R. C. Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Unity, Preface, p. xlviii; and for different views on the subject, see Ibid., 154 ff.)
An Indian embassy was received by Augustus at Samos. According to Strabo (c. 54 B.C.-A.D. 24) Nicolaus Damasceus met at Antioch Epidaphne, the survivors of an Indian embassy to Augustus, bearing a letter in Greek from a king named Pandion or Poros. With them was Zarmanochegao (Sramaņācārya) a native of Bargoza (or Barygaza), who afterwards immortalised
21
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45
B.C.
C. 10
himself according to the custom of his country. This epitaph is on his tomb (Strabo, III, 119.) at Athens. Allusions to this embassy are made by Horace in his Odes':-( Strabo, XV, i. 73).
Orosius of Tarragona speaks of an Indian and a Scythian embassy reaching Caesar in Spain, B.C. 27. These various notices apparently refer to one and the same embassy, probably sent by some petty Indian king at the instigation, and in the interests of Greek traders.
Veņi-vatsarāja, a devotee of Lord Buddha according to a late Jaina tradition, got built in a city of Gujarat a temple of Tarā-devi. This city, therefore, came to be known as Tārāura (Sk. Täräpura )'. Later on, this very king who became a Jaina, on being enlightened by Arya Khapuța Sūri got built here a temple of Siddhāyikā, the Sāsanā-devi of Lord Mahāvira. Since then, this city became a Jaina tirtha?.
1. This city is identified with Taranga of Gujarat; Vide, JTSS (Vol. I, pt. I, p. 146). * Kumaravalapadiboha, pp. 442-443.
Pādalipta Sūri? (c. V. S. 80 ) had once gone to Dhankapuri (Dhānka) during his pilgrimage. There he met Nāgārjuna. This Nāgārjuna became his pupil, and in honour of his guru, he populated a city in the taleți (foot) of mount Śatrunjaya, and named it Pādaliptapura (modern Palitana). This Nāgārjuna got built a temple on the mount and installed therein an image of Lord Mahāvira and that of Padalipta Sūri. (For Jaina sculptures from Dhankagiri or modern Dhānk, see H.D. Sankalia : Archaeology of Gujarat, PP. 167, 234)
This Pādalipta Sūri had been to Murunda, king of Pāțalīputra. He is the author of Tarangavai etc. According to Visesanisiha-cunni (pt. IV, p. 872) Pādalipta Sūri succeeded in removing pain in the head of King Murunda, which he was suffering from since a long time, by a mantra ( incantation).
From Bhāsa" (v. 8915) on Kappa we learn that this Sūri prepared an image ( yantra-pratima) of the sister of Murunda, exactly resembling her. This image which was kept standing had a fan in the hand, and it was winking. 5
Bhimarāja of Omkārapura in Lāța, was a devotee of Padalipta Sūri. 1 For his life, see Avassaya-cunni (pt. I, p. 554), Nisihaviseh a-cunni (pt. IV, p. 872), Bhasa (v. 49-51 ) on Kappa etc. 2 Prabhavakacarita (V. 247-306).
3 In Malayagiri Suri's Com. (pt. 141-142) Pratisthanpura is mentioned. This seems to be a slip; for this Suri in the Com., (pp. 524-5) on Avassaya and in the com., (p. 162-a) on Nandi has mentioned Pataliputra.
• See Kappa (pt. V, p. 1315). 0 In the com. (pt. V, p. 1315-6) it is said that 'female' forms were constructed in plenty in the 'Yavana' country,
6 JPI (pt. I, p. 240).

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A.D. C. 39
Yakşadeva III attained the status of Sūri' in Vira Samvat 585 i.e. V. S. 115. When he was in Mahuvā, the Mlecchas plundered this city and took as prisoners this Sūri, 500 Jaina monks and Jāvadasāha. But one Śrāvaka who had become a Mleccha, got this Sūri released and sent him along with his men to Khatta-Kūpa ( Khāțu). Thinking that the Jaina church would perish if there were no Jaina monks, eleven boys were offered to this Sūri. He thereupon gave them Dikṣā. Later on, this Sūri went to Āhada. There, too, he was offered some boys who renounced the world. This event took place in about V. S. 95. (A.D. 39)-(JPI, Pt. I, p. 22).
C. 50
The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea is the first Greek record of organised trading with the nations of the East, in vessels built and commanded by subjects of the Western World. “Periplus' or 'Guide-book' was the name applied to a numerous class of writing in Roman times, which answered for sailing-charts and the traveller's hand-book. The notes give an exhaustive survey of the imports and exports, of its markets and of the conditions and alliances of its peoples of the inter-national trade between the great empires of Rome, Parthia, India and China, when human culture and commerce had centered in the countries bordering on the Persian Gulf. A commercial system was developed for the inter-change of products between Egypt and the nations of the Ancient India, having its centre of exchanges near the head of the Persian Gulf, the peoples of which region-the Arab tribes and the ancestors of the Phoenicians - were the carriers or intermediaries.
The muslins and spices of India were received from Indian traders in their ports on either side of the Gulf of Aden. Changes in topography of India, the westward shifting of the Indus delta, the shoaling of the harbours in the Kaccha region, and the disorder incidental to great invasions of Asiatic peoples, however, sapped the vigour of the Indian Sea-trade.-( The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Tr. by W. F. Schoff, 1912: Introduction).
C. 50
The earlier and the lower date and authorship of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea' are fixed from internal evidence. The Scythians of the Periplus were the Saka tribe, who having been driven from Eastern Turkestan by the Yuechi overran Baluchistan, the lower valley and the adjacent parts of the coast of India itself. In Para 38 of the text is mentioned 'the Sea-coast of Scythia' around the mouth of the Indus and the metropolis of Scythia, Minnagara, which was subject to Parthian princes at war among themselves'. The reference to the anarchy in the Indo-Parthian or Saka region in Para 41, does not suggest the consolidated power of that king of Surāṣtra and Ujjain who founded the so-called Śaka era' of 78 A.D.; and this indicated a date earlier than that era.-(Introduction', p. 10: The Periplus, Tr. by W. F. Schoff).

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A.D. Murrhine (referred to in Para 6 of the Periplus') was probably agate
and carnelian from the Gulf of Cambay; but was extensively imitated in glass by the Phoenicians and Egyptians. The murrhine mentioned in the Periplus' was evidently a cheap trading product, probably coloured glass.-( Notes to the 'Periplus', ibid, p. 68).
Ariaca, as mentioned in the Periplus ' (Para 6 ) is the north-west coast of India, especially, around the Gulf of Cambay the modern Kaccha, Kathiawar
and Gujarat.-(Notes to the Periplus', para 6, p. 70 ). C. 53 Broach was the principal port of India doing business with the Occident in
textile fabrics according to the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea'. In the list of presents brought to Yudhisthira on the occasion of his Imperial sacrifice (the Rājasūya Yajña ) we find, according to one text of the Mahābhārata' (not included in the Critical Edition.) that Bharukaccha men are mentioned as bringing slave-girls clad in cotton clothes :
शतं यत्तु सहस्राणां कासिकनिवेशिनाम् ।
afs ETHICTY Hanafaalfaa: 11-4416, 50, X. Barygaza, as known to the Greeks, exported the best cloth of broad sort and a coarse cotton.
Once Vajrasena Sūri, pupil of Vajrasvāmi? (born in V. S. 26) came to Sopāraka. This city was experiencing a severe famine. So Jinadatta Sreşthin had procured rice with great difficulty by spending, so to say, a lac (of rupees). But this quantity of rice was not sufficient to maintain his family. So he added poison when this quantity was cooked, with a view that on eating it, the whole family might die. Fortunately, Vajrasena Sūri came up there on that very day for alms. Jinadatta told the truth. Vajrasena Sūri, who was foretold the ending day of the famine by Vajrasvāmin, informed him that by to-morrow there would be plenty of corn and so the idea of taking poisoned rice should be given up'. Jinadatta replied: "If so, I, along with all the members of my family will renounce the world and will become your pupils'.
The next day a number of ships filled with corn arrived in Sopāraka on the sea-shore. Jinadatta along with his wife īśvari and their four sons Nāgendra, Candra, Nivsiti and Vidyādhara took dikşā at the hands of Vajrasvāmin as promised. This momentous event took place in Vira Samvat 592 (A.D.65 ). --( JPI, Pt. I, pp. 392-3).
1 According to JISS (Vol. I, pt, 2, p. 509 ) he had been to Srimala in the 1st cent. of
tbe Vikrama era. C. 75 Arab settlements existed in Gujarat at Cheul, Kalyāṇa and Sopārā before
the rise of Islam. Abul Fida speaks of their having settled in Sopārā since early
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times. In the time of Agatharcides, (B. C. 177-100 ) there were so many Arabs on the Malabar coast that the people had adopted the Arab religion. The Arabs were mostly Sabians at that time. It may, therefore, be safely presumed that Arab settlements existed in Gujarat parallel with this. (Reinaud's Abul Fida CCCL.---XXXIV; Vincent's Periplus 154 ; Bom. Gaz., Vol. IX, pt. Il ,p. 1, ff. 1.).
III
ANTIQUITIES The coins of Eukratides have been found in different parts of Saurāşțra and at different times, suggesting that they were the currency of the province, and may be, were imported either for trade or for ornament.
These silver coins were very small, weighing five to seven grams, and bear the Buddhist symbols of the svastika, the triśūla and the cakra. Another small variety of coins, weighing four grams, with a misshapen elephant on the obverse and something like a circle on the reverse, were found from Gondal and Junagadh.-(Bom. Gaz., I, p. 17, fn.)
The coins of Menander were discovered from near Broach and from Junagadh. The silver Drachmae of Apollodotus and two varieties of his copper-coins were found in Gujarat. The author of the Periplus' (A.D. 240 ) writes: "Upto the present day, old drachmae bearing the Greek inscriptions of Apollodotus and Menander are current in Barygaza (Broach)."-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 17).
The silver coins are of only one variety, round drachmae. The obverse of Menander's coins has in the middle a helmeted bust of the king and round it the Greek legend :
Of the King, the Saviour Menander'. On the reverse is the figure of Athene Promochos, surrounded by the Bactro-Pāli legend : Mahārājasa Tradatasa Menandrasa .
The silver drachmae of Apollodotus have on the obverse a diademed bust surrounded by the Greek legend (Basileos Apollodotou Soteros, meaning, 'of King Apollodotus, the Saviour'). The reverse bears the figure of the Goddess Pallas hurling thunderbolt and the Kharoşthi legend : Mahārājasa Trataras Apaladalasa, of the great king Apaladata, the Saviour. (PMC. pl., IV, 263, 276).
The copper coins of Apollodotus (found from Junagadh ) are of two varieties : square and round. The square coins, have on the obverse the standing Apollo facing, holding arrow and bow in right hand and the Greek legend around : Basileos Soteros Kai philopatoros Apollodotou : meaning: Of King Apollodotus the Saviour and Father-lover. The round coins are similar to the square coins, but they have the legend : Basileos Appollodotou Soteros on the reverse ; and the Kharoşthi legend Mahārājas Tratarasa Apaladatasa on the reverse (PMC V, 322). On the reverse is the tripod of Appollo with two monograms and the Kharoşthi legend Mahārājasa Tratarasa Apaladatasa. (Bom. Gaz. I., p. 18).
The coins of Eukratides bear on the obverse the bust of the king, diademed and with helmet adorned with ear and horn of bull and crest, surrounded by an inscription in Greek characters, which runs as follows: Basileos Megaloy Eukretidoy, meaning of king

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49
Eukratides, the Great'. The reverse has the figures of the Dioskuroi ( the Greek twin-gods Kastor and Pollux) standing, each holding a long spear and wearing a sword. There is a monogram beside the figures and a Kharosthi inscription all around: Rājasa Mahātaka Eukratidasa, conveying the same sense as the Greek legend. (BMC, p. xxx, 9; I.M.C., Pl. II, 9) .
The coins of Menander are discovered in Saurāșțra and South Gujarat, from near Junagadh and Broach ( Bom. Gaz., I, pt. i : p. I). His coins were current in Bharukaccha even upto the third century A.D. (McCrindle, Periplus, p. 121). The silver coins of Menander found in Gujarat are the round drachmae, similar to those of Apollodotus. They have on the obverse a helmeted bust of the king and round it the Greek legend (Basileos Soteros Menandro ), which means Of king Menander, the Saviour.' On the reverse is the figure of Pallas Athene (the Greek goddess of prosperity, strength and wisdom ) hurling thunderbolt, surrounded by the corresponding Kharoşthi legend, Mahārājasa Tratarasa Menandrasa, and a monogram. (PMC, VI, 379; BG, Vol. I, pt. I, p. 18)-(Plate XII)
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CHAPTER V
KSATRAPA PERIOD
( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.)
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Facing Page 53
R. Sindhu
Ardhau
Parnasă.
Khedbrahma. Vadanagamlaji Viramgam Anand Gunda Dwarka Mulavasar Intwäe Amreli Girnar
Samanath

•Puşkara
Madhyamika
Sarvania
Talaja Dhank Sana
Ujjayini Nagara Akota Timbarva Rangpur Baroda/Karvan
Bharuka ccha
Variav
Kamrej
R expli
Ajantä
Nasikya Jogellhembi Sürparoha
R.
KṢATRAPA PERIOD (78 A.D. - 397-8 A.D.)
NAMA
Cauvery
Godavari R.
Patna
Mahanadi R
Fig. 4
rahmaputra
R.

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KSATRAPA PERIOD ( 78 A.D.-397-8 A.D.)
About the end of the first century A.D., the Kuşāņa Emperor Kaniska I seems to have extended his power over Central and Western India. The Kșaharātas ruled Western India as Kşatrapas of Kaniska I and his successors. Kşaharāta is the earliest known Kşatrapa in charge of the south-western part of the empire of the Kuşāņas of Kaniska's house. His coins have been found in the coastal regions of Gujarat and Saurāştra and sometimes also in Malwa and the Ajmer region of Rajputana.
The use of both the Kharoșthi and Brāhmi scripts in Bhūmaka's coin-legends probably points to the fact that the Ksatrapa territories not only comprised such districts as Malwa, Gujarat and Sausāstra where Brāhmi was prevalent, but also some regions about Western Rajputana and Sind, where Kharoșthi appears to have been in use. Some writers are inclined to associate the use of Kharoşthi on the earlier satrapal issues with the northern origin of the Kşatrapas.
Traces of Greek legend on the coins of early Kşatrapas of Western India point to the influence and popularity in Indo-Scythia of the Indo-Greek coinage to which the Periplus ( c. 70-80 A.D.) bears witness.
Kșatrapa Bhūmaka seems to have been succeeded by Nahapāna who belonged to the same Kşaharāta family. The exact relation between the two Satrapas, however, is as yet unknown. Nahapāna is known not only from his coins ( which have been discovered in the Ajmer region of Rajputana in the north and in the Nasik District in the South ) but also from a number of inscriptions ( all found outside Gujarat) bearing dates ranging between the years 41 and 46 of an era, which seems to be no other than Kaniska's reckoning i.e, the Saka era of A.D. 78. Nahapāna flourished about the period A.D. 119-25, and the Kșaharāta rule over Gujarat is fixed at the first quarter of the 2nd century A.D.
Nahapāna is invariably called Rājan on the coins; but in the earlier records he is called a Kşatrapa and on the epigraph of the year 46 he is called Mahākṣatrapa. No record of his refers to his overlord, although he was ruling practically as an independent king without openly disavowing his allegiance to the Kuşāņas. The Kardamakas who succeeded the Kşaharātas also enjoyed the title Rajan, together with a satrapal designation.
Nahapāna's relation with Gujarat rests only on the references to places in Gujarat and Saurāṣtra in the inscriptions of his son-in-law Rşabhadatta (Uşayadata )-(EI., VIII, p. 78). But his reference to the holy places, Prabhāsa etc., should not by itself imply the Kşaharāta sway over them.-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 1o, fn.)
A number of inscriptions recording the pious gifts of the Hinduised Saka chief Rşabhadatta (Uşavadāta), son of Dinika, have been discovered in the rock-cut caves at
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Nasik and at Karle in the Poona District. Rşabhadatta was the husband of Dakşamitrā, daughter of Nahapāna, and was the Viceroy in the southern province of his father-in-law's dominions. There is no doubt that the āhāras (districts) of Govardhana (Nasik ) and Māmāļa (Poona) were in charge of Rşabhadatta; but he may have ruled over southern Gujarat and the northern Konkan from Broach to Sopara
In connection with Rşabhadatta's benefactions, inscriptions refer to such localities as Kāpurāhāra ( Kāpurā in the old Baroda District), Prabhāsa (in Southern Saurāṣtra), Bharukaccha (Broach), Daśapura (Mandasor in Western Malwa ), Sürpāraka (Sopara in Thana District), and Puşkara (near Ajmer), as well as to the rivers Tāpi, Barņāsā (Banās, a tributary of the Chambal), Pārādā (Pār in the Surat District), Damana (Damangangā near Daman) and Dāhaṇukā (near Dahanu in the Thana District).
It is, however, likely, that Rşabhadatta visited some of these holy places outside his viceregal state as a pious pilgrim; but it seems very probable that Malwa, Saurāştra, Gujarat, the northern part of the Konkan and the Maratha country, and larger parts of Rajaputana, probably including a portion of the lower Sindhu valley, lay within the dominions of Nahapāna, his father-in-law.
In the Saka year 46 (124-25 A.D.) which is the latest known date of Nahapāna, he seems to have been defeated and killed by the Sātavāhana Andhra king Gautamiputra Satakarni, who not only annexed the southern provinces of the Kşaharāta dominions, but totally uprooted their dynasty, and exterminated the Śakas together with the Yavanas and the Pahlavas. Gujarat and Saurāṣtra passed over into the hands of the Andhras. (Nasik Cave Inscription No. 2 of Siri Puļumāyi Vāsişthiputta, E I., VIII, p. 60). Sātavāhana is also described as the lord of many countries including Saurāşțra, Kukura (in the Gujarat-Saurāşțra region), Anūpa (northern Konkan), Akara (east Malwa) and Avanti (West Malwa).
Gautamiputra Sātakarni, who was the champion of Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, at one time held sway over the whole country watered by the Godavari, and also over Berar, Malwa, Gujarat and North Konkan. During this time South Gujarat came under the active influence of the Deccan.
The large hoard of Nahapāna's coins, discovered at Jogalthembi in the Nasik District, shows how the Sātavāhana king captured the Satrap's treasury and restruck the latter's coins for re-circulation.
Soon after Gautamiputra's death about 128 A.D., however, another dynasty of the Western Ksatrapas known as the 'Kārdamakas' wrested Malwa and Gujarat from the hands of his son.
The Kşaharata family which became extinct with Nahapāna's death, was succeeded in the South-Western satrapy of the Kuşāņa empire by the Scythian family of the Kārdamakas. Castana, son of Ysāmotika, and of the family of Kārdamaka (which name has been derived by some from the Kardama river in Bactria, PHAI, 363, fn. 3) seems to
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have been appointed with instructions to recover the lost districts of the Satrapy from the Sātavāhanas.
A life-size inscribed portrait-statue of Castana (without head) which was excavated from the Portrait-Hall (Devakula) of the Kuşāņa Emperors at village Māța by Pandit Radhakrisna, and which is now in the Mathura Museum, bearing No. 212 (Plate XIII), shows that this family was in some way connected with the Kuşāņas; but whether they were their Viceroys, as is believed by some, it is by no means certain.
When Caştana, probably in old age, became a Mahākṣatrapa, he seems to have selected his son Jayadāman as Kşatrapa, his subordinate associate in the administration. He, however, having died earlier was succeeded by his son Rudradāman I. The Andhāu inscriptions of $. year 52 ( 130-31 A.D.) in Kaccha show that Rājan Cașțana was ruling jointly with his grandson Rājan Rudradāman. Thus the Kārdamakas were at least on the borders of the expanded empire of Gautamiputra Śātakarņi within a few years after Nahapāna's death.
There is evidence to show that the Sakas under Castana and Rudradāman defeated the Sātavāhana king and recovered most of the northern districts conquered by the latter from Nahapāna.
After Castana's rule, the use of Kharosthi was discontinued, although the GraecoRoman legend continued to appear as a sort of ornamental fringe around the obverse of the coins. The omission of Kharoșthi legend may be a result of the transference of the Kārdamaka headquarters from the Kharoșthi area to Ujjain.
The family of Kārmadakas reached the zenith of its power with Caştana's grandson Rudradāman I (A.D. 143-158). Under him, the Ksatrapa dominion extended, [as is attested by his inscription at Girnar (150 A.D.), and confirmed by the distribution of his coins and by the evidence of the Andhra inscriptions] to the greatest part of South Rajputana, Malwa, including both Kaccha and Saurāșțra and North Konkan--the Anūpa, Kaccha, Saurāṣtra, Avanti, Maru, Sindhu-Sauvira and Aparānta (Vide, D. C. Sircar's Select Inscriptions, No. 67).
Rudradāman's capital was at Ujjain in Malwa, and Gujarat was ruled by a governor, Suviśākha. In the Girnar inscription, his victories over Śātakarņi, the Lord of the Deccan, are specially mentioned, as also the fact that he won for himself the title of 'Mahākṣatrapa'. Rudradāman I was not only a great conqueror and administrator but was also learned and accomplished, and recorded his achievement in Sanskrit on the Girnar rock which already bore Asoka's inscription. He was himself a past master of grammar, polity, music and logic and was reputed for the excellence of his compositions in Sanskrit, both prose and verse.
What happened to the extensive empire of Rudradāman under the subsequent reigns is not known. However, it is certain that the family of Cașțana ruled without a break till

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$. year 226 i.e. 304 A.D., for about two hundred years, making a total of more than three hundred years for the entire Ksatrapa period.
The Kşatrapas continued to rule on; and a new family of Kşatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Jivadāman, perhaps some relative of the Kārdamaka Kşatrapas, succeeded Kșatrapa Viśvasena in $. 227 i.e. 305 A.D. This branch-line ended with Svāmi Rudrasimha III, when in or about 390 A.D. he was exterminated by the Guptas.
[The General Editor is indebted for this Introductory Note to Dr. D. C. Sircar's Chap. XII, " Saka Satrapas of Western India" in The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 178-190).
II A.D. As regards the ‘Sakabda 'or. Saka' era, modern authorities accept the
Indian tradition that it was founded by a saka king or that it commemorates the date of his accession ; but there is no unanimity as to the foreign ruler who founded it. However, the view favoured by the majority is that the Saka era commemorates the accession of the Kuşāņa king Kanişka in 78 A.D., which is a landmark in the history of India.
As Kaniska started his era in the north, simultaneously Kșatrapa Nahapāna, on his conquest of Gujarat and West Deccan began to use this Saka era, which corresponds to 78 A.D. ( Bom. Gaz. I, pp. 26-27).
The records of the Western Kșatrapas are dated in years of this era, though they give only the Varse', without specifically naming the era. The Saka years are Caitrādi throughout India. It commenced 135 years after the Vikrama era. In Gujarat its use is at present restricted to astrology and almanacs, but the same is current in the South as. Sālivāhana Saka'.
In the Kālakācārya-Kathā given in the Prabhāvakacarita, it is stated that the Sakas founded their own era, having killed a descendant of Vikramāditya ; but the identity of the Scythian king is a matter of dispute. The view that it was founded by Kaniska and was spread southward by the Western Kşatrapas who were the vassals of Kanişka and his successors, is now widely accepted-(The Scythian Period, Chap. I and VII).
Kanişka Kuşāņa, the successor of Kadphises in North-Western India and the Kabul Valley, probably founded the saka era, which seems to date from his coronation in A.D. 78. Under him and his successors the Scythian power reached its zenith. Banişka's kingdom extended from Kābulistān to Mathura, and perhaps farther. According to Hiuen Tsang, it included a considerable part of Central Asia, while some evidence exists for its having embraced Gujarat.
A Buddhist Council was held during Kaniska's reign under the presidency of
Vasumitra (Shih-yu). 83 Vira Samvat 610 : (i.e. B.C. 527 = A.D. 83) Rise of the Digambara sect of
the Jainas under Sivabhūti or Sahasramalla, according to Dharma-sāgara's Pravacana pariksa--(BR.1883-4). B.C. 527 has been taken to be the date

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Mahākṣatrapa Caṣṭana, with inscription: Mathura Museum (p. 96)

Plate XIII

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Plate XIV
Bronze Images and Gold Flowers from the Reliquary, Sopārā Stūpa. (p. 91)
Reliquaries from Sopārā Stūpa. (p. 91)

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A.D.
C. 100
of the death of Mahāvira Vardhamāna Jnātāputra, the founder of the Nirgrantha or Jaina sect. It was 470 years before the Vikrama era, according to the Svetämbara Jainas, and 605 years before the Saka era, according to the Digambaras. Jaina tradition gives also the dates B.C. 545 and B.C. 467 for this event; but the latter year is at variance with Buddhist tradition which states that Mahāvīra died during Buddha's life-time.
Bhūmaka, the earliest known member of the Kşaharāta family of the Western Kşatrapas, ruled over Western India including Gujarat, as may be inferred from the provenance of his coins. He struck coins of copper. The obverse bears' the Arrow, Discus and Thunder-bolt type', which is continued by Nahapāna as the reverse type, of both his silver and copper coinages, and which, therefore, seems to be the distinctive badge of the Kşaharātas. The device on the reverse represents the capital of a pillar consisting of Wheel and Lion'.
The Kharoșthi legend on the obverse runs as Chaharadasa Chatrapasa Bhumakasa', and the Brāhmi? legend on the reverse is read as Kșaharātasa Kșatrapasa Bhūmakasa', both meaning Of Kşaharāta Kşatrapa Bhūmaka'.
Considerations of the type and fabric of the coins, and of the nature of the coin-legends, undoubtedly indicate that Bhūmaka preceded Nahapāna; but there is no evidence to show the relationship between them. (Rapson, C.I.C.B.M., cvii f, 63, f;D. C. Sircar, 'The Saka Satraps of Western India', The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 178).
1 In one instance the legend on the reverse is suspected to be in Greek, instead of Brahmi.
In the first century A.D. or earlier than that, a group of Jaina nuns started from Sopāraka and came to Rājagriha for pilgrimage. Pūtigandhā, a fisherwoman (dhivari) was in this group. In course of time she became a Jaina nun and died peacefully in Nilaguphā (cave) of Rājagriha. 2
Vide, Jaina Tirtha aur Unki Yatra by Kamtaprasad Jain, as quoted in JTSS (Vol. II, P. 454).
Uşavadāta, the son-in-law of Nahapāna who had married his daughter Dakşamitrā has many charitable acts and works of public utility to his credit, which are mentioned in Nasik Inscriptions', X, XII and XIV.
C. 100
100-20
The charitable acts are the gift of 3,00,000 cows; of gold, and of river-side steps at the Barṇāsa or Banāsa river near Mt. Abu in North Gujarat; of 16 villages to Gods and Brāhmaṇas; the feeding of hundreds of thousands of Brāhmaņas every year, the giving in marriage of eight wives to Brāhmaṇas at Prabhāsa in South Saurāṣtra :
C8
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A.D. the bestowing of 32,000 coconut-trees in Nanaingola or Nārgol village on the
Thana sea-board on the Caraka priests of Pinditakavāde, Govardhana near Nasik, Suvarņamukha, and Rāmatirtha in Sopāraga or Sopara on the Thana coast;
the giving of 300,000 cows and a village at Puskara or Pokhar near Ajmer in East Rajputana;
making gifts to Brāhmaṇas at Cecina or Cican, near Kelvā-Māhim on the Thana coast; and the gift of coconut trees and 70,000 Kārşāpaņas or 2,000 suvarnas to gods and Brāhmaṇas at Dahanu in Thana.
The public works executed by Uşavadāta include rest-houses and almshouses at Bharukaccha, at Dasapura or Mandsor in North Malwa, and gardens and wells at Govardhana and Sopara ; free ferry-boats across the river Ibā or Ambikā, the Pārāda or Pār, the Daman or Damangangā, the Tāpi or Tāpti, the Karabeņā or Kāveri, and the Dāhāṇukā or Dāhanu. Waiting-places and steps were also built on both banks of each of these rivers. These charitable and public works of Uşavadāta, the Hinduised Śaka prince, savour much of the
Brahmanic redigion-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 25). C.106-30 Gautamiputra extended his sway from Ujjain to the Krsņā and from sea to
sea, claiming suzerainty over the whole trans-Vindhyan India. He vanquished the Scythians, the Indo-Greeks and the Parthians, and his descendant
Yajñaśri, completely eliminated the Sakas from Western India and Saurāṣtra. C.119-24 The Nasik cave-inscription incidentally records several benefactions ( dānas )
made by Uşavadāta, son of Dinika, and son-in-law of the Kşaharāta King, the Ksatrapa Nahapāna (E. I., VIII, 78).
The sacred places ( tirthas ) and rivers mentioned therein in connection with the act of benefactions, were all in Western India within the domain of Nahapāna, the father-in-law of the Hinduised Saka prince Uşavadāta. These tirthas included Prabhāsa, Bharukaccha, Sopāraga, Nanaingola (Nārgol near Sanjan) and Daśapura. A post-script says that Uşavadāta had gone to Puşkara (near Ajmer) for consecration after his victory over the Mālavas; and hence this place also seems to have lain within the dominions of his lord Nahapāna.(Rapson, op. cit., lvi f, cx, f).
In about 124 A.D., Nahapāna seems to have been defeated by the Sātavāhana king Gautamiputra Šātakarni, who annexed the southern provinces of the Kşaharāta dominions; and also restruck the coins of Nahapāna for re
circulation.--(The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 14). C.119-24 An inscription engraved on the Nasik cave-wall which is in Prākrit language
but in Brāhmi script, refers to the investment of three thousand Kārşāpaņas (i.e. silver coins). The record appears to have been engraved from a grant

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A.D.
inscribed on plates of copper or cloth (D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, p. 157, fn.)
Two thousand of the sum were invested at the rate of one per cent. (per month ), and the remaining one thousand at the rate of is per cent. (per month ) for the benevolent purpose of using the interest earned, for meeting the needs of the Bauddha Bhikṣus, staying in the layana (Guhāvāsa).
Considerable help in financing works of public utility was rendered by private charity, inspired by religious sentiment which emphasised the spiritual benefit arising from such works as wells, gardens and rest-houses.
Such a sentiment could influence even a foreigner like Uşavadāta, as appears from the numerous benefactions of his, recorded in Karli and Nasik caves :
(Cf. ht ag 8a HRT 20:3121f994a RTH TEH 3291772....
Cant adtai hat at F1 .... Nasik, No. 19; Karli, No. 19). C. 119-24 The next known king of the Kșaharāta family is Nahapāna. The dates in
the inscriptions of his reign extend from the (Saka) year 41 (119-120 A.D.) to
the year 46 ( 124-125 A.D.). C. 122 The Junnar cave-inscription of Saka) year 46 styles Nahapāna a Mahā
kșatrapa', while a Nasik cave-inscription of year 42 represents him a
Kşatrapa'. So Nahapāna seems to have attained the status of Mahāksatrapa
in circa Saka year 44 (c. 122 A.D.)-( ASWI, IV, 193 ). C. 124 The Andhra king Gautamīputra overcame, about 124 A.D., the Kşaharāta
king Nahapāna. His conquests included Gujarat, part of Malwa, Central India and Berar, the region north of Nasik and the Northern Konkan, most of which were taken from Nahapāna. Nahapāna's territories north of the Narmadā were soon after recovered by Caştana, son of Ysāmotika, a Saka,
whose capital was in Ujjayini. 124-25 Caştana, son of Ysāmotika, founded another royal family of the Western
Kşatrapas, known as the 'Kārdamaka' family. (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 182). His capital, according to Ptolemy, was Ujjain.in West Malwa. Probably Caştana began his career as the 'Satrap' of the Kuşāņas by recovering the territories lost by the Kşaharātas to the Sātavāhana-(Ibid, p. 182). The upper limit of Castana's reign is limited by the (Saka ) year 46 (= 124-25 A.D.), the latest known date of Nahapāna's reign.
Castana struck coins in silver both as Kşatrapa and as Mahākṣatrapa. On its obverse appears the bust of the king surrounded by Greek characters as on the obverse of Nahapāna's coins. On the reverse there are two varieties : in the earlier variety the Crescent and Star were adopted, evidently as symbols of the sun and moon, which were probably of Parthian origin; in the later
841.
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C. 125
variety they, however, assume a subordinate position and eventually become mere adjuncts to large symbols added between them. The central symbol was taken to stand for the caitya; but now it is supposed to represent a mountain. The wavy line beneath this symbol, accordingly, stands for a river or the sea.
The device thus consists of symbols of several elements of nature (Moon, Sun, Mountain, Sea) that signify the enduring character of existence. The type thus completed remained the constant reverse type of the silver coins of the Western Kșatrapas till the end of the dynasty, and was subsequently adopted by the Traikūţakas. The central symbol is a common type of the Sātavāhanas and is found in the coinages issued by them in districts which at one time or another were included in the dominions of the Western Kșatrapas."
When Nabhovāhana was the ruler of Bharukaccha, Sātavāhana, a king of Pratisthāna used to attack this city every year, and return to his native place during the rainy season. Nabhovāhana was very affluent; so he used to give as present thousands of rupees to those who could cut hands or heads of soldiers of Sātavāhana. On the other hand, Sātavāhana did not do so, even when his soldiers could show some prowess. So his army went on decreasing in number.
A minister of Sātavāhana at last suggested that Nabhovāhana should be deceived. For this he said : you should expel me by declaring that I have committed an offence.' The king did accordingly. The minister went to Bharukaccha. Nabhovāhana received him personally and appointed him his minister. He advised the king to spend money in religious activities so that merit might be acquired. He thereupon spent money in building temples, erecting stūpas, and constructing wells, reservoirs etc. The ditch that was prepared was named as 'Nabhovahana's ditch'. Nabhovāhana by spending in this way could not give presents as before, as his treasury was now not so much full. In the meanwhile, this minister sent a word to Sātavāhana to attack. When he did so, Nabhovāhana ran away for life, and thus Bharukaccha was conquered.--( Āvassaya-cunni, pt. II, pp. 220-201). 1 JAG (p. 34)
Gautamiputra Śātakarņi, the Andhra king was contemporary with Nahapāna the Kșaharāta, whom he overthrew shortly before the 14th year of his own reign and after the 16th year of the Kșatrapa or Saka era, probably therefore, in about 126 A.D.
The inscription, dated in the 29th year of his son Puļumāyi, mentions Gautamiputra Satakarņi as the king of Asika, Asaka, Mulaka, Saurāṣtra, Kukura, Aparānta, Anūpa, Vidarbha, Akara and Avanti and lord of the mountains Vindhya, Riksavata, Pāriyātra, Sahya, Krişnagiri, Maccha, Siritana, Malaya,
C, 126
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C. 126
C. 128
Mahendra, Setāgiri, and Cakora. It also states that he humbled the pride of the Ksatriyas, destroyed the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas, exterminated the Kşaharāta race and restored the glory of the Sātavāhanas.
Caştana, who was the son of Ysāmotika, was contemporary and apparently successor of Nahapāna. Ptolemy mentions him as Tiastenes, the contemporary of the Andhra king Puļumāyi. To the Western Kșatrapa dominions which included, generally speaking, Kaccha and Gujarat, Caştana seems to have added the greater part of Western Rajputana and Malwa, making Ujjain his capital. His son Jayadāman succeeded him. (IA, XXI, 205).
The legend on the reverse of his coins appears in Brāhmi and Kharoşthi and seems to run as follows 'Rājno Ksatrapasa Ysāmotikaputrasa Castanasa. (Of king Kșatrapa Caştana,' son of Ysāmotika).
As Caştana was already reigning jointly with his grand-son Rudradāman I in Saka year 72 (130 A.D.), the former's co-regency with his son Jayadāman may be dated at least a year or two earlier (i.e. circa 128 A.D.). The evidence of coins struck by Jayadāman as Ksatrapa and those struck by Castana as Mahākşatrapa evidently implies that Castana began his career as Mahākṣatrapa along with his son Jayadāman as Ksatrapa-( The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 183).
The silver coins struck by Caştana as Mahākṣatrapa are of the same type as those of the later variety struck by him as Kșatrapa. The full legend appears only in Brāhmi; while the Kharoşthi legend consisted of only the king's name, the titles and patronymic being omitted. Thus Kharoşthi was gradually falling into disuse, and it disappeared from the coins of the Western Kşatrapas after the reign of Caştana. In the struck legend, the old equivalent for Kşatrapa' is retained and no attempt is made to represent the title Mahākşatrapa' instead.-(Rapson, op. cit., CXV, f; also refer to JNSI, S. IV, 20 ff.).
A single specimen of a coin in copper of square form is attributed with some probability to Caştana. The reverse is of the usual type; but the obverse is of the Horse type, probably adopted from the Andhras.
The coins struck by Jayadāman as Kşatrapa are all of copper and square in form. The obverse is marked with the figure of a humped bull facing a combined trident and battle-axe, while the reverse contains the usual symbols along with the Brāhmi legend 1517 4794 Fah FT14H I. The addition of the title 'Svāmi' deserves special notice. It is also to be noted that with Jayadāman the proper names of the Western Kşatrapas begin to assume an Indian form.
A second variety of copper coinage, with Elephant' and 'Ujjain symbol' type, was assigned to Jayadāman by General Cunningham. But the legend is
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not fully legible and hence the attribution requires a better preserved specimen-(Rapson, ibid, CXV f., CXVII f.).
Nahapāna struck coins of both silver and copper. The silver coins are apparently imitated, as regards size, weight and fabric, from the hemi-drachms of the Graeco-Indian kings; and in these respects they set a standard which was followed by the Western Ksatrapas for some two hundred and seventy years, and afterwards by their successors the Guptas and the Traikūțakas, From the same source too, and probably also partly from the Roman denarii, which were brought in the way of commerce to the Western ports of India, they derived their obverse type: 'Head of king', which became a permanent feature in these coinages.
The Graeco-Roman characters of their obv. inscriptions, which, after being used for a short period to transliterate the Brāhmi and Kharoşthi coin-legend of the rev., degenerated into a sort of ornament, traces of which remained even on the silver coins of the Guptas.
The rev. type of the silver coins is substantially the obv. type of the Bhūmaka's copper coins. The legend on the rev. is incised both in Brāhmi and Kharosthi. It runs as follows : राज्ञो क्षहरातस नहपानस | in Brahmi and, रानो छहरातस HET I in Kharosthi, i.e. Of king Kşaharāta Nahapāna'.
In the four Andhāu Stone-inscriptions, dated $. 52, Fälgun ba. 2 ( 131 A.D.), Caştana appears as reigning jointly with his grandson Rudradāman. Therein the titles' Kşatrapa' and 'Mahākṣatrapa’ are not specified; but it is obvious that by this time Castana reigned as Mahākṣatrapa and Rudradāman as Kşatrapa.
These inscriptions were originally found on a raised spot at village Andhāu is Khāvadā or Paccham Taluka in Kaccha, but were removed and brought to the Bhuj Museum by Diwan Bahadur Ranchhodbhai in 1906. These are the earliest dated inscriptions in Prākrit, influenced by Sanskrit, in Brāhmi script, of the Western Kșatrapas of Ujjain. They imply the system of joint rule in this dynasty, and the site indicates the Kşatrapa rule over Kaccha. -(Andhāu Stone-Inscriptions : EI, XVI, 19).
131
These four lastis* (memorial pillars) of the same date, were raised during the joint reign of king Caştana, son of Ysāmotika and king Rudradāman, the son of Jayadāman. Three of these lastis were erected by Madana, son of Sihila in honour of his three deceased relatives, viz. : (1) Sister Jeștavīrā of Opaśati
* The word ge has been used as af8 (17) in the Suivibara (a ruined Stupa, near Bhawalpur) copper-plate inscription of Kaniska I (CII, II, 141), dated C. 89 A.D, and indicates monumental pillars, which are even now called latha, from Prakrit lathi, and probably contained the corporeal relics of the persons named
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gotra, (2) Brother Rişabhadeva of Opasati gotra, and (3) Wife Sāmạeri † Yasadata of Sonika gotra, (4) The fourth lasti was raised in memory of Rişabhadeva of Opaśati gotra by his father Śrāmạera Treștadatta.
† Samaneri, is feminine of Samanera, meaning 'novice'. A person who has already been admitted into priesthood of the Buddhist church after going through the ceremony called Pabbajja but bas not received the Upasampada, is called 'Samanera'. He becomes a fullyprivileged monk after receiving the Upasampada. The interval may be short or long,
The Nasik cave-inscription of Queen Gautami Bālasri, the grandmother of Vásişthiputra Śri Puļumāyi expressly represents her son Gautamiputra Śri Śā takarņi as having rooted out the Khakharāta (Kșaharāta) family and restored the glory of the Sātavāhana race (EI, VIII, 60). A comparision of the provinces enumerated in this inscription with Nahapāna's dominions implied in the inscriptions of his son-in-law Uşavadāta, corroborates this statement, as the list of Gautamiputra includes almost all territories possessed by Nahapāna; for Suratha ( Surastra ), Kukura, Aparānta, Ākara, Avanti and Kanhagiri ( Krşşagiri, modern Kaneri) had now passed from the Kşaharātas to the Sātavāhanas. (Rapson, op. cit., XXX ff.)
This is further corroborated by the evidence of a number of coins struck by Gautamiputra over types of Nahapāna.-( Rapson, op. cit., 68 ff.)
The large hoard of Nahapāna's coins discovered at Jogelthembi in Nasik District, shows how Gautamiputra captured the Satrap's treasury and re-struck the latter's coins for re-circulation (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 182). Coins of Sātavāhanas are obtained from Malwa on one side and South Gujarat ( Karvan) on the other. A few coins are also reported to have been found further north, especially at Anand and Sidhpur.
The inscription on the western side of the Asokan rock records that Rudradāman twice defeated Śātakarņi, Lord of the Deccan, but did not destroy him on account of their near matrimonial relationship. This Satakarņi is identified with Vāsişthiputra Siri-Puļumāyi, and Rudradāman seems to have recovered the territories from his son-in-law and successor of Gautamiputra who had wrested them from Nahapāna, the Kşaharāta.(Rapson, Ibid, XXXVI ff., CX f., CXVIII ff.)
His capital was at Ujjain which was described by Ptolemy (cir. 139 A.D.) as Ozene, the capital of Tiastanes (Castana ). His victories won for him the title of Mahakșatrapa.
(Varșe dvi-saptatittame 72, Mārgaśīrşa-bahula-pratipadi ):
On account of excessive rainfall, high floods rose in Suvarna-sikatā (Sonarekh ), Palāśini (Palasio ?) and other rivers from mount Urjayat (now known as Girnar) and consequently the embankment ( setu-bandha) of Sudarśana lake at Girinagara burst on the above day during the reign of
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Mahākşatrapa Rudradāman. The breach was 420 cubits long, just as many cubits broad and 75 cubits deep. The reservoir was laid open down to the bottom of the rivers. The 'Sudarśana' (beautiful) lake then appeared like a sandy desert and became 'durdarśana' (ugly to look at).
150
All the known coins of Rudradāmana I are of silver and they are all struck by him as Mahākṣatrapa'. The coins are of the usual type. The legend in Greek characters ceases to have any meaning and continues to appear as a sort of ornamental fringe round the bust. The Brāhmi legend on the reverse runs as 27571 794 ETHYTTET HET4794 GG1h in the earlier variety, and as T 478 9427TH TITT HEIFH FR in the later variety.
In contrast to the strictly classical Sanskrit of the Girnar inscription, Rudradāmana's coin-legends like the Brāhmi legends of Nahapāna, and indeed most of the coin-legends of the Western Kşatrapas, are in a sort of mixed language with some Sanskrit and some Prākrit features.-(Rapson, ibid. CXXI f.).
The coins struck by Dāmaghsāda or Dāmajādaśrī I, son of Rudradāman I as Kșatrapa, suggest his co-regency with Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman I. The coins are of the usual type of this dynasty. Of these coins there are three varieties, distinguished by peculiarities in their legends. Variety A has Rudradāmana-putra, while Variety B has Rudradāmasa putras; and Dāmajdasriya and Dāmaghsādas. Both are in the usual Sanskritised Prākrit, but the latter shows a further approximation to Sanskrit. The legend in Variety C is in correct Sanskrit-5761974 99979 CH (9....)
The original name ended in Ghsada which seems to correspond to the Persian Zāda, 'a son'. The un-Indian combination of gh and s is therefore supplanted by the Indian J; and the resultant Jāda is further Indianised by the addition of śrī.-(Rapson, ibid, CXXII ff.)
The Girnar inscription of Rudradāman knows of pranaya, visti and other technical terms of Kautilya's Arthaśāstra in the sense in which they are employed by him.-(K. A. Nilakantha Sastri, The Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p. 192). This inscription provides a welcome peep into the provincial administration of Gujarat under the Mauryas.
Junagadh inscription of Ś. 72 describes Rudradāman I, Western Kşatrapa, as grandson of Caștana, the great Satrap under Kadphises II of the Kuşāņa dynasty, and son and successor of Jayadāman. He is described as destroying the Yaudheyas, twice conquering Sātakarņi, Lord of the Deccan. Earning for himself the title of Mahākṣatrapa' le raised his house to the position of a leading power in the West. His son Damāzda or Damajāļa succeeded him in 160 A.D.-(ASWI ii, 128; IA., VII, 257)..
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The Girnar rock-inscription of Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman inscribed on the western side near the top of the rock, mentions practically the whole of the present Gujarat as the extent of his conquests. His rule extended over nearly the whole of Western India and included the country around Cambay and Saurastra, Sindh and adjacent portion of Western Rajputana and the Northern Konkan. Anarta-Surāştra-Svabhra-Marū-Kaccha-Aparānta are among the countries mentioned in order of contiguity.
This monument bears the only known epigraphic record containing the names of Candragupta and Aśoka Maurya.-(Smith, EHI, p. 133; EI, VIII,
42; IA, VII 257 ). It is the earliest known long inscription in Sanskrit prose. 150 The embankment of the Sudarśana dam burst on account of excessive rain
fall and heavy floods in Girnar rivers, in Mārgasirşa of Saka year 72 (Nov., 150 A.D.). The damage was so great that the Mati-sacivas and the Karmasacivas (Councillors and Executive Ministers) of King Rudradāman opposed the proposal of its repairs. But taking into consideration the despair of the local people, Suvisakha, the Pahlava Minister of Rudradāman I and Governor of Anarta-Surāṣtra, got it repaired within a short period, without levying any tax or forced labour on the subjects. (Junagadh Rock-inscription of Rudradāman,
EI, VIII, 44 ff.) Ante Arab settlements existed in Gujarat at Cheul, Kalyana and Sopara before 100 the rise of Islam. Abul Fida speaks of their having settled in Sopara since
early times. In the time of Agatharcides (B.C. 177-100), there were so many Arabs on the Malabar coast that the people had adopted the Arab religion. The Arabs were mostly Sabians at that time. It may, therefore, be safely presumed that Arab settlements existed in Gujarat parallel with this. (Reinaud's 'Abul Fida' CCCL.-XXXIV; Vincent's 'Periplus' 154; Bom. Gaz. Vol. IX, pt. II,
p. I, ff. 1). c. 100 There is hardly any evidence to know, who were the rulers of Gujarat till the -200 advent of the Sakas on this land. But a dynasty, which may be called by the
name of Bodhi', was ruling during the first-second century A.D., somewhere in Western India-Gujarat or Saurastra or some parts of it.
Their coins, are the only source of our knowledge about them, as known from the collection of Bhagwanlal Indraji (BMC. A.K., Intro. clxix). They were
Sri Bodhi, Vira Bodhi or Vira Bodhidatta, Siva Bodhi and Candra Bodhi. C. 150-78 Dāmajādaśri I, son of Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman I, struck coins of silver
as Mahākṣatrapa between cir. 72 (150 A.D.) and cir. 100 (178 A.D.) of the Saka era. So he seems to have succeeded Mahākşatrapa Rudradāman I in cir., 160 A.D. The legend on his coins runs as follows: 157 HTT47TH Thagara 15 HETH44 CTHEEAAh (Of king Mahākṣatrapa Dāmajadaấri, son of king Mahākşa trapa Rudradāman.-( Rapson, ibid, CXXIV).

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151
Excepting the Asokan edicts at Girnar, and 200 to 300 years later, the short memorial inscriptions from Andhāu and two or three later Kşatrapa records, all other inscriptions, beginning with the famous Rudradāman inscription, are in Sanskrit.
This signifies that already in the 2nd Century A.D., fine, chaste, classical Sanskrit had become a court-language in Gujarat, and remained so, for wellnigh a 1000 years and more. If any part of India is to be considered Aryanized earliest on the strength of epigraphic evidence alone, it would be Gujarat or more strictly Surāşțra ; for the Rudradāman inscription is the earliest long Sanskrit inscription in India-(H. D. Sankalia, Historico-Cultural EthnoGeography of Gujarat, p. 163).
Rudradāman boasts that he had no recourse to forced labour or benefactions when he reconstructed the magnificent dam at Girnar. (अपीडयित्वा करविष्टिप्रणयक्रियाभिः ů151748 58 FatHICHTHEAT A...... AD 919... 1-Junagadh Inscription ).
Sanskrit was no doubt known, but was probably confined to the Brāhmaṇas, who used it for purely religious purposes. But it was under the Kşatrapas of Malwa and Surastra, as evidenced by the Rudradāman inscription, that the language began to be used for secular purposes.
Sylvain Levi, from the occurrence of certain words, e.g., Svāmin, Sugrahitanāman, and bhadramukha, even thought that " it must be in the time and the court of the Ksatrapas that the vocabulary, the technique and the first examples of the Sanskrit drama and everything connected with it, or in other words, those of the really literary Sanskrit literature, were established". [IA, XXXIII (1904), 169; Sankalia, Ibid, p. 163, footnote].
Silver coins were struck by king Kșatrapa Satyadāman, son of king Mahaksatrapa Dāmajādasri I. (Rapson, ibid, 95). The date conjecturally assigned to the reign of Satyadāman as Kşatrapa was years 119-120, when the coin was first published (R. JRAS. 1899, p. 379). But certain considerations, which were not then taken into account, seem to indicate an earlier date. This was probably concurrent with that of his father as Mahākşatrapa. (Rapson, op. cit. cxxviii f.)
Ś. 10(1)-Date on coins of Mahākşatrapa Rudrasimha I, suggested by D. R. Bhandarkar (ASI. AR. 1913-14, 227 ff.) is hardly acceptable, as he struck coins in year 102.-( Rapson, ibid, 86).
S. 100 ( = 178 A.D.) Jivadāman, Western Ksatrapa and Mahāksatrapa, son and successor of Dāmazāda. He was the first of his dynasty to issue dated coins.
The Ksatrapa dates, with a few exceptions of Stone-inscriptions, are derived exclusively from coins, it may be noted.
C. 160
179-80
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Rudrasimha I, son of Rudradāman I, began his career as Kșatrapa not later than the Saka year 102, which appears on his coins struck as 'Kșatrapa' for the first time.-(Rapson, ibid. cxxv f.)
Rudrasimha I, Western Kșatrapa, son of Rudradāman and uncle of Jivadāman whom he apparently succeeded is styled Kşatrapa' in the Gundā inscription, and Mahākṣatrapa' on his coins(IA, X, 157; ASWI, ii, 140 ).
Rudrasimha I struck silver coins of the usual type as Kşatrapa in the Saka year 102 ( 180-1 A.D.). The legend on these coins is as follows: 171 HT14798 55h a 1511 4797 GEITHI (Of King Kșatrapa, Rudrasimha, son of King Mahākşatrapa Rudradāman)-(Rapson, ibid, cxxvii, 86).
An Ābhira Senāpati Rudrabhūti, son of Senāpati Bappaka, who had the Kşatrapa king Rudrasimha I, son of Rudradāman as his Overlord, dug and got built with stones a well (or a bund) at Rasāpadraka, for the benefit and happiness of all creatures (afhearai pengaruh), in the Saka year 103 (181-82 A.D.).
This record is known as the 'Gundā Stone-Inscription of the time of Rudrasimha I, which was rescued from an unused well at Gundā (Hālār Dist., Saurastra)–(EI. XVI, 235), and is now in the Watson Museum, Rajkot.
The influential position of the Ābhiras at the Saka court apparently helped Abhira Isvarasena in gaining the throne for himself.
The Abhiras, like the Mālavas, Yaudheyas, Sibis and others migrated to the south and settled in Rajputana, Sindh and Mahārāṣtra, when the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas and Kuşāņas invaded the north-western parts of India. The Ābhīras did not exclusively follow the profession of cowherds; they occupied high political position under the Kșatrapa rulers of Western India, as is known from the Gundā stone-inscription above referred to, purporting that Ābhira Rudrabhūti was a general of Ksatrapa king Rudrasimha.
The Abhiras were an ancient race which, according to the Mahābhārata, Harivamśa and the Purāņas, had spread in the western provinces of India from the Punjab in the north to Mahārāștra in the south. They are, in many passages, conjoined with the Sūdras, with whom they appear to be conterminous in the north-western parts of India. They spoke a language which, according to Dandin's Kāvyādarśa, was called Apabhramśa'. The Mahābhārata and the Vāyupurāņa call them Mlecchas, who were not necessarily foreigners. This term, according to Patañjali, signifies those who could not pronounce the Āryan language correctly. Like the Sūdras, therefore, the Abhiras were probably the aboriginal inhabitants of the country who were gradually absorbed in the Hindu fold. They are not a subcaste included under the genus Sūdras', but they are a caste distinct from the Sūdras. (Mahābhāșya, Vol. I, p. 25/pt. 2.72)
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The Mahābhārata mentions three divisions of the Abhiras dwelling in the north-west of India, viz., those who lived on the bank of the Sarasvati, fishermen and mountaineers. (Subhāparva, adh. 32, v. 10). We are told that while Arjuna was encamped in that fertile country together with the women of the Vrsnis and the Andhakas, whom he was escorting from Dvarka to Hastinapur after the internecine fight amongst the Yādavas, he was attacked by the Ābhiras. All these references indicate the eastern part of the Punjab between the Satlej and the Yamunā as the original home of the Abhiras. From there they appear to have spread beyond Matbura in the east and Saurastra, Gujarat and Mahārāstra in the south.
Ptolemy mentions Abiria, which was evidently the land of the Abhiras, which was situated above Pattalene on the Sindhu. According to the Vişnupurāna, the Śūdras and the Abhiras inhabited the provinces of Saurastra, Avanti (Western Mālava), Sūra (Mathura), Arbud (Aravali) and Marubhūmi (Marwad). [Vişnu. Pu., amśā V, adh. 38, V. 12).
Parāśara, cited in the commentary of the Brihatsamhitā, groups the Śūdra-Abhira country with Saurāṣtra, Mahārāştra, Sindhu-Sauvīra and other countries of the south-west.
The Märkandeyapurāna groups the Abhiras with the people of Bhrigukaccha, Konkana, Mahāraşțra, Karṇāta, the country on the banks of the Veņi (Waingangā), Nāsikya and others. (Mark. Pu., adh. 58, verses 21 ff.). These seem to point to the modern district of Khandesh as their stronghold in the south, where the Abhīras or Āhiras predominate.-(V. V. Mirashi: CII, Vol. IV, Intro. pp. xxxi-iii).
[For the origin of the Abhiras, and the rise of their power in Western India, see also The Age of Imperial Unity, pp. 221-3. ]
Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahākṣatrapa in the Saka year 103—(Rapson, ibid. 87, f.). This indicates that he rose to the position of Mahākṣatrapa in S. 103, some time after Vaišākha su. 5, the date when he is referred to as 'Kşatrapa ' in the Gundā stone-inscription-(EI, XVI, 233).
The legend on the coins runs as follows:-राज्ञो महाक्षत्रप रुद्रदामपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस TEH -(Rapson, ibid., 87 f.)
Ś. 1(05): Silver coins struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha 1-(D. R. Bhandarkar, ASI. A. R. 1913-14, 227 ff.)
Ś. 106: Silver coins struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha 1-(Rapson, ibid. 88).
Ś. 10(7): Silver coins struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha I-(ibid, 88). $. 109: Mahākşatrapa Rudrasimha I struck coins in silver.-(ibid. 88).
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188-9 188-9
188-90
Ś. 110: Mahākşatrapa Rudrasimha I struck silver coins.
Ś. 110: The evidence of silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Kșatrapa instead of Mahākṣatrapa indicates his degradation to the subordinate position of a Kşatrapa. D. R. Bhandarkar assigns this degradation to the suzereinty of Mahākṣatrapa īśvardatta-(ASI. AR. 1913-14, 227 ff.)
The legend on the coins is 11 HT4794 SATHITA (Rapson, ibid., 90 f.)
A king named Isvaradatta struck silver coins, which are dated in years 1 and 2 of his reign. The coins are of precisely the same style and type as those of Western Kśatrapas in all respects, except that the legend contains no patronymic, and gives the date in words, and that the coins are dated in regnal years (Rapson, ibid., 124 f.). It is, therefore, certain that he did not belong to the Kşatrapa dynasty and that he was very probably an Abhira connected with the dynasty represented at Nasik by Isvarasena-( Nasik caveInscription: EI, VIII, 88).
His appearance as Mahākşatrapa on coins directly imitated from those of the Western Kșatrapas would seem to bear testimony to a successful invasion of their dominions (Bhagvanlal, JRAS, 1890, p. 657). There is, however, a great controversy about his date. Bhagvanlal supposed that his reign would have commenced in 249 A.D. (ibid); but this view rested on the belief that a break of continuity in the reigns of the Mahākşatrapas of the regular dynasty was shown by the absence of dated coins between the S. years 171 ( 249 A.D.) and 176.
Further discoveries of coins have, however, proved that there was no such interregnum, but that the dates from 171 to 176 are continuous. (Rapson, ibid, 136-9). Rapson, therefore, consigned his reign to the interval between 158, (the last recorded year of the MKS. Dāmasena, fn. iii), and 161, (the vear in which his son Yasodāman I appears as Mahākşatrapa, pp. 127-8). -(Rapson, ibid, cxxxvi).
The subsequent discovery of the Sarvāṇiä hoard has brought to light year 160 of MKS. Yasodāman I; and hence, even Rapson's view is subject to reexamination. D. R. Bhandarkar re-examined this view in detail, and in conclusion was inclined to assign Isvaradatta to the years 110-112, which was a period of MKS. Rudradāmana l's degradation to the subordinate position of a Kşatrapa-(ASI, AR 1913-14, 227 ff.; A. S. Altekar: The Vākāțaka—Gupta age, p. 48; R. C. Majumdar, The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 186).
S. 112-Silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Kșatrapa-(Ibid, 91).
Ś. 113-The evidence of silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahäkşatrapa since year 113 (Rapson, ibid, 91, ff.) indicates that he succeeded in regaining his full power by this time.
190-1 191-2
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT S. 114--Silver coins struck by Rudrasimha I, as Mahākṣatrapa.---( Rapson, ibid, 92; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.)
$. 115–Rudrasimha I struck silver coins as Mahākṣatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid, 92).
$. 116-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahākşatrapa.(Rapson, ibid, 93).
$. 117-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha I(G. V. Acharya, JRASB, NS, XLVII, 97).
S. 118-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha I as Mahākṣatrapa( Rapson, ibid., 93).
A fragmentary stone-inscription in Junagadh Museum records some events related to Vastradatta, Vastunandika, Vastusarmaka and Rāmaka, and refers it to the reign of Ksatrapa Svāmin Jivadāman.-(EI, XVIII, 339).
As Jivadāman struck coins as Mahākṣatrapa (in years 119-120 ), his reign as Ksatrapa should be dated not later than $. year 118.
S. 120—Silver coins were struck by Jivadaman, son of Dāmajāda I as Mahākșatrapa. The coins are of the usual type. The legend is a HTTHETH TAZA पुत्रस । राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस जीवदामस। राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस्य दामजातस्य पुत्रस्य राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस्य जीवदाम्नः । -(Rapson, op cit., 84)
Silver coins struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha I (G. V. Acharya, op.cit., 98) indicate that Rudrasimha I was succeeded by Jivadāman during this year.
The reading of the year 1(00) on his coins led to the assumption of his two different reigns interrupted by the reign of MKS, Rudrasimha I, (Rapson, ibid. CXXIV f.); but the reading now seems doubtful, and Jivadāman seems to have been Mahākṣatrapa only in succession to Rudrasimha I.
With the reign of Jivadāman, son of Dāmajādśri I, begins the series of dated coins. From this time onwards, the silver coins of the dynasty regularly have the year of their issue recorded in Brāhmi numerals on the obverse, behind the king's head.-( Rapson, loc. cit., p. cxxiv)
$. 119-Jivadāman struck coins in potin also. The obverse bears a figure of a humped bull and the legend on the reverse is राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस जीवदामन....। -(Rapson, ibid, 85).
Caitra sukla 5-The stone-inscription of Jayadāman's grandson in Sanskrit from the Bawa Pyara caves at Junagadh records a technical phrase connected with Jainism, meaning those who have acquired 'absolute knowledge' (haa) and is dated during the reign of the grandson of Räjan Kşatrapa Svämin Jayadāman, whose name is lost in the missing fragment of the stone. The king may be either Dämghsāda I or Rudrasimha I, son of Mahākṣatrapa Rudra
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198-9 199-200
C. 200
dāman 1.-(EI. XVI 241). The reconstructed relevent words are als [511] -#(TTCT]at(?) Fiskt or FTATU....' etc.
The first wave of Jainism passed over Gujarat-Saurāşțra when Bhadrabāhu went to the south in the 4th century B.C. Evidence is available in this area from the Kşatrapa period which consists of earliest reference to a Jaina technical term Kevalijnāna in the stone-inscription of Jayadāman's grandson, Dāmajasri I, which was found from the Bawa Pyara cave at Junagadh, above referred to. (Banerji and Sukthankar: "Three Kşatrapa Inscriptions", El., XVI., p. 239).
Ś. 120-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Jivadāman. (ibid. 84).
S. 121-Rudrasena I, son of Rudrasimha I, struck coins as Kşatrapa(Rapson, ibid, 96: D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227, ff.). The legend is Rājno Mahākṣatrapasa Rudrasihasa putrasa Rājno Ksatrapa Rudrasenasa.
This is the earliest known date of his reign as Ksatrapa.
The Nātyaśāstra of Bharata (Ch. XVII, verses 59-62 ) supplies some information about the Prākrit languages of this period to be used in a drama. The countries between the Gangā and the sea have a language abounding in 'e'. Surāṣtra, Avanti and the regions situated on the Vetravati have a language abounding in 'cha'. People belonging to Himavat, Sindhu, Sauvira and others use a language abounding in 'u'. Those who reside between Vindhya and the ocean should use a language abounding in 'na'.
Durga, the commentator of Nirukta, who is said to be a resident of Jambumārgāśrama (Jambu-mārga in the Narmadā valley, according to the Mahābhārata, which is being identified with Jambusara in the Broach District ) is assigned to 2nd century A.D.-(U. P. Shah, Gujarat nā Ketalāk Prācina Paņdito' Buddhiprakāśa, October, 1952, p. 302).
The Mūlavā-sara inscription, written in Sanskrit and in the Brāhmi script refers to the rule of Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi Rudrasena I. This stone-inscription, found on the banks of a large tank at Mūlavā-sara, a village about 10 miles from Dwarka, is since erected in the Dwarka Library compound. It measures 6'X2'.
It was first noticed by Dr. Bhagavanlal Indraji in Bom. Gaz. I, p. 43. The inscription tells us that it is a sepulchral stele of 200 A.D. The single line engraved breadthwise contains the word. Vānijakasya meaning of Vāņijaka'. The four lines engraved lengthwise record that the stele was erected by the son of Vānijaka on the 5th day of the dark half of Vaišākha in the year 122 (of the Saka era), which was wrongly read as Saka 232 in the Bhavnagar Collection of Sanskrit and Prākrit Inscriptions (p. 23). This sepulchral stele (Refe) was erected for the son of Vānijaka, who sacrified his own life for the sake of his own friend :
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT इयं शिलालष्टि [उत्थापिता] वाणिजकस्य पुत्रेण प्रतिजीवितं दत्तं स्वमित्रे [त्राय) हि निजस्य । -(A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions : Baroda State, 1943., pp. 1-4).
Such laştis or yastis were, it appears, frequently raised during the Kșatrapa times, as can be seen from the Andhāu inscriptions of S. 52 also.
The only inscribed object found from the ancient site of Inţwa (so-called, as it has been yielding bricks of extra size in abundance) was excavated by G. V. Acharya in 1949, who collected relics of a Buddhist monastery in the shape of tiles, terracotta, pottery and the like, and a backed clay-sealing. Inţwa, is situated on a hill in the midst of thick jungle, about three miles from the famous rock at Junagadh in Surāṣtra.
The Brāhmi legend of the clay-sealing reads HERIF-EN-ERFAHTI i.e., the sealing belongs to the congregation of mendicants, at the Mahārāja Rudrasena Monastery. This is one of the earliest Bhikṣu-Samgha sealings unearthed in ancient India, so far.
Rudrasena is taken as Rudrasena I, a descendant of Castana the Kșatrapa, whose reign-period is known to be 199-222 A.D., on paleographic grounds. This sealing which is round in shape, about an inch in diameter and has a caitya symbol in the centre, is the only record that shows that this Rudrasena built a monastery (vihāra ) for Buddhist monks at Junagadh-(B. Ch. Chhabra : Intwa Clay-sealing, EI, XXVIII, 174-5).
According to the Mulwa-sar inscription, above referred to dated in the month of Vaišākha of the year 122 (A.D. 200-201) Rudrasena had assumed the dignity of Mahākṣatrapa by the beginning of this year.
Clay-seals belonging to Mahādevi Prabhudamā described as a daughter of Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasimha I, and a sister of Mahākşatrapa Rudrasena I, have been discovered at Basarh ( ancient Vaiśāli) in the Muzaffarpur District of Bihar. It is not improbable that she was married to a chief of the Licchavis who appear to have flourished in that region before the rise of the Guptas.
Rudradāman is mentioned in Junagadh inscription to have attended several Svayamvaras; and the matrimonial alliances of the Kārdamakas point to the gradual absorption of the Scythians into Indian society. There is evidence for the marriages of Kārdamaka girls in the families of the Sātavāhanas of Dakşiņāpatha, the Ikşvākus of Andhrapatha and probably also the Licchavis of Vaiśāli. - The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 185, 187)
S. 122--Coins were struck by Rudrasena I either as Ksatrapa or Mahākşatrapa (Rapson, ibid, 97). The king seems to have attained the position of Mahākṣatrapa between S. year 121 and 125.
Ś. 125-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahākṣatrapa(Rapson, ibid, 97 f.).
200-201
. 200-1
203-4
Jain Education Intemational

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Plate XV
(A) Talājā-Cave Mandapa, with Caitya-window design Gohilwāļ, Saurāșțra. (p. 92)
(B) Boriā Stūpa Railing, Mt. Girnār (p. 90)

Page #130

Plate XVI

Khambhālida Cave Facade, Madhya Saurāșțra. (pp. 93, 314)

Page #131

KSATRAPA PERIOD
73
204-5
205
206-7
$. 126-Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahakşatrapa--( ibid., 98).
A satra (alms-house) or a memorial was started (or raised, elevated and created utes) by the brothers of Kharapārthat, the son of thc Pratyášaka of Mānasa gotra, for getting the happiness of Svarga (911429 ) during the reign of Rājan Mabākşatrapa Svänin Rudrammkla in S. Varşa 127, Bhādrapada bahula 5, ( 205 A.D.)- Gadhi (near Jasilan, Saurastra) Stone-louscription, EI, XVI, 230
Is Sankalia has noted (JBBRAS, XS, SII, 104 f.), this meaning of satra is fully borne out by the phrase sair-pruvallanürlham (for the continuation of the satru) in the Bagumra Plates of Dhruva III, dated S.E. 783, wherein
satra' is explained by Bühler as. Sadarruta'alms-house. (IA, XII, 184 1.). Banerji, also connects the word (?) in the inscription, with #7; but the change of into his difficult to explain.
The word appears to indicate a lath (ali) raised in memory of Kharapārtha by his brothers.--( 1). C. Sircar, Selected Inscriptions, p. 179, fn.).
In this inscription the word ' a' is found prefixed to all the names of the Mahākşatrapas given in the geneology. This is, perhaps, the longest pedigree of the Surā tra and Mälava Ksatrapas, preserved in an inscription.
S. 128--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahakşatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 98).
Ś. 130---Siiver coins were struck by Rudrasena l as Mahākṣatrapa-(ibid., 98). $. 131-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahākṣatrapa-(ibid., 98).
A potin coin bearing the figure of an elephant on the obv. and the usual symbol of eternity on the rei'. is dated year 131 ; and, therefore, belongs to the reign of MKS. Rudrasena 1-(ibid., cxxx, 105).
S. 132-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahakşatrapa-(ibid., 99) S. 133--Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Jahākşatrapa-(ibid., 99 ).
A potin coin bearing the figure of an elephant on the obe. and the usual symbol of eternity on the rev. is to be assigned to the reign of Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena 1, as it is dated in the year 133- ibid., 105).
S. 134-Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahākşatrapa-( ibid., 99 f.)
Ś, 135-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahakşatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 100 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 277 ff.).
$. 136--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahākṣatrapa--(ibid., 101).
$. 137-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Rudrasena 1-(Rapsoti, ibid., 102).
S. 138--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena l as Mahakşatrapa(ibid., 102).
208-9 209-10
210-1 211-2
212-3 213-4
214-5 215-6
216-7
C10

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74
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
217-8. S. 139-Mahäkşatrapa Rudrasena I struck coins in silver--(Rapson, ibid.,
103; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) 218-9 S. 140-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena I-(ibid., 103 ). 219-20. Ś. 141--Rudrasena I struck silver coins as Mahākṣatrapa-(ibid., 104). 220- 1 Ś S. 142--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahākṣatrapa ---
. 12_Silver i (ibid., 104; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.)
Square copper coins of the Bull-type were issued during this year and hence
they belong to Rudrasena I.-(J. N. Nanavati, JNSI, XIII, 204). 222-3 Ś. 1(44)—Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena I as Mahäkşatrapa ---
(ibid., 104; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227 ft.).
In this year silver coins were also issued by Ksatrapa Prithvisena, son of Mahākşatrapa Rudrasena l-(ibid., 106). The legend in his coins is 15 HEIक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनपुत्रस राज्ञो क्षत्रपस पृथ्वीसेनस। This is the only known date of his reign.
Rudrasena I seems to have been succeeded by his brother Samghadaman during this year, as a coin struck by the latter as Mahākşatrapa is dated 14(4) -(ibid., 107).
The legend on the coins of Samghadāman is-- H€147744 x 999 FT
महाक्षत्रपस्य संघदाम्नः। 223-4 $. 145-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Sanghadaman, son of
Mahäksatrapa Rudrasimha 1--(ibid., 107).
Sainghadāmā was succeeded by his brother Dāmasena as Mahaksatrapa in year 145, as is evident from the coins struck by the latter in this year-(ibid., 108 ).
The legend on the coins of Dāmasena is Rájno Mahākṣatrapasa Rudrasimhas putrasa Rājno Mahākṣatrapasa Dāmasenasa--(ibid., 108 ).
Mahākşatrapa Samghadaman, the son of Mahakyatrapa Rudrasimha is known from two of his coins, who seems to have reigned for four years. This Samghadāman is identified with the Sandanes, whom the Periplus describes as taking the regular mart Kalyan, near Bombay, from Saraganes i.e. the Deccan Sātakarņis; and in order to prevent it again becoming a place of trade, had for bidden all Greek ships to visit Kalyan, and sent under a guard to Bharukaccha any Greek ships that entered its port even by accident.
The only possible Lord of Gujarat either in the second or third century who could have adopted such a policy was the Ksatrapa of Ujjain in Malwa and Minnagara or Junagadh in Saurāșțra. He is the same ruler, who, to encourage foreign vessels to visit Bharukaccha, had stationed native fishermen with wellmanned long boats off the Southern Saurāstra coast to meet ships and pilot them through the tidal and other dangers up the Narmada to Bharukaccha. It is
222-6

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KSATRAPA PERIOD
75
A.D. 223-37
C. 225
225-6
surmised that the Sandanes of the Peripluis and Ptolemy's North Konkan Sadans are the Gujarat Ksatrapas-( Bom. Gas. I, p. 44-45, footnote).
After the reign of Mahākṣatrapa Dāmasena ( 234-39 A.D.), the potin coinage of the Kardamakas, which is usually attributed to Malwa or some district of that country, seems to have discontinued. This currency is associated with the Mahāksatrapas. The Kșatrapas, who probably held sway in Saurāṣtra and Gujarat, and not in any part of Malwa, did not issue coins in potin. The discontinuance of this coinage is suggested to have denoted that about that time, part of Malwa was lost to the Kārdamaka Mahākṣatrapas, or that the potin currency previously circulating in that district was superceded by the widely used silver coinage. (The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 188).
An inscription of King Isvarasena, the son of Abhira Sivadatta and Mathari (ie. whose mother was of the Māthara gotra) is found in the Nasik cave No. 154 Vide, EI, VIII, p. 38).
Isvarasena is put in the first half of the 3rd century A.D.-(Vide, The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 222).
Ś. 147–Potin coins bearing the figure of an elephant on the obv. and the usual symbols of eternity on the rev. which were struck in this year, apply to the reign of Dāmasena.--(Ibid., 113).
The Sonpur hoard of silver coins contains year ( 1(4)7] on the coins 'struck by Mahākşatrapa Dāmasena.-(G. V. Acharya, JRASB, NS. XLVII. 96).
S. 150-Coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Dāmasena.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit. 227 ff.).
S. 151-Dāmasena struck silver coins as Mahäksatrapa.--(Ibid., 109).
Ś. 153-Mahäkșatrapa Dāmasena struck coins in silver (Ibid., 110 ) and in potin.--(Ibid., 114).
$. 154 : Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Dāmasena.--(Ibid, 110). Potin coins, struck during this year, also fall within the reign of Dāmasena. --(Ibid, 114).
Silver coins were struck by Dāmajadśri II, son of Rudrasena I as Ksatrapa. The legend is ist H8141999 a 131 4794 Emira: --(Ibid, 115).
Ś. 155: Silver coins were struck by Dāmasena as Mahākṣtrapa--(Ibid, 111); and by Dāmajadasri II as Ksatrapa.-( Ibid, 116; D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit. 227 ff.).
S. 156: Silver coins were struck by Damasena as Mahāksatrapa.--(Ibid, III) and by Viradāman as Ksatrapa.-(Ibid, 117). The legend on the coins of the latter is 11 H14749 cthan 979 9719 atelia: 1--(Ibid, 117).
· Viradāman, son of Dāmasena seems to have succeeded his cousin Dåmajadaśri II as Ksatrapa, either in this or in the previous year.
228.9
229-30 231-2
232-3
233-4
234-5

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76
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
A.D 235-6
236-7
238-9
239-40
$. 137 : Damasena struck coins in silver as Mahāksatrapa.-( Toid, III; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Viradáman struck silver coins as Ksatrapa.-(G. V. Acharya, op. cit., 96).
S. 153: Mahakşatrapa Damasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid, 111). Potin coins, which hear the date 1( 5 )8, also belong to this king.-( Ibid, 114).
Coins were struck by Viradáman as Kşatrapa. Ibid, 117, no. 2; D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.).
$. 160: Silver coins were struck by Viradāman as Ksatrapa.-- ( Rapson, ibid, 120 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Viradāman was succeeded by his lorother, Ksatrapa Yasodāman, whose coins are dated in year 160.-(Ibid, 126 : D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). The legend on his coins is TT HEA319 9 999 T 1719 311313: 1
In the same year Yasodāman was in turn succeeded by his brother Vijayasena as Kşatrapa. The legend on the coins of the latter runs as follows: 1 HET799 z a 974 418 744 --( Rapson, ibid, 129 ff., D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Yasodāman rose to the position of Malākşatrapa in rear 160, as known from Uhe Sarvania hoard.- (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 161: Silver coins were struck by king Mahaksatrapa Yasodāman, son of king Mahiksatrapa Dimasena. The legend is राजो महाक्षत्रपस दामसेनस पुत्रत्य गज्ञो H€14749 421121:1
Vijayasena, son of Damasena struck coins as Ksatrapa as well as Mahakşatrapa.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). So he seems to have risen to the higher status of Mabākşatrapa and succeeded Yasodáman during this year,
The date 16(1) read by G. V. Acharya on silver coins struck by Viradāman is (op. cit., 98) unacceptable, as Viradaman was already succeeded by Yasodaman in year 160.
Ś. 162: Silver coins were struck by king lijayasena as Mahākşatrapa. The legend is राजो महाक्षत्र रस दामसेनपुत्रस राजो महाक्षत्रास विजयमेनस ।-(Rapson, ibid, I30 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 163: Silver coins were struck by king Mahākṣatrapa Vijayasena.(Rapson, ibid, 131 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 164 : Mahākşatrapa Vijayasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 132; D, R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 163: Vijayasena struck silver coins as Mahåksatrapa.-(Rapson, ibid., 133 ; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 166: Silver coins were struck by Mahákşatrapa Vijayasena.-(Rapson, ibid., 133 : D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
240-1
241-2
242-3
243-4
244-3

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A.D.
245-6
246-7
247-8
243-9
248-9
249
KSATRAPA PERIOD
S. 167 Coins in silver were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Vijayasena.- Rapson, ibid., 133 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Ś. 168: Silver coins were struck by Mahakṣatrapa Vijayasena.-(Ibid., 134; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
17
S. 169: Mahakṣatrapa Vijayasena struck coins in silver.--(Rapson, ibid., f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 f.).
S. 170: Vijayasena struck silver coins as Mahakṣatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid., 135., D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdiman as Mahakṣatrapa,(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
The Kalacuri or the Traikutaka Era must have originated South of the Narmada. Gujarat, Konkan and Maharastra appear to be the original home of the era, as the earliest records dated in this era come from Central India, Gujarat, Konkan and Maharastra, including the districts of Nagpur, Nasik and Khandesh. No certain dates of this era come from North India until the middle of the 9th century A.D., i.e. until after its introduction in the Cedi country by the Kalacuris. When the Kalacuris migrated to Central India and shifted their capitals to Kalanjara and Tripurf, they took with them the era which they had habitually used in their earlier kingdom, and made it current throughout their dominions.-V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Introduction: Pp. xxiii, xxx).
The Kalacuri era: The dates of the Kalacuri era fall into two groups, viz.(1) the earlier ones down to the year 490 which come from Gujarat and Maharastra, where the era had its origin: and (2) the later ones from the year 722 to the year 969 which come from Vindhya Pradesh, Uttara Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh including Chhattisgarh, where the era was introduced with the extension of the Kalacuri power.
The first group yields an equation Kalacuri-Sanical om 248-49 A.D. while in regard to the second, the equation is Kalacuri-Samvat om 247-48 A.D. In both the periods the Kalacuri year commenced on Kartika 4u. di. I; but in the earlier period the months were generally amanta, while in the later one they were generally paryimanta.
According to the testimony of the five early dates, which come from. Gujarat and Maharastra, the Kalacuri era commenced on the amanta Kartika su di. I(the 25th September) in 249 A.D.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Inscrip tions of the Kalacuri-Cedi Era, Part I, 1955. Introduction Pp. xi, xii.)
The earliest known records dated in this exa are those of the Traikitakas, beginning with the year 207. The theory that this Era was founded by the Vakatakas to mark the foundation of their power (Jayaswal, History of India: 150 A.D. to 350 A.D., 108-11) is found untenable, (A. S. Altekar, Vakataka

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CHROXOLOGY OF GUJARAT
A.D. 249-50 250-1
C. 219
Gripta Age, p. 94); while the theory of ascribing it to the Abhira king Tśvarasena (JRAS, 1905, p. 566) deserves special consideration.-( ABORI, xxvii, 1 ff.).
$. 171- Mahåksatrapa Vijayasera struck coins in silver.-- Rapson, ibid, 135 f.; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 172—Silver coins struck by Vijayasena as Mahâksatrapa.---( Rapson, ibid., 136; D). R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
The Ibhira ruler Isvarasen, who bore the title Rājan' in the Nāsik caveinscription of Circa 249 A.D. had his father Sivadatta, with no title. He was probably the originator of the so-called . Kalacuri-Cedi Era'.
Though the Abhiras themselves spoke an Apabhramsa language, unlike the Satavahanas, they seem to have patronised Sanskrit. The Nāsik cave-inscrip. tion, which though not an official document, is written in a language which is predominantly Sanskrit.
Judging by the extent of his era, Isvarasena seems to have ruled over a large territory comprising Gujarat, Konkan and Mahārāsýra. He was followed by nine more kings who ruled for 167 years, and were supplanted by their feudatories, the Traikatakas, in Circa 415 A.D. Several guilds were flourishing in their kingdom, in which people invested large amounts for making permanent endowments. This indicates that peace, order, and a general sense of security prevailed in the country during their rule.
.C. 250
Vätsyāyana's Kimasātra mentions the Abhira Kottarāja, who was murdered in another's house by a washerman at the instigation of his brother. The commentator Yasodhara says that he was ruling at Kotta in Gujarat, identified with Kotah by some. Kottaraja was probably his personal name. He may have been a successor of Isvarasena.--(1. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro. : Pp. xxi-ir).
Išvardatta, a Mahākṣatrapa, whose coins dated in 'first' and 'second year, were found with those of the Kşatrapas, seems to have partially overthrown the Ksatrapa power about this date. According to Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji, Išvardatta was the founder of the Traikūtaka', i known later as the Kalacuri' or
Cedi') cra' originating probably with establishment of his power in the Konkan, with Traikīta as the capital. • Under Rudrasena, son of Viradāman, the Ksatrupas appear to have reestablished their soverignty by driving out the Traikūtakas, who thus dispossesserl, retired to Central India, assuming the name . Haihaya' or ' Kalacuri'. On the final destruction of the Ksatrapa rule, the Traikütakas apparently regained Traikūta, about which time Dahrasena (A.D. 456 ) succeeded to the throne.-(Bom. Gaz, I, 294 ff:. : : .
..
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KSATRAPA -PERIOD: :
79
.250:2
A.D. 252-3 253-4
254-5
255-6
256-7
256
S. 17(2):ør 17(3)- Silver coins were struck by: king Mahākṣatrapa Dāmajadasri III, son of king Maha ksatrapa Dāmasena-( Rapson, ibid., 137). The legend is visit (27772191974 TI #7121717 719572:
In the Sarvania hoard, D. R. Bhandarkar has read 17(2) and 17(3) on the coins struck by this king (op. cil. 227 ff.). So it is certain that Vijayasena was succeeded by Dāmajadasri III during this year,
Ś. 174-Mahākşatrapa Dāmjadasri III struck coins in silver.-(Rapson, ibid., 137 f.; D, R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 175-Silver coins were struck by Mahākşatrapa Dämajadasri I11. - (Rapson, ibid., 138; D. R. Bnandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 176--Damajadasri III struck silver coins as Mahikṣatrapa.-( Rapsan, 139; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 177-Silver coins were struck by Mahāk atrapa Dāmajadasri III (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.) as well as by his successor Malākṣatrapa Rudrasena II.-(Ibid, op. cit., 186 if.). So it is certain that Dāmajadasri III was succeeded by Rudrasena II during this year.
Ś. 178–King Rudrasena II, son of Viradāınan struck silver coins as Mahákșatrapa.-( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff. }.
S. 17(6) or 17(7) or 17(8) or 1709)-Silver coins struck by king Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena 11, son of king Kşatrapa Viradāmail.-( Rapson, ibid., 141 ). ___The legend is राज्ञो क्षत्रप वीरदामपुत्रस राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस रुद्रसेनस। ..
The discovery of the year 178 on the coins struck by his successor (D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit , 227 ff. ) removes the possibility of the year 17(9).
Ś. 179--Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena II. -(D. R. Bhandarkar op. cil., 227 ff.).
Ś. 180---Rudrasena Il struck coins in silver as Mahakşatrapa.-(Rapson, ibid.; 142; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 18(1)-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson, ibid. 142; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 182-Silver coins were struck by Mahākşatıapa Rudresena II.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
$. 183-Mahākşatrapa Rudrasena II struck coins in Silver.-( Rapson op. cit., 142 ).
$. 184—Silver coins were struck by Malākṣatrapa Rudrasena II.--(ibid, 142).
Ś. 185---Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena II.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, ap. cit., 227.11.:.: .
:. :.: .: .
257-8
258-9
259-60 : : 260-1
.** 261-2
262-3
263.4
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
AD. Ś. 18(6)-Rudrasena II struck silver coins as Mahäksatrapa.--( Rapson, 264-5 op. cit., 143).
The date is definitely read in the Servania hoard.---(D. R. Bhandarkar,
op. cil., 227 ff.). 265-6 S. 187) -- Mabāk atrapa Rudrasena II struck coins in silver.-(Rapson,
ibid., 143).
The date is definitely read in the Sarvania hoard.-(D. R. Bhadarkar,
op. cit., 227 ff.). 266-7 S. 188-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşalrapa Rudrasena II.-- Rapson,
1bid., 143 ff. ; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., ff.). 267-8 Ś. 189--Silver coins were struck by Mahākşatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson,
ibid., 144) 268-9 S. 19(0) or 19(x)—Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Rudrasena II.
--( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 269-70 S. 19(1)-Rudrasena II struck silver coins as Mabākšatrapa.( Rapson,
up. cit., 144 ).
The date is definite in the Sarvania hoard.(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227
ft.). 270-2 S. 19(2) or 19(3)-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Rudrasena
II.-- Ibid., 144 ff.). 272-3 Ś. 124-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Rudrasena II.-( Rapson,
ibid., 145; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 273-4 Ś. 195-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena Il as Mahäksatrapa.- G. V.
Acharya, JRASN. NS XLVII, 96 ). 274-5 Ś. 196-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Rudrasena II.--( Rapson,
ibid., 145 ). 275-6 $. 197-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Rudrasena 11.---( D. R.
Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff; G. V. Acharya op. cit., 97). 275-6 Ś. 197-Silver coins were struck by Visvasimha, son of Rudrasena II as
Ksatrapa.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Until the time of Visvasinha no coins struck by Kşatrapas have been known
for nearly 36 ycars. 276-7. $. 198-Ksatrapa Visvasimha struck coins in silver.-(Ibid.) 276-8 S. 198 or 199-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasena II as a Mahākşatrapa.
---(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.). 277-8 $. 199-Silver coins were struck by king ksatrapa Visvasinha, son of
king Mahäkşatrapa Rudrasena II.-(Rapson, op.cit., 147 ff.). The legend is TOTT FE3714 # 999
(D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid., 227 ff.).

Page #139

(A) Pot-sherd from Bet Sankhoddhāra (pp. 93-94) Reads नन्द क स ।
INCHES CMS
HV
>N
(B) Somanatha Pot-sherd (pp. 94, 314) Reads दस मपुसिती ।
Plate XVII
(C) Inṭvā Seal (p. 91) Reads महाराजरुद्रसेनविहारे भिक्षुसंघस्य ।
LAQUIFE MFGRIF Find gutt IS { } [ ], [GEAUCET ITUISCE
(D) Ghosundi Inscription (Chitodgadh Dist, Rājasthan) (p. 44)
Reads ( 1 ) ...न ... गाजायनेन पाराशरीपुत्रेण स...
( 2 ) ... जिना भगवद्भ्यां संकर्षणवासुदेवाभ्यां
( 3 ) ...भ्यां पूजा - शिला- प्राकारो नारायणवटे का [ रित: ]

Page #140

Plate XVII A
ETH
MENTREPRESENGE
Andhau Stone-Inscription of the Joint Rule of Castana and Rudradāman, dated S. 52, 130 A.D.I Bhuj Museum, (p. 62) The three lines read :--
(1) राजो चाष्टनस यस । मोतिकपुत्रस राज्ञो रुद्रदामस जपदामपुत्रस्य वर्षे द्विपंचाशे ५०, २ (2) फगुणबहुलस द्वितियं वा र यशदताये सीहमितधिता सेनिकगोत्राण शामणेरिये (3) मदनेन सीहिलपुत्रेन कुटुंबिनिये [लष्टि] उथापिता ।
3)
Fragmentary Ksatrapa Stone-Inscription from Lathi, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay (p.94)
Reads only महाक्षत्रा स्वामीरुद्र...जी..... |
C)
Fragmentary Ksatrapa Stone-Inscription, Rajkot Museum, (pp. 94, 314)
Reads clearly only : राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस्य...स्य .दस... | Jain Education Internatif

Page #141

Plat, XVIII
Seals (1-1) Akoțā Seal and Sealing: show Prancing horses. p. 95; (2) Timbervā Inscribed Seal, seems to read Fifa 14h i p. 94; (3) Vadnagar Terracotta Inscribed Seal: Reads at a FUNAI p. 94; (4) Navsāri Lead Seal, with an Iranian horse and Dragon-tail. p. 95; (5) Vadnagar Uninscribed Seal, shows a woman with a flower in hand p. 94; (6) Elephant Seal, excavated by Rev. Father Heras, from Valā (Valabhi Period), p. 197.

Page #142

13
(A) Painted and Incised pottery from Rosaḍi, Aṭkot, Prabhāsa (p. 315)
(B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojitra, near Cambay (p. 315) (Vallabha Vidyanagar Museum)
Plate XVIII A
Rāṣṭrakūta Seal of a Garuda, the Vähana of Visņu. [See Plate XXVIII (B) Infra]

Page #143

KSATRAPA PERIOD
81
Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Ruçlrasena TÍ also.--(G. V.
Acharya, op.cit., 96 ) A.D. Ś. 200--Kşatrapa Viśvasimha struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 148 f.; 278.9 D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.).
The evidence of coins struck by Visvasimha as Mahākşatrapa as well as by Bhartsdaman as Ksatrapa (D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.) indicates that the former as Ksatrapa was succeeded by Bhartsdaman as Ksatrapa. And Visvasimha
rose to the status of Mahākṣatrapa during this year. 279-80. S. 2(01)--Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasimha (Rapson, ibid.,
149). The date is doubtful, for the king had already risen to the status of Mahākşatrapa in year 200.
S. 201--Silver coins were struck by Bhartņdāman, son of Rudrasena II, as Ksatrapa. The legend is T MATT : 1779 71:1---( Rapson, 153; D. R.
Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 280-2 Ś. 20(2) or 20(3)--Silver coins were struck by Kşatrapa Bhartļdāman
(Rapson, ibid, 154).
In the Saryania hoard, the year 202 is definitely read.-( D. R. Bhandarkar,
op. cit., 227 ff.). 281-2 S. 203--Silver coins were struck by Bhartědáman as Ksatrapa.--(Rapson,
ibid., 154). 282
Between $. 201 and $. 211--Silver coins were struck by Visvasimha as Mahakşatrapa. The legend is TET H T1A Zana #KTATTI FRUTTI - (Ibid., 152 ).
The Sarvania hoard indicates that Visvasimha's career of Mahākṣatrapa can
be assigned to years 200 to 204--(cf. D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 282-3. S. 204--Ksatrapa Bhartņdāman struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 154;
D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.).
In the same year Bhartsdāman struck coins as Mahākṣatrapa.-( Ibid). Therefore, it is certain that he rose to the status of Mahāksatrapa during this
year. 283-4 S. 203-Silver coins were struck by Bhartņdāman as Mahaksatrapa.-(D. R.
Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.). 284-5 S. 206-Mallaksatrapa Bhartrdāman struck coins in silver.---(Rapson,
ibid.). :
D. R. Bhandarkar read year 2006) on coins struck by Viśvasena, son of
Bhartrdāman, as Ksatrapa.--(op. cit., 227 ff.). 285-6'. $. 207_Bhartsdāman struck silver coins as Mahäkşatrapa.-( Rapson,
ibid). CII
Jain Education Interational

Page #144

St
A.D.
287-8
287
289-90,
290
290-1
291-2
292-3
293-4
294-5
295-6
CHRONOLOGY OF 'GUJARAT
S. 209-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Bhartṛdaman.(Ibid).
S. 20(5) or 2(06) or 2(07) or 2(08) or 2'09)-Silver coins were struck by Bhartrdáman as Mahāksatrapa. The legend on the coins is राजो महाक्षस सेन राज़ो महा भर्तृदामन: । (Zhid 155ff.).
S. 211-Bhartṛdaman struck coins as Mahākṣatrapa.-( Rapson, op. cit., 156; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
This date is read by G. V. Acharya on silver coins struck by Viśvasimha as Mahākṣatrapa (JRASB. NS. XLVII, 96, ff.); but the reading is unacceptable, as Viśvasimha was already succeeded by Bhartṛdaman in or before year 204.
Rise of the Gupta dynasty founded by the feaudatory Mahārājas Gupta and Ghatotkaca. It became supreme under Candragupta I (A.D. 319), whose empire extended under his successors pyer the greater part of Northern India, from Nepal to Narmada and from Kaccha to Western Bengal. The Guptas maintained their sway until the early part of the sixth century A.D.,, when their power, broken at first by invasions of the Hunas under Toramana and Mihirkula, appears to have been finally overthrown by a feudatory king, Yasodharman during the reign of Narasimhagupta Baladitya:-(CI, iii; Int. 17). S. 212-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Bhartṛdaman.(Rapson, ibid., 157: D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
S. 213-Silver coins were struck by Bhartṛdáman as Mahākṣatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 157 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
S. 214-Mahākṣatrapa Bhartṛdāman struck silver coins.-( Rapson, ibid., 158; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
S. 215 (?)-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Bhartridaman. (Rapson, ibid., 158.)
The year is definitely read in the Sarvania hoard.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
In the same year Viśvasena struck coins as Kṣatrapa-(Ibid.).
S. 210: Silver coins were struck by king Kṣatrapa Viśvasena, son of king Mahākşatrapa Bhartrdaman. The legend is राज्ञो मास राजो स Rapson, ibid., 162; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.)
Silver coins were struck by Bhartṛdāman as Mahākṣatrapa.-G. V. Acharya, op. cit., 96).
Ś. 217-Silver coins were struck by Mahakṣatrapa Bhartrdaman (Rapson, ibid, 158) and Ksatrapa Viśvasena.-(Ibid, 162; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).

The office of Mahaksatrapa seems to have been in abeyance for about 50 years after this year.

Page #145

A.D.
296-7
297-8
298-9
299-300
C. 300
2
C. 301: 313
..: 300-1
83
S218-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Viśvasena.- Rapson, ibid.,
KSATRAPA PERIOD. :
169).
Ś. 219-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Viśvasena.--(Ibid., 262).
S. 22(0)-Kṣatrapa Viśvasena struck silver coins.-(Ibid., 164). The date is definite in the Sarvania hoard-( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 221-Ksatrapa Viśvasena struck coins in silver. Rapson, ibid., 165: D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
#
Vatsyayana in his Kamasutra, the famous work on Erotics, gives an account of several of the customs of its people; and describes the ladies of Aparanta and Lata country as capable of enduring the nail and other marks in erotic sports ( चण्डवे मन्दसीकृत आपरान्तिवार
II 5.26 )
At the Council at Valabhi under Devardhi Gaņi, not only the work written at Mathura and Valabhi were rewritten and codified, but some more were added to the previous list. A serious attempt was made to reconcile the differences in the two versions pertaining to the two councils held by Skandil Suri at Mathura and by Nagarjuna at Valabhi. In cases where this failed, one of the variants was noted in the original Agamas and the other in the Commentary.
Practically in the Jaina council, the literature was written according to the version of Mathura council as a connected link, while the Joisa-Karandaga (treating of astronomical knowledge) is based on the Valabhi version. The practice of referring to a third party for a controversial question was set aside, and codified works were looked upon as the final authorities. The codification acted as a preventive from further modernization of the sacred works. Several Vannaas (descriptions) occurring in more than one Agama and which were written only once at full length but were not reproduced ad. verbatim a second time, were referred to merely by writing the word Vanna and indicating the source of the parallel description. Thus the result of the Jaina council at Valabhi was the enshrining of the sacred lore in a Mss form.
S. 222-Silver coins were struck by Viśvasena as Ksatrapa.-( Rapson, ibid., 65; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.)

2
Jinadasa Gani, in his Cary? (p. 38) on Nandisutta, refers to the Mathuri Vacana of the Jaina canons; but he does not mention the date of this restoration. It took place under the guidance of Skandila and can be assigned to a date sometime between Vira Sari. 827 (A.D. 300) and 840 (A. D. 313)..
Strange to say, he is silent about a similar attempt made almost simultaneously by Nagarjuna Süri at Valabhi (modern Vala in Surästra) known as Valabhi Vacanā.
Fortunately, both these attempts are noted by Bhadreśvara Sări in his Kahavall (so far unpublished). Hemacandra Sari in his commentary on

Page #146

CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
A.D. 301-2 302-3
303-4
304-5
Yogaśāstra (III, 120 ) says that the Jaina canon was got written by Súris, such as Vāgarjuna and Skandila.--(H. R. Kapadia, 4 llistory of Canonical Literature of the Jainas, pp. 61-62 ).
S. 223--Visvasena struck coins in silver as Kșatrapa.- (Rapson, ibid., 163; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.)
S. 224-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Visvasena.-(Rapson, ibid., 163; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.)
S. 225-Silver coins were struck by Visvasena as Kşatrapa.--( Rapson, ibid., 165 f; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.)
S. 220)--Ksatrapa Viśvasena struck coins in silver.-( Rapson, ibid., 166; D. R. Blandarkar, ibid.)
In the same year silver coins were also struck by Rudrasimha II, son of Svåmi-Jivadāman (Ibid). Hence Visvasena appears to have been succeeded by Rudrasin la II during this year.
With Visvasepa the line of Castana seems to have come to an end. SvamiJivadaman Seems to have belonged to a younger branch of the royal family (JRAS, 1896, p. 660). For, le bears none of the titles which may be regarded as distinctively royal in character.--( Rapson, cf. cit., exli).
The history of this royal family is marked by the conspicuous absence of any coins struck by Mabākšatrapa. The office of Mahakşatrapa, therefore, seems to have been in abeyance during the rule of this family.-(Rapson, ibid., cxli f.).
S. 227--Coins were struck in silver by Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Svami Jivadaman. The legend on the coins is स्वामी जीवदामनपुत्रस राजो क्षत्रपस रुद्रसीइम। -( Rapson, ibid., 170; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid).
The date read by G. 1. Acharya as 22( 2 ) or 227) on coins of Visvasena (op. cit., 98 ) is unacceptable, as liśvasena was already succeeded by Rudra. şimha II in year 226.
S. Varșa 228, l'aisakha suddha saptame : The Junagadh Museum inscription discovered from excavations in the Bava Pyara Caves refers to the date of the reign of Rājan Kşatrapa Rudrasimha II, son of Jivadāman. The inscription, however, contains no reference to any event.-( WMR, AR. 1929-20, 7).
S. 228--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha Il as Kşatrapa.--(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
Ś. 229--Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha. Il as Kșatrapa.( Rapson, ibid., op.cit., 170; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
S. 230--Ksatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.-(Rapson, ibid., 171; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
$. 231--Silver coins were struck by Kşatrapa Rudra sitnha II-(Ibid., 171; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.).
305
306
306.7
307-8
308.9
309.10

Page #147

KSATRAPA PERIOD
A.D. 310-1 310-2
312-3
313-4
314-5 315-6 316-7,
317
316-7
317-8
S. 232-Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha Il as Kşatrapa.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.)
S. 23(2) --Silver coins were struck by Rudrasimha II as Ksatrapa.(Rapson, op. cit. 171).
$. 234-Silver coins were struck by Kşatrapa Rudrasimha H.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.)
S. 235-Kșatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.--( D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit.).
S. 236--Rudrasimha II struck silver coins as Kşatrapa.-( Ibid). S. 237-Kşatrapa Rudrasimha II struck coins in silver.---(Ibid. S. 238-Silver coins were struck by Kşatrapa Rudrasimha II.---( Ibid ).
$. 23(9) - Silver coins were struck by Kșatrapa Rudrasimha II.-( Rapson, op. cit., 172 ).
S. 238-Silver coins were struck by Yasodáman II, son of Rudrasimha H, as Ksatrapa.-( 1. R. Bhandarkar, op.cit., 227 ff.).
S. 239-Yasodāman II struck silver coins as Ksatrapa. The legend on the coins is T4 999 TETT $1 21121: - Rap:on, op cit, 175; D.R. Bhandarkar, ibid ).
From Dasakumiracarita we learn that in the historical age, Valabhi was the capital of Suraştra, and prior to it, Girinagara was so. It was destroyed in Vira Samvat 845 i.e. V. S. 375. (= 319 A.D.). This is according to Titthogatiś : Prabhandha Cintamani' (1), Purātana-prabandha-sangraha (XXXVII, p. 83) etc. A similar event took place in V. S. 845, (= 789 A.D.)and this gave a fatal blow to this city, from which it could not regain its original prosperity.(JPI, Pt. I, P. 399).
The epoch of the Gupta Era is 318-19 A.D., and its first year was 319-20 A.D. It probably dates from the coronation of Candragupta I, Vikramaditya, son and successor of Ghatotkaca, who had married a Licchavi princess of Pataliputia. This Candragupta, chief of a small principality near Pataliputra, and first of the Gupta dynasty, became independent; and founded the Gupta Era' beginning at 320 A.D.
The Valabhi Era, it appears, was adopted by the Maitrakas, who were the feudatories of the Guptas. The latter introduced the Era of the Guptas' in Surāştra. Their subjects, however, consequently gave it the name of their masters, and referred to it as the Valabhi era'.
S. 242-Coins of silver were struck by Kșatrapa Yagoda man II.--( Rapson, op. cit., 177; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid).
C. 319
319-20
320-1

Page #148

CHRONOLOGY.OF. GUJARAT
A.D. 321-2 322-3
323-4
324-5 323-6
327-8 330-1 331-2 332-3
310
Ş. 243-Silver coins were struck by. Ksatrapa. Yasodáman II.-( Rapson, ibid., 17:1). R. Bhandarkar, ibi).
S. 244-Yasodāman II, struck coins in silver as Kşatrapa.--(Rapson, ibid., 177; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid).
5. 245—Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodāman 11.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid).
$. 24(0)-Silver coins were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodāman II.-(Ibid, 177).
S. 2467) - Silver coins were struck by Katrapa Yasodáman II.-(D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit. 227 ft. ).
S. 249- Ksatrapa Yasodáman II struck silver coins.--(Ibid., 177). S. 252--Silver coin's were struck by Ksatrapa Yasodāman II.-- ( Ibid., 177). Ś. 253--Silver coins were struck by Kşatrapa Yasodāman II.---(Ibid., 177).
S. 254 : Kşatrapa Yasodāman 1struck coins in silver. - (Ibid., 197; 1). R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 fi.!.
Mahakșatrapa, Rudradāman II is known only from the coins of his son Svāmi-Rudrasena III. He appears aş.the first Mahākṣatrapa? to reign, since the time of Blartsdāman (last known date S. 217). His relationship to his predecessors is quite unknown.
From this period all the princes of this dynasty assume on their coinage the title • Svāmi' prefixed to the proper name.---( Rapson, ibid., csi iii).
'S. 270-King 1!athāksatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena' III, son of king Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Rndradāman II struck coins in silver. The legend on his coins is
29474142146974.. 4614599 101i il, 179; D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 #f.).
This is the earliest known date on his coins. Between years 254 and 270 there remains a long interval during it hich no coins of Mahiksetrapas i ksatrapas are knah lo hare existed...
$. 271--Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Svāmi Rudtasena III.(Ibid., 179:).. .
S. 272--Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena III - (Rapson, op. cit., 170;D. R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., 227 ff.).
S. 273-Svāmi-Rudrasena III struck coins in silver as Mahåksatrapa.(Rapson, ibid., 179; D. R. Bhandarkar, ibid.). . Some of the Jaina monks who could not act up to the conduct prescribed for them in the Jaina Scriptures; began to stay in Jaina temples of Gujarat etc. in Vira Samvat 882 ( A.D. 356). Thus caitva-isa started from this date.
Seç. Upadhyaya Ravivardhana Gani's Pattavali-sarodhhara, (p. 151) published in * Pattavall-samucasa' (pl. 1). "Jajpa Tattvadarsa, ard SHJH (p. 137).
348-9
"349-50
C. 350-1
351-2
356

Page #149

KSATRAPA PERIOD !
AD:-** *Between $. : 27(4) and 27(0) ---Siker roinis: nwere struck' by Mahâksatrapa 337 ... Kudrasena III.- D. R. Bhandarkar,' np. cit., 227*ff. 1. **** ***** 358 : kşamāśramana Mallavădin Sūri, the author of Djādaśara Viyacakra, de
feated the Bauddhas in debate which took place in the assembly of Siladitya, a ruler of Valabhi in Vira samvat 884 ( 358 A.D.), and conquered their l'yantara. Thereupon Silāditya expelled the Bauddhas froin Surastra.! . ;
1 Caturoimsatiprabandha ( VII, V. 47-56).
For his various episodes, soe the Sanskrit Introduction (pp..9-20 ) to Nayacara
(G.O.S., No. XCVI). . 355-64 $. 280 to S. 284--Square coins of lead. were struck, which belong to Svāmi.. Rudrasena III. The obverse bears the figure of a humped bull and the reverse
is marked with the usual symbols of eteruity. The slate is incised on the reverse, which contains no legend.--( Rapson, op. cit., 187).
These coins range for five years from S. 280 to $. 284. 362-3 Silver coins were struck by Mahaksatrapa Srāmi-Rudrasena III.- (G. V.
Acharya, JRASB. SS. XLVII, 96). 363-4 Year 28(5) has been read on silver coins struck by Mahakşatrapa Svåmi
Rudrasena Ill.-( G. V. Acharya, ibid., go and 98 ). 364-5 S. 286-Silver coins were struck by Svámi-Rudrasena III as Mahaksatrapa.
(Rapson ibid., 180).
Lead coin's bearing this date belong to his regime.-( Ibid., 188). * 365-6 S. 287--Silver coins were struck by Svamt-Rudrasena III as Maha
kşatrapa.--(G. V. Acharya, op. cil., 96 ) 366-7 S. 288 - Lead coins of the same type were struck by Svámi-Rudrasena III -
(Rapson, op. cit., 188 ).. ..
$. 28( 4 ) or 2816 ) or 2817) or 28(83 or 2819) --- Silver coins wete struck by Mahakşatrapa Svámi-Rudrasena III.-Ibid., 181).
Ś. 2(9)0-Silver coins were struck by Syáini-Rudrasena 111 as Maha
kşatrapa.--( Ibid., 181). 368-?(?). $. 29()-Silver coins were struck by Svami Rudrasena III as Maha
kşatrapa.-(Ibid., 182). .370-1 $. 292-Svāmi-Rudrasena III issued : silver coins as Mahākṣatrapa. -
--(Ibid., 182 ff.) 380 Lakulisa or Lakulesa, the founder of the specialised form of the Pasupata
system, is believed to have hailed from Kārohara or Kārāvirohana ( modern Kārvan) in the Lāța-mandala, in about the 2nd Century A.D. Dr. Bhandarkar èquates the Lakulisa sect' with the Pasupatas; of which Lakulisa was the first Pāśupata, later on known as Lakulisa-Pāśupatas.--Si-R. G. Bhandarkar, :Vaisnarésyys, Sauvison and other Sects.:p. 162); ::..
'367
.
367.5

Page #150

88
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
A definite reference to Dandadhara' Lakulisa is obtained ( 24TH : *FEUE: 98124 Aral) from the Mathura Pillar Inscription of Candragupta II. of the Gupta year 61 (= 380 A.D.). This inscription records the installation of two images of the Pāśupata Acaryas: one who is tenth from Kausika, and the other is fourth from Parabara. Their names, however, end in' Vimala' ( Kapilavimala and Upamitavimala), unlike the later names which end in "Rāśi' and 'Siva'.
The preponderance of Saiva cult in Gujarat was due to the influence of Lakulisa, who was deified before the fourth century. Evidence of Lakulisaworship has been found at many places in India; at Mathura; in Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajputana, and at Bhuvanesvara." In his Saradarśanasangraha, Madhavăcărya recognised Lakulisa-Pāśupata doctrine as one of the sixteen important philosophical systems of India. Later, the Pasupata sect was associated with the great resurgence which began from the 7th century, and spread over the whole country. "Ganakärika' (G.O.S., No. 11) records the traditional history of Lakulisa, which says that it was the twenty-eighth incarnation of Maheśvara, that took place at Käyåvarohaņa. Fifth century sculptures of Lakulisa have been traced from Gujarat.
In the l'äyu Purana, (Ch. 23, verses 210-213 ) Maheśvara is represented to liave declared to Brahma that in the 28th Mahayuga, when Visnu would be born as Vāsudeva, he would incarnate himself as a Brahmacärin, by name Nakulin, after entering a dead body in the burial ground of Käyāroliana, a land of the Siddhas.
In the inscription dated A.D. 971 in the temple of Näthadwārā, ncar that of Ekalingaji, a few miles north of Udaipur, it is stated that Siva became incarnate as a man bearing a club (lakula) in his hand, in the country of Bhrgukaccha. There is another inscription of the 13th century A.D. (the 'Cintra Prasasti') which records that Siva became incarnate in the form of Bhattāraka Sri Lakulisa and dwelt at Kārohana in the Lāța country.
The Pāśupata Ācāryas from Western India were very much respected, as is known from the Badaun inscription (in Lucknow Museum) of Lakkhanpala (C. 12th century), where Dharmašiva, an ācārya who hailed from Aşahil pattan was placed in charge of a temple at Badaun.--(Dr. Keilhorn, EI, I, p. 61-66, 1888).
S. 293-Silver coins were struck by Mahakşatra pa Svămi-Rudrasena III.(Ibid., 183)
Ś. 294--Silver coins were struck by Svāmi-Rudrasena III as Mahåksatrapa.(Ibid., 183 ff.).
Lead coins struck it this year, alsó, belong to his regime.---(Ibid., 188).
371-2
372-3
Jain Education Intemational

Page #151

Plate XIX

Terracotta Figurines from Gohilwad Ţimbo, Amreli. (p. 95)

Page #152

Plate XX
A Ksatrapa Male Head from Tápi river, Surat Museum. (p. 315 ) (Front view)
(Back view)

Page #153

Plate XXI

(A) Legged quern from Salād, Baroda Dist.,
Baroda Museum (p. 97)
(B) Legged quern from Karvan, Ramanlal Desai's collection.
(p. 97)

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Plate XXI A
(A) Stone Lion-capital, from Baroda (p. 96 )
(B) Stone Lion-capital, from Baroda (p. 96)
C) Roman handle
from Akoțā.
(p. 98 )
(D) Figure of Eros on the Roman handle from Akoța.
(p. 98 )
(E) A Cameo from Kārvan
(p. 98 )

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89
C. 375
376-7
378.9
379-80
382-3
384-5
386
If the Sakas mentioned in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta be identified with the Western Kşatrapas, the Ksatrapas of Western India were subjugated by Samudragupta, who had subdued almost all kings of India. Could Rudradeva, mentioned among the subdued kings of Āryāvarta, be SvāmiRudrasena III of this dynasty ?-(Fleet, CII, III 6 ff.).
S. 298—Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena III.(Rapson, op. cit., 184).
Ś. 300-Silver coins were struck by Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena III.( Ibid., 185).
S. 301-Silver coins were struck by Svāmi-Rudrasena III as Mahākṣatrapa. -(G. V. Acharya, op. cit. 96).
$. 304- Silver coins were struck by king Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Simhasena, sister's son ( stasriya ) of king Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena III. The legend is: (a) 151 HB14777 van a 15: #514719 144 auf an, or (b) HERTS 497 varft a rateta 751 12974 Fan farmaa - Rapson, op cit., 189 f.).
$. 30(6)-The date on a coin struck by Svāmi-Simhasena is possibly, ś. 306.-(Rapson, ibid., 189 n. 2).
Between $. 304 or 30(6) and 310 or 31(x)--Silver coins were struck by king Mahāksatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasena IV, son of king Mahāşatrapa SvāmiSimhasena: The legend on the coins is राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस स्वामी सिंहसेनपुत्रस राजो महाक्षत्रपस taraft (Ibid., 191).
Only a single coin of this king is known and the date cannot be read on this specimen. The reign of this king is, therefore, to be included in the earlier part of the period limited by the region of Svāmi-Siảhasena and Svāmi-Rudrasimha III.-( Ibid., cxlix ).
S. 310---Rudrasimha III, Western Ksatrapa, son of Satyasimha : Satyasimha is known only from his son's coins; his date cannot, therefore, be fixed. As the Western Kșatrapas were conquered by Candragupta Vikramāditya about Gupta Sam. 90 = A.D. 409, Rudrasimha may have been the last of the dynasty.
Ś. Varșa 31 - ) Kārtika Św. 5-A memorial monolith was raised in honour of Abhira Vasuráka of Harihavaka gotra. The date has referred to the reign of Rājan Mahäkşatrapa, whose name is untraced. The record makes a reference to Castana and Bhartļdāman, but the expression for their relationship is not read satisfactorily.-( WMR, 1923-24, 12).
Between $. 304 or 30(6) and 310 or 31(x)-Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Satyasimha is at present known only from the coins of his son, Svāmi-Rudrasimha III. His relation with his predecessors is unknown. He may perhaps have been a brother of Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Simhasena. The reign of this king, is, therefore,
388
C. 388
C. 388
CI2
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to be included in the latter part of the period limited by the reigns of SvāmiSimhasena and Svāmi-Rudrasimha III.--(Rapson, ibid., cxlix).
C. 389
C. 390-1
$. 31(0) or 31(x)-Silver coins were struck by King Mahākṣatrapa SvāmiRudrasimha III, son of King Mahākṣatrapa Svāmi-Satyasimha. The legend on the coins is राज्ञो महाक्षत्रपस स्वामी सत्यसिंहपुत्रस राज्ञ महाक्षत्रपस ।-(Ibid., 192).
The date which is the last known of the Western Kșatrapas, is uncertain, as it is impossible to ascertain whether there was a unit figure in the date or not. It is more possibly 31(x).
$. 312-G. V. Acharya read this date on coins struck by Svāmi-Rudrasena III (op. cit., 96); but the reading is hardly acceptable, as Rudrasena III was already succeeded by Simhasena in or before year 304. Possibly the coins may belong to Svāmi-Rudrasena IV. In that case the date on the coins of Rudrasimha III must be 31(x) and not 310.
Skandasvāmi, the author of a portion of a Rigveda Bhāşya, and a commentary on Nirukta, was the teacher of Harisvāmi, the commentator of SatapathaBrāhmaṇa, who hailed from Puşkara; and called himself a 'Dharmādhyakşa' of the king Vikramāditya, who is very probably Candragupta II.- (U. P. Shah, 'Gujarātnā Ketalāk Pràcina Pandito, Buddhiprakasa, October, 1952, p. 302).
In about the 4th century A.D., we find the grandson of a merchant from Surășțra, recording the establishment of a Stone umbrella in honour of the Lord Buddha in Kośām (ancient Kaušāmbi.)-(R. C. Majumdar: Kośām Inscription of the reign of Mahārāja Vaiśravaņa'; Epi. Ind. XXIV, p. 146).
C. 400
C 400
III
ANTIQUITIES Vibāras and Stūpas : During the Ksatrapa rule in Saurăstra in the 2nd century A.D., several Vihara-caves seem to have been carved. The most notable amongst these excavations are the Caves at Junagadh, Sana, Talaja, Dhank, Jhinjhurijhara (Siddhasar ), and those newly discovered at Khambhalia. Not all of them are Buddhistic, as it was formerly supposed; and from their simple architectural forms, it is not always very easy to determine their exact period. But there is reason to believe that many of them belong to the Kşatrapa period. .
Boria Stūpa : As remains of architecture, the Slūpas that have upto now been found or uncovered in Western India are of brick. The great Boria Stūpa in the jungles on the Girnar Mt. at Junagadh had a solid burnt-brick core. The relics were imbedded in this brick-structure at a considerable depth above ground level. The find of a few sculptured marble-slabs, however, showed that some stone-work existed, probably as railing and the crowning umbrella. The relics are on view at the Junagadh Museum.-(Plate XIV a)
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Sopara Stūpa : The relics from Sopara Stūpa, which are assigned to the middle of the 2nd Century A. D. were discovered by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji in 1882 at a depth of 12 feet from the top of the mound at Sopara in a regularly built chamber of bricks of the early centuries of the Christian era. They consisted of a large stone-casket with a lid, which when opened disclosed copper-casket; around which, eight bronze images of Buddha were arranged. These images which belong to the 7th or 8th centuries will be referred to in the Maitraka Period of Antiquities.
A coin of Gautamiputra Yajnaśri Sātakarņi found inside the silver casket is the only type of Western Kşatrapa fabric issued by the Andhra king; and this happens to be the only coin of this type discovered in the Aparānta or the Konkan country, the two other specimens, which were found in Saurāstra and Baroda and now lay in the British Museum, are not so well preserved as this. Yajnaśri was a younger contemporary of Rudradāman, and his occupation of the Kșatrapa territories may account for the gap between the earlier and the later reigns of Rudradāman I as Mahākṣatrapa. The date of the present coin can then would be Saka 110-112 (188-190 A.D.).-(K. N. Dikshit, Dr. Bhagvanlal Commemoration Volume, JGRS, 1939)--( Plate XIV b)
Rudrasena Vihāra : The remains of a Buddhist monastery (Vihāra) of the time of Rudrasena I (199-222 A.D.) were excavated at Iñtwā on the Girnar hill, about three miles from the famous rock at Junagadh in 1949 by Shri G. V. Acharya. Tiles, terracottas, pottery etc. were found in the excavation; but the most remarkable object that was unearthed was the baked clay-sealing, round in shape, 1.1" in diameter, 'with a caitya symbol in the centre and a Brāhmi legend which states that the seal belonged to the Bhikṣusamgha of the Mahārāja Rudrasena Monastery. This is said to be one of the earliest Bhiksu-samgha seals unearthed in ancient India so far. (B. Ch. Chhabra, El., XXVIII, 174-5)-( Plate XVIIC).
The first trial pit at the depth of 3 feet disclosed a wall 2 or 3 feet deep, built with the bricks 18" X 12" x 3". Ultimately a rectangle measuring 66" X 58" was dug out which exposed brick-flooring of the same size bricks. On clearing the main courtyard upto the floor-level, two steps each on all the four sides were found. The (floor was paved with two layers of bricks. A platform 51' x 81' was also traced touching the western wall, probably meant as a seat for the preacher.
Excavation on the eastern outer structure brought to light six rooms (10' X 10' each ) with a verandah in front, 5 ft. wide, in very good condition; the rooms on all sides were then unearthed which were almost of the same dimensions. Among the eastern rooms the fourth from the south turned out to be a double room 26' in length. This peculiarity was noticed also in the eastern rooms of one of the Vihāras excavated at Taxila. The verandah opened out into a big room 16' X 3' which contained two water-closets 7" x 5" on the south, Touching the outer wall of the northern rooms, a puccâ gutter 10" in breadth ran upto 37" in length.
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Of the antiquities found there, mention may be made of a complete tile reconstructed by piecing together the broken pieces, ineasuring 10" x 7", with two holes. It was probably used for roofing or covering the gutter. Two silver coins were unearthed. A few rusted tiny copper-coins were also picked up at the excavation. An iron dovetail with one nail intact, indicates the existence of a wooden roof. Parts of earthern jugs, cups, bowls, drain-cover tiles, stone weights, four-legged rectangular grinding stone with pestle, pieces of mica etc. were found in large number, which proves the existence of a well-populated ancient Vihāra of the Buddhist monks.-(G. V. Acharya : 'Excavation of a Buddhist Vihāra at Intwā Hill in Gimar at Junagadh': Gujarat Samachar (Daily), October 1949).
Uparkot Caves : The caves at Uparkot in Junagadh are cut into two floors, with a frieze ornamented with caitya-windows and chequer carvings.-( Plate X). Majority of the smaller caves in this group are rectangular halls with a verandah in their front, supported by square or octagonal pillars. This plan of the early vihūras is often met with in the caves of the 2nd century in Mahārāstra. In one of them we come across a pillar with a pot-shaped capital which can easily be compared with such capitals of pillars in the caves of the Sātavāhana period in the Deccan.-(M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat,' Journal of Guj. Res. Soc., 1946, Nos. 2 and 3).
In these caves are found certain religious symbols, identified as Svastika, Bhadrâsana, Nandi-pada, Minayugala and Kalasa, which, however, are common to both the Buddhist and the Jaina. From other architectural features, the caves appear to be Buddhist. The form of these caves is later than that of the earlier caves of Western India; it shows some features of wooden construction, as wooden frames are copied here. But they are earlier than that of the almost identical caitya-window at the Gop temple; and others at Elura and Cave I at Ajanta.
It is, however, difficult to date these caves with ornamentation so little, but so varied and rich on the pillars and the Caitya-window. Several phases of the Uparkot caves seem to extend for about seven centuries (100-700 A.D.). These caves, most probably were Buddhistic, Jaina, and then converted to Buddhism as in the 7th century, when Hiuen Tsiang went to Junagadh, he found there convents and monks of the Sthavira sect of the Mahāyāna.--( Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, pp. 49-51).
Talājä Caves : The caves at Talājā in the south-east of the peninsula of Surāșțra, and at Dhānk in the once Gondal State, seem to belong to two or three periods. The 'Caitya'-cave and the plain cells belong to pre-Christian period, when the Buddhist Bhikṣus first came over to Gujarat in C. 200 B.C. The cells and halls which have the Jaina symbols and advanced type of pillar-forms, belong to the second period i.e. the period of the later Kşatrapas (Circa A.D. 200-300 ).
Out of the 30 caves at Talājā, which are definitely Buddhistic near the mouth of the river Setrunji, on the north-west of the solitary rock, only one needs description and
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comment. It is a large hall ( 75 feet x 67 feet and 17 feet high ) known as Ebhal Mandapa, with no cells, nor any partition walls dividing the verandah and the cells within. On the facade, there are large caitya-windows, with a broad band of Vedikā (rail-pattern) below them. The stūpa in the Caitya has its capital attached to the roof. This characteristic feature is noticed in many Caityas in Mahārāstra such as at Karad, Kuda, Mahad and Junnar. (M. G. Dikshit, Ibid, p. 104). The cave appears to have been carved in the early Christian era.- Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 51-52 )–(Plate XV A).
Sāņā Caves : The caves at Sāņā, near the village Vānkiā, are 62 in number, assigned to this period. Of them, the largest is similar to the hall at Talājā. The pillars supporting the roof have bulging water-jar shaped capitals and bases resembling those in the Nahapāna's cave at Nasik. By the side of this is a Caitya-cave, known as Bhima ni Cori', 18 ft. wide, 31 ft. deep, and 13 ft. high. The Caitya or the votive Stūpa is 8 feet in diameter, very plain and without ornament. There is no ambulatory passage in the cave. The caves are Buddhistic and not Jaina as suggested by some.---( Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 52 ).
Dhark Caves : The Dhark caves from the old name Dhankagiri' in old Gondal State, 30 miles from Junagadh have indications of early Jaina settlements. Out of the many Buddhist caves near Siddhasar in a ravine called Jhinjhirijhar in Saurāstra one is in good condition, containing a Vedikā of the early type, with broad bands. Inscriptions noticed on some stones in these caves, assign them a date of 2nd century A.D. ( Burgess, A.S.W.I., II, p. 152). The central figure in the first niche in the cave is identified as being that of Adinātha, and each side-niche has a nude figure seated in a padmāsana, its body erect and motionless. The sculpture carved in low relief on the face of the rock higher up the ravine is also of Adinātha. Here, adjoining Santinātha is a figure standing in Kāyotsarga pose. It has long ear-lobes, and ringlets of hair on the shoulders, resembling a few images from Mathura. On the simhāsana with a wheel and a deer in the centre, and a lion at each end is found a figure of Pārsvanātha, with a triple umbrella shown by three strokes. These Dhānk sculptures are the earliest Jaina images in Gujarāt and Saurāṣtra.--( H. D. Sankalia, The Dhānk Caves, J.R.A.S., 1938, P. 426-30 )-(Plate XVb ).
Khambhāliã Caves : The group of five caves at Khabhalia, a village near Gondal, newly discovered by P. P. Pandya in 1959, belongs to the same or to a later age of the Kşatrapa period. All the caves from Saurāṣtra have generally no sculptural ornamentation, excepting the religious symbols in the Bava Pyara Math cave. One of these caves from the Khambhalia group has, however, an imposing facade to the entrance of an assembly hall with life-size human sculptures on both the sides.- Plate XVI a).
Mauryan Inscriptions : Excepting the Asokan inscription at Girnar during the Mauryan period, no other inscribed object has come to light so far from Gujarat. The inscribed potsherd discovered by Hiranand Shastri in 1938 from Bet Sankhoddhāra near
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Dwarka, is written in letters of the early Brāhmi script of about the 200 B.C., and reads H277 [ Of Nandaka).-(ARDAB, 1938, PP. 13-14)-(Plate XVII a).
The other potsherd of the Mauryan period is discovered from excavations at Somanath, conducted by P. P. Pandya in 1955. It appears to be a fragment of a water pot.
These inscribed objects, though belonging to the Mauryan period, are, for facilities of reference, treated with similar inscribed objects of the Kșatrapa period.
Ksatrapa Inscriptions : The stone-inscription from Mulavād-sar near Dwarka and the set of four inscribed stones found from Andhāu in Kaccha (now in the Fergussion Museum, Bhuj) are memorial stones called Lașțis. These are the first examples of inscribed hero-memorial stones, later so common in Rajasthan and the Deccan.
The fragmentary stone-inscription from Läthi (Saurastra), now exhibited in the Epigraphical Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, has only a few letters which can be made out; the others are beyond decipherment: The first line reads like H1971 arift * ... ... 14(XVII b).
In the Bava Pyara group of caves, one inscription of Ksatrapa Jayadāman has been found on an isolated stone, which seems to have been brought there from outside. From the expressionaria tal', which is particularly used by the Jaina sect, it seems likely that the caves were occupied by the members of that sect at a subsequent date.
The other stone-inscription discovered only recently by P. P. Pandya adds to the small group of Ksatrapa epigraphical antiquities, which otherwise are in ample evidence in form of the numerous coin-legends.
Inscribed Seals : The Intwā Sealing discovered from excavations at Intwā, on Mt. Girnar, reads HERSE#afael H974, and is assigned to 199-222 A.D. period-(B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri, EI, XXVIII, pp. 174-5)--( Plate XVII c)
The terracotta seal from Timberva near Karvan, from the collection of the late Rajaratna Ramanlal Desai, though tentatively deciphered has letters in Brāhmi characters of the later period of the Ksatrapa rule. It may be at 4-(R. N. Mehta, JOI-). It was first published in Bom. Univ. Jour., 1950 by M. R. Majmudar-( Plate XVII a)
The clay-seal found from the levels dating 200-600 A. D., from Vadnagar excavations undertaken by Dr. B. Subbarao in 1953, is inscribed in characters of the 2nd-3rd centuries which resemble the writings on the early Kșatrapa coins. The words are read as 3747 a FanAI -(of protector--the son of Sabhūta'). It appears to be a sealing of some local governor.-(B. Subbarao & R. N. Mehta, M. S. Univ. Journal, March 1955, pp. 21-35 )-( Plate XVIII a)
Impressed Seals : The other sealing from Vadnagar is an impression of the right profile of some individual with rather plain coiffeur, gathered up in a bun at the back; acqualine nose and almost triangular bust. The figure holds in its hand possibly a flower

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with visible petals, held near the nose, as if smelling it. The motif on it which may be a wine-glass held to drink, looks like an imitation of some Roman figure.-(Ibid, p. 32) -(Plate XVIII b)
The excavations at Akota, the site of old Ankottaka, near Baroda, conducted by Dr. B. Subbarao in 1951-52, laid bare two clay-seals struck from the same die, probably made of stone, with prancing horses either fighting or in a romantic posture with a star of a typical Graeco-Roman style. The great vigour and the realistic representations speak highly of the art. One of these seals actually bears the string-marks at the back, showing that the seal was affixed on a lump of clay put on the string.--(Baroda Through the Ages, 1953, pp. 87, 109)--( Plate XVIII c).
A lead seal from Navsari ( in the Baroda Museum ) is in a mixed style ( the Iranian horse, but with an Iranian dragon tail), engraved by a Hellenistic Artist.-(H. Goetz, Handbook of Baroda Museum Collections, 1952, p. 16)-(Plate XVIII d).
Terracottas : The terracottas which reveal the complex cultural and ethnic set-up of the age are the different types of clay figures which were made for definite vratas, pūjās and socio-religious festivities, and were, according to custom, immersed in ponds and rivers immediately afterwards. Terracotta figurines have been found from Junagadh, Amreli, Vala, Rangpur, Prabhasa, Vadnagar, Karvan, Baroda and Kamrej. Terracottas of Ganesa, the Buddha and figures of animals like the ram, the elephant, the dog and the camel were found from Gohilvad Timbo, Amreli, the latter of which appears to have been inhabited about the early centuries of the Christian era.
Excavations in 1935-36 at Gohilvad Timbo, outside the town of Amreli, situated between two rivulets, the Thebi and Vadi, yielded two fragmentary terracotta figurines of Buddha and a Bodhisattva, which have been assigned to the beginning of the Christian era. -(ARADBS. 1935-36, p. 21: Pl. VII, fig. 3-4)-( Plate XIX)
Conch-shells : Conch-shell ornaments have been found in abundance from Gohilvad Timbo, which is outside the town of Amreli; and it appears, a factory of cutting, polishing and decorating conch-shells was in evidence in this area, the supply of the best conches being from the sea near Bet Sankhoddhāra. Pieces of shell-bangles of various type and design are found from all the ancient sites, to which may be added the names of Koțyarka-Mahudi, Vadnagar, Karvan, Nagar, and otlier places-(ARDABS. for 1935-36, 1936-37, 1938 and 1939).
In the Kştrapa levels at Vadnagar were found large number of sankhu-conches in various stages of manufacture. The varieties of decorations and designs found here have not yet been recovered from any site in India so far.
Red Polished Ware : The Red Polished Ware, the crude red, red and black ware and painted red ware with designs in black are found from layers of the Kșatrapa period at Baroda, Timberva, Vadnagar, Vala and other places which suggests the import and successful imitation of the technique of making a fine pottery resemblying the Roman Samian ware, Red polished ware sites in Saurāșțra were discovered at Kālāvad (Dist.
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Halar) and at Arenā, Borichā, Suträpädä and Bhandāriā, all in Sorath District-(A. Ghosh, Indian Archaeology, 1954-55-A Review). Red Polished Ware has been discovered from more than 32 sites in Gujarat and Saurāstra.---(B. Subbarao, Baroda through the Ages. p. 6; Personality of India, p. 46, 2nd Ed.). The Roman affinity of Red Polished Ware at Vadnagar was confirmed by the associated find of an imitative intaglio in clay depicting a woman with flower in hand- (A. Ghosh, Indian Archeology: A Review : 1953-54).
Crystal Reliquary : A crystal reliquary, which is about 3}" high and 3" in diameter and consists of two parts, a body and a lid (now in the Royal Asiatic Society of Bombay) was discovered by Pandit Bhagvanlal from the Sopara Stūpa (JBBRAS, 1881-82, p. 307). The Stupa from which it was recovered along with other sacred relics could be assigned to the period of Yajnaśrī, the Sātavāhana king of the 2nd Century A.D. Another crystal reliquary was excavated at Mirpur-khas now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay). This points out that the art of cutting hard stones is very ancient. Egypt, Chaldea, Ninevah, Babylon, ancient Iran and India produced gems and beads, cameos and engraved seals in hard stone, which must have been held in great demand by the ancient world.-(Moti Chandra, 'Art of Cutting Hard Stone Ware in Ancient India', JGRS, Vol. I No. 4, 1939, P. 73).
Sculptures : No sculptures of the Ksatrapa period have so far been published. A small figure of a lion seated on its hind legs with its face partly mutilated, was obtained from the foundation-trench of the Indumati Mahal at Baroda by V. R. Talwalkar, the State Engineer. It was probably once the top-piece of a free standing column. Three more small but beautiful lions, now in the Baroda Museum, were found from Navsari.(Plate XX a). The lion-motif was probably the royal symbol of the Ksatrapas just as the boar was of the Cālukyas. The motif of a lion trampling over an elephant seen in early sculptures was possibly introduced by the Kşatrapas or the Sakas, in commemoration of the victory of the foreign Simha-dhraja over the native Gaja-dhvaja of the Sātavāhanas.
The life-size portrait statues of the Saka-Kuşāņa kings-Wema Kadphises, Kaniska, and Castana (See p. 55 infra )-all belonging to the last quarter of the first century, and clad in Central Asian Scythic dress--in the Mathura Museum, are in a class and style apart. The dress and footwear of the Kaniska statue and the inscription across the surface of the lower part of the enormous heavy and angular robe at once indicate that the artist was not an Indian but most probably a Scythic national. The solid and compact drapery is treated in harsh angles and flat lines sharply chiselled. This tradition of angularity was perhaps passed on in the composition of the seated or standing Buddha-Bodhisattva images of Mathura.--( The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 523).
The torso of the youthful portrait of Castana, ( Plate XIII) was discovered from the Devakula of the Kuşāņa emperors, unearthed by Pandit Radhakrishna in 1911 from the side of Tokri Țilā in Māt village, situated about 8 miles north of Mathura.
The life-size sculpture is clad in a long tunic held by a beautiful belt and long trousers. The figure evidently carried a sword fastened by means of a strap. The Brāhmi

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inscription on this figure reads Sastana, which is understood as only a different form of the name Castana, founder of the Saka dynasty of Western India with its capital at Ujjain. The statue having been found with others of the Kusānas is suggestive of some relationship with Kaniska (A.D. 78-101 ), who seems to have wielded authority over Western India through Mahåksatrapa Caştana.-(V. S. Agrawala, Handbook of Sculplures in Curzon Museum of Archaeology, Mathura, 1939, p. 14).
A head from Sojitra, now in the Vallabhavidyanagar Museum, may be assigned to c. 200.-300 A.D. i.e. to the Kşatrapa period from its headdress and other peculiarities. -(A. V. Pandya, Vallabhavidyanagar Bulletin No. II, 1958).-( Plate XX b)
Stone Querns : Beads, stoppers, terracotta figurines, querns, bone and ivory objects, pieces of conch-shell bangles, rings etc. and metallic objects of iron, copper, lead and gold of this period have been found in excavations in Gujarat.-(A. Ghosh, Indian Archaeology : 1953-54-4 Review ).
A few legged querns with the design of two composite animals facing a tree or a taurine symbol are generally attributed to the Indo-Greek period, because this motif is believed to have developed in the Achaemenian period and was current after that in the distant parts of the Iranian Empire. The elements of this motif are seen on the rhyton from Kuban and the armlet of the Oxus treasure, now preserved in the Leningrad Museum. These affinities suggest that this motif was brought to India by some of the inhabitants of the Oxus area or of the Western Iranian Steppe. The Indo-Scythian stone quern with Achaemenian leographs, having ibex-horns and flanking the sides of a tree was obtained from Salad, a village not far from Baroda.-(H. Goetz, ' An Early Indo-Scythian Monument', Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. III, Pt. I, 1947).- Plate XXI a).
A four-legged stone quern with hornless gryphons and with a taurine symbol replacing the tree was found from Karvan, since forming the late Rājaratna Ramanlal Desai's Collection.-(M. R. Majmudar, ' Antiquities from Karvan', Bom. Uni. Journal, January 1950).-( Plate XXI b)
Another complete quern of sandstone with a similar, but Indian motifs from Karvan is acquired by the Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda.
Legged querns are found from Vadnagar and Amreli in Gujarat and from Karad, Kolhapur, Nasik, Ujjain, Maheśvara and Taxila also. Dr. Sankalia has ascribed a * Maurya-Guptan Age' to such querns, as they come from the early historic periods. --('Cultural Significance of Saddle Querns', Journal Anthropological Society of Bombay, 1950, Ns; Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 35-37 and Plates I to IV).
Roman Contacts: The Indo-Greek period in Gujarat history marks the beginning of the trade-relations between Rome and India, which continued during the Kşatrapa period also. A handle of a Roman bronze jug, along with fragments of trefoil-shaped neck of the amphora to which the handle was fitted, was discovered from the site of old Ankoțţaka ( Akota ) near Baroda. The Roman identity of the handle is known from the CI3
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figure of Eros, the God of Love, who as an oarsman is plying with an oar, pointing to the aspect of the Aphrodite taking the role of his mother, the protectress of the Roman and Greek navigators coming to distant India. It is an important material evidence of the Roman trade in Gujarat which once passed through Bharukaccha to Ujjain and Mathura by way of Karvan and Baroda. According to the Periplus, the imports from Barygaza included wine, porcelain, perfumes, vessels of copper and brass.-(M. D. Desai, Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, Pts. I-II, 1949-50 )--( Plate XXI c). Such handles and similar Roman bronze vessels were found from Brahmapuri excavations near Kolhapur, with a typical Hellenistic art-tradition.
The beautiful Roman Stone Cameo of some patrician woman was discovered from Karvan, the place of Lakulisa fame.-(R. N. Mehta, M. S. Univ. Journal, 1954)-( Plate XXI d, enlarged)
Coins*: The coins of the Ksaharāta, Āndhra and Kārdamaka i.e. the Western Kşatrapas are obtained from various places in Saurāştra and Gujarat, mostly from Junagadh and Bharukaccha. In the absence of more details regarding the mode of government, the coins of the Western Kşatrapas form an excellent series; because each coin gives the name of the king, from the legends on which, a connected account and a complete geneology of the dynasty is supplied. These coins are of silver, copper and occasionally of lead; because the coins of Castana's successors bear dates, and each coin gives the name of the king and his father.-( Plates XXII, XXIII)
Bodhi Dynasty: The coins of Bodhi dynasty are of lead, hardly half an inch in diameter. They are known so far exclusively from the collection of Bhagvanlal Indraji, which is now in British Museum. Provanance is unknown; but most likely they were found in some region of Western India connected with the Western Ksatrapas, i.e. Saurāştra and Gujarat.
Of the four rulers known of this dynasty, the coins of three Sribodhi, Sivabodhi and Candrabodhi are of one and the same type. They are blank on one side and on the other they bear a three-arched hill and the legend bearing simply their names viz., Siribodhisa, Sivabodhisa and Siri Candabodhisa.
The coins of the fourth ruler fall distinctly in three varieties: (i) tree in railing, man standing to its right on obverse, and on reverse three-arched hill surmounted by crescent ; on either side waved line represented vertically and the legend Virabodhisa on the reverse ; (ii) obverse is uncertain, reverse same as (i), but the legend Virabodhidatasa; (iii) Tree in railing on obverse, three-arched hill surmounted by crescent and legend Virabodhisa on the reverse.
Kșaharāta Dynasty : The coins of Bhūmaka are known exclusively in copper and they have on one side' arrow pointing upward, thunderbolt to its right and in between a
* This detailed Note on Ksatrapa Coins is subscribed by Sri Paramesvari Lal Gupta, Keeper of the Coins Gallery, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay at the request of the General Editor.

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pellet, probably representing discus with Kharoșthi legend Chaharadasa Chatrapasa Bhumakas; and on the other capital of a pillar, consisting of a lion with upraised paw facing right and a wheel and legend in Brāhmi, Kșaharātasa Kșatrapasa Bhūmakasa. On some coins the legend is supposed to be in Greek, but it is by no means certain. These coins may be distinguished into two varieties on the basis of the reverse. On one the lion-capital is placed to left and the wheel to right; and in the other, the position of the two is interchanged i.e. wheel is to the left and lion-capital to the right. Again, this second variety has another peculiarity. On some coins the lion is facing right and on some to left.
Nahapāna, issued silver coins, which are believed to be on the patterns of IndoGreek or Roman coins and weigh 34 to 36 grains. They have the portrait of the king on one side with legend in Graeco-Roman characters in which the Prakrit legend Raño Ksaharătasa Nahapānasa is rendered. On the reverse is arrow to the left and thunderbolt to the right and a pellet in between, as is found on the coins of Bhūmaka and legend around as above in Brāhmi. This coin type was later adopted by the succeeding Saka family of the Kārdamakas.
A copper coin with an imperfect legend (na) hapānasa was obtained at Ajmer and is now in British Museum. If the attribution is correct, then, it may be said that he issued copper coins also. This coin has on one side thunderbolt to left and arrow to the right, with the above inscription and the other side bears a tree with broad leaves within railing.
Kārdamaka Kşatrapa Dynasty: The numismatic record of the family of Castana is confined, to a great extent, to silver coinage on the pattern of Nahapāna and once it had its beginning in the coinage of Castana, it continued till the end of the reign. Not only that, it was followed by their successors, the Guptas in this region and it remained the currency of a few other dynasties which followed them.
The silver coins of Castana are distinguished into two varieties, on the basis of their reverse motifs. On the obverse of all the coins we have the bust of the king and the Graeco-Roman legend Rāno K'șatrapasa Castanasa ; but on these coins these are found with less completeness. On the reverse, in type (i), we have crescent to left and star to right and inscription in Brāhmi and Kharoşthi around, as Rājño Kșatrapasa Ghāsmotikaputrasa Castanasa. This type has so far been known from a electro-type prepared from a cliche in lead, kept in British Maseum. No original coin was known till recently. The Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay has obtained only recently a coin of this type from Surat.
The reverse of the second type has a three-arched hill (which has been called caitya by earlier scholars) surmounted with a crescent; beneath waivy line; crescent to left and a star (or sun ) to right. The legend on these coins may be distinguished in two types (a) Rājño Kșatrapasa Ghsāmotikaputrasa Casțanasa in Brāhmi and Kharoşthi both. (b) Rājño Mahaksatrapasa Ghsamotikaputrasa Castanasa, in Brāhmi and Cathanasa in Kharoșthi.
No silver coin of Jayadāman is known; but from Rudradaman I onwards, this coin
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type was profusely issued by the Western Ksatrapas, with some variations from that of the coins of Castana. They began to give date on the back of the king's head, and the Greek legend became meaningless. It was more or less a conventionalised decoration, now gradually degenerating. On the reverse, Brahmi legend was used exclusively and it had the name of the father as well as of the son with their full titles, viz., Rajo Kṣatrapasa Jayadamputrasa Rajño Mahakṣatrapasa Rudradāmasa.
100
These coins were issued by their issuers either as Ksatrapa or as Mahākṣatrapa and accordingly they have either the title Ksatrapa or Mahākṣatrapa, as the case may be, on their coins. The coins with the Kṣatrapa title are exclusively found issued by the succeeding ruler in the time of the preceding ruler, towards the end of his reign, thereby suggesting that he was nominated as heir-apparent.
Rudrasimha I is known as Ksatrapa just before his rise to Mahākṣatrapaship. His only known coin as Kṣatrapa is dated in the year 101 and the same date is found on his earliest coins as Mahākṣatrapa. No Ksatrapa is known during the eighteen years of his Mahākṣatrapaship. Satyadāman in all probability, was Kṣatrapa for a while towards the end of his reign. Again Rudrasena I was Kṣatrapa only for about two years, during the Mahākṣatraship of Jivadaman and before his own promotion to Mahākṣatrapaship. Not Kṣatrapa is known during his reign of 22 years. It is only in the last year of his reign (year 144) and before the beginning of the reign of Samghadaman that we find Prithvisena as Ksatrapa just for a while. Nothing is heard of him later. During the reign of Samghadaman and the early part of Damasena, we find no Ksatrapa.
It is only in the latter part of Dimasena's reign that we have a chain of Ksatrapas for about seven years from 154 to 161, viz. Dāmajadaśrī II, Vīradāman, Yasodaman and Vijayasena; but all of them retained that status for a short period. While the first two are not known as Mahākṣatrapa, the latter two rose to that rank.
Then again we find Vijayasena ruling for about 12 years, Damajadaśri III for about 5 years and Rudrasena II for 22 or 23 years. During these 40 years we have no Kṣatrapa. It is only at the end of the reign of Rudrasena II that we have Viśvasimha as Ksatrapa and during the latter's Mahakṣatrapaship, Bhartṛdäman as Kṣatrapa. Viśvasena was Ksatrapa towards the end of the Mahākṣatrapaship of his father Bhartrdaman.
But from Viśvasena onwards, we find that the title of Mahākṣatrapa was abandoned. Only Kṣatrapa title was retained; and this title was used by the ruler and his heirapparent simultaneously for short period. Viśvasena and Rudrasimha II, both issued coins as Ksatrapa during the years 225 and 226; again Rudrasimha II and his successor Yasodaman II issued concurrently the coins under the title Ksatrapa during the years 237 and
238.
The title of Mahākṣatrapa was revived during the reign of the 'Svåml' rulers, and they dispensed with the title of Ksatrapa. They do not seem to have the practice of concurrent issue of the coins by the ruler and the heir-apparent.

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The dates begin to appear from the time of Rudrasimha I on the coins; but it is not unlikely that the earlier rulers also might have the dates on their coins. Very few of their coins are known; and those known, miss the portion where the date could be. Any way, from this date, we find that the coins were issued, every year, without any break till the year, 254. During this period we have not come across the coins only of the following years :
Rudrasimha I
Jivadāman
Rudrasena I
Dāmasena
Rudrasena II
Bhartrdaman
Rudrasimha II
Yasodaman II
107, III
121
122, 123, 143
148, 149
192, 193
218, 219

233, 239
246, 248, 250, 251.
101
After the year 254, we do not get any coin till the year 270. In between this period, quite possibly fśvaradatta intruded, whose coins are described below. From the year 270 we have the coins of Svami Rudrasena III till 274.
Thereafter again till 282 we have no coins. In 282 the coins of this ruler re-appear and continue till 301. During this period only the coins for the years 283 and 295 are not known so far. Then we have the coins of Svāmi Simhasena for the years 304, 305, 306 and 310. The coins of his successors do not disclose any date.
Coin Hoards: The Kṣatrapa coins of the Kardamaka family and the later families are known in a number of hoards found in Gujarat, Sauraṣṭra, Malwa and former Central provinces, but only the following hoards found in Gujarat and Saurästra are on record :
1. Junagadh hoard. 520 coins-Rudradaman 1, 3: Damajadaśr! I, 1; Rudrasimha, 5; Rudrasena I, 8; Damasena, 3; Viradaman 9; Yaśodāman, 2; Vijayasena, 34; Dāmajadasri III, 9; Rudrasena 11, 86; Viśvasimha, 56; Bhartrdäman, 286; unassignable, 86. (N.S., XLVII, p. 97-99).
2. Kaccha hoard (found in 1862). 142 coins-Damašena, 1; Vijayasena, 4: Damajadasri III, 4; Ashadāma (?) son of Rudrasena, 5; Rudrasena II, 17; Viśvasimha, 20; Bhartṛdaman, 48; Viśvasena, 21; Rudrasimha II, 11. JBBRAS., (Old Series), VII, P. 161.
3. Uparkot (Junagadh) hoard (found in 1897). 1114 coins-Rudrasena I (MK), 7: Damasena (MK), 5: Viradaman (K), 10; Vijayasena (K), 1, (M.K.), 35: Dāmajadaśri III (MK), 9; Rudrasena II (MK), 109; Viśvasimha (K), 51; Bhartṛdâman (K and MK), 207; Viśvasena (K), 179; Rudrasena II (K), 83; Yasodaman II (K), 108; Rudrasena III (MK), 11: 1śvaradatta (MK), 1; unassigned 226.
JBBRAS., (O.S.), XX,
201-210].

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4. Vasoj ( Junagadh ) hoard. (found in 1933). 591 coins---Rudrasiriha I (MK), I; Rudrasena I (MK), 2 ; Dāmsena (MK), 2; Dāmajadýri II:(K),2; Viradāman (K), 4; Vijayasena (MK), 8; Dāmajadýri III (MK), 2; Rudrasena II, 37; Visvasimha 133 Bhartsdāman, 69; Visvasena 44; Rudrasimha II, 10; Yasodāman II, 18; Rudrasena III, 370.; unassigned 2. (N.S., XLVII, p. 98-99).
In the year 1878, coins of Western Ksatrapas were recovered from the foundation trenches of the Central Jail and the Baroda College area.--| A. S. Gadre, Important Coins from Baroda State', JNSI, Vol. I, p. 20 ).
Besides these, the hoards of Western Ksatrapa coins have been found at Amaravati ( Berar, M. P.) (Bom. Gaz. I, i, p. 49, 57); Sonepur (Dist. Chhindwara ) (N.S., XLVII, p. 95-99); Seoni (JNSI, XII, p. 167-68 ; XVI, p. 207); Arvi (District Wardha ) (unpublished ; T.T. No. 5 of 1918 ): Chhindwara (Proc. ASB, 1882, p. 114); Kamptee (Nagpur) (JRAS, XII, 1850, p. 2); Gondarmau ( Bhopal) ( Indian Archaeology, 1954-55); Sanchi ( Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at Sanchi, p. 61-64); Sarvania (Bansawara ) in Rajasthan (ASI, AR, 1913-14); Karad (Satara ) (Bom. Gaz. I, i, 48-49); Shirwal (Junnar ), J.B.B.R.S., (0.S.) II, p. 374-80 ] and Petluripalem in Andhra (1.H.Q. XXXIII, p. 270-71), Some stray coins have also been found in excavations at Kondapur, Maski and Ranigrahi in Andhra Pradesh (JNSI, XV, P, 163-69) and Brahmapuri (Kolhapur) in Maharastra.
Potin Coins: A potin series of coins is known to have been issued by Jivadāman, Rudrasimha 1, Rudrasena 1 and Dāmasena. The coins of Jivadāman and Rudrasimha I have on the obverse humped bull standing to right above date; and traces of Greek characters; and on the reverse, similar device as on the silver coins, but with the shortened form of the legend : Rajño Mahākṣatrapasa Jivadamasa on Jivadāmana's coins and Räjño Mahākṣatrapasa Ruurasihasa on the coins of Rudrasimha I. The date 119 is known on the coins of the first ruler; and the known coins of the second do not bear the unit figure. These coins are few, and were obtained at Puslikar in Ajmer and Ujjain. So they are believed to be Malwa issues.
The potin coins of Rudrasena I and Dāmasena have an elephant standing to right, with star and crescent above on the obverse and on the reverse three-arched hill with crescent, and crescent on left and star on right, waivy line below. Below the device the date is given in numerals. These do not bear the name of the kings and are attributed to these rulers on the basis of their dates. The known dates on these coins are 131, 133, 147, 153, and there are some coins on which the dates 154 and 158 may be read.
Copper Coins : Some copper coins are also known to have been issued by these rulers. The earliest copper coins are believed to have been issued by Castana. A single square copper coin is published in the B.M.C., A.K. (p. 75), which is doubtfully assigned to him. This coin bears on the obverse a horse standing to right facing a post, above an inscription in Greek letters which could not be properly deciphered. On the reverse is a three-arched hill surmounted by crescent, crescent to left and star to right, inscription in

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Brāhmi, of which a few letters have been read as ----_s-tkkpu---castanaka, of which the reading caslana is not certain.
The next ruler to issue copper coins is his son, Jivadāman, no silver coins of whose are known. His coins bear on the obverse humped bull to right, facing trident with battleaxe: above the inscription in Greek characters, not intelligible. On the reverse is the hill of six arches surmounted by crescent ; left crescent, right star. Inscription in Brāhmi Rājño Ksatrapasa Svāmi-Jayadāmasa. Another coin is attributed to him which has an elephant to right and an inscription in Brāhmi, of which only the letter ya is readable on the obverse and Ujjain symbol on the reverse. But this attribution is doubtful.
There is another variety of square copper coins, which have a humped bull facing within square border of dots on the obverse and three-arched bill surmounted with crescent and crescent to left, and star to right in a dotted square border. They have neither name nor date. They have been attributed to Saka years 70-125 (148-203 A.D.) by Rapson, on the basis of the motif bull, wbich is noticed on the potin coins of some earlier rulers. Here it may be pointed out that the seals of the Saka princess Prabhudāmā, who was the daughter of Rudrasimha and the sister of Rudrasena, bear the figure of bull, exactly as on these coins (A.S.I.A.R., 1913-14, pl. XLVII, no 248; pl. XLVIII, no 347). So, it is not unlikely that these coins may either belong to Rudrasimha I or his son Rudrasena I.
Lead Coins : Some lead coins are also known to have been issued in this period. They are square coins and have humped bull standing right within square border of dots and the three-arched hill with crescent at top and crescent on left and star on right, and wavy line below, and below it the date as on potin coins. These coins are dated 280, 281, 283, 284, 285, 288 and 294, and may be attributed to Svāmi Rudrasena III.
Traikūțaka Coins: These are found in Southern Gujarat, Konkan and Maratha country. Coins of the Traikūțaka Dahrasena, son of Indradatta, and Vyaghrasena, son of Dahrasena are known. The names of Dahrasena and Vyāghrasena are mentined also in copper plates of 456 and 480 A.D., respectively.
Coins of Íśvaradatta : Coins of Íśvaradatta are similar to the coins of Western Ksatrapas, with bust of the king and probably dates in numerals (not visible on known specimens) on the obverse and three-arched hill surmounted by crescent; left crescent, right star or sun; beneath waved line; legend arround Rājño Mahakşatrapasa fśvaradattasa varse prathame or dvitiye. These coins are known along with the coins of the Western Kşatrapas in the hoards found at Uparkot (Junagadh ) (JBBRS, XX (O.S.), p. 201 ff), Sarvania (ASI, AR, 1913-14, p. 227 ff), Sonepur (N.S., XLVII, p. 95-97), Shirwal (JBBRS, II. (O.S.), 1: 374-80 ) and Petluripalem (1.H.Q., XXXIII, p. 269-74).
The discovery of two hundred and thirty-eight silver coins of the Western Ksatrapa dynasty, found at Petluripalem, Dist. Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, far away from the home province of the rulers is interesting, and shows how coins travelled far and wide.-( Indian Archaeology, 1956-57, p. 77).
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Stray coins : A coin of Lucius Virus was found at Nägdhārā (Surat district ). This suggests that Roman trade continued in this period.
A coin of Wema Kadphises, (C. 40-78 A.D.) who was known as a Mäheśvara, was found from Karvan, the ancient seat of Pasupata sect (M. R. Majmudar, 'Antiquities from Karvan', bUJ, 1950 January. p. 49).
A coin of Siri Sätakarņi with Bull-mark was secured from the same site. A hoard of lead coins of the Andhras, recovered from Karvan now in the collection of the late Rājaratna Ramanlal De: ai has been described by Dr. M. G. Dikshit (JNSI, 1952.)
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Plate XXII
Kusana Coins (1-1) Wema Kadphises ( 85 A.D.). (2-2) Huvişka (150 A.D.). Obverse and Reverse
Obv. & Rev. (3-3) Vasudeva ( 180 )
Obv. & Rev.
Andhra and Tribal Coins (1) Pulumāvi. (2) Yajna Satakarņi. (3) Siri Sātakarņi. Obverse Obverse
Obverse (4) Ujjain Symbol:
(5-5) A Tribal coin, with Ujjain symbol Reverse of Andhra coins
on the reverse.

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Plate XXII A

2
1114
CO

Ksatrapa Coins Top Row : Bhūmaka's coin: I Obverse : Arrow pointing upwards and a thunderbolt. Nahapāna's coin : 2 Obverse : Bust. 3 Reverse : Capital of a pillar, consisting of a lion with an upraised
paw and dharmaeakra. 4 Reverse : Arrow and thunderbolt with a legend. Family of Kşatrapa Rudrasimha II :
(3-3) (4-4) (5-5) (6-6): Coins of Svāmi Rudrasena III :
Obverse : Bust. Reverse : Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent.

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1 1
3 3
5 5

Family of Caṣṭana: (1-1) Damasena
Obv. & Rev. (4-4) Rudrasena II Obv. & Rev.
Ksatrapa Coins
Obverse-Bust, Reverse: Three-arched hill, surmounted by a crescent.
(2-2) Viradāman,
Obv. & Rev. (5-5) Bhartrdaman Obv. & Rev.
2 2
4 4
6 6
Plate XXIII
(3-3) Vijayasena
Obv. & Rev. (6-6) Viśvasena
Obv. & Rev.

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Plate XXIV

71
Temple at Gop, (Hālār Dist., Saurāṣṭra): After conservation in 1959. (p. 126)

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CHAPTER VI
GUPTA PERIOD (Circa 400 A.D.-470 A.D.)
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Facing Page 107
Fig. 5
n
GUPTA PERIOD C 400 A.D. - 470 A.D.
S
a
KARNAL.
R. Sindhu
• AHICHHATRĀ
• KUSINĀRĀ KĀNYAKUB JA
• VAISĀLI
GOPÅDRI
PĀTALIPUTRA NĀLANDA
PURA
ARBUDA. KHEDBRAHMA
• VIDISA V VIRAMGĀM UJJAYINI Narmada
Mama: VALABHI.
BHARUKACHHA Tapti R. AMRELI GIRNAR
TĀMRALIPTI.
LE PRATISHTHANA
Godāvari R.
Kisina
Cauvery
OLOMON
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GUPTA PERIOD (Circa 400 A.D.-470 A.D.)
The political disintegration which followed the dissolution of the Kaşāņa empire continued right up to the beginning of the fourth century A.D. The Saka Kşatrapas ruled long over Gujarat and a part of Malwa ; but their power was rapidly on the decline. Rudrasimha III was not only defeated but his kingdom was annexed by Candragupta II, (C. 376-414 ) the Gupta emperor of Magadha, who made a prolonged stay in Malwa for this campaign with his feadatory chiefs and ministers. Thus after more than three hundred years' rule, the line of the Western Kşatrapas came to an end, and the last vestige of foreign rule disappeared from Western India.
The term 'Gupta dynasty' is given to the house founded by Srigupta in C. 270 A. D. in Magadha, primarily because the names of most of its rulers ended with the term Gupta. The Gupta-Licchavi matrimonial alliance during Candragupta I's reign (C. 305-325 A. D.) consolidated the sphere of influence and activity of the Guptas. The Gupta Era', it is believed, marks the assumption by him of the imperial title, at his formal Coronation in 320 A.D., when he probably started his gold coinage. The practice of issuing gold coins was started by foreign Greek and Kuşāņa rulers. Candragupta is the earliest Hindu ruler whose inscribed gold coins have been handed down to us.
In about 370 A.D. the Western Ksatrapas are described in Allahabad pillar inscription as paying homage to Samudragupta (C. 330-370 A.D.) who changed his capital from Pāțalīputra to Ayodhyā; but actual annexation of Malwa and Saurāşțra to the Gupta empire took place in the reign of Candragupta II ( Vikramāditya ). The latest dated coin of the Western Kșatrapa Svāmi-Rudrasimha III, son of Svāmi-Satyasimha is dated $. 31 i.e. 388-89 A.D., and the earliest coin of Candragupta II bears the date 409-10 A.D.
Candragupta II (C. 375-414 A.D.) launched an attack against the Saka Kșatrapas of Western India when encamped at Bhilsa in Malwa. In the campaign he not only defeated the Western Kşatrapas, but completely annihilated their power, and annexed to his empire their dominion consisting of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurāştra. This conquest necessitated the issue of silver currency, which was confined to the new provinces of the empire; for, the residents of this area were accustomed to it for more than three hundred years during the Kșatrapa rule.
"The empire of Candragupta II who had a long reign of about 36 years was in a prosperous condition, as is shown by the account of the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien. The addition of the maritime provinces of Gujarat and Saurāştra, with the new trade openings they secured, must have added immensely to the resources of the empire. Literature and art also flourished under his enlightened patronage. Most probably the famous poet

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Kālidāsa flourished in his court; and the gold coins issued from his mint are remarkable for their artistic beauty and variety.”—A. S. Altekar, Catalogue of the Bayana Hoard of Gupta Gold Coins, Introduction, xxviii, 1954).
Candragupta II ruled Gujarat, probably, from Ujjayini, the seat of an intensely fostered Sanskritic literature. From Ujjain by the way of Bāgh and Tandā in the province of Rāth, he might have entered Gujarat, and would have gone from Broach coast to Saurāṣtra and then wrested the peninsula from its Kşatrapa rulers. The Gupta emperor extended the direct sway of Pāțalīputra from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea. Having added the rich provinces of Gujarat and Saurāșțra to his empire, he controlled to a large extent the Indian commerce with the Western world.
Candragupta II bore the proud title of Vikramāditya' ('the Sun of Prowess') which appears on his coins. And his exploits naturally recalled those of Vikramaditya of Ujjayini, who is described in Indian legend as having expelled the first Saka conquerors of India more than four hundred years ago.
After Candragupta II, his son Kumāragupta I (C. 414-455 A.D.) born of his chief queen Dhruvadevi, ascended the throne. Kumāragupta I who had a long reign of more than 40 years, is noted for his performance of an Aśvamedha sacrifice to establish his sovereign position. By this he gave great prominence to the God Kārtikeya, whose name (Kumāra) he bore. He issued a new type of gold coins depicting Kārtikeya riding on a peacock on one side, and the king feeding a peacock on the other. He also substituted the peacock for Garuda on the silver coins.
There was tranquillity and prosperity in his empire which is reflected in his coinage. His gold coinage is extensive and shows as many as 14 types. Their artistic merit is high, and many of their metrical legends have considerable poetical merit as well ---(A. S. Altekar, Ibid., Introduction p. XXX, 1954). Kumāragupta died in G.E. 136 ( 455-6 A.D.)
The Guptas rose to the Imperial position by their alliance with the republican Licchavis, who had survived the Maurya and Sunga times, and had grown highly powerful. They had outlived their ancient contemporaries in power and glory, and remained the single and sole representative of ancient republicans. There seems to be a strange fatality in the history of the Guptas that they rose to power with the help of a republic, and they abolished the ancient republicanism! But they in turn were shaken off their foundation by a republic—the Pusyamitras.
The defeat inflicted by those who had 'developed great power and wealth' (Agfaa
Tia ........ Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of Skandagupta', Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, pp. 53-54) on the Imperial forces under Kumāragupta made the Gupta dynasty, to quote the language of his son Skandagupta, 'totter to its fall' (Ibid, at - gift formaliteta i d e tta oftar MAI LII; facgai teht....1.13; @ Th ..1.14). Evidently Kumāragupta himself was killed [foart Rate (a) etc. ).
In the second war Skandagupta remained in the battle-field the whole night, and slept on the bare ground. The next morning when the battle-field continued he succeeded
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in forcing a decision, which entitled him, as the inscription says, to plant his foot on the royal foot-stool, i.e. became entitled to sovereignty. Thus the invading Pusyamitras were stemmed back, and they retired; but the glory of the Guptas never returned. The course of the weakness and decline of the Guptas, consequent on the Puşyamitra and Hūna wars could not be checked.-(K. P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, 3rd Ed., 1955; p. 157). .
GUPTA PERIOD
India began to be invaded by the Hupas at about the middle of the 5th Century and their hordes soon penetrated within the boundaries of the Gupta empire; and Skandagupta was called upon to face the new menace soon after his accession. The Junagadh inscription, dated in the year 458 A. D., refers to the fame of Skandagupta being sung in the land of the Mlechhas as well, the latter being identified with the Hūņas. His empire continued undiminished down to his death; for, he continued to hold effectively even its out-lying provinces like Gujarat and Saurāṣṭra.
Gupta mints were fairly active during his reign; silver coinage was as copious as that of his father; but his gold coinage is much less copious and shows only three certain. types. The financial strain of the Hūņa war had told upon the treasury; for, many of his gold coins are heavily adulterated. He, however, introduced the national suvarya standard of 144 grains in the gold currency.-( A. S. Altekar, Ibid. p. xxxiv).
Skandagupta's arduous military campaigns against the Hūpas, heavily taxed the resources of the empire; and this is reflected in his coinage. His gold coins are comparatively few and belong mostly to a single type; and the deterioration in the purity of gold is also responsible for the financial drain caused by the stress of wars during his reign.
The aged emperor Kumaragupta died before Skandagupta ( 455-467 A. D.) return. from his victorious campaign against the Hūņas. This heroic feat of Skandagupta that saved India for at least half a century from the scourge of a cruel and barbaric foe, fully justifies his assumption of the title Vikramaditya' in imitation of his grand-father,
Happily we have also evidence of great works of public utility executed by his officers even in distant parts of the empire, in the very first year of his reign. The Girnar rock-inscription of 456-57 A. D. refers in detail to such an achievement by his governor Parnadatta and his son Cakrapalita, the local magistrate, who took prompt steps to repair the damage and restore the embankment.
Another record in the same place tells us how a similar catastrophe had occurred three hundred years before, when the embankment was repaired by the Saka chief Rudradaman. Two records on the spot thus give us an interesting history of this great irrigation reservoir over a period of more than seven hundred and fifty years. On the very rock near Girnar, which have the inscriptions of Asoka and Rudradāman, Parpadatta has recorded his master Skandagupta's victory over the Hupas (456 A.D.).
The inscription of Parpadatta is a beautiful composition and holds out before us. the picture of a strong united empire under the vigorous administration of a benevolent and popular ruler.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, Ch. III, pp. 18-28).

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ΙΙο
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Thus Gujarat, for nearly a century remained an integral part of an empire which stood for Aryan culture at its best. The Imperial Guptas were great, not only as conquerors and statesmen, but as patrons of all cultural activities. Their strong and just administration, more than their conquests, brought about the political consolidation of India north of the Narmadā. Architecture, sculpture and painting reached a high level of artistic expression.
"It is difficult to say what was the exact extent of the Gupta rule in Gujarat. However, Kaccha seems to form the north-west frontier of the Gupta empire. The northern as well as the eastern parts of Gujarat would have been under the Guptas, as most likely from there they had entered the province. But if the Southern Gujarat was under them is doubtful. The Traikūţaka ruler Dahrasena, the son of Indradatta, was ruling the south of the Tāpti contemporaneously with Skandagupta ( 450-495 ). This Dahrasena appears to have been independent of the Guptas, as he claims of having performed an Ašvamedha. Furthermore, he, as well as his successor, date inscriptions in his own era, known as the Traikūtaka', later as 'Cedi' or 'Kalacuri'era, commencing on Āśvin Sudi I in A.D. 248."-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 11-12).
Skandagupta died about 467 A.D., and after a decade of disorder, Budhagupta came to the throne of the Imperial Guptas, and ruled for twenty years or more. Bhațārka, a general of the emperor was appointed a governor of Saurāştra, who stayed at Valabhi. His younger son Dronasimha assumed the title of Mahārāja '; and it is claimed that the paramount ruler, possibly Budhagupta, in person installed him in royalty by a regular ceremony at about 500 A.D. This may suggest the continuance of Gupta overlordship cver Saurāṣtra, down to the beginning of the 6th Century A.D. But the allegiance was only a nominal formality, for neither the personal name of the emperor nor the name of the dynasty is mentioned in their records.
It appears almost certain that the Guptas lost all effective control over Gujarat and Saurāṣtra, and also probably over Malwa soon after 470 A.D. Later on the Valabhi rulers set up an independent kingdom; and the provinces of Gujarat and Saurāṣtra were permanently lost to the Guptas.
A.D. A fragmentary copper-plate grant of the 4th Century A.D., from its palaeoC. 400graphy and wording, discovered at Kalacchala near Chhota Udaipur in Central
Gujarat, mentions one Isvararāta, who meditated on the feet of a lord paramount (parama bhattāraka-pād-ānudhyāta) i.e., who was a feudatory of some imperial power, probably the Abhiras, was ruling over a fairly extensive territory; for, among the persons to whom he addressed his order are included such high officials of the State as Kumārāmálya and Uparika, meaning the Councillor of a Prince' and 'the head of a bhukti or Commissioner or a Magistrate', respectively.
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GUPTA PERIOD
III
C. 400
C. 400
The grant was made at Pracakāśā, identified with Prakasa on the Tāpi in North Khandesh. The village Kupikā granted by the charter cannot now be traced; but Vankikā, the head-quarters of the territorial divisions in which it was situated may be represented by the modern village Vänkad, about 20 miles from Chhota Udaipur. fśvararāta, therefore, appears to have held Central Gujarat and some portion of the Khandesh District.
Isvaradatta's family seems to have been ousted by Sarva Bhattāraka (C. 348-378 A.D.), who appears to have risen to power in Circa 400 A.D. The latter's coins, imitated from those of the Western Kșatrapas are found in abundance in Central Gujarat and Saurāṣtra.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro., xxxvii).
The legendary accounts contained in the various Jātakakathās, which can be roughly assigned to the Gupta period at the latest, suggest the antiquity of the introduction of Buddhism in Gujarat. Still their trustworthiness is doubtful. Buddha's preachings during his early days mainly extended to the country of his origin, namely Magadha. Such references as credit Buddha's visit to Western India have to be rejected, as Buddha is never known to have crossed the Narmadā. However, the repeated mention of the centres Sürpāraka and Bharukaccha in early Buddhist literature suggests that these two must have been the earliest in Gujarat to receive it.
The mention of Surattha (Surāştra) as a jānapada-deśa is found in the Milinda-panha (S.B.E. XXXVI, pp. 211, 311, 359 ), in the Peta-vatthu (P.T.S., II, p. 359), in the Apadāna, (P.T.S. II, p. 359) and in the Niddesa (P.T.S.I, pp. 154-55). According to the Peta-vatthu Commentary (P.T.S. p. 244 ), hundred years after the death of Buddha, the king of Surattha was Pingalaka, the tawnyeyed ruler, who was known to have ruled in the times of the Moriyas, (Petavatthu PP. 57-61) and its commentary Paramatthadīpani (P.T.S., pp. 244-57), and who was converted by Aśoka himself, when he went to Pāțaliputra for converting Aśoka to his own faith.-(M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat', Guj. Res. Soc. Journal, Vol. VIII, 2 and 3, 1946).
Sovira, associated with the Sindhu country, which obviously refers to parts of modern Sindh adjoining Saurāştra is mentioned in early Buddhist literature. In the Adittha Jātaka (No. 424), the capital of the Sovira country is mentioned as Roruva or Roruka as mentioned in the Digha-Nikāya (II, 235; XIX, 36), a place to be visited by the sea.
In the Ceylonese Chronicles (Geiger, Mahāvamsa, p. 60; Dipavamsa, p. 51) mention of a place like Lāla-rattha is made, which indicates Lāța, the ancient name for Gujarat. According to the Dipavamsa (p. 54), Sihapura is stated to be the capital of this country. According to the Ceylonese Chronicles (Mahāvamsa, Ch. VI; Dipavarsa, Ch. IX ), Sihabāhu, a King of Lāla-rattha is said to
C. 400
C. 400
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have banished his son Vijaya, the latter of whom heard of Buddha's death on his reaching Lankā (Ceylon) from Bharukaccha. Vijaya is said to have landed and stayed for three months in Bharukaccha, while on his way to Ceylon.
By far the most important place mentioned by the early Buddhist literature is Bharukaccha, modern Broach.
In the Vinaya Pițaka (Oldenberg, III, p. 39) a story of a Buddhist Bhikṣu from Bharukaccha is told, who in a dream saw him self sleeping with another woman, and who accordingly thought himself to be guilty of the Parajika sin. Upali ruled out that he was blameless. (Buddha-ghoșa, Samanta pasadika. I, p. 283). In subsequent literature, this incident is referred to as 'Bharukaccha Vatthu'.
In the Jātaka literature, at least three references to Bharukaccha as a seaport are met with. In the Bharu Jātaka (Fonsball, p. 169, No. 213 ) it is told that Bodhisattva once went to the land of Bharu, with a caravan of merchants to buy salt and vinegar, from the Himva region. The Suppāraka Jātaka (No. 463, IV, p. 137-393) tells us that Bodhisattva was once born as a mastermariner of Bharukaccha. In the Sussondi Jātaka (No. 360, Jataka III, p. 188) regular trade between Suvarnna Bhūmi and Bharukaccha is mentioned; it also mentions a caravan-route starting from Benares and passing through the deserts of Rajputana, which terminated at Bharukaccha. Frequent trading activities between Suvarnna Bhūmi, Sopāraka and Bharukaccha are mentioned in Apadāna (II, p. 476), Mahā-Nidessa (I, p. 155), and Manoratha Pūram (I, p. 156). In the Suppāraka Jataka (IV, p. 137-39), Bharukaccha is stated to be within one night's journey by sea from Sopara.
The geographical interpretation of the word 'Bharukaccha' whose component parts Bharu and Kaccha mean a 'marshy land', according to Pāṇini ( Aştādhyāyi, 4. 2. 126, and 4. 2. 133 ), is suggested by a story in the Bharu-Jātaka to justify the geographic features which refers to the faction between two parties of merchants who came to reside in this city. They sought the help of king Bharu to settle their dispute. The king having decided in favour of the wrong party, the whole land of Bharu, about 300 leagues in length, submerged into the sea by the wrath of gods. According to Hindu Purāņas, the name of Bhrigu (and, or) Jāmadagnya is said to have been associated with Bharukaccha, which is said to have been sunk into the sea with the arrows of Paraśurāma. (Brahmānda Purāņa, III. 57, Vv. 47).
People from Bharukaccha are referred to in Atthasālini (p. 305) and Milinda-Panha ( S. B. E., p. 211).
Connected with Bharukaccha, in the same context, we find the name of another sea-port in Western India, Supparaka, which also belonged to
C. 400

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Plate XXV

Bagh Cave Fresco of Danàa Rāsaka, showing six ladies with danda held in either hand, and other six with cymbals.
At the Fourth Cave called 'Ranga Mahāl' (p. 122)

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Plate XXVI
55
Gupta Coins (1-1) Gold coin of Candragupta II (c. 375-414 A.D.):
Obv.-Horseman type ; Rev.-Goddess seated on a stool. (2-2) Gold coin of Kumāragupta I (C. 414-455 A.D.):
Obv.-Archer type ; Kev.-Seated Lakşmi. (3-3) Silver coins of Kumāragupta I:
Obv. & Rev.-Winged Pea-cock type. (4-4) Folded Wings Pea-cock type-First variety. (5-5) » »
-Second variety. (6-6) Silver coin of Skandagupta, ( 455-467 A.D.):
Oby. & Rev. Known as Nandi type'.

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Plate XXVII

X
(A) Valā Seal of Puşyepa

(B) Valā Seal of Puşyeņa, showing the letters of the seal. (p. 195)
Reads : (1) 317546477 378497 215
(2) apk HERTSEH(3) FAETTA HEI... (4) y gorura

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late XXVII A
(A) Valā Pot-sherd of Gūhasena, dated Valabhi
year ( 2 )47 = c. 566 A.D. (pp. 151, 197)
Reads [800] You ft Tea qz:
(C) Clay-Seal of Silāditya, excavated from Gohilwad Țimbo, Amreli.
(p. 195) Reads eft aftale 54
(B) Inscribed pot-sherds from Gohilwāļ Țimbo, Amreli, Baroda Museum.
(For Readings, See p. 197.)

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GUPTA PERIOD
I13
C. 400
Aparāntaka, in the latter of which the Southern Gujarat was included. According to a legend in the Divyāvadāna ( Cowell and Neil, p. 42), Punna Therä from Sopara is said to have visited Sävatthi with a caravan of merchants, where Buddha preached him the Punna-Vāda Sutta. At his request Lord Buddha is said to have visited Sopäraka, where, according to some accounts, he was staying in a Gandha-Kuți built for him.
Asoka is said to have sent Yona Dharmaraksita Therā to Aparāntaka, a tradition which is narrated in the Ceylonese Chronicles (Mahāvaṁsa, p. 34; Dipavamsa VIII, 7), and in several places in literature such as Milinda-panha (S.B.E., p. 331 ), Thupavamsa (J. Pali, Soc., 1898), and Saddhamma-Sangraha (J. Pali. Soc., 1890), one of which mentions that about 37,000 people were converted in Aparānta by Yonaka Dharmarakśita. The consecration of Aparāntaka is believed to have been complete only after the Third Council (Mahāvamsa XII and Dipavamsa VII), under the patronage of Asoka, at Pāțaliputra, which took place in 248 B.C. (Bhandarkar, Asoka). Mogaliputta Tissa, the Head of the Buddhist Church after the Third Council is said to have done independent preaching in A parānta.
Chandragupta II (Vikramāditya II ), son and successor of Samudragupta married Dhruvadevi. The extension of the Gupta Empire to Saurāştra and Gujarat seems to have taken place during his reign.-(CI, III, 21-36).
Malwa and Surāşțra were conquered by Candragupta II Vikramāditya of Magadha, and were annexed to the Gupta empire. Evidence of the Gupta Occupation of Malwa is afforded by two inscriptions (dated G. E. 82 and 93 or 401 and 412 A.D.) found in caves on the Udayagiri hill (Fleet, CII, III, 25, 31, f. 35); and evidence of the conquest of Saurāşțra during the reign of Candragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are directly imitated from those of the Western Kşatrapas.-( Rapson, ibid., cl. f.)
When Candragupta II extended his power over Western India, he began to strike silver coins for that region, modelled on those of his predecessors. The conventional head continued to appear as the king's portrait; the date retained its place behind the head on the left, with the letter 'va', a contraction for varše, although the Saka era was replaced by the Gupta era. Traces of the Greek legend were also retained. But the symbol on the reverse was replaced by a figure of Garuda-standing and facing with outspread wings,--the characteristic emblem of the Guptas.-(Allan, C.I.C.B.M.-G.D., XXXVI, f.)
Skandasvāmi, the author of a portion of Rigveda Bhāşya and the commentary on Nirukta and the teacher of Harisvāmi, the commentator of Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, was in all probability during this period, as he called himself a dharmādhyaksa of the king Vikramāditya. He hailed from Puskara. (U, P. Shah, Buddhiprakash, 1951 ).
C. 400
C15

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-
A.D., Candragupta II (Vikramaditya) in about 380 A.D. succeeded his father 409 Samudragupta, He crossed the delta of the Indus, defeated the Vālhikas,
marched through Malwa and Gujarat to the Arabian Sea, and annexed Malwa and Saurastra, overthrowing the Western Ksatrapas.-(Barnett L. D., Anti
quities of India', Ch. II, Chronology of India', p. 47). 409-10 The earliest date on the silver coins of Candragupta II is year 409-10 A.D.
or 90 + x (i.e. 409-13, since the king died in about 413 A.D.). The legend on the reverse has two varieties :
(a) HITCT HERTSITIG ft. Grup HATA (:), and
(b) sit. T Y HERIFINTE sit. Toua faite -- Allan, ibid., 49 ff.). 413 Kumāragupta I succeeded his father Candragupta II of Magadha. A hoard
of 2000 silver coins of Kumāragupta was found from Amreli excavations.
(Hiranand Shastri, ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8). 413-14 Candragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumāragupta I. Mahendra and
Mahendrāditya are his favourite titles corresponding to the Vikrama and Vikramāditya of his father. In his reign the silver coinage was considerably extended and introduced to his central dominions, where the Garuda of the reverse was replaced by a peacock.-( Allan, ibid., XL, iii).
The great variety in the silver coins of Kumāragupta I forms a striking contrast to the scarcity of his father's silver coinage. The silver coins of the Garuda type which belong to Western India, fall into three main classes :
Class I-Coins which bear close similarity to the silver coins struck by Candragupta II. The legend on these coins is परमभागवत महाराजाधिराज श्री. कुमारYG HÈ-SIFERA (:) Class II--Coins which bear no trace of Greek letters, the head and the Garuda on which are very rudely executed, and the inscription thereon is in the square-headed alphabet. The legend is the same as those on Class I, except that the initial word 'Parama' seems omitted on a sub-variety of this class. Class III–The coins are all of small thick fabric, which resembles that of the Traikūțaka coins and hence they may have been struck in Southern Gujarat. The legend is the same as on that of Class I, except that in a sub-variety, the word Mahārājādhiraja is replaced by Rājādhiraja. The obverse of all these classes bears the word varse on the left, but the figures of
the date cannot be traced.--( Allan, ibid., xciii, ff., 89 ff.). 413-14 A large hoard of silver coins of Kumāragupta I was accidently unearthed
at Anand (Kaira Dist.) during the excavation of a private building in 1952. The hoard lay in a kuldi (small earthen pot) and contained about two hundred

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GUPTA PERIOD
.
115
413-14
C. 426-50
430
coins. They all belong to Class 1.* The diameter of the coins is about 0.5" or 12 mm. Their weight varies from 25 to 41 grains.-(A. V. Pandya, Annual Report of the Bombay Secretariat Record Office and its Subordinate Offices, for the year 1952-53, p. 17).
* A. V. Pandya notes that the reverse bears the emblem of a Peacock, but the photographs clearly indicate that the emblem is of Garuda, which is the usual emblem of his silver coins in Western India-(H. G. Shastri).
A large series of silver-plated coins with a copper core have been found around the site of the ancient Valabhi. They are a debased issue of the silver coinage probably struck during a period of financial pressure.--(JRAS, 1893, 137 ff.).
They bear no date. The legend on them is परमभागवत राजाधिराज श्री कुमारगुप्त HE SIRETA 1-(Allan, ibid, xcvi, III f.)
Mahārāja Indradatta's reign is known through the coins of his son Dahrasena.-( Rapson, B.M.C. 198, ff.)
He is the earliest known king of the Traikūţaka dynasty. The Traikūtakas seem to have originally belonged to Aparānta. The extension of their power over South Gujarat may be dated in the second quarter of the fifth century.-- (H. G. Shastri, MG, p. 249).
About this time lived Indradatta, of the Traikūtaka dynasty, reigning in Southern Gujarat and the Konkan.
Dadda I was the Gurjara king of Bharukaccha.
The Gurjaras apparently entered Western India from the north, about the first century A.D. They founded two kingdoms--a Northern in the region of Southern Mārvād, the Kiu-chi-lo' of Hiuen Tsang, with its capital Pi-lo-mi-lo i.e. Bhillamāla (Bhinnamāla or Srimāla).
A Southern kingdom was established at Bharukaccha, which included the whole of Central Gujarat and the northern part of Southern Gujarat, i.e. the present Broach District, the Talukas of Olpad, Chorāsi and Bārdoli of the Surat District, as well as the adjoining parts of the Baroda State, of the Revākāņthā and of Sachin ; its boundaries in all probability, being the Mahi river on the North and the Ambikā on the south. The Gurjaras of Broach seem to have been feudatories of some larger power, and may have started as vassals of the Northern kingdom of which they were probably an offshoot.
During the 7th century, Bharukaccha was attacked by the kings of Valabhi on the one hand, and by the Cālukyas of Badami on the other, to the latter of whom a portion of its southern dominions was lost. After being invaded by the Tājikas or Arabs in the 8th century, the Bharukaccha kingdom was finally conquered about 800 A.D. by the Rāştrakūta Govinda III, who made over
430
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437
Central Gujarāt or Lāța to his brother Indra, first of the Gujarat Branch of the Rāstrakūța dynasty which held that part of the country for more than 100
years.-(IA, XVII, 191 ; Bom. Gaz. I 312, n. 7). A.D.
Bandhuvarman, son and successor of Viśvavarman, was ruling in Dasapura (Mandasor, in Western Mālava) as feudatory of Kumāragupta I.
A guild of silk-weavers from Lāța (Navasari-Broach region) came to Dasapura (modern Dasor or Man-Dasor in Malwa) and built a temple of the Sun in the Mālava year 494 i.e. 437 A.D. Sections of the people who were originally silk-weavers in the Lāța country (Southern Gujarat) when they settled at Daśapura, adopted different professions such as that of an archer, a story-teller, an exponent of religious problems, an astrologer, warrior and an ascetic showing that caste-restrictions had not become rigid at least in Western India about the time of this record.-(Mandsor stone-inscription of Kumāragupta I and Bandhuvaraman': D. C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, Vol. I., p. 288-297).
Although Western coast of India produces no silk of its own, silks manufactured in this region, then known as Laţadeśa, were known even in the beginning of the Christian era.-( Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Trans. by W. H. Schoff, 1932, p. 45). The region has been mentioned as the original home of the silk-weavers who migrated to Mandsor in Malwa. The artistic silk-weaving has been mentioned as a matter of legitimate pride in the Mandsor inscription, eventhough the word is not specifically mentioned.-(IA., XV, p. 197).
The Sanskrit word ' pattolikā' meaning a colour-box as used in the Kāmasūtras (III, 3, 14) is traceable in the word 'pațolu' or the special form of silkclothing with variegated colours in its texture, so well-known in Gujarat.
Owing to the demands of the ruling princes, silk-weavers who have settled in South India trace their origin from Saurāştra, and still use Saurāștri language called Pațnuli' or 'Khatri', who first migrated to Deogiri in A.D. 1187-8, then to Vijayanagar, and finally to Tanjore, Dindigal, Madura and other places, as a result of Muslim oppression in Saurāṣtra. These silk-weavers can well be linked up with the weavers of Mandsor.-(Randle H. H.; "The Saurāştrans
of South India ", JRAS., 1944, pp. 151-156 ). 437 and The benevolent efficiency of Candragupta II's administrative organization of 473 - the several guilds and commercial corporations finds support in the fact re
corded in the Mandsor inscriptions of 437 and 473 A.D., that a guild of silkweavers belonging originally to Lāța found it necessary to migrate owing to disorder prevailing in their native land, and settled down within the Gupta empire with a view to ply their trade of silk-weaving over there, and attain prosperity thereby.
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GUPTA PERIOD
117
451
That a guild of weavers should in the course of a generation prosper so well that a considerable section of them could devote themselves to the leisurely pursuit of the study of astronomy, testifies to the fostering care of their trade of silk-fabrics, internally and perhaps even overseas.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptas, p. 92).
This shows, also, that the profession of silk-weaving was one of the wellknown professions of the Lāța people and that these people were the devotees of the Sun.-(Vide, IA, XV, p. 194).
Mahārāja Indradatta of the Traikūțaka dynasty was succeeded by his son Dahrasena. The type of the Traikūțaka coins set by him evidently seems to have been adopted from the Kşatrapa coins which were current in Western India since long.
The diameter of these coins varies from 0.45" to 0.55" and it weighs 28 to 35.5 grains. The obverse bears the bust of the king facing right and is surrounded by Graeco-Roman characters which are obscure, as on the Ksatrapa coins.
The Traikūțaka coins, however, bear no dates. The emblem on the reverse consists of a three-peaked hill, the moon on its summit, a star on the right, a river below and a legend surrounding it. In the legend Dahrasena is styled Mahārāja as well as Parama-Vaisnava.-(Rapson, B.M.C. $ 136, 145, 151 ff., 198 ff.).
The Māthuri Vācanā of the Jaina canons that took place under the presidentship of Skandila Sūri did not tally with the Valabhi Vacan, presided over by Nāgārjuna Sūri in its entirety, as the two leaders Nāgārjuna and Skandila could not meet to settle the differences. So a worthy attempt to improve this situation was later on made by Devarddhi Gaội Kşamāśramana of Valabhi, who called a Council at Valabhi in Vira Samyat 980 or 993. He got written the scriptures. The first Council had, however, met at Pataliputra.
This momentous event is known as 'pustkārohana' or the 'Redaction of the Jaina Āgamas ( Canons)'. This was the third council that tried to restore and carefully preserve the Jaina Scriptures. It is dated as Vira Sam. 980 (A.D. 453) by the followers of Skandila Sūri, and Vira Sam. 993 (A.D. 466) by those of Nāgārjuna.-(H. R. Kapadia, History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas, pp. 62-67).
Kālaka Sūri who was a 'Yuga-pradhāna' from Vira Samvat 983 to 994, once came to Anandapura (modern Vadnagar) and stayed there for the rainy season in Vira Samvat 980 or 993. At that time Dhruvasena, the third son of Bhațțārka Senāpati, came to this city and stayed there. After some time, Virasena, his eldest son died. So, to allay his sorrow, this Kālaka Sūri read l'ajjosavaņā-kappa in the presence of the Jaina Church, on the 4th day of
453-466
454 or 467
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Bhādrapada in Vira Samvat 980 or 993.1 (V. S. 510 or 523=454 or 467 A.D.). Pajjosavaņā-kappa used to be formerly recited at night in the presence of Jaina monks. But it was publicly read as noted above. Some attribute this event to Dhaneśvara Sūri, the author of Šatyunjaya-Māhātmya. 2
1 Sandehavisausadhi (pp. 118-119), Kalpa-kiranavali (pp. 129-132 ), Dipika' of Jayavijaya (pp. 113-115), JAC (p. 20) and JPI (pt. I, p. 439). Sandehavisausadhi is a com. on Pajjosavanakappa, by Jinaprabha Suri, composed in V. S. 136. From this com. (p. 119) we learn that 'Anandapura' was known as 'Kalanagara' in the days of Jinaprabha Suri.
2 Sce SHJL, (p. 146). Here, the other date Vira Samvat 933, too, is mentioned. 455
Skandagupta ("Kramāditya', Vikramāditya'), son and successor of Kumāragupta I, is said to have restored the fallen fortunes of his family, to
have conquered the Pușyamitras and fought with the Hūņas. 455 Kumāragupta I who was succeeded by his son Skandagupta had 'Kramā
ditya' as his Āditya' title; but on some of his silver coins he has also the more famous title. Vikramāditya', which had been borne by his grandfather.
The silver coins of Skandagupta fall into two classes : (i) those issued in the Western provinces of the empire and (ii) those issued in the Central provinces of the empire. The former class presents three different reverse types viz. Garuda, Bull and Altar.
The Garuda type corresponds exactly in fabric to Candragupta II's silver coins and Class I (a) of Kumāragupta I. The coins of this type are scarce, in comparision with those of the preceding reign. The legend on these coins is परम भागवत-महाराजाधिराज-श्री-स्कन्दगुप्त-विक्रमादित्य (:)।
From this it is inferred that Skandagupta did not retain the territories
throughout his reign. 455 The Bull type coin, which is a new type, consists of a small series of coins
of very base metal, having the usual bust on the obverse but without traces of Greek legend ; the reverse type is a bull, presumbly Siva's Nandi, couchant to right. The coins are all found in Saurāṣtra and probably belonged to the region around Valabhi. The legend is the same as on the Garuda type.
The Altar type represents the commonest type of Skandagupta's silver coinage. It is of rude fabric, bearing the usual bust with traces of a degraded Greek inscription on the obverse and an alter on the reverse. The legend on these coins is of three varieties: (a) TAHITTT at fara fora UGT: (b) R 17
sit T UET ART: 1 and (c) TAHTTaa sit ZUCT: - Allan, Ibid.,'c ff. 119 ff.). 456-57 The earliest known Traikūțaka king was Indradatta. The mention of
Trikūța in the description of Raghu's digvijaya suggests that Kālidāsa, who flourished about 400 A.D. during the reign of the Gupta king Candragupta IlVikramāditya, knew of a Traikuța kingdom on the Western coast. The known inscriptions of the Traikūțas, however, belong to a later date.-CII, IV, XL ii).
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Indradatta flourished about 415-440 A.D., as his son Dahrasena's Pārdi grant is dated in Kalacuri year 207 ( 456-57 A.D.). Dahrasena is known to have performed an Aśvamedha sacrifice (aśvamedhaharta, 1.2 of the plate); he is known to be a Vaişnava from his silver coins found at Daman in South Gujarat.
The legend on the coins is Mahārāja Endradatta--putra-paramavaisnavaŚri Mahārāja Dahrasena. In his copper-plate he calls himself Bhagavat-padakarmakara, a servant of the feet of Bhagavat.-(CII, IV, XL ii).
457-58
The Junagadh inscription of Skandagupta is seen on the hundred square feet of uneven surface of a large rounded and somewhat conical granite boulder, which records (1) his appointment of Parņadatta as Governor of Surāṣtra and (2) Parṇadatta's appointment of his own son Cakrapālita as Governor of Junagadh, (3) the bursting of the embankment of the Sudarśana lake in the Gupta year 136, (4) its repairs by Cakrapalita in the following year, and ( 5 ) the erection by him of a temple to Vişnu in the G. year 138.- (CI, iii, 47-68 ).
The Girnar rock-inscription of Skandagupta is the only known inscription of the Gupta rule in Gujarat. It records that Skandagupta had, after long deliberation, appointed Parņadatta as the Governor of Saurāştra and that the latter put his worthy son Cakrapālita in charge of Girinagara.
The embankment ( setu) of the Sudarsana dam at Girinagara, which was reconstructed in $. E. 72 (150 A.D.) in the time of Mahākṣatrapa Rudradāman, again burst in Bhādrapada of G.E. 136 ( 455 A.D.) during the reign of the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta; and Cakrapālita, the administrator and the son of Parņdatta, the Governor of Saurāșțra, got it promptly rebuilt within two months in the summer of the next year, i.e. G.E. 137 ( 456 A.D.). The new dam was 100 hastas in length, 68 hastas in breadth, and 7 puruṣas in height. The inscription is styled सुदर्शनतटाक-संस्कार-ग्रन्थरचना (Composition on the repairing of the Sudarśana lake).
Copper-plate from Pārdi, (fifty miles south of Surat ) shows that Dahrasena, Traikūțaka was reigning in (Traikūțaka or Cedi Sam. 207) 456 A.D.(JBRAS., xvi, 346; Bom. Gaz. 294-5).
456-57
The Pārdi plates (Kalacuri Samvat 207 = 456-57 A.D.) were issued from the victorious royal camp at Amraka which record the donation of a village in the Antarmaņdali visaya, which on the analogy on the Antar-Narmadā visaya in the Sunaokala plates of Samgamasimha (K. year 292), seems to have comprised the territory on both the banks of the Mandali or modern Miņdholā river. The places mentioned in the grant can be identified in the country between the Purņā and the Mindholā in South Gujarat. Dahrasena may have ruled from Circa 440 A.D. to 465 A.D.
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457-58
457-58
457-58
The reference in the Junagadh rock-inscription स्फुट मधुर चित्र कान्त शब्द समयोदाराega points unmistakably to the acquaintance of the author with the Science of Poetics (sūhitya śāstra) as well as to his knowledge of traditional literary Figures of Speech ( Alankāras). The use of compounds in ornamental epithets, also, appears to have been much in favour.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptus, p. 192-3).
As Saurāşțra was considered one of the most important provinces of the Gupta empire on account of its ports which greatly facilitated foreign trade, Skandagupta had to deliberate considerably for nights and days' over the appointment of its viceroy, and he found a worthy official in Parņadatta to fill the post.
The statement in the inscription såg at foreta throws light on the political administration in Skandagupta's time, and indicates that the Gupta sovereign was at special pains to appoint a series of responsible " Wardens of the Marches” to protect his dominions from impending Hūņa invasions, the danger of which had not been then over.-(R. N. Dandekar, Ibid.)
The latter part of the Girnar inscription mentions that Cakrapālita, the administrator of Girinagara, and son of Parņadatta, the viceroy of Saurāştra built a temple of Cakrabhrit (Vişnu) on the new dam that was built of masonry at the top of the city in G. E. 138 ( 457-58 A.D.).
He spent plenty of money and plenty of time for the erection of the temple, which seemed as if rising from the Mountain Urjayat. It is noteworthy that Cakrapālita was an ardent devotee of Vişņu (sfarceratuqtada ; and his Emperor Skandagupta also was a Parama Bhāgavuta (great devotee of Vişņu)(Junagadha Rock-Inscription of Skandagupta, CII, III, 136 ).
Bhattärka the founder of the so-called . Valabhi dynasty', was originally a military commandant-Senā pati' sent by Skandagupta to reinforce the civil defence of Saurāṣtra against the possible Hūta invasions, who had accordingly scrupulously arranged for the defence of his territories by selecting Viceroys, Governors and Commandants of army.
Bhațțārka may have been placed in Saurāştra in about 462 A.D. [i.e. about two generations ( 40 years ) before Dronasimha, whose date is 502 A. D. ) which roughly corresponds with the date of Parņadatta of the Junadadh rock-inscription, who possibly looked after the civil administration of Saurastra. Bhattārka was possibly later deputed there as a military commandant to reinforce the defence of the province. Later on, the military officer must have been obliged by circumstances to enforce absolute control over the province. And Bhațțārka thus ultimately became both Senāpati and Governor of Saurāṣtra. In one of the Valabhi copper-plates Bhattarka is referred to as मौलभृतमित्रश्रेणीबलावाप्तराज्यश्री : which fact seems to support the above assumption.
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457
The high posts in the administration of territories were, under the Gupta regime, hereditary. Consequently, Senāpati Bhattārka was succeeded in the same office by Dharasena I and the latter by Droņasimha. Droņasimha, however, assumed the title ‘Mahārāja 'under Gupta suzeranity.-(R. N. Dandekar, A History of the Guptas, p. 146-47 ).
The original capital of Surāṣtra was Girinagara, and Parṇadatta (and also Bhațțārka) for some time governed the province from that place. An ingenious suggestion has been made by Jagan Nath (Indian Culture, April 1939) that the capital of the province was later on transferred to Valabhi. The Junagadh rock-inscription shows how great a source of danger the Sudarsana lake was to the city of Girinagar. The later governors found it necessary to remove to a lofty place': and Valabhi was such a place.
Traikūtaka Mahārāja Dahrasena issued the grant of the village Tadākasārikā situated within Antar-mandali Vişaya, to Brāhmaṇa Nannasvamin, resident of Kāpura in the (Kalacuri) year 207, Vaišākha suddha 13 ( 457 A.D.). The Dūtaka of the grant was Buddhagupta. The grant was issued from the
victorious camp at Āmrakā.-( Pārdi Plates, EI., X, 51 ff.) c. 467-68 Skandagupta seems to have died in circa 467-468 A.D., the last known date
of his reign being G.E. 148 (467-68 A.D.).—(V.A. Smith, JRAS, 1889, p. 134).
His death was followed by a rapid disintegration of the Gupta empire.
(Dandekar, History of the Guptas, pp. 121 ff.). 479 The Caves of Bāgh', so called from the neighbouring village and the river
of that name, are situated among the southern slopes of the Vindhya hills and are on the ancient road connecting Gujarat and Malwa. They are nearly 70 miles from Dohad. "It is interesting to note that the country between Broach and Dhār in Malwa in which are the towns of Bāgh and Tandā, is still called Rāțha."-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 7).
The caves which are nine in number extend over a frontage of about 750 yards but are not all contiguous. Out of these, the Fourth cave, known as
Ranga Mahāl' is the finest of the group for the paintings which still adorn its walls
Architecture of the Bāgh Caves constitutes an integral and inseparable part of the scheme of decoration. The caves are the work of the Mahāyāna Buddhists. At Bagh, as at Ajanțā, paintings are done in tempera, not in fresco. The best preserved portion of the Bāgh paintings is found on the outer surface of the front wall of Caves Nos. 5 and 6. The rock which formed the roof of the continuous verandah supported by pillars in front of the Caves has collapsed, with the result that the upper half of the wall on which the paintings are found
has become exposed to the weather, except where protected by the over-hanging CI6
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A.D. C. 470
rock. As a result of this, the extant paintings are in very fragmentary state and cannot be identified or related to any story.
The Fourth Scene ( published as Plate D in The Bagh Caves) consists of a delightful double group of female dancers and musicians. The left hand group comprises seven women standing around an eighth figure, evidently a central dancer, who wears a peculiar kind of costume. Out of the seven female-musicians one plays a hand-drum, three have each two little sticks-dandas, (so wellknown in the danda-rāsaka) and three hold cymbals. The palms of the hands are turned upwards in the position assumed in the tāla or the tāla-rāsaka, by the dancers. The second group of female musicians is likewise arrayed round a dancer with long black locks. Of the six women, one beats a hand-drum, two handle small-sized cymbals, and three each a pair of sticks ( dandas).
Plates D and E (Bāgh Caves) show the bevy of girl-musicians with the two male dancers in their midst, forming, a complete group or a mandala of the
Hallisaka' type, referred to in the Harivamśa' when writing about the propensities of the Vțişņis for this circular dance. “The dancers express in a wreath of interwoven line and form the rhythm and music of the dance.”— (E. B. Havell, The Bagh Caves, The India Society, London, 1927).
"In this painting in the Bāgh Caves, situated on an ancient road connecting Gujarat with Malwa, depicting a music party, is to be observed a typical scene from the life of mediaeval and modern Gujarat. Probably nowhere else in India are women to be seen going round in a dance keeping time with small sticks' dandaka'or'danda' held in either hand. The peculiarity of this dance is that the women sing while they move round and dance. The Bāgh picture is unique in the pictorial history of India, as is also Gujarat in its preservation of an old rite and custom, chiefly observed during the Navarātra festival at the end of the monsoon "-(N. C. Mehta : Gujarati Painting in the 15th Century, 1931, p. 26).
Western India seems to have thrown off the suzerainty of the Gupta emperors of Magadha shortly after the death of Skandagupta ( 468 A.D.), as no silver coins of his successors are available from this territory.
Gujarat attained political independence under the leadership of Senāpati (General) Bhațakka or Bhațārka, who, with the support of the devout forces of kaula ( hereditary), Chrita ( mercenary), mitra (allies) and śreni ( guilds) types, secured sovereignty; (Cf: 'Atanaiuftampati 175941:1'). And he founded a royal dynasty at Valabhi, a well-known city on the eastern coast of Saurāṣtra.
He belonged to the lineage of the mighty Maitrakas. All the royal sealings of the Maitraka dynasty bear the name of Sri Bhatakka or Bhațārka, the founder of the dynasty. He was a Parama Māheśvara ( a great devotee of Maheśvara or Siva). A Buddhist vihāra in Saurāṣtra was named Bhatārka. Vihāra',
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A.D. 470
500
The Maitrakas continued the use of the 'Gupta era ' in their edicts; but its years were now adjusted to the Kārtikādi system instead of the Caitrādi system. The name of the modified era is left unspecified in the records of the Maitrakas, but from the nomenclature used in the post-Maitraka records, the era seems to have been known as the Valabhi Era'.
The Sun-temple at Daśapura, built in 437 A.D. but which had fallen into decay during the reign of Kumāragupta I and Bandhuvarman, was restored in the Mālava year ( 473 A.D.) by the members of the same guild.
Skandagupta's inscription opens with an invocation to the Vāmana incarnation, and mentions a temple of Vişnu (Cakrabhrita ) as built by Cakrapālita at Girinagar. Clear indications of the prevalence of Vaisnavism in Gujarat are found after the advent of the Guptas in the fourth and the fifth centuries.
The Traikūțakas in Lāța, who were the contemporaries of the Guptas styled themselves as Parama Bhāgavata, and Parama Vaisnava.-( Hultzsch, Surat Plates of Vyāghrasina, EI, XI, p. 219).
The title of Dhruvasena I of Valabhi has been a Parama Bhāgavata, as is known from the Māliā Copper plates Inscription of Dharasena II-(Fleet, CII, III, p. 168 ).
According to the Pālitānā Plates of Simhāditya, dated 574 A.D. (Hultzsch, EI, XI, p. 18), of the Gārulaka family, a feaudatory ruler to the Maitrakas, there is a record which says that Krşpa lived in Dwarka, which was his capital on the Western coast. This is the first and perhaps the only epigraphical reference to Krsna's Dwarka and its supposed survival upto the beginning of the 7th century A.D.
Mention of the word 'Krsna' in one of the Ten Fragments of the Stoneinscriptions from Valā' suggests a probability of the existence of Vaişņavism during this time.--(Diskalkar, 'Ten Fragments of the Stone-Inscription and a Clay-Seal from Valā ', ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. 1).
From the victorious Aniruddhapura, the Traikutaka Mahārāja Vyāghrasena, son and successor of Dahrasena (C. 465-492) issued the grant of Purohitapallikā in Iksarki āhāra, which may be identified with Achehhāran, about 9 miles north of Surat, to Brāhmaṇa Nāgaśarman of Bhāradvāja gotra.
The grant was issued on Kārttika Sudi. 15 of Kalacuri year 241 ( 490-91 A.D.), and composed by Karka, Minister of Peace and War. The Dūtaka of the grant was Halāhala.-( Surat Plates, EI, XI, 2r9 ff).
Traikūțaka coins are found from Kamrej, near Surat.-(ABIA for 1935, p. 34).
An inscription dated in the Kalacuri year 245 ( 494-5 A.D.), consisting of a single plate, was found inside a Buddhist monastery at Kșşnagiri (modern Kanheri) in North Konkan. It records the construction of a Caitya (i.e., the
490-91
494-5
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Stūpa in which the inscription together with some relics was found), dedicated by a pilgrim from Sindh to the venerable Sāradvatīputra, the famous disciple of the Buddha.
The inscription mentions only the increasingly victorious reign of the Traikūțakas, but does not name any reigning king. It appears to have been issued towards the close of Vyāghrasena's reign by a successor of his. During his reign the Traikūța country was invaded by Harisena, the last known Vākāțaka king who flourished in Circa 475-500 A.D.
After the Vākāțakas, the Kalacuris became supreme in Gujarat, North Konkan and Mahārāştra. The coins of Krşnarāja, the earliest known king of the Kalacuri dynasty have been found in the islands of Bombay and Śāşti, and copper-plates recording the grants of villages in South Gujarat have also been discovered. Sankaragana, the son of Krşņarāja is described as the lord of the countries between the eastern and western seas':-( Abhona Plates, K. year 347=596 A.D.).
The Traikūțaka kingdom at its largest extent seems to have extended from the Kim in the north to the Krsņā in the south, and to have comprised South Gujarat, North Konkan, and the Nasik, Poona and Satara Districts of Mahārāştra.
It is interesting to note that the Traikūțakas maintained a fleet for the protection of their maritime provinces. During their regime Traikūța seems to have been famous as an emporium of salt. Aniruddhapura seems to have been their capital at least during the reign of Vyāghrasena. It is mentioned as the place of issue in the Surat plates, and is probably identical with the victorious Aniruddhapuri, à Brāhmaṇa resident of which received a grant of land in the Surat District from the Sendraka king Allasakti.
c. 500 The tendency to add a nasalised intonation in speech by people, especially
by ladies of Saurāṣtra has been noted in the · Śikśā', a work on Phonetics known as Pāņiniya Sikşā' (c. 500 A.D. at the latest ), and is illustrated with the word 'takra' uttered with a twang as'takrāñga' by a Saurāșțra lady:
यथा सौराष्टिका नारी त] इत्यभिभाषते । एवं रङ्गाः प्रयोक्तव्याः खे अराइव खेदया ।
- Mate 1721, T. & c. 500-510 In the 'Padatāditaka Bhāņa', one of the four Bhāņas published as
'Caturbhāņi' of Syāmilaka, the son of Viśveśvaradatta, an Udicya poet, a chief courtesan of the Surāştras, Madanasenikā by name, is said to have graced a Brahmin called Vişņunāga Taundikoki by placing her lotus-like foot on his headl-(Sivapuri ed. of 1922 by M. R. Kavi and S. K. Ramanatha Sastri, p. 3).
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c.500-10
c. 500-10
c. 500-10
Caturbhāni' is the collection of four Bhānas, meaning one-act farces composed during this period. Dr. Dasarath Sharma gives C. 500-510 as the date of Syāmilaka's Pādatāạitaka ( Proceedings IHC Calcutta, 1955, p. 73:) and corrects the hypothetical date C. 410 A.D. (JRAS. 1946, pp. 46-53).
While describing the capital, called, 'Sārvabhaumanagara', Syamilaka the author of Calurbhāni, speaks of kings of Kaccha and Maru along with others as having assembled there.- op. cit., p. 8).
Among the vițas enumerated, one called Kumāra Makhavarmā from Anandapura and one Jayānandaka from Surāṣtra are mentioned.-(op. cit., p. 7).
Syāmilaka denounces, in his Bhāņa called Padatāļitaka', the customs and manners of the Lāța people in general as follows :
"He bathes naked in water, despite the presence of great persons; washes clothes himself; disturbs his hair ; ascends the bed without washing his feet; eats whatsoever even while going along a path; puts on torn clothes and brags even after striking all-of-a-sudden (someone ) in his difficulties":-( Stanza 39, P. 167).
Lāța people are, also, described as speaking Jakāra ( syllable. J') in their speech.- Stanza 51, p. 20 ).
In the next stanza the peculiar manner of dressing and speaking of the Lātas is described :
"Covering both the hands by the upper garment, tying the waist by a clothstring, receiving people by uttering the Sakāra (syllable S), ( the Lāța ) walks with his shoulders drooped down owing to the fall of his feet."-( St. 52).
"Moreover, keeping his hands on his chest as a dove (i.e. kapotahasta which is a peculiar position of hands), he speaks loudly 'Ja''Ja' devoid of Ya' (i.e. speaks 'Ja' instead of 'Ya'); he, with his waist tied properly, walks as if he is touching the mud by the tips of his hands. "--( St. 53, p. 20-21).
The heroism of a Lāța prince Bhadrāyudha, 'the walking Tirtha of the Vitas, and the Lord of Udicya, Balhika, Kārūşa and Mālava countries,' is described in the Bhāņa thus :
"He, who has put both his feet on the heads of the kings of Aparānta, Saka, and Malava countries, went at proper time to the mother Ganges like the mother, and captured (?) the prosperity of the family of the Magadha king. Moreover his adventures are sung by the love-sick Aparānta damsels whose locks of hair are distributed by the gentle breezes on the coasts of the great ocean, where there are rows of the Hintāla trees (the marshy date-trees), after supporting themselves by the creepers of the trees. "-(Sts. 54-56, p. 21).
c 500-10
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This probably suggests that the Lăța prince had under his sway not only the countries of Aparānta, Saka and Mālava, but that the political boundaries
of his kingdom went far beyond up the Magadha country. c. 500-10 A Lāța prostitute is described in the Caturbhāni as one who has put on
golden tālapatra (ear-rings ), hanging in both the ears; having bunch of jewels, pearls and gold at the end of her braid ; whose breasts and arm-pits are visible through her bodice having short sleeves, and whose skirt has the end turning over her hips, is dressed in sakaccha fashion.- ( St. 103, p. 39 ).
The style of Western Miniature Paintings, which had its origin from the frescoes at Ajanta and Elura, shares common traits re: the dress, hair-dressing and ornaments of ladies of Southern Gujarat as found to have been described in this Sankrit Farce.
III
ANTIQUITIES Gupta Monuments: Of the Gupta monuments---caves, temples, memorial stones, and stray sculptures and bronzes found in such abundance in Central India, United Provinces, Bihar and Bengal--unfortunately, very few have been found from Gujarat.
Temples: That the Guptas built temples in Gujarat is beyond doubt. Skandagupta's inscription at Junagadh regarding the reconstruction of the Sudarsana lake, explicitly mentions the construction of the temple of Cakrabhrit (Vişnu) in G. S. 138 ( 457 A.D.) of which, however, few remains-the old black granite images in the temple and the pilaster-are believed to be at the extant Dāmodara Mandira, as pointed out by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji.-(Bom. Gaz. I, p. 70 ).
Along the southern shore of Saurāṣtra peninsula are found a few early structural temples, the oldest of which is that at Gop, in the Barda Hills, since conserved by the Western Circle of the Department of Archaeology, India. Gop consists of a square shrine surrounded by a double courtyard, and roofed by a pecuilar Sikhara. It has the caityawindow ornament motif, found also at the earlier Uparkot caves at Junagadh; but has not retained the vedikā ( wooden railing ) motif. It is dated to the end of the Gupta supremacy in Western India.--( Plate XXIV)
Bricks: Bricks measuring 15" x 9" x 3" are assignable to the Gupta period, and such bricks have been discovered from several old sites like Khedabrahma, Samalaji, Modhera, Nagara, Sojitra, Akota, Amreli, Prabhasa, Vala, Vadnagar and Variav.
Frescoes: The frescoes in some of the caves in Ajanta and those in the Bagh caves (the scene depicting the danda-rāsaka : Plate XXV) are dateable to the later period of Gupta rule in Western and Southern India.
Sculptures : Some sculptures from Samalaji and a few bronzes from Akota, especially the small head of Adinatha, are believed to have been exécuted during the end of this period, and will be noticed in the next chapter,
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Coins: The Gupta coinage adopted many of the existing details of the Kṣatrapa coins, with slight modification. Of the existing features, the Guptas kept the bust, bearing, their personality. The symbols of the Gupta coins are Garuda, cluster of dots, wavy line beneath border of dots, bull couchant to right (on the base-metal coins of Skandagupta).
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The symbols of Bull and Garuda etc. are new to Gujarat. The Garuda is found on early Greek coins, and Bull on those of the Kuşanas. The Bull has survived through Valabhi coins and copper-plates, right down to the time of Múlarāja, the Caulukya king.
"For the first time, the Gupta rulers proclaimed their Vaisnava faith on the coins, thus introducing Gujarat by more ways than one, to their pursuit of the old cults perhaps fallen in abeyance ". On Candragupta II's Saurāṣṭra coins, the legend runs: Fina महाराजाधिराज श्री चन्द्रगुप्त विक्रमाङ्कस्य ।
A large series of silver-plated Gupta coins with a copper core have been found around the site of the ancient Valabhi. The Bull type coins are found in Sauraṣṭra, and probably belonged to the region around Valabhi.
Candragupta II's coins: Candragupta II's several gold coins show a young male figure behind the king, with his right hand laid on the king's shoulders. This youthful figure is Candragupta's son Kumaragupta, who may have acted as the Yuvaraja during the conquest of Malwa. The rareness of Candragupta's coins in Saurastra, together with the date 90 G. E. (A.D. 409) on some of Kumaragupta's coins make it probable that on their conquest his father appointed Kumaragupta, Viceroy of Gujarat and Sauraṣṭra. (Plate XXVI).
The discovery of nine gold coins of Candragupta II at the village Kumarkhan in Viramgam taluka (Ahmedabad District) is significant (JNSI, XV, 1955). A single coin. of Candragupta II's from Karvan is discussed by M. G. Dikshit.
Kumaragupta's coins: Large numbers of Kumaragupta's coins of gold, silver and copper have been found. The silver coins have on the obverse the royal bust in the Ksatrapa style of dress. The bust is a copy of the moustached Kṣatrapa face with the only difference that the date is in Gupta, instead of in the Ksatrapa, era. On the reverse is an ill-formed peacock facing from the right as in Candragupta II's coins.
Skandagupta's coins: Skandagupta's Western coins are of three varieties: (i) the same as Western coins of Kumaragupta, (ii) with a bull instead of a peacock on the reverse, and (iii) with a plate (with very small leaves) and basin. Coins of the first two varieties are found both in Gujarat and in Saurăṣṭra. The third water-jet variety is peculiar to Kaccha, and is an entirely new feature in the Western Gupta coinage.

Coins Hoards: A hoard of 2,000 silver coins of Kumaragupta I was found from Amreli excavations.-(Hirananda Shastri, ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8); and another hoard of 200 silver coins was accidently unearthed at Anand, now in Vallabh Vidyanagar Museum.

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Silver coins : The following hoards of Silver Gupta coins are known to have been found in Gujarat and Saurāșțra area* :(i) Ahmedabad, ( found in 1856 ) 65, Kumāragupta [ JBBRAS, VI (O. S.),
Proceedings, p. XXXIX-XI ; XLV-VI.] (ii) Sāņund, Ahmedabad ( found in 1856 ) Kumāragupta, 1103 along with 283
Valabhi and 9 (?) Western Kshatrapa coins. [JBBRAS, VI (O.S.), LI ;
LXXII.] (iii) Kaccha ( probably found in 1856). 236, Skandagupta (fire-alter type ):
[ JBBRAS, VI ( 0. S.) LXVIII.) (iv) Bhuj, Kumāragupta : number not known, found some time before 1915.
43 of them are in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. ( v ) Bhavanagar, Kumāragupta : number not known, found in 1914-15. 13 of
them are in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (vi) Vala, Kumāragupta : number not known, found in 1914-15. 5 of them are
in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (vii) Amreli, about 2000, Kumāragupta, 1936-37. (ARADB, 1936-37, p. 8). (viii) Anand, Dist Kaira, about 200, Kumāragupta (Garuda type ): (Annual
report of the Bombay Secretariat Record Office and its Sub-offices, 1952-53, P.
27.) Here it is wrongly described as peacock type. Gold coins : The Guptas had issued gold coins profusely ; but they are extremely rare in Gujarat and its adjoining area. So far they are known by only one hoard of 9 coins found in the village Kumarkhan in Viramgaon taluka of Ahmedabad District in about 1953. It contained one coin of Samudragupta (Battle axe type ), two coins of Kācagupta and six coins of Candragupta II (Archer type). Since this hoard has no coin of Kumāragupta I and Skandagupta, it shows that the hoard was buried during the reign of Candragupta II and he had his sway over this part of the country.
Coins of the Traikūțakas : The Traikūțakas issued silver coins of the type of the Western Kșatrapas. They bear on the obverse the bust of the king facing right, surrounded by Graeco-Roman characters which are obscure, as on later Western Kşatrapa coins. These coins differ from them in having no date. On the reverse is the three-arched hill, with crescent on the right ( some time seen on the top of the hill) and star on the left and a waivy line below. Legend around these coins is as follows :--
The Mahārājendradattaputra Parama-Vaiśủava Sri Mahārāja Dahrasena on the coins of Daharasena;
Mahārāja Dahrasena (or gana) putra Parama Vaišnava Sri Mahārāja Vyāghrasena (or gana ) on the coins of Vyāghrasena. Only one hoard is known to have been found at Poona in 1908, of these coins;* though stray coins were found from various places and are lying in various Museums.
This note is based on the Bibliography of Hoavds of Coins found in Bombay State, compiled by Sjt. Paramesvari Lal Gupta, 1or a Monograph of the Numismatic Society of India, made so kindly available to the General Editor in advance.

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CHAPTER VII
MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
(C. 470 A.D.-745 A.D.)

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Facing Page 131
KACCHA
Dwarka Dhenikā
RANN OF KACCHA
Hariyanaka Bhulambilika

Patanaka
Kālāpaka
Kaundinyapura Girinagara
MAITRAKA
Mangalpura
Vamanasthal Bilvakhala
пр
-
Devapalana
Thanaka Devisaras
vipa
.Kiradu (Kiratakupa)
salyapura (sachor)
Shrimala (Bhinmal).
Vardhamana
Anhilpura.
Valabhi.
Simhapura.
(c. 470 A.D- C 745 A.D.)
Jalor. (Jābālipura)
Kisahrada.
Frisangamaka
Madhumali,
GURJARA
And
Hasiavapra
Uppalaheta Kheṭaka
Nagaraka
Dobaka Kapik valapadraka Udumbara
Korilla. Bharukaccha
Suryapura veriyavi
•Shraddhika
-umela
Jambusara Kayanatara Sanga makhelaka
*Nandipuri
• Shirishap adraka Akrureshvara
Kantaragrama Karmaneya
*Bagumrå
Bombay
•Navasarika
Sanjana
Krishnagirt (Kanheri)
Maitraka and Gurjara Empires
Nadol (Naddula)
Godraheka
chilod.
• Nasika
•Mandsor
Fig. 6
R. Tart
Elapura.
ujjayini.
R.Narbada
• Dhara
Ajanţă.

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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
(C. 470 A.D.—745 A.D.)
I
The Maitrakas: The Gupta emperor Budhagupta was on the throne in A.D. 477, after a decade of disorder subsequent to Skandagupta's death; and he ruled for about twenty years or more. Records of his governors in Malwa and Bengal testify to the continued solidarity of the Gupta empire, at least to a considerable extent.
Of all the states that arose out of the break-up of the Gupta empire in the West, the kingdom of Valabhi.proved to be the most durable. Bhațārka, a Gupta general (senā. pati) of the Maitraka clan was appointed by Skandagupta to help governor Parņadatta in maintaining peace and order against the impending Hūņa invasions. Bhațārká ruled the province comprising of Saurāṣtra and a part of Anarta from the new head-quarters at Valabhīpur. His descendants gradually made themselves powerful towards the end of the fifth century A.D.
Bhațārka was succeeded by his son Dharasena. Both of them called themselves Senapati ; but the next governor Droņasimha, a younger son of Bhațārka assumed the title Mahārāja ; and it is claimed in the official records of the family that the paramount ruler in person installed him in royalty by a regular ceremony. The paramount ruler, referred to, was most probably the Emperor Budhagupta.
Thus Dronasimha became a feudal chief rather than a governor, and though the family still paid nominal homage to the Gupta Emperor, the Maitrakas of Valabhi were well on the way to setting up an independent kingdom.
With the death of Budhagupta in C. 500, the power and glory of the Gupta Empire vanished. Whatever was left of it was split into two sectors, viz. the Western, consisting of Malwa and Avanti, and the Eastern, comprising Magadha and North Bengal. A considerable part of modern Gujarat formed part of the Western Section. The Gupta emperors maintained a military governor for Anartapura (Vadnagar ) in North Gujarat and at Bharukachha ( Broach ), which then included parts of modern North Konkan.
About 465 the Hūņas under Toramāņa entered India, and finally reached Ujjayini (C. 500). The then ruler of Malwa, whose sway extended over Central Gujarat, was forced to retire to Bengal. About 512 A.D., Mihirakula, the son of Toramāņa, was the most powerful ruler in North-West India. But in C. 520 he was defeated by Yasodharman Vişnuvardhana ; and in 533, Malwa was governed by his governor. In 550 Iśānavarman overthrew the descendants of Vişnuvardhana, made Kanauj the Imperial capital, and became the unchallenged master of North India.
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The Hūņa inroads under Toramāṇa and Mihirakula must have contributed further to the disintegration of the Gupta empire, which had begun after the death of Budhagupta. In addition to the Hūņas, we know of at least one other foreign invasion. Harişeņa, the Vākāțaka ruler of the Deccan invaded Malwa, and established his authority over Malwa and Gujarat.
The earliest land-grant of the Maitraka family, so far discovered, is the one issued by Mahārāja Droộasimha in 502 A.D. (Valabhi Samvat 183).
The most important and definite sources of information for ascertaining the initial year of the Valabhi Era are the two inscriptions found at Verawal, in Saurastra dated respectively in the years 927 and 945 of the Valabhi Samvat (Hultzsch, 'A Grant of Arjunadeva of Gujarat dated 1264 ', IA, XI, pp. 241-45 ; Keithorn, 'The Verawal Image Inscription', EI., III, p. 303). The second of these is also dated according to three other well-established eras, giving three different dates equivalent to the Valabhi Samvat 945. These years are, the Hijari 662, the Vikrama 1320, and the Simha 151. From a comparison of these dates it is clear that the Valabhi era comes 375 years later than the well-known Vikrama era, or in other words, it commenced in the 375th year of the Vikrama Samvatsara, i.e., in about 319 A.D., and was still in current usage during the 13th Century of the Christian era, at least in this part of India.-(Vide, 470 A.D., infra : p. 123)
The Maitrakas do not specify the era in dating their records, perhaps owing to its having been well-established in country-wide usage. The earliest known of their grants bears the date Samyat 183 (Bhāmodrá Moțā. Plate of Valabhi king Droņasimha', EI., XVI, p. 18), and was issued by king Droņasimha, who was the third in succession, but the first de jure ruler of that line. The last, dated 477 ( Fleet, 'The Aliņā Copperplates of king Silāditya VII', CII, III, p. 182) belongs to king silāditya VI (VII) who was probably also the last of the Maitrakas. The conclusion seems to be inevitable that the Maitrakas may have adopted an era started by some other ruling family and already current in Saurāşțra at the time when they established their rule. The Junagadh rockinscription of the Mahākşatrapa Rudradāman offers a clue to this problem, as it is dated in the year 72 of the Saka era, which was then current in Saurāşțra during the Kşatrapa period, i.e., from the 2nd to the 4th Century A.D. After this, the country passed into the hands of the Guptas, and the inscription of Skandagupta found on the same rock, and dated in Gupta Samvat 138, is evidence enough that the Gupta era was current during the period. After the death of Skandagupta the Gupta power over this part of the country declined, as the last date of the Guptas recorded in Saurāştra is G.S. 138 ( = 457 A.D.), and the earliest known date of the Maitraka king, as given above, is 183 (i.e., 502 A.D.). The interval of 45 years between the two dates is long enough to fit in the two predecessors of Dronasimha, Bhațārka and Dharasena I. Accordingly, we may take it that the era used by the Maitraka kings was the Gupta era- the initial year of both the eras being 319 A.D.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, 1955, pp. 106-109).
All the royal grants were issued from Valabhs, which must have been the capital
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133
city. When or under what circumstances the capital was removed from Girinagar, where Parñadatta, the Gupta governor evidently had his head-quarters, it is difficult to say. It has been suggested that the capital was removed as the bursting of the Sudarśana lake was a standing menace to its safety, as shown by two previous records thereto; one in 150 A.D. and the other in 455 A.D. But this is not sufficiently convincing.
After asserting his independence, Bhațārka seems to have transferred his capital from Girinagar to Valabhi. This is confirmed by the epigraphical records, which suggest that Girinagar had lost its importance. We get references of the Brāhmaṇas who migrated from Girinagar and settled down at various places round about Valabhi. One of such examples from the Valabhi grants is found in the Aộastu Plates (EI, XXII, p. 114) where the donee had migrated from Girinagar and resided at Sraddhikā. According to the Bombay Gazetteer (I, Pt. I, p. 96) "its (Valabhi's) choice as a capital was probably due to its being a harbour on the Bhavnagar creek. The place was not so much inland as it is now. Since the days of Valabhi kings the silt which thickly covers the ruins, has also filled and choked the channel which once united it with the Bhavnagar creek when Ghālā was probably a fair-sized river,”
An unusually large number of records ( copper-plates) of this family have come to light which enable us to reconstruct the geneology and chronology of the kings with a fair degree of certainty; but these records contain little else of historical value.
The final overthrow of the Imperial Gupta dynasty between A.D. 550 and 570, fully explains the absence of all references to its suzerainty in Valabhi records since the time of Guhasena. It is probably for this reason that in later records of the family, since the time of Sīlāditya I ( 606 A.D.), the conventional geneology of the royal family as given in the land-grants begins with Guhasena, descended from Bhațārka, the names of all the intervening rulers being omitted altogether.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, pp. 60-63).
Towards the close of the sixth century A.D., Valabhi had become the most powerful kingdom in Western India. Hiuen Tsang pays high compliments to king Sīlāditya of Mo-la-po, i.e. of Western Malwa as “a monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion." At the time of the Chinese pilgrim's visit in 640 A.D., Dhruvasena II, the nephew of Silāditya, was the king of Valabhi.
It was during the reign of Dhruvasena II, Bālāditya, who was the son-in-law of Harsavardhana of Kanauj that Hiuen Tsang visited India. The Valabhi king was a sincere believer in Buddhism, and he attended the religious assembly convoked by Sri Harşavardhana at Prayāga and probably also at Kanauj, early in 643 A.D. During the greater part of the reign of Harşavardhana, Valabhi was a powerful and independent kingdom and exercised supremacy over Northern Gujarat and a part of Malwa.
Valabhipura was a city of power, wealth and culture. It had a large library of sacred books. Sthiramati and Gunamati, two Buddhist monks, had composed their

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treatises in its University. Their fame had reached even China, and in consequence they had been invited there. The country was happy and prosperous and its merchants carried on extensive commercial activity. More than a hundred merchants were worth over a lakh.
Dharasena IV, who ascended the throne of Valabhi about 644 A.D., assumed Imperial titles and called himself a Cakravarti, though his reign was of a short duration (died c. 653). Whether this led to hostility between him and Harşavardhana, which forced him to take refuge with king Dadda II of Nāndīpuri, we do not definitely know. But two of his land-grants were issued from the victorious camp at Bharukaccha, within the dominion of the Gurjaras, where he possibly reached in the course of a victorious military campaign.
Dharasena's reign thus marks an important epoch in the history of Valabhi, whose power and prestige were increased by him. The great poet Bhatti lived at his court.
Šilāditya III ( 662-684 A.D.) was another powerful ruler, who granted some lands in the Bharukaccha-vişava ( district ), having temporarily conquered the Gurjaras.
It was probably during the reign of Sīlāditya V that Valabhi was first invaded by the Arabs, ( sometime between 725 to 735 A.D.) who, starting from their base in Sindh, overran a great part of Rajputana, Gujarat and Saurāṣtra, and advanced as far as Ujjayini. Although they obtained considerable success at first, their incursions led to no permanent results, and they were ultimately repulsed by the Cālukya king of Lāța and the Pratihāra king of Kanauj.
This is learnt from a record of the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV of Broach, that in the city of the Lord of Valabhi he inflicted a defeat on the Tajjikas (Arabs ) who had caused immense suffering to numerous people. -- (EI., XXIII, 151, fn. 7; 154 fn. I). At this crisis, as in the past, the Gurjaras came to the rescue of the Valabhi king. Though the Arabs retired from Sauráștra, the Valabhi king was not destined to rule in peace. A record dated 738 A.D. refers to one Jaikadeva of the Saindhava family as the lord of Surastra-mandala with Imperial titles, ruling at Bhümilikā (modern Bhumli or Gumli in Porbandar State).
The gradual advance, first of the Cālukyas and later os the Pratihāras of Avanti and of the Raştrakūtas constituted a constant menace to the Valabhi State ; and with Silāditya VII, the rule of the Maitraka family came to an end on the second attack of the Arabs in 776 A.D.
The general belief is that Valabhipura was destroyed by the Arabs, as noted by Alberuni ( Alberuni's India, Tr. by Sachau, I, 192 ). The Arab historian of Sindh records that in 758 A.D. Caliph Mansur sent Amru-bin-Jamāl with a fleet to the coast of Baradaa name applied to the Porbandar range of hills. About 776 A.D. a second expedition succeeded in taking the town. Some scholars find corroboration of Alberuni's story by taking Baraļā as a mistaken form of Balaba or Valabhi.
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135
Dr. R. C. Majmudar, disbelieving the above general belief, suggests: "It would not be unreasonable to conclude that the Pratihāra king distroyed the kingdom of Valabhi, and set up one or more feudatory families like the Cāpas and the Calukyas, referred to above, to rule over the kingdom. This seems to be the most reasonable explanation of the downfall of the Maitraka kings."-- The Classical Age, p. 151 ). . It has been also suggested that the rival kingdom of Bhūmilikā in South-western Saurāṣtra, fought with the Maitrakas and even assisted the Arabs against them, precipitating the final collapse of the Maitraka power.
The main contribution of the Maitrakas appears to have been in the field of administration, in which, adopting the machinery as well as the administrative terms of their predecessors, the Mauryas, the Ksatrapas and the Guptas, they moulded it to fit a system which is very near like that of our own times.
At their capital, again, flourished that great Buddhist centre of learning, the University of Valabhi, the memory of which has escaped the oblivion to which its patrons and their deeds of bravery are sunk.
In other spheres of life, too, they made their contribution, albeit modest, aiding religion and furthering the social life of their people by their generosity and encouragement to learning, among both the Brāhmaṇas and the Sramaņas.
The Gurjaras :-During the downfall of the Gupta Empire about the second half of the 6th century A.D., the Gurjaras established their political authority in the heart of Rajputana at Māņdavyapura ( Mandor) near Jodhpur ; and this region came to be called after them 'Gurjaratrā ', a variant of Gujarat'. The province, now known as Gujarat, was not called by that name till a much later period. The term 'Gurjara' primarily denoted a people, and the countries derived their names from them; yet there is no definite evidence that they were foreigners, who came to India in historical times in the wake of the Hüņas, the Kuşāņas or other foreign hordes.
The origin of the Pratihāras and of related dynasties, can be traced back to a period immediately succeeding the massive inroads of Hūņas (C. 550 A.D.). This period constitutes in many ways, a second dividing line in the history of this part of India. Earlier, in Rajputana and the Punjab the local scene was dominated by a series of oligarchic tribal republics— Mālavas, Arjunāyanas, Yaudheyas, Pușyamitras etc., which were able enough to retain their identity and status for many centuries. This system we know to have prevailed at least from the time of Pāṇini to the Gupta. As far as great power politics were concerned, it was the foreign invaders who dominated-Yavanas, Sakas, Kuşāņas : but whether beneath their way, or from time to time independent, the tribal republics maintained their identity and way of life.
After the great war of Hüņa invasion had receded to the northern Punjab, the situation in Rajputana and adjoining regions underwent a marked transformation. In place of the tribal republics there arose the many clans of Rajputs-Pratihāras, Cāhamānas, Guhilots, Paramāras and others. The Gurjaras appeared on the scene as if from no-where

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about this time, and this led to the theory that they were foreigners, who entered India in company with or about the same time as the Hūņas, settled in the areas which they were later found occupying, and became rapidly Hinduised.-(T. Bạrrow, The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959; Foreword, p. v, vi ).
The foreign origin theory of the Gurjaras has received support from many scholars who on the evidence of similar endings-Khazar and Gujar, are supposed to be foreigners, associated with the Hüņas in their march towards India. Other scholars have suggested the Indian origin of the Gurjaras; but it has not been possible for them to locate their original home nor to account for the absence of their names in Indian literature, Some even have doubted the Gurjara origin of the Pratihāra rulers of Kanauj.
The foreign origin theory, however, has been considered afresh; and the probable home of the Gurjaras in the region round about Mount Abu, which is connected with the origin of several other families as well, has been suggested as the probable home of the Gurjaras. Regarding the association of the Gurjaras with the Hūņas, as supposed by Hoernle and others, it must not be forgotten that the Hūņas, could not be assimilated into Hindu society till the with Century A.D., but, for the Gurjaras, it is rather strange that the dust raised by their inroad took no time to settle down, and they were easily absorbed, as we find references to Gurjara Brāhmaṇas in the 6th Century A.D.; such a thing would have been an utter impossibility if they had been foreigners. In fact, they were very probably tribal people who remained in obscurity for long and were formerly known as the Ārbudas. The absence of their name in early Indian chronicles is no ground for doubting their Indian origin. Here an analogy is suggested. The Kharaparikas and Sanakānikasthe tribal peoples mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta-would have been unknown to Indian history except for this solitary reference.---(Baija Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, 1959, Preface, p. vii).
The earliest Gurjara kingdom, known so far, is that founded by Haricandra in the modern Jodhpur State in Rajputana, about the middle of the 6th century A.D. Haricandra was a Brāhmin, versed in the Vedas and other Šāstras. He had two wives. The sons born of the Brāhmin wife became Pratihāra Brāhmins, while those born of his Kşatriya wife became the founders of the royal line of the Pratihāras. Though a man of peaceful pursuits in his early life, when after the fall of the Gupta empire and the empires of Mihirakula and Yasodharman, Northern India presented a favourable field for military enterprise, Haricandra gave up Šāstras ( scriptures ) for the Šastras (arms) and founded a kingdom. He had four sons by queen Bhadrā, viz. : Bhogabhat, Kakka, Rājjila and Dadda. They conquered and fortified Māņdavyapura ( Maņdor, five miles north to Jodhpur) which became their capital. The third son (there is no information about his first two sons) Rājjila who ruled from here, was succeeded by his son Narabhata and latter by his son Nägabhața, who fixed his permanent capital at Medantaka (Mertā, 70 miles NE of Jodhpur). Hericandra and his three successors, probably ruled between C. 550 and 640 A.D.-(Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihāra Bāuka', EI. XVIII, 87 ff.).
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Plate XXVIII

(C) Cālukya and Pratibāra Seal of Ādi-Varāha, Vişņu. (B) Rāştrakūta Seal of a Garuda, the Vāhana of Vişnu.
( See Plate XVIII A, Supra ).
(A) Maitraka Copper-plate Seal of a Nandi, with the
legend Bhațakkah (p. 197)

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Plate XXIX
1
1
8
2
5

Valabhi Coins
(I) Obverse: Sri Bhaṭṭārka (Bust)
3
6
Reverse Trident (Triśüla) with a long handle.
(2-3-4) Busts of different Valabhi kings. Types of faces, and especially noses, differ: Resemble Indo-Greek head-dress.
(5) Sarva Bhattarka: Trident with short handle and curved ends.
The legend reads श्रादित्यभक्त श्रीश्वंभ... (6-8-9) Legend similar, with slight variants.
(7)
Fabric like those of Gupta coins.
9
4
7

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In addition to the kingdom in Rajputana, there was another principality in the region round Bharukaccha which was ruled over by Gurjara chiefs. The four earliest records of the family, dated between 629 and 641 A.D., were issued by a king named Dadda II Praśāntarāga, son of Vitarăga Jayabhata I, and grandson of Dadda I. It appears from these records that this principality extended from the river Mahi in the north to the Kim in the south, and from the sea-coast in the west to the borders of Malwa and Khandesh on the east. As all the grants were issued from Nāndipuri, that was probably the capital of the family, which has been identified with Nāndod, situated on the Karjan river in the old Rajpipla State.
As Dadda I is expressly said to have been born in the family of the Gurjara kings, and must have flourished in the last quarter of the sixth century A.D., he may reasonably be identified with Dadda, the youngst son of Haricandra, the founder of the main Gurjara family.
In addition to the kingdom of Bharukaccha we hear of another Gurjara kingdom in Malwa, with its capital at Avanti, at a somewhat later date, where the rulers called themselves ' Pratihāras', suggesting their descent from one of the sons of Haricandra.
The inscriptions of the Gurjaras of Broach exultingly mention the fact that Dadda II obtained great glory by protecting (or rescuing ) the lord of Valabhi who had been overpowered by Harşavardhana ( IA, XIII, 77-79). The Lāțas, Mālavas and Gurjaras are referred to as feudatories of Pulakesin in the Aihole Inscription, as they never submitted to Harşavardhana.
The territory over which the Gurjaras of Nāndipuri ruled was included in the dominions of the Kalacuri kings Sankaragaña and Buddharāja. It appears, Dadda I founded a principality somewhere in Southern Rajputana ; and it was only after the collapse of the Kalacuri power that he or his son occupied Broach and the district around it. Possibly the Gurjaras sought the aid of Pulakesin and voluntarily submitted to him in order to over power the Kalacuris. The Nândipuri Gurjaras, Dadda and his successors, are called Sämantas or feudatories, as they owed allegiance either to the main Gurjara ruling family in Rajputana or to the Cälukyas.
II A.D. Traikūțaka Mahārāja Dharasena was succeeded by his son Vyāghrasena.
His coins are almost similar to those issued by his father. In the legend he is
also represented as a Parama-Vaisnava Mahārāja.-( Rapon, B.M.C. 202-3). 478 Ś. 400, 415, 417: Copper-plates from Umetā, Bagumrā and Ilās are
considered to be spurious by some scholars.
Dadda II, Praśāntarāga, Gurjara of Bharukaccha, was the son and successor
of Jayabhat I. c. 480 The kingdom of the Gārulakas seems to have been founded by Śūra I,
shortly after the decline and fall of the Gupta supremacy oyer Saurāșțra. In
476
His ad
shortly after
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490
the copper-edict of Varāhadása II (A.D. 549), Śūra I is represented as having acquired royal power by the prowess of his troops, and styled a Mahārāja'. Possibly Rājasthāniya Śūra who had repaired Bhațārka-Vihāra may be identified with this king, who seems to be a contemporary and ally of Senāpati Bhațārka.
-(H. G. Shastri, Maitrakakālina Gujarat, 217 ff.) 490 From Vijayāniruddhapura, Traikutaka Mahārāja Vyāghrasena issued the
grant of Purohita-pallikā in Iksaraki Ahāra to Brāhmaṇa Nāgaśarman of Bhāradvāja gotra. The grant was issued on Kārtika su. 15 of (Kalacuri) year 241 (490 A.D.) and composed by Karka, Minister of Peace and War. The Dūtaka of the grant was Hālāhala.-(Surat Plates, EI; XI 219 ff.).
Rise of the Cālukya dynasty of Bādāmi. Acording to later tradition, the Cālukyas were of northern origin. The establishment of their power in the south is ascribed to Jayasimha I, the earliest named prince of the line. In the 6th century A.D. the Cālukyas established themselves at the expense of the Pallavas, founding there a kingdom, which in its palmiest days embraced the
greater part of Southern India. 495 Senā pati Bhatarka is the accredited founder of the Valabhi dynasty of the
Maitrakas. The princes of Valabhi started as feudatories of the Gupta empire, Dharasena IV (641-650 A.D.) being the first of their line to become a Supreme Sovereign.
From the time of Dharasena II, the Valabhi rule embraced continental Gujarat as far as the Mahi, and later it extended at least to the Narmadă, Bharukaccha being temporarily wrested from the Gurjaras by Dharasena IV.
Some of the Valabhi princes, though following Brahmanism patronised Buddhism. Dhruvascna I granted a village to a monastery founded by his sister's daughter Duddā, and his nephew Guhasena gave four villages to the same monastery. Guhasena's mention of the 18 schools represented in the monastery refers to the Hinayāna sect of Buddhism, and thus confirms Hiuen Tsang's statement as to the Hinayāna doctrine being chiefly studied in the
Convents of Valabhi. 492-499 Bhatāska was succeeded by his eldest son Dharasena I (492-499 A.D.), who,
like his father, did not assume any royal titles, and retained the hereditary title of Senapati'. He is said to have subdued his opponents and had been
liberal in donations. 494-5 The Kaņheri inscription commemorates the erection of a caitya in the great
monastery of Krşpagiri ( Kanheri). It is dated in the year 245 of the increasing rule of the Traikūțakas.-(Burgess and Bhagavanlal, Care-temples, ASWI, Misc. Rep. No. 10, p. 57). This is the latest known date of the Traikutakas,

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C. 495 Toramâna, a Hūņa chief of Sākala in the Punjab, established himself in
Eastern Mālava probably succeeding Budhagupta. His reign at Sākala may have begun about 460 A.D., and the death of Skandagupta very likely enabled him to invade and hold Central India. He seems, however, to have been defeated, and the Gupta power was temporarily restored by Narasimhagupta, with the aid of the Valabhi ruler in C. 510 A.D. (CI. III, Int. II: text, 158). An inscription of Toramāņa at Eran is dated in the first year of his reign in Mālava,
and a coin bears the date 52 of an unknown era. C. 495 A great invasion of White Huns under Toramāna took place about 495, by
which time the Gupta empire was overthrown. Toramāņa became master of
Mālava, etc. C. 498 An authority on astronomy called Laţa, who is also known as Lăţadeva,
Lāțācārya etc., is mentioned in the Pancasiddhāntikā of Varāhamihira ( 505-587 A.D.), as the commentator of Paulisa and Romaka Siddhānta.--(1.3).
In the same work it is further said that Läţācārya believed that Ahargana should be measured from the sun-set in the Yavanapura ( which corresponds to the mid-night of Lankā) (14.44).
Some calculations of Lāța are accepted by Srişeņa in his Romaka-siddhānta (505 A.D.)–(Cf. Brahmagupta : Brahmasphutasiddhanta'; II. 48).
This Lāța seems to have written an independent work also, over and above the two commentaries mentioned above, as is clear from references to him in astronomical works. Alberuni says that Sürya Siddhanta was a work of Lāța. But this 'Sürya Siddhānta' written by Lăța cannot be the original one, enumerated in the Pancasiddantika' of Varāhamihira.---(Cf. S. B. Dikshit : Bhāratiya Jyotihśāstra, p. 180).
If the name Lățācārya is a name from the country, then it shows how much
active interest the Lāța scholar showed in astronomy. C.500-900 Apart from the Mauryan period, which was an Age of Imperialism par
excellence, the village was a regular unit of the State and no republic, under the Valabhai, Cālukya and Rāşçraūța kings. The fixed order of officials invariably mentioned in the grants shows that there was a real control from the Central Government.-(Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India,
P. 126 ). 500-900 Valabhi copper-plate inscriptions from Gujarat and Saurāştra of the sixth,
seventh and eighth centuries and the Rāştrakūța inscriptions of the succeeding two centuries mention the Headman (14) as the most important officer of the village, to whom all others were subordinate.
The plates mention the officers according to their grades; and their usual order is राष्ट्र-विषयपति-ग्रामकूट-आयुक्तक-नियुक्ताकाधिकारिक-महन्तरादीन् ( समाज्ञापयति)। .
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Payment of taxes continued to be in kind under the Valabhis, Cālukyas and Rāştrakūtas. Their grants distinctly refer to a grainshare in kind : (Cf. the expression 4104124:1). This system continued to be the order of the day in India, while Todar Mall, the Revenue Minister of Akbar, introduced for the first time, the cash payment system in Northern India.- Altekar, ibid., p. 64).
Many of the village grants of the kings of the Valabhi, Gurjara, Calukya and Rastrakuta dynasties mention officers called 'चौरोद्धरणिकाः ' and 'दण्डपाशिकाः' who were obviously, as their names clearly show, police and detective officers appointed to arrest and chastise robbers and desperate characters.
Cf. (i) af FTFACTER atafaqniform atitariutut for... 3471941Antroli Chharoli grant of Karkarāja A.D. 450;
(ii) gifna sifaria fora. -Valabhi plate of Silāditya I, A. D. 615
(iii) JAFT TATT ETTE -Valabhi plate of Dharasena, A.D. 526 and Ganesagadh plate of Dhruvasena 1.- (Altekar, ibid., p. 62 ).
[Vide, for example the Kävi ( Broach Dist. ), Radhanpur and Wani (Nasik Dist. ) plates of Govinda III, Alas ( Khandesa ) plates of Kakkaraja II, etc. ].
The kings were anxious to warn all those officers who might be in a position to disturb the enjoyment of rent-free land or village; i.e. those who were connected with the collection of taxes; and these are mentioned in the grants.
- Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 6). C.500-900 In the numerous temple or monastery grants at Nasik, Karli, Kavi, Valabhi
etc. extensive properties that were granted for the management of temples and monasteries for their repairs, etc. were conveyed directly and never to any temple committee or village council in trust.- (Altekar, History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 25).
Most of the village grants of the Valabhi and Râştrakūța inonarchs contain an exhortation that the villages granted away were not to be entered into by regular or irregular troops. The precise significance of the expression HTara: can be understood only when we remember that in ancient times, when troops or sepoys were required for any purely local purpose, the inhabitants of the locality had to pay for their help. Villages mentioned in the grants were exempted from this liability. It appears that the visits of such regular and
irregular troops must have been frequent enough for the purpose of detection of · crime or the chastisement of robbers.-(Altekar, History of Village Communities
in Western India p. 56). 500 Śūra I in the Gårulaka lineage was succeeded by Varåhadāsa I, who like
Dharasena I, is simply styled 'Senåpati'. He was a Parama Bhagavata.(H. G. Shastri, MG, 220 f.).
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C. 500
502
502-526
Dharasena I was succeeded by his younger brother Dronasimha (C. 500-519 A.D.) in circa A.D. 499 as borne out by the date of his first grant ( 502 A.D.), as well as by the dates of the grants (525-44 A.D.) issued by his successor.
He was the first Maitraka ruler who received the formal ceremony of rājyabhiseka (coronation), which was personally attended by the Parama-Svāmin (Overlord), most probably the then reigning Gupta Sovereign Budhagupta. He assumed the royal title Mahārāja' and issued grants of land to religious institutions.
From Valabhi, Mahārāja Droņasimha issued the grant of the village Trisangamaka for the maintenance and upkeep of the temple of Bhagavati Pāņdurāja in Hastavapra Āharaņi in (Valabhi) year 183, Srāvaņa śuddha 15 (502 A.D.). The grant was composed by Kumārilapatika, son of Şaşthidatta. -(Bhāmodrā Motā Plates, EI; XVI 17 ff.) This shows that as early as the end of the fifth century, temples of goddesses existed in Hastavapra, near Bhavnagar.
Varāhadāsa I of the Gārulaka family was succeeded by his elder son Śūra II. In the copper-edicts of his successors he is styled Samanta, Mahārāja and Bhatti. He also was a Parama-Bhāgavata.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 221 ff.)
The Maitrakas are seen to have assumed the sovereign right of issuing independent grants of land between 502 and 526 A.D. The mask of loyalty was thus later on openly cast aside, and the later Maitraka Mahārājas issued grants of land without even referring to the ruling Gupta emperors.
Saurāṣtra remained loyal to the Gupta sovereigns during the life-time of Budhagupta and Vainyagupta. During the last days of Budhagupta's regime and the period that followed, the distant provinces of the Gupta empire gradually became independent. Dronasimha, the third Maitraka general of Valabhi, assumed the title of 'Mahārāja' and presurnably held independent sway over the provinces of Saurāșțra and Gujarat.
Mihirakula, a Hūņa chief of Säkala in the Punjab, succeeded his father, Toramāņa. Mihirakula overthrew the Gupta power in Western and Central India, but was finally defeated at Kahror, about 530 A.D. by Yasodharman, feudatory of Narasimhagupta.
He is mentioned by Hiuen Tsang as a king of Sākala who was attacked, on account of his persecution of the Buddhists by Bālāditya of Magadha, and defeated; his life was spared by the intervention of the Queen-mother, after which he retired to Kashmir and founded a kingdom.
Mahārāja Dronasimha seems to have issued a grant to the temple of goddess Kottammahika at Trisangamaka, as is known from the subsequent grant
C.515-30
C. 520
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C. 520.0
C. 520
c. 520
525
525
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
issued by King Dhruvasena II in 639 A.D. ie. 119 years after, renewing the previous grant to the goddess of the temple.-( Mota Bhamodra Plates, JBBRAS, XX, 8).
The Maliya Copper-plate states that Dropasimha, son of Bhațarka, brother and successor of Dharasena I was "annointed in the kingship by his paramount sovereign in person (अखिलभुवनमंडलेकरवामिना परमस्वामिना स्वयं उपहित राज्याfa: etc.), this sovereign being possibly identical either with Budhagupta or Yasodharman.-(CI, iii, 168; Vide, References under C. 496 A.D.)
Dhruvasena I (C. 519-549) succeeded his elder brother Dropasimha in cir. 520 A.D., as borne out by his copper-plate grants dated 525 to 544 A.D. Like his predecessor, he also owed allegience to some over-lord (Paramabhaṭṭāraka). In his grants his name is preceded by five titles in all, viz. Mahasamanta, Mahapratihāra, Mahādaṇḍanayaka, Mahäkärläkritika and Mahārāja. Unlike his predecessors who were all Mäheśvaras, he professed to be a Parama Bhāgavata (a great devotee of Visņu). He took keen interest in the scriptures and was very liberal in endowments. His patronage extended to Brahmanas of Nagaraka and Anandapura as well as to Buddhist vihāras. The Jaina tradition represents him, as having been consoled by the public recitation of the Kalpasatra at Anandapura, when he was in grief caused by the demise of his son.
Naravardhana, with whom begins the pedigree of Harşavardhana of Thānesvara and Kanauj, reigned about this time in Thapeśvara. He was followed by his son Rajyavardhana I, his son Adityavardhana, and the latter's son Prabhakaravardhana (C. 580 A.D.).
Mahārāja Dhruvasena I (C. 519-549), the younger brother and successor of Dronasimha, issued a grant of lands in the villages Madkaņā, Tapasiya and Timsaka (or Atimśaka) in Hastavapra Aharaṇī, to Brāhmaṇa Kumārasarman and Jarabhajya, residents of Sankaravataka. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 206, Bhadrapada Śů. 5 (525 A.D.) and composed by Kikkaka, The Dutaka was Pratihāra Mammaka.-( Palitana Plates; EI, XI, 105 ff.)
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land to Brähmaṇa Rotghamitra (Rogghamitra) resident of Simhapura and belonging to Vrajagana gotra. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 206, Aśvayuja Su 3 (525 A.D.), and composed by Kikkaka. The Dutaka was Pratihāra Mammaka.-(Cambay Plates: EI, XVII, 109 ff.).

Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I made grant of land to three Brahmanas of Bharadvaja gotra residents of Akrotaka. The land was situated in Akṣasaraka mandali in Hastavapra Aharani. The grant was issued from Valabhl, in Valabhi Samvat 207, Kartika Su 3 (525 A.D.), and executed by Manımaka. It was composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana Plutes, EI, 105).

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525
525
526
529
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhj a grant of land situated in the village Kukkuta of Hastakavapra Āharaņi to Brāhmaṇa Sacitiśarman, resident of Hastakavapra, of Droņāyana gotra and a student of Atharvaveda. The grant was composed by Kikkaka and issued in Kārtika Su. 7 of the (Valabhi) year 207: ( 525 A.D.). The Dutaka was Pratihāra Mammaka. -(Bhavanagar Plates : IA; V, 204 ff.).
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land from the village Jyeșthanaka (near Akşasaraka) in Hastavapra Āharani, to Brähmaņa Mādhava, who had been holding it since long. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 207, Vaišākha ba. 5. (525 A.D.) and composed by Kikkaka. The Dūtaka was Pratihāra Mammaka.-(Palitana Plates, EI., XVII, 105 ff.)
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land to Brāhmaṇa Dhammila of Darbha gotra, resident of Hariyāņaka in the village Hariyāņaka (near Akşasaraka) in Hastavapra Āharani. The grant was composed by Kikkaka and issued from Valabhi in Vaišākha of the ( Valabhi ) year 207 ( 526 A.D.). The Dütaka was Pratihāra Mammaka.-( Ganesagadh Plates, EI., III, 318 ff.)
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued a grant of land situated at Cedakapadraka in Hastavapra Aharaņi, to Brāhmaṇa Nanna of Mānava gotru, resident of Valăpadra. The urant was composed by Kikkaka and was issued from Valabhi in the Valabhi) year 210, Srāvana bahula 13 (529 A.D.). The Dūtaka was Pratihāra Mammaka.-( Bhavanagar Plates : LI, XV, 255 ff.).
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi, a grant of land situated at Bhallara and Vasukiya in Hastavapra Aharani, to Brāhmaṇa Vişnuśarman of Jyāvāla gotra, resident of Siri hapura in the (Valabhi ) year 210, Srāvana Su. 15 ( 529 A.D.). It was executed by Pratihāra Mammaka, and composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana Plat?s : EI ; XI, 109 f.).
Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi a grant of the village Kalahāțaka in Hastavapra Āharaņi to Brāhmaṇas Viśvadatta and Vasudatta of Bhāradvāja gotra. The Dūtaka of the edict was Pratihāra Mammaka and it was composed by Kikkaka.
The date is illegible ; but from the names of the Dūtaka and the Lekhaka the grant seems to have been issued not later than the (Valabhi) year 210 (529 A.D.).
Säntisarman and Devašarman of Atreya gotra, residents of Nagaraka ( represented by modern Nagarā near Cambay) received a grant of land from Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I in the Valabhi) year 210, Bhādrapada ba 9 (529 A.D.), situated near the village Bhadrepika in Saurāṣtra. The edict was executed by Rudradhara and composed by Kikkaka.-( Palitana-I yavaj Plates : EI, XVII 108; and EI., XIX 125).
529
c. 529
529
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529
529
C. 530
C. 533
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena issued from Valabhi a grant of land, near the village Bhadreņikā in Hastavapra Āharaội. The receipients of the grants were Brāhmaṇa Bhatti and Guhabhatti, both of Bhargava gotra, and residents of Hastavapra. The Dütaka of the edict was Rudradhara, which was composed by Kikkaka and issued in the (Valabhi) year 210, Bhādrapada ba 13 (529 A.D.).—[ JBBRAS, (NS) I, 65).
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I renewed from Valabhi a grant of land in Akrolaka to Brāhmaṇa Skanda, who had been holding it since long. It was executed by Rudradhara, composed by Kikkaka, and was issued in the ( Valabhi) year 210, Āśvayuja Va. 5 (529 A. D.). - Palitana Plates, El., XI, 112).
Kumāragupta II succeeded his father Narasimhagupta of Magadha in about 530 A.D.
Siddhasena Divākara, whose principal literary activities were confined to Gujarat was a Brāhmaṇa by birth and a Jaina by conversion. He was the author of several prakaranas, i.e., treatises, in which the subject is dealt with in a systematic and scientific form, as distinguished from the diffused or episodical treatment of events favoured by the canonical works. He wrote a well-known textbook on Logic. He headed the revolt in favour of using Sanskrit as against Prakrit, which was liked by the orthodox Sädhus moving among the illiterate, due to the intellectual upheaval which was bringing about a cultural unity in the country through Sanskrit.
Mānadeva, a pupil of Samudra Sūri, became 'Sūri' in V.S. 582.1 Owing to illness he forgot Sari-mantra. He thereupon went to Ujjayanta (mount Girnar) and practised penance. 2 Ambikādevi was pleased. She went to Simandharasvāmin and got the Süri-mantra from this Tirthankara, and gave it to Mānadeva Sūri in about 534 A.D. This mantra was thereafter named as “Ambikā-mantra ".: 1 Vide, à colophon of Surividyapatha of Bribad gaccha. JPI (pt 1, p. 446). · See, Gurvavali. (v. 40).
See, Surividya patha noted above.
From the victorious camp at Khuddavediya, Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued the grant of the village Pippalarunkhari to the Buddhist vihara erected by Dudda at Valabhi. The Dūtaka of the edict was Bhogika Vaikuņ. tha ; it was composed by Kikkaka, and was issued in the Valabhi year 216, Māgha vadi 3 ( 534 A.D.).-(Vala Plates, IA ; IV, 104 ff.).
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena l's copper-plate dated Valabhi S. 216 (i.6. 535 A.D.) records the gift of a village, issued to a Vihāra built by his niece (Sister's daughter ) Duddā, 'Paramopāsikā' or 'the Great Devotee of the Buddha )'. The grant was specifically made for providing Buddhist bhikṣus
C. 531
534
535

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Plate XXX
(B) Lakulisa from Kārvan (p. 204)
(A) Ekamukha Linga from Khedbrahmā, p. 200
(C) Bhairava from Baroda Mus?um, p. 275
(D) Bhairava, from Viśvāmitri river,
Baroda (p. 275)

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Plate XXXI
Virabhadra Śiva from śāmalāji, (p. 203)

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Plate XXXII
Kșetrapāla Śiva from Sāmalāji (p. 204)

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Plate XXXIII

(B) Siva from Śāmalāji
(A) Kārtikeya from Sāmalāji
(p. 204)
(C) Standing Ganesa, śā malāji
(p. 204)

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540
540
541
544
549
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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
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with the necessaries of life, as well as (mendicants) for worshipping (the idols of) the Buddhas.-(Bühler, IA, IV, 104-7). In course of time, Dudda Vihara' formed the nucleus of an important Vihara-Mandala at Valabhi.-(G. V. Acarya, Gujarat Inscriptions, Vol. I, pp. 36-38).
A grant of the village Vataprajyaka was issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I from a military camp in the (Valabhi) year 217, Asvayuja ba 13 (536 A.D.) to a vihara erected by Acâraya Bhadanta Buddhadasa in the vicinity of the vihara built by Dudda, the daughter of the sister of the grantor. The Dütaka of the edict was Rajasthāniya Bhatti, and was composed by Kikkaka. (JRAS., 1895, 379).
From Valabhi, Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued to Brahmaņas Skandatrata and Guhatrata of Bharadvaja gotra, residents of Anandpura a grant of land which was situated at Samihamoara and Sarasvativata. The Dūtaka of the edict was Sūpakarapati Bhatti, which was composed by Kikkaka, and issued in the (Valabhi) year 221, Aśvayuja ba 1 ( 540 A.D.).-( Vävdi Jogiya Plates, VOJ, VII, 297 ).
Varāhadāsa II succeeded his elder brother Sura II in the Garulaka lineage. He was a contemporary of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena I. By means of prowess he took possession of Dväraka and styled himself Dvärahadhipati (Lord of Dvårakā). In his prasasti ( eulogy) he is said to have built a number of temples, orchards, monasteries, inns, wells, halls and abodes.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 223 ff.).
Mahasamanta Mahārāja Sangamasimha, of an unknown dynasty, issued from Bharukaccha (Broach) a grant of the village Sonavva (Sunao) situated in Antar-Narmada Visaya. The grant was received by Brähmapas Anantadatta, Prajapatisarman, Sivadeva, Bhänudeva and Bhavaruci. The Dutaka of the edict was Sandhivigrahika Reva. The grant which was composed by Visņusena was issued in Kalacuri era 292, Kārtika su. 15 (541 A.D.).-( Sunao Kala Plates, EI., X, 72).
Sangamasimha, was probably a feudatory of Krsparaja (Circa 550-575 A.D.)'s father, whose name unfortunately has not come down to us. In the place of the patronymic which occurs in the legend on Traikutaka coins Krsparaja substituted mäläpitri-pad-anudhyata he who meditates on the feet of his mother and father'. His father's name does not occur even on his coins.
Maitraka Mahārāja Dhruvasena I issued from Valabhi a grant of land to a Brahmana of Anartapura in the ( Valabh!) year 226, Kartika su. 15. (544 A.D.). -[Vala Plates, JBBRAS, (NS) I, 16].
From Phankaprasravaṇa, Garulaka ruler Varahadāsa II issued a grant of land to the Nuns' vihara built by merchant Ajita, which seems to have been

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C. 550
included in the Yakşaśuravihāra-mandala at Valabhi. The land was situated at Bhattipadra which the donor had received from Mahārāja Dhruvasena I in Valabhi Samvat 230, Māgha su. I ( 549 A.D.).-(l'aia Plates, JBU, III. 1.77 ff.)
Mahārāja Dharapațța, the youngest known son of Senāpati Bhațārka (c. 550-553 A.D.), succeeded his elder brother Dhruvasena I in circa 550 A.D. He professed to be a great devotee of Aditya (Sürya). The omission of his name and eulogy in the copper-plate grant issued by his successor in 559 A.D. is, in all probability, an error or oversight; as he is regularly represented as a ruler in another grant of his successor dated 567 A.D., as well as in the grants of the subsequent successors.--(H. G. Shastri, MG, 67 ff.)
The origin of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, and of related dynasties, is traced back to a period immediately preceeding the massive inroads of Hūnas (C. 550 A.D.). That Gurjara' was the name of a tribe of foreigners who came in Ist Century A.D. has been the view of some scholars. (D.R. Bhandarkar: JBBRAS., XXII, 1905; I.A. XL, 1911, Vincent Smith: E.H.I. 3rd Edn. p. 322; W. Crooke : Ed. Tod's 'Annals of Rajasthan'] This tribe of foreigners (Khazars and Scythians) who migrated to India in the ist Century A.D. with Huns (Hūņas) during the reign of Skandagupta, gave their name to the different regions where they settled. The Gurjaras later claimed Ksatriya origin, especially in Rajputana where they founded a kingdom, of which the capital was Bhinmal, some 50 miles N.W. of Mount Abu.
C. 550
Rajpuhey sets of Sko
Other scholars maintain that Gurjaras of India were distinctly Aryan. [Referencs : Mm. Gaurishankar Ojha, History of Rajputana, Vol. I, pp. 155; C. V. Vaidya : History of Mediaeval Hindu India (1934), Vol. II, pp. 32; D. C. Ganguly, IHQ, Vol. X, pp. 337 (Contra B. Ghosh, Indian Culture, Vol. I, pp. 510); Dasharath Sharma, IHQ Vol. X, 582; D. R. Mankad, Ibid, p. 584; and K. M. Munshi: The Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, Part 1 (1955), p. 4: S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, quoted in Journal of the Dept. of Letters, Vol. X, p. 3. For a detailed discussion of the various theories connected with the Origin of Gurjaras', Vide R. C. Majumdar, Bharatiya Vidya : K.M. Munshi Commeration Vol. II, p. 1-18; and Appendix I, Glory that was Gurjaradeśa' Vol. I. ]
C. 550
From examination of certain personal names Dr. H. D. Sankalia has, however, come to the conclusion that a part of the population of the old and new Gujarat, was, probably, of foreign extraction. The fact that no allusion to Gurjara Country in the pre-5th Century historical land-marks is found, and a crop of references in the post-6th Century records is visible, makes the presumption natural and strong that the Gurjara country and people came into the forefront of Indian politics during this interval.

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As the Saka Rudradāman in the 2nd Century A.D., and the Kuşāņa Kaniska and his descendants Huvişka and Vasudeva were Hinduised, so the Gurjaras appear in the 7th Century, as Aryans, Brāhmaṇas, Kşatriyas or Vaisyas, and promoters of the Varņāśrama dharma. Just as Buddhism claimed a number of converts among the Sakas and Indo-Greeks, and now Christianity claims among Kolis and other aboriginal tribes, so Jainism could claim a large share of these foreigners. Some of these became reconverts to Hinduism like the Porvāds, who were Jainas 700 years ago, and became Vaişņavas later on.
In the earliest epigraphical records of the Gurjaras of Broach, viz., Dadda is described as belonging to the Gurjara-nypati-vamśa, which, as Cālukva-vansa or Raghuvamśa, refers not to the country, but to the family or the people; i.e., it stands for the Gurjara family and not the country. Expressions like Gurjaratrā or Gurjara-bhūmi or mandala would thus only mean 'land or mandala belonging to or occupied by the Gurjara people':-(H. D. Sankalia, On the Origin of Gurjaras', JGRS, 1946, Nos. 2-3).
The foreign origin theory of the Gurjaras has, however, been considered afresh by Dr. Baij Nath Puri (The History of the Gurjara-Pratiharas, 1959, pp. 6-7) who points out that the Gurjaras formed a group or tribe representing people of different castes (who were ) living in Rajputana, from where they migrated and established themselves at different places. In fact, they were very probably tribal people who remained in obscurity for long, and were formerly known as the Arbudas. Moreover, references to Gurjara Brāhmaṇas are found in the 6th Century A.D., which would have been impossible if they had been foreigners.--(Ibid, Preface, vii).
Reference to the maritime activities of the people of Valabhi are given in the Buddhist work Manju-Sri-Mülakalpa.-( Jayaswal, Patna, 1934, p. 25). It says that the people of Valabhi reached Surā by crossing the sea, which probably refers to their trade ventures to, and regular commerce with, Assyria. This information of the Buddhist work is further corroborated by Dandin who, in his Daśakumāra-Carita, says that there lived in the city of Valabhi a ship's captain (Nāvikapati), who seems to have been as rich as the god of wealth himself.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, p. 221 ).
The Arbudas are mentioned in the Purāņas. (Bhāgavata, Vol. XII, I. 36; Vişnu, Book II, Chap. III; Brahma, Chap. XIX, p. 17). The Rāmāyaṇa locates the tribe in the West. (Kiskindha Kanda, Canto, XLII). They must have been the people dwelling on and around the Arbuda Mount, which is generally identified with Mt. Abu. The Gurjaras appear to be one of such peoples who later on migrated to other places, known after them.
The Jainad inscription ( Bhandarkar's List; No. 2084; Cf. Ibid, p. 399, note 10) from Haiderabad State refers to the wives of the Gurjara warriors shedding
C. 550
C. 550
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tears in the caves of Arbuda, as a result of the conquest of the Paramāra Jagaddeva, who is placed in V.S. 1151.
The association of the Gurjaras with the Arbuda mountain is also noticed in the Tilakamanjari of Dhanapāla :
अद्याप्युद्गतहर्षगद्गदगिरो गायन्ति यस्यार्बुदे । विश्वामित्रजयोज्झितस्यभुजयो विस्फूर्जितं गुर्जरः ।।
(Kavyamāia Series No. 85, I 39) . An early inscription of Varmalāta dated in the V.S. 682 from Vasantgarh refers to his feudatory Vajrabhađa Satyāśraya protecting Arbuda, which is associated with the origin of other ruling families also.
The earliest reference to the Gurjara country and its people is noticed in Båņa's Harsacarita, and the account left by Hiuen Tsang. (Beal, Vol. II, p. 269). Banabhasta's account credits Prabhākaravardhana with keeping the Gurjara (evidently the king of the country or tribe) awake. Hiuen Tsang distinguishes the Gurjara country from neighbouring kingdoms like Bharukaccha, Mālava, Valabhi, Saurāṣtra and Ujjayini, which shows that the Gurjara kingdom at that time comprised Rajputana. It further suggests that there were, at least, two kingdoms in this period, the other one being at Broach.
The Aihole inscription ( dated Saka Samvat 566 = 6 34 A.D.) of Palakesin II, the Cālukya king (EI, VI, p. 1), mentions the submission of the Lāțas, Mālavas, and the Gurjaras to the Cälukya emperor, with a view to seeking his protection. The Gurjaras referred to in this record must be those of Broach.
The Rāştrakūța inscriptions refer to the term 'Gurjara' implying the Pratihāra king of Kanauj, and the Gurjara country establishing the Gurjara nationality of the Pratihäras.
The Radhanpur plates of Govind III (EI, VI, 239) refer to the Rāştrakūta ruler, defeating a coalition of twelve princes, releasing but imprisoning the Ganga, defeating the Gurjara, and subduing the Mālava. Here the names of countries definitely signify their kings.
The Deoli plate inscription of Kșşņa III (EI, V, 235) mentions Kļşņa II frightening the Gurjara, destroying the pride of Lāța, teaching humility to the Gauda, Anga, Kalinga, Ganga and Magadha, where the names of countries are with reference to their kings.
The Baroda Copper plate of the Răstrakūta Karka (IA, XII, 160 ) mentions two terms: Gurjureśvarapati and Gurjareśvara-both being used here in the same sense.
In the Sanjan copper plate of Amoghavarşa (EI, XVIII, p. 243, V. 9), the Rastrakūta ruler Dantidurga is described as being waited upon by kings led by
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the king of Gurjaradeśa, at the Hiranyagarbha-mahädäna ceremony performed by him at Ujjayini.
The Broach kingdom of the Gurjaras included, according to the testimony of the inscriptions, the whole of the Central Gujarat and the northern parts of Southern Gujarat, the talukas of Orpad, as well as the adjoining parts of the Baroda State, of the Revakantha, and of Sachin. Its northern frontier was probably the river Mahi, and the Southern one the river Ambikā. The demarcation of the boundaries of this Gurjara feudatory kingdom made it contiguous to the main Gurjara kingdom in the north, Valabhi in the West, Läta in the South and the Cālukyas in the east.
Jinadatta Sūri in his Ganadharasaraśataka mentions Gujaratta (Gurjaratta ) with its capital Anahillavāda (Anahillpāțaka) and with Durlabharāja reigning there.—(Weber, The Sanskrit and Prakrit Mss. in the Berlin Library, II 900).
In Dharmasagara Gani's Gurvāvali Sūtra, Sri Devendrasűri is represented to have gone to Gurjarāștra from Ujjayini in Mālavaka. In the inscriptions, the Caulukyas are styled as Gurjaras, and the country ruled by them is named Gurjaradeśa. Thus we find reference to king Bhima (EI, IX, p. 74; EI, VIII, P. 99), identified with the Caulukya Bhimadeva I, and his son the Gurjara king Karna (Karna Trailokyamalla) of Anahillapāțaka, and Mahārājādhirāja Caulukya Kumārapāla as the lord of the Gurjara country--(IA, X, p. 159). The Dohad inscription (EI, XI, p. 55) speaks of the Caulukya king Jayasimha ruling over the Gurjara-mandala from Apahilla pāțaka. Similarly the Somanāth Patan Prasasti (V.O. J. Vol. III, p. 9) of the Valabhi Era 850 (1170 A.D.). mentions the Caulukya prince Kumārapāla, who is called the king of the Gurjjaramandala.
According to Pāṇini Sūtra-Śūdrānām = Anirvasitānām (II. 4. 10; Keilhorn; Mahābhāsya Vol. I, p. 475) with Patanjali's gloss over it, the Yavanas and Sakas were included in the category of Sūdras with this much of concession that they were not ostracised, and the plate touched by them was not polluted. There was also no restriction on their residence in the Aryan localities. It is, therefore, clear that all foreigners were accorded the fourth grade in Hindu society, except, of course, the nob le ones who were classed as Ksatriyas later on. There is not one instance of a Yavana Brāhmaṇa or a Śake Vaisya or a Hüņa Brāhmaṇa, but there are references to 'Gurjara Brāhmaṇas' which would have been a sheer impossibility, if they were foreigners. The only exception of any foreign tribe being straight way admitted into the Brahmanical class seems to be that of the Mågas, but this was probably done under very extraordinary circumstances.
The Kysna-treya kula or gotra assigned to the Gurjara Bråhmaṇas has its association with the Brāhmaṇas only; and there are about half a dozen records
c. 550
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553
from different parts of India, mentioning this gotra for them. As its earliest reference can be dated in the 5th Century A.D., it is highly improbable that it could have any association with the Gurjaras as a Society. This earlier reference to the Gurjara Brāhmaṇas rules out the foreign origin of the Gurjaras. --(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, 1959, p. 4-5; and Fn. on p. 5).
Both the Gurjara-Pratihāra families of Mandor and Kanauj trace their origin to Lakşmaņa, brother of Rāma of the epic fame, which is construed by Scholars as a characteristic of foreign races settling in India. If that be the criterion for assessing foreign origin, many other tribes, including the Candellas and the Kalacuris who trace their pedigree to epic or mythic heroes, would not be able to assert their indigenous origin.
The probability is that the Gurjaras, like so many other Indian tribes, were living in obscurity, somewhere in Rajputana, and it was only when lust for power impelled them to rush head-long that they came into contact with others, and carved out a number of kingdoms which ultimately formed the nucleus of the big Gurjara empire.
Ajita and Ratna, the two Jaina Śreșthins of Kiśmira, came to Girnar in V. S. 609 ( 553 A.D.). On finding that the lepyamaya image of Lord Nemi had melted, they restored the temple and got installed another image of stone.
This he did according to the order of Kuşmāņdi. This is according to JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, pp. 117 & 121) which is said to be the summary from Vividhatirtha-Kalpa (III, V.6); but neither in this work the name of Ajita nor the date 60g is found.
According to an inscription on the image in the temple of Lord Rşabha in Tālanapura, Candrasimha, a rich person and his wife Jamunā, got prepared an image of Lord Candraprabhra for the temple of Lord Parsva situated in Trāpura, lying in the centre of Mandapa-durga, in V. S. 612 ( 555 A.D.); and this image was installed by Jagaccandra Sūri." 1 This city is 73 miles from Dohad and two and a quarter from Kuksi. Its old name is
Tungiyapattana or Taranapura. Vide JESS (Vol. II, p. 320). · Ibid., 320
Maitraka Mahārāja Dharapațţa was succeeded by his son Guhasena (circa 553-569 A.D.), one of the greatest kings of the dynasty. In his grants he is eulogized as a virile warrior, popular ruler ( rājan) and peerless patron. His all known grants were issued to Buddhist vihāras.
Maitraka Mahārāja Guhasena issued a grant of land to the Buddhist vihāras erected by Duddā at Valabhi. The grant was composed by Vişnusisha and issued in the (Valabhi ) year 240, Srāvana su. (559 A.D.).-(IA, VII, 66).
555
C. 555
559
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MAITPAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
151 A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Guhasena in the ( Valabhi) year 246, Māgha ba, ( 564 A.D.). The land was donated to the Sangha ( Congregation) of the Buddhist bhikṣus (mendicants) at Duddā-Mahāvihāra erected by Dudda in the locality of Valabhi; and it consisted of four villagesSamipadravāțaka in the vicinity of Anumañji and Pippalarunkhari, Sangamanaka in Mandali Dranga and Naddiya and Chossari in Khețaka Āhära. The grant was composed by Skandabhața, the Officer in charge of Sandhi ( Peace ) and Vigraha (War).- Valā Plate, EI, XIII, 338 ).
The language of Ābhiras must have grown in importance along with their 559-567 political power and influence. Besides the testimony of Bhāmaha and Dandin,
we find a copper-plate inscription praising the proficiency of King Guhasena of Valabhi ( A.D. 559-567 ) in Sanskrit, Prākrit and Apabhramśa poetry :
TEATTY#373191974-4fa4 ealfagoria:CUIT: 1-(Bom. Gaz., I, p. 90) Rudrata in his Kāvyālankāra (9th century),--not only includes Apabhramsa among his six languages of poetry, but also says that Apabhraíśa has several
varieties according to countries. C. 566 On a pot-sherd of a clay-pot (ghața ) discovered from Valā, the name of
Śri Guhasena' (553-569 A.D.) and the ( Valabhi year (2) 40 ( = C. 566 A.D.] are found inscribed. It reads sit Jahatu : This ghața may have been a pot for water-clock, as suggested by Dr. R. A. Saletore.-(IA; XIV, March, 1885, p. 75).
A fragmentary stone-inscription discovered at the village Bankodi in the Rāval District of the former Navānagar State, also records the name of Guhasena; and it is assigned on paleographic grounds, to this Maitraka king.--
(Bhavnagar Sanskrit and Prakrit Inscriptions.) 567 A grant of land situated in the village Bahumūla near Vațasthalika was
issued from Valabhi in the ( Valabhi) year 248, Āśvayuja vadi 14 ( 567 A.D.) by Maitraka Mahārāja Guhasena to the Sumgha ( Congregation) of the Buddhist bhikṣus (mendicants) in Abhyantarikā Vihära' erected by Mimma in the vicinity of Bhatārka-vihāra'given to Rājasthāniya Śūra as a token of favour. The grant was composed by Skandabhata in charge of the Department of Sandhi ( Peace) and Vigraha (War). The grant represents king Guhasena as a Parama-Upasaka (great devotee of the Buddha ).- ( Bhavanagar Plates: 1A.,
V, 206). C. 570 King Dharasena II (c. 570-589-90 A.D.) succeeded his father Maitraka
Mahārāja Guhasena in circa. 570 A.D. He was proficient in archery and liberal in donation.
The two grants represented as issued by this king in Saka year 400 are obviously forged records.--(IA. X, 277 ff.; Manilal Dvivedi, Purātana Daksina Gujarata, 194 f.)
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
571
571
Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II issued from Valabhi a grant of land from Bilvakhāta Sthali and Jhāri Sthali to Brāhmaṇa Chacchara of Bhargava gotra, resident of Brahmapura. The grant was composed by Skandabhata and issued in the (Valabhi) year 252, ba. 5 ( 571 A.D.). The Dütaka of the edict was Cirbira.--( Jhār Plates : IA, XV, 187).
From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana a grant of land, situated near Dāmaripāțaka of Vatapallika Sthali was issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II to Visakha and Bappa of Kāśyapa gotra, on Sam. 252, Vaišākha bahu 5 (571 A.D.):-( Katpur Plates, BPSI., 35 ff.).
The following five grants were also issued by him on (Valabhi) year 252, Vaišākha ba. 15 (571 A.D.). All of them record religious endowments of land made on the Amārāsyā day, which was held especially sacred for the purpose. The royal edicts of all these grants were executed by Cirbira and the grants were composed by Skandabhata :
(1) Brāhmaṇa Rudragopa of Ānartapura received the grant of the village Işikānaka of Ambareņu Sthali.-( Bhädvā Plates, ABORI, IV, 33 ff.).
(2) Lands situated in Jambuvāņaka Sthali, Nimbaküpa Sthali and Kadambapadra Sthali were given to Rogha and Syena of Kausika gotra.(Palitana Plates. EI, XI, 80).
(3) Land situated in Antaratra was given to Brāhmaṇa Rudrabliūti of Kaņva-Vatsa gotra, resident of Unnata.-(Mālia Plates : CII, III, 104 f.).
(4) A land-grant was issued to Brāhmaṇa Dusa and Şaşthi of Sāņạilya gotra from Valabhi.- (Sorath Plates : IA, VII 68 ).
(5) A grant of land was given to Bráhmaņa Ludra of Kerādi gotra and to Dasila of Alaṁbāyana getra in the (Valabhi) year 252 (571 A.D.).(IA, VIII 301).
Dharasena II, of Valabhi, son and successor of Guhasena was reigning from 571-589 A.D. (G. Sam. 252-272 on copper-plates). He ruled over continental Gujarat as far as the river Mahi.--(IA, I; 17, 60 ff )
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II from Valabhi on the occasion of the solar eclipse (Sūryoparāga) in the Valabhi) year 254, Vaisakha ba. 15 ( 573 A.D.). The recipient of the grant was Brāhmaṇa Devadatta of Sāņqilya gotra and the land received by him was situated near
Bhattakapadra in the North Pațţa of Kaundinyapura (Visaya) in Surāştra. * The royal edict was executed by Skandabhata.-( Bánțiä Plates : EI., XXI, 179 ff.).
The year was first read 257, but later on corrected into 254. The reference to the solar eclipse on the day of the grant applies to the Pūrạimānta Vaišākha of the Valabhi year 254 ( 573 A.D.).—(H. G. Shastri, MG, 578):
571-589
573

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Plate XXXIV
Uma-Maheśvara from Kapuri, Baroda Dist., (p. 204)

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Plate XXXV

(A) Mother and Child, Koțyarka. Mahuļi (N. Gujarat ), (p. 206)
(C) Māheśvari (p. 205)
(B) Mother & Child Kotyarka, (p. 206)

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Plate XXXVI A

(A) Vārāhi from Sāmalāji (p. 205)
(a) Āgneyi (p. 205)

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Plate XXXVI

SD

(A) Kaumāri ( standing ) from
Śāmalāji, (p. 206)
(C) Kaumāri (dancing) from Kārvan
(p. 276)
(B) Kaumāri (seated) from Mt. Ābu.

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153
574
574
From Phankaprasravana, Maitraka Mahārāja Simhāditya issued a grant of land to Brāhmaṇa Bappasvāmin of Krşņātreya gotra resident of Elāpadra in the Valabhi year 255, Āśvayuja śu 13, ( 574 A.D.). The land was situated at the village of Darbhacāra.-( Palitana Plates : EI., XI, 16).
A single copper-plate reveals the existence of a family ( called Gārulaka ) of feudatory chiefs consisting of Senapati Varāhadāsa I, his two sons Bhattiśūra and Varāhadāsa II, and the latter's son Simhāditya, the last three having the title Sāmanta-Mahārāja. The change in titles is analogous to that of the Maitraka chiefs themselves. The Grant was issued by Senāpati Simhāditya in 574 A.D.; and he was, therefore, a feaudatory of Dharasena II.
The Grant mentions that Varāhadāsa II defeated a ruler of Dwarka, which is on the west coast of Saurāșțra Peninsula. It tells us that Krşņa lived in Dwarka, and at that period (c. 600 A.D.), Dwarka was the capital of the western coast of Surāṣtra.
C. 575
This is the first and perhaps the only epigraphical reference to the Dwarka of Sri Krsna and its supposed survival upto the 7th century.-(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, p. 62 ).
From the Sankheda copper-plate we learn that Nirihullaka was ruling over the lower Narmadā valley, later, in the heart of the Gurjara kingdom, as a feudatory of the Kalacuri Sankaragaņa. The Gurjaras came into its possession after the Kalacuris.
The sign-manuals of the Gurjara princes are in the northern characters, though their grants are written in the Southern script. This clearly indicates their northern origin.
Dr. R. C. Majumdar has shown that Dadda I was probably identical with the homonymous son of the Brāhmaṇa Haricandra, from his Kşatriya wife Bhadrā, who is mentioned in the Jodhpur inscription of the Pratihāra Bāuka, and who probably flourished about 575 A.D. He was apparently ruling somewhere in the vicinity of Māņdavyapura (modern Mandor near Jodhpur) which he and his brothers are said to have conquered.
Samanta Dadda I, with whom begins the pedigree of the Gurjaras of Gujarat, ruled about 580 A.D. He was followed by his son Jayabhata, Dadda II (628 A.D.).
This 'Gurjara kingdom' had its capital at Bharukaccha and included Central Gujarat, and the northern territories of Southern Gujarat,
Subandhu, author of the Vāsavadattā, may have flourished about this date, being mentioned by Bāņa (A.D. 600).-(JBBRĄS, XVIII, 147, 159 ).
C. 580
C. 580
C20
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585
Prabhākaravardhana of Thāņeśvara, son and successor of Adityavardhana, and probably the first paramount sovereign of his dynasty, married Yasomatidevi. According to Bāņa (Harşacarita), he fought with the king of Gandhāra and the Hūnas in the Himalayas, against the king of Sindh in west, with the Bhinmāl and Bharukaccha branches of the Gurjaras, and with the king of Malaya.
C. 587
588
He sent his son Räjyavardhana, shortly before his own death, against the Hüņas. Prabhākaravardhana's daughter Räjyaźri married the Maukari king Grahavarman, who, shortly after his father-in-law's death, was attacked and slain by the king of Mālava.-(EI, I, 68).
Varāhamihira, the astronomer died, according to Āmarāja's commentary on Brahmagupta's Khandakhādya : author of the Pañcasiddhāntikā.-( JRAS, NS, i, 497).
From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana, Mahārāja Dharasena II issued a grant of Maheśvaradāsenaka in Hastavapra Āharani and Devabhadrapallikā in Dhārākheța Sthali to the Bappapadiya Vihāra erected by Acārya Bhadanta Sthiramati at Valabhi. The royal edict was executed by Samanta Silāditya, and was issued in the Valabhi year 269, Caitra ba. 2 ( 588 A.D.). It was composed by Skandabhata, the officer in charge of the Department of Peace and War and the Head of the Diviras (Scribes).-( Valā Plates, IA, VI, 11 f.).
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II to the Buddhist Vihāra erected by merchant Kakka Mánkila within the Duddā Vihāra Mandala. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 270, Māgha su. 10 ( 589 A.D.). The grant was executed by Sāmanta Silāditya and was composed by Skandabhața.--( JBBRAS, I, 66 f.)
589
589
The name of the merchant was deciphered later on-(IHQ, XVI-816). This shows the munificence of the Vaiśyas in society.
From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattanaka, Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II issued a grant of the village Asilāpallikā in Baddarijidri Pathaka of Khetaka Ahāra-Vişaya, in the Valabhi) year 270, Fälguna ba, 10 ( 589 A.D.) to Brāhmaṇa Vişnumitra of Sārkarākși gotra, resident of Khețaka and an emigrant from Anartapura. The grant was executed by Samanta Silāditya and was composed by Skandabhata.-( Alina Plates : IA, VII, 70 f.).
From the victorious camp at Bhadrapattana, Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II issued a grant of the village Thānaka ( Thān) to two Brāhmaṇas of Gāhuņāyana gotra, on Sam. 270, Bhādrapada va. 2 (?) ( 589 A.D.). Sāmanta Silāditya was the Dütaka of the edict, which was composed by Skandabhața.(IHQ, XV, 284 ff.).
589

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590
C. 590-615
595
595
C. 595
595-96
155
According to the Chinese sources, Dharmagupta, a scholar from Lata (Gujarat), is said to have left his native place, and travelling through Central India, reached the capital of China in 590 A.D.-(Cf. B.E.F.E.O., II pp. 439-40, cited by Nilakantha Sastri, Foreign Notices of South India, p. 14).
MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
Dhanesvarasuri, the author of the famous Satrunjaya Mahatmya, describes himself in this work as a tutor of King Siladitya I of Valabhipura. Here, we are told, he euchred the colours of the Buddhists who were puffed up with pride on account of their knowledge; and the ground he took for defeating them was. 'Syad-vāda ie. May Be or the Science of Logic.
Derabhata, the son of Siladitya I, seems to have inherited from his father the Vindhya territory about the same time when the latter ascended the throne at Valabhi.
The Maitraka Mahārāja Dharasena II issued a grant of land situated at Hariyaṇaka. The grant was dedicated to a Buddhist vihara at Valabhi. Samanta Siladitya officiated as the Dutaka of the royal edict and Skandabhața composed the grant.-[ Vala Plates, JBBRAS. (NS) I, 22 1.]
King Siladitya I alias Dharmaditya', son and successor of Dharasena II, (c. 590-615 A.D.) acceded to the throne of Valabhi in circa 595 A.D. He devoted himself to the practice of Dharma and issued liberal grants of land to Brahmanas, temples and vihāras. His sway extended over Mälava (Malwa ).
During his visit to Mälava in 641, Hiuen Tsang got information about the righteous career of this past king, who convoked a 'Mokṣa Parisad' every year, and gave liberal donations to mendicants assembled on that occasion.
King Sila alias Dharmaraja mentioned in the Aryamanjāśrimālakalpa is identified with this king. He had erected a Buddhist vihara by the side of his palace, installed the images of the Seven Buddhas therein, and exhausted the skill of the artisans in its decoration.
The Mankani ( Sankheḍā Taluka) Copper-Plate' grant, supplemented with the other half in Baroda Museum, purports to record the gift of a field of rice (f) in the north of the village of Mañkanika, made to the learned Brahmana Jyesthavarma of the Jatukarna gotra, a student of the Vajasneya Sakha of the Sukla Yajurveda, to enable him to perform his 4s for the meritorious gratification of his parents and of himself.
The grant was made by Taralasvami, probably a local ruler, son of Sri Mahārāja Nanna and Daddha, of the Kalacuris, who established sway in the I.ăța-desa under Sankaragana in the 6th century after Christ. Taralasvāmi was the sister's husband (Bhavaka ) of the illustrious Sürya, and he held local sway. The lethaka of the grant in Cedi Samvat 346 ( 595-6 A.D.) was
=

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Adityabhogika, who was the Sandhivigrahika also.-(A. S. Gadre: Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, 1943, p. 4-6).
Kalacuri King Sankaragana issued a grant of land in the Bhogasardhana Visaya, which may have been another name of the ancient Govardhana (Nasik Dist.), from his victorious camp at Ujjayini.-( Abhona Plates, EI., IX, 297 f. ). It indicates his military expedition across Avanti in Cedi Sam. 347, Sravana. su. 15 (596 A.D.).
The earliest dated record of the Kalacuris is Sankaragana's Abhona grant' of C. 347 (596-97 A.D.) of a land, in a village in the northern part of the Hyderabad State, which was issued from his camp at Ujjayini. It also shows that he ruled over a vast empire which extended from Malwa in the north to Maharastra in the South. That it comprised Gujarat is shown by the Sankheda plate of the General Säntilla, which mentions Nirihullaka as his governor in Central Gujarat. Sankaragana is assigned approximately to the period 575-600 A.D., as his son Buddharaja was defeated by Mangalaraja in circa 601 A.D.
Sāntilla, the baladhikrita (Minister for the Army) of Nirihullaka, the head of the Bhogikas and the great lord of Palla (Pala) issued a grant of land at Parṇākā (Paniu) situated in Tandulapadraka (Tandalajā), to Anantasvamin. of Kautsa gotra, resident of Paśanihrada. Nirihullaka owed allegiance to Sankargana, son of Krsparāja. The grant was issued from the victorious camp at Nirgundipadraka. The date of the grant is missing on the plates, the lower corners of which are broken and lost.-( Sankheda Plates: EI, II, 21).
Dadda I of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty founded a new Kingdom at Nandipuri (Nandod) in South Gujarat. He is probably to be identified with Dadda, son of Haricandra of the Pratihara dynasty of Gurjaradeśa. In the edicts of Dadda II he is styledSamanta and represented as holding sway over the Reva (Narmada) river and the Vindhya Valley. He was a devotee of the Sun-god.-H. G. Shastri, MG, 273 ff.).
Bhanusakti, of the Sendraka dynasty ruling in the neighbourhood of Bagumra (Southern Gujarat), lived about 600 A.D. He was followed by his son Adityasakti and his son Nikumbhallaśakti (A.D. 654). This dynasty seems to have been at first feudatories of the Kalacuris, and later, of the Western Calukyas.
Dandin says that the Apabhramsa is, in poetry, an appellation of the speech. of the ābhiras and the like, [आभीरादिगिरः काव्येष्यपभ्रंश इति स्मृतः । ( I.36) ].

He also speaks of Lați as one of the Prakṛita languages: Cf.
शौरसेनी च गौडी व लाठी चान्या च तादशी । याति प्राकृतमित्येवं व्यवहारेषु सन्निधिम् ॥ (I. 35 )

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Grahavarman, Maukhari, governor of Kanauj, son and successor of Avantivarman, married Rajyasri, daughter of Prabhākaravardhana of Thāņeśvara(JBA, LVIII, pt. 1).
To this period belong : the poet Bāna, author of the Śri Harşacarita, Kādambari, and the Candiśataka : Mayūra, author of the Süryaśataka : Dandin, author of the Daśakumāracarita and the Kāvyādarşa, as the contemporaries of Harşavardhana of Kanauj. To the same period belongs Mänatunga, author of the Bhaktāmara-Stotra. The Jaina tradition makes Mayūra, the fatherin-law of Bāņa.
The objects excavated at the site of Valabhi contain a variety of clay-seals with the Buddhist formula ETH: 1 etc. imprinted on them. The references to Ratnatraya (frag. I ), Samgha (frag. 4), and Tathāgata (frag. 5) occurring in the fragmentary Stone-inscriptions discovered from Valā (Diskalkar, ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. I ), show the further influence of Buddhism in the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. There are references even to fields belonging to Buddhist monks or to the Sangha in the copper-plates.
The earliest reference is found in a grant of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena I (Valabhi S. 216, C. 535 A.D.) wherein he donated villages to the Vihāra built by his niece ('Sister's daughter) Duddā, who laid the temporal foundation of Buddhism in or near Valabhi. This Vihāra gradually developed into a Vihāramandala, containing a number of Vihāras within its precincts.
Buddhism set its foot in Surāṣtra through the efforts of Asoka ; it might have enjoyed some popularity during the days of Milinda, and may have taken firm root in the region of the early Andhra Kings. But it certainly reached the height of its glory during the rule of the Maitraka kings of Valabhi.
We know from Hiuen Tsang's account that most of the bhikṣus in Mālava, Valabhi, and Anandapura studied Hinayāna according to the Sammatīya School, while the Bhikṣus of Bharukaccha and Surāṣtra followed the Mahāyāna, according to the Sthavira school and the bhikṣus of Khețaka and Ujjayini studied both the Yānas.
The Bappapadiya Vihara was constructed by Ācārya Bhikṣu Sthirmati at Valabhi and was meant for monks from foreign countries, belonging to the Hinayāna Sect. It is identified with the vihāra referred to by Hiuen Tsang in the account of Valabhi. This Sthirmati Sthavira was one of the famous disciples of Vasubandhu, the 21st patriarch who wrote commentaries on all the works of his master. Guņamati was also a disciple of Vasubandhu who wrote a commentary on Vasubandhu's Abhidharma Kośa (An Introduction to Mahāyāna).
Jinadeva, a Jaina Ācārya, had defeated in disputation, in Bharukaccha, two Buddhist monks who were brothers named as Bhadantamitra and Kuņāla who thereupon had become his pupils.-(JAG, P. II0).
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C. 600
As this event is mentioned in Āvassaya-cunni (pt. II, p. 201) it must have occurred, not later than the sixth century A.D.
There was a temple of Kondalamendhal (Kundamentha"), a Vyantara, near Bharukaccha. People staying in surrounding places, used to visit it and enjoy there a sankhadi (picnic-party).
i Bhasa, Cunni and Visesacunni on Kappa. ? JAG, P. 44, pp. 110-III.
Attana was an invincible wrestler (Malla) of Ujjayini. Simhagiri, a ruler of Sopāraka, used to arrange wrestling, and pay a great sum to the victor. Astana went every year to Sopāsaka and came victorious. Thereupon Simhagiri engaged a young fisherman after testing his strength. This fisherman succeeded in defeating Attana who was older than he.
Attana started for Surāṣtra as he had come to know that there was a very powerful wrestler. On the way he came across a ploughman in Bharukaccha. He was ploughing with one hand and by the other he was picking up cotton (phalahi). Taking him to be a fit rival for that fisherman, he induced him to learn wrestling. He agreed and became a wrestler. Aţtana took him to Sopäraka. Wrestling took place between this ploughman known as Phalahimalla' and the fisherman (Mātsyāyika-malla ). But it ended in a draw. In the evening Attana inquired of Phalahi-Malla if any limb or limbs of his body were aching. This wrestler pointed out the limbs, and they were properly attended to.
The Mätsyāyika-malla gave an arrogant reply when a similar question was put to him by Simhagiri, with the result that the next day he got defeated and died.-( Āvassaya-cunni, pt. II, p. 152-53).
A reference to the Gurjara in the South is noticed in the Tamil poem, Manimekhalâi, composed in the 6th century A.D., which mentions one * Kucharakudihai', a temple of Gurjara workmanship. This reference suggests the improbability of a foreign architect of Gurjara Nationality being imported into Southern India as early as the sixth century A.D. ; while we have hardly any reference to the Gurjaras before the time of Prabhākaravardhana; who is eulogized as 'a lion to the Hūņa deer, a burning fever to the king of the Indus land, a troubler of the sleep of Gujarat (or of the Gurjaras'), a bilious plague to lawlessness of the Lāțas ("Lāța ' in text), an axe to the creeper of Mālava's glory':-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, p. 5).
According to Javanese tradition, the colonisation of Java by a prince of Gujarat in the beginning of the 7th century A.D. has been generally accepted. In Gujarat also, the wealth brought from Java to Gujarat by its enterprising sons has passed into a proverb.
C. 600
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However, the tradition requires further corroboration by more tangible evidence of culture-contacts.
From Valabhi, Maitraka Silāditya I issued a grant of land to Buddhist vihāra erected by Queen Duddā at Valabhi. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 286 Jyeștha ba 6 ( 605 A.D.). The land consisted in a village along with three fields, two step-wells, and four garden-wells. The Dūtaka of the grant was Bhațța Adityayaśas. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti, designated Sandhivigrahādhikrita (Minister of Peace and War) and Divira pati (Head of Scribes).-(Valá Flates, IA, XIV 327).
A grant of land was issued from Valabhi by Maitraka King Silāditya I, Dharmāditya, in the (Valabhi) year 286, Vaišākha ba. 6 (605 A.D.). It was dedicated to the Samgha (Congregation) of the Bhiksus at a Buddhist vihāra. The Dūtaka of the order was Bhațța Adityayasas.--( Palitana-Valā Plates, IA, I, 46).
In the (Valabhi) year 286, Aşadha ba 8 (605 A.D.) King Silāditya I, Dharmāditya, dedicated the village Bhonļānaka in Vațanagara Sthali to fortyfour Brāhmaṇas of various gotras who emigrated from Samgapuri. The Dūtaka of the royal order was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti mentioned above.--(Navalakhi Plates : EI ; XI 174).
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka King Silāditya I to a Buddhist vihāra at Van akața. The Dūtaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Ādityayaśas. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 286 Srāvaņa ba 7 ( 605 A.D.). The vihāra seems to be identical with the vihāra mentioned in another grant (JBBRAS I 31 f.) as erected by the donor at Vamsakața.-( Valā Plates, JBBRAS, I, 26).
605
605
603
606
In the (Valabhi) year 287, Mārgasira ba 7 (605 A.D.) Maitraka King Siladitya I, Dharmāditya, issued from Valabhi a grant of land to Brāhmaṇa Bhatti of Bhāradvāja gotra, residing at Valabhi, an emigrant from Ānartapura. The royal edict was executed by Bhatta Adityayaśas and was composed by Vatrabhatti.-(Valā Plates : JBBRAS, I 28).
From Valabhi, King Sīlāditya I dedicated the village Nirgudaka in Ghāsaraka Pathaka to the Samgha ( Congregation of the Bhikṣunis (nuns) of Yaksaśūra vihāra at Valabhi. The Dūtaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Adityayasas. The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti and issued in the (Valabhi) year 287, Kārttika va. 7, (606 A.D.).-(Valā Plates : JUB; III I, 80).
Harşavardhana Śilāditya of Thāņeśvara, succeeded his brother Rajyayardhana II. He extended his sovereignty over the whole of Northern India. Inscriptions record his invasion of Valabhi between A.D. 633 and 640, in the
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reign of Dhruvasena II, who fled for refuge to Dadda IV of Bharukaccha, from whence he submitted to Harşa and married his grand-daughter.
He is the hero of Bana's Śri Harṣacarita, and was himself a poet and the reputed author of several poems. Hiuen Tsang visited his court, and was present at the religious convocation held by him at Prayaga (C.A.D. 643). The pilgrim represents him as an ardent Buddhist; but Harsa, in his Madhuvan grant, calls himself a Saiva.
Câlukya inscriptions record Harsa's defeat at the hands of Pulakesin II, when striving to extend his dominion beyond the Narmadă.
Pulakesin II, Satyäśraya, Śri Prithvivallabha, Early Calukya, succeeded his uncle Mangalisa till about 642 A.D. After repulsing Appäyika and Govinda, perhaps of the Râşṭraküța race, Pulakesin subdued the Kadambas, and reduced their capital Banavāsi. He himself attacked and reduced the city of Puri, conquered the kings of Lața, Malava and Gurjara, and repelled Harṣavardhana. He then took the title of Parameśvara.
Kosala and Kalinga submitted to him, and later, he attacked and beseiged Mahendravarman I, the Pallava king in his capital Kañcipuram, and, crossing the Kaveri invaded the country of the Colas, Pandyas and Keralas. These victories were gained, according to the Haidarabad grant of S. 535, before 612 A.D.; probably about 608-9.
Towards the close of his reign, Pulakesin suffered reverses at the hands of the Pallavas under Narasimhavarmā I.-(IA, vi, 72; Bom. Gaz. I, 349).
Buddharaja's power was uprooted by the Calukya King Mangalaraja(Nerur Plates of Mangalaraja, IA, VII, 161; Mahekut Pillar Inscription of Mangaleka; IA; XIX 7).
From the victorious camp at Bhadreśvara, the Gate of Valabhi, Maitraka King Siladitya I in the Valabhi year 290, Bhadrapada bahula 7, (609 A.D.), issued a grant of village Amadasaputra near Vațadraha in Ghasaraka Pathaka, to the Bhikṣuni-vihara' erected by Yakṣaśūra at Valabhi. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti (Valad Plates, JUB, III, 1, 82).
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Siläditya I, Dharmaditya, in the (Valabhi) year 290, Bhadrapada ba. 8 (609 A.D.). It was dedicated to the temple (devakula) of Mahadeva (Šiva) erected by Harinatha and situated in the locality of Balavarmanaka-Vaṭapadra. The Dütaka was Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatți.-( Dhank Plates; IA, IX, 237 ff.)
This is the only known Maitraka grant issued to a Siva temple, though almost all the Maitraha kings professed Saivism.

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From Valabhi, Maitraka king Siläditya I issued a grant, of village Danturăputra in Mandall Dranga to Brahmanas Mitrasarman and Ganesvara of Audaresani gotra, who had emigrated in the (Valabhi) year 290, Bhadrapada su 10 (609 A.D.) from Dasapura and settled at Valabhi. Kharagraha executed the royal edict and Divirapati Vatrabhatți composed the grant.-(Valā Plates: JUB, III, 1, 85).
King Bhānusakti founded the Saindraka power in South Gujarat. (H. G. Shastri, MG, 311 f.).
161
About 610 A.D. the Western Calukya Pulakesin II, son of Kirtivarman I, succeeded Mangalisa. He is recorded to have defeated the Gangas, Maurayas of Konkan, Latas (of Southern Gujarat), Gurjaras of North Gujarat, Mälavas, Kalingas, Kosalas, Pallavas of Conjevaram, besides his great victory over Harşavardhana of Thānesvara.
Buddhavarman, Calukya king of Southern Gujarat, reigned about 610, in succession to his father Jayasimha.
610 C 600-650
Gurjara king Jayabhața I alias Vitaraga' succeeded his father Dadda I. A School of Painting and Sculpture was founded by Sringadhara of Marū (Marwar), who was an accomplished artist and painter, and worked under Harşavardhan (610-650 A.D.), according to the Tibetan historian Taranath (1608 A.D.).
Sringadhara's 'School of the Art of Ancient West' was not confined to Western India; but its traditions seem to have travelled as far as Nepal and Burma (wall-paintings at Pagan), where, according to Täränäth, the Earlier School of Art resembled the Old Western School'.
The distinguishing features of this School founded in Märwär cannot be surmised, as no painting from Mårwär or Western India from this early period has survived. But if sculpture be the index of art-conventions of those times, then the angularity in the treatment of human figures may be counted as the distinguishing features of the Western Indian art of Bundelkhand, Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat.
The migration of the art-conventions of this school to the Deccan and the South cannot be studied, as no wall-paintings of the 7th or 8th century have survived from Western India. In the middle layer of the wall-paintings at Kailasa, Elură (9th century), however, the angularity of human figures, pinching of the farther cheek, and the consequent protrusion of the farther eye into empty space are met with. As these conventions are still in embryonic stage in the later cave-paintings of Ajanța, they may be attributed to the extraneous influence, probably of Gujarat and Rajputana.
The influence of Western Indian art at a somewhat later period is marked in the Visnu temple at Madanpur in Lalitpur Dist. (U.P.), adjoining Malwa. The

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battle scenes in the Western porch of Kailasanatha temple, Elură, depicting rows of horsemen and the inscriptional evidence indicating their connection with the Paramāras of Malwa, also show Rajput or Western Indian influence. In the 10th century or even a little earlier, the conventions of the Western Indian style left their homeland and travelled to the remotest corners of India, influencing the contemporary Pala paintings in Eastern India, and penetrated as far as Pagan and Nepal.-( Moti Chandra, 'Jaina Paintings of Western India', p. 17).
In Jesalmer there is a MS. of Visesävassayabhāsa. In its colophon, dated Saka Samvat 531, there is mention of Valabhl-nagart and Śladitya (?). The missing letters after mahavi may be supplying the name of a Jaina temple at Valabhi wherein this MSS. was then deposited.
1 In JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, p. 115) these verses are quoted.
2 This is the date of the MS. and not that of the work, as suggested by Jinavijayaji. Vide Intro. p. 32 of "Ganadharavada" by Pt. Dalsukh Malvaniya.
3 In JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 1, p. 113) this samvat is mentioned along with Valabhi Samvat 291.
From the above MSS we learn that Kheda and Modheraka (Modhera) along with Mathura are each spoken of as ahara. They are examples for kşeträhära The latter can be interpreted in two ways: (1) the Kṣetra (region) where dhara (food?) is done produced and (2) the region which is made enjoyable for (?) a city by means of corn, fuel etc.
In the cunni noted above, ahara is equated to visaya (Sk. Visaya),
a country.
From the victorious camp at Devisaras, Maitraka king Siläditya I issued a grant of land to the temple of Aditya (Sun) situated at Bhadreņiyaka in Baravana Sthali. The land was situated in the same place. The royal edict was executed by Kharagraha and the grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti. It was issued in the Valabhi year 291, Caitra su 14. (611 A.D.). -(EI, XXI, 116).

From the royal camp fixed at Anandpura (Vadnagar) in the North Gujarat the Kataccuri king Buddharaja issued a grant of land to a Brahmana of Pārāśara gotra, resident of Dobhaka (Dabká near Padra in Baroda). The grant consisted in a village situated in Gorajjā (Goraj) bhoga of Bharukuccha (Broach) visaya. The Dütaka of the edict was Mahabaladhikrita Prasahyavigraha. The grant was composed by Sivaraja, the head of the Department of Sandhi (Peace) and Vigraha (War), on Sam. 362 Kärttika ba 15, 611 A.D. -(Sarsavani Plates: EI, VI, 294 ff.).
King Siladitya I, Dharmaditya, granted two villages (one probably of Ghasaraka Pathaka and the other possibly of Kalapaka Pathaka) to the Buddhist vihara built by himself at Vanśakata. This reminds us of Hiuen

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Tsang's reference to his having built a monastery by the side of his palace.(Beal, Records II 261 f; Valā Plates ; (NS) I, 33 f.].
Maitraka king Silāditya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I (c. 615-621 A.D.), in accordance with the express will of his elder brother. In his eulogy he is said to have topped the list of heroic persons on account of his renowned valour and proficiency in warfare. Dr. K. P. Jayaswal identified him with Capala, mentioned in the Aryamanjūśrimülakalpa ; but the wantonness of the latter can hardly fit in with the former's noble character delineated in the copper-plate grants.
From the victorious camp at Ujjayani, Maitraka King Kharagraha I issued a grant of land to a Brāhmaṇa of Bhāguri gotra, residing at Ciñcāņaka. The land was situated at Cincanaka which was located in Mandali dranga. The Dūtaka of the grant was Dharasena and was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhatti, on Sam. 297 Vaišākha su. 12 (616 A.D.).-(Virdi Plates: AIOC, VII, Pro.; pp. 659-676).
A grant, of two field-wells with usual privileges, was issued by Maitraka king Kharagraha I from Valabhi for the increase of the religious merit of his parents. The recipient of the grant was a Brāhmaṇa named Gupta, son of Apta of Kaundinya gotra, and a student of Vājasneya Sākhā of Yajurveda who belonged to Kāsahşada, but had settled at Tramadi. The land was situated in Anumanji Sthali : ( very probably an ancient name of Amreli, as suggested by A.S. Gadre; as it is also mentioned in the grants of V.S. 216 and V.S. 248).
The grant was executed by Dharasena and composed by Divirapati Vatrabhațți : in Valabhi S. 297, Srāvana Su. 10 (616 A.D.)-(Amreli Plates : A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions Baroda State, pp. 7-15).
The word "Saurāṣtra" is found used in the Valabhi grants for the first time here. The usual word for the whole country is "Surāṣtra", being used only twice.-( JBU, Vol. III, pt. I, p. 78, n. 4; EI, XVII, p. 109).
Harşavardhana of Kanauj was defeated about 620 A.D. by the Cālukya Pulakesin II, and his southern frontier was limited to the Narmadā.
Maitraka King Dharasena III (C. 621-627 A.D.) issued, from his victorious camp at Khetaka ( Kheda), a grant of land in Surāşțra. The grant was receiv. ed by a Brāhmaṇa of Atreya gotra, a resident of Hastavapra (Hāthab). The grant was composed by Divirapati Vatrabhațţi. Prince Samanta Sīlāditya was the Dūtaka of the edict. It is dated Valabhi Sam. 304 Māgha su. 7 (623 A.D.). -(Bhavnagar Plates : EI, XXI 183).
The village of Ādrotaka ( Adroda ) situated in Kāsahrada Vişaya was given as religious gift by Maitraka King Dharasena III to a Brāhmaṇa of Gängāyana gotra, resident of Anandapura, on Sam. 305 Srāvana su. 15 (624 A.D.). The
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623
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625
Dūtaka of the edict was Prince Sāmanta Šilāditya. The grant was composed by Rogghabhața, official in charge of Peace and War.-( Käsindrā Plates : JUB, XIX, 4 1 ff.)
Derabhața seems to have been succeeded by his son Silāditya II in C. 625 A.D. He is most probably identical with Prince Samanta Silāditya officiating as the Dūtaka of the grants issued by Dharasena III in 623-624 A.D., and Samanta Silāditya officiating as the Dütaka of the grants issued by Dhruvasena II in 629-638 A.D. In the grants of his successors he is represented as 'King' (Ksonipati) of the Vindhya territory.
The Gurjara king Dadda II alias Praśāntarāga (one whose passion has subsided) who succeeded his father Jayabhața-Vitarāga and flourished from 620 A.D. to 645 A.D. gave protection to the Valabhi ruler Dhruvabhata I alias Bālāditya against Parameśyara Harşadeva of Kanauj. His earliest grant is dated in Gupta year 310 (629-30 A.D.) From Hiuen Tsang's account we learn that Harsa, later, made peace with the Valabhi ruler and cemented the alliance by giving his daughter in marriage to him.
The grants of Dadda II are the earliest Gurjara records so far discovered in Gujarat. Kielhorn has shown (Ep. Ind., Vol. VI, p. 6) that both in their eulogistic and formal parts, they were drafted on the model of the earlier Kalacuri grants; and from this he rightly conjectured that the family of these chiefs (i.e. the Gurjaras) rose to independence only after the time of the Kalacuri Buddharāja.'
The copper-plate inscriptions of the Gurjaras, dated in the Kalacuri era, have been discovered in Western India between the rivers Kim and Mahi.
Varmalāta, possibly king of Sri-māla (Bhinmāla), was reigning in Rajputana during this period. His fedatory Vajra-bhata governed Mount Arbuda (Abu).
Dhruvasena II, alias Bālāditya, younger son of Kharagraha I, succeeded his elder brother Maitraka king Dharasena III. In his eulogy he is represented as 'proficient in Polity as well as Grammar'.
From the copper-plate inscriptions of the successors of King Dadda II, Dhruvasena II is known to have been subjugated by Emperor Harsa and protected by Dadda II. From the records of Hiuen Tsang it is gathered that Dhruvasena II had been the son-in-law of Harșa. According to the identification of his successor's Ajjaka with Harsa, this event seems to have taken place in not later than 628 A.D.
August 1st. The Chinese Buddhist, Hiuen Tsang, left China for India. He returned to China in 645 A.D., and between this year and that of his death in 664 A.D., translated 75 Buddhist works into Chinese.-(Beal's 'Si-yu-ki,').
C. 625
628
C. 628
629
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629
629
The Navasāri grant of Jayabhata IV states that Dadda IV protected the lord of Valabhi ( probably Dhruvasena II), from Harsadeva i.e. Harşavardhana, of Thāṇeśvara.
It was perhaps during this reign that Dharasena IV, son and successor of Dhruvasena occupied Bharukaccha, one of his copper-plates of the year 648 A.D. being dated from "the victorious camp situated at Bharukaccha". About the same time, or perhaps a little earlier, the Cālukyas seized Bharukaccha, and established their rule in the southern half of the Gujarat dominions.-(IA, xiii, 81-88 Kaira Copper Plates : EI., II., 20; Sankheďā grant ; Bomb. Gaz.. I, 314).
In the ( Valabhi) year 310, Āśvayuja bahu. 5 (629 A.D.), a grant of land was issued from Valabhi by Maitraka king Dhruvasena II, Bālāditya, to the Buddhist vihāra erected by Gohaka within the vihāra-mandala built by Queen Dudda at Valabhi. The grant records the endowment of the village Bhasanta in Kālāpaka Pathaka in Surāṣtra. The Dutaka was Sämanta Šilāditya. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti who is already mentioned in the edicts of his predecessors.-( Bošād Plates : IA, VI, 12 f.).
The Gurjara King Dadda II, Praśāntarăga, issued from Nāndipuri the grant of the village Sirişa padraka in Akrūreśvara Vişaya to forty Brāhmaṇas of Vatsa, Kāśyapa, Daundakiya, Dhūmrāyaṇa, Kauņdinya, Māțhara, Bhāradvāja and Cauliša gotras. The grant was composed by Reva, Minister of Peace and War, and issued in the Cedi year 380, Kārttika su. 15 (629 A.D.).-( Kaira Plates : IA, XIII, 82 ff.).
Dadda II was the real founder of the Gurjara kingdom in the Lāța country. His Kaira Plates (two sets) are dated in K. 380 ( 629-30 A.D.) and K. 385 (634-35 A.D.) and record the grant of Sirişapadraka (modern Sisodrā, II miles from Anklesvar in the Broach District ) to certain Brāhmaṇas.
Two other sets of plates, issued on the same day in K. 392 (641-42 A.D.), register the grant of two fields in the village Kșirasara in the vişuya (district) of Sangama Khețaka (modern Sankhedā). He is also mentioned in a fragmentary Sankheda grant of his brother Raņagraha, dated K. 391.
Dadda II was obliged to acknowledge the suzeranity of Pulakesin II, soon after he carved out a kingdom for himself in the lower Narmadā valley. On the seals of his plates, he is styled Sāmanta or a feudal lord, while in his grants he is said to have won the Pancamahāśabda (the right to use the five great sounds). Like his grand-father, he was a devotee of the Sun.
Dadda II heads the genealogy in all later records. His descendants took pride in describing him as one who had a canopy of glory, possessing the grace of a moving large and white cloud, which sprung from his protection of the king of Valabhi when he was attacked by the Emperor, the illustrious Harșadeva.-(57 tarptautia Mi
l farasta: 1)
629-30
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629
630
631
631
The Gurjara capital till the end of Dadda II's reign was Nandipuri, as all the four grants of his reign are issued from that city. The capital was shifted to Bharukaccha sometime before K. 427 (675 A.D.), the date of the Prince of Wales Museum plates of Dadda III.
Dhruvasena II (Bālāditya), Maitraka king of Valabhi, was reigning (629640 A.D.) is succession to his brother Dharasena III.
Sendraka king Bhānusakti was succeeded by his son Adityasakti.-(Bagumra Plates of Nikumbha-Allaśakti : IA., XVIII 265 ff.)
Majtraka King Dhruvasena II, Bālāditya, issued from Valabhi a grant of land situated in Konaka Pathaka of Khețaka-Ahāravişaya in the (Valabhi) year 312, Jyeștha su. 4 (631 A.D.) to Brāhmaṇa Mātrākāla of Bhāradvāja gotra who emigrated from Girinagara and was residing at Khetaka. The Dūtaka was Samanta Silāditya. The grant was composed by Vatrabhatti.---( JBBRAS, NS, I, 69).
(H. 10) The Brāhmaṇa Caca usurped the throne of Sindh on the death of Rāya Sāhasi II. Shortly after his accession he slew Mahrat Rāņa of Citor (or Jaipur).
Caca is said to have reigned forty years and to have been succeeded by his brother Candar, who died in H. 59, after a reign of eight years and was succeeded by Dāhir.-(EHI, i 131 ff., and 406, 414).
From Valabhi, Maitraka king Dhruvasena II Bālāditya, issued a grant of land situated in the village Bahumula located in Vatapallikā Sthali in Saurāştra to Brāhmaṇa Devakula and his nephew Bhāda in the Valabhi) Srāvana su. 14 ( 632 A.D.). Samanta Sīlāditya executed the royal edict and Vatrabhațți composed the grant.-(Goras Plates; JBBRAS, NS, I, 50 ff.).
Kings of Lāța, Mālava and Gurjara succumbed to Pulakeši II, Lord of South India.-(IA; VIII, 242).
King Dadda II, Praśāntarāga, re-issued a grant of the village Sirisapadraka in the Cedi year 385 (634 A.D.). It makes certain omissions and additions in the list of the donees mentioned in the grant of the year 380, Kārttika su. 15 (634 A.D.), the total number being reduced to thirty-four. It was issued from the same place and composed by the same official.-( Kairā Plates, IA, XIII, 88).
The Aihole inscription dated $. 556 (634 A.D.) (EI, I, p. I) refers to the submission of the Gurjaras, Lāțas and Mālavas to the Cālukya king Pulkasin II. It is clear from Verse 22 of this record that they were not conquered by force but submitted to, or sought the protection of Pulakesin of their own accord ( atgaat 984 Araufiit: V. 5); and in poetic expression, they became, as it were, teachers of how feudatories submitted by force ought to behave
632
634
634
634
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C 635
636
638
(quelya FH-484f nato a 274971 v. 22). It is also noticed in this record that Harsa, the Emperor, from the north did not succeed in penetrating to the south of the Revā i.e. the Narmada, where Pulakesin's armies were encamped.
Dhruvasena II of Valabhi, about 635 A.D. was defeated by Harşavardhana and became his feudatory and son-in-law. Harşa apparently became master of Anandapura (Vadnagar), Kaccha and Southern Surāṣṭra and finally extended his empire to inclui e the basin of the Ganges from the Himalayas to the Narmadā, Malwa, Gujarat and Surāșțra.
An expedition was sent in the reign of the second Khalifa Umar bin Khattab, but without his sanction. When he heard that Uthman-ath-Thakafi, his governor of Behrein had returned successful from Hind, the Khalifa wrote to Uthman: "Brother of Thakif! thou hast placed the worm in the wood, but by Allah ! had any of my men been lost, I should have killed an equal number from thy tribe.” This is mentioned by the Arab historian Al-Bilazuri in his history, "Futuh-u'l-buldan".
This indicates two things: first, Umar had gauged more or less correctly, the possibilities inherent in similar ventures; but, secondly, he considered the risks, in his time, to be above the undertaking of similar expeditions.-(Bom. Gaz. IX. 1 ff. 1).
From a victorious camp (the name of the place not read satisfactorily; possibly it is Bhadrapaļšana), Maitraka King Dhruvasena II dedicated the village Nagadinnánaka in Rohāņaka Pathaka in Surāṣtra to a Bhikṣuni-vihāra erected by Pūrņabhatta within the Yakşaśūra-Vihāra-Mandala at Valabhi. The Dütaka of the royal edict was Samanta Silāditya and the grant was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata and issued in the Valabhi year 319, Jyeștha su. 7 (638 A.D.).-(Valā Plates, JUB, III, 88).
H. 15. Usman Ibn Asi Saqafi, governor of Bahrain and Uman, under the Khalifah Umar, appointed his brother Hakim to Bahrain, and proceeding himself to Uman, sent an expedition to pillage the coasts of India. About the same time Hakim sent a force against Broach, and despatched his brother Mughirah Abu-l-Asi to Dibal where he defeated the enemy. The Cacanāmā represents him as being slain.-(EHI, i, 415-16).
A grant of land which was originally issued by Maitraka Mahārāja Droņasimha in the form of a copper-edict (tāmraśāsana ) and which had been in abeyance in the intervening period, was renewed by king Dhruvasena II, Bālāditya, in (Valabhi) year 320, Āsādha su.-(639 A.D.). The grant was dedicated to the image of) Goddess Kottammahikā installed at Trisangamaka. The Dütaka of the royal edict was Prince Kharagraha. The grant was issued from Valabhi and composed by Divirapati Skandabhața, son of Divirapati Vatrabhatti.--( Jackson, The Two New Valabhi Plates', JBBRAS, XX, pp. 2).
C. 636
639

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
639
C. 640
In the (Valabhi) year 320, Bhādrapada ba. 5 (639 A.D.), Maitraka king Dhruvasena II, Bālāditya, issued a grant from Valabhi, granting land situated in Málavaka Bhukti to Brāhmaṇa Agniśvāmin of Pārāśara gotra resident of Agastikā-agrahāra, an emigrant from Udumbara-gahvara, and to Brāhmaṇa Sangaravi of Kausika gotra, resident of Ayānaka-agrahāra, and an emigrant from Jambūsara. The grant was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata and executed by prince Kharagraha.—[ Nogāvā Plates : from Navagrāma (Nogāvā), ten miles north of Ratlam; EI; VIII, 188).
The period synchronising with the Gupta rule in Saurāșțra and North India, and the Vākāțakas in Central India and the Deccan, was marked by an important development in the history of Buddhism in the country. With the spread of Buddhism in foreign countries, China was getting more and more into touch with India, when a number of Chinese pilgrims visited India with a view to see the Mother Country of Buddhism, and to collect books of the religion which they had adopted as their own.
Fa-Hian, the first to visit India in 399 A.D. refers to the countries in Dakşiņāpatha only, in a general way. But the two travellers who followed him have left ample notes about their visit. Huien Tsang who came to India in the middle of the 7th century A.D., when the Cālukya king Pulakesin II was ruling over Mahārāştra, has left his account, known as 'SI-YU-Kı', since translated into English as ' Buddhist Records of the Western World' by S. Beal.
Buddhism in Valabhi owed much to the numerous donations by the Maitraka kings, majority of whom were Saivites, and to the liberality of the members of the Royal Family, and to the munificent gifts made by the feudatories and officers of the State under the Maitraka rulers. Many of these donations provided for the daily necessities of the monks in the monasteries such as Pinda-pata (alms), and Sayanāsana ( beds), Bheșajya (medicine), Civars ( clothes ) etc. for the worship of the Buddha images and current repairs to the monasteries. Some important variations are met with when the annointing of images [ Dhruvasena III's undated Plate, JBBRAS, (NS.), I, p. 357, performance of dance and music, (Silāditya l's grant), or the covering of the floor with grass (EI, XIII, p. 339; IA. IV, p. 174) is referred to in their copperplate grants. One grant provides for the purchase of religious books for a monastery.- (Guhasena's grant of G.E. 240; IA., VII, p. 67). In some others the fortifications (Silāditya's grant of G.E. 290; IA., IX, p. 237), and the well-laid gardens around the Vihāras are mentioned.
The Buddhist element in the population of Valabhi is further indicated by references to fields in the grants. Two Kşetras-Samgha Kşetra and Sthaviraka Brahmadeya Kşetras—which were evidently Buddhistic are mentioned in Dhruvasena II's grant of 313 G.E. Another field belonging to a Sthaviraka (teacher) by name Bavya is mentioned in Dharasena IV's grant of 326 G.E.
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A Standing lady, Samalāji
Plate XXXVII
#TTC.

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Plate XXXVIII

Mother and Child, Šāmalāji

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Plate XXXVIII A
w
Standing Mother Bhadra, Sāmalaji

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Plate XXXIX
Pārvati as Sabarakanya, Samalāji

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640-41
640-41
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Buddhism preached at Valabhi, though mentioned as Hina Yana by HiuenTsang, it is evident that the Mahāyāna sect had also its share in the development of Buddhism at Valabhi. There are direct references to bathing and annointing of Buddha images, and the occurrence of expressions like Buddha Bhattaraka. In the grant of Dharasena IV, we find that the gifts donated to the Yodhavaka monastery were meant for Mahāyāna monks staying in it.
Arya-Manju-tri-mala-Kalpa refers to a famous monk from Valabhi, besides Gupamati, called Pipdacărika, during the days of Siladitya, who is described as
follows:
तत्र देशे समाख्यातो भिक्षुः पिण्ड चारिकाः ।। ५९० ।।
शीलवान् बुद्धिसंपन्नो बुद्धानां शासने रतः ।
कालचारि महात्माऽसौ प्रविष्टो पिण्डचारिकम् || ५९२ || ३५ पटल ||
(K. P. Jayaswal, An Imperial History of India, p. 24)
From the victorious camp at Vanditappali, a grant of land was issued in the (Valabhi) year 321, Caitra ba. 3 (640 A.D.) by the Maitraka King Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, granting land in Malavaka Visaya to Brahmanas Dattasvamin and Kumārasvamin, of Pārāśara gotra, emigrants from Udumbaragahvara. The former resided at Ayänaka-agrahara and the latter at Agastikä-agrahara. The royal edict was executed by Prince Kharagraha and it was composed by Divirapati Skandabhata.-(Nogava Plates; ET, VIII, 194).
Gujarat was visited by the Chinese pilgrim and scholar Hiuen Tsang, who travelled in India with a view to study Buddhism, and collect Buddhist manuscripts and images. From the South, he first came to Bharukaccha, Malava, Atali, Kheta, Valabhl, Anadapura and Surăştra; and then proceeded to Gurjaradesa in North.-(Beal, Records II). This part of his travel is dated circa 640 A.D. The account of his travel throws much light on the life and culture of the people in general and on the state of Buddhism in particular.-(Watters, Travels, II).

Po-lu-kie-ch'e-p'o (BHARUKACCHA) Barygaza or Broach :-This kingdom is 2400 or 2500 li in circuit. Its capital is 20 li round. The soil is impregnated with salt. Trees and shrubs are scarce and scattered. They boil the sea-water to get the salt; and their sole profit is from the sea. The climate is warm. The air is always agitated with gusts of wind. Their ways are cold and indifferent; the disposition of the people, crooked and perverse. They do not cultivate study, and are wedded to error and true doctrine alike. There are some ten samghärāmas, with about 300 believers. They adhere to the Great Vehicle and the Sthavira school. There are about ten Deva temples, in which sectaries of various kinds congregate.-( Buddhist Record of the Western World, Book XI. Translated from the Chinese of Hiuen Tsang, S. Beal, pp. 259-260).

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640-41 Fa-la-pi (VALABHI):—This country is 6000 li or so in circuit, the capital
about 30. The character of the soil, the climate, and manners of the people are like those of the kingdom of Mālava. The population is very dense; the establishments rich. There are some hundred houses (families) or so, who possess a hundred lakhs. The rare and valuable products of distant regions are here stored in great quantities.
There are some hundred samghārāmas, with about 6,000 priests. Most of them study the Little Vehicle (Hinayāna), according to the Saminatiya school. There are several hundred Deva temples with very many sectaries of different sorts.
When Tathāgata lived in the world, he often travelled through this country. Hence Aśoka-rāja raised monuments or built stūpas in all those places where Buddha rested. Scattered among these are spots where the three past Buddhas sat down, or walked, or preached the law. The present ruler is of the Kşattriya caste, as they all are. He is the nephew of Silāditya-rāja of Mālava, and sonin-law of the son of Silāditya, the present king of Kanyakubja. His name is Dhruvapata (Tu-lu-ho-po-tu). He is of a lively and hasty disposition, his wisdom and statecraft are shallow.
Quite recently he has attached himself sincerely to faith in the "three precious ones". Yearly he summons a great assembly, and for seven days gives away most valuable gems, exquisite meats, and on the priests he bestows in charity the three garments and medicaments, or their equivalent in value, and precious articles made of rare and costly gems of the seven sorts. Having given these in charity, he redeems them at twice their price.
He esteems virtue (or the virtuous ) and honours the good; he reverences those who are noted for their wisdom. The great priests who come from distant regions he particularly honours and respects.
Not far from the city is a great samghārāma which was built by the Arhat Acara (0-che-lo); here the Bodhisattvas Gunamati and Sthiramati (Kien-hwui) fixed their residences during their travels and composed treatises
which have gained a high renown.-( Ibid., pp. 266-268). 640-41 O-man-to-pu-lo (ANANDAPURA) :- This country is about 2000 li in
circuit, the capital about 20. The population is dense; the establishments rich. There is no chief ruler; but it is an appanage of Mālava. The produce, climate and literature and laws are the same as those of Mālava. There are some ten sanghārümas with less than 1,000 priests; they study the Little Vehicle (Hinayāna) of the Sammatiya school. There are several tens of Deva temples, and
sectaries of different kinds frequent them.-(Ibid., pp. 268). 640-41 Su-la-ch'a (SURASTRA):- This country is 4000 li or so in circuit, the
capital about 30 li. On the west, the chief town borders on the Mahi river; the
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Facing Page 171
GUJARAT IN 641 AD
KACCHA
Gurinagara
Devapattana
Mandavyapurao Dendavanaka
GURJARA
o Jabalipura
VALAB H..
Ujjayanta
Luni
Lakharama
KINGDOM
-------- Yuan Chwang's journey
641 AD
VALABHIPURA Hastavapra
SURASTRA
Bhillamala Arbudagiri
Brahmakṣetra
Medantakapura.
ANARTA Apartapura 1 Anandapura
M
E
Asapalli Khetaka
Mah
Malava
MALAVA
Jambusara
E
Bhrgukaccha Akruresvara
Naysarika
Citra
OF
AVANTI
R.Narmada
TARAPATHA
-By Courtesy, Glory that was Gurjaradeśa'.
• Ujjayini
EMPIRE
R.Taph
o Ajanta
DAKSTNA PATHA
OF
NASIKYA MAHARASTRA
Fig. 7

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A.D. 640-41
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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
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population is dense, and the various establishments (families) are rich. The country is dependent on Valabhi. The soil is impregnated with salt; flowers and fruit are rare. Although the climate is equable yet there is no cessation of tempests. The manners of the people are careless and indifferent; their disposition light and frivolous. They do not love learning and are attached both to the true faith and also to heretical doctrine. There are some fifty samgharamas in this kingdom, with about 3000 priests; they mostly belong to the Sthavira school of the Great Vehicle (Mahayana). There are a hundred or so Deva temples, occupied by sectaries of all sorts.
As this country is on the western sea-route, the men all derive their livelihood from the sea and engage in commerce and exchange of commodities.
Not far from the city is a mountain called Yuh-chen-to (Ujjayanta-Girnar), on the top of which is a samghäräma. The cells and galleries have mostly been excavated from the mountain-side. The mountain is covered with thick jungle and forest trees, whilst streams flow round its limits. Here saints and sages roam and rest, and Rişis endued with spiritual faculties congregate here and stay. Ibid, pp. 268-269).
Kiu-che-lo-(GURJJARA):-Going north from the country of Valabhi 1800 li or so, we come to this kingdom. This country is 5000 li or so in circuit; the capital, which is called Pi-lo-mo-lo ( Bhillamäla or Bhinnamala), is 30 li or so round. The produce of the soil and the manners of the people resemble those of Saurasştra. The population is dense; the establishments are rich and well supplied with materials (wealth). They mostly are unbelievers; a few are attached to the law of Buddha. There is one samgharama, with about a hundred priests; they are attached to the teaching of the Little Vehicle (Hinayana) and the school of the Sarvästivadins. There are several tens of Deva temples, in which sectaries of various denominations dwell. The king is of the Ksattriya caste. He is just twenty years old; he is distinguished for wisdom, and he is courageous. He is a deep believer in the law of Buddha; and highly honours men of distinguished ability.-(Ibid., pp. 269-270).
When Hiuen Tsang visited Valabhipura in 640 A.D., it was a city of power, wealth and culture, and contained a large library of sacred books. The fame of its University had reached China; for Sthiramati, a Buddhist monk, in the beginning of the sixth century, and another Gupamati, at the end of the same century, were invited to China. Saivism and Buddhism were the favoured religions, and the temples of these faiths were richly endowed.
Born in 600 A.D. of an orthodox Confucien family, Hiuen Tsang became a Buddhist Monk at the age of 20. Not being content with the existing translations of Buddhist books in Chinese, he decided to visit India. He started in 629 A.D. by the northern route in Central Asia. He reached Kapisā (Kafiristan)

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C. 641
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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
in 630 A.D.; and during the next fourteen years travelled all over India. He was highly honoured by the great Indian rulers Harṣavardhana and Bhaskaravarman. He visited Western India in 641; and left India early in 644 A.D., with a large number of books and images, and returned to China in 645 A.D.
The picture of the 7th century Gujarat has survived in the diary of this eye-witness. The traveller went from Nasik to the region called Bharukaccha, the name by which evidently South Gujarat was then known. As in all international ports, so in Broach, the residents were found by this Pious Pilgrim mean, deceitful, ignorant, orthodox and heterodox.
Maitraka king Dharasena (c. 641-650 A.D.)'s grants point to his having temporarily captured Bharukaccha about G. Sam. 330 (648-9 A.D.), apparently during the reign of the Gurjara king Dadda IV. His own reign must have ended shortly afterwards. He was succeeded by Dhruvasena III, his cousin, twice removed, and the grand-son of Ślläditya I. The fact, that the imperial titles of Dharasena IV are not assumed by his immediate successors Dhruvasena III and Kharagraha II, though they are revived by Siläditya II and his successors, suggests Dharasena's power having met with some temporary reverses.-(IA. i, 14 and 45; IA, xvii, 196).
According to Hiuen Tsang, the first Chinese traveller to visit the Valabhi Vidyapitha, the number of students at the Viharas was very great. "It had about 100 Buddhist monasteries with 6000 Brethren adherents of the Hinayana Sammatiya School".-( Watters, op. cit., II, p. 246, Beal, op. cit., II, p. 266). Each of the monasteries of the Valabhi Vidyapitha was like a separate college. There was equality of opportunities made available both to rich and poor to attend these Institutions as the students were not required to pay any fees.
We have epigraphical references to show that both the kings and the rich citizens made benefactions for the Vihāras either from the foundations of the Viharas or by supporting the Vikäras built by the monks and named after them. (K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, p. 195, fn. ).
In I-Tsing's time there were two Universities one at Nālandā in the East and other at Valabhl in the West, which the students generally attended to acquire the stamp of culture and refinement, after finishing the usual secondary education. These Universities were large brotherhoods of monks who went in for congregational education, the method of teaching being tutorial as well as professorial.
"Thus instructed by their teachers and instructing others, they (the stu dents) pass two or three years, generally in the Nalanda Monastery in Central India or in the country of Valabhi (Vala) in Western India ".-(lakakusu, I-Tsing's, Records of the Buddhist Religion', p. 177).

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Valabhi had acquired prominence as a seat of learning, universal in spirit, without any leaning towards any particular sect only. Accordingly, Valabhi could be a nursery of Brāhmins, which supplied learned priests to different parts of India, (Fleet, ‘Baroda Grant of Karka I, Rāştrakūta', IA, XII, p. 160), as the religious emphasis was put on the educational system.
The tradition of Valabhi as a centre of Hindu studies is probably preserved in the Kathā-Sarit-Sāgara (Taranga, 32 ), a work of the eleventh century by Somadeva, which narrates a story of Vişnudatta, a Brāhmin youth from Antarvedi, who went up to Valabhi for prosecuting higher studies, eventhough centres like Banāras and Taxila were nearer to his home on the banks of the Ganges.
The existence of a library at Valabhi similar to the one mentioned for Nālanda, may be inferred from the grants of the Maitrakas, which record donations made for the collection of books.-(Bühler, Additional Valabhi Grants : IA, VII, p. 67, ff; M. G. Dikshit, Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhistic University', Historical and Economical Studies, p. 59).
Fa-Hian, an early Chinese traveller, says that "the kings of various countries and the head of the Vaisyas built Vihāras for the priests and endowed them with fields, houses, gardens and orchards, along with the resident population and cattle, the grants being engraved on plates of metal, so that they were handed down from king to king."-(Legge,' Fa-Hian's Record of Buddhistic Kingdom', p. 43).
Brāhmaṇa Adityaśarman received a grant of land from Raņagraha the son of Vitarāga Jayabhatta II in the Cedi year 391, Vaisakha va. 15 (641 A.D.) with the approval of Gurjara king Dadda II. The edict was composed by Mātņibhața, Minister of Peace and War. The other details are not known as the first plate is missing.-(Sankheļā Plates, EI, II, 20).
Gurjara king Dadda II, Praśāntarāga, issued from Nandipura two grants of land in the Cedi year 392 ( 642 A.D.), to one Brāhmaṇa Sūrya of Bhāradvāja gotra, who had emigrated from Daśapura and settled at Kșirasara. The land mentioned in one grant was situated at Suvarṇārapalli and that mentioned in the other was situated at Kșirasara. Both the places were located in Sangamakhețaka (Sankheda ) Vişaya. The edicts were composed by Reva, Minister of Peace and War.-(Sankheda Plates, EI ; V 37-41 ).
641
642
643
Vijayavarmarāja, Cālukya, son and successor of Buddhavarman, was governing Gujarat. According to Fleet, there were three Gujarat branches of the Cālukya dynasty, the first consisting of Jayasimha, his son Buddhavarman and grandson, the above-named Vijayarāja; the second of Jayasimha Dharāsraya, brother of Pulkesin II and his son Nāgavardhana (Nirpan grant); and the third of Jayasimha Dharāśraya II (brother of Vikramāditya I) and his
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D
.
.
648
sons.--( gth April Cedi Sam. 394, Vaišākha, = 643 A.D.)-(Kairă copper-plate : IA., vii, 241 ff; IA, ix, 1233 ; EI, iii, 2).
Maitraka king Dhruvasena II was succeeded by his son Dharasena IV, who assumed the Imperial titles Paramabhattāraka, Mahārājādhirāja, Parameśvara and Cakravartin. He seems to be the son of the daughter of Harsa who may probably be identified with his ajjaka (maternal grand-father) referred to in his earlier grants.
Raviprabha Sūri installed a Jaina temple and an image of Lord Nemi in V. S. 700 ( 644 A.D.) in Naddulapura' (Nádola ). 1 Dharmasagara's Com. (p. 41-42) on his own work 'Guruparivadi' (v. 10 ) and JTSS
(Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 155. p. 223). 2 This is 8 miles from the station of Rani. Vide, JTSS (Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 225).
Two land-grants were issued by Maitraka Mahārājādhirāja Dharasena IV from the victorious camp at Bharukaccha in the (Valabhi) year 330. One was issued on Mārgasira su. 2 in favour of Aditiśarman of Parāśara gotra, resident of Khețaka, granting him a field in the vicinity of Vaddasomalika in Kolamba in Khetaka Ahāra and two fields in the vicinity of Duhuduhu in Nagaraka Pathaka.-(IA, XV, p. 335). The other grant was issued next day i.e. Mārgasira su. 3 granting land in the village Desurakṣitijja in Simhapallika Pathaka in Khețaka Āhara to Brāhmaṇa Nārāyaṇamitra of Sārkarakși gotra, who had migrated from Anartapura and was residing at Kasara.-(I.A. VII, 73). Both the grants were composed by Divirapati Skandabhatta and their dütaka was Princess Bhūpā. The date in these grants applies to the intercalary month calculated according to the old system of mean intercalation.
Since these grants were issued from the victorious camp of the Emperor at Bharukaccha, within the dominion of the Gurjaras, it is believed that he temporarily occupied Broach, the Gurjara capital -(IA, XVII, p. 196). But as the donated lands lay in Khetaka visaya (Kaira district) outside the territories of the Gurjaras, these grants do not conclusively prove that Dharasena had conquered the Gurjara kingdom. It is quite possible that he was enjoying the hospitality of the friendly Gurjara king in the latter's territory when these grants were issued.
The Maitraka Emperor Dharasena IV, in all probability died without any .son to succeed him. So the line of succession passed to the family of Derabhatta, the second son of Silāditya I, Dharmāditya. The choice fell on his youngest son Dhruvasena III (650-654-5 A.D.), who succeeded Dharasena IV, as he had acted as dūtaka in some of the royal grants issued by Dharasena IV. He did not assume the Imperial titles of his predecessor. So it is suggested that his powers met with some reverses.
650

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644
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka Mahārājādhirāja Parameśvara Dharasena IV donating the revenues of the village Yodhāvaka to: a Buddhist vihāra erected by Divira pati Skandabhata at Yodhāvaka in Hastavapra Ahāra in Surāșțra. The Dütaka of the royal edict was Prince Dhruvasena, and it was issued in the (Valabhi) year 326 (644 A.D.) and composed by Divira pati Skandabhata.-(Bhavanagar Plate ; IA., I, 45).
645
From Valabhi, Maitraka Mahārājādhiraja Dharasena IV granted to Brāhmaṇa Arjuna of Bhāradvāja gotra, an emigrant from Simhapura, a land situated near Sarkarāpadraka in Kālāpaka Pathak in Surāṣtra, and to Brāhmaṇa Mankasvāmin of Bhāradyāja gotra, an emigrant from Simhapura, a land situated near villages Kikkațāputra and Sarkarāpadraka. The royal edict was executed by Prince Dhruvasena, and issued in the (Valabhi) year 326, Āsādha su. 10 ( 645 A.D.). It was composed by Divirapati Skandabhața.-(JBBRAS; X 66; IA; I 14).
The Gurjara king Dadda II Praśāntarāga was succeeded by his son Jayabhatta Il at about this time.
646-650
Rāvaņa-Vadha by Bhatti, popularly known as Bhatti-Kavya, the story being drawn from the Rāmāyaṇa, was composed at Valabhi, the capital of the Maitraka kingdom, during the regime of King Dharasena who was, in all probability, Dharasena IV (641-650 A.D.). The Bhatti-Kāvya has 22 cantos narrating the story of the Rāmāyaṇa and at the same time supplying illustrations on grammar, figures of speech and other rhetorical devices. It has, therefore, justifiably been honoured by being commented upon by Mallinātha, the reputed commentator of the Pancha Mahākāvvas.
It is most probably the earliest known specimen of this type wherein the threads of the plot of a story and illustrations on grammar and rhetorics are interwoven. On this model Hemachandra modelled his Dvāśraya Kāvya. It was composed with the two-fold purpose of illustrating the rules of Sanskrit grammar and rhetoric, and of providing literary entertainment. In such a work naturally the poet is smothered by the grammarian. Tradition gives a great position to Bhatti, for his skill in achieving this dual purpose of dubious literary value.
The list of Alankāras given by Bhatti is in a certain measure original, when compared with those of Dandin and Bhāmaha. Its source is still unknown. It is said of this poem that “it is a lamp in the hands of those whose eye is Grammar, but a mirror in the hands of the blind, for others” -(Bhattikävya, Vol. II, verse 33, p. 310):
दीपतुल्यः प्रबन्धोऽयं शब्दलक्षणचक्षुषाम् । हस्तादर्श इवान्धानां भवेद व्याकरणादृते ॥ ३३ ॥

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650
650
C. 650 C. 650
651
In the colophon it is said : (Bhattikāvya, sarga 32, pp. 42-43): that the poem was composed when king Dharasena was ruling at Valabhi:
काव्यमिदं रचितं मया वलभ्यां श्रीधरसेननरेन्द्रपालितायाम् । कीर्तिरतो भवता नृपस्य तस्य
प्रेमकरः क्षितीलो यतः प्रजानाम् ॥ ३६ ॥ About 650 A.D.: the Rāştrakūta dynasty began with Dantivarman I, of the Satyaki race of Yādavas, who was succeeded by his son Indrarāja I.
Maheśvaradāman founded the Cāhamāna power in South Gujarat.-(H. G. Shastri, MG, 306, 310).
Jayabhața II succeeded his father Dadda Praśāntarāga.
Bāņa in his Kādambari, informs that the religious works like the Mahabhārata etc. were read in the afternoon in the Māhākāla temple of Ujjayini where the people of higher rank such as queens etc. also came to hear it.
Bāņa speaks of the queen Vilāsavati having gone to the Mahākāla temple on the Caturdaši day, when the Mahābhārata was being read and that she was dejected when she heard therefrom that the sonless do not reach heaven. -(I., para 54).
Dhruvasena lIl of Valabhi, successor of Dharasena IV-(Unpublished copper-plate of Sam. 332, IA, XVIII, 197 note 50; copper-plate Sam. 334, EI, i, 85) is known to have issued a copper-plate grant of land in Valabhi S. 332 (650-51 A.D.).-(BG; II, 92).
From the victorious camp at Sirisimmiņikā, king Dhruvasena III issued a grant of land to Brāhmaṇa Bhatti of Kausika gotra resident of Mahichaka, in Mägha of the (Valabhi) year 334 (653 A.D.). The subject of donation was the village Pattapadraka situated in south Pațţa of Sivabhāgapura vişaya. The Dūtaka of the royal edict was Pramātội Śrināga, which was composed by Divirapati Anahila, the son of Divirapati Skandabhata.-(Kapadavanj Plates : EI., I, 85 )
Māgha wrote his Siśupālavadha, a mahā kāvya of 20 cantos, under the literary influence of Bhatti and Bhāravi which relates the episode in the Mahabhārata, of Kșşpa's slaying of Siśupāla at the Rājasūya sacrifice of Yudhisthira, where Siśupāla's misbehaviour became the immediate cause of the conflict. He was the son of Dattaka Sarvāśraya and the grandson of Suprabhadeva, the minister of Varmalāta, of Bhinnamāla (called Bhinnamālava) on the boundary line between Gujarat and Marwar, whose inscription dated Vikrama S. 682 (C. 625 A.D.) has been recovered.
The Jaina Prabandhas make him a resident of Bhillamāla or Śrīmāla. His association with Bhoja is clearly legendary; for the great Mihira Bhoja lived in
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Plate XL
Gangā on makara, Sāmalāji

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Plate XLI
22
Stone Plates of Krşnalilā from Mandor, Jodhpur Museum, (p. 208 )

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Plate XLII
Vişnu from Bhinmāl, Baroda Museum

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Piate XLIII
Vişnu on lotus, Mt. Ābu

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653-54
C. 654
C. 655
655
655
the middle of the gth Century and the Paramāra Bhoja in the 11th Century. The poet was rich and liberal, and his wife Malhaņādevi also shared the generous instincts of her husband. Poet Māgha is placed in the latter half of the 7th century A.D.-(M. Krişnamachāri, Classical Sanskrit Literature, p. 154-57).
The word ' agrahāra' has been applied to the grant of lands or villages to Brāhmaṇas, from very ancient times. -(EI, i, 88: grant of the Valabhi king Dhruvasena III in G. S. 334 i.e. 653-654 A.D.).
The Sendraka Nikumbhalla-sakti, son of Aditya-śakti, was, reigning in the neighbourhood of Bagumrā (Southern Gujarat). He was a great devotee of the Sun-God.-( Bagumrā Plates, IA, XVIII, 265 ff.).
Dharāśraya Jayasimhavarman, younger brother of the W. Calukya Vikramāditya I, ruled as his feudatory in Gujarat about this time, or somewhat later.
Prithivivallabha-Nikumbhalla-sakti of the Sendraka family was ruling in the province of Lāța. (8th Aug. Cedi Sam. 406 = 655 A.D.)-(Bagumra Copperplate : IA., xviii, 265).
Maitraka King Dhruvasena III granted to a Buddhist vihāra at Valabhi a village in Kāsahrada division of Khețaka , hāra. The details about the vihāra, the Dütaka, the Lekhaka and the date are not legible.- Valā Plates, JBBRAS, (NS) I 36 f. ]
Maitraka king Kharagraha II (655-658 A.D.) succeeded his younger brother Dhruvasena III. Like Silāditya I, he was ardently devoted to the practice of Dharma and had won the second name' (apara-nāma) of Dharmāditya.
After the overthrow of the Kalacuris, Pulakesin II divided their extensive kingdom among his relatives and trusted chiefs. Southern Gujarat extending from the Kim in the north to the Damangangā in the south was placed in charge of a Sendraka chief. The Sendrakas ruled over this country for three generations.
Sendraka King Nikumbha Allaśakti of the Sendraka dynasty gave a religious grant of the village Balisā situated in Treyanna Āhāra, on the Full-Moon day of Bhādrapada in K. E. 406, (655 A.D.), Samvatsara-sata-catustaye şaďuttara Bhadrapada śuddha Pancadasyām, to Dikşita Bappasvāmin of Bhāradvāja gotra, resident of Vijayāniruddha-puri. The royal edict was executed by Māsambha and composed by his younger brother Devadinna, the Officer in charge of Peace and War.-(Bagumra Plates; IA ; XVIII 265).
Nikumbha' was only a biruda prefixed to the name of Allaśakti as well as to his son Jayasakti also.-(V. V. Mirashi, CII, Vol. IV, Intro., lviii, fn.).
The writer of the Maitraka king Kharagraha II (655-658 A.D.)'s grant has praised him very much by the Vyatireka (excellence) figure of speech ( in which
655
655
655-58
c23
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a comparison is made) wherein the king is represented to excel Vişņu through a number of Siešas (puns), e.g., it is said that this "king has distributed 'Laksmi (here it means wealth) among his pranayinas (suppliants), has turned out 'gada' (disease), has raised up the chakra (whole number) of 'Sudarsanas' (good scriptures), has given up sports of a child, has not cast down (adhah) the Dvijätis (Brahmanas) has conquered the world by a single 'vikrama' (exploit ), has not taken to a jala ( dull) bed, and thus has been an extraordinary Purusottama (the best of men); while the traditional PuruSottam (Visnu) has not imparted Lakṣmi (his wife) to the Pranayins (suitors), has not turned out the 'gada' (mace), has not raised up the Sudarsana cakra (wheel), has not given up sports of a child, has not cast the dvijati (bird) beneath him, has conquered the world not by one Vikrama ( stride) and has taken to a jala (water's) bed.
C. 660
What the passage implies is generally to show that the king was liberal, healthy, learned, respectful towards the Brahmanas, valiant and active, and all the qualities of a great king, according to the description, were found in him.(Fleet, C II, III, p. 185).
From the victorious camp at Pulendaka, a grant of land was issued by the Maitraka king Kharagraha II in the (Valabhi) year 337 Āṣādha ba. 5 (656 A.D.), giving land situated in the village Pangulapallikä in Ghritalaya Bhumi of Šivabhagapura visaya to Brahmana Narayana of Sarkarakşi gofra, who had emigrated from Anandapura and was residing at Khetaka. The grantee seems to be the same as the recipient of a grant issued by Dhruvasena IV in 648 A.D. The Dutaka and the Lekhaka are the same as mentioned in the grant of the previous king Dhruvasena III.-(IA, VII, 76).
C. 660-665
In the time of the fourth Khalifah, Ali, an officer was appointed to superintend Sind-Gujarat coasts regularly; but he was killed. (AH 39/660 AD-AH 42/ 663 A.D.). In AH 44/665 A.D., Amir Muawiya appointed an officer known as Muhallib to guard the eastern frontier of the Caliphate; and subsequently this appointment was given a permanent character.-[Syed Sulaiman Nadvi, Arab aur Bharat ke Sambandha, (in Hindi), Allahabad 1936; p. 13].
From Kharagraha II the throne of Valabhi passed to Siladitya III, son of his elder brother Siladitya II who was probably dead and gone by this time. As the Vindhya branch of Derabhata's line can no longer be traced after the reign of Siladitya II, it seems that it now probably merged into the main line at Valabhi. In that case the merger may be dated along with Siläditya III's accession to the throne of Valabhi; since, as the son of Siläditya II, he would also have inherited the Vindhya territory.
All kings of the Maitraka dynasty henceforth uninterruptedly continue to assume the popular name of Siladitya".

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661
662
664
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665
666
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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
Aparajita, the earliest known king of the dynasty of Guhils of Mevåḍ, was reigning. The next on record in this family is Bappa (C. 661 A.D.). Sath. 718: Udaipur Inscription of the Guhila king Aparajita, and of the commander of his troops, the Maharaja Varahasimha.-(EI, iv, 29).
A village named Sthanaka in Surăştra was dedicated to two Buddhist vihāras by king Siläditya II (C. 658-685 A.D.) in Second Aşaḍha of the (Valabhi) year 343, Dvi. Așidha ba. (662 A.D.). One vikara was erected by Acarya Bhiksu Sthiramati and the other by Acarya Bhiksu Vimalagupta, resident of Kukurapaka. Both were situated within Duddavihara mandala at Valabhi. The grant was composed by Anahila. The name of the Dutaka is illegible. (JBBRAS, NS, I 37). The intercalation of the month applies to the old system of mean.-( H. G. Shastri, MG, 578, f. 7).
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Siladitya III from the victorious camp, the name of which is illegible, in the (Valabhi) year 346, Märgasira ba. 3 (664 A.D.), to Brāhmaṇa Yajñadatta of Gårgya gotra, resident of Valabhi, The land consisted of two fields and two step-wells in Saurastra. The Dataka of the royal edict was Prince Dhruvasena. The grant was composed by Divirapati Apahila.-JBBRAS, (NS) I, 71).
A grant of land was issued by Maitraka king Śladitya III in the (Valabhl) year 346, Pausa su. 7 (664 A.D.), to three Brahmanas: (i) Soma of Bharadvaja gotra and an emigrant from Kášahrada, (ii) Brāhmaṇa Pittaleśvara and (iii) his son Naga, of Vatsa gotra, emigrants from Girinagara (Junagadh) and residents of Simhapura (Sihor). The land was situated near Daccanaka in Hastavapra Ähära in Surastra. Prince Dhruvasena was the Dalaka of the royal edict. The grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila.-[JBBRAS, (NS), I 73).]
The Kheda (Kaira) Plates record the grant of land issued by king Siladitya II in Vaisakha of the (Valabhi) year 346, Vaisakha Su. I, (665 A.D.). The year was originally read 365, but the numerals indicate that it is 346. (H. G. Shastri).
The grant was received by Brahmana Nádhulla who had emigrated from Girinagara and settled at Khetaka, of a field (divided into six pieces) situated at Deyapalli in Nagaraka Pathaka in Kheṭaka Ähâra and another field at Jambuvanaka in Käläpaka Pathaka in Surăştra. The edict was executed by Prince Dhruvasena and the grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila.(JBAS, VII, 968).
From the victorious camp at Pundhikanaka, the Maitraka king Siladitya II issued a grant of land situated at Kakkapadra in Käläpaka Patḥaka in Surästra to a Brahmana of Kausika gotra, an emigrant of Pusyasambapura and resident of Valabhi. Prince Dhruvasena officiated as the Dutaka. The grant was composed by Divirapati Apahila.-(EI, XXI, 208 ff.).

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667
C. 669
669
669
670
670
(G. Sam. 348-356 ) Silāditya II of Valabhi, nephew and successor of Kharagraha II, and son of a Silāditya who according to the grants, did not reign at Valabhi.-(IA, V, 208, n; El, iv, 74).
Śryāśraya Śilāditya; son of the Cālukya Dharāśraya Jayasiṁhavarman, was ruling in Gujarat (669-691 ), as heir-apparent.
Vil ramadit Vikramāditya I, successor of Pulakesi II, extended his sway over South
I Gujarat and put it under the charge of his younger brother Jayasimhavaraman alias Dharăsraya.-(Navsari Plates; EI; VIII, 229 ff.).
The Lunsadi Plates record a grant of land, issued by the Maitraka king Śīlāditya III in the (Valabbi) year 350, Phālguna ba. 3 (669 A.D.), from his victorious camp at Khetaka, to Brāhmaṇa Bhatti and Iśvara of Daundavya (?) gotra, who were emigrants from Dvipa (Div]). The land consisted in three pieces of fields and one step-well, situated in Desenaka near Madhumati (Mahuvā) in Surāṣtra. The Dütaka was prince Dhruvasena. The grant was composed by Divirpati Aṇhila.-(Lunsaņi Plates, EI, IV 74).
The Cāhamāna ruler Maheśvaradāman was succeeded by his son Bhimadāman.-(Hānsot Plates of Bhartsivaddha II: El ; XII 197 ff.).
The Gurjara ruler Jayabhata II was succeeded by his son Dadda III alias Bāhusāhaya'. He was a 'Parama Māheśvara' (great devotee of Maheśvara or Siva).
I-Tsing was another Chinese traveller, who following in the wake of Fa-Hian and Hiuen Tsang, came to India, early in 671 A.D. Unlike both these pilgrims who were Mahāyānists, I-Tsing belonged to the Mūla-sarvāsti-vāda school of Hina Yana. Though he did not actually visit the Western sea-board of India, he has left important notes for the study of two important Buddhist centres of his time, viz., Nalanda in Bihar and Valabhi in Saurāştra.
I-Tsing records in his book ' A Record of the Buddhist Religion' (translated by Takakusu, Introduction, p. XXII) that the Aryya Sammatiya sect was the most flourishing in Lāța ( Gujarat ) and Sindh, during his days. He asserts that there were a few monks belonging to the Āryya Mahāsamghika, Āryya Sthavira and Mula Sarvāstivādi sects in these two countries.
I-Tsing, recognised the real merit of Valabhi as an educational centre of Buddhism, when he tells us that " during his life-time ( 671-695 A.D.) Valabhi and Nalanda were the only two monasteries which compared favourably with the universities like Chin-ma, Shin-chu, Lung-men and Chine-li in China. Eminent scholars and accomplished men used to gather there in crowds to discusss possible and impossible doctrines. They proceeded to the Royal Court to try the sharpness of their wits, to present their schemes and to show their
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political talent with a view to be appointed in the Government political services, " ( Takakusu, Records of the Western World, 1890, p. 177 ), only after they were assured of the excellence and correctness of their opinions from the learned in Valabhi, and after having spent at least two years in their monasteries.
The name of Valabhi, which in later times became one of the most important centres of Buddhism worthy to be called a Buddhist University, is not heard of till the beginning of the 6th Century A. D. From the copperplate grants of the Maitraka kings of Valabhi, we know of at least 14 Vihāras in the neighbourhood of Valabhi, which may be enumerated as under :
(1) Duddā Vihāra, (2) Buddha-Dāsa Vihāra, (3) Bhațţārka Vihāra, (4) Abhayārtarikā Vihāra, ( 5 ) Kakka Vihāra,(6) Gohaka Vihāra, (7) Vimalagupta Vihāra, (8) Sthiramati Vihāra, (9) Yakşa Sūra Vihāra, (10) Purnna Bhațţa Vihāra, (11) Ajita Vihāra, (12) Bappa-padiya Vihāra, (13) Vamsakata Vihāra, and (14) Yodhāvaka Vihära.
Of these, the most conspicuous one seems to be the one built by Duddā, wife's sister of the Maitraka king Dhruvasena. It was the head of a VihāraMandala. Duddā-Mahā-Vihāra, as it later on came to be called, included in it many others built by several devotees, (Vide, Nos. 2-8 above). This DuddaVihāra seems to have received numerous grants from the Maitraka kings, at least for 140 years (from G.E. 216 to 356) since its foundation, and must have been, therefore, the most active centre of Buddhism in Valabhi.
Another Vihāra-Mandala' known from the Valabhi grants is that built by Yakşa Sura, which included in it the Vihāras built by Purnna Bhatta and Ajit. This Vihāra-Mandala was meant for the use of Buddhist nuns, and like the Duddā Vihāra was situated in the svatala of Valabhi. In one of the copperplate grants referring to this monastery, we find that some nuns had come to stay in it, for want of accommodation in another.-(A. S. Gadre, 'Five Vala Plates ', BUJ., p. 79).
The Yodhāvaka and the Vamsakata Vihāras were situated in the villages of their respective names near Valabhi.-[M. G. Dikshit, 'Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhist University', Historical and Economic Studies, Silver Jubilee Volume, Fergussion College, Poona. 1947; (IHQ. XVI, p. 816-18)].
On the scholastic and educational activities in Valabhi, the accounts of the Chinese travellers are an important source of information. Hiuen Tsang, who visited Valabhi in 640 A.D., describes that there were over 100 monasteries in Valabhi with 6000 Sammatiya adherents. He refers to the famous Ācārya Sthiramati and Guņamati, who resided in a monastery outside the town. Sthiramati was the pupil of Vasubandhu, a well-known Pandit from Nálandā, and had writteen a treatise called Abhidharma-kośa, which was already translated into Chinese when Hiuen Tsang visited India. The Vihāra mentioned by
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the traveller has been identified with the Bappa-padiya Vihara mentioned above, and constructed by Sthiramati. It has been suggested that it might be located in the group of the Buddhist caves at Taläjä, in the neighbourhood of Valabhi. Hiuen-Tsang's references to monks from foreign countries and belonging to the Hina yana sect visiting Valabhi are borne out from the expression like
-
, occurring in Maitraka copperplates.-M. G. Dikshit, History of Buddhism in Gujarat' Journal Gujarat Research Society, 1946, pp. 95-113).
The Sanjan plates of Salukika Budhavarsa (c. 670 A.D.) mention g##LIKTfast: officers of the elders of the families, immediately after the Gramakūta or the Village Headman. The gentlemen who constituted the village assemblies in Southern Gujarat were known as H. These Mahattaras or their executive (af) are referred to in inscriptions from the 8th to the 12th century A.D., which indicated, the house-holders or the heads of families residing in the village. (Altekar, The Raṣṭrakūtas, p. 205).
A grant of land was issued by Calukya Crown-prince Sryâśraya Siladitya from Navasarika in the (Cedi) year 421, Magha śuddha 13 (671 A.D.), during the reign of his father Dharâśraya Jayasimhavarman, in the village Åsaṭṭi in Kanhavala Åhara in Bähirika Visaya, to Bhogikka-svåmin of Kasyapa gotra, resident of Navasärikā. The grant was composed by Dhananjaya, the Minister of Peace and War.-( Navsari Plates: EI, VIII 229).
From the victorious camp at Meghavana, Maitraka king Ślläditya II issued a grant of land situated at Lüşă in Surăştra, to Brahmana Maga alias Upadatta of Gárgya gotra, an emigrant from Anandapura and resident of Valabhi. Prince Dhruvasena executed the royal edict. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 352, Bhadrapada su. 1 (671 A.D.) and composed by Divirapati Anahila. -(Lunsadi Plates: IA, XI, 305).
Siladitya Sryasraya, Calukya of the third Gujarat branch, governed Gujarat as Yuvaraja, under his father Jayasimha Dharāśraya.-(JBRAS, XVI, 1 ff.). (30th January, Cedi Sam. 421, 443-Grants from Navsari and Surat).
Månadeva Suri composed Laghu-Santi-stava in Nadola, near Nadulai, a village in Marwar, who died in V. S. 731 (675 A.D.), on mount Girnar.
In Nadol there are four Jaina temples. One of them pertaining to Lord Padma is very old. There is a bhümigrika (subterranian cell) in it. long and very deep."
1 JPI (pt. I, p. 656).
Ibid. (p. 361).
Ibid. (p. 606).
In the (Valabhi) year 356, Jyestha-7 (?), (675 A.D.) Maitraka king Šiladitya III issued a grant of land in village Kasaka in Suraṣṭra, to a Buddhist Vihara erected by Acarya Bhiksu Vimalagupta (resident of Kukkurapaka) near Dudda-Vihara at Valabhi. The royal edict was executed by

3

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676
676
prince Kharagraha and the grant was composed by Divirapati Anahila. The king was then at some military camp, the name of which is read as Picchi (Paji).-( JBBRAS, NS, I, 57).
From the victorious camp at Meghavana, Maitraka king Silāditya II issued a grant of a step-well and a field of five pieces situated at Madasara in Madasara Sthali in Saurāṣtra, to Brāhmaṇa Dikşita of Kuśika gotra, an emigrant from Puşyasāmbapura. The Dütaka of the edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Mammaka.-(Jesar Plates ; EI, XXII 114).
It was issued in the second (intercalary) Pausa of the Valabhi year 35, Dvi. Paușa va. 4 (675 A.D.). The date applies to the system of mean intercalation. --(H. G. Shastri, MG, p. 57, ff.).
From Bharukaccha, the Gurjara king Dadda III, Bāhusahāya, granted to Gangāditya, son of Dundubhibhatta of Bhāradvāja gotra, land in the village of Uvarivadra in Korillā Caturasiti (a district consisting of eighty-four villages) in K. Samvat 427, Māgha-śuddha-Rathasaptami (676 A.D.).-(EI; XXVII 199 f.).
From Dhānandā, Maitraka King Sīlāditya III (son of Silāditya II who never ascended the throne) issued a grant of land to a Brāhmana Balasarman, of Upamanyu gotra, son of Adityaśarman who migrated from Giginagara and settled at Sraddhika (Sādhi near Pādrā) as a member of the Caturvedis, studying Yajurveda in order to enhance the religious merit of his parents. The grant consisted of a rice-field in two pieces, and a deserted orchard which lay near the village Antika (Anti) in the vicinity of Sraddhika in the Bharukaccha district. Prince Dhruvasena officiated as the Dūtaka of the grant, which was composed by Aộahil, a minister of Peace and War and son of Skandabhat, who preceded him in that office.-G.S. 357, Māgha su. 7 ( 676 A.D.):-( A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, p. 16).
The Gurjara-Pratihāra king Bhojadeva, son of Rāmabhadra from Appādevi, possibly the greatest Emperor of Northern India in the early Mediaeval period, is known to history by several names-Prabhāsa, Śrimad Adivarāha, Parameśvara and Mihira. The two birudas-Adivarāha and Mihira, if interpreted literally, might signify that he was a devotee of Vişnu, and of Sun; but, unlike his father Rāmabhadra, who was a votary of Sun, or his great grand-father Devasakti who was a devotee of Vişnu, this king was a sākta, attached to Bhagavati. The birudas thus appear to be formal.
Diva? (Sk. Dvipa) is mentioned in Visesanisiha cunni (pt. II, p. 225), where it is said that it was situated inside the sea at a distance of one yojana, 1 The modern city of Diva is 8 miles from Una, 6 from Ajara and 5 from Delvada.
Vide JTSS- Vol. I, pt I, p. 136.
676-77
679

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685
to the south of Saurāstra. In the Bhāsa (v. 952) on Nisiha, there is a reference to a silver coin of Diva ( diviccaga )2. This coin, current in those days, is named as Sābhāraka'. Further, in this Bhāsa it is said :
2 Sābhārakas = 1 Rūpaka of Uttarăpatha, and 2 Rūpakas of Uttarāpatha = I of Pāțaliputra.
Moreover, Sābhāraka is compared with other coins as under :2 Rūpakas of Dakṣiṇāpatha = 1 Nelaka of Kāñcipura in the Dravida country,
2 Nelakes = 1 Rūpaka of Pāțaliputra. 2 In visesa-nisiha-cunni (pt. II, p. 125--we havę Sagarako nama rupakah; so it is taken to
be a silver coin. 8 See Bhasa (v. 3891-92) on Kappa and its Sk. Com. (pt. IV, p. 1069).
A village in Surāșțra was given as gift to Dudda-Vihāra at Valabhi by Maitraka king Silāditya III, son and successor of Silāditya II. The information about the Dütaka, the Lekhaka and the date is illegible.--( JBBRAS, I, 40 ).
According to a Cālukya record dated 685 A.D., Dharāśraya-Jayasimha, a son of Pulakesin II, defeated and exterminated the whole army of Vajjada of the Rāştrakūța records, in the country between the Mahi and the Narmadā. He was probably the Valabhi king Sīlāditya III who had occupied this Gurjara territory.—(R. C. Majumdar, The Classical Age, p. 149 ).
Silāditya IV, the son and successor of Silāditya III, seems to have begun his reign in circa 685 A. D. In the copper-plate edicts of the Maitrakas it is henceforth found that every king regularly and expressly, affixes the imperial titles P. M. P. ( Paramabhhttāraka Mahārājādhiraja Parameśvara ) to his name, and also adds the suffix 'deva’ to it. The Vasantagadha Jaina bronze image was cast by an artist Sivanāga by name, and installed in the Samvat 744 (688 A.D.) according to the inscription on its pedestal.
This bronze, cast by wax-process with heavy black core inside, was first discussed by Muni Kalyāņavijayaji.-[Nāgari Prachāriņi Patrikā (Hindi), Banaras, New Series, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, pp. 221-231).
The Cāhamāna king Bhartsivaddha I succeeded his father Bhimadaman.(Hānsot Plates of Bhartrivaậdha II : EI, XII, 197 ff.).
The Gurjara king Dadda Bāhusahāya was succeeded by his son Jayabhata III, who was a 'Parama Māheśvara'.
C. 685
688
690
690
690
The poet Bhavabhūti flourished under Yaśovarman of Kanauj, author of the Mahāviracarita, Mālatimadhava, and the Uttararūmacarita : Contemporary with Vākpatirāja, author of the Gaudavaho.--( Prof. Bhandarkar, MälatiMadhava edition, Preface, ix ).

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C. 690
691
693
From I-Tsing who visited India just before the Rāstrakūta period, we learn that towards the end of the 7th century A.D., the scholars of the Valabhi University used to proceed to the royal courts after their education was over, in order to show their abilities and talents with a view to be appointed to practical government. These scholars used to recive grants of land or government service. Distinguished scholars used to be appointed by the Valabhi administration to responsible posts. (EI, IV, p. 181 ).-(Elliot, I, p. 176; Altekar, The Răstrakūļas, p. 325 ).
From the victorious camp at Balāditya-tațāka, Brābmaņa Bhūtakumāra of Bhāradvāja gotra, who had migrated from Gomutrika and settled at Valabhi, the headquarters of Loņāpadraka Sthali in Surāșțra, received the grant of the village Loņāpadraka, from P.M.P. Silādityadeva IV. The Dütaka of the royal edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Haragana, son of Bappa Bhogika, who officiated as Balādhikrita ( Minister in charge of the Army). The grant is dated the (Valabhi) year 372, Śrāvana ba. 9 ( 691 A.D.). The year was read 342 and the grant was ascribed to Silāditya III. But the grant belongs to Sīlāditya IV and the correct date is 372.-(H. G. Shastri, IA., V, 207 ).
The Cālukya Crown-prince Sryāśraya Silāditya, son of Dharāśraya Jayasimhavarman, issued a grant of land from Osumbhalā Kārmaņeya Āhāra, in Śrāvaņa of the (Cedi) year 443. Srāvana su. 15 (693 A.D.)-(Surat Plates, VOC, Aryan Section, 225).
From the victorious camp at Purộikā, P.M.P. Silāditya IV issued a grant of land in the village Marañjijja in Antaratrā in Surāșțra to Brāhmaṇa Devila of Śāņdila gotra, an emigrant from Daśapura and resident of Vansakața. The Důtaka of the edict was prince Kharagraha. The grant was composed by Divirapati Haragana, son of Bappabhogika, minister in charge of the Army. It was issued in the (Valabhi) year 375, Jyeștha ba. 5 (694 A.D.).(Devali Plates; BPSI 54).
A set of two copper-plates inscribed on the inner sides and joined with a ring and the Valabhi Seal of Bhatakka and Nandi on it, of the time of Silāditya IV, has been accidentally discovered while tilling a field in Kunkávāv in Central Saurāșțra in 1957, and is made known through the courtesy of Mr. Tekchandani, the Gir Forest Officer.
The donee is a learned Brāhmaṇa Sankara coming from Anandapura, and the grant is of the field comprised in the village Ikollā in the Kālāpaka pathaka. The dataka was prince Kharagraha and the divirapati was Sankaragaña, the son of Haragaņa. The grant is dated Valabhi year 376 (V. S. 751 Paușa Suda 1; 694 A.D.). The donor is Šilāditya IV..
694
694
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695
695
696
C. 696
C. 700
Five copper-plates of Silāditya IV have so far been published, executed in the Valabhi years (1) 372, (2) 375, (3) 376, (4) 381 and (5) 382. This is the sixth.-(H. G. Shastri, Buddhiprakasha, January 1958, pp. 9-11).
P.M.P. Silāditya IV is known to have issued from Valabhi a copper-plate grant on Sam. 376 Mārgasira su. 15 ( 695 A.D.). The Dūtaka of the grant was Prince Kharagraha.—(EI, V, App. 69).
(V. Sam. 752) Bhūrāja, Bhūyada or Bhūvada, of Kalyāņakataka in Kanauj, according to the Gujarat Chroniclers, held Gujarat and destroyed Jayasekhara of Pañcāsar. His successors in Kalyāṇa were Karņāditya, Candrāditya, Somaditya, and Bhuvanāditya, the latter being the father of Rāji whose son Mularāja, in 942 A.D., conquered Gujarat and founded the Caulukya dynasty.-(IA, 182).
Vijayāditya Satyāśraya, Western Cālukya, succeeded his father Vinayāditya. -(IA, 112; Bom. Gaz. ; 370).
Rūpasundari, wife of Jayasikhari,' ruler of Pañcāsara and sister of Surapāla, gave birth to a son named. Vanarāja' in V. S. 752" (696 A.D.). He died in V.S. 862 3 at the age of 110. 1 He was killed by Bhuvada, ruler of Kanauj in a battle. : JPI., pt. I p. 493.
3 Ibid., p.-456. Dhaneśvarasūri, the author of Satrunjaya Māhātmya, who describes himself in this work as a tutor of king Silāditya', defeated the Buddhists by taking the Syād-vāda i.e. 'may be' or the Science of Logic as his ground. - ( Šatrunjaya-māhātmya, p. 769).
Buddhist monk Guņamati was invited to China. He belonged to the Valabhi University.
Mallavādin was one of the greatest Jaina dialecticians and the author of Nayacakra. The title of 'Vādin' was conferred on him when, according to tradition, he defeated a Buddhist monk in a controversy on the superiority of a religious question at Valabhi.
Three different stories have been current for Mallavădin at Valabhi. According to Pral hävakacarita (Sringa X, V, 10) Malla was the youngest of the three brothers. They lived at Valabhi with their mother Durlabhādevi. Their maternal uncle was a Svetāṁbara monk Jinānandasūri. When defeated by a Buddhist monk Buddhānanda in a public disputation at Bhrigukaccha, he left that city and came to Valabhi, where he made his nephews his disciples. All the three received high education at Valabhi. Malla wrote his famous treatise on Jaina philosophy known as Nayacakru. Malla went to Bhrigukaccha and defeated his uncle's opponent Buddhānanda in a public debate in token of which he was given the title of Vādin'.
700
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0.700
The other stories about Malla given by Merutunga in Prabandha Cintāmani and by Rājasekharasüri in Prabandhakośa agree on the main point.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurastra, pp. 181-82).
Existence of Mallavādin sect in Western India is recorded in an inscription. :-( Altekar, Surat Plates of Karkkarāja Suvarṇavarşa, Saka 743'. EI, XXI, p. 135).
Modheraka (modern Modhera') is a small town of northern Gujarat. It is referred to in Suyagada-Cunni (p. 348) Šilānka Sūri mentions this city as Moherakāhāra in his com. pt. II, p. 87 a) on Vijjukti (v. 170) on Suyagada (II, 3). In some of the Purāņas we come across the word Moheraka. "For its history, see 'Modhera' by Manilal M. Mistry (1937); JAG. (p.149).
Rāştrakūța Govindarāja I succeeded his father Indrarāja I about 700 A.D. He was followed by his son Kakkarāja I, who was succeeded by his son Indrarāja II.
Dandin says that the Apabhramsa is in poetry, an appellation of the speech of the Abhiras and the like, [Cf. straffefiti: 1690 sfa : II.......(I, 36)] He also speaks of Lāța as one of the Lovers of Prākrita languages: -
शौरसेनी च गाडी च लाटी चान्या च तादशी। .
wat Ta r g Ara 11 (, 36) Dandin's Daśakumāra carita (a work almost contemporaneous with the Maitraka dynasty, p. 225) refers to Valabhi as a prosperous centre of trade and commerce where even private individuals possessed ships of their own : “ There is a city named Valabhi in Surāştra. In it there is an owner of ships (Nāvikapati) named Gțihagupta who can vie with Kubera in riches. He had a daughter named Ratnamati. A merchant-prince named Balabhadra from Madhumati (Mahuva ) comes to Valabhi and marries her."-(Ibid., p. 173).
Gurjasa king Jayabhața III (706-736 A.D.) was reigning in Gujarat, in succession to his father Dadda III.
A grant of land at Samipadraka in Korillā (Koral) Pathaka was issued by the Gurjara king Jayabhaţa III to Brāhmaṇa Devasyāmin who emigrated from Girinagara (Junagadh) and settled at the Agrahāra of Sraddhikā (sādhi). The royal order was issued from Kayāvatāra (i.e. Kāyāvarohāna, represented by modern Karvan) and executed by Balādhikrita Bāvull. The grant was composed by Mahābalādhikṣita Keśava and issued on the occasion of a lunar eclipse (Candroparāga) in the Cedi year 456, Māgha su. 15 Bhaumavāra.* (706 A.D.)-( Navsari Plates; IA, XIII 70 ). • The initial letter of this word is illegible and is supposed to be either or it. The
specified day actually falls on Tuesday and hence the word should be restored as (Bhau )mavara.
706
706

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709
710
710
710
710 710 712
Maitraka king Silāditya IV issued from Valabhi, a grant of land to a Brāhmaṇa who had emigrated from Anandapura and settled at Valabhi. The details of the donee and the land are not clear. Prince Dharasena was the Dütaka. The grant was issued in the (Valabhi) year 381, Märgasira su. 6 (709 A.D.). It was composed by Divirapati Adityāla, the adopted son of Divirapati Haragaña. - (JBBRAS, NS, I, 75).
The Cāhamāna ruler Bhartsivaddha I was succeeded by his son Haradāman. He was a 'Parama Māheśvara'.-( Hansot Plates of Bharirivaddha II : EI, XII, 197 ff.).
The Cālukya Viceroy Jayasimhavaraman was succeeded by his son Mangalarāja. It seems that the Crown-prince Sryāśraya Silāditya had predeceased his father. Mangalarāja was known as Jayāśraya Vinayāditya' and Yuddhamalla 'also.
From Valabhi, P. M. P. Siladitya IV issued an edict of a grant of land, which was executed by Prince Dharasena in Sam. 382 Märgasira su. 6 ( 710 A. D. )-(EI, V, Appendix 69 ). . P. M. P. Siladitya IV was succeeded by his son P. M. P. Silāditya V. Gurjara king Jayabhața III was succeeded by his son Ahirola.
(H. 93 ) Campaign of Muhammad ibn Qasim in Sindh. Fall of Dibal early in Rajab (April). Muhammad defeats and slays Dahir, the Hindu king of Sindh at Rawar, roth Ramjân ( 20th June ) and takes Alor, the capital in the same month. After this, according to the Caca-nāmā he reduced Multan, and sent a force towards Kanauj under Abū Hakim Shaibāni.—( EHI, 309 ).
Rāyal Bhartrlhata I, son of Khumāna, and a great-grand-son of Bāpā Rāval (Gupta Samvat 191- i.e. V. S. 566 ) of the Sürya Vamsa of Mewar, was a Jaina King. [Vide, an inscription of Trailokya-dipakaprāsāda of Rânakapura, a Note of Mm Pt. Gaurishankar Oza to Tod Rajasthan in Hindi, JPI-pt. I, p. 389].
He built a fort of Bhartsbhața (Bhateśvara). In this fort he got constructed Guhila-vihāra and got installed an image of Lord Rişabha, by Budha Gați of Caitrapuriya gaccha, a contemporary of Silaguna Sūri. This Gani was a religious teacher of the rulers of Chitod.-(JPI-pt. I, pp. 471 & 496 ).
Settlement of the Iranians at Sanjān is believed to have been accomplished in 716 A.D., according to Dastur Aspandirāji Kāmdin, who gives a specific date Samvat 772 ( = A.D. 716) in a book published in A.D. 1826, relying upon a much older tradition.
However, this date seems to be too early, if one were to believe in the Iranian tradition that the emigrants wandered for a considerable period in Iran before leaving for India. The details about month and tithi, given along with this date, do not fit in with this year.
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722
722
724
C. 725
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MAITRAKA-GURJARA PERIOD
Prof. S. H. Hodiwala (Studies in Parsi History, 1920) suggests that the figure for the year is really 992, the figures 9 and 7 being written very much alike, and the details of the date given, fit in with the Samvat year 992. So the date of the first Pärsi settlement in India (at Sanjän) may, therefore, be provisionally fixed at Samvat 992 (= 936 A.D.).
From the victorious camp at Kheṭaka, P.M.P. Siladitya IV issued the grant of the village Antarapallika to Bhatta Vasudevabhuti of Gárgya gotra, who had emigrated from Vardhamâna Bhukti and settled at Liptikhanda. The village was situated near Dinnäputra in Sauråstra. The Dütaka of the grant was prince Śladitya. The grant was composed by Balädhikrita Gillaka, son of Buddhabhata and issued in the (Valabhi) year 403, Magha ba. 12 (721 A.D.). -(Gondal Plates, JBBRAS, XI, 335).
The grant of the village Kandhajja near Uasingha in Saurāṣṭra was issued by P. M. P. Siladitya IV on Vaisakha suddha 13. (Valabhi) year 403, (722 A.D.). The donee, the dutaka and the lekhaka are the same as those mentioned in the grant issued a few months earlier in the month of Magha by this king. The king was still encamped at Khetaka.-(Gondal plates: JBBRAS, XI, 335).
Rastrakāta king Indraraja, son of Kakkarāja, carried off the Calukya princess Bhavanågå from Kheṭaka-mandapa and married her under Raksasa form of marriage (EI, XVIII, 243. ff. IA, 112 ff. and EI, XIV, 121 ff.). This Khetaka is generally identified with Kheṭaka (Kheda) in Central Gujarat (A.S. Altekar, The Rastrahatas, 31); but it is hardly possible to conceive that a Calukya royal family had settled at Khetaka at this time, as it was still under the Maitrakas. Mandapa' may probably be Mandala', and Khetaka Mandala should be better looked for in the Deccan, the home of the Calukyas. -(H. G. Shastri's paper on The Rise of the Rastrakala Rule in Gujarat, XVIIth Indian History Congress).
(H. 106) Junaid ibn Abdu-r-Rahman of al Marri, who had succeeded. Amru in the command of the Indian frontier under Umar', governor of Iraq', and was confirmed by the Khalifah Hasim, sent expeditions against Broach, Ujjain and other places,-(EHI, i, 441) and attacked Kaccha from Sindh. (Syed S. Nadvi, op. cit. p. 15).
Vakpati wrote probably about 750 A.D., the Gauda-vaho, a poem commemorative of the exploits of his patron Yasovarman of Kanauj, a contemporary of Lalitäditya-Muktápida of Kashmir.-(726-760 A.D.).
The poet Bhavabhati, is stated by Rajatarangini to have been patronized by Yasovarman. He, must, therefore, have been a contemporary of Vakpati's, though possibly a generation older.-(See 690 A.D.).

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730
730
ine
730
c. 731
The Cāhamāna ruler Dhrubhata succeeded his father Haradaman.-( Hansot Plates of Bhartrvaddha II ; EI, XII 197 ff. ):
The invasion of Gujarat by the Tājikas or Arabs seems to have occurred in his reign. It is mentioned in the grant of the Gujarat Cālukya Pulikesin (738 A.D.), which states that Sindh, Kaccha, Saurāṣtra and the whole of Gujarat as far as Nausari were subdued, and that the Gurjara king was one of the conquered princes.-(IA, V, 110, Kāvi copper-plate ; xiii, 70; Nausāri copper-plate).
After being invaded by the Tajikas or Arabs in the 8th cenrury, the Bharukaccha kingdom was finally conquered about 800 A.D. by the Rāșțrakūta Govinda III, who made over Central Gujarat or Lāța to his brother Indra, first of the Gujarat Branch of the Răstrakūta dynasty, which held that part of the country for more than 100 years.-(IA, XVII, 191; Bom. Gaz. I 312, n. 7).
The Gurjara ruler Ahirola was succeeded by his son Jayabhața IV.
Jayabhat IV, latest known Gurjara of Bharukaccha, son and successor of Dadda V, is represented in Kāvi grant (V.S. 486 ) as quieting the impetuosity of the lord of Valabhi (Sīlāditya V or VI ).
The Cālukya king Jayāśraya Mangalaras, younger son of the Cālukya Dharāśraya Jayasimhavarman, was ruling in Gujarat as feudatory of the W. Cālukyas.
King Jayāśraya Mangalaras, was the donor of a grant of four villages dated Saka year 653 ( 731 A.D.) who was the son and successor of DharāśrayaJayasiṁha, progenitor of the Cālukyan branch, established to rule over South Gujarat, North Konkan and the Nāsik Dist.
The donee was Bhatta Śridharagupta, a resident of Kāñcipura. The grant was made on the occasion of a lunar eclipse in Āśvayuja of Saka year 653 (731 A.D.) Jayasiṁha himself ruled over the Năsik district from about 671 to 695 A.D. The Yuvarāja ( crown-prince) Śrāśraya-Silāditya ruled over South Gujarat, at least upto 693 A. D., while his younger brother JayāśrayaMangalarasa ruled over North Konkan upto at least 731 A.D. In South Gujarat Śrāśraya-Silăditya predeceased his father and was succeeded by his younger brother Avanijanaśraya-Pulakesin.
Mangalerasa is already known to have issued two grants of land-one in the Saka year 613 (691 A. D. ), and the other in the Saka year 653 ( 731 A. D.). The earlier grant which is published in detail (EI, XXVIII, 17 ) records the grant of land, situated in the Kurata vişaya ( in North Konkan ). Dr. Bhagvanlal's notice in JBBRAS, Vol. XVI, p. 5 mentions it as issued from Mangalapuri, while this grant was issued from Sripura.-(H. G. Shastri, " Kaccha Plates of Jaysimha-Mangalarasa of $. 653"-Summary of Papers, XXth All India Oriental Conference, 195), p. 118.).
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731-32
733
733
734
The Cālukya Viceroy Vinayāditya Yuddhamalla Jayāśraya Mangalarasa and not Mangalarāja, son of Jayasimhavarman, issued a grant of land from Mangalapura in the Saka year 653 (731-32 A.D.).-( Balsār Plates : JBBRAS, XVI 5).
The Călukya Viceroy Mangalarāja Jayāśraya was succeeded by his younger brother Pulakesi Avanijanāśraya. He distinguished himself by vanquishing the Tājjika army which had subdued Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurāştra, Cāvotaka, Maurya, Gurjara and other kingdoms that had come to Navasārikā with a view to enter Dakşiņāpatha. On account of this exploit he received from the Cālukya ruler Srivallabha-Narendra, i.e., king Vijayāditya, four titles viz., Daksināpatha-sādhārana, Calukkikulālankāra, Pythvivallabha and Anivartaka. nivartayitru.--(VOC., AS. 230 ).
The Gurjara ruler Jayabhatta IV inflicted a defeat on the Täjikas ( Arabs ), who had caused immense suffering to numerous people, in the city of the lord of Valabhi (E.I. XXIII, 151, fn. 7; 154, fn. I). But the Arab invasion is not referred to in the Valabhi records.
Virabhadra, vidyā-guru of Uddyotana Sūri (C. Vikrama Samvat 835) got built a magnificent temple of Lord Rişabha in Jābālipura wherein there were good many Jainas, which was as it were Aștāpada and which was fascinating on account of Jaina temples.---(Colophon-v. 18-19 of the Kuvalayamāla ).
Rāņaka Bhartsbhata, a descendant of Bāpå Räval, got built a Jaina temple of Lord Rişabha, named as 'Guhila-vihāra,' in the fort of Bhatevara built by him. Its installation-ceremony was performed by Budha Gani in V.S. 791 (735 A.D.) -(JPI-pt. I, p. 496 and JTSS-Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 155). ,
Maitraka P.M.P. Śilāditya VI succeeded his father P.M P. Śilāditya V.
Guhila, son of Bappa, said to have taken Citor from Manmori, the last of the Paramāra dynasty. (V. Sam. 701-735 A.D.)-( Kavirāja Syāmaldās).
The Srimāla Brāhmaṇas and the Prāgvāta. Brāhmaṇas of Bhinnamāla accepted Jainism, on their coming in contact with Udayaprabha Sūri of Sankheśvara gaccha, in V.S. 791 (735 A.D.).- ( JTSS, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 177).
King Pușyeņa alias Puşyadeva of the Saindhava family, son of Mahārāja Ahivarman who claimed its descent from Jayadratha (the Saindhava king of the Mahābhārata) founded a kingdom at Bhūtāmbilikā (modern Ghumli) in Western Saurāṣtra. From the dates of his successor's grants, he seems to have ruled from circa C. E. 415 to 435 ( 734-754 A.D.). He is identified with Pușyena, mentioned in the clay-seal which was found from Valā, (IA, XII) wherein he is styled Mahārāja as well as a Mahāsenāpati. The Saindhavas claimed to be masters of the Western Ocean, and selected fish' as the emblem of their royal seal.-(EI, XXVI, pp. 185).
n
735
735 735
735
734-54
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736
The temple of the Aśramadeva installed at Kemajju, not far from Kavi in Bharukaccha Vişaya, received a grant of land from the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV, on the occasion of Karkasankrānti je. Sun's entering the sign of Cancer, ( which fell on Aşādha Sūdi daśami) in the Cedi year 486 ( = 736 A.D.). The royal edict of the grant was executed by Kandakaņaka.--( Kavi Plates, IA, V, 109).
This plate, dated K. 486, was for a long time ascribed to Jayabhața III, whose reign was supposed to have begun shortly before K. 456. But the Prii.ce of Wales Museum plates, recently discovered, show that it belongs to his grandson Jayabhața IV.
Gurjara king Jayabhața IV issued, only three months and a half later (i.e. in āśvayuja va. 15 of K. 486 ) than the Kāvi plates of the same year, a grant of land to Bhatta Acchada, the son of the Brāhmaṇa Adityanaga of the Hetavaka sub-caste, of Kauņdinya gotra and a student of the Madhyandin śākhā of the Vājasneya (or White Yajurveda ), to provide for the performance of the five great sacrifices and other rites. The donee was an immigrant from Lohikakşa--pathaka-āhāra. The land consisted in the village Mannātha (identified with modern Magnāth on the right bank of the Dhādhar, about 2 miles from Jambusar, perhaps the corrupt form of Magnanātha' god submerged by the Dhādhar), situated in the Bharukaccha visaya. The grant was composed by Sangulla, the son of the official in charge of the army, Alla.-- (EI, XXIII, 147 ff; CII, IV, pp. 102-107).
In both the above grants, verse 2, in a corrupt form, refers to an historical event. We learn from it that Jayabhata, by the edge of his sword, forcibly vanquished in the city of the lord of Valabhi, the Tājikas who oppressed all people. Bühler, who edited the Kāvi plate, having no correct text with him then, drew the conclusion that this Jayabhața inflicted a defeat on the contemporary ruler of Valabhi.
The correct reading of the verse which can now be restored with the help of the better preserved Prince of Wales Museum plates shows, on the other hand, that Jayabhața went to the rescue of the king of Valabhi, when his capital was attacked by the Täjikas or Arabs, and inflicted a defeat on the enemy. This encounter can be placed between 720 A. D. and 735 A. D.
The correct reading of the verse in ofta metre, as restored by Principal V. V. Mirashi, is as under:
असिधाराजलशमितः प्रसभं वलभीपतेः पुरे येन् ।
FF FFCT 197691EGALO ST 747 F 99: 11- cii, iv, pp. 99, 106 ) The only period, during the interval from 720 A. D. to 735 A. D. when the Arabs followed a vigorous policy, was that of the governorship of Junaid. Al Bilā duri (E. D. H. I., VOL. 1, p. 126 ) tells us that after defeating Jaishiya and
736
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Plate XLIV

(A) Ananta Vişņu from Śāmaláji (p. 209)
(B) Vişnu from Tenna (Surat Dist.') (p. 209)

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Plate XLV

(A) Trimurti head : Limbodrā, Rājpiplā (p. 210)
(B) Trimurti from Kathtāl, near Kapadvanj (p. 209)

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Plate XLVI

(B) Keśisādana, Valā (p. 210 )
(A) Mahisamardiñi from Valā (p. 208)

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Plate XLVII

(A) Sage Udumbara from Sāmalāji (p. 210) (B) Yaksa from Bhinmal (p. 210)
(C) Sculpture from Dwarka (p. 274)

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storming Kiraj, Junaid sent his officers against Marvad, Mandal, Dahanaj and Barūs. He also sent forces against Ujjain, Maliba [ Prof. Hodivala suggests that it may be Baliba-( Valabhi)], and Baharimad, and conquered Bailaiman and Jurz. During one of these raids, his forces must have attacked Valabhi. Jayabhața IV, realizing the common danger, seems to have gone to the help of the king of Valabhi and defeated the Arabs. Now, Junaid was appointed Governor of Sindh by Umar and confirmed by Khalif Hasham (724743 A.D.). As he was succeeded about 726 A.D. by Tamim, the raid of Valabhi can be placed in circa 725 A.D. The contemporary king of Valabhi who was thus saved by Jayabhata IV was probably Siladitya V, who was ruling in G. 403 (722-23 A.D.).
But the Arabs were not completely vanquished. Before long they overran the kingdom of Jayabhața himself, and pressed forward as far as Navasärikā, at which point their further advance was checked by Avanijanäsraya Pulakesin, who inflicted a crushing defeat on them, some time before 740 A.D., the date of his Navsari plates.
Dhiniki grant of Jaikadeva, Paramabhaṭṭāraka and Mahārājādhiraja of Saurastra. Jaikadeva's capital was Bhumilika i.e. Bhumli or Ghumli, the deserted capital of the Jethvas, an ancient Rajput clan, since represented by the former Räpäs of Porbunder (Nov, 16th, Vikrama Sam. 795, Kārtika Vadi 15, 738 A.D.)-(IA, xii, 151 ff.).
(Cedi Sam. 490) Navsari grant, Avanijanāśraya Pulakeśivallabha, Western Călukya. Third Gujarat branch: brother and successor of Mangala. The Tājjkas or 'Arabs, having overrun Sindh, Kaccha, Saurāṣṭra, Cavoṭaka, the Maurya and Gurjara kingdoms, seem to have invaded the Navsari district, and to have been defeated by Pulakesin.-( Navsari grant).
The Navsari plates of Avanijanäśraya Pulakeŝin record his grant of a village in the ahara and visaya of Karmaneya (modern Kamrej, ro miles north-east of Surat). They are dated in K. 490 (739 A.D.).
Their historical importance lies in the graphic account they furnish of Pulakesin's victory over the Tajjikas or Arabs. The Arabs, we are told, had already conquered the Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurāṣṭra, Cavoṭaka, Maurya, Gurjara and other kings before they invaded the district of Navasarīkā in the course of their campaign to conquer all the kings of the Dakṣinapatha. We find this description fully corroborated by the account of Mahomedan chroniclers.
The Gurjara kingdom was, thereafter, probably annexed by the Gujarat Calukyas, after whose overthrow by the Raṣṭrakūta prince Dañtidurga, the country to the north of the Kim was occupied by a feudatory Cahamana family with its capital at Bharukaccha.
These plates are the last record of the Gurjaras dated in the Kalacuri era.

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739
739
Junaid, the Governor of Sindh under the sway of the Arab Khaliphat (Empire) sent forces to invade Marvad, North Gujarat, South Gujarat, Malwa, Saurāştra and Gurjara-deśa. The Navsāri grant, dated Kalcuri Era 490 ( 739 A.D.) states that the Muslim army which had afflicted the kingdoms of Saindhava, Kacchella, Saurāșțra, Cāvođaka, Maurya, Gurjara and others, met with disaster near Navasārikā, when it attempted to enter Mahārāșțra. Similar claim is also made by the Gurjara king Jayabhata IV of Nandipuri (736 A.D.). He is said to have gone to Valabhi to help its ruler against the Tajjikas.(Bom. Gaz. Vol. I, p. 109; EI. XXIII, 151 ).
Avanijanāśraya Pulakeśirāja, successor of Jayāśraya Mangalarāja gave a village (Padraka) in Kārmaņeya Ahāra-Vişaya in gift to Brāhmaṇa Angada of Vatsa gotra, an emigrant from Vanavāsi. The grant was composed by Samanta Bappa and issued on Kārtika śuddha 5, (Cedi ) year 490 (739 A.D.).-(Navsari Plates; VOC, Aryan Section, 230 ).
Bappabhatti Sūri was born in 743 according to Jaina tradition and died in 838 A.D. He is the author of the 'Sarasvatistotra'. According to Rajasekhara Sūri's Prabandhakośa, Bappabhatti converted Amarāja, son and successor of Yasovarman of Kanauj ( 725 A.D.; V. Sam. 800 ). These dates of his birth and death are, however, doubtful.-( Peterson Report, IV, Ind. lxxxii).
743
III
ANTIQUITIES
Archaeology : Gupta-Maitraka Periods : Our knowledge of the Pre-historic and Historic archaeology of Gujarat has fortunately been enhanced by a series of excavations carried out since 1930. The explorations in the river-valleys of Sabarmati, Mahi, Orsang, Narmadā and Tāpi were first started since 1891 by Foote, and the excavations at Valā (1930-34), Rangpur ( 1932 ), Amreli (1935), Kāmrej (1938),Kodinār ( 1936 ), Bet (1939), Sopārā (1940), Intwă ( 1949 ), Akoțā ( 1952 ), Vadnagara (1935), Timbervā (1954), Lothal ( 1955 ), Somanātha, Prābhāsa (1956), Maheśvara ( 1957-58 ), Rosadi (1959), Devani Mori (1960) and at a number of other minor sites (not to mention the earlier small-scale excavations by Dr. Princep at Boria Stupa on Mt. Girnar and by Dr. Bhagvanlal Indraji at Sopārā ), followed in succession, in the wake of studies in Ancient Indian Culture introduced in the University Curricula. Yet the material relics and their bearing on the cultural life of Gujarat during the Gupta-Maitraka Periods have still got to be systematically studied.
The age of the Imperial Guptas ( 300-600 A.D.) was an age of great cultural activity and evolution in art and literature. The centre of origin of the new art-traditions in the Gupta Age is not known, but it could be imagined to be near Avanti-Malwa or Ujjayini, the capital city of Candragupta II. Before one can locate this centre of art, a chronological study of art-specimens of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods for the dating of

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its art-heritage is necessary. The best Gupta specimens date from the latter part of the reign of Candragupta II and Kumāragupta I.
Red and Black Ware: A typical mediaeval pottery having red slip and design in black over white background becomes profuse in this period. The mediaeval red and black ware, red burnished and black burnished wares are also found from old sites. They continue in the subsequent period also.
Inscribed Seals : Numerous Mahāyānist votive clay-seals bearing the images of Buddha and Stupa, inscribed with the Buddhist creed in the characters of about the sixth century A. D. were discovered from excavations at Valā, carried out by Rev. Fr. Heras. One of this variety is exhibited at Bhavnagara Gandhi Smțiti Bhavan (Old Barton Museum Section ).
The objects excavated at the site of Valabhi contain a variety of clay-seals with the Buddhist formula THTH9: etc. imprinted on them. The reference to 'Ratnatraya' (Frag. 1), Samgha' (Frag. 4) and Tathāgata' (Frag. 5) occurring in the ten fragmentary stone-inscriptions discovered from Valā (Diskalkar, ABORI, XX, pp. 1-8, No. 1 ) further show the influence of Buddhism in the 6th and 7th centuries A.D. There are references even to fields belonging to Buddhist monks or Samgha in copper-plates.
Clay Seal of Puşyeņa: This seal found from the ruins of Valabhi, measures 2.9 inches by 2.6 inches on the face, and about 24 inches high, bearing on the face a rude impression of the sun and the moon, and below it an inscription in 4 lines :
(1) 371 37474T agafya..cu (2) ASTRI STÅERFITA (3) THERTS HEI....
(4) wat op ( The seal) of the Mahārāja Mahä( senā) pati Puşyeņa, the son of the glorious Mahārāja Ahivarman, whose family of kings ( i. e., whose pedigree of royal ancesters) is uninterrupted from Jayadratha downwards (who was a mythical king of Sindhu-Sauvira, and was killed by Arjuna in the Mahābhārata war).
The letters of the inscription are sunk in and reversed. Consequently the letters of the metal or stone matris, of which an impression is taken on clay, must have borne raised letters, which had not been reversed by the engraver. It appears the impression was made for the purpose of stamping the legend on document, cloth or any other nonmetallic substance. The seal shows the legend which can be read direct, and not in reverse as it does on the original. The letters closely resemble those of the land-grants of Dhruvasena I of Valabhi ( 519-549 A.D.), mātrā being represented by a curve.-( Bühler, IA., XII, p. 274; E. Hultzsch, IA., XXXVIII, p. 145 )-( Plate ).
Amreli Clay-die of Silāditya: A clay seal bearing the legend "Sri Sīlāditya" was found from the old mound of Gohilvāda Timbo, which is situated on the fork of the two rivulets Vadi and Thebi, near Amreli in Saurāșțra, just about 40 miles to the east of
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Valā, the ancient Valabhi, which was the seat of the Maitraka rulers till about 776 A.D. Various antiquities have been unearthed from this site, consisting of terracotta images, both Hindu and Buddhistic, carved and plain pottery, remains of burials in graves and urns, beads, coins, carved bangle-pieces-entire and fragmentary. These also include a goldsmith's terracotta mould and a clay-die of Siladitya.--( Hiranand Shastri, Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Baroda State, 1937-38, p. 16 )
In the absence of more details or the date of the seal, the question as to which of the seven Silādityas of the Maitraka dynasty this seal belonged, remains unsolved. However, it may be assigned to Silāditya I ( C. 590-615 A.D.) bearing the other title Dharmaditya', and as such believed to have been referred to in the Arya Mañjuśri Müla Kalpa ( Jayaswal, Ibid, p. 2 4, ślokas 586-601 ) as a notable ruler.-( Plate )
Kämpilya Vihāra seal: A small clay votive seal was found from the site of the Kampilya Vihāra, situated on the banks of the Purāvi river, near Navsari, by Manilal Dvivedi, containing seven lines, which, however, do not admit of decipherment.
Among the clay seals and dice that have been discovered some bear the well-known Buddhist formula :
ये धर्माः हेतु प्रभवा हेतु तेषां तथागतो ह्यवदत् तेषां च यो निरोध येवं वादी
HET HU: These seals are obviously religious signets of the Buddhists. They are circular and tablet-like in shape, and are about the size of an eight-anna piece. Besides, a specimen of a non-sectarian seal has also been found from Valā. It is of black clay measuring 4 X 2 inches. It contains five incomplete lines written in Sanskrit, the meaning of which is unintelligible.
Inscriptions on Stone and Clay-die: A few Maitraka epigraphs are inscribed on stone and clay-die. But these are in a fragmentary condition. One of the stone inscriptions is at the village Bankoại in the Rāval District of the former Navānagar State.( Bhavnagar Prakrit and Sanskrit Inscriptions p. 30). It measures 7 inches by 18 inches and records the name of Guhasena, which has been assigned on paleographic grounds to this Maitraka king ( 553-569 A.D.). It is on a polished surface of a slab, and is neatly engraved in straight lines, like other stone-inscriptions from Valā. (Diskalkar, “ Ten Fragments of Stone-Inscriptions and Clay-Seal from Valā", ABORI, XX, p. 1.). Unfortunately no information could be gathered from this or the ten other finds from Valā, the inscriptions yielding disjoint words like 'Tathāgata' or names of persons.
Inscribed Potsherds from Gohilvāda Țimbo : Amreli: Further explorations at the Gohilvāda Timbo near Amreli in 1938-39 yielded many inscribed potsherds, giving the names of some individuals or localities from which they hailed. These potsherds are
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197 believed to be fragments of vessels which might have belonged to some Buddhist monks and have been assigned to the Maitraka period.-( ARDAB, 1938-39, pp. 5-7).
The inscriptions read: (i) Sri Gira (i ) nagara, (ii) Vajapa...., (iii) Sri-Vighra..., (iv) Sri-Panda, (v) Ghahta ..., (vi) Vakrumidrukaya (?).-( Plate )
Potsherd of Guhasena from Valä: We are here reminded of the potsherd of Guhasena's time. A fragment of what seems to have been a huge earthen pot, was discovered from Valā, with the following inscription on it in Valabhi characters; the first symbol that is lost is, however, surmised :
[800] yo u situga: T: 1 It has the name of Sri Guhasena', along with the (Valabhi ) year ( 2 ) 47 ( = C. 566 A.D.) inscribed on it.-(E. Hultzsch, 'Potsherd of Guhasena: Valā, Fragmentary Inscription' (553-569 A.D.), IA., XIV, 1885, p. 75).- Plate )
Valā Seal with Elephant : Excavations at the basements of an ancient building at Valā, conducted by Rev. Father Heras in 1934, yielded parts of a damaged terracotta Stūpa, and a clay-seal bearing the effigy of an Elephant, it being the symbol of Buddha's mortal forin in the previous birth, now in the Bombay Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College (originally founded by Father Heras).
Valabhi Copper-Plates : The chief epigraphical sources for the history of the Maitrakas of Valabhi are their copper-plates. These copper-plates are records of their donations made to the Brāhmaṇas and to the Vihāras. The donations usually consist of villages, fields, vāpis, kūpas and vāpikās. In one case, however, it is a rūpaka or a silver coin, to be given daily from the State Treasury, a gift which may be termed a Nibandha as given in the Dharmaśāstras.-41 PEPÅTAR 1975 at afaggia Fyn am ftatcaa aar: Theater fare qat a palaa #aftaghi (G. V. Acharya, Inscriptions of Gujarat, Vol. I, No. 67 : Inscription of Dhruvasena II, G. S. 320, 639-40 A.D.).
The Valabhi plates are incised on one side only, linked by two rings, the edges of which are slightly raised in the form of a rim so as to protect the inscription. Of the two rings which are used to fasten the plates, one is plain and circular in shape, with its ends either riveted or joined in a knot. It is about it inches in diameter, and about 5 inches in length. The other ring consists of a longer piece and forms an elliptical top. Its ends are joined to the socket of the royal seal which is generally made of bronze.
Valabhi Copper-Plate Seal : Valabhi Copper-plate Seal has the device of a seated Bull the sacred vehicle of Siva with the legend 'Sri Bhattakah' (the name of the founder) inscribed below it.—( Plate ). Similarly the triśūla ( trident) on the Valabhi coins represents another emblem of Saivism.
Coins : Of the ruling dynasties of this period of Gujarat and Saurāştra, the coins, mainly of the Maitrakas, are known and only in silver. These coins are in the continued traditions of the Western Kșatrapas, which were followed by the Guptas and the Traikūtakas. Valabhi coins are perfect imitations of later Gupta coins, which, do not give the
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year of issue. They have the head of the king on one side, and the legend in current Brahmi script on the other side. The Maitrakas introduced a new device of their own of the trident (trisala) in the middle. The trident on these coins may be distinguished in two types (i) a trident with two dots in place of handle; and (ii) a trident with a battleaxe attached to the handle.
The coins bearing the first type of trident resemble the Ksatrapa coins, as regards the shape and size, and also the form of the letters. These coins according to the reading of G. V. Acharya, bear the legend Maharajno Maha-Ksatrapa parama-samanta maha-śri Bhattarakasa. The coins of the second type are more like the dumpy and irregularly shaped coins of the later Gupta period. They are a little smaller in size and bear the legend, according to Acharya, Rajno Mahākṣatrapa Parmaditya Rajno Samanta Maha-Sri Bhaṭṭārakasa. He gives the final reading on these coins (probably on both types) as Rajno Mahākṣatrapa -Dharanudhyataka samarasaha Sri Sarova Bhattarahasa.-(N. S., XLVII, pp. 99-103).
V. V. Mirashi has read the legend as Rajno Mahäkṣatrapa ParamadityabhaktaMahasamanta Sri Sarvva-Bhaṭṭārakasa (JNSI, VI, 14-18), and he thinks that these coins were issued by a king named Sarva, who might have been a ruler flourishing about 400 A.D. (?), owing allegience either to the Guptas or to the Traikuṭakas. He thinks that the Maitrakas of Valabhi did not have the coinage of their own; but adopted this coinage and made it the currency of their kingdom.
The legend on the Valabhi coins has been the subject of interesting controversy for those interested in Numismatics, since the time these coins were first brought to light by James Princep, and the more so, after the different scholars like E. Thomas, Newton, Cunningham, G. V. Acharya, and V. V. Mirashi gave different interpretations of the legend on these coins.
The Valabhi coins in the Baroda Museum are broadly divided into ' types," by B. L. Mankad, from a comparative study of the fabric, weight, size, legends, bust of kings, and the types of tridents. One set resembles the Ksatrapa coins in fabric and epigraphy, and the other resembles the Gupta coins. The Kşartapa type of coins has a trident on the while the Gupta type has a trident combined with a battle-axe.
The Ksatrapa type of coins are grouped into several varieties according to their legends: some bear the name Sri-Bhaṭṭärka, some of Sarvva-Bhattarha with the title Mahasamanta, and some have only the name Bhaffärka. The legends thus show that there were different kings who issued these coins; but it is difficult to identify them. The last one may be attributed to Sri-Bhaṭṭārka, the founder of the Valabhi dynasty, as this title on the seals of Valabhi copper-plates refers to him. Those referring to Sarvva may be a descendant of his, who was a Mahāsāmanta in the beginning, but became independent Others refer to other different kings who may have been the issuers of such coins. The legend on these coins are generally found deflected, often missing a letter or two from a word, and no satisfactory reading of the coin has come forward so far.

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The study of the different legends and the busts of kings on these Valabhi coins reveals at least four (probably six ) different rulers who issued these coins.-(B. L. Mankad, Journal of the Numismatic Society, Vol. XV, 1953, Valabhi Coins in the Baroda Museum', and Plate No. IV ):-( Plate )
Traikūțaka Coins : Traikūțaka coins are found in Southern Gujarat, Konkan and the Maratha country. Coins of the Traikūțaka kings Dahrasena, son of Indradatta, and Vyāghrasena, son of Dahrasena are known, whose names are mentioned in copper-plate grants of 456 and 480 A.D., respectively.
Coins of the Kalacuri King Kșşņarāja, the father of Sankargaņa, are known from the Gujarat area. They were first published by Dr. Bhau Daji (JBBRAS, XII (O.S.), p. 213-14). But he could neither read the correct legend nor attribute them properly. These coins are in the same tradition of the Western Kşatrapas, having the head of the king on the obverse, and a seated bull on a platform as the central device on the reverse. The legend on these coins is Parama-Māheśvara Mātā pitripādānudhyāta Sri Krsnarāja, as read by Fleet (1A., XIV, p. 68 ), and confirmed by N. L. Rao (JNSI, XVI, p. 107-8).
Temples: There was great architectural activity in Western India during this period. As early as the end of the 5th Century, Hindu temples of Goddesses (Pandurāja and Kottammahikā for example), of Siva, Súrya, Gaņeśa and other gods are known to have been in existence from the records of donations by the Maitraka kings and the kings of other dynasties. However, no remains of these temples have been traced so far.
A few temples are known mainly on the western and southern sea-board of Saurāṣtra. A few solitary shrines are also found at Thān and Koțțai in Kaccha. These might have been built during the supremacy of the Maitrakas of Valabhi, or during the rule of the Jethvās of Ghumli; and later, those near Somanātha and Prabhāsa, at Sutrāpādā, Kadvār, etc. under the suzerainty of the Gurjara-Pratihāras. Further development of the pre-Caulukyan temple architecture is illustrated by the temples at Visāvāļā, 15 miles N.W. of Porbunder, Bileśvara, in the Baraļā Hills and Thān. The temples at Kinderkheļā, about 12 miles north of Porbunder, Sona Kansāri and Pästhur, which form another group, are of the same period.
The pre-Caulukyan temples that are in existence even today, can be treated together as they have an essential oneness with some points of difference. These small-scale temples, as arranged in their development of style, are grouped in two batches: the one group includes the Visavādā, Bileśvara, Sutrāpādā and Thăn temples; the other includes those at Kadvār, Kinderkhedā, Son Kansări and Pasthur..
As to the plan of these temples, a square shrine is placed among two courtyards, inner and outer, which may be either square or rectangular. The tendency is towards the latter, which subsequently became the gūdha mandapa of the later Caulukyan temples having a number of pillars. The inner courtyard in every case served as a pradakşiņamārga. -( Plate )

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Vihäras: We know from numerous epigraphical references that a number of Buddhist Vihāras Gohaka-Vihāra (probably built by a monk), Abhyantarikā-Vihāra ( built by the Mm. Mimmā), the Ajita and Kakka Vihara (built by traders), the Vimalagupta Vihära (built by Ācārya Bhikṣu Vimalagupta), Sthiramati-Vihāra, Yakşaśura-Vihāra, Purnabhațţa-vihāra, Yodhāvaka-Vihāra (built by Divirapati Skandabhasta ) and Vamśakaka Vihāra (built by king Siladitya I )-were built during this period; but unfortunately, nothing of their architectural remains is in evidence.
The earliest reference is found in a grant of Dhruvasena I (Valabhi Samvat 216, Circa 535 A.D.) wherein he donated villages to the Vihāra built by his niece ( Sister's daughter ) Duddă, who laid the temporal foundation of Buddhism in or near Valabhi.
This Vihāra gradually developed into a Vihāramandala, containing a number of Vihāras within its precincts. Nothing, however, can be traced of these structures.
All these show that both the kings and the rich citizens made benefactions for the Vihāras, either from the time of their foundation, or by supporting those built by the monks, and named after them.
The existence of the Kāṁpilya Vihāra, founded by one Buddhist Ācārya Kämpilya, is known to have situated on the banks of the Purăvi river, identified with the Pūrņā river near Navsari. A small clay votive seal was found from the site by Manilal Dvivedi ; containing seven lines, which do not admit of decipherment. Plates of Rāşțrakūta king Dantivarmä mention a grant to this vihāra in $. 789 (924 A.D.)–(EI, VI, p. 285 ). Rāştrakūta King Dhruva II, son of Akälavarşa had granted a village to the same vihāra in Ś. 806 ( 941-A.D.)–(EI, XXII, 64). The site of the vihāra has yielded other antiquities also; but no traces of the vihāra have been found so far.
The names of the vihāras, recorded in the Maitraka copper-plates, almost in a stereotyped way, give us very little information about their structure and their activities. They afford us, however, glimpses into the life and the conditions in them.
One grant provides the location of religious books for the monastery.-(Bühler, Guhasena's Grant of Valabhi Samvat 240; 'Additional Valabhi Grants', IA., VII, p. 67). In some, the fortifications (Bühler, 'A Valabhi Grant', IA., IX, p. 237) and the well-laid gardens ( Bhandarkar's List, Nos. 1333, 1341, 1360) around these vihāras are mentioned. Elsewhere we get interesting description of the tasteful decorations in them. (Jayaswal, Imperial History of India, p. 24). Hiuen Tsang in his account refers to images of Seven Buddhas in a vihāra built by the king Silāditya (Watters, p. 169). Nothing of these can be traced now.
The Cullavagga adds that the vihāras were full-fledged houses where verandahs, covered terraces, overhanging caves, store-rooms and service-halls, gradually came to be built, as the number of Bhikkus went on increasing. (The Cullavagga, VI 3, 5, 6). The existence of similar vihāras at Valabhi may be inferred from the Maitraka grants.
Hiuen Tsang's general description of monasteries at Nälanda and at other places

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Plate XLVIII

ANCHES,

(A) Vāyu, from Sāmalāji (p. 316)
(B) A Terracotta Peacock from Sāmalāji (p. 206)

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Plate XXXIV

Four Ganas in the Gandhara tradition, Samalāji (p. 211)

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Piate L
Adinātha Bronze Head, from Akota Hoard, Baroda Museum. (p. 212)

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Plate LI

Ar-598.

(A) Mahudi Bronze, Pārsvnātha, Baroda Museum (p. 212)
(B) Ambikā bronze from Akoțā (p. 212)→

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(Watters, I, p. 147; Beal, p. 74) can be remembered here for providing an idea of the architecture of the Vihāras at the Valabhi Vidyāpītha: "They have a tower at each of the four corners of the quadrangle and three high walls in a tier. The rafters and roofbeam were carved with strange figures, and the doors, windows and walls were painted in various colours. The houses of the ladies were sumptuous inside and economical outside. The inner rooms and the central hall varied in their dimensions. The doors opened to the east and the thrones faced east.”
Art School of " Ancient West": Tārānātha, the Tibetan historian referred to the "School of Ancient West" in his History of Indian Buddhism', written in 1608 A.D. (from Heeley's translation of Schiefner's German translation ) as follows: "In the time of the King Sila lived an especially skilful delineator of Gods born in Marwar, named Sủngadhara; he left behind him paintings and other masterpieces like those produced by the Yakşas. Those who followed his lead were called the "Old Western School". Sțngadhara, born in Marudeśa, lived either in the court of Bhinnamāla or of Valabhi or worked for both of them. Tārānātha is explicit in his description of “The School of the Ancient West", when he states that the school came after the school of Bimbisāra in the reign of Budhagupta, and this is confirmed by the fact that he expressly states that Sțngadhara of Marwar, the founder of this school, lived in the reign of king Sila, i, e., Harşa of Kanauj (606-647 A.D.) or may be the Maitraka king Silāditya I (c. 590-615).
Ajanţa of the Vākāțaka period and Bāgh, be it remembered, were already a fact accompli before the birth of Tārānātha's School of the Ancient West'. That this school founded by Sțragadhara was greatly influenced by the late Gupta art and its tradition, is abundantly clear. Even the beautiful Jivantasvämi torso from Akoţă with marked Gupta influences is no earlier than the early 6th century A.D. The Pindavārā (Vasantgadh) bronzes, cast by Sivanāga in 687 A.D., probably represented the last works of "The School of Ancient West ", and that perhaps, the masterpieces of this school were represented by works such as the Sāmalāji Sculptures from Idar State.-(Karl Khandalavala,
Commentary on Tärānātha's Chapter on Buddhist Art', Märg, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 62-63 ; Lalit Kală, Nos. 3-4, p. 128).
The Akoţă bronzes ( the broken Jivantasvāmi torso and the Rşabhanātha) can be assigned to the earliest period of this school, at the latest, i. e. of the late 6th and early 7th century A.D. The Sāmalāji sculptures from Idar (probably early 7th Century A.D.) may well be representative of the best products of Tārānātha's School of Ancient West'. Those who date the Sāmalāji sculptures earlier are overlooking the entire historical background of cultural development in Idar State, it is alleged.
Jaina painting of the 9th Century in the Indra-Sabhã and Cave 32 at Ellurā are much more than .Traces', and are of the highest interest in the history of Indian Wallpaintings', and also in any discussion on the origin of 'Manuscript-Illustrations' both on palm-leaf and paper, especially preserved at the various Jaina Bhandārs in Western India. C26

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Western School of Indian Sculptures: Three decades ago, i. e., before 1930 or so, the art-history of Gujarat proper, previous to the rise of the Caulukya Solanki dynasty (middle of the roth Century A.D.) had been almost a blank. Systematic investigations, however, have since resulted in the discovery of quite a series of sculptures in the KsatrapaKusina, late Imperial Gupta and post-Gupta, Calukya and Rastrakūta and the classic. Pratihara and Paramāra style. Some of these are of exceptional artistic beauty.
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A flourishing Gupta (300 A.D.-600 A.D.) and post-Gupta (600 A.D.-900 A.D.) school of Sculpture was discovered in the Meśvo valley, from where the Sâmalāji sculptures have been found, and similar early sculptures and bronzes were discovered from the valley of Sabarmati and Hathmati, near the ruins of the Kotyarka temple in Mahudi village, (Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat). Sculptures and bronzes have also been found from the territory, south of Baroda i.. in the Lata-mandala, say from the banks of the Viśvämitri and from the villages of Akota and Kapurl, which point out the artistic activity in this area during the post-Gupta period. The discovery of stylistically similar images from Kävi, near Jambusar (Dist. Broach), carries the tradition further south. The Lakuliša images from Kårvan and Avakhal, also, can be roughly assigned to this period.
Sculptures from the valleys of Sabarmati and Hathmati, Meşa (Meśvo) and Mājam and other minor streams in Eastern Gujarat deserve special notice in the history of Western Indian Sculptures, as retaining the artistic traditions of the Gupta art with local variation and colour, during the Valabhi period. The Gurjara-Pratihära variations, later succeeded. the post-Gupta art-traditions.
The phase of architectural and sculptural art with Gupta affinities was not confined to Dungarpur, Samalāji, Roḍā and Kotyarka areas only. It possibly extended upto the Parel image in the south of Gujarat, not to by-pass the intervening Lâța sculptures from Karvan, Kapuri, Kävi, Tenna etc. The Sculptures at Mandor, Bhinmal, Kirādu and Osia to the extreme north, and those from Sarasvata Mandala, Arbuda Mandala and Saurästra in the West are known to have equally shared the common Gupta and post-Gupta traditions in Western India.
Śāmalāji in the old Idar State was possibly on a caravan route from Mandsor or Kotah area via Dungarpur to Bharukaccha via Kapadvanj (ancient Karpatavānijya), Kathlal, Nadiad (in the Khetaka-mandala) etc. From Idar and Kotyarka, sites of the river-valleys of Sabarmati and Meśvo, the art seems to have spread by a westward route to Saurastra, and by a north-westward route to Abu, the ancient Arbudamandala, towards Bhinmal.
The dark-blue or greenish-blue schist used in the sculptures obtained from Samalāji and Devant Mori areas was possibly obtained from Dungarpur territory adjoining Sämalāji on the east. It is in evidence even around Kirādu in Rajasthan. The dark-blue schist, from which the specimens of the late Gupta period from Šāmalāji (Idar), Roda and Devani Mori are carved, is available in large quantity even to-day; and it is not unlikely that the images of the Idar group were manufactured either at or from the stone in the Dungar

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pur district of Rajasthan, and thence removed to various places in Western India.-(R. C. Agrawal, Skanda-Kartikeya in Sculptures from Rajasthan', Lalit Kala Nos. 3-4, 1959).
Saivite Sculptures: The cult objects in the Siva temples at Valabhi were lingas and not images. Along with the linga, the Nandi is always associated with Siva. Some of the Nandis strewn over the ruins of Valabhi, may be dated back to the sixth and seventh centuries. They are life-size (about 6 feet) ones, from which the dimensions and the grandeur of the temples can be imagined.
Nandi: A huge massive representation of Nandi, designed from the local breed of Känkarej type from Idar, has been removed to the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (S. N. Chakravarti, Guide to the Antiquities of the Historic Period, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, p. 30, Plate XIII). A band goes round the horns and ears, and a chain round the neck. A garland, like the later embroidered carpet, encircles the body. It is assignable. to early 8th Century A.D., and is a fine specimen in animal-studies.(Plate LVIIIa)
Although the rulers of Valabhi were broadminded and altogether catholic in their outlook, Saivism was the royal religion of the Maitrakas. The Bull and the Trident', the well-known emblems of God Śiva, which were usually found on their seals and coins, and the term parama-mdhetvara used before the names of the Valabhi kings in their copper-plates go to prove the same.-(Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Sects, p. 119). Samalāji, according to the later 'Gadadhara Kşetra' tradition, was a Vaisnavite site, and the sculpture of Anantavişņu is one of the earliest known specimens of Visnu cult in Western India. However, the sculptures from Devani Mori, a village nearby, are mostly Saivite, consisting of some huge Sivalingas. The Nandi, referred to above, illustrates the fine local breed of a Känkareji bull. The mutilated group of Matrikä sculptures including the most striking of the Kaumari Sakti and the figure of Kumāra Kärtikeya testify further to the Saivite leanings of the place.
Eka-mukha Linga from Khedbrahma :-The huge Eka-mukha linga discovered from Khedbrahma (now in the Baroda Museum, Open Air Sculpture Gallery), about 5 feet high, has the head of Siva carved on the front side. The oblong face, though partly mutilated is remarkable for the modelling of the head-dress of the type, met with on Kusana sculptures from Mathura. Carved out of a huge block of greenish blue-schist, this linga is assigned a date of Saivite or Brahmanical revival, when worship of Eka-mukha lingas was. common in other parts of Northern and Central India. It dates a bit earlier than the group of Śiva and Matrikās from Devani Mori.-(Plate XXIX).
Virabhadra Siva :-Probably the finest image in the Idar group is the figure of Virabhadra Siva (first brought to light by Inamdar in 1935: Sculptures from Idar State), with Urdhva linga seen through the transparent drapery, which is again tied with a tiger skin. It stands in a tribhanga pose against a bull, and carries a trident (trisula) in his upper right hand. The beautiful hair-locks (jaṣā-mukuļa) fall gracefully on the shoulders, with the crescent moon on one side, and the face expressing bliss by a catching smile. The

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one-row necklace (ekāvali ) and the armlets are the sparse ornaments on the body. The sculpture is datable to the late Gupta period (C. 550 A. D.).-(Plate XXX).
Lakulisa from Kārvan-Timbarva :-The seated human image of Lakulisa from Timbarvā, 2 miles from Kårvan (now in the M.S. University, Archaeology Collection ) is shown against the linga of black granite. The locks of jață are visible as having spread over the shoulders. It very probably belongs to the 6th Century A. D. at the latest. (M. R. Majmudar, ' Antiquities from Kārvan', JBU, 1950).-(Plate XXXI a).
Aväkhala Śiva: The image of Śiva from Avākhala, the Ulkāgrāma' of the Puranic tradition is, however, a seated human image of Lakulisa, with the citron in one hand and the lakula or the danga in the right hand. It differs from the Kārvap image in that it has a halo at the back, and is not carved on the linga. The locks of jațā are spread over the shoulders. The ekāvali and the yajnopavita are very near the Kārvan image. This may be not earlier than the 8th century.-(R. N. Mehta, JOI, Dec.-March, 1956-57).
Kșetrapāla Image: This is a form of Bhairava, flanked by two attendants with a back-ground of mountain, from a small temple at Śāmalāji, and belongs to the middle of the 8th Century. The face has the complacent expression. The sculptor has cleverly shown the nudity of the standing image by depicting a'wet', the closely fitting diaphanous robe, without any fold lines.--(Plate XXXI b)
Dancing Ganesa from Idar: Ganesa, one of the earliest image of Siva-pantheon, in a dancing posture and discovered from Țiņțoi in the old Idar State is probably dateable to C. 650 A.D. The folds on the drapery are artistically depicted. Gaņeśa from Śāmalāji is a very well-preserved specimen of the Siva Pañcāyatana and belongs to the period of the Mātřikās from Devani Mori.-(Plate XXXII b).
The collosal representation of two images of Ganesa from Harsola and Kandola in north-east Gujarat, pleases the eye by its mass and volume. They are dateable in the latter part of the 8th century A.D.-(S. N. Chakravarti, Guide to Prince of Wales Museum Sculptures, Plate XV).
Kumāra Kartikeya :-Sculptures of Kumāra Kārtikeya, son of Siva, reminding us of the rule of Kumāragupta in Western India, have been obtained from Śāmalāji, Kapuri, Kārvaņ and Baroda, all being very good sculptures of the post-Gupta sculptural art. In the Kārtikeya's image from Samalāji, the warrior's nature is emphasised by prominent eye-balls, strong shoulders, massive arms etc. The rope-like scarf with a loop on the person of Kārtikeya is noticeable in the front. The image might, perhaps, be assigned to the latter period of the reign of Kumāragupta.-(Plate XXXII a).
Umā-Maheśvara from Kapuri :-Umā--Maheśvara (without the head) standing against the Nandi in embrace, is represented in the stone sculpture from Kapuri, a village in Lāța-mandala near Baroda. The figures are tall and stout, but the beautiful sweeping curves of the tribhanga have been skillfully utilised by the artist in making the figures look graceful and charming. The simple ornaments, the ekāvali on the neck of Siva
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and the long pearl necklace of Umå reaching her navel add to the grace and beauty of their figures. Image is assignable to 7th century A. D., probably to the rule of the Kalacuris over Läta.“(U. P. Shah and R. N. Mehta, JOI, Vol. I, 2, pp. 160).-(Plate XXXIV).
Mātřikā Sculptures :- The Matřikā' and the Mother and Child'sculptures from Idar and Kotyarka have several of the motifs common to the late Gupta sculptures. Nandă, an ancient Hindu goddess is identical to Pārvati, whcm Buddha converted, according to one tradition, to Hāriti in Buddhist worship. Hindu Gauri or Pārvati, the Buddhist Hāriti and the Jaina Ambikă are virtually identical forms evolved under different religious pantheons. When in the Gupta age, the older Yakşa cult was being replaced by neo-Hinduism, the ancient Mother-goddess cult came to be replaced by a new set of Mātřikās, Jaina Ambika, Buddhist Hāriti etc. The types of Mother and Child' represented in sculptures appear to be a result of this process. The stylistic analysis and the interpretation of the Western Indian Sculptures by a comparison with the Gupta Sculptures of more or less known dates from the adjoining territories of Uttara Pradeśa and Madhya Pradeśa should convince us, at least tentatively, that the best of the Såmalāji group of sculptures might fall generally in the late 6th century-(Plate XXXV).
Mätsikäs from Devani Mori: The mutilated sculptures of Saktis, recovered from the village Devani Mori near Sāmalāji, having been almost without the head and even the complete torso, cannot be definitely identified as Mātņikās. These, originally beautiful images were perhaps hidden underground, as they were not considered fit to be worshipped. The Mäheśvari is evidently with a child held by the hand resting on the hip. The Vārāhi figure has also the vestige of a child's leg by her side. The Aindri has the elephant as her vāhana. Āgneyi depicts the Sakti of Agni. It can be surmised that the other mutilated Mātřikā images also may have held the child in the fragments now lost to us.--( Plate XXXVI)
All of them evince the characteristic features of the current Gupta tradition. There is aesthetic sobriety in the treatment of drapery, ornaments and other decoration. The transparent drapery marked with schematic folds enhances the loveliness of the modulating lines of the figure and conceals the charm of the flesh. The sparseness of ornaments imparts a graceful touch to the body which is so restful to the eyes.-(M. R. Majmudar, Gujarat Research Society Journal, April, 1950).
Brahmi from Vasişthāśrama, Mt. Ābu: Loose sculptures in the compound of Vasisthāśrama at Mt. Abu and those at Koteśvara, the source of the Sarasvati, now removed to Baroda Museum, include three-headed Savitri, with the swan by her side, Vārāhi, Maheśvari and others.
Delvādā Mātņikās: Out of the three sculptures of Mātņikās of the post-Gupta period, preserved in the nitches of the Jagannātha temple at Delvādā, Mt. Ābu, that of Kaumāri is closely allied to the Idar group in modelling and style. These are made from green schist.-(Journal Indian Museums Association, Vol. VIII, ix).
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Kaumårs from Śāmalāji:-The two hands of Kaumári from Såmalāji, Devani Mori, are mutilated; but the peacock is significant. The ekāvali necklace, the beaded armlets, the lower fine texture garment with numerous creases, the beautiful modelling of the torso, the graceful locks of hair falling over shoulders--these are undoubtedly Gupta features. The goddess has a charming round face, with broad forehead adorned with a round tilaka and large eyes : the lower lip is thick and a little protruding. A scarf running across her legs and passing over her left hand is remarkable. The girdle with central tassellike hanging is also noteworthy. Peacock is of a fine workmanship.-( Plate XXXVII)
It is noteworthy that Śāmalāji sculptures abound in the delineation of peacocks. A big terracotta of a peacock found from this site supports this statement.
Koțyarka Pārvati: Koțyarka Pārvati (transferred to the new Kotyarka temple at Mahuļi, Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat) with a peacock behind her, is fondling and feeding the child held on the shoulders of an attendant gana. Her round smiling face with broad forehead, and the curly heir parted in the middle and the plaited hair arranged in spirals on the head, falling on the shoulders, are the main remarkable features. She wears an ekāvali with a small pendant and beaded armlets, which are the familiar ornaments of the Gupta period. The lower garment of the gana is of transparent and plain material, while the sāri of the mother is of exquisite fine muslin with many folds ( vallis).-(M. R. Majmudar, Sculptures from Koțyarka', JISOA, 1941 )-( Plate XXXV b ).
The proportion of the female form which is thick-set and rather stunted (the torso below the breasts being rather short) is a characteristic of some of the late female forms. The stump-like appearance of the leg at the end near the anklet, is a characteristic feature of late Gupta sculptures; while in the more evolved early classical specimens, this part becomes more natural by narrowing towards the end at the anklet. The eyes are open and not meditative or slightly closed. All these characteristics, cumulatively go to suggest that this sculpture be assigned to the end of the Gupta age i.e. 600 A.D. The paryastaka (covering) with delicate folds, hangs on her right leg. This particular feature, which continued also in later Jaina bronzes from Vasantgadh, is assignable to C. 7th to gth Century A.D.-(Plate XXXVIII a).
Koțyarka Mother and Child :- Mother and child' from old Koțyarka temple at village Mahudi, 6 miles from Vijāpur Taluka, N. Gujarat, still in situ, may be somewhat later in age, on account of the rather heavier torso and the double string of pearls, and the peculiar bun on the head. It possibly belongs to early 7th century A. D., as the modelling is still chaste and graceful. The beautiful big bun on the head, with ornate front of jewels and pearl-strings is not uncommon in the Gupta paintings at Ajanta. The folded apparel on the left leg, with two ends hanging in graceful curves appears to be an uttariya or an extra-piece hanging from the girdle, a peculiarity noticeable in sculptures from Gujarat and Marwar, illustrated in various forms, like that on the sāri of the Mother from Koțyarka (now in the new temple ), and on the dhotis of some of the Tirthařkara bronzes from

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Vasantgadh and Akota-(M. R. Majmudar, 'School of Western Sculpture IHQ, 1957)(Plate XXXVIII b)
Samalāji Mother and Child :-In the Mother and Child' sculpture from Šāmalāji, (only the upper part above the navel being in tact), the mother has big circular kundalas on the ear-lobe and a heavy single-pearl ear-ring on the ear-top, which have been the characteristic ornaments of Western Indian ladies. The coiffeur is arranged elaborately with curls in front, and a bun-like top from which issue the ringlets. The bun tied by a wreath of flowers has a central crest ornament of cakra motif. The sculpture may not be later than the 7th century A. D. The cylindrical tress of hair arranged in pradaksina twists, hanging loosely on each shoulder is noteworthy. From the right end of the wreath a small creeper issues out in a beautiful sweep and dangles behind the ear, emphasising the beauty of the slightly bent posture of the mother. The decorative creeper hangs at the back from the braid of of hair, known to Gandhära school, as also' to the Kusaga art at Mathura. The cakra-plaque in front of the bun on the hair is also noticeable in the Gandharan art.-(Plate XXXVIII b).
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Standing Mother: Of about the same period is another image of a standing mother from Idar group of sculptures with the playful child holding her right finger and the transparent lower garment, gathered in folds to her left.-( Plate XXXVI).
Parvati as Sabara-Kanya from Idar: The superb image of Parvati as Sabarakanya stands in tri-bhanga pose, with the right hand resting on the hip in an elegant way, just with a feminine grace. The hand has only one Kankana at the wrist. The single ornament in the neck has a necklace, of the indigenous style worn by village-folk called hansdi in common parlance, on this side of India. The two feet are adorned with anklets (nupuras). The hair are not tied in a knot so as to be called a mukufa, but are resting loose on the shoulders. The artist has shown the minutest details of the wavy hair.
The gentle and bewitching smile on the face makes the figure quite of a (saumya) nature, as contrasted against the stern and excited face of a fighting Goddess. The third eye in the middle of the forehead is closed. The mellow lines on the slender white neck, resemble similar series of lines on a conch (Sankha). The muscles of the belly are realistically depicted; the depression of the navel adds a special grace to the simplicity and the classical grandeur of the female form. The full and healthy bust is quite in contrast to the shrunken waist so as to be styled Kriodari'.
The tiger-skin is wrapped round the waist with a reef-knot by the legs of the animal, the paws of which dangle down, the face of the tiger being in full view in the front.. The skin-garment reaches as far down as the knees and falls in schematic outline, centring towards the knot; only the lower part of the legs excepting the rear part is covered by the remaining two hind legs of the animal. A similar vydghra-carma is seen round the waist of Virabhadra Siva referred to above. The hound is by the side of the Sabara-Kanya, the huntress, ready, as it were, to do the bidding of its mistress.
The elegance, on the whole, of the sculpture is remarkable. It evinces most of the

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characteristic features of the classical Gupta Art. There is aesthetic sobriety in the treatment of drapery, ornaments and other elements of decoration. The transparent drapery marked with schematic folds enhances the loveliness of the modulating lines of the figure, and conceals the body of the flesh. The sparseness of ornaments imparts a graceful touch to the body which is so restful to the eyes. But the slightly still treatment of legs and the right arm show a decadance of the Imperial Gupta style of late 6th Century A.D. --(M. R. Majmudar, Bharatiya Vidya, Vol. XV, No. 1, 1954).-(Plate XXXIX ).
Valā Mahisamardini :-The sculpture of Goddess Mahişāsuramardini from Valā, with thin drapery and the self-same loop at the waist is shown in the act of the triśülathrust and evinces a happy blending of physical energy with spiritual grace and beauty. (U. P. Shah ).- Plate XLIV a).
The other two sculptures recovered from Valā, done in the self-same style and of the same period of Maitraka rule, can be passingly remembered here. One is a mutilated figure, which has an attendant by his side, possibly some divinity. The other is a portraitsculpture of a young warrior or prince which has been retouched by modern hands. The head-dress of the figure is, however, remarkably antique.
Vaisnava Sculptures-Krsna-Lilā from Mandor : The two massive stele from Mandor (old Māņda vyapura ) near Jodhpur, about 9 feet high and two feet broad ( since removed to the Jodhpur Museum ) contain the panels of incidents from the child-sports of Śri Krşņa viz., the lifting of Govardhana, the upturning of the cart, the fights with Cāņura, Dhenuka, Kesi, and the like. What may have been the actual location of these stele, and the person who got them installed cannot be known.
These are the earliest sculptural remains of Krşpa-worship in Western India, eventhough the early reference to Vasudeva and Sankarşıņa worship in Western India is known from the Ghosundi inscription of c. 150 B.C. from the old Madhyamikā Nagari, near Jaipur-(Vide c. 150 B.C.). These were first noticed by D. R. Bhandarkar (ASWI, 1905-06). They are assigned to the end of the 5th Century A.D. The early style in the treatment of human figures and animals is noteworthy-(Plate XL).
Vişņu from Bhinmal : Vişnu (four-armed) from Bhinmal wears an ekavāli of an early type, obtained on Gupta sculptures. The broad heavy shoulders are reminiscent of the early Kuşāņa sculptures. The armlets worn near the shoulders also suggest an earlier tradition. The crown is a high cap, richly decorated with two ornamental straps, crossing each other, in front with a beautiful rosette in the centre at the crossing-point. On two sides of the cap-like crown are the flames, suggesting Vişnu's association with the Adityas or the Sun-worship. The lower garment with elegant wavy lines indicating folds, suggests the waning of the Gupta Age tradition. The thick rope-like scarf running across the thighs is in the style of the Mathura Sculpture of the Kuşāņa age. The Scythian influence in Western India is fully borne out by the long Kşatrapa rule in the first three centuries of the Christian era.-(Plate XLI). *
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Plate LII
Ac
12
(Front view)
Cāmaradhāriņi Bronze, from Akoțā hoard. (p. 212)
(Back view)

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Plate LIII
A Buddha Bronze from Kotyarka, Mahudi. (Old Tample) (pp. 213, 318).

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Plate LIV
(A) Inscribed Vasantagadh Bronze, in Kāyotsarga position, now at Pindwārā,
(Rājasthān). (p. 213)

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Plate LV
SA
(A) A Jaina Kāyotsarga Stone Sculpture from Dhānk (p 213)
(B) Pārsvanātha from Dhānk (p. 213)

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Vishnu from Tenna (Surat Dist.), discovered by Dr. R. N. Mehta, (now in the M. S. University Archaeology Collection), though of smaller dimensions, it very closely resembles. the style of the Bhinmal Vispu, and is probably of the same period. The image may have been designed for a family temple-a Ghara deräsara. This village Tenna near Kämrej is mentioned in an inscription of the Räṣṭraküṭa king Indraraja III of Manyakheta as having been gifted over in 915 A.D. (S. 836).-( Plate XLIV a).
Ananta-Vishnu from Samalaji: An elaboration of the crown accomplished towards the end of the Gupta period, i. e. the middle of the 6th century A.D., is discernible in the Ananta-Vistu image from Samalāji. Eight hands suggest four faces, the forth being at the back. The drapery and the rope-like girdle with a loop, the excellent modelling of the torso with broad shoulders, and expression on the face suggest Gupta influence. The deity's feet rest on Ananta Seșa. Four-armed Varaha and two-armed Rama on left side can be identified. This bears close resemblance to the Maha Vispu from Kanauj.-(K. M. Munshi, Saga of Indian Sculpture, 1957, Pl. 60).
The Parel image of Siva, it may be suggested, probably, derived its inspiration from the Sămalaji images of Ananta-Vispu. The stylistic affinities are more clear in this case than in that of the Mahesa-mürti at Elephanta. In dating the Parel Siva, the rope-like girdle with a big loop and the dhoti with vallis and the posture of the two figures springing from the shoulders of Siva are the features which demonstrate the continuity of Samalāji art-traditions at Parel i. c. upto the Sürpäraka area. Parel image (C. 600 A.D.) may be earlier than Elephanta, but is possibly contemporary with the Šāmalāji Viśvarūpa.-(M. R. Majmudar, Šāmalāji: Bombay State Transport Review, November 1957).-(Plate XLIV b).
e.
Vishnu from Idar seated on Ananta ( Serpent) is eight-armed and seated in Virasana posture with attendants flying along, and some gods issuing out on all sides and a few attendants near the legs; but it is largely defaced.
The well-preserved sculpture at Samalaji has three faces which are very close to those of Mahesamurti at Elephanta; excepting that, this image of Viṣpu wears elaborate conical mukutas. The crown of Visnu is of the early type, comparable with a similar crown on a loose schist head from Śāmalājī, now in Baroda Museum. The high crown of Jivantaswami bronze, from Akoță, (Few Brahmanical Sculptures in the Baroda Museum'; Vol. X-XI) is comparable to the head from Elephanta. The high cap of Saka or Iranian origin is possibly the basis of some of the crowns of early images. It was turned into a squarish high crown in the Jaina bronze from Akoță.
Kathlal Vishnu Trimurti: The massive figure of Visnu Trimurti, in tact upto the navel only, measuring 3.5 feet high and 2.5 feet broad, and carved from green schist was discovered by the local Artist Sri Dinabandhu in 1948, from Kathläl from Mohor river, a few miles from Kapadvanj. It is now deposited in its High School compound. The crowned mukufa, the ekávali and the yajñopavila are greatly reminiscent of the Samalaj AnantaVispu; the thick lips resemble those of the Elephanta Mahesamurti and human figures C27

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in Ajanta frescos; however, the more elaborate treatment of ornaments relegates it to a later period, may be the end of the 8th century A.D.-(Plate XLV a ).
Limbodra Trimurti Head: The three-faced head only, from village Limbodrā in Rājpiplā territories, being the remnant of a Trimārti, since transferred to the Baroda Museum, supplies a link to the Trimūrti tradition from South-Eastern Gujarat also. It may not be later than the middle of the gth century A. D.-(Plate XLV b).
Sesasayi Vishnu from Mt. Abu :-Śeşaśāyi Vişnu ( mutilated) from the Jagannath temple at Delvādā on Mt. Ābu, appears to be one of the early examples of the Old Western School, which had for its background the Gupta tradition of Central India. Modelling of the figure of Vişņu is comparable to the Virabhadra Siva from Sāmalāji. It has some attendant figures, out of which one by the side of Lakşmi is noteworthy, being very much akin to the Gupta style. The deeply incised beautiful creeper design at the lower end of the panel is assigrable to C. 650 A.D. It seems the Jagannath shrine in the Arbud mandala was an old Vaişņava or Hindu site, which flourished for about six centuries, out of which Vimalaśāha was obliged to acquire land for building the Jaina shrines at a heavy price. An identical sculpture at the new Koțyarka temple, Mahudi, may be remembered here.-(U.P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1957).
Kesisudana from Vala :-The headless sculpture of a stout figure called Krşņa, slaying demon Kesi, as identified by D. R. Bhandarkar in 1910, was obtained from Valā along with other unidentified sculptures. It is allied to the Sāmalāji group of images of Siva and the Mātņikās; but may be slightly later, i. e. about early 7th century. The drapery is simplified here, and the marks of the folds are a bit fainter, with an identical loop in the front at the waist. The Valā sculptures show a happy blending of physical energy or mass with spiritual grace and beauty.-(Plate XLVI b ). Miscellaneous Sculptures :
Sage Udumbara from Samalaji : The massive figure of Sage Udumbara, discovered by M. R. Majmudar at Śāmalāji, lying on the banks of the river Meśvo is most remarkable. The locks of the jața-mukuța are spread out on the sholders and are represented in interwoven ringlets. The yajñopavita runs from the left shoulder and passes through the chest and the pot-belly. This sculpture is datable to the early 6th century A.D., on stylistic grounds.-(Plate XLVII a).
Bhinmal Yaksa : In the massive seated figure, greatly mutilated and with worn out features, is seen the life-size sculpture, probably of Kubera or of a Yakşa, which is still lying near the lake at Bhinmāl. This was mentioned in the 'Note on Bhinmāl' in the Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. 1, in 1896. The features have been broken off, and the left lower arm and leg and both feet have disappeared. This sculpture could be assigned to circa 7th or 8th century A.D.-(Bom. Gaz., Vol. I, Part I, Appendix III, p. 454, 1896).-(Plate XLVII b).
Nagaraja from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu : The sculpture of Nagarāja lying at Vasişthāśrama on Mt. Ābu is one of the earliest known specimens. of Nāga worship in Guja
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rat and Marwar, which might possibly be identified with Arbuda-Nāga. The Nāgarāja is seated in the lalitāsana. Below the legs are the figures of a niga and nīgini, with their lower halves-snake-tails entwined in a single knot. The Nāgarāja himself carries a lotus in his right hand, and another lotus with a long stalk is seen near the left shoulder. There is a canopy of a three-hooded nāga on the head of a figure, which makes him a Nāgadevatā. He wears an ekāvali and a yajñopavīta.-( Plate XLVIII a).
Ganas from Samalaji : The figures of Ganas from Devani Mori near Sāmalāji Hills, ( now in the Baroda Museum, Sculpture Gallery), with caps resembling Central Asian types, obviously betray the Hūņa influence. On the pedestal of another of these ganas, but without head, two letters Vāvu' are inscribed clearly in the Gupta script of the late fifth or early sixth century. (Plate XLVIII b)-(H. Goetz : 'Gupta Sculptures from Northern Gujarat', Journal Gujarat Research Society, Vol. XIV, No. 1, and Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, p. 25).-(Plate XLIX ).
Bronzes of the School of Ancient West': There was an accidental discovery of a hoard of more than one hundred metal images-some totally worn out, some inscribed and a few dated also—from the old site of Ankoțţaka or the mound at Akoțā village on the other side of the Baroda railway line, where earth was being dug out for brick and tilemaking in 1952. This discovery revolutionised the views about the sculptural art in metal, of Western India. It has been an uncontroverted proof of the existence and the prevalance of the “School of Ancient West", mentioned by Târānātha. The Rāştrakūțas were great patrons of Jainism. During the reigns of Dantivarman, Govinda III and Amoghavarşa, Digambara Jainism from Karņāțaka spread to Malwa and Magadha. Karka Suvarņavarşa, whose grant is found at Baroda, refers to Jaina temples (Caityālayāyatana ) monastery (Vasahikā), and Senasamgha at Navsāri ( 738 Saka).-(H. D. Sankalia, Archaeology of Gujarat, pp. 234-35). Svetāṁbara Jainism had a great stronghold in Gujarat, specially due to the activities of Haribhadrasūri. We get, however, definite literary evidence about Jaina temples and Jaina scholars during the succeeding Caulukyan period. But a few of these bronzes specifically refer to a Jaina monastery at Akota (Cf. ओं श्रीमद्दोणाचार्यैः अंकोट्टकanfaa1214...... ! Inscription on the image of Adinātha ); and probably these bronzes were kept in these Jaina temples at Akoțā.
Akota Bronzes : Jivantasvami: The beautiful Jivantasvāmi torso discovered from Akoțā hoard, is the finest bronze ever discovered in Western India, with marked Gupta influences. It wears a high, four-sided richly ornamented crown. It also wears a torque and a broad (golden ) necklace. The hair-locks fall in three tiers over the broad shoulders, the upper end of the locks being surrounded by a fan-shaped ornament. The circular tilak-mark on the forehead, the eyes inlaid with silver, and the effective use of copper on the lower lip and the floral design of the crown add to the charm of this bronze from Western India, which is not later than the middle of the 6th century A.D.-( Karl Khandalawala, on Dr. U. P. Shah's Studies in Jaina Art' 1955, Lalit Kalā, Nos. 3-4, pp. 126).
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The hair arranged in short schematic curls, drawn in very fine lines, the Uşnisa, the long-ear-lobes, half-opened eyes, and above all, the serene, graceful and charming face engaged in meditation, expressing the joy of spiritual bliss and the three lines on the conchlike neck relate the bronze to the classical Gupta art.-( U. P. Shah, 'A few Early Sculptures from Gujarat', JOI., Dec. 1951 ).
This inscribed, standing, Jivantasvāmi bronze from Akoţā is about 30 inches high, and has on its pedestal an inscription in Brāhmi (Valabhi) characters of the Western script, ascribable to about the middle of the sixth century A. D. on paleographic grounds. According to Karl Khandalawala, it is, in all probability, an early 7th Century image, removed about half a century from the two bronzes of the Vasantagadh hoard, dated 637 A.D.--(Lalit Kala, Nos. I & II, Pl. IX, Figs. 1 & 2).
The bronze represents Mahāvira in a standing pose ( Kāyotsarga mudrå), wearing a dhoti, adorned with a girdle. On his left, Mahāvīra is shown wearing a bracelet and an armlet, while the right hand is missing. The Jina wears a crown, besides two circular ear-rings and a neck-lace. The eyes are studded with silver, now only slightly preserved, This Jivantasvāmi image represents an image of Mahāvira fashioned in his life-time, before the great Jaina teacher had turned a recluse. The title thus applies to an image in the life-time of a Jina, whose image should therefore show the ornaments of a royal prince.(U. P. Shah,' A Unique Image of Jivantasvāmi', JOI., September, 1651).
Adinatha Head from Akota: Though assigned to Circa 450 A.D., this is at least a hundred years later, if not more. While it is a beautiful piece, it has already developed that marked facial stylization which is not inconsistent with the Gupta style of the 5th Century A.D. The serene and pleasant smile on the face is bewitching.-( Plate L).
Ambika :-Ambikā bronze from Akoţā (inscribed at the back in characters of C. 550-600 A. D.) when compared to the Kotyarka mother and child in stone is found to be less graceful. It is surmised, the two sculptures might have belonged to different styles, represented by the skill of different artists. Koțyarka image is earlier and executed at the hands of a superior artist.-(U. P. Shah, JOI, Vol. I, p. 72; and for another bronze, Vide, Bulletin Museums Association, Vol. I, No. I).-(Plate LI )
Camaradharini from Akota :- A female chowri-bearer from Akoţā is the most elegant and artistic specimen of the art of casting in Western India. The front as well as the back views of this piece testify to the interesting details, which the artist was capable of designing and transferring them to metal.-(Plate LII).
Mahudi Jaina Bronzes : Four bronze images were unearthed from the templewall of the old temple of Koțyarka, which is situated on the top of the high mound on the right bank of the Sābarmati at Mahudi, a village in Vijapur Taluka, N. Gujarat. Of these, the three were brought to the Baroda Museum in 1935, and illustrated in the Baroda State Archaeology Report for 1937-38.
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The fourth, big and almost life-size seated bronze image of Baddha (or Jaina) has on the back of its prabhavali, an inscription probably in Prakrit, in late Brähmi characters of the 7th century, one line of which is partially readable. Dr. Hiranand Shastri was inclined to call it Buddhistic. However, it is generally taken to be Jaina.-(A. S. Gadre, Buddhist Influence in Gujarat and Saurâstra', Journal Gujarat Research Society, October, 1939, p. 65; M. R. Majmudar," Sculptures from Kotyarka-Mahudi," BUJ, Arts Number, 1939)-( Plate LIII).
Lilvadeva Jaina Bronzes: Seven images of Jaina Tirthankaras were discovered from a mound in Lilvädevä, a village, 3 miles north of Lunda in Jhalod Taluka, Panch Mahāls, approachable by a bus from Dohad Station (a distance of 14 miles). These bronzes closely resemble the Akoță hoard. These are all beautfully moulded, and they indicate a high attainment of casting images. They perhaps represent some local school, which flourished from the 8th to the 13th centuries. Bronzes have been found from several sites, notably Mahudi, Akoță, Lilvädeva and recently at Dharnoj. The Tirthankaras have no Lanchhanas, as is common with the images of the 7th and earlier centuries, where these signs are not found.-(S. R. Rao, Journal Museums Association of India, Vol. XI, 1955; U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin ).-( Plate LI b).
Vasantagadh Bronzes: Bronzes from Vasantagadh near Pindwärä are noteworthy specimens of the Western Indian School. They are big bronzes of the Jaina. Tirthankaras, cast by the artist Sivanaga in Samvat year 744, i. e., in 686 A.D. They were obtained from Vasantgadh hoard and are now in worship at Pindwärä, near Sirohi. Three bronzes of standing Tirthankaras are assignable to C. 8th century A.D.-(U. P. Shah, Bronze Hoard from Vasantgadh: Lalita Kala, Nos. 1-2, 1957).-( Plate LIV b).
"
Vala Jaina Bronzes: The Ebbhal Girasia's field in Vala had yielded five bronze images of the Buddha, now exhibited in the Prince of Wales Museum (Pro. Rept. ASIWC, 1915). They belong to the 7th century at the latest; but they, however, lack the artistic effect of casting. On the pedestals of these images, Dr. Bhandarkar has deciphered a Mahayanic inscription as a [] -etc.-( Plate LIV a).
Jaina Stone Sculptares: Dhank Caves: The central figure at the Dhänk caves inside the cell is identified by Dr. H. D. Sankalia (Archaeology of Gujarat, p. 166) as being] that of Adinatha, and each side-niche has a nude figure seated in padmasana, its body erect and motionless. The sculpture that is carved in low relief on the face of the rock higher up the ravine is definitely of Adinatha. Here, adjoining Santinatha is the figure which is standing in kayotsarga pose. It has long ear-lobes, and ringlets of hair spread on the shoulders, which symbolises an event in the life of Adinatha, as found portrayed on a few images from Mathura. (Plate LV a, b).
On the simhasana with a wheel and a deer in the centre, and a lion at each end, is found a figure of Pärśvanatha, with a triple umbrella shown by three strokes. These Dhänk images are the earliest Jaina sculptures in Gujarat and Saurastra. As the carving.

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is crude, they should be relegated to the 7th Century A. D.-(H. D. Sankalia, The Earliest Jaina Sculptures in Kathiawar', JRAS, 1938, pp. 126-30; & Pl. III-IV).
2:4
Mirpurkhas Hindu Bronze: A beautiful bronze image of three-faced Brahma from Mirpurkhas in Sindh, now in the Karachi Museum, dated by art-critics to the Gupta Age (300-600 A. D.), is a typical specimen of the art of the Ancient West'.
Sopara Buddha Bronzes: Dr. Bhagvanlal visited Sopärä in 1882 and dug the large brick mound, known as Buruda Rājākā Kota, which he immediately recognised to be the ruins of an ancient Stupa. He was able to establish that a circular drum about 18 ft. high and 268 ft. in circumference supported a terrace 18 ft. wide, from which rose the curve of the drum. The terrace may have been a processional path, but there were no indications of steps on it.
The structural Stapa, which has a claim to the Satavahana date, resembled the Sanchi type. Exactly in the middle of the Stapa, a little below the level of the terrace, was a small brick-built chamber. Within the chamber was a large circular stone-box with lid. In the centre of the box stood an egg-shaped copper casket, enclosing one within the other casket of silver, of terracotta, of crystal, and of gold. A coin of Yajña Satakarni (C. 175-203 A. D.) was found in the copper casket. Reference to the people of Sopără, and their religious endowments are found in inscriptions of the Satavahana period at Kärle, Nasik, Nanaghat and Kanheri. The caskets in Sopärä Stupa were probably deposited in Yajña Satakarni's reign.-( Plate XIV).
The egg-shaped copper easket was surrounded by a circle of eight copper images. The most important of the images is a Maitreya Bodhisattva, which faced west, seated on a lotus in lalitasana, his right foot resting on a lotus. His right hand is in the varada mudra, his left holds a bunch of flowers-nagapuspa. The remaining 7 images represent the Seven Manusa Buddhas. They are seated in dhyana asana on an oval throne. Above the oval prabha-mandala rises a tuft of foliage carefully varied to represent each of the Buddhas.
Dr. Bhagvanlal realised that the images could not have been deposited in the Satavahana period. The affinities of the Sopără images lie with the bronze of the Eastern School, particularly those from Nālandā where they were probably brought for enshrinement. The style of the upper garment which hangs over the left shoulder, the semi-circular prabhavali or aureole in the background, the cross stem seen from behind in the Maitreya image, are all features which betray a close affinity with the work of the Eastern Indian craftsmen. (Plate LVI a).
It is probable that when the Mahayana form of Buddhism became rampant in Western India, and the sacred places of the Buddhists, such as the rock-cut Caityas and Viharas at Kanheri were covered with figure-sculptures, the reliquary at the Sopārā Stūpa may have been reopened and reconstructed with the addition of the images, and, perhaps, also the copper casket. The thin gold plate with the image of Buddha on lotus seat in the vyākhyāna mudra may also be of this period. It is the Buddhas which exhibit a feature of

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great importance for dating : the end of the robe is drawn over the left shoulder, and hangs in a short pleated fold. This feature is known in Pāla images, where it first made its appearance in about 800 A. D., or a little earlier.-('The Buddhist Group of 8 Bronzes from Sopārā', Lalit Kalā, Nos. 3-4).
Bhuj Buddha Bronze: The small bronze of Buddha discovered by M. R. Majmudar from Fergussion Museum, Bhuj in 1957 has an inscription on the front and the right hand side of the pedestal in the Brāhmi characters of the 7th century. It has been deciphered by Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra as under :
(1) [de] yadha (rmo ] yaṁ Nāgasi ( m ) gha
bhikṣuh tasya bhikṣuṇikāsamāh(१) देय धर्मोऽयं नागसिंघ भिक्षुः तस्य भिक्षुणिकासमाः (2) māta.....d[e] va [sya] Kirtt [i] h s[th] ap (itā).
(2) ART. ...gara la: yrat This image was dedicated by one Nāgasigha Bhikṣu in memory of his mother-like Devakirti, who had entered the order of Bhikṣunis (the female order of the Bauddha mendicants). It appears, the instinct of motherly love was not considered antagonistic to the rules of discipline prescribed for people who had renounced the world, and entered the Holy Order.
The bronze, which at first sight appears to be old from the style of its casting, measures 8 inches for the standing Buddha in the Samabhanga pose, the lotus pedastal on which he is standing being 3 inches high. The encircling oval prabhā frame around the figure is in tact on the right hand side ; of the left nearly half is lost.
The figure of Buddha has the right hand in abhaya mudră preaching No-fear. The left hand appears to hold, may be a lotus-stalk, now lost beyond recognition. The proverbial spiritual smile on the face with eyes half open creates a pleasing sense on the onlooker. The Yajnopavita running from the left shoulder across the right side of the chest is very clear. The body is covered with a thin semi-transparent loin cloth below the shoulders reaching the legs. In the moulding of the lines of the body, the 'wet-drapery style'is introduced in which the robe appears to cling to the body.--(Plate LVII).
On stylistic, as well as on paleographic grounds, the bronze appears to belong to that period of the heyday of Buddhism in Western India when the Maitrakas, the great patrons of Buddhism, ruled at Valabhipura. The Chinese pilgrim-scholar Hiuen Tsang visited Western India during the middle of the 7th Century A. D., sometime in 641 A. D. The bronze can be roughly dated to this period. The image has stylistic affinities with some of the beautiful Jaina bronzes discovered from the Akoţā hoard near Baroda, and the Valā bronzes from Valabhipura.
The discovery of this bronze, in a way, testifies to the existence of the School of Ancient West' in the late 6th and early 7th century A.D., whose founder, Spingadhara of Marwar lived in the reign of king sila, [identified with Harsha of Kanauj (606-647 A. D.)
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by K. Khandalawala, or with king silāditya I (Circa 590-615 A. D.) of the Maitrakas of Valabhipura, as identified by U.P. Shah). It is noteworthy that the name Silāditya' was a favourite with the Buddhists who valued virtue (शील) more than valour (विक्रम).
The old Western School of Sculpture both in stone and in metal is gradually asserting its prevalance since recent discoveries, which are not even two decades old. And the Bhuj bronze affords an interesting addition to specimens of this period.
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(B) Vala Buddha Bronze, Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. (p. 213)
Plate LIV A

(A) Tirthankara Bronzes, from Lilvädeva, near Jhalod, Pañcamahālas. (p. 213)
Wat

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(A) Maitreya Bronze from Reliquary of the Sopārā Stāpa (p. 214)
Plate LVI
(B) Seated Buddha (Stone) on a mound at Nagară, near Cambay, (p. 278).
1

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Plate LVII
Inscribed Buddha Bronze, Fergussion Museum, Bhuj ( Kaccha). (p. 215) Inscription on the two sides of the pedestal reads :
(1) देयधर्मोऽयं नागसिंघभिक्षुः तस्य भिक्षुणिकासमाः (2) मात...देवस्य कीर्तिः स्थापिता।

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Plate LVIII
(A) Nandi from Samalāji. (p. 203) Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay.
(B) Bronze Incense-burner from Akoţā Hoard, (p. 317)
Baroda Museum.

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CHAPTER VIII
RĀSTRAKŪTA-PRATIHĀRA PERIOD
(C. 745 A.D.—942 A.D.)
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Fig. 8
Duruşapura
RĀSHTRAKŪTA-PRATIHĀRA
PERIOD w (c.745 A.D. - 942 A.D.)
R Sindhu
. Gopagiri Kālanjara.
V Mülasthanapura • Prthudaka
Sthanvisvara • Ghatiyala Rajorar Mõndavyapura "Sėkambharina Mathuramane in
Mahodaya • Jabalipura
Kanyakubja Gorakhpura . Bhillamala!
Paharpura. Mansurah
Gopagiri
Vārāṇasi Kharjuraváhaka. Jejabhukti R. Idar
Ramagaya •Vidis' Harsol.
Tujjayini Vardhamanapura vafapadra Narm
Briarkhetakapura Tripuri
A Nandipuri Tapti R Devapattana .Nāgasăriká By
Psüren Ajantachala
Nāsikya
Narmada R.
Anchalapura
Sürpāraka
Eläpura
Poonaka
Kalyani
Karahataka
Lattalur
Godavari R.
Mänyakheta
Kurundhaka
vātāpi.
A
Sugandhavati Banavāsi
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(C. 745 A.D.-942 A.D.)
*The Age of Imperial Kanauj' as named in the History and Culture of the Indian People', i.e. the Empire of the Gurjara-Pratihāras saw the rise and fall of three great empires in the country: of the Rāştrakūtas, founded by Dantidurga (c. 737-757 A. D.), and his successor, Krşņa I (c. 757-773 A. D.) which dominated the South till its collapse in the year 974 A. D.; of the Pālas in the East, which saw its zenith under Dharmapāla (c.770810 A. D.), though it revived a little at the end of the tenth century; and of the Pratihāras of the West and North founded by Nāgabhasa I, which saw its zenith during the reigns of Mihira Bhoja (C. 836-885 A. D.) and Mahendrapāla (C. 885-908 A.D.), who went under, on account of the catastrophic blows dealt by the Râştrakūta raids, but retained a shadowy imperial dignity to the end.-(The Age of Imperial Kanauj, 'Foreword' p. vii).
This Age of Kanauj or Kānyakubja, the imperial city of Ísānavarman, dominated Madhyadeśa, the heart of India. It was the coveted prize of the three Imperial powers racing for all-India supremacy. Ultimately it passed into the hands of the Pratibin Gurjareśvara about 815 A.D.; remained the metropolis of power till 950 A. D., and continued to be the most influential centre of culture till 1018 A. D. when it was destroyed ty Mahmud of Ghazni.-(Ibid, 'Foreword', viii).
Rästrakūta Dantidurga, the son of Indra I by a Calukyan princess of Gujarat, began his Napoleonic career in Circa 733 A. D., became the master of the whole of Mahārāșțra by 753 A. D., and destroyed the Cālukyan Empire to assume an Imperial status. He was succeeded by his uncle Kșşņa I, the king-builder of the Kailāsanātha temple of Elurā.
Thus, the empire of the Cālukyas of the South including South Gujarat and parts of Malwa passed into the hands of the Rāşțrakūța conquerors. And for two hundred years South Gujarat became a battle-field between the Imperial Rāstrakūtas of the South and the Gurjaras of the North.
Nāgabhata, who belonged to a branch of the royal Pratihāra family of Bhillamāla*, the capital of Gurjaradeśa, rallied to his banner the warriors of the allied clans of Prati
* " That Bhils (or Bhillas ) and Kirātas once lived in Rajputana and its neighbourhood, particularly its hilly tracts is shown by instances from later Rajput history, but particularly by the names Bhillamāla (modern Bhinmal), Kirātakūpa ( modern Kiradu) and Mundasthala. The first name occurs in the Saindhava plates from Saurastra. The mala ending in the same Bhilla māla is non-Sanskritic. The former is supposed to be a Dravidian word mal meaning upland, plateau. Thus both linguistically and culturally the word is non-Aryan, indicating that in the distant past the country was inhabited by non. Aryans, very likely Austro-Asiatic Tribes.- [ Sankalia, Studies in Historical Geography and Cultural Ethnography of Gujarat. (JGRS, VII, No. 4, Nov. 1955), Poona, 1949).
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hāras, Cahamānas, and also, perhaps, all of whom had their home in the region of Mount Ābu. He fought the invading army of the Arabs about 725 A.D. which had overrun Saurāșțra, Bhillamāla, the capital of Gurjara ( the Abu region), and reached Ujjayini.
Nāgabhața fought this invading army, flung it back and destroyed it. This victory welded the clans of Gurjaradeśa into a hierarchy. During Nāgabhata's time, however, Dantidurga, the Rāştrakūta king, with his conquering army swept over the North, captured Ujjayini, where the Pratihāra played the host to the conqueror, his fortunes having been temporarily eclipsed.
Vatsarāja, the son of a nephew of Nāgabhața I conquered Anarta and Saurāştra in C. 780 A.D. and became the suzerain of most of the kingdoms of North India. He, however, suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Rāştrakūta Dhruva, and had to take refuge to some unaccessible region.
Undaunted by reverses, the next ruler, Nagabhața II (792 A.D.-834 A.D.) consolidated the territory which comprised Mārwad, Mālava and modern North Gujarat. After many efforts, ultimately Kanaaj passed into the hands of the Pratihāras, and about 815 A.D. it became their capital.
A triangular contest for all-India supremacy began between Vatsarāja of Gurjaradeśa, Dharmapāla of Bengal, and Rāştrakūta Dhruva of Bădāmi. North Gujarat continued to remain within the domains of Nāgabhata II (792-834), the son of Vatsarāja, who vanquished the Pāla kings of Bengal.
In C. 807-8 A. D. Govinda III, the Rāştrakūta, overran the North, and lived for some months at Sribhavana (Sarbhon, in the Broach District). But he died in 814 A. D. and Nāgabhasa II captured Kanauj, transferred his capital there and became the 'Emperor of the North'. Medapāța, Gurjaratrā, Sapädalakṣa, Ānarta, the mainland up to the Mahi and Malwa formed part of his empire which stretched from Multan to Bengal and the Himalayas to the Mahi.-(K. M. Munshi: Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, III, p. 72 f.). South of the Mahi ran the writ of the Rāştrakūtas.
About 835 A. D., Nāgabhata's son, Mihira Bhoja (C. 835 A. D.-888 A.D.), referred to in Gujarati tradition as Bhùyada of Kalyāņakațaka ( Kanauj), had to subdue Anarta and Saurāșțra again. He appointed military governors at Junagadh and Wadhwan.
The river Mahi divided the Gurjara empire of the North from the Rāştrakūta empire of the South, South Gujarat changing hands from time to time. Mihira Bhoja, the Gurjareśvara, was one of the greatest emperors in history; and the Arabs, who dreaded him most, called his empire Jurz' or 'Gurjjara'. He was succeeded by Mahendra pāla (888 A.D.-- 910 A. D.) and he, by his son Mahipāla, the last Mahāräjādhirāja of Āryävarta'.
At the time of the death of Mihira Bhoja in 888 A. D., the banner of the Gurjareśvaras flew over an empire larger than, perhaps, those of the Guptas and Sri Harsa. It comprised North India from the Himalayas to a little beyond the Narmadā, from East Punjab and Sindh to Bengal, South was quiescent. The Palas were no longer a power.
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The Arabs on the north-west frontier were kept at bay; Sindh had been wrested from them. Madhyadesa was at the height of its power'.-(The Age of Imperial Kanauj, Foreword, ' xiii).
Mihira Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala, a fearless military genius, who extended his father's empire to the Karnal district in the Punjab, the Nepalese terrain and the Rajasahi district of Bengal. In 910 A D. he was succeeded by Mahipala, who also, like his father, was educated by the poet Rajasekhara.
221
Within a few years of Mahipala's coming to the throne of Kanauj, however, Indra III, the Rastraküța Emperor, marched to the North and occupied Kanauj. Though the Rastaküţa empire was disintegrating in 940 A.D., Kṛṣpa III again re-appeared in the North, overrran Malava and Gurjaradeśa, and gave a shattering blow to the Pratihåra empire.
Two successive invasions by the Rastrakūtas, one in 915 A.D., the other in 940 A.D. broke up the empire of Gurjaradeśa. Its political fabric went to pieces. Every feudatory asserted his independence and there began a fresh struggle for supremacy among the chiefs of the small principalities, like the regions of Sapädalaksa with Säkambhart (modern Sâmbhar) as its capital; Gopagiri (modern Gwalior); Kirādu near Jodhpur; Marwad, with its capital at Naddula; Jabalipura (modern Jhålor); Abu, with its capital Candravati; Sarasvata-mandala or the valley of the Sarasvati river, with its capital at Anahilavada Pattana; Vägada or Dungarpur and Banswară; and Málava, with Dhārā as its capital.-(Glory that was Gurjara Desa, Part I, p. 8, 1951).
In 940 A.D. Krspa III, the Rastrakūta, invaded the North and in a swift campaign destroyed the empire of Gurjaradeśa. It was a historic event. Most of the feudatories as mentioned above became independent. The military governors of Junagadh and. Wadhwan disappeared. The Râṣṭrakūtas occupied parts of Rajputana, so far ruled by a feudatory of Kanauj.
The main-land of Gujarat and Malwa were ruled by the Paramāra king Slyaka II, as the viceroy and the feudatory-in-chief of the Râştrakuta emperor Kṛṣṇa III, who defeated emperor Mahipala, and ruled over Ånarta to the south of Sarasvati, Khetaka Mandala, West Malwa and Lata.
The story of Jayasekhara and Vanarāja Cavaḍā and his descendants ruling from Anahilavada Pattana between Circa 765 A.D. to 942 A D. appears to be but a vague relic of some minor dynasty of local chiefs and of the conflicts between them and Mihira Bhoja of Kanauj, who survives in the tradition as the Bhüyada of Kalyānakataka.
The Valabhi Kingdom received intermittant shocks from the Arabs and also from the Pratihära kings, which ultimately led to the fall of Valabhipura in Circa 776 A.D. Their glory passed on to the Pratihāras of Kanauj. In C. 780 Vatsaraja, the Pratihāra, king. of Gurjaradeśa, conquered Anarta and Saurastra.
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Śākambhari ( Ajmer) and Medapāța ( Mewar ) became practically independent. Märwär possibly passed into the hands of some Rāstrakūța feudatory.
Mūlarāja, the son of Rāji, the Caulukya, and the grandson of Mahipāla or Mahendrapāla, the Pratihära emperor of Kanauj in the daughter's line, was driven out from Gurjaratrá. Fleeing south, he established himself at Aşahilvāda Pattana, and occupied Sārasvata Mandala, the valley of the river Sarasvati in 942 A. D. This date is definitely known from the sākambhari (Sambhar) inscription of Siddharāja Jayasimha.-(IA, LVII, 234).(Plate LXXXIII).
Under the inspiration of the Imperial Gurjarás of Kanauj, life in Western India reached a high level of art and learning : Bhavabhūti (C. 700) and Vākpati (C. 750) of Kanauj, Māgha (C. 700 ) of Srimāla, Haribhadra (C. 700-70 ) of Citrakūta, Medhātithi and Devala the great law-givers, and Rājasekhara (C. 900), the poet-laureate of Mahipala, the grand-son of Mihira Bhoja, are the representatives of a great age of intellectual and cultural activity.
II
A.D. The Cāpotkața dynasty is said to have been established in Gujarat by C. 746 Vanarāja, son of Jayasekhara of Pancāsara in V.S. 802 (C. 745 A.D.), which
ended in V.S. 998 ( 942 A.D.). The tradition, as recorded in Prabandha-Cintamaņi, Vividha-tirtha-kalpa, Vicāra-śreni, Kumārapalaprabandha, Dharmāranyamāhātmya, Mirāt-i-Ahmadi, etc., gives certain specific years for the Chronology of the Cāvadā kings of Anahillavādapattana (N. Gujarat ); but their reliability has been doubted since long.
Munshi (Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, Part III) has examined this problem in detail and established that king Ama who destroyed Pancāsara is to be identified with the Pratihāra king Nāgabhața II, and King Bhūyada with his grandson Mihira Bhoja, who reigned in about 836-888 A.D. This, however, conflicts with the traditional dates for the beginning of the Cāvaļā dynasty.
To get over this difficulty and reconcile the traditional dates, it has been suggested by Dr. H. G. Shastri that the early date 802 Vikrama Samvat, may be taken to be saka Samvat 802. The error of ascribing known years to a wrong era is not uncommon in the history of Gujarat. The years 753 and 802, when ascribed to the Saka era will correspond to 830 and 880 A.D. respectively;
and accordingly, the date of the fall of Pancāsara and the coronation of Vana. rāja will then fall within the reigns of Nāgabhaţa II (C. 792-834 A.D.) and
Mihira Bhoja (C. 836-888 A.D.) respectively. Thus if the early years were ascribed to the Saka era, the total period will be of 132 years ( 810 to 942 A.D.), and the average for the seven or eight kings will be of about 15 to 17 years each.-( H. G. Shastri, “The Problem of the Chronology of Cāvadā Kings', Indian History Congress, Ahmedabad Session, 1955).
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223
746
746
746
751
Vanarāja established the city Aộahillapura. This city was founded in place of Lākhārāma, situated on the bank of the river Sarasvati in V.S. 802 (746 A.D.), in commemoration of his young friend Anabila, a shepherd.
Vanaraja Cāvadā, the founder of the line, was installed on the throne, according to the Jaina Prabandhas, by his Jaina Guru, Silaguņasūri. Though the official religion was Saiva and sākta, most of the influential persons in the realm, like the Mahājanas, were Jaina and occupied high position in the State. Vanarāja's prime-minister was a Jaina Vaạik named Campā, the founder of Campāner. Ninna a merchant-prince, whom Vanarāja regarded as father, built a temple of Rşabha at Aņhilvāļa. This Ninna or Ninnaya's son Lahara was a general in Vanarāja's army.
Sulaiman ibn Hasham was the Governor of Sindh under the Khalifah Marwan II (744-750 A.D.)–(Elliot, Arabs in Sindh, 37; EHI., i, 443).
Bappabhatti Sūri was born in V. S. 800. His spiritual teacher, Siddhasena Sūri had given him dikşă in Modherā in V. S. 807 ( 751 A. D.). Ama, (according to JTSS-Vol. II, pt. 6 & 7) was born in V. S. 807 and died in 895. In course of time he became a king. He is named Nāgabhata and Nāgāvaloka also. He belonged to the Pratihāra dynasty of Bhinmāla, a boy in Rāmasainyapura.--( Prabhāvakacarita-Synga-XI, v. 49). This city is referred to as * Rāmasainya' in Gurvāvali, (v. 57), which is ten Gavyūtas from Dişā and twelve Gavyūtas to the north of Bhilaạiyā.-(Vide, JTSS, Vol. I, pt. I, p. 38).
Rāştrakūța king Dantidurga, son of Indrarāja, led an expedition across the Revā (Narmadā) and Mahi (Samangadh Plates of 754 A. D., IA, XI, iii), and conquered Lāța and Mālava (Elurā Cave-inscription, BAS. No. 10, 92 ff.). He subjugated kings of Gurjara and of other kingdoms, and celebrated the 'Hiranyagarbha' ceremony at Ujjayini on the Rathasaptumi day of 754 A.D., when he weighed himself against gold and distributed the same among the Brāhmaṇas.-(Sanjan Plates; EI, XVIII, 243 ff.).
This appears to be the earliest extension of the Răstrakața power over South Gujarat.-(A. S. Altekar, The Rāstrakūțas and their Times, p. 33 fn.)
Rāștrakūta king Govindarāja, son of Dhruvarāja and grandson of Kakkarāja I, assumed power in South Gujarat, shortly after Dantidugra's conquest of Lāța.
Maritime activities of the people of Valabhi are given in the Buddhist work Manju-sri-Mülakalpa. People of Valabhi reached Sūrā by crossing the sea which probably refers to their trade ventures to and regular commerce with Assyria.-( Jayaswal, op. cit., p. 25). This information is further corroborated by Dandin in his Daśakumaracarita.
754
750
C. 750
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C. 750-790 That Mt. Abu was rich in various shrines, tanks, stepwells etc. frequented
by pilgrims, tourists etc. and was resorted to by saints of peaceful meditation, is attested by a long description of it given by the Kashmiri poet Damodaragupta (c. 750-790 A.D.) in his Kuțțani-matam, (pp. 54-59, VV, 238-261 ).( U. P. Shah, 'Early Sculptures from Ābu ', Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1957,
p. 46). 750 The Cähamana king Dhrubhata was succeeded by his son Bhartsivaddha
II. He was a 'Parama Mäheśvara' (a great devotee of Maheśvara Siva ). C. 754 About 754 A.D., the Rāştrakūta king Dantivarman II, who had succeeded
his father Indrarāja II, overthrew the W. Cālukya Kirtivarman II and became
paramount in the Deccan. He is said to have conquered Conjeevaram, Kośala, Kalinga, Sri Saila, Mālava, Lāța and Tanka. He was followed by his uncle Kļşņarāja I, the son of Kakkarāja I, who is recorded to have defeated a king named Rāhappa.
Puşyadeva was succeeded by his son Kșsnarāja I.-( Ghumli Plates of Jaika II; EI; XXVI, 223 ff.).
A number of pupils of Yakşadatta Gaņi, pupil of Sivacandra Gani, adorned Gujarat by getting Jaina temples built in this province in $. 675 = V. S. 810
( 754 A.D.).-(Vide, Colophon of Kuvalayamāla). -For details see Year 779 A.D. 756 Rāșțrakūța king Kakkarāja II, son of Govindaraja, grandson of Dhruvarāja
and great-grandson of Kakkarāja I, succeeded his father in South Gujarat. He was possibly the scion who attempted in vain to usurp the power of Krşparāja, the uncle and successor of Dantidurga.—(A.S. Altekar, The Râştrakūtas, 41 f.)
He seems to have held full independence in South Gujarat; for, in his edicts he does not express allegiance to any overlord and assumes imperial titles of
Paramabhattāraka', Mahārājādhirāja' and 'Parameśvara'. 756 King Bhartļvaddha II of the Cāhamāna family, a feudatery of the Gurjara
Pratihāra Nāgabhața, issued from Bhỉgukaccha (Broach) a grant of a village in Akrureśvara visaya. The recipients of the grant were Brāhmaṇas of different gotras, residents of Saujnapadra ( possibly modern Sajod in Ankleswer Taluka ) and Bhatta Lalluva officiated as the Dūtaka of the edict, issued during the reign of Nāgāvaloka, who is identified with Pratihāra sovereign Nāgabhata I.
The grant was composed by Bhatta Kakka of Valabhi, on the occasion of a solar eclipse ( adityagrahana ) in V. S. 813 ( 756 A. D.):-( Hänsoț Plates, EI, XII, 197 ff.)
The power of this Cāhamaña dynasty can be traced no longer.
The Rāştrakūta P. M. P. Kakkarāja II, the son of Govindarāja, gave in grant the village of Sthāvarapallikā situated in Kaśakula Vişaya to Kukkeśvara
757

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Plate LIX

A Jaina Fresco from Elūrā, Kailāsanātha Temple, Indrasabhā-Hall.

Late Fresco, Ajanță, Cave No. 17
Three-fourths profile faces, and the left eyes being shown beyond the facial line. (p. 269)

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Plate LX
A Temple with an Amalaka on the Sikhara, from Rodā, Idar Territories (p. 270)

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Plate LXI

(A) Osiā Temple, Marwad. (p. 270)
(B) Osia Temple, Marwad. (p. 270)

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Plate LXII
(A) Kottai Temple, Kaccha (p. 270)
(B) Kālika Mātā Temple, Chitodgadh (p. 270)

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Plate LXIII

(A) Entrance Door-frame, facing the Karvan Lake. (p. 270)
(B) Sculptured portion, Right side Pillar-bottom,
of the Door-frame, (Enlarged).

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757
Dikşita of Vaccha (Vatsa) gotra, resident of Jambūsara, on the occasion of Vișuva Sankrānti in the Saka year 679 pausa tithi 7, ( 757 A.D.). The Dūtaka of the charter was Adityavarmarāja, and was issued by Bhodalla, the son of
Balādhiksta Tatta.-( Antroli-Chharoli Plates, JBBRAS, XVI, 105 ). 757 The Antroli-Chharoli grant ( 24th Sept. §. 679) supplies information that
Kakkarāja II, of the First Gujarat Branch of the Rāşțrakūța dynasty had as his immediate predesessors his father Govindarāja, married to a daughter of Nāgavarman, his grand-father being Dhruvarāja, and great-grand-father Kakkarāja I.-(EI, iii, 54).
During the Rășțrakūta period the police officers were known as Coroddharanikas or Dandapāśikas. The former are actually mentioned in the AntroliChharoli copperplates of Karkkarāja of Gujarat. (JBBRAS, XVI, p. 106), and the latter in several Valabhi records, (e.g., Valabhi Plates of Dhruvasena, dated 526 A.D.).
Crimes, that could not be locally detected, must have been investigated by these Coroddharaṇika and Daņdapāśika officers, who possibly worked under the directions of the Rāșțrapatis and Vişayapatis, who being also at the head of local troops, could have afforded military assistance to the police department
in cases of desperate robbers or dacoits. Altekar, The Rāştrakūtas, p. 261). 759 The village Bahuvațaka was given in gift by the Maitraka P.M.P. ( HERC
महाराजाधिराज-परमेश्वर) Siladitya VI to Brahmana Sambhulla of Pārāsara gotra resident of Dāhala, on Kārttika Su. 5 of the (Valabhi) year 441 ( 759 A.D.). The village was situated on the bank of Vappoikā river in Sūryapura Vişaya. The royal edict was issued from the victorious camp at Godrahaka (Godhra) and was executed by Gañjaśāti (?) Jajju. The name of the person who composed
the grant is not deciphered satisfactorily.-( Lunāvāļa Plates : IA., VI., 16). C. 760 Rāştrakūta King Krşņa I, Vallabha, Subhatunga and Akālavarşa, uncle and
successor of Dantidurga is stated in various grants to have reduced the Cālukyas, conquered Rāhappa and caused to be excavated a temple to Siva, that of Kailāsanātha at Elāpura (Elūrā ), which is one of the architectural wonders of the world, since the whole structure is hewn out of solid rock.- (IA, xii, 228;
Bom. Gaz., 390 ). C. 760 The Elūrā rock-temples are Buddhistic, Brahmanical and also Jaina. These
contain frescoes in continuation of the Ajantan style. The peculiar characteristics of some of these frescoes reveal pointed nose, circular earrings, and the eye going further beyond the facial line. This is traceable to Ajanță and Bagh also. These characteristics are found continued in the Western Indian Miniature Paintings, transferred from the wall to the palm-leaf in the first instance, and to paper in later times. Elurā frescoes are, as it were, the parent of the Western Indian miniatures.
C29
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C. 760 The Pratihāra king Deva-Sakti, with whom begins the dynasty of the
Pratihāras of Kanauj, lived about 760 A.D. He was of the Gurjara-Pratihāra family, and ruled at Bhinmāl.
Silāditya VI, Maitraka king of Valabhi, was reigning in successien to his
father Sīlāditya V. 765 In Brāhmaṇa-vațaka ( modern Brāhmaṇa-vādā) there was a Jaina temple.
It was restored in V. S. 821 ( 765 A.D.) by Porvāda Mantri Sāmanta, who restored goo Jaina temples at the instance of Jayānanda Sūri.-( JTSS-Vol. I,
pt. II, p. 271). 766 The Aliņā plates record a grant of land by Maitraka P. M. P. Silāditya VI.
The royal edict of the grant was issued from the victorious camp at Anandapura and executed by Siddhasena, designated Mahāpratihāra, Mahākṣapatalika, Rājakula. It was issued in Jyeștha su. 5 of the (Valabhi) year 447 (766 A.D.). The subject of donation was the village Mahilasabali in Uppalahețā Pathaka in Khetaka Āhāra. The donee was Bhatta Akhandalamitra of Sārkarākşi gotra, resident of Anandapura. The grant was composed by Gadaha, designated Pratinartaka, Kulaputrāmātya.—(CII., III, 171 ff.).
This is the last known copper-plate inscription of the Maitraka dynasty. 766
(G. Sam. 447 ) Aliņā copper-plates : Silāditya VI, Dhruvabhața of Valabhi, son and successor of Silāditya V.
The Maitraka family of Valabhi was overthrown after this time by an expedition from Sindh under Amru ibn Jamāl.-(IA, VII, 79; CI., ii, 171 ).
Niya, also called Ninnaya, and popularly known as Nina, was a Srimāli by caste. He, as a minister of Vanarāja Cāvadā, got built a temple of Lord Rşabha
in Anahilvāļa Patan, (See, the colophon-v. 9, of Mallināhacariyam of Haribhadra Sūri, quoted in JTSS-Vol. I, p. 57-and SHJL-p. 173, in about V. S. 825) for Vidyadhara gaccha.
This Nina, a predecessor of minister Vimala was first staying in Srimāla. Later on, he settled down in Gāmbhu. Vanarāja invited him to come to Pāțan. Nina's son Lahara was made a danda-näyaka by Vanarāja.-(Ibid, -p. 69). Descendants of Nina were ministers one after the other for Caulukya rulers upto Kumārapāla.-( JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 57; Vide, Pandit Lalchand Gandhi's paper on Mantri Vimala and his Mantri-Vamśa': Gujarat Itihāsa Sammelana Proceed
ings, 1945.) 4 The city of Osiā, formerly known as Melāpura Pațšana, is the original place
of the Osavāla Jainas. There is a Jaina temple having a very big image of Lord Mahāvira. According to Pt. Gaurishankar Ojha, this temple was built in circa V. S. 830 in the time of King Vatsarāja. In the N. E. of this temple there is a mānastambha, a pillar. It has an inscription dated V.S. 952 (896 A.D.) (JTSS-Vol. I, pt. 2, 174).
769

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C. 774 Āma, the Pratihāra king of Kanauj got installed a lepya image of Lord
Mahāvīra, 23 hands in height, in the fort of Gwalior in the temple, at the hands
of Bappabhațți Sūri in about V. S. 830 ( A.D. 774).-(JPI-pt., p. 526). C. 775 Haribhadra Sūri, pupil of Jinabhata and known also as 'Virahānka', was the
writer of the Jaina school, which became alive to the use of Sanskrit as the cultural language of the nation; for, the Prākrits had passed beyond the stage of a spoken language. Haribhadra describes himself as the son of Mahattarā Yākini, who, an ordinary nun had become instrumental in his conversion to Jainism according to tradition. He lived in the latter half of the 8th Century A.D. and wrote many commentaries of the Āgamas in Sanskrit, following Siddhasena Divākara who had turned to Sanskrit for the propagation of his faith and philosophy. These texts before him were generally explained by means of Prākrit commentaries like Niryukti, Cūrni and Bhāsya. Haribhadra's example was followed by others; and the tendency culminated in the great Hemacandra Sūri of Gujarat, who lived at the courts of the Caulukya
kings Siddharāja and Kumārapāla in the 12th Century A.D. C. 776 A poor Mārwādi from Pāli, called Kāku Ranka, came to Valabhi to try his
fortune there. Within a short period he prospered ; and it is narrated in bardic tradition, that once dissatisfied with the king, he invited the Mlecchas to destroy the city and assisted them with money. This is believed to have happened in C. 776 A.D.-(Merutunga, Prabandha cintamani ; Sachhau, Alberuni's India, I,
P. 192). C. 776 Silāditya VI ( 762 A.D.-C. 776 A.D.), the last Maitraka king had all the
imperial titles of the family (P.M.P.) as known from the Aliņā plates of Valabhi Samvat 447 (766 A.D.). Thus, though the Valabhi kingdom had suffered a contraction, the Maitrakas had not yet bowed to the Rāştrakūtas. Saurāṣtra was again invaded by the Tājjikas (Arabs) in 159 A.H. (776 A.D.) (Elliot, Vol. II, p. 245), this time with great force, so that the township of of Bārada easily fell to them. The Mleccha armies under Hammir invaded and destroyed Valabhi, and, in consequence, the Hindu and the Jaina statuary had to be removed to Srimāla.-( Jinaprabhasūri, Vividhatirthakalpa).
The exact date of the sack of Valabhi is still undetermined. In the Jaina authorities it is variously stated to have taken place, in Vikrama Samvat 375 ( 319 A.D.)-( Jinavijayaji, Purātanaprabandha Saṁgraha ); in Vik. S. 475 (419 A.D.)-(Merutunga, Prabandha Cintamani); in Vik. S. 573 ( 517 A.D.)(Rajasekharasūri, Prabandha Kośa); and in Vik. S. 845 ( 789 A.D.)-(Jinaprabhasüri, Vividhatirthakalpa).
The last date ( 789 A.D.) seems to come closer to the truth. But even this is unacceptable, as the Valabhi kingdom was not in existence in 783 A.D. when Jinasena wrote his Jaina Harivamśa in Vardhamānapura, (Wadhwān) which

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was finished in S. year 705 (expired) i.e. 783 A.D., when there were reigning, in various directions, determined with reference to Vardhamānapura--in the north, Indrāyudha; in the South, Srivallabha; in the east, Vatsarāja, King of Avanti; and in the west, Varāha or Jayavarāha, in the territory of the Sauryas,
identified with Saurāṣtra.-(K. Virji, Ancient History of Saurāṣtra, pp. TOI-103). C. 776
The rulers of Valabhi were broad-minded and altogether Catholic in their outlook. However, Saivism was the royal religion of the Maitrakas. The Bull and the Trident, the well-known emblems of God Śiva, were usually found on the seals and coins, respectively, and the term paramamāhésvara before the names of the Valabhi kings in their copperplates, go to prove the same.-(Bhandarkar, Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Sects, p. 119).
All the Valabhi rulers with the exception of Dhruvasena I (519-40 A.D.), who was a 'Bhāgavata', and Dharapațţa (550 A.D.), who was a devotee of the Sun, were followers of the Saiva cult. Guhasena ( 553-569 A.D.) has, however, in one of his inscriptions called himself a Buddhist'-a paramopāsaka, perhaps to please his cousin Duddā (who may have been either a child-widow or a maiden, and had become a Buddhist nun ), and also out of regard for the
learned and virtuous Buddhist monks, who were his contemporaries. C. 779 The Saindhava king Agguka I, (774-794 A.D.) son and successor of
Krşnarāja I, seems to be an important king of the Saindhava dynasty.-(A. S.
Altekar, EI, xxxvi, 192 ). 779
The Rāştrakūta practice was to depute younger princes and cousins as Provincial Governors. Indrarāja of the Gujarat Branch had appointed his younger son Govinda as a Provincial Governor.-(EI, III, p. 53: Altekar, The
Rāstrakūtas, p. 153). C. 780 In C. 780 A.D. Vatsarāja, the Pratihāra king of Gurjaradeśa, conquered
Ānarta and Saurāşțra, and became the suzerain of most of the kingdoms of North India. It was during his reign that Uddyotana Sūri wrote his Kuvalaya
māla at Jhālor, and Jinasena wrote his Harivamśa Purāna at Wadhwān. A.D. Under orders from the Khalifa Mahdi, the successor of Khalifa Mansur, the 778 Governor of Sindh, Abd'ul Malik attacked Gujarat again, and conquered Bārbūt
near Broach. This was, however, followed by an epidemic in the Arab army which compelled them to return (778 A.D.).—Sir William Muir, The Caliphate :
Its Rise, Decline & Fall, Edinburgh, 1924. p. 471., S. S. Nadwi, op. cit., p. 16). 779 The Kuvalayamālā composed at Jābālipur (modern Jhālor in N. Rajputana)
in $. 700 ( = 779 A.D.), when one day was less in Saka year 700 (i.e. 835 Vikram Samvat) is a religious tale ( Dharmakatha ) narrated in prose and verse on the pattern of Sanskrit Campū-Kavya. Its author is Uddyotanasūri, also, called Dāksinyacinha, pupil of Tattvācārya. He lived when Sri Vatsarāja ruled

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779
779
the city. He was very well-versed in all Prākrits, and pretty well acquainted with the important provincial languages current in his times.-(Muni Jinavijayaji, Bhāratiya Vidyā, Vol. II, Pt. I, November 1940).
He mentions 18 such provincial tongues, quoting 2 or 3 characteristic words from each, in the course of the story of his hero, as he visits a busy market of a great commercial town.-( Pandit Lalchand Gandhi, Introduction, p. 93, to A pabhramśakāvyatrayī, GOS. No. 17).
The difference in the general traits of people staying in different areas are expressed by the author of the Kuvalayamālā thus: “There I saw the Gurjjara people (people of Southern Rajputana and Maru ) : they have strong bo lies; are nourished by ghee and butter; are devout, clever in negotiations, and speak 'nau re bhallau'. Then I saw the people of Lāța; they part their hair; they besmear their bodies with scent; their bodies are beautiful to look at; they speak 'amhe kāuṁ tumehan'.
Virabhadra, a Jaina monk had got built a magnificent lofty temple of Lord Rşabha in Jābālīpura.-(Colophon V. 19 of Kuvalayamālā, quoted in JTSS Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 188). This temple must have been built not later than V. S. 835, the year in which Kuvalayamālā was completed.
Khalifah Mu'tamid appointed Yaqūb ibn lais Saffari, Governor of Sindh, from which date it became virtually independent of the Khilāfat.-( H. 157). -(EHI, i, 453).
The Pāla king Dharmapāla ( who is referred to as the Lord of Northern India'-Uttarāpathasvāmin in Udayasundarikatha by Soddhala, a Gujarāti --Kāyastha poet of the 11th Century A.D.) founded the Vikramasiia Vidyapitha in the North, on the top of a mountain, near the river Gangā in Magadha. His father Gopāla (C. 750-770 A.D.), the founder of the Pala dynasty, had revived the Nālandā University,
The claim of Ujjayini, the capital of Avanti, rests on a much strong piece of evidence than Jhālor, where one Ranahasti Vatsarāja ruled, according to the text of Kuvalayamála. Nāgabhat's grandson Vatsarāja is described as Avantibhūbhrta in the colophon of the Jaina Harivansa, which also notices the the location of other kingdoms :
शाकेष्वद्वशतेषु सप्तषु दिशां पञ्चोत्तरेघूत्तराम् । पातीन्द्रायुध नाम्नि कृष्णनृपजे श्रीवल्लभे दक्षिणान् ।। पूर्व श्रीमदवन्तीभूभृतनृपे वत्साधिराजे परं ।
सौर्यानामधिमण्डले जययुते वीरे वराहेऽवती ॥ The passage informs us that Harivamsa was completed in Saka Samvat 705 [(expired ) = 783-784 A.D.] when these kings were ruling in various parts, determined with reference to a place named Vardhamānapura, (Wadhwān, in
770-810
783-784
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788
Jhälāvād Division of Saurāştra ); in the north Indrayudha (identified with Indrarāja, the brother of the Rāştrakūta king Dhruva), whom he had left in charge of Lateśvara mandala, with presumably Gujarat and other Rāştrakūța possessions in the north.-(R. C. Majmudar, Journal Department of Letters, Vol. X, p. 37, fn.2); in the South Srivallabha; in the east Vatsarāja, king of Avanti (Ujjayini), and in the west Varaha or Jayavarāha in the territory of the Sauras, i.e., the Southern part of the Saurāṣtra peninsula. Dr. D. R. Bhandarkar has suggested an amendment to the translation as: “In the east the illustrious king of Avanti ; in the West, king Vatsrāja : and in the territory of the Sauras, the victorious and brave Varāha."-( JBBRAS, XXI, p. 421, fn. 4).
This Jaina Harivaṁsa mentions the name of Vatsarāja of the Pratihāra family as king of Avanti, and a contemporary of Dhruva, the Rāşțrakūţa ruler of the Deccan (called in this stanza stagit of the South). This reference strengthens the inference that the Pratihāras were established at Ujjayini before they migrated to Kanauj.-(IA., XV, p. 147).
P.M.P. Karkarāja II of South Gujarat extended his sway over Central and North Gujarat and shifted his capital to Khețaka (Kheda ), as implied by the references in the Hilol plates of Mahāsāmanta Candrāditya-( Buddhiprakāśa XCIX, 294 ff.). This must have been facilitated by the sudden fall of Maitraka power at Valabhi.-(H. G. Shastri,' Rise of the Rāştrakūta Rule in Gujarat'. XVIIth session, I.H.C., 1954).
Sankarācārya, the famous Brahmanical reformer went to establish the Sāradāmatha at Dwarka; and his visit strengthened the position of Saivism in this part of the country. His visit to Dwarka is mentioned by Mādhavācārya in the poem Sankaravijava.—( Also see, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. XI, p. 186; Durgashankar Shastri, Saivadharma no Sanksipta Itihāsa, pp. 45-6).
Sankarācārya who hailed from Kāladi in Cerā country (Kerala State) revolutionised the spiritual outlook of men in India within a very short life of thirty-two years. His death is placed in $. 742 ( 820 A.D.). There are various views about Sankara's date, placing him between sixth and ninth Century A.D.. Justice Telang, places Sankara as early as 590 A.D. (IA., XI, 175, 263; See, Winternitz's History of Indian Literature, III, 434, fn. I).
Among the disciples of Sankara, the most prominent was Sureśvara. He is identified with Mandanamiśra, who was placed in charge of the Säradāmatha at Dwarka. Out of the four Pithas (centres) or Maţhas believed to have been established by Sankara in the four corners of India, the one at Dwarka, had its spiritual jurisdiction extending over the region of the Sindhu river, the country of Sauvira (including Kaccha and Rājasthān), Saurāṣtra, Mahārāșțra and the intervening territories in the West :
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788
C. 790
सिन्धु-सौबीर-सौराष्ट्र-महाराष्ट्रस्तथान्तराः । देशाः पश्चिमदिक्स्था ये शारदापीठ-सत्कृताः ।।
-HOTF119, . 80. A decree (āgñāpatra ) from it was respected by society as implicitly as the command of the king.
Mahāṣāmanta Candrāditya, who ruled over Harsapura (Harsol) Vişaya under the supremacy of Paramarājādhiraja Kakka II, issued a grant of land to a Brāhmaṇa of Kāśyapa gotra, who was an emigrant of Sānand. The land was situated at Hilohila ( Hilol in Ahmedabad District.)-(H. G. Shastri, Hilol Plates, Buddhi-Parkāśa', XCIX, 294 ff.).
Revenue records were carefully preserved in the Râșțrakūţa administration, as well as during the Maitraka regime. A renewal of a grant of land by king Dhruvasena II in 639 A.D. is recorded; because the previous grant issued by Droņazimha had been in abeyance during the intervening period.
Dhruva I of the Gujarat Rāştrakūța branch had alienated a village named Trenna in favour of a Brāhmaṇa. This grant was renewed by his grandson Dhruva II when he ascended the throne. When Gujarat Branch came to an end by the annexation of its dominions by the Mālkhed house, a descendant of the previous donees is seen approaching Indra III to get his title confirmed by the new administration.-(EI, IX, p. 24).
According to a Jaina tradition, Hammira, a ruler of Gajjana (Gazni) destroyed the city of Valabhi in V.S. 845 ( 789 A.D.)-(Vividhatirthakalpa-XVII, p. 29). A number of Jaina idols etc. were removed from Valabhi to Bhinnamāla.-(SHJL, P. 146).
In Modherā which is six to seven gavyutas from Päțan, (Vide JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 71 ), there was a Jaina temple of Vijayadeva described in Jiva Jivābhigama (JPI-pt. I, p. 522 ). Jinaprabha has referred to Modherä as a modern tirtha' of Lord Mahāvira in Vividha-tirtha-kalpa.-(IX, p. 19).
According to Prabhāvakacarita (srriga XI) Bappabhatti Sūri (born V. S. 800, died V.S. 895 ) used to daily visit this tirtha, where at the age of six, he came across Siddhasena Sūri of Modha 'Gaccha. This Sūri had come there only a day earlier, from Pädala, four miles to the east of 'Sankheśvara tirtha.-(Ibid, p. 525).
The Gurjara-Pratihāra king Mihira Bhoja, king of Gopagiri (Gwalior), respected as Gurus, Govinda Sūri and Nanna Sūri, the spiritual brothers of Bappabhațți Sūri.-(JPI, Pt. I, p. 534).
Nanna Sûri had composed a drama, narrating the life of Emperor Bharata; and he, along with Govinda Sūri as chief author, staged this drama in the presence of King Ama ( Nāgāvaloka or Nägäbhata II).
789
C. 794
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794 Nāgārjuna, pupil of Bappabhatti Sūri belonged to village Dhankapuri
(Dhānka), which is near Dhankagiri, 30 miles N. W. from Junagadh and six miles from the station of Pānoli.-(Vide JTSS, Vol. I, Pt. I, p. 131). The two rasakuppis prepared by this Nāgārjuna, were kept in Dhankagiri.-( JPI, Pt. I, p. 336). Dhanka and four other kūļas (summits) had, as stated in Vividhatīrthakalpa (I, v. 9 & 10), rasa-kupis, mines of jewels, and various sorts of medi
cinal herbs. C. 794 The Raştrakūta king Govinda III, ( Prabhūtavarşa I, Jagattunga I, Vallabha
narendra, son and successor of Dhruva) attacked the Gurjara king; and some time before 812 A. D. conquered the province of Lāța (Central and Southern Gujarat), which he made over to his brother Indra, who founded there the Second Branch of the Rāştrakūța dynasty of Gujarat. Mālava next submitted to him, and advancing to the Vindhyas, he received the submission of a king,
Māraśarva.-(IA. vi., 59 ff; Rādhanpur Copper-plate, S. 794 A. D.). 794 The Rāştrakūta king Govindarāja III (Jagat-tunga I) was reigning (794
813), in succession to his father Dhruvarāja. He defeated a league of twelve princes, reduced the Gurjaras, and also the provinces of Lāța (Central and
Southern Gujarat) and Mālava. C. 800 Carakasamhitā, while speaking on the adverse effects of the excessive use
of salt, enumerates the people of Saurāṣtra, along with those of Valhika and Sindhu-sauvira, as taking salt even with milk. This medical treatise has been placed in and or 3rd Century B. C. by Dr. P. C. Roy; Dr. Keith, however, places it in the 8th Century A.D.-( Vimāna-sthāna, I, 21 ).
It is said in Carakasamhitā of the people of Aśmaka and Avanti, that the oil and ghee are wholesome to them.-(Cf. 373 tafutat a TF 4148 ya 1)
(Cikitsasthāna XXX-300). C. 794-814 The Saindhava king Rāņaka, son and successor of Agguka I, seems to have
reigned circa G.E. 475-495.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 192). 800 Kalla, described as a great king (Mahāmahāpati), founded a Cālukya
dynasty in Saurāṣtra.-(EI., IX, 2 ff.). C. 800 The Rāstrakūța king Govindarāja III, successor of Dhruvarāja, vanquished
king Dharmapāla of Gauda as well as King Nāgabhata II of Mālava, who had conquered Turuşka, Ānarta, Mālava etc.-(A. S. Altekar, The Rastrakūtas, 64 ff.). He passed the rainy season at Sribhavana (Sarbhon near Amod), and entrusted the territory of Lāța to his younger brother, Indrarāja, who became
the founder of the Gujarat Branch' of the Rășțrakūtas.-(Ibid, 68 ff.). C. 800 The Gujarat Branch of the Rāştrakūtas commences with Indra II who was
the younger brother of Govinda III, who had put Indra in complete charge of
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Plate LXIV
VLON
Torana on Meśvo river, near ruins of Hariscandra Temple, Sāmalāji.

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Plate LXV
(A) Architectural remains from Kadvär, near Prabhasa. (p. 271)

COOLING
CENTURY, FROST PATAN,
(B) Architectural remains, from Patan, Baroda Museum. (p. 270)

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Southern Gujarat. The Surat Plates describe this event in the words &744
HECH 98 1048 - rareft-ze 7 | This event took place in C. 800 A.D. C. 800 Upendra-rāja (Krsnarāja ), with whom begins the pedigree of the Paramāras
of Mālava, lived about 800 A.D. He was followed by his son Vairisimha I, his son Siyaka I, his son Vākpatirāja I, his son Vairisimha II (Vajrata), his son Siyaka II, etc.
Jejja Rāştrakūta, was reigning in Central India, (C. 800 ). His elder brother defeated Karņāța armies and became king of Lāța.
About this time lived Kapardin I, with whom begins the dynasty of the
Šilāhāras of the Northern Konkan. C. 800 Haribhadra Sūri, a Brāhmin of Chitod and son of the royal purohita, in spite
of his background and training as a Brāhmaṇa, was attracted to Jainism and was converted by the nun Yākini Mahattară. He spent the best part of his life in Gujarat and the adjoining parts of Rājasthān.
He wrote many treatises on the Nyāyapraveśa of the Buddhist logician Dinnāga, and many Jaina canonical works. His principal contribution was to bring the thought of the Svetāmbara Jainas to the high intellectual level of the Hindus and the Buddhists. He is remembered for his Samarāicca-kahā and
Dhürtākhyāna, both composed in Mahārāştri Präkrit. C. 800 The Gurus practising Dakşiņācāra' and coming from the West are des
cribed as the best in the Brihat Gautamiya Tantra, those from the South are middling, those from Gauda and Kamarupa are inferior to the preceding, and those from Kalinga are the worst.
An amplified description in Jābāla' puts the Gurus from Madhyadeśa ( Aryāvarta ), Kuruksetra, Lāța (Nața, Nāta ), Konkana, Antarvedī, Pratisthāna and Avanti at the top; those from Gauda, Sālva, Sura (?), Magadha, Kerala, Kośala and Daśārņa in the middle; and those hailing from Karņāța and the banks of the Narmadā, the Reva, and Kaccha and the Kalindas at the bottom
of the scale.-( The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 321-22). C. 800 Vāmana, author of the Kavyālankāravritti, may have flourished about this
date. He cannot be placed later than the middle of the tenth century, since he is quoted by Abhinavagupta ( 993-1013 A. D.). He must have flourished before Anandavardhana ( C. 850 A. D.), who, according to Abhinavagupta, composed a verse about him. He quotes in his Kāvyālańkāravyitti from Māgha's Siśupālavadha, which is then the other limit. Māgha is believed to have flourished in
the latter half of the 7th century. C. Poets of Lăța appear to possess distinctive literary traits. A kind of poetic 800-850 ctyle or diction ( Riti) favoured by the authors of Lăța had acquired the name C30

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C.
Udbhata, in his Kävyälankärasaṁgraha (Ch. I) speaks of a variety of Anu800-850 prasa (alliteration) called Latanuprāsa, which is mentioned again by Bhoja
(11th Cent. A. D.) in his Sarasvatikantḥābharaṇa (Ch. II).
806
806
807
808
C. 808
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
of Lati' or Latiya'. Rudrata (C. 800-850 A. D.) was the first to enumerate 'Latiya Riti in his Kavyalankara.
808
The Lati Rili is found mentioned again in the Agnipurāna (beginning of the 9th Century); in Bhoja, who added two more to the existing list, viz. Magadhi and Avantika; in older Vägbhața (first half of 12th Cent.), the author of Vägbhațalankara, and in Viśvanatha, the author of Sahityadarpana (first half of the 14th cent.).
These references show that the Lața poets had, formed a peculiar style (Riti) and a peculiar way of expression (Alankara) which were so striking as to get a place among the standard works on Rhetorics, in the beginning of the 9th Cent. A. D. This will date back the literary activity of the Laṭas by a century or two. Thus at about the 7th or 8th Cent. A.D., the literary activities in the Lata were going on a larger scale, both qualitatively as well as quantitatively.
A Persian poem, ' Qissa-i-Sanjan' composed by Bahman Kaykobåd Sanjānā about the year 1600 A.D., recounts the tale of the wanderings of the band of Iranians who ultimately settled at Sanjan. The author does not give any specific date, but mentions the duration of the stay of the emigrants in different places, mostly in round numbers. Emigrants are said to have arrived at Diu. in Saurăstra about 806 A.D. year, and after staying there for 19 years settled at Sanjan in 825 A.D. Scholars, however, are not inclined to take the poem as historical.(See Year 716, infra).
Yogaraja, the Capotkața king of Aphilväd, is said to have succeeded his father Vanaraja.-(Ref; 746 A.D.).
About this time the Râştraküța Govindaraja III wrested Lata from the Capotkatas, and made his brother Indrarāja its viceroy.
Bagumra Copper Plate Inscription of Dhruvaraja of S. 789 (807 A.D.)(IA., XII. p. 170).
Radhanpur Copper Plate of Govinda III of S. 730 (808 A.D.).-(EI, VI, p. 236).
About 808 A. D., the Gurjara Pratihāra power suffered a severe blow from the Räṣṭrakūtas. Pratihāra king Nagabhața II was defeated by the Rāṣṭrakūṭa king Govinda III. Their rivals, the Pālas took advantage of this, to establish their supremacy in Northern India.
It was during the stay of the Rastrakūta king Govinda at Sribhavana. (modern Sarbhon in Broach Dist.) when he was welcomed by king Māraśarva

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808
C. 810
C. 811
812-813
that Amoghavarşa was born in the monsoon of 808 A.D. - Sanjān Plates, EI., XVIII, p. 246).
The Paramāra king P. M. P. Pșthyivallabha: Prabhūtavarşa Śrivallabha Narendradeva, successor of P. M. P. Dhārāvarşadeva, in an edict issued from Mayūrakhandi gave in grant the village of Rattajjuna ( Ratajan ) in Rāsiyana (Rasin) Bhukti, to Parameśvarabhațţa, resident of Tigavi (Tugaon). The grant was issued on the occasion of a solar eclipse in $. 730 (Sarvajit) Srāvaņa ba. 15, Sürya-grahaņa-parva ( 808 A.D.).—( Rädhanpur Plates : EI, VI, 239).
Halāyudha, author of the Kavi-rahasya or Kavi-guhva; according to a Gujarat copy of this work, its hero was one of the Kțşņas of the Rāştrakūta line, possibly the first of that name ( 760-80 A. D.).
One Halāyudha is reputed to be the author of the Abhidhāna-ratnamālā : these two may be identical. Weber placed the latter work to about the end of the 11th century.
The Rāştrakūta king Indrarāja was succeeded by his son Karkarāja Suvarṇavarşa, who served to Govindarāja III, of the main line, for the protection of Mālava, as a bolt of door against the king of Gurjara-deśa, i.e. Nāgabhata II. This power was shared by his brother Govindarāja Prabhūtavarşa.
The Rāştrakūta viceroy Karkarāja Suvarņavarşa of Lāța issued from Siddhasami the grant of Vaţapadraka grāma, situated within the 'Ankoţtaka Eighty-four'. The site of Vațapadraka is represented by modern Baroda (the headquarters of Baroda District) and that of Ankoţtaka by the village of Akoțā lying to the west, opposite the railway line, as specified in the grant. This was possibly on the trade-route from Central India with the ancient port of Bharukaccha at the other end. The excavations near Akoţā bear testimony to the antiquity of the site.-(B. Subbarao, Baroda Through the Ages, M. S. University of Baroda, 1952).
Karkarāja (Kakka ) Suvarṇavarşa was ruling in 812-817 A.D. as Rāştrakūta Viceroy of Gujarat, in succession to his father Indrarāja. Karkarāja's brother Govindarāja was co-viceroy in 813-817.
Govinda III, the Rāştrakūța, attacked the Gurjara king, and some time before 812 A.D., conquered the province of Lāța (Central and Southern Gujarat), which he made over to his brother Indra; and founded there the Second Branch of the Rāştrakūța dynasty of Gujarat.
The recipient of the grant was one Brāhmaṇa Bhānu of Vätsyāyana gotra, an emigrant from Valabhi. The grant was issued on the occasion of Mahāvaisākhi ( the Full Moon Day of Vaišākha ) in S. 734 (812 A.D.) and composed by Nemāditya, son of Mahāsāndhivigrahādhikrta Durgabhata. The Dūtaka of the royal edict was Prince Dantivarman.-( Baroda Plates, IA., XII 156 ff.).
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813
814-880
Mahäsämanta Buddhavarşa of Salukika dynasty, (who was ruling over Siharakkhi-Twelve', received from King Govindarāja, the younger son of Indrarāja of Lāța), issued the grant of village Govațțana situated in Siharakkhitwelve' on the occasion of Vijaya Saptami' in the Saka year 735 Nandana ) Pauşa Suddha 7 (813 A.D.). The grant was received by several Brāhmaṇas of different gotras. It was composed by Kșşņa, son of Nanna.-(Torkhede Plates, EI, III, 53).
Amoghavarşa I was a devout follower of Jainism, and yet he was such an ardent believer in the Hindu goddess Mahālakṣmi, that he actually cut off one of his fingers and offered it to her, being led to believe that an epidemic from which his kingdom was suffering would vanish away by that sacrifice.-( Sanjān Copperplates, EI., XVIII, p. 248; Altekar, The Rāştrakūtas, p. 273).
Part of the donation of Bhadravişņu, given to the Buddhist Vihāra at Kaņ. heri, in the reign of Amoghavarşa I, was for purchasing books. This monastery like the one at Valabhi was obviously maintaining a library, which was very probably required for the school connected with it.-(Altekar, The Răstrakűțas, p. 402; IA, VII, p. 67).
Krşņarāja II, who succeeded his father Rāņaka in cir. G. E. 495, seems to have reigned for a short period of about ten years only.-(A. S. Altekar, EI; XXVI, 193 ).
Nāgabhata II of the Pratihāra dynasty extended his sway over Gujarat, Mālava and Saurāṣtra.--(Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, III 62 f.).
814
c.
814-824
815
815
815
Nagabhaţa, Pratihāra king of Bhinmāl, was reigning in succession to his father Vatsarāja. He conquered Cakrāyudha of Kanauj, and establishad himself in the latter's capital. He was succeeded by his son Rāmabhadra and grandson Bhojadeva I (843 A.D.).
Gūvaka I, of the dynasty of Cahamănas (Cohāņs ) of Śākambhari (Sambhar ) in Rajputana was reigning about this time, apparently as a feudatory of the Pratihāra Nāgabhața.
We notice in the Buchkalā ( Bilara Dist., Jodhpur State) inscription of V.S. 872=815 A.D. (EI, IX, p. 199) in the time of the Paramabhattāraka Mahārājādhirāja Parameśvara Nāgabhața, son of the M.P. Vatsarāja, that some image was set-up after building the temple in the village of Rajyaghangakam-the old name of Buchkalā, in Bhumbhuvāka of the Avāngānāka sept, whose queen Jāyāvati was the grand-daughter of the Pratihāra Bāpuka, and daughter of Jajjaka. It is, thus, clear that Nāgabhața's empire included in 815 A. D. Buchkalā, which is further down Mertā in the Jodhpur State.-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihäras, p. 26)
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816
817
818
The Rāştrakūta King Prabhūtavarşa Govindarāja issued to Brāhmaṇa Bhogika, an imigrant from Gaudadeśa, the grant of a village in Vahaula Eighty-four', on Saka-nrpa-kālātita S. 739, Vaišākha bahula 7 (816 A. D.). The grant was composed by Mahāsāndhivigrahika Jajjulla.-(Dabhoi Plates, H. I. G., 3, 125 A ).
The Rāştrakūta king Suvarṇavarşa Karkarāja of Lāța, issued from Khetaka the grant of the village of Samipadraka situated in the region between Mahi and Narmadā, as well as the village Sambandhi in Mankaņikā Bhukti on the occasion of the Lunar Eclipse on the Full Moon day of Māgha in S. 738 (817 A.D.). The grantee was Govaddi, son of Upādhyāya Bādaddi of Bharadvāja gotra, resident of Bādāvi. The Dütaka of the royal edict was Bhațţa Droņamma, which in its turn was composed by Sandhivigrahika Nemāditya.-( Navsari Plates, JBBRAS XX, 131 ff.).
The copper-plates, with a ring and a seal of Garuda with folded hands, found from Aņustu (near Karjan) of the Rāştrakūta king Karka Suvarņavarşa were issued from the capital Khetaka, which was the head-quarters of the Gujarat Branch of the Rāştrakūtas in the Lāța-mandala.
It records the gift of a village Majjargaội, which was included in the Bharukaccha District, to a Brāhmaṇa Baţţa-Sri Bhatta, son of Kukkura, a resident of Bharukaccha, who belonged to the Vasiştha gotra, and was a student of Rgveda, for the augmentation of religious merit and renown in this world and in the next, of our parents and of ourselves', by the performance of the five Yajñas, by the king : ( ATTIMET a teng (6h goratii)
The dūtaka was Baţtaśri Droņamma and the chief scribe was Sri Nemāditya, son of Sri Durgabhatta. The record ends with the sign-manual of Karkarājadeva, son of Srimad Indrarāja. The date is the full-moon day of Vaišākha of $. 739 (= 24th April, 818).- A. S. Gadre, Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, p. 25-34).
Five grants of Karka-Suvarņavarşa are known as shown below:-. . (1) The Baroda Plates of $. 734 (IA, XXI, p. 156); (2) The Navsāri Plates of Ś. 738 ( JBBRAS, XX, p. 131 ); (3) The Anastu Plates of S. 739 (Important Incriptions, Baroda State,
p. 25-34); (4) The Surat Plates of $. 743 (EI, XXI, p. 133 ); (5) The Brāhmaṇapalli Plates of $. 746 (EI, XXII, p. 77).
Out of these, only the Surat Plates of $. 743 record a gift of a field to a Jaina teacher; the rest are grants made to learned Brāhmaṇas..
Govindarāja Prabhūtavarşa, son of Indrarāja, issued to Brāhmaṇa Soma, who hailed from Valabhi and belonged to śāņpilya gotra, the grant of a field adjoining the Satrunjayi (Satrunji) river, on the occasion of a solar eclipse in
819
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820
C. 820
821
the Valabhī year 500 ( 819 A.D.).-(Devali Plates: JUPHS, XXIV-XXV 196 ff.)
This grant contains the earliest specific reference to the Valabhi Era (aut HTCT).
Kalla was succeeded by his son, whose name is not legible in the inscription. -(EI., IX, 9 ff.).
The Capa prince Vikramāditya was ruling at Vardhamana (modern Wadhwan) about 820 A. D. His son was Addaka, his son Pulakesin, his sons Dhruvabhata and Dharanivarāha ( 914 A. D.). Karkarāja Rāştrakūta, was reigning in Central India (C. 820 A. D.) in succession to his father Jejja. He defeated Nāgāvaloka (apparentiy Nāgabhata of Bhinmal).
Gopāla I, with whom the Pāla Dynasty of Bengal first rose into prominence lived about 820 A. D. Apparently he obtained Magadha (Bihar); but was defeated by Vatsarāja, the Gurjara king of Rajputana.
The Râştrakūta king Suvarṇavarşa Karkarāja issued, from the victorious camp on the bank of the river Vankikā (Vānki), the grant of a step-well at the village of Ambāpāțaka in Nāgasărikā on the Full Moon day of Vaišākha in S.E. 743 (821 A. D.). Aạbā pāțaka is represented by modern Amadpur on the bank of the Pūrņā river (to be identified with Purāvi river mentioned in the grant).
The opening verse in the Rāştrakūța copper-plates pays homage to both Śiva and Vişnu. Their seal is sometimes the Garuda, the vehicle of Vişņu, and sometimes Siva in the posture of a seated Yogin. However, there is a verse in the Surat plates of Karka ( 821 A.D,; EI., XXI ), stating that Indra, the father of the donor, did not bow his head even before any god, Sankara excepted, which smacks a little of sectarian narrowness :
मुक्तवा च सर्वभुवनेश्वरमादिदेवम् ।
ala-arahisar haft || EI, XXI. Karka Suvarņavarşa of the Gujarat Branch of Rāstrakūtas, himself a staunch Saiva, had given a field to a Jaina Vihāra at Navsari.-(Surat Plates of 821 A.D., EI. XXI ).
It is also known that the contemporary Hūņas, Toramāņa and Mihirakula were, both, worshippers of the Sun.
The reference to a private Sun-temple in a copper-plate of the Majtraka King Silāditya I further support the existence of Sun-worship ( Bühler, Dhank Plates of 290, A IX, p. 237). The Gurjara kings-King Dadda I and Dadda II who were in possession of land round about Bharukaccha were also devotees of the Sun during that period.
The grant is dedicated to A parājitaguru for the maintenance of the vasatikā (monastery) at Sāṁbapura ( that lay to the north of Ambāpāțaka) and the
821
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824
824
C. 825
C. 825
827
827
RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD
Caityālava which was situated in the locality of Nagasarikā (Navsari). The grant was composed by the Mahāsāndhivigrahadhipati.
2.9
The grant opens and ends with an invocation to Jina. It records the gift by the king of a field to a Jaina teacher.-(Surat Plates; EI, XXI 133).
Krsparāja II was succeeded by his son Agguka II, who was a minor.(A. S. Altekar, EI, XXVI, 193).
The Rastrakūta king Suvarnavarsa Karkarāja issued to Bhatta Nāgakumāra of Kaundinya gotra a grant of the village Brāhmaṇapallikä situated in 'Mahişaka Forty-two. The grant was made on the occasion of the Full-Moon day of Vaisakha in S. 746 (824 A.D.). The Dutaka of the edict was Durgarāja. The grant was composed by Sandhivigrahika Nārāyaṇa, and was attested by Amoghavarṣa.-(EI, XXII, 77).
Rise of the Paramāra dynasty of Malwa. It was founded by Krsna Upendra, a prince belonging probably to a branch of the Paramāra rulers of Acalgadh or Mount Abu, on his conquest of Malava, early in the ninth century A.D. His immediate suceessors were Vairīsimha I, Siyaka I, Vākpati I, and Vairīsimha II or Vajratswamin,-all directly descended, one from the other.
The early Yadavas, ancestors of the Yadavas of Devagiri, ruled the district of Sennadesa, a region which extended from Nasik to Devagiri or Daulatabad, and was partly covered by the present Khandesa.
Hemadri's Vrata-khanda represents them as migrating thither from Dvārāvati or Dwarka, in the reign of Drdhaprahara, their first seat having been at Mathura.
A gift, to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya) at Kävi by the Răştrakūta King Prabhutavarṣa Govindaraja, shows that princely support was not all-together lacking.
The Sun-cult must have existed prior to the rise of Bhagavatism; for the Chhandogya Upanisad, one of the oldest Upanisads, refers to Krsna Devakiputra as a disciple of Ghora Angiras, a worshipper of the Sun.
The Mandsor stone-inscription of the time of Kumärgupta I, and Indore copper-plate grant of Skandagupta show that the Sun-worship which prevailed in Central India was patronised by the guilds.

The Rastrakūta king Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja at Bharukaccha dedicated the village Thürṇāvi (represented by modern Thanavi in Jambusar Taluka) to the temple of the Sun-God Jayaditya situated at Kotipura in the Käpikā (Kāvi) division. The Dutaka of the royal edict was Bhatta Kumuda. The edict was issued on the occasion of Mahāvaiśākhi (the Full-Moon day of Vaisakha) in S. 749 (827 A.D.) and composed by Yogeśvara, son of Avolokita, the Head of the Department of Peace and War.- Kavi Plates: IA, V, 144 ff.)

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830
830
832
834
Vikramārka of Cāpa family, founded a royal dynasty at Vardhamana ( Wadhvan).
Bāhukadhavala, the grandson of Kalla seems to be a powerful feudatory of the Pratihāra sovereign Nāgabhata II (Munshi, GG., III, 70). He destroyed in battle Dharma (Dharmapāla ), conquered kings of high status, and vanquished the army of Karņāțaka.--(EI., IX, 2 ff.).
A grant of land situated in Pacchatrì (Pachtardi) Visaya was issued to a Brāhmaṇa of the Sankstya gotra, a resident of Someśvara (Somanātha), by Mahāsāmant Jaika ( Jayasena ) I during the reign of his nephew Agguka II, on the occasion of Uttarāyaṇa of Samvat 888, ( 832 A.D.) on the 12th day of an unspecified month ( which seems to be Pausa). The Dūtaka of the charter was Poet Bāla, and was composed by Kapila, a Śaka.-(Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI 197 ff.).
Jaika I, the step-uncle of Agguka II, completed his plans of usurping the throne of his minor nephew. In a later grant which is undated, he mentions himself as the ruling king, and omits all reference to his elder brother and his son in the genealogy. The grant was issued to a Brāhmaṇa of the Vatsa gotra, a resident of Bhillamāla (Bhinmal). The land was situated in the Pacchatri vişaya mentioned in his earlier record. --( Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI, 203 ff., 193 ).
Bappabhațți Sūri succeeded in regaining Girnar tirtha from the hands of the Digambaras.--( Prabhāvakacarita XI, v. 691-701). This event may be assigned to a date not later than V. S. 890 (834 A. D.) when Ama ( who had been to Girnar along with Bappabhatti) died.-(Vide, three verses of Siddhastava', in Caitya-vandană--- Prabhāvakacarita XI, v. 702).
According to the Jaina traditions, Ama alias Nāgávaloka and Nagabhața II, king of Kānyakubja ( Kanauj ) died in V.S. 890 (Prabhāvakacarita—XI, v. 719721). He got built Jaina temples in various places such as Anahillapura ( Patan), Modha ( Modheră ), Satārakapura, Mathurā and Kanyakubja (Kanauj).-( Ibid. XI, v. 857-659).
Further, at the instance of Bappabhatti Sūri, he went to Śatrunjaya and Ujjayanta for pilgrimage.-( Ibid, v. 684-685 ).
Dhruvarāja I, younger brother of Karkarāja and Govindarāja, was ruling • as Rāştrakūța Viceroy in Gujarat, in succession to the latter. He was succeeded by his son Akāla-varsa Subhatunga.
The Rāştrakūta king Dhārāvarşa Dhruvarāja II issued from near Khețaka the grant of the village Püsilāvilli in Kāśahrada Deśa, which was executed by Devarāja and composed by Sāndhivigrahika Nārāyaṇa to Jyotişika Yoga, resident of Vadarasiddhi ( modern Borsad, in Kaira District ), on the occasion
834
835
835
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Plate LXVI

1
CARA
REM
TUOTETIT
That
TOGO

(A) Sun-Temple at Sutrāpādā, Saurāşțra.
(B) Sun-Temple at Bileśvara, near Porbundar.

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Plate LXVII

(A) Standing Sūrya, Vasişthāśrama Mt. Abu
(B) Standing Sūrya, Kārvan

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of Mahākārtiki parvan ( the Full Moon day of Kärtika) in $. 757 ( 835 A.D.
Baroda Plates; IA, XIV 196). 837 Bāuka, a descendant of Haricandra, the Pratihāra, was ruling over
Gurjaratrā or Gurjara-bhūmi, from Maņdor, (old Mänavapura ) near Jodhpur : V. S. 894 (= 837 A.D.):-( Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihāra Bāuka ; JRAS, 1895, p. 513; EI, IX, p. 210 ).
This inscription of Bāuka and that of Kakkuka ( EI, IX, p. 210 ) ( V. S. 918, 859 A.D.) which begin with a salutation to Vişņu give very interesting details regarding Haricandra, who was a Brāhmin, versed in the Vedas and Sāstras. He had two wives, one a Brāhmin and the other a Kșatriya. The sons born of the Brāhmin wife became Pratihāra Brāhmins, while those born of the Ksatriya wife became the founders of the royal line of the Pratihāras. Though a man of peaceful pursuits in his early life, when after the fall of the Gupta empire and the empires of Mihirakula and Yaśodharman, Northern India presented a favourable field for military enterprise. Haricandra gave up Šāstras ( Scriptures) for the Sastras ( arms) and founded a kingdom. By his Kșatriya wife, named Bhadrā, he had four sons: Bhogabhata, Kakka, Rājjila and Dadda:
विप्रः श्री हरिचंद्राख्यः पत्नी भद्रा च क्षत्रिया।
ताभ्यां तु ये सुता जाताः प्रतिहारांश्च तान् विदुः ।। This suggests that Bhadrā belonged to Pratihāra clan and that one of her sons had succeeded his meternal uncle. The term 'Pratihāra' perhaps meant that they were descended from Lakşamaņa, who once acted as a Pratihāra, i.e. a chamberlain, to his eldest brother Rāma. It has been suggested that Haricandra began his life as a chamberlain to some king; and later on carved out a principality for himself; but there is no sound reason to accept a king to
perpetuate his humble origin. C. 840 The Pála king Dharmapāla of Bengal, son and successor of Gopāla I,
married Rannādevi, a Rāştrakūta princess--perhaps a daughter of Govinda III (795-814 A.D.). He is stated to have conquered Indrarāja of Mahodaya or Kanauj, and to have given the sovereignty of Kanauj to Cakrāyudha, perhaps Bhoja ( 860-882 A.D.).
Bhatta Nārāyaṇa, the grantee of the Khalimpura copper-plate grant, which gives the above reference of Dharmapala, was the author of the Sanskrit drama
Venisamhära. C. 841 Ksemarāja, Cäpotkața of Anahilvād succeeded Yogarāja: till A.D. 866.
- Ref. 746 A.D.). 843 The Daulatpur (Jodhpur State), now Ājmer Museum Plate of the Pratihär:
Mahārāja Bhojadeva I ( 840-890 A.D.), surnamed Prabhasa, issued from Mahodaya, and dated V. S. 900 ( 843 A. D.), records the renewal of a grant of Siva
C30

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grāma (modern Siva) in the Dendavāņaka Vişaya (modern Dindwana) in the Gurjaratrābhūmi which had been made by the king's great-grand-father Mahāràja Vatsarāja, and continued by his grandfather, Mahārāja Nāgabhaţadeva, but which had fallen into abeyance in his reign.-(EI, V, p. 211; JBBRAS, XX, p. 440).
King Bhojadeva is mentioned as granting a village called Sivagrāma, situated in the Dendavāpaka Visaya, which, it is stated, formed part of the Gurjaratrā bhūmi'.-Cf.' TATHAT Tosatua728-73
M ATER EI., V., p. 211). Since it is clear ( as pointed out by Dr. Kielhorn) that Dend, vāņaka is the town Didwana in the old Jodhpur State and Sivagrāma, the village of Seva, 7 miles north-east of Didwana, it follows that the territory round Jodhpur in Rajputana was
known in the 8th century A.D., as the land of the Gurjaras'. 844 The Eastern Calukya, Vijayāditya III, Gunaka, eldest son, succeeded his
father Vişnuvardhana V, till 888 A.D.
The Idar grant of Āmma I says of Vijayāditya that " Challenged by the lord of the Rattas, he conquered the unequalled Gangas; cut off the head of Mangi in battle; and frightened the firebrand Kșşna (probably Krşņa II, Rāştra
kūța ), and completely burned his city."-(IA., XX, 102-3). 844 During the Rāştrakūta regime, roads to adjoining villages were laid out and
kept in repairs by the village settlements. The road going from one village to another is often mentioned in inscriptions as a boundary on one direction of the fields, given in charity :-(Cf. qaa: 117 raaifaqet: i fa: 447acia a graif
041: 1-( Kāvi Plates of Govinda III, S. 749).-(IA, V, 145 ). 845-46 The Partābgarh inscription ( 845-46 A.D.) of Pratihāra king Mahendra păla
II shows that the Pratihāras had recovered possession of Malwa including Mandu and Ujjain; however, their hold over Gujarat and Saurāṣtra grew precarious. They could not effectively checkmate the northern campaigns of the
Rāşțrakūțas, their southern rivals.-(DHNI, Vol. II, p. 582-83, 585-87). C. 850 The literary tradition about the 'Danda Rāsaka' (found illustrated as a
tempera painting at Bāgh, see year C. 470 ) is referred to by Abhinavagupta (9th century) in his commentary on Natya Sastra, while discussing the peculiarties of Rāsaka and Hallisaka. Practically he quotes from ancient texts :
ago fotoga: 1 मण्डलेन तु यन्नृत्यं हल्लीसकमिति स्मृतम् । एकस्तत्र तु नेता स्याद् गोपस्त्रीणां यथा हरिः ।। अनेकनर्तकीयोज्यं चित्रताललयाश्रितम् ।
आचतुःषष्ठीयुगलैः रासकं मसृणोद्धतम् ।। The dance in the circular motion, wherein one leads and others follow, jut as Sri Kļşņa led the Gopis, is called 'Hallisaka'. In this variety of the dance,
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nbellished by various rythmical strokes and melodies (971971) many dancers could join. The maximum number of couples that could partake in this dance was fixed upto 64; the minimum being either 16, 12 or 8, the dancers being of either sex. The dance had two varieties : one tender, the other vehement or violent.
Hallisaka ' has been described by later authors and lexicographers as गोपलोकानां क्रीडाप्रकार :। मण्डलेन स्त्रीणां नृत्तम् । That this Hallisaka or Rasaka, was a upa-rupaka of 'Natyarāsaka ',-a very old primitive dance-type, associated with Kļşņa's dance-is referred to by Sanskrit dramaturgists also.-(See Bhavaprakāśana by Sāradātanaya, GOS, P, 268 ). Jayadeva in his 'Aştapadi' of
the 'Gitagovinda' refers to this dance-sport : ( RRT Ahad 1) 849 The kingdom of Jaika I seems to have been divided between his two sons
Câmundarāja and Agguka.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 193 ff.). 850 Vikramarka was succeeded by his son Addaka. C. 50 Rudrata, son of Bhatta Vamuka and author of Kāvyālankāra, probably
flourished about this date, since Pratihārendurāja ( 850 A.D.) quotes him as a
standard author. C. 850 The taxes named Udranga and Uparikara ( as additional tax paid over and
above the normal land-tax) are mentioned very frequently not only in the grants of the Räştrakūtas but also in those of the Maitrakas. The Sāśvatakośa gives Uddhāra or Udgraha as a synonym of the term.-(Referred to by Dr. Bühler at I. A., XII, p. 189 N. 30).
In the Samangadh plates of Dantidurga (IA, XI, p. 111 ) and the Kapadvanj plates of Krsna II (EI., I, P. 52), the term 'sabhāgabhogakarah' is used; but the expression sodrangaḥ and soparikaraḥ are missing. It appears, therefore, clear that bhāga and bhoga are nearly synonymous with udranga and uparika, a, and stand for taxes that were universally levied. The bhāga-kara must be standing for the land-tax, which is mentioned as 'şaştņāmśa' or the 6th part of the produce of the land. Bhoga-kara represents the petty taxes in kind that were to be paid to the king every day; and failing him, to the local officers.
(A. S. Altekar, The Rāstrakūtas, p. 213-15). C. 851 Silānka Sūri alias Tattväditya of Niovati Kula, both the Suyakkhandhas of
Ayara ( the first Anga out of twelve, collectively known as 'duvalasa ganipidaga', and on suyagada', both the suyakkhandhas), too. In the composition of both these commentaries he was helped by Vāhari Gani.
For discussion, see H. R. Kapadia's paper "Two copper-ptates of the Solanki aye", 'Buddhi Prakāśa' of V.S. 2007 (1951 A.D.) wherein villages surrounding Gambhūta are mentioned. Text of these copper-plates is reproduced in JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 68, and the villages are identified on p. 67).

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The com, on Ayara was finished in Gambhūta (Gâmbhu ), a place 24 miles from Pāțan and six miles from Dhiņoja. It is between Dhiņoj and Modhera.(Vide JTSS - Vol. I, pt. I, p. 68).
The colophons of the com, on Ayara differ regarding the date of composition of this com. In the beginning Gandhalasta is inentioned as a commentator of Šāstraparijnā, a portion of Ayara. Four dates are mentioned: they are : 772, 788 and 898 and Gupta Samvat 772. (See DCGCM - Vol. XVII, pt. I, p. 13 and Gupta Samvat 772 is equal to V.S. 772 +241 = 1013.-[In Alberuni's India', as quoted in JTSS - Vol. I, pt. I, p. 69-in JPI pt. I, p. 379, the date is given as Saka 784 i.e. V.S. 919 ).
Among the Mahomedan geographers, the merchant Sulaiman is the earliest writer with his Salsilātu-t-Tawārikh ( 237 A.D.=851 A.D.), wherein he describes the king of Jurz as having great riches, and had numerous camels and horses. His reference to the king of Jurz maintaining numerous forces, with an uninatched fine cavalry and numerous camels is very interesting. Rajputana is famous for its camels even now.
From a story in the Pañcatantra, it appears that there was a place called Gurjaragrāma' where camels could be purchased. The rathakāra is mentioned as having gone to a Gurjara village in search of camels. (2720 Tartu FCATÀ tal Tat: Faitar: 1 atás 4T 28). In the same Kathā, the camel is also called Trach, and it is likely that the name is given after the country called दशेरक.
An estimate of Bhoja, as a conqueror and as an administrator, is given by this Arab historian Sulaiman, who has dubbed him as 'hostile to the Arabs, and the greatest foe to the Mahomedan faith; ' but there was no country in India more safe from robbers.-( Elliot and Dowson, p. 4). He is called Baura, though the correct reading, according to Hodiwala (Studies in Indo-Muslim History, p. 25) should be Bozah, Bozoh or Bodzah, i.e. Bhoja. His empire included Kaccha and Saurāṣtra. He had appointed feudatories in different parts, viz., Guņāmbodhideva, Bāuka and Kakkuka, Harşarāja, and Bāhukadhavala, who accompanied him in his campaigns and helped him in building a vast empire.—(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, p. 65 ).
In V. S. 909 ( 853 A.D.) there lived in Viramapura (modern Nakodā, also known as Mevānagara, 6 miles to the south from the station Bālotra) 2700 Jains families.-(Vide, JTSS- Vol. I, pt. 2, pp. 183).
At that time Harakhahand got repaired a Jaina temple situated in this city and replaced a broken image of Lord Mahāvīra. - Ibid. pp. 183-4).
In a West Indian record of 854 A.D., belonging to the reign of the Raştrakūta Amoghavarşa, the donor endowing a certain sum of money in favour of a monastery, declares that after his death the interest (Kāri) is to be fixed by competent persons.-(IA, XIII, 134).
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C. 859
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859
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Avanivarman I succeeded his father Bahukadhavala.-(EI., IX, 2 ff.).
Upadeśamālā of Dharmadásagani, which is a work of very early origin consists of over 500 stanzas in the Gāthā metre. A Prākrit commentary on it was composed in Sam. 913 ( cir. 857 A.D.) by Jayasimhasūri.
Agguka II, who possibly continued to rule as his uncle's feudatory for about 25 years after his supercession in cir. 834 A.D., was succeeded by his son Rāņaka.
Jaysimha Sūri, pupil of Kļşņa Rşi, commented in Prakrit ( while introducing the original verses, a few lines are written in Sanskrit on his own Prākrit work 'Dhammovaesamāla' of 98 verses in all ), in V. S. 215 ( 859 A.D. ) in Nagaura ( Nāgapura ; Guj. Nāgor) during the reign of King Bhoja.
Bhoja who is known as Mihira and Adivaráha, too and who seems to be the grandson of king Ama, alias Nagabhatta II ruled from V. S. 900 to at least 938 and perhaps upto 950.-(SHJL, Pp. 179-180 ).
In the Ghațiyāla inscription of Kakkuka, dated in the ( Vikrama ) Samvat 915, ( 859 A.D.), Gurjaratrā is mentioned along with Travani, Mada, Arya, Lāța and Pravara, in the ordinary sense of the 'Settlement of the Gurjaras.'-- (EI, IX, Pp. 210).
Gunabhadra flourished in C. 860-380 A.D. and being tutor to Krşņa II, Rāştrakūta ( 875-911 A.D. and pupil of Jinasena. He wrote the Uttarapurāna, a continuation of the latter's Adipurāņa, also the Atmānuśāsan.- JBBRAS, xviii, 225 ).
The Sanjān Plates of Amoghavarşa, dated in Saka era 783 ( 861 A.D.) inform us that just when he ascended the throne, some of his feudatories, ministers and relations became disappointed and raised the standard of revolt (verses 35, 36 ); but it was through the help of Arya Pātālamala that he succeeded in quelling the rebellion (verse 41 ). One verse refers to some public calamity, and the king, called here Vira-Nārāyaṇa, cut off his finger and dedicated it to the goddess Mahālakṣmi. It would not be unwise to suggest that Karka of the Surat plates ( 821 A.D.) and this Pātālamala were identical.- Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurj ira-Pratihāras, p. 60 fn. I)
Krşņa Rși installed an image of Lord Mahavira in Nāgapura (i.e. Nāgor) in V. S. 917.-(Kumārapālacarita-Dhammorasamālā.).
The Vināyaka (Ganapati) image was established at Rohjósa Kūpa by the Gurjara-Pratihāra king Kakkuka of the Jodhpur line in 861 A.D.-(EI, IX, p. 279).
The Deogarh Jhansi dist.) Jaina pillar inscription of the time of Bhojadeva, and of the Mahāsāmanta Vişnurāma refers to the Jaina temple of Santinátha at
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Luacchagiri --the old name of Deogarh, and the pillar was set-up near the temple of holy Jaina Arhat by Deva, a disciple of Ācārya Kamaladeva, dated V.S. 919 ( 862 A.D.).-(EI, IV, p. 310 ).
Bhūyada, Capotkata of Anhilväd, succeeds Kşemarāja; till V. sam. 922 = 865 A.D. He is said to have conquered Dvārāvati and the whole country westward to the seacoast.-(Ref. 746 A.D.).
The Nàiatås, who were formerly an important class of Muslim merchants and ship-captains of Gujarat but who have now virtually disappeared, are reported to have emigrated from Madinah, flying from the persecution of Al-Hajjaj bin Yusuf, the Governor of Iraq on behalf of Abdul Malik, the fifth Umayyad Khalifah. The Naiatàs marched from Madinah to Kufa where taking a ship, they reached the shores of Indian Ocean about AH 252/865 A.D.-(Bom. Gaz. IX, II, 14-5 ff. 3).
The Râştrakūta king Dantivarman of the Gujarat Branch himself a Hindu, donated a village to a Buddhist Vihāra.-(EI, VI, p. 292 ).
Dhruva II, Nirupama, Dhārāvarşa, of the Gujarat Râştrakūța Second branch, son and successor of Akālavarşa Subhatunga, claims to have subdued Vallabha of the Gurjaras (probably the Cāvadās of Anhilvãd ), and a king named Mihira.
A grant of land was issued by Dhārāvarşa Dhruvarāja on the occasion of the Solar Eclipse that took place on the Amāvāsyā of Jyeștha in $. 789 (867 A.D.). The donor took a bath at the Mülasthāna tirtha in the Narmadā at Bharukaccha (Broach). The donee was Brāhmaṇa Jojibha of Lākṣāyaṇa gotra resident of Bhadrapalli. The grant consisted in the village Pärāhaņaka situated within Karmāntapura (Kāmrej), One-hundred-sixteen.' Govindarāja, the younger brother of the king, officiated as the Dütaka of the edict, which was composed by Sāndhivigrahika Kalyāņa.-( Bagumra Plates ; XII 173).
The Rastrakūta king Aparimitavarşa, Dantivarman, brother of Dhruvarāja II, having bathed in the Purūvi river (identified with the Pūrāņā ) issued the grant of the Village Cokkhakuţi in Sarthātailāța Forty-two' on the occasion of Uttarāyaṇa day which fell on Pausa bahula 9 in $. 789 ( 867 A.D.). The grant was dedicated to the Revered Samgha of the Vihāra at Kampilya Tirtha. The Dūtaka of the royal edict was Mahāmātya Kļşņabhațța. The grant was com
posed by Sena-Bhogika Golla, son of Rāņappa. The edict was endorsed by king - Dhruvarāja.-(EI, VI, 285 ).
There were educational centres in India at this period, one such being at Kāmpilya Monastery of Gujarat, which probably represented one of the last strongholds of Buddhism. Our record states that 500 monks were living in this vihara.--(A.S. Altekar, EI, XII, No. 12, 1935).-See also 884 A.D. Supra.
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869 The Saindhava king Mahāsāmanta Rāņaka, son of Agguka and grandson of
Krşnarāja, issued from Bhūtāmbilikā ( Ghumli) the grant of a village situated in Pacchatri ( Pachtardi ) Vişaya. The details about the donee, the date, the dūtaka etc. are not available, as the second plate of the grant is not recovered. The concluding portion on the first plate contains some reference to Queen Kșemeśvari, who was, very probably, a daughter of king Kșemarāja of
the Căpa dynasty.-( Ghumli Plates : EI, XXVI 207 ff.) 869
The Saindhava king Agguka, son of Jaika I, abdicted the throne in favour of his son Rāņaka and participated in his coronation himself. This may, probably, be due to Agguka's apprehension that his elder brother may resume his
principality after his death.-( A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI 194 f. 870 Addaka was succeeded by his son Pulakesi. 871 The Rāştrakūta P.M.P. Přthvivallabha Amoghavarşa I from the metropolis
Mānyakheţa issued the grant of the village Jharivallikā in Sanjāņa Twentyfour', to four Brāhmaṇas who hailed from Karahāda. The grant was made on the occasion of the Uttarāyaṇa Parvan in the Puşya (Pausa) month of Nandana Samvatsara, corresponding to $. 793 ( 871 A.D.). Mahattama Gogu Rāņaka was the Dūtaka. The grant was composed by Dharmādhikaraṇika Gunadhavala, born in the Vālabha Kayastha lineage.-- Sanjān Plates : EI, XVIII, 235; JBBRAS, XXII, p. 116).
The traditional account of the origin of this lineage is given in detail in the Udayasundari-Kutha by Soddhala, of the same Valabha Kāyastha lineage, composed some time between 1026 A.D. and 1050 A.D.--(C. D. Dalal, G.O.S.,
No. 11, 1920). C. 873 A fragmentary inscription (EI, XIX, p. 175), now deposited in the Barton
Museum at Bhavnagar, mentions the name (Va )rāha which reminds one of
Adiraráha', the biruda of Bhojadeva. It is very likely that the inscription is meant for the Pratilāra ruler of Kanauj. It also mentions the hasty retreat of Krşparāja to his country, who may be identified with the Rāştrakūta king
Akālavarşa Krşņa II (875-911 A.D.), a contemporary of Bhoja. 874 The Saindhava king Câmundarāja was succeeded by his son Agguka III.
-(A. S. Altekar, EI, XXVI, 195). 874-5 A village in the Svarṇamanjarī vişaya was granted by the Saindhava king,
Mahāsāmanta Rāņaka in G.S. 555 ( 874-5 A.D.). One-half of its revenues was assigned to a group of temples dedicated to Hari ( Vişņu ), Haridaśva (Sūrya), Vināyaka (Ganapati) and the Mātộis (Mothers), which were created on the outskirts of the city by Sivarudra, a karpațin of Vasiştha gntra. The other half of the revenues was assigned to the head of a matha (monastery) whose name is left unspecified. Prince Jaika himself officiated as the Dūtaka of the
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edict, which was composed by Vakula, the scribe.-(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 212 fl.)
Calukya Mahāsāmanta Avanivarman I was succeeded by his son Balavarman.
Two records from Gwalior (Gopadri) are dated in the month of Vaisakha V. S. 932 (876 A.D.), and Magha Šukla dvitiya, V S. 933, respectively. The first one of the time of Adivaråha (Bhojadeva) (EI, I, p. 156), refers to Nagara Bhaṭṭakumāra of the Varjjāra family, originally from Anandapura in the Lata province, and mentions the appointment of Väillabhatta as Warden of Marches (g) by Ramadeva (evidently Rámabhadra ), and his son Alla, who succeeded him in that office to the guardianship of Gopådri (Gwalior) by Adivaraha. It further refers to the construction of a Visņu temple by. Alla, which was consecrated in the Vikrama year 932 (876 A.D.).
The other record from Gwalior dated in the V. S. 933 (877 A.D.) and of the time of the Pratihära Parmeśvara Bhojadeva, (EI, I, p. 159) records four donations to the two temples which had been built by Alla, the son of Vaillabhaṭṭa, called in this record the guardian of the fort (g) of Gopådri (Gwalior ). The donee of the first record (875 A.D., EI, I, p. 159: Cunningham ASR, II, 332) was the Navadurga temple, situated beyond the Vriścikā river (probably another name of the river Suvarṇarekhā), while the donees of the three remaining grants were the Navadurga temple of the earlier record, and the Visnu temple called Väillabhaṭṭasvamin. The donors of these four endowments were the inhabitants of the place (Sthana). The inscription also furnishes material, dealing with the economic life of the period. --(Baij Nath Puri (The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, p. 53).
The Răstrakūta king Kṛṣṇa II, Vallabha, Akalavarșa II, son and successor of Amoghavarsa I, son-in-law of Kokkalla I of Cedi (S. 799-833): He is stated to have made subject to him the Andhra and Ganga kingdoms, as well as those of Kalinga and Magadha, and to have engaged in contests with the Gurjaras, Latas and Gaudas. The grant describes him as having put an end to the arrogance of Lata. - Deoli Grant of Krsna III).
Krsna's son Jagattunga died before his father. He had married Laksmi, a daughter of Rāmavigraha, son of Kokkala of Cedi, and had by her a son, Indra, who succeeded Kṛṣṇa.-(IA., 220).
Sripati Rathor, is said to have ascended the throne of Kanauj, on which occasion he feasted eighty-four tribes of Brahmanas and bestowed sixteen villages in Sasan, North Gujarat, on the sixteen branches of the Cibadiā Brāhmaṇas. (V. Sam. 936, 879 A.D.).-(I.A., III, 41).
The Una inscription (EI, IX, pp. 6) dated in V.S. 936 (880 A.D.) of the Pratihāra P.M.P. Bhojadeva, and issued by his feudatory the Calukya Maha

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sāmanta Avanivarman II, mentions that Balavarman, father of Avanivarman II had defeated a certain Visa dha, and, by slaying Jijjapa and, other kings, 'freed the earth from the Hūņa race'-( UTAHAT 20-43areta! ?9). This clearly suggests that the Hūņas were still looked down upon as a nomadic and barbarous race. The person who dealt the blow, and freed the earth from the menace of this race was-the feudatory of the supposed ally of the Hūņas—the Gurjara king of Kanauj.
This political and social complex, rule out the possibility of Hūņa-Gurjara alliance, as proposed by Jackson and others, and there is not a shadow of a sound reason for thinking that the Gurjaras accompanied the Hūņas as particeps criminis, when the evidence is to the contrary.-(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, 1959, p. 4).
The various Gacchas of the Jaina Yatis originated in the north with the 84 disciples of Udyotana Sūri. According to the Kharataragaccha-pattāvali (IA, XI, 248 ) he flourished 500 years after Devarddhigaại. He became Acārya in 880 A.D. lattāvalis give 994 V.S. i.e. 937 A.D. as the year of his death. Uddyotana Sūri died on a pilgrimage which he had undertaken from Mälavadesa to Šatrunjaya.
A temple of Vişnu as Yajñavarāha was built by Bhuvāka in the time of the Gurjara-Pratihāra king Bhoja at Prithudaka, near Prāci-Sarasvati in 882-883 A.D.-(EI, I, p. 187; Cunningham, ASR II, p. 224).
The Rāştrakūta king Dhārāvarsa Dhruvarāja issued, from the camp at Khețaka, a grant of the village Dhadyāsaha situated in Suhila visaya, and dedicated it to the Kämpilya-tirtha ( containing a Buddhist Mahāvihara and a shrine of Buddha Bhattāraka ) on the bank of Madvāpi in the Kāntāragrāma Division. The grant was made on the occasion of Dhanus-Sankrānti on the second day of the bright half of Mārgasira in $. 806 (884 A.D.). Prince Karkarāja officiated as the Dutaka. The grant was composed by Dindetana, the Official in charge of Sandhivigraha and Akşapatala (Records ), a resident of Valabhi.-(EI., XXII 64; EI XXVII p. 320). See, also 867 A.D.
A village in the Svarṇamanjari (?) vişaya was granted by Mahāsāmantadhipati Agguka III of the main Saindhava line on the occasion of the lunar eclipse * in G. E. 567 ( 886 A.D.). The unspecified month seems to be Mārgasira. The donees of the grant were two Brāhmaṇas of Vatsa gotru residing at Gomutrikā (Gomtā). The charter was composed by Jojjha.(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 217 ff.). * It was not a New Moon day as mentioned by Dr. Altekar (EI., XXVI, 218 ), 'for, the conjunction of the Moon was with Svarbhānu ( Rāhu ) and not with Sun.-(H. G. Shastri).
The Râştrakūta king Akālavarşa Krşparaja, residing at Ankuleśvara (Ankleshvar ), having bathed at Bhagavatatirtha in the Narmadā river, issus
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the grant of land on the occasion of a solar eclipse on the Amavasya day of Caitra in S. 810 (888 A. D.). The grant consisted in the village Kavithasādhi situated in Variavi One hundred-sixteen' of Konkana Viṣaya. It was issued to two Brāhmaṇa brothers of Kundina getra, residents of Variavi (Variav). The grant was composed by Jajjaka, the Official in charge of Peace and War.- (Bagumra Plates: IA., XIII, 65).
Krsna Akālavarsa of Ankulesvara was a prince of the Second Branch of the Răstrakūta dynasty of Gujarat, a successor of Dhruva II, and possibly the son of his brother Dantivarman. Krsna Akālavarsa is the latest known of the Gujarat Răştrakūtas. Between S. 810 and S. 832 Gujarat seems to have ben recovered by the Rāṣṭrakūtas of the main line under Krsna II.-(Bagumra Copper-plate; Monday April 15th, S. 810). His Kapadvanj Grant of S. 832 represents him as Sovereign of Gujarat.-(IA., xiii, 65; IA. XVIII, 90 L EI, III, 54; Bom. Gaz. 303).
From the Bagumra plates of Krsna (IA., XIII, p. 68) of the Gujarat Branch of the Rāṣṭrakūtas, dated 888 A.D., we learn that the land-tax was collected in three instalments: one in Bhadrapada or September, one in Kartika or November, and one in March.
This record, it is interesting to note, partially confirms the statement of Bhaṭṭasvamin, the commentator of the Arihasastra, that the kara or the landtax was paid in the months of Bhadrapada, Caitra and the like, (Arthasästra, II, 15), and the statement of Kulluka (on Manu, VIII, 307) that the tax was gathered every year in Bhadrapada and Pausa. Such arrangement for the farmers by the government was inevitable, since the tax was usually collected in kind and not in cash-(Altekar, The Rastrakāļas, p. 227-28).
Dhruvabhata, the elder son of Pulakesi, succeeded his father.
Mahendrapala was not only a good administrator, but also a patron of literature, as we find that literary activities were not stagnant in his period. We notice that Rajasekhara, the dramatist and poet, was his Guru or spiritual teacher. The colophon of the Karpuramañjarī runs:
890-920
इति श्रीमान् महाराष्ट्रचूडामणिना महेन्द्रपालोपाध्यायेन राजशेखरेण बालकविना कविराजेन विरचिते चतुर्थ जवनिकान्तरं समाप्तम् ।
The gradation is significant, as it suggests that Rajasekhara was successively appointed to the offices of Junior Poet, Chief Poet, and Preceptor. The poet calls himself the son of a Mahamantri or high minister, the Guru or Upadhyaya of Nirbhayaraja alias Mahendrapala and the Guru of Mahipala, the crest jewel of the family of Raghu. Rajasekhara himself traces his poetic descent from Välmiki through one Bhartrimeytha, and the well-known Bhavabhuti. He enjoyed the patronage of Mahendrapäla and his son Mahipala, at whose

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court, or by whose command, the Balabharata was staged. The 'Prologue' of the Balabharata or Pracandapāṇḍava contains an eulogy of Mahipala.
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Rajasekhara, the teacher of king Mahendrapala of Kanauj, says in his Karparamañjarl that his accomplished wife Avantisundari was descended from the Cahuana family (i.e. from a Ksatriya family). This shows that intercaste marriages were in vogue in his times.
The people of Lâța are haters of Sanskrit, and so they employ the Prakrit for the sake of grace and beauty', says Rajasekhara in his Kavyamīmānsā, Adh. VII:
पठन्ति लट लाटा प्राकृतं संस्कृतद्विषः । ह्रिया ललितोपलब्ध-सौन्दर्यमुद्रा ॥
काव्यमीमांसा, अ. ७
The people of Lața country are described as fond of Prakrit language (Ch. X, p. 51):
गौडायाः संस्कृतस्थाः परिचितरुनयः प्राकृते लाटदेश्याः । सापभ्रंशप्रयोगाः सकलमरुभुवष्टक नादानकाश्च ॥
The poet Rajasekhara, author of the Kāvyamimānsā, the Bālarāmāyaṇa, the Viddhaśālabhanjikā, and the Karpüramanjri, flourished under Mahendrapala and his son Mahipala, who ruled over the country of Madhyadeśa, with its capital at Kanauj.-(IA., xvi, 175 ff.; 170-1).
From the 'Asni inscription' (V.S. 947 917-18 A.D.) and the 'Siyodini inscription' (EI, Vol. I, p. 171) it is known that Mahendrapala (890-908 A.D.) and his son Mahipala (910-940 A.D.) belonged to the Gurjara-Pratihāra dynasty. Rajasekhara belonged to the courts of both the father and the son; but the major part of his life was spent in the court of Mahendrapala, who is said to have been his disciple in all his plays. Mahipala seems to have maintained the poet only in the earlier part of his reign, since Balabharata, the only drama to be performed in his presence remains incomplete, and appears to be the poet's last composition.-(K. S. Ramaswami: Introduction, 3rd Edn. 1950, Kavyamimänsä, p. xii-iii).

काव्यमीमांसा, अ. १०
=
A Kesara flower falling from the stem, is compared by Rajasekhara with the naval of a Laţa lady while describing the full-blossom spring:
लाटीनाभिनिभं चकास्ति च पतद् वृन्ताग्रतः केसरम् । - अ. १८
At another place, while describing the splendour of the cold months of the year, the stray lock of a Lața lady is described as dancing by the gale of wind :
(.........
.........मरुत् ।
ललाटे लादीनां लुठितमल ताण्डवयति ॥ अ १८ )
Both these references suggest the exquisite beauty of the Laţa ladies.
Rajasekhara, the author of the Kavyamimānsā, mentions among products of Western India (Paścaddeśa) varieties of bamboos, palm-trees, and date-trees.

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Regarding the complexion of the people of different countries, Rajasekhara remarks that the Paurastyas (Eastern people ) have dark-black colour: the Pāścātyas (Westerners) have white colour, the Udicyas ( Northerners) have got fair complexion; and the Madhyadeśyas (mid-Indians) have got dark-black,
black and white colour.-(Kavyamimāṁsā Ch. XVII, p. 96). 890-920 Lāța ladies are described as bathing in the river Revā (i.e. Narmada) in the afternoon (Kavyamimāṁsā p. 68), in a verse quoted by Rajasekhara : --
'रेवाजलान्यविरलं ग्रहिली क्रियते
लाटाङ्गनाभिरपराङनिमज्जनेषु । काव्यमीमांसा, अ. १२ 890-920 The Surāştra people along with those of Travana and others are described by Rājasekhara as speaking Sanskrit fluently with Präkrit accents:
सुराष्ट्त्रवणाद्या ये पठन्त्यर्पितसौष्ठवम् ।
अपभ्रंशावदंशानि ते संस्कृतवचांस्यपि ।। -काव्यमीमांसा, अ.७ 890-920 The Karpūra-manjari of Rajasekhara refers to the Kaulas and the super
natural powers possessed by Bhairavanātha. While one may not rely on the evidence of a drama, one can "hardly question the existence of the Kaulas in the religious life of the people. They combined pleasure with salvation, religion with indulgence in wine and women, and repute for piety with most unrestricted sensuality":-( Karpūra I, 22-24). As such, they were looked down upon in
high society. 890-920 Rājasekhara had a partiality for Lāțadeśa. Karpūramanjari, the heroine of
the play of the same name, is the daughter of the king of Lātadeśa. Viddhaśālabhnjikā also refers to the king of the same country. In the Balarāmāyana (Act X, 48-49), Lāța is described as the crest of the Earth'. The elegance of speech and beauty of its ladies are dilated upon by him in his Kāvyas.
Rājasekhara represents the people of Lāța as preferring Prākrit and hating Sanskrit. Humour, was then, another peculiarity of Laţi.-(Vide, Simhadevagani's commentary on Vägbhațălarkānu (C. 1230 A.D.) :
e tra gli afa: qart 1 892 From Nakşisapura Mahāsāmanta Balavaraman of the Cālukya dynasty,
who owed allegiance to P.M.P. Mahendrāyudhadeva ( i.e. Mahendrapāla of the Pratihāras), dedicated the village of Jayapura in Nakşisapura Eighty-four', to the sun temple of Taruņāditya situated on the bank of the river Kaņavirikā. The grant which records the witness of certain Brāhmaṇas, Vanikas and Mahattaras, was composed by Dharāditya and issued in the Valabhi year 574, Māgha Suddha 6 (892 A.D.), it being attested by Dhiika.-(Unā Plates, EI, IX, 1 ff.).
The earliest record of the time of the Gurjara-Pratihāra ruler Mahendrapåla, successor of the P.M.P. Bhojadeva of Kanauj is the Unā (Saurāṣtra) Plate
892

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897
899
899
899
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dated in the Valabh! Samvat 574 (= 892 A. D.), which records a grant of land by the Mahasamanta Balavarman, son of Avanivarman (I) of the Calukya lineage, to a temple of the Sun, named Taruṇādityadeva.-( EI, IX, p. 4).
C. 900
These Una grants of the Câlukya feudatory show that the whole of the region, upto the southernmost part of the Sauraşṭra peninsula, was included in the empire of Mahendrapála I.-(C. 898-997 A.D.)
Balavarman was succeeded by his son Avanivarman II. He was also known as Yoga'. He defeated kings Yakṣadāsa, Dharapivaraha and others (EI, IX, 2ff.). The latter must be identified with Mahāsāmantādhipati Dharanivaraha of Wadhvan.-( Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradska, III, 69).
Parsva Süri (pupil of Yakşadeva Súri) commented upon Vandiflusutta' in S. 821 (897 A.D.) in Gambhu.
Mahāsāmanta Avanivarman II alias Yoga of the Calukya lineage, who owed allegiance to P.M.P. Mahendrapāla, issued the grant of the village Amvulaka ot Nakşisapura Eighty-four in Surâstra-Mandala to the image of Tarunaditya installed on the bank of the river Kanavirikā in Samvat 956, Magha Sudi 6, (899 A.D.). The grant was approved of by Dhiika the Antapala (Warden of the Frontier) of the suzerain.-(Una Plates, EI., IX, p. 6).
Another inscription from Ună (EI, IX, p. 4) dated Vikram Samvat 956 (899 A.D.) on the sixth day of the bright half of Magha (incidentally the same tithi as noticed in the earlier Una record) of the time of the Pratihāra P.M.P. Mahendrapaladeva, and issued by his feudatory the Calukya Mahāsāmanta Avanivarman (II) is very important, as it traces the relation between this feudatory of the Calukya family of Saurästra and Gurjara-Pratihāra family of Kanauj. The Samanta-ship appears to have been hereditary. Avanivarman II-Yoga, who succeeded his father in the hereditary office of Samanta," vanquished Yakṣadāsa and put to flight Dharapivaraha. He made the grant of the village of Amvalaka in the Saurăstra mandala to (a temple of) Tarunāditya.
King Agguka III was succeeded by his son Jäika II.-(A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 195).
Among the occasional exactions referred to in records of village-grants, is mentioned. This means exemption to the donee from the exactions levied at the time of the arrival of regular and irregular military and police forces. Câțas and Bhatas were the members of the police and military forces of the State; and when they were quartered in a village while on the march, the villagers had to meet a number of demands of their unwelcome guests. The proprietory right in the soil was never transferred to the donce, as is

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seen from the numerous grants of lands made by the Valabhis, Gurjaras and Râştrakūtas. The grantee is entitled only to the land-revenue.
Compare, Nilakantha's observations in 49 HTC (Fararam4 472) :
" संपूर्णपृथिवीमंडलस्य तत्तद्ग्रामक्षेत्रादौ स्वत्वं तु तत्तभौमिकानामेव । राज्ञां तु करग्रहणमात्रम् । अत एव grat ac aa 9 TOFTHOI T rafale: fara a fare HTĀTI "-( Altekar,
History of Village Communities in Western India, p. 86). C. 900 That Svetāṁbara scholars of Valabhi were given importance is gathered
from the Bhadrabāhu carita (Ch. IV, verse 133 ) which states that king Bhūpāla of Karahăța invited the Svetämbara monks of Valabhi, probably for performing some religious practice. This was done at the request of his queen Nộkuladevi.
( Luders, Kādamba Plates of Prabhūtavarşa', E.I., IV, p. 333 ff.). C. 900 Bengal rulers used to recruit soldiers from Karņāțaka and Lāța (Bhagalpur
Plates, IA, XV, p. 305), a procedure which clearly shows that the Rāştrakūta dominions were inhabited by races, famous all over the country for their martial qualities. Rājasekhara pays a compliment to the bravery of the Karņāțas in his Viddhaśālabhanjikā when he observes that they were naturally brave
( for Papier a ufzt: 1 Act IV):-( Altekar, The Răstrakūtas, p. 247). C. 900 The Devala-Smrti records the changed social outlook of the Hindus which
reclaimed those who were lost to the alien faith. This Smyti opens with a question by the sages put to Devala, who was sitting on the banks of the Sindhu at ease, as to how Brāhmaṇas and members of other varņas, when carried off by Mlecchas, were to be purified and restored to caste :
सिन्धुतीरे सुखासीनं देवलं मुनिसत्तमम् । समेत्य मुनयः सर्वे इदं वचनमबुवन् ।। भगवन् म्लेच्छनीता हि कथं शुद्धिमवाप्नुयात् । ब्राह्मणाः क्षत्रिया वैश्याः शूद्रा चैवानुपूर्वशः ।।
-utat ataq: 31196791H DYATI, 3** , 4. <4.69 The advice given by Devala constitutes the end and scope of the Smrtia neat and tiny composition not exceeding 90 verses. In the Smyti there is a distinct reference to cases of persons whose parents had embraced the Mleccha religion, as well as to those women who had been ravished, and had also conceived. The Smrti also taboos visits to some frontier provinces like Sindha and Sauvira which one could do only on pain of performing suddhi on return. Purificatory rites are prescribed for persons who returned back to their country from Mlecchadeśa : “ Just as a Brāhmaṇa seized by the Mlecchas and afterwards undergoing the appropriate atafaga does not become confounded with the Mlecchas, but returns to his original status of being a Brāhmaṇa), the intelligent soul is not really to be confounded with the body and other material adjuncts.' --[P. V. Kane, History of Dharmaśāstras, Vol. II, Pt. 1, 391. Cf. 1783 (fagfarata), 389].
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The interesting information is with regard to women in general, and to those who had conceived while in the Mleccha custody in particular. Women who were ravished became pure after the period of menstruation (7541), with a three days' fast; but those who had conceived could be reclaimed back to their original fold after the delivery of the child. The foetus in the womb of such women, according to Devala, is like a thorn (Salya) in her body, and when this foreign substance is removed, and she has had her courses, she becomes pure as gold:
विनिसृष्टे ततः शल्ये रजसो वाऽपि दर्शने ।
तदा (ततः ) सा शुध्यते नारी विमलं काञ्चनं यथा ।।-श्लो. ५१. The confirmation of this social phenomenon is available from the accounts of the Arab historians. Biladuri and Al-Biruni have mentioned this fact, and they suggest that attempts were made to reclaim back the Hindus who were lost to the alien faith. During the Caliphate of Hasham (723-43 A.D. ) Junaid, the governor of Sindh had sent expeditions into the interior of India and spread terror in Rajputana and Gujarat. His successors were Tamin and Hakim. “ While Hakim was the governor ", writes Biladuri," the people of Al-Hind apostatised and returned to idolatory excepting those of Kassa; and the Musalmans had no place of security in which they could live".-(Elliot and Dowson, Vol. I, p. 126).
The reclamation of the Hindus had become a regular feature till the time of Al-Biruni (Circa 1024 A.D.): "I have been repeated told”, says the Muslim historian, " that when Hindu Slaves ( in Muslim countries) escape and return to their country and religion, the Hindus order that they should fast by way of expiation, then they keep them in dung stale, and milk of cows for a certain number of days, till they give similar dirt to eat, and more of the like":-( Translation, Vol. II, p. 162 ).
The Devala Smrti mentions fasts, like those of Candrayana and Parāka, and Pädakycchra, and the use of cow urine (gomatra) and cow-dung ( gomaya ). (Verse 65). These two independent pieces of evidence, thus, corroborate each other.- Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pralihāras, p. 116-118).
The indigenous ( Desi ) dance, music and musical instruments, as described by Sārņgadeva ( 12th century A.D.) based on old traditions (742 a t taraft: 1 Tahuet, steht I) are those that catch the popular ear and touch the very heart of the people of various lands and climes :
देशे देशे जनानां च यद् रुच्या हृद्रंजकम् ।
नृत्यं गीतं च वाद्यं च तद्देशीत्यभिधीयते ।। Such local tunes are consequently named after their place of original birth, for example, Gurjari, Mālavi, Mara, Khambhāyati, Bilâval (from Veraval), Varādi,
C. 900
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Karnāțaki, Gaudi and the like.-( M. R. Majmudar, Tradition of Folk-dances
in Gujarat', JISOA, 1949). C. 900 The three Muslim historians-Ibn Khurdadba, writer of Kitābu-l Masalik
Wa-l Mamalik (died in 300 A.D.=912 A.D.); Al Biladuri, author of Fatuhu-l Buldan (died in A.H. 279=892-3 A.D.); and Al-Idrisi who was born towards the end of the eleventh century A.D., and wrote Nuzhatu-l Mushtak-had no occasion to visit India, but they have mentioned the political state in that period. They are unanimous with reference to the king of Jurz or Jurr, who was antagonistic towards Balhāra and Islam. Balbāra was the Rāştrakūta king, with his capital at Mankir (Manyakheța).-(Sprengers: Masudi, Preface, quoted by Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, p. 12). Merchant Sulaiman, the writer of Salsilā-tu-t-tawārikh ( 237 A.H.=851 A.D.) describes the king of Jurz having great riches, and having numerous camels and
horses. C. 900 The Cāpa king Dhruvabhata was succeeded by his younger brother Dharari.
varāha. C. 900 From the synonyms given in the Abhidhānaratnamālā of Halāyudha we
learn that Surāșțra was famous for its bell-metal, while Vanga was well-known
for its tin-industry. 904 King Jāika of the Saindhava dynasty issued a grant of land to two sons of
Sihāditya on the occasion of a solar eclipse in the G.E. 585 (904 A.D.). The grant was composed by Jajñagya (Morbi Plates : EI., II, 257). The donor seems to be identical with Jāika II, son of Agguka III, whose Ghumli copperedict is dated G. E. 596 ( 915 A.D.):-( A. S. Altekar, EI., XXVI, 195 f.).
The Upamiti-bhava-prapanca kathā is composed by Siddharşi (Thursday, Ist May, V. Sam. 962=906). According to the Prabhāvakacarita of the Jainas, Siddharşi was the grandson of Suprabhadeva, who had two sons, Datta and Subhankara, the latter being Siddha's father. The same authority makes him a cousin of the poet Māgha, who in his Siśupālavadha calls himself a son of Dattaka and grandson of Suprabhadeva. But it is difficult to reconcile this date with those of the various authors who are said to quote from him, as the
period of Māgha's activity falls considerably earlier.-(Ref. circa 650-700 A.D. 910 Kapadvanja copper-plate of Pracanda, son of Dhavalappa, of the Brahma
vāka family, feudatory ruler of a part of Gujarat under Kșşņa II, Rāştrakuța
-S. 832. (910 A.D.).-(EI, i, 52). 910 Subhatunga Akālavarşa Kșşņarāja II issued a grant of land from the terri
tory under the charge of Candragupta, the Dandanāyaka of Mahāsāmanta Pracanda (son of Dhavalppa of Brahmavāka lineage). The grant consisted in the village Vyāghrāsa ( Vaghās) situated in Ruriddhā Ten, in Karpațavāņijya
906
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Plate LXVIII

(A) Seated Sūrya, from Ruņu-Pipli, Pädrā, Baroda Dist.
(p. 274)
(B) Seated Sūrya, Rodā, Idar Territories,
Baroda Museum Open Gallery. (p. 273)

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Plate LXIX
STYLE: 4X4ule
(1) Inscription on the pillar at Gop Temple, which does not admit of decipherment. (2) Inscription on two sides of the pedestal of the Buddha Bronze from Fergussion Museum, Bhuj (Kaccha).
(See p. 215 & Plate LVII).

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(A) Dasarathi Rima from Varäha temple, Kadvär. (p. 277)

Plate LXX
(B) Haladhara Balarama from Kāvi, Jambusar Taluka, Dist. Broach. (p. 277)

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Plate LXXI

Kārtikeya with an attendant, in the rosette frame. From Kapuri Village, near Baroda. (p. 275)

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910
913
C. 914
RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD
257 (Kapadvanj) Eighty-four,' in Harsapura (Harsol) Seven-hundred-fifty'. It was received by Brāhmaṇa Brahmabhatta of Bhāradvāja gotra, resident of Vallurikā. The grant was made on the occasion of the Full Moon day of Vaišākha in $. 832 (910 A.D.). The grant was composed by Kulaputraka Ammaiyaka. It was authenticated by the autographs of Akkuka, brother of Pracanda and Candragupta.-(Kapadvanj Plates : EI., I, 52).
Members of the District Council, f4q-heaRT: are referred to in the Kapadvanj grant of Krsna II dated 910 A.D. (EI., I, p. 55); and those of the Provincial Council EHEFIT: in the Dhulia plates of Kakka, son of Dhruva (EI., VIII, p. 186). These bodies were not innovations of the Rāşțrakūtas; for the Vadner plates of Kalacuri king Budharāja, dated 60g A.D. (EI, XII, p. 130 ) also refer to ICAE ERIT TU: - Altekar, The Rāstrakūtas, p. 158-59).
Muni Yaśobhadra of Sanderaka gaccha became 'Sūri’ in Pallikā (modern Páli), which is one mile from the Pāli station of Rājasthān.-(JTSS-Vol. I, pt. I, p. 175). This name occurs in an inscription lying in the temple of Navalakhā Pārsva) of this place, in V.S. 969 (913 A.D.). This is what we learn from Upadeśaratnākara.-(Ibid, p. 175).
Ś. 836: Grant from Haddālā : by Dharaṇivarāha, Căpa chief of Vardhamāna ( Wadhvan) in Eastern Saurāştra, brother and successor of Dhruvabhata, whose immediate predecessors were : his father, Pulakesin, grandfather Addaka, and great-grand-father Vikramārka, who may be placed about 800 A.D..
Dharanivarāha was the vassal of Mahipāla, probably a prince of the Cūdāsamā dynasty of Junagadh.-(IA, xii, 190 ; XVIII, 90 ).
The practice of performing the 'tulā-puruṣa'' and the 'hiranyagarbha'? ceremony is referred to in the following Rāșțrakūța incriptions :
Rāştrakūta king Indra III performed 'tulāpuruşa’ in $. 836 (915 A.D. )-- (EI, ix, 33 f.).
Rāştrakūta king Govinda IV performed 'tulāpuruṣa' in $. 850 (928 A.D.) - (EI. VII, 36).
Rāșțrakūta king Dantidurga performed hiranyagarbha ':-(EI, xviii, 243 f.).
Rāştrakūta king Suvarnavarşa Prithvivallabha celebrated pattabandha festival with tulāpuruşa in $. 852 (930 A.D.).-(EI, VII, p. 26). 1 Tula purusa involves the weighing of donor on scales against gold, which is thereafter
distributed among the Brāhmaṇas. 9 Hiranyagaibha involves the performance of Sacraments on the donor, seated in a gold
Vessel, which is thereafter cut up and distributed among the Brähmanas.
The Bagumra Plates of Indra, inform us that old men vividly remembered in 91.4 A.D. ( when the Plates were issued) the brave feats of the Rāştrakūta emperors in the sanguinary wars with the Gurjaras. The Crown Prince Jagat
915
914

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tunga also participated in these wars, and so also did the Cedi ruler.-(IA., XII, p. 265).
914
914
C. 914
As against the evidence adduced by the Råştrakūța records, the Barton Museum inscription mentions Kșşộarāja (the last known ruler of the Gujarat Branch of the Rāştrakūtas ) retreating hastily to his country.
The Haddālā grant of the Capa Mahāsāmantadhipati Dharanivarāha, feudatory of the Rājādhirāja Mahīpāladeva of $. 836 ( 914 A.D.) indicates that Mahỉpāla held at least Gujarat up to 914 A.D. The grant was issued from Vardhamāna.--(IA., XII, p. 193; IA., XXIII, p. 114).
The invasion of the Rāştrakūța Indra III (c. 915-17 A.D.) and the defeat of Mahīpāla I (c. 914-43 A.D.) soon after 915 A.D. had very serious consequences for the fortunes of the Gurjara-Pratihāra empire.-(DHNI, P. 934).
The earliest known date of Mahipāla is $. 836 ( 914 A.D.) furnished by the Haddalā plates. It seems clear from Aryakşemiśvara's Candakauśika that Mahīpāla bore the name of Kārttikeya; for the poet refers to his patron as
Mahipāla ' in the Prologue of his play, and as 'Kārttikeya ' in the last verse of the 5th Act.
Trivikramabhațța, son of Nemāditya, and author of the Damayantikatha flourished under Indra III, being the author of Nausāri grants'. He is possibly identical with the Trivikrama, mentioned as the sixth ancestor of the astronomer Bhāskara and father of Bhāskarabhațța, a contemporary of Bhoja of Dhārā. The authorship of a Madālasācampū is also ascribed to him.-(EI, i, 340 ; Weber, Catal. ii, 1205 ).
Rāştrakúța king Indra III, Nityavarşa, succeeded his grand-father, Krşņa II, his father Jagattunga having previously died. Married Vijaṁbā, daughter of Anangadeva, son of Arjuna of Cedi.-( JBRAS, xviii, 253, 257, 261: IA., xii., 224)
The Haddālā (Saurāṣtra) grant of the Capa Mahāsāmantādhipati Dharanivarāha, a feudatory of the Rājādhirāja Mahipāladeva was issued from Vardhamāna. The inscription, written on two elliptical plates beginning with an invocation to Dhanadeśvara (Siva ), gives the legendary origin of the Căpa from the bow (Cāpa) of Sambhu. In that family was born Nřipa Vikramāka-his son Rājā Addaka followed by Pulakesi and Dhruvabhața, and the latter's younger brother king Dharaộivarāha residing at Vardhamāna (modern Wadhwan in East Saurāşțra ); who was a feudatory of Rājädhirāja Parmeśvara Sri Mahipaladeva, as is evident from the expression: afetante-HETTS HETATHafayfa: I. The country ruled by him was named after his grandfather (Addanadeśa ). This feudatory prince granted to Maheśvarācārya on the day of the Winter Solstice, the village named Viņkala connected with the Kanthi
914

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915
kaschali, on the fourth of the bright half of Paușa, Saka Samvat 836 ( 23rd December 914 A.D.).
This inscription mentions a number of village officials grāmapati ( the lord of the village), mahaitara ( the headman), Kuțumbika and madhyaga. It is also mentioned in this inscription that the proprietor of the land had a right of forced labour, which was conferred along with the gift.
The village of Viņkala was conveyed as a reward for learning (alat) to Maheśvarācārya, the son of Sivadevācārya who belonged to the Amaradakşamsthāna, a name of Kālabhairava ; and among the rights and privileges associated with the transfer were the share of the produce ( सामाणि भोगाभोगः । ), and of forced labour (fa feh). This Brāhmaṇa could not cultivate the land himself, and so he had to depend upon his rights to produce and forced labour.
This fact is also noticed in the Sanjān Plates of Amoghavarşa (EI, XVIII, p. 235, 1.67 ) which mentions fafez-forced labour-as the right accruing from the ownership of the land, and it passed on with the change in proprietorship.
Mahäsämantādhipati Jāika II of the Jayadratha dynasty at Bhūtāṁbilikā (Ghumli) issued a grant of a village in Svarṇamanjari vişaya. Three-fourths of the revenue of the village were to be spent for the Nanna-Mathikā, which had been founded by a merchant Nanna of Bhillamāla (Bhinmäl), and onefourth of the revenue was to be utilised for feeding Brāhmaṇas every day. (S. 836 Āsādha sudi 15=915 A. D.).-(Ghumli Plates, EI, XXVI, 222 ff.)
This is the last known date of the Saindhava dynasty.
Six copper-plate inscriptions of the early Saindhava rulers of the nagari of Bhūtām bilikā, have been published (See CI, XXVI, pp. 185 ff.). The latest of the Ghumli plates of the Saindhava kings belongs to the reign of Jāika II, and is dated in the Gupta year 596, which is given in the record, both in words in a verse and in numerical figures of the decimal system, and not in symbols. The date of the said record, therefore, falls in 915 A.D.
The Ghumli Plates of Baskaladeva (V. S. 1045; 989 A.D.) record the grant of a village, made by Rāņaka Bāşkaladeva, surnamed Kumkumalola, for the merits of his parents, in favour of a Brāhmin in 989 A.D.. Başkala, whose capital was at Bhūtāmbili, within the Mahadurga Adhikarana in Jyeșțukadeśa, is stated to have made the grant after taking a bath in the Yajñavāțatirtha (the Kunda near the Piņdārā temple) at a holy place called Piņdatāraka (modern Pindara on the Gulf of Kaccha, about 10 miles north of Bhāția). The word 'Adhikarana' seems to be used in the sense of an administrative unit, probably lying around the durga or fortress at Bhūtāmbili where Bāşkala resided. The gifted village belonged to Navasurāştra mandala. The name 'Navasurāṣtra' occurs several times in the Ghumli copper-plate inscriptions of the Saindhava
989

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
kings of the Jayadratha-vāṁsa. The donee was Śrotriya Damodara, son of Candāita, an adhvaryu Brāhmaṇa of the Bhardvāja gotra, and an inhabitant of Anhilapura. Bāşkala may have been a feudatory of Mülaraja Caulukya (C. 961-996).
This inscription discloses the existence of a new dynasty of rulers at Bhūtāmbili in the second half of the 10th Century, which was previously the capital of the Saindhavas of the Jayadratha-vamsa. "
An interval of nearly three quarters of a century is known between the records of Jāika II and Başkala, both issued from the same city. During this interval the dynasty of the Saindhavas of the Jayadratha-vamśa, seems to have been extirpated and new rulers were established in the city, which is described here as a smaller geographical unit round Bhūtāmbili, called Jyesthukadeśa, which name reminds us of the Jethvās, who are among the inhabitants of the area even today. According to tradition, Ghumli was the capital of Jethyā Rājputs, the Rāņās of Porbunder. If Bāşkala was a Jyeșthuka, the Jethvā Rāņās of Porbunder may be regarded as his distant descendants. Jethvās' were so called, because they ruled over Jyesthuka-deśa.
In the grant of the village, the western boundary is given as Paura-velākula, i.e. the modern Porbunder (literally, the harbour of Pôr = Paura). Thus this inscription points to the existence of Porbunder as a harbour, as early as the 10th Century A.D.-(D. C. Sircar, 'Ghumli Plates of Bāşkaladeva', CI., XXXI, No. 1, January 1955).
The Răstrakūta P.M.P. Pșthvivallabha Nityavarşa Indrarāja III issued from his capital Mānyakheța a grant of land to Prabhākara Bhatta of Lakşmaņa gotra in the $. 836, Phälguna śuddha 7 (915 A.D.). The grant was made by the king when he came to Kurundaka, and undertook the tulā-puruşa ceremony on the occasion of Pattabandha and made a donation of 400 villages (including Kurundaka ) along with an amount of 20 lacs of drammas. The land consisted in the village Umbara Bagumrā) near Kammanijja (Kamrej) in Lātadeśa. The grant was composed by Trivikrama Bhatta, indentified with the author of Madalasācampū.-( Bagumra Plates, EI, IX, 24 ff.).
The Rāştrakúța P.M.P. Nityavarşa Narendradeva (i.e. Indrarāja III) of Mānyakheţa issued in S. 836 (915 A.D.) another grant of land on the same occasion. The grant consisted in the village Tenna (Ten) near Kaimanijja (Kamrej) in the Lāțadeśa and was received by Sidha Bhatta, an emigrant from Pāțalīputra. This grant also was composed by Trivikrama Bhatta,--- (Bagumra Plates, EI., IX, 24 ff.).
From this Tenna a sculpture of Vişnu, of an earlier period is discovered by Dr. R. N. Mehta.-( See Antiquities'; p. 209 infra).
915
915
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915-945 The Kardā plates of the Rāştrakūta king Karka II state that Yuvarājadeva
gave his daughter Kandakādevi in marriage to Baddiga alias Amoghavarşa III, the Rāştrakūta king of Mänyakheța, who was an old man when he ascended the throne after his nephew Govinda IV. As he was reigning from circa 935 A.D. to 939 A.D., his father-in-law Yuvarājadeva I might have flourished in the period 915-945 A.D..
Yuvarājadeva was a patron of men of letters. Rājasekhara flourished at his court. In his early days the poet was attracted by the more prosperous court of Kanauj, where he wrote his Sanskrit plays Bälarāmāyana and Bala Bhārata (or Pracandapāņdava ), and the Prākrit drama Karpūramanjari during the reigns of the Gurjara- Pratihāra Emperors Mahendrapāla I and his son Mahipāla. But as the glory of the latter prince declined, owing to the invasion of his kingdom by the Râştrakūta king Indra III, and, later on, due to the raids of Yuvarājadeva I, Rājasekhara seems to have returned to Tripuri, the home of his ancestors Akālajalada and others, in the train of the victorious Kalacuri king. There he composed his third Sanskrit play Viddhaśālabhanjika and the rhetorical work Kávyamimāmsā. The former was staged at the Kalacuri court, and contains a poetic account of certain political events of Yuvarājadeva
l's reign. It is a play of harem-intrigue. C. 917 Allațarăja, son of Bhartsbhața I and his queen Mahālakṣmi of Rāthod
dynasty was a Jaina king of Chitor. He ruled from V. S. 922 to 2010. A wife of Allatarāja was suffering from Revati-dosa. Balibhadra once came to Hatthundi and while staying there, he cured the wife of Allațarāja of the disease. -(JPI-pt. I, p. 590 ).
Predecessors of persons of Hatthuļi, gotra, now-a-days residing in Bali, Sādadi, Sanderaka and Mewar, became devotees of the Balibhadra Sūri, in Circa V.S. 973 ( 917 A.D.).-(Ibid, p. 601).
Mahāsāmantādhipati Dharanivarāha at Vardhamāna (Wadhwān), feudatory of Rājādhirāja Parameśvara Mahipaladeva donated the village of Sthali, to Maheśvarācārya, on the occasion of Uttarāyaṇa in S. 839, Paușa sudi 4 (917 A. D.). The grant was composed by Sāndhivigrahika Mahindaka.-( Haddālā Plates, IA, 190 ff.).
917
C. 916
Ranteja, also called Ratnāvali, is situated in Chānasmā taluka. It appears, that village came into existance in about V.S. 900 to 950. For, in one of the Jaina temples of this village, we come across two inscriptions (See, Prachina Jaina Lekha-Samgraha Pt. II, Nos. 466-467 and JTSS-Vol. I, p. 76) dated V.S. 1157, wherein the name of this village is recorded as Rantaija. These inscrip. tions mention the installation of two Jaina images, one of Lord Supārsva and the other of Lord Pārsva.
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920
928
928
930
930
930
930
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Ratnaditya, Capotkața of Anhilvaḍ succeeded Virasimha, (V.S. 976, 920 A.D.). (See, A.D. 746).
Grants of the Maitraka kings as well as those of the Rastrakütas given to Brahmanas were to enable them to discharge their religious duties; but these duties were generally of the Smarta rather than of the Śrauta character. The Sanjan plates of Amoghavarsa (IA; XVIII, p. 235) and the Cambay plates of Govinda IV (EI; VII, p. 41) are the only two exceptions, where it is expressly stated that the grants were made to enable the Brahmanas to perform Vedic sacrifices like Rajasaya, Vajapeya and Agnistoma. In all other cases the grants were made for discharging purely Smärta duties connected with bali, caru, vaisvadeva etc. This analysis is a convincing proof that in spite of Kumārilla's efforts, the Śrauta religion almost died down in the Raṣṭrakuța period.(Altekar, The Räṣṭrakātas, p. 278-79).
Camby Plates of the Răştrakuta king Govinda IV state that the king was weighed against gold, as enjoined in the Dharmasastra in S. 850 (928 A.D.), the cermony being known as the maha-dana' or a 'tula-purusa'.-(See 915 A.D.).
The Răṣṭrakūtā P. M. P. Suvarnavarṣa Prthvivallabha Narendradeva celebrated Paffabandha festival with tulapuruşa, and made grants of 600 agraharas and 3 lacs of suvargas to Brahmanas as well as 800 villages, 4 lacs of suvarnas and 32 lacs of drammas to temples, in S. 852 (Khara Samvatsara Jyestha Suddha 10 Somadine) 930 A.D..
On that occasion he also issued a grant of the village Kevanja (Kimoj) in Kheṭaka Mandala of Laṭadeśa to Nagamarya of Maṭhara gotra, who had left Kävikä (Kavi) and settled at Manyakheta. The grant was composed by Nagavarman, son of Gangadhararaya.-( Camby Plates: EI., VIII, p. 26).
Cambay Plates of the Rastrakāta king Govinda IV, dated 930 A.D. inform us that this monarch gave away (the revenue of) 400 villages and 32 lakhs of drammas or suvarnas for the different temples in his domains. The revenues of an average village in the time of Govinda IV was 500 suvarnas ie. Kalanjus, gold coins, weighing each about a quarter of a tola,-( Altekar, The Rastraktas, pp. 219, 290).
The Cambay and Sangli plates of the Raṣṭrakūta king Govinda IV state that Laksmi, the wife of the Räṣṭrakūta prince Jagattunga, was the daughter of Ranavigraha (Ep. Ind., Vol. VII, p. 38 and Ind. Ant., Vol. XII, p. 250); while .the Kardā plates of Karka II say that she was the daughter of Sankaragana, the lord of Cedi,-(Ind. Ant., p. 264). Rapavigraha' was, thus, known to be a biruda of Sankaragana.
Nagamarya, the donee of Cambay plates of the Räṣṭrakūta king Govinda IV was an immigrant from Kāvi in Gujarat who settled in Mälkhed. This shows

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that Gujarat Brāhmins were settling down in Karņāțaka and were being honoured with brahmadāya grants.
Epigraphical records prove that Brāhmaṇas of one province were freely going to permanently settle in another. The donee of the Begumră plates of Indra III was an immigrant from Pāšalīputra, which indicates that provincial barriers of castes had not arisen in the Rāştrakūța period.-(Altekar, The Rāştrakūtas,
P. 335). 933 In Devasena's Nayacakra, a Prakrit work on Logic, we are told that the
work was originally composed in the Dohā metre; but it was subsequently transformed into Gathās by Mailladhavala, because a critic remarked that Dohā metre was not suitable for a serious subject like Logic. The date of Devasena,
as recorded in one of his works, is V. S. 990 ( = 933 A. D.). 933 Harişeņa, a Digambara monk, pupil of the poet Bharataşeņa and grand-pupil
of Sriharişena, composed Byhat-kathā kośa (having 157 stories) in V. S. 989 ( 933 A. D.) at Vardhamānapura, which is identified by Dr. A. N. Upadhye, its editor, with a place near modern Wadhwan in Saurāşțra.-( Intro., p. 121 to Byhatkathākośa).
Dr. Hiralal Jain, however, strikes a different note, as can be seen from his érticle The Chief political divisions of India during the 8th century.-(Indian
Culture, Vol. XI, No. 41) C. 934-40 The Karhāļ plates of Krşņa III (c. 940-56 ) seem to show a renewal of
Rāşțrakūța pressure on the northern provinces of the Gurjara. Pratihāras in the reign of his father Amoghavarşa III (C. 934-40). That the Rāştrakūtas advanced so far as Citrakūta is confirmed by the Ahmedabad plates (949-70 A.D.) of the Paramāra Siyaka II (EI, XIX, p. 177-79), a feudatory of Akālavarşa Kļşņa III. These struggles between the Gurjaras and the Rāstrakūļas produced disorder and anarchic conditions in this area, which indirectly helped the immediate rise of the Caulukyas in Gujarat.-( Dynastic History of
Northern India, Vol. II, p. 934). 935 Samantasimha Capotakata of Aņbilvād, succeeds Ratnāditya till V.S. 991
1.8. 942 A.D.
First Settlement of the Pārsis at Sanjān, according to Prof. S. H. Hodiwala.
(See Infra, year 716 A.D., and 866 A.D.. See, also Dr. I. J. S. Taraporewala's paper on 'The Exact Date of the Arrival of the Parsis in India', Kane Festschrift, pp. 506-414).
The Pārsi tradition mentions that the ruler who gave permission to the first emigrants to settle at Sanjān was named Jadi Rāņā. According to the Qissa-;-Sanjaan, this ruler belonged to the race of the Shāhrāyas'. Neither the name nor the race is otherwise known. It is suggested that the original
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264
939
939-965
940-950
940
C. 940
942
941-943
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
word Shahrayan is a misreading for Shilharayana which denotes the Silähāras, whose king was Vajjada-deva. Vajjada might have become Jadi, and the emigrants fresh from Iran, not liking to address their benefactors as 'deva', which had in Zoroastrian literature a meaning reverse of that which it bears in Sanskrit, they perhaps preferred to call him 'Rand.-(Hodivala, Studies in Parsi History, 1920 p. 74).
Devagupta Sūri, a Kṣatriya by birth, had a fascination for playing on a lute. This he continued to do and thereby violated the rules meant for the Jaina clergy. The Jaina community, therefore, so pressed him that he gave up the designation of 'Suri', appointed another monk as his successor, and went to Läta.
Henceforth it was decided that in the Upakeša gaccha, the leader to be appointed should have his pityhula (paternal descent) and matykula (maternal descent), too, pure.-(JPI-pt. I, pp. 26-27).
The greatest Apabhramsa poet, who has so far come to light is Puspadanta, who wrote his Mahapurana, Jasahara-Cariu and Nayakumara-cariu at Manyakheta under the patronage of the ministers of the Rāṣṭrakūta king Krsna III, and his successor.
Slyaka II, a Paramāra Chief ruled over a considerable portion of Saurāṣṭra and the peninsular part of modern Gujarat as a vassal of the Rāṣṭrakūtas between 940 and 950 A.D. His principality can be said to have included, at one time or another, Lâța, Khetaka-mandala, modern Mälava and Saurastra.(Munshi, Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, Part, I, p. 8-9).
Mammațarăja added some amount to the donation given by Vidagdharaja for the temple at Hastikundi (Hathundi), as is known from an inscription dated V. S. 996 (940 A.D.)-(JTS8, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 512).
Vira Gapi had been to Tharapadra (Tharada) some time in the 10th century of the Vikrama era.-(JTSS, Vol. I, pt. 2, p. 512. ).
The Sakambharl Inscription of Caulukya Solanki Jayasimha Siddharāja gives the definite date of Caulukya Mūlaraja's accession, as Samvat 998-942 A.D. (Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi-9: giving the figures, to be read in the reverse order) :
वसुनंदनिधौ वर्षे व्यतीते विक्रमार्कतः । मूलदेवनरेशस्तु चूडामणिरभूद् भुवि ॥
-(Vishvesvara Nath Reu, Sambhar Inscription of Jayasimha, IA. LVII, 234.)
The contemporary Arab observers were greatly impressed with the military strength of the Imperial Pratihāras, whom they called Baurah and Kings of Jurz. The high tribute paid by one of them to the efficiency of the Pratihara

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(A) Siva-Parvati from Rodā, now in Baroda Museum. (p. 316)
Plate LXXII
(B) Viņāpāņi Šiva from Koţeśvara, near Ambaji, now in Baroda Museum. (p. 316)

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Plate LXXIII
ME
Dhanapati Kubera, from Kāvi, Jambusara Taluka, Dist, Broach. (p. 276) For Personal & Private Use Only
• P
/

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Plate LXXIV
Side-view
(A) Head of a Tāpasa (i) from Kārvan (p. 275)
Back-view
Mother-Goddess from Bhinmāl (p. 276)

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Plate LXXV
( A ) Nägarāja with a triple hood of Nāga, from Vasişthāśrama, Mt. Abu. (p. 210)
(C) Kārtikeya from Baroda,
Baroda Museum
(B) Agni from Osiā, Mārwād.

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943
RASTRAKUTA-PRATIHARA PERIOD
265 administration is noteworthy." There is no country in India ", says Masudi, "more safe from robbers":-( HIE, I, 4, 21, 23).
The Gujarat chronicles give a romantic, if unreliable, story of the Caulukya dynasty's origin. The Cäpotkațas (also Cāvođakas) commonly known as Cavadās, ruled in Pancasara in the period Circa 720-956 A.D.
During the reign of Sämantasimha alias Bhūvața, the last prince of this line, Rāji, Bija, and Dandaka, the 3 sons of Bhuvanāditya, the ruler of Kalyāņakațaka in Kanauj started incognito, in the guise of beggars on a pilgrimage to Somanātha. On their way back they attended a cavalry-parade held by Samantasimha. A criticism made by Rāji, on some of the cavalry movements pleased Sāmantasimha, who taking him to be the scion of some noble family, gave him his sister Lilādevi in marriage. Lilādevi died pregnant, and the child, who was taken alive from his dead mother's womb, was called Mūlarāja, because the operation was performed when the Müla constellation was in power. Mül..aja grew up an able and popular prince who succeeded his uncle who was a vassal of the great Gurjara-Pratihāra Empire.-( Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, pp. 934-35).
Mularāja I, son of Rāji of Kalyāņa (probably Kanauj) conquered Sārasvata Mandala (Samvat 998) and founded there the Caulukya or Solanki dynasty of Anhilvāļpațţan, and reigned till 996 A.D.
The direct descendants of Mūlarāja ruled Gujarat until V.S. 1299 ( 1243 A.D.). They were succeeded by the Vaghelās, whose last king Karņa (or Laghukarņa ) Vāghelā was defeated and routed by Alapkhăn, a commander of Allāuddin Khilji in 1298 A.D.
EPILOGUE A village-chief (grāmapati) granted in 945 A.D. lands to a community of Scholars (Vidyārthi Samgha) and a dwelling house to the teacher of a School ( Sālā ), which had been founded by a minister of the Răştrakūta King Krşņa III. It was further agreed that the Brāhmaṇas of this village were to contribute, to the scholarly body, sums at stipulated rates on occasions of tonsure, investiture with the sacred thread and marriage, while the Parişat was to feast the same body whenever a feast was given to Brāhmaṇas. The school was afterwards rebuilt by another chief.—(EI., IV, 60 f.).
The Harsola Plates of the Rāstrakūta king Kșşņa III (949 A.D.) throw light on the Gujarat policy of the later Răstrakūtas, by revealing the existence of a family of feudatories, who appear to have supplanted the line of Indra. The Mahāmandalika-cūļāmaņi M. Siyaka, his father Vairīsimha, and his grandfather Bappairāja of this inscription have been identified with the Paramāra rulers Vākpati I, Vairisimha III, and Harșa-Siyaka II.-( Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, p. 840 ).
945
949
C34
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C. 950
C. 950
C. 950
C. 950
959
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
A passage from the Vastrapalha māhātmya, a section of the Probhasa-Khaṇḍa of the Skandapurana, deals with the sacred sites of Girnar, tending to show that Bhoja's authority extended upto Saurăṣṭra.-(K. C. Rayachaudhari, IHQ, V, pp. 129-135). It is needless to go into the story centring round a woman with the face of a doe accompanying a herd of deer in the forests at Raivataka, her capture by the Baladhyakṣa, and her revelations at Kanyakubja, referring to the sanctity of the waters of the Suvarnarekha. The story is uncredible, but it adduces the following points which deserve consideration: firstly, it refers to Bhoja's connnection with Saurästra where he appointed a Vanapala, and despatched his army (AI. 25); secondly, Bhoja is mentioned as the Emperor of Kanauj:
कान्यकुब्जे महाक्षेत्रे राजा भोजेति विश्रुतः ।
पुरा पुण्ययुगे धर्म्यः प्रजा धर्मेण शासति ॥ VI, 201
The Una Plates of Bhoja clearly mention that his empire extended up to Saurăştra, and ascended the throne at Kanauj. Thus the date presented by the passage from the Skanda Purana is in conformity with facts known from other sources.(Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras, p. 59).
No less than five centres that were manufacturing swords are mentioned in Agni Purana, along with the distinctive qualities of their products. These are Sūrpāraka (Sopara), Khatikhattara and Risika (Khandesh), Vanga (East Bengal) and Anga (Monghyr and Bhagalpur Districts).-( The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p. 400).
Laksmanarajadeva, Kalacuri or Cedi, son and successor of Yuvaraja I, married Rähada. The Bilhari inscription records his defeat of the lord of Kosala, and his expedition to the very pleasant Western region, during which campaign he worshipped the God Someśvara in Gujarat. His daughter Bonthâdev!, was the mother of the Western Câlukya Tailapa II (973-997 A.D.).-(EI, ii, 174).
Sri-Harşadeva, Siyaka II or Simhabhața, Paramāra of Mälava, son and successor of Vairisimha II; married Vadajā; he took in battle the wealth of (the Răştrakūta) king Khottiga.-(Udayapura Prasasti).
Dhanapala's allusion in his Paiyalacchi namamala (V.S. 1029) to the plunder of Manyakheta by the lord of Malava probably refers to this conflict.--(EI, i, 225).
Dhanapala who was a protége of Munja and Bhoja of Dhārā, wrote the Risabhapancasika and also the Tilakamanjari-(IA, ii, 166; iv, 59).

A flood of light is thrown on the state of Jainism during the 9th and 10th century by Yasastilaka campa, a literary romance in Sanskrit prose and verse, composed by Somadeva Sări in 959 A.D.

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971
972
999
The Ekalinga (Udaipur ) inscription of the time of Naravāhana of Nāgadharā dated in V. S. 1028 (971 A. D.) refers to Siva becoming incarnate' as a man with a club (lakuta ) in his hand, in the country of Bhřigukaccha, and propitiated by Bhřigu.-(JBBRAS., Vol. XXII, p. 166).
The other inscription, usually called Cintra Praśasti mentions Siva, becoming incarnate in the form of Bhattāraka Sri-Lakulīša, dwelling at Kārohaņa in the Lāța country. There appeared in bodily form four pupils of his of the names of Kuśika, Gārgya, Kaurusa and Maitreya for the strict performance of the Pāśupata views, and they became the originators of four branches.--(EI., I, p. 271):-( See pp. 87-88).
The invasion by Siyaka II of Dhārā and the ravages made at Mänyakheța, the capital of the Rāştrakūta king Khottigadeva the successor of Kșşņa II, by the Mālava king, are referred to by Dhanapāla, the author of Pāiyalacchināmamālā V. S. 1029 (= A. D. 972 ). These ravages are mentioned by Pușpadanta also, in one of the verses prefixed to the 'Sandhis' of his Mahāpurāna, completed in Saka 887 ( 965 A. D.).
The earliest positive date for the settlement of the Iranian emigrants in India is furnished by two inscriptions found in Kanheri caves. These record the names of two parties of Iranian tourists who had visited the caves, and, like many modern visitors, chiselled their names on the rocks. The first inscription gives the names of 17 men, and the second, of 10 men including 4 of the first; and these are dated respectively in 999 and 1021 A. D. The script as well as the language of both the inscriptions is Pahlavi and the personal names are, without exception, purely Iranian.
As the Parsis in India freely adopted Hindu surnames (their names being Iranian even now), it has been argued that the arrival of the Iranians in India could not have been very old at the time the inscriptions were engraved. This, in a way, supports the date 936 A. D., as suggested above.
A list of ports on the Gujarat coast is available from the accounts of the early Arab geographers, during the repulse of the Arab invasions on the mainland of India in the beginning of the 8th century upto the fateful year 997 A.D., when Afghanistan passed into the hands of the Turks. Kambay, Thana and Sopara and further South Sindan (modern Sanjan, 88 miles north of Bombay, from which port was exported pepper) are mentioned by them.-( The Age of Imperial Kanauja, p. 402)
The sects of Candi and Gaņeśa hold good ground in the Kali age ( offatt) ie, in the mediaeval period of Hindu history. Out of the gallery of the Hindu Pantheons these two are the only powerful and serviceable Gods. While locating the cult of Sakti over the different provinces in
C. 1000
C. 1000

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C. 1000
India, the Sakta Pandits are fond of reciting the following sloka :
गौडे प्रकाशिता विद्या मैथिलै: प्रबलीकृता ।
कचित् क्वचिन्महाराष्ट्र गुर्जरे विलयं गता।। The cult was proclaimed in Gauda (Bengal ) and was developed by the Maithilas : it is only occasionally met with in Mahārāșțra; but has completely disappeared in Gujarat. Verily, true Śāktas are not at all numerous in Gujarat.
A kindred verse occurs in the Bhāgavata Purāņa-Māhātmya from Padma Purāna ( 12th century A.D.) with reference to the prevalence of Bhakti ( absolute attachment to God ), where Bhakti personified declares as under :
उत्पन्ना द्राविडे साऽहं वृद्धिं कर्णाटके गता।
क्वचित् क्वचिन्महाराष्ट्र गुर्जरे विलयं गता। This verse is supported by facts.--(M. R. Majmudar Devi-Māhātmya and Sakti-worship, with reference to Gujarat', JISOA, 1938).
The early Arab writer of the ninth and tenth centuries refer to the fertility of the soil and the rich cultivation, both of grain and fruits, specially, in Western India with which they were particularly acquainted. Some cities in Gujarat grew mangoes, coconuts, lemons, rich and in great quantities, and likewise produced quantities of honey. One such city also grew canes and teak trees, while Malabar produced pepper and bamboo.--(HIND, I 15-16, 24, 27-8, 35, 37-40; Ferrand, 117).
Somadeva's Kathāsaritsagara (Taranga, 22) refers to one Vidyādhara, who was born in the family of a rich merchant of Valabhi, named Vasudatta. This Vidyadhara was ordered by his father to go to another country where he had some business interests.
Somadeva ( Katha, Taranga 29) refers again to a merchant named Devasena of Påtalīputra as going to Valabhi on business, and leaving his wife Kirtisenā to the tender mercies of his mother.
Nitivākyāmpta' or the Nectar of the Sayings of Polity' was composed by the Jaina monk Somadevasūri.
The Bhavisayattakahā of Dhanapāla is an Apabhraíśa poem in twenty-two sandhis, and narrates the life of a merchant who suffered immensely on account of the jealousy of his step-brother, and is assigned by Dr. Hermann Jacobi to the tenth century A.D.
III
C. 1000
C. 1000
C. 1000
ANTIQUITIES Western School of Wall Painting;: Śrógadhara's 'School of Ancient West' referred to by Tārānātlia, the Tibetan historian, in 1508 A.D. does not seem to have been
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localised in Western India; but its traditions seem to have travelled as far as Nepal and Burma (in the wall-paintings at Pagin ), where the earlier school of art resembled the Old Western School.
The distinguishing features of this school founded in Marwar cannot be surmised, as no painting from Marwar or Western India from those early times has survived. But if sculpture be the index of art-conventions of those times, then the angularity in the treatment of human figures may be counted as the distinguishing features of the Western Indian art of Bundelkhand, Malwa, Rajputana and Gujarat.
Jaina Frescoes at Elura : In the middle layer of the wall-paintinga at Kailāsanátha, Elura (9th century), however, the angularity of human figures, pinching to the farther cheek, and the consequent protrusion of the farther eye into empty space are met with. As these conventions are still in embryonic stage in the later cave-paintings of Ajanta, (Plate LIX a, b) they may be attributed to the extraneous influence, probably of Gujarat and Rajputana. The Bāgh fresco of the Dandarāsaka on the ancient route connecting Malwa with Gujarat may be again referred to here.
The influence of Western Indian art at a somewhat later period is marked in the Vişnu temple at Madanpur, in Lalitpur Dist. (U.P.), adjoining Malwa. The battle scenes in the Western porch of Kailāsanātha, Elura, depicting rows of horsemen, and the inscriptional evidence indicating their connection with the Paramāras of Malwa, who were feudatories of the Rāştrakūtas, also show Rajput or Western Indian influence. In the roth century or even a little earlier, the conventions of the Western Indian style left their homeland and travelled to the remotest corners of India, influencing the contemporary Pāla paintings in Eastern India, and penetrated as far as Pagān and Nepal.-( Moti Chandra ; Jain Paintings of Western India, 1952, p. 17).
From the study of the wall-paintings, roughly from the gth to 12th Century, found in the South, the Deccan and as far as Malwa, we are struck with certain characteristic features which are common to all. The crude colour-modelling, the linear quality of the drawing, the protuberance of the farther eye into space, pointedness of nose and chin, the conventional treatment of trees, animals and birds are common features of all. There are, of course, local variations in the details of costume and also of human types; but the similarity of technique is so great that all these wall-paintings bear the stamp of a common stock. These wall-paintings, are, thus, the harbingers of nex conventions in Indian art, which became stereotyped in Western Indian Miniatures.
Miniatures from Western India conserve rich material for the study of Western Indian costumes and textile designs. Gujarat, as we know, was a great centre of calicoprinting, and it exported printed calico to Africa and Asiatic countries from the 10th to 16th century. No textile material has survived from this period in Gujarat proper, and the only source for the knowledge of the patterns and colours employed by the textile printers of Gujarat are these Miniature Paintings. That the printers took the designs from the contemporary art of textile-printing is supported by the actual appearance of such
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designs on the contemporary printed calico-pieces from Gujarat discovered from excavations in the sands of Fustāt near Cairo in Egypt. - (R. Pfister, Les Toiles Imprimess de Fustat et l'Hindoustan, 1938).
Architecture : The late Gupta-Cā potkața architectural art of Anhilwād Pāțan is in evidence by way of architectural remains that have been recovered from this area ; and are on view at the Baroda Museum Sculpture Gallery. The early Pratihāra architecture that flourished under Devarāja and Vațsarāja during the latter half of the 8th Century, is noticeable in the Kārvan door-frame, facing the entrance to the lake. The style of these temples is unintelligible without the assumption of a certain Calukya influence.
Temples: Among extant temples that have somewhat survived the ravages of time can be mentioned the Osia group of Sūrya and Vişņu temples, 35 miles from Jodhpur, (Plate LXI), the Roda group of Siva and Sakti temples in the former Idar State, (Plate LX), the Kotţāi temple in Kaccha (Plate LXII a ), and the Kālikāmātā temple at Chitorgadh (Plate LXII b), retain many of the post-Gupta characteristics, wherein the sculpture plays an indivisible part of decoration of these temples. These small-size temples at Roda, Osia, Kiradu, and Delvada (Mt. Ābu), belong to this period of the Râştrakūtas and the Pratihāras.
Ganga-Yamuna Motif on Door-frames : The presence of the Gangā and Yamunā, on the door-frames of Osia temples, standing respectively on a crocodile and a tortoise, evince a continuance of this Gripta motif so far. This motif is also traced on the door-frames at the Varāhamandira, Kadvār, the Sun temple at Thăn, the temples at Rodā, the entrance door-frame on the lake at Kārvaņ and at the Siva temple at Limkheďā,and the temple at Kalesari, 15 miles north of Lunavada.
Ganga from Idar: A loose sculpture of Gangā on Makara from Idar has also been recovered.-( Plate XL).
Door-frame at Karvan Lake: The magnificent door-frame-the two stele of a gateway still on view in situ, leading to the lake at Kārvan, are the interesting architectural remains, with the Gupta-motif of Gangā on makara and Yamunā on a kūrma, both holding pots of water, on either side of the door-frame. It is assignable to early 9th Century A.D. -(U. P. Shah, JOI, Vol. I, No. 2, p. 254, 1952-53).---( Plate LXIII).
Architectural Remains from Patan: The discovery of a few pieces of late Gupta architectural remains of early 9th century, from a temple nearby Aņahilvāļ Pāțaộ, has been remarkable both for its tiny size as well as for its sculptural decorative art. These remains consist of the upper part of two door-jambs, a yakşa-bracket piece, two slabs representing step-roofs with image-niches, a panel of five Mātřikās and an image-niche, between two makara-heads. The seated figure of Siva as a Yogi is typically post-Gupta in execution, full of strength and serenity. The sculptural art in these specimens represents a later phase of the School of Ancient West, said to have been founded by Sringadhara of Marudesa.-(H. Goetz, Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. VII, P. 25).- Plate LXV b.).
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271 Architectural Remains from Kadvar: The stray sculptures of Vămana and Rāma with the architectural background from Varāha temple at Kadvār, near Somanātha, belong to this period. - (Plate LXV a).
Torana at Samalaji: The torana, the pratolyaka, the kirlistambha, or the arched gateway on the other side of the Meśvo river, near Sämalāji is believed to be one of the earliest in Western India. The primitive wooden pallisades which enclosed the early settlements of the Vedic Aryans were built of bamboo and teak. The Buddhist toranas of stone at Sānchi and Bhārhut are supposed to have been evolved from these wooden gates, which were erected as gateways for going round the Stūpas. They added beauty and grandeur to the simple hemi-spherical structures of the Stūpas. With their height and elegant plastic art they attracted and impressed the incoming worshipper. The temple architecture of the Hindus adopted this essential item; and that is how we come across arched gateways erected before temples, varying in style, size etc. according to their geographical provenance.
Under the royal patronage of Gurjara-Pratihāras of Mandor and Bhinmāl and the Paramāras of Malwa, and the Caulukyas of Gujarat and Abu, architecture and sculptural art of Rajasthan, Marwad, Malwa and Gujarat developed on regional lines. The toranaarchitecture developed side by side with temple architecture. The toraņa at the entrance of Mahāvira temple at Osia, dated Samvat 1013 ( 947 A.D.), and the toraņas at Modhera, Vadnagar, Siddhapur, Piludra and Kapadvanj in North Gujarat are the extant examples of torana-architecture. However, the Sāmalāji torana being earlier, varies greatly from them in shape, proportion, treatment of sculptures and other decorative motifs. The central double semi-circle arch is unique in design.
The torana standing on the southern bank of the river is about 20 feet above the river bed, and measures from the debris 11" in height and 10" in width. The torana is an ultunga type of arched gateway of a temple facing the north. The whole structure is composed of a pitha or udumbara (base), two stambhas (pillars) and patta (lintel). The surmounting superstructure or Kuțāchhidya is known to have existed from the surviving fragment of the cornice, overlying the lintel.
From two makara-mukhus in the lintel and other decorations on the pillars of this toraņa, it is definitely known that it is a temple gateway (Cf. dalasatami AITOT APTITUTI -F ATTA, IV, 64,93). The striking difference between the Caulukyan and the Sāmalāji torana is the shape and decoration of pillars which are square, as distinguished form Osia and others which are octagonal.
The graceful temple figure on the side of the torana facing the south holding a flower in her right hand, with typical headdress and ornaments, and the style of showing schematic folds of the sări clinging to the body shows a close resemblance to the post-Gupta sculptures so common in the vicinity, and thus this lorana can be assigned to a period between the 8th and gth Century A.D.-(Suryakant Chowdhari, 'A Torana at Samalāji, North Gujarat', Journal M. S. University Baroda, Vol. VIII, No. 1, March 1959).-(Plate LXIV).
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Sun-temples: The gift of the Răstrakūta King Prabhütavarṣa Govindaraja to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya) at Kävi shows that princely support was not all-together lacking and even the Valabhi rulers could be occasionally found to patronise this faith. The multiplicity of the Sun-temples on the southern coast of Saurastra, where tribes emigrating from Kashmir and worshipping the Sun probably lived, indicates that the Sun-cult was quite vigorous here. The temple at Visavada (Plate LXVI a), Bileśvara (Plate LXVI b), Kinderkheda, Modherä, Somanatha-Pattana, Than, Suträpädä and other places are fairly well packed in time to justify this conclusion.
272
An early tenth century temple at Osia, and temples in old Jodhpur, Sirohi, and other States in Western India indicate the prevalence of the cult in north-western and western India during mediaeval times. The small temple at Kalasår, probably a Suntemple, near Mahuva on the sea-board, resembles that of Gop, as far as it retains the Caityawindow motif on the facades of the sikhara. It was discovered by Ravishankar Raval.(Journal Gujarat Research Society, April, 1919).
Sun-cult: The Sun-cult must have existed prior to the rise of Bhagavatism; for the Chandogya Upanisad, one of the oldest Upanisads, refers to Kṛṣṇa Devakiputra as a disciple of Ghora Angiras, a worshipper of the Sun.
That Kanişka should have coins struck with the image of Mithra, with the name Miiro (Mihira) added, proves that the Persian solar cult had infiltrated into Brahmanical belief by the first century A.D. The Puranas, like Bhavisya, Samba, Varaha and others, narrate the story of the introduction of the cult into India from Såkadvipa (Eastern Iran), and the Brihat-Samhita expressly lays down that the images of the god should be duly installed by the Magas who are none other than the Sun and Fire-worshipping Magi of ancient Iran. The 57th chapter of the Brihat-Samhita and many iconographic texts again. emphasise such alien features of the Surya figures, as udicyavesa (northern derss), avyanga (the Indian form of the Iranian airyaonghen, the sacred woollen waist-girdle, which a Zoroastrian is enjoined to wear), etc., which are almost invariably present in the extant North-Indian specimens..
The Mandsor stone-inscription of the time of Kumaragupta I (451 A.D.) commemorating the building of a sun-temple by silk-weavers who had migrated from Lâța, and the Indore copper-plate grant of Skandagupta show that the sun-worship which prevailed in Central India was patronised by the guilds. It is also known that the contemporary Hunas-Toramana and Mihirakula-were both worshippers of the Sun. The reference to a private Sun-temple in a copper-plate of King Siläditya I further supports the existence of Sun-worship (Buhler, Dhänk Plates of 290, A IX, p. 237). The Gurjara kings-King Dadda I and Dadda II,-who were in possession of land round about Bharukaccha were also devotees of the Sun during that period. The word 'Maitraka' itself is believed by some to have been derived from mitra, the Sun, and is taken to be supported by the ending word Aditya' as in 'Siladitya'. However, out of about twenty Valabhi kings,

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Plate LXXVI

0000OOOOOO

(B) Vāmana becoming Virăța, from Osiä Temple, Marwad. (p. 272)
(A) Hari-Hara from Osiā temple,
Märwad. (p. 272)

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Plate LXXVII
yunazywayasantennisyear ૩૫૬મજ વસવા૨૪૫૪૦૪૧ 9ey! 1કસ gineyouare Py
TOIRE WARANGAL
28) ਉਪ 2: egyen-yudent? ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਸਏ ਮU B พระบรมวsree8jean 03 ส ค ล ก wy' U4Wj 20 તકે જીનZ564)3YSuzey Y&&JANIEL ພາໂດຍ ປີຍທີ່ບໍ Seo 1 yo ນານານ ( ານ າວ>> ayezuzf Vະ ຊົມສວນ ການມາ ໃນເບ પંāne પીસ મેyye Jyel a=861 નવેમ HENAJAY TYTANZRESZCENTAL SEMANA ຍການກັນນບັນ໙ສອດທັງ 2 ນກວດ888 ກາງ ໃ BIJUTERII
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ແລະປັນຍາບັນດາາບີທີ 4 ປີ 1 ໄດ້ ຜ ມີກຸ່ມ3 ມ เวลา บราม2 จะสา Teen DTCIALS MY2218 5 ສາລະບັນຍາກາດ 39 pay =ER=36 નમન ય ર =uCx-se FESTON IS/10ના નામ JANE
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(A) A Valabhi Copper-plate

شده :
(B) A Saindhava Copper-plate, with a fish symbol. Jamnagar Museum.
7
v

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Plate LXXVIII
Sculpture of a Music Party, Surat Museum. (p. 277)

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(A) Miniatures of Târâ, from an Illustrated Palm-Mss of the Påla period, Baroda Museum. (p. 277)
Plate LXXIX
(B) Inscription on the backside pedestal of the life-size Buddha bronze at old Kotyarka temple, Mahudi, still in situ. Reads the Buddhist formula ये धर्माः हेतु प्रभवाः एवं वादी महाश्रव] [म] (P. 318)

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only the fifth king Dharapațța seems to have professed the faith of the Sun, as he styled himself as 'paramāditya-bhakta'.
Standing Surya from Karvan, assignable to the gth Century at the latest, wears an ekāvali and a golden chain-girdle, with a chain hanging on each thigh, and the beaded armlets which have been common to sculptures of the Samalājī group. The oblong halo with a lotus-petal border at the end is remarkable. The Sürya holds the lotus. The smaller figures of Danda and Pingala still retain the earlier Gupta traditions. The crown appears to have evolved from the crown of Vişnu from Bhinmal, and the stone-head from Sāmalāji, which is again comparable with the high crown from Elephanta Maheśa-mūrti and the crown of Jivantasvāmi bronze from Akota.- Plate LXVII b).
Standing Surya from Vasisthasrama, Mt. Abu: Two-armed standing Surya, rather stunted in height, located at Vasişthāśrama, Mt. Abu, is later than the one at Jagannath shrine, probably of C. gth Century A.D. The forms of attendant females here are common to the art of the Gurjara-Pratihāra period in Western India. The double neck-ornament and the necklace with bell-design are noteworthy.-( Plate LXVII a).
Standing Surya from Delvada is also noteworthy.-(Plate LXVII c).
Sculptures of Seated Surya : Our knowledge of sculptures of seated Surya from Gujarat is limited. The panel on the door-frame of the Varāha temple at Kadvār (near Somanath ), assigned to the 8th Century A.D., has an image of Sūrya, first from the right. It is seated on a lotus in the utkațika (raised hips) pose, and seems to have two hands only, which bear a lotus each, held as high as the shoulder. On a stone door-frame, (C. 12th Century) at the Junagadh Museum, in a nitch on the arch of the torana is found a seated Surya, in a chariot drawn by seven horses.
Seated Surya from Prabhasa : A composite figure of Sūrya from Prabhāsa, seated in padmāsana has three faces, the profile ones being in tact, and the front disfigured. There is a halo round the face. It is a tri-mūrti with Sürya (Vişnu) in the middle, the lotus-stalks being visible. It has perhaps six hands with dhyāna mudrā, two each for the three forms of Brahmā, Vişņu and Maheśa. It has worn an udarabandha and a girdle. The figure is seated on a chariot with the avyanga. Heads of the seven horses are in view, and are driven by a small charioteer, seated in front of the figure. It, perhaps, cannot be earlier than 8th century.-(Sankalia, Archaeol gy of Gujarat, p. 162, fig. 74).
Seated Surya from Unza : The seated figure of Sūrya with a beautifully shaped round face from Unza belongs to this period; as it has all the artistic characteristics and stylistic affinities of the pre-Solanki sculptures. It has, however, no prabhā-mandala. The rosette-frame round the sculpture is noteworthy.-(Plate LXVIII a).
Seated Surya from Roda: Seated yet headless Sūrya images from Rodā, about 9 miles east of Himatnagar, in the old Idar State, (now in Baroda Open Air Sculpture Gallery') are assigned to the late 9th Century, roughly to the pre-Solanki period. The composite sculpture when entire, must have been a superb specimen of Indian art. The C35
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modelling, the configuration, the balance and the proportions can be clearly discerned even from its mutilated condition.-(B. Chhabra; Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. XII, 1955-56). ---( Plate LXVIII C).
Ranu-pipli Seated Surya : The discovery of the magnificent sculpture of seated Sürya of fine sandstone from Raņu-pipli, ( Padra taluka, Baroda Dist.) on the border line of Lāța, separating it from Central Gujarat, (discovered by Chandramauli Majmudar in 1959), is one of the finest pieces in good preservation from this area. It is about 3.5 ft. high and 2 ft. broad. The one-wheeled chariot, ornamented with lotus-petals is shown yoked with seven horses, with the fore-legs raised, suggesting to be in action, on which is seated Aruņa, in the centre, with two sets of reins held by the left hand. On the right stands Uņā and on the left Pratyūņā, their loose skirt floating in the air owing to the chariot in motion. The other two figures on each of his sides are those of Danda (Yama) and Pingala (Agni) with swords in hand.
Sūrya is shown with a halo, supported by a makara toraṇa demarcated by two rows of lotus-petals. The kirița mukuța adorns the head. The oval face has eyes in dhyānamudrā. The kundalas are round and elegant. The yajnopavīta shown by three minute threads hangs down from the left shoulder. In the neck is an ekāvali. Out of the two hands the left holding a lotus-stalk is in tact. The Sun is seated cross-legged in the fadmāsana, the legs being shown covered by a semi-transparent cloth, and not the usual boots. The sculpture is assignable to the Pratihāra period, i.e. not later than 9th Century A!)-(Plate LXVIII b).
Six-armed Seated Visnu: Six-armed (all mutilated ) Vişnu, seated in padmāsana on a broad lotus, supported with a long thick stalk at Vasişthāśrama, Mt. Ābu, is a beantiful figure, about 3 feet high. Below the lotus are two Nāgas and two Nāginis, sitting with folded hands. There are also ayudha-purusas. The cap-like crown, richly decorated and having a central gavākşa-motif with a makara head in the centre, is noteworthy. The crown-design compares well with the Ananta-Vişnu of Sāmalāji. Though not representing Buddhāvatāra, it may be compared with the Buddāvatāra-Vişņu from Dindavānā in Rajasthan.-(R. C. Agravala, Journal Museums Association, Vol. IX, Fig. 46, Pl. XXII)(U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1955-56, Fig. 12).-( Plate LXIX).
Sculpture from Dwarka : A sculpture from Dwarka (Baroda Museum ) identificd with Śibi by some, is a mere bust ( the lower part mutilated ) of a royal figure adorned with a crown, a necklace set with big gems, circular ear-rings on long ear-lobes reaching the shoulders, and heavy bracelets. The modelling is somewhat crude, as the heaviness of the limbs is emphasised. The face has features of a foreigner, broad (thin ) lips and chin and a squarish face and jaw-bones. The figure holds a bird close to the breast, may be a falcon or a fowl. Flames issuing out of the shoulders suggest another identification of Agni with a cock. However, the effect of holding the bird is to suggest an act of offering protection. It can be assigned to the late post-Gupta age, C. 8th century A.D.(Plate XXXII b).
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2
)
Standing Bhairava from Baroda : A big image of a standing Bhairava, probably from the temple of Bhimanātha on the other side of the Ankotaka mound, discovered from the banks of Viśvāmitri by M. R. Majmudar ( now in Baroda Museum Gallery ) has an elaborate and heavy jațā, a terrific appearance with protruding teeth, a third eye on the fore-head, and the two wide rolling eyes. He carries a khadga ( sword) and the shield in the two upper hands, and the staff (danda) and the snake in the two lower ones. The ekāvali (necklace ), the turbanlike elaborate head-dress and the attendant gana on the right, suggest a late 7th or early 8th century A.D. date for its execution. The modelling of the figure is heavy and crude, and the shoulders are broad and stiff, but these features are probably introduced to emphasise the ugra (violent) form of the image. - ( Plate XXX)
Bhairava from Baroda Museum: A big bust of a Bhairava in Baroda Museum Gallery, apparently in the same style, is however, less terrific in appearance, with a plain halo (prabhā mandala) and the head artistically turned slightly to the right from the centre of the halo. The braided hair is treated more tastefully.- (Plate XXX).
Head of a Tapasi from Karvan: The centre of Lakulisa worship has yielded a beautiful head of a Tāpasa or may be a Tāpasi, showing an artistic knitting of hair, which can be seen from both, the front and the back, views of the head.-(Plate LXXIV a, b).
Kartikeya Sculptures : The worship of Kārtikeya related to the Siva pantheon was popular in Western and Central India, perhaps under the influence of the Lakulisa sect. The rule of Kumāragupta over Western India also gave an impetus to this worship.
Kartikeya from Baroda: A beautiful but headless image of Kārtikeya was discovered from Baroda by U. P. Shah, which is now in the Baroda Museum. It has two arms, one holding the spear and the other a bowl. The twin necklace, the waist ornament, known as uru-jālaka, as well as the armlets suggest a period in the early 9th century A.D. The modelling is chaste and retains the grace of the earlier period. However, the crude representation of the peacock slightly mars the beauty of the sculpture.- Plate LXXI a).
Kartikeya from Kapuri: The other figure of Kārtikeya, from Kapuri near Baroda, set in the rosette-frame could be assigned to the latter half of the 8th Century. The rosette-frame has a common motif with the panel of Lakulisa ( standing), Vişnu, and Brahmā in the compound of the Kāmanātha temple on the banks of Viśvāmitri river, Baroda.-( Baroda Museum Bulletin ).-( Plate LXXI b).
Kartikeya from Karvan: This belongs to 8th Century A.D. and probably it formed a part of the old temple, stray loose sculptures from which are seen even today in the temple. This sculpture has already been noted in the previous period.
Siva-Parvati from Roda: Siya-Pārvati, carved out of a greenish-blue schist block, from Roda is later in date, and assignable to the end of 9th Century.---(Plate LXXII a).
Vina-Pani Siva from Kotesvara: The four-armed Siva carries the viņā in two hands, and the triśūla and the nāga in the other two. Nandi is at the back. The
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sculpture conies from Koțeśvara, Banāskānthā District, since removed to Baroda Museum. -(LXXII b).
Uma-Mahesvara from Karvan: Umā-Maheśvara, standing against the Nandi, also from Karvan is a beautiful specimen of sculpture under the Gurjara-Pratihāra rule in C. gth Century A. D.
Kaumari from Karvan: A loose sculpture of Kaumāri at a temple in Karvan in a dancing pose, perhaps belongs to the unknown pantheon of Lakulisa sect from Karvan, executed during this period.-(Plate LXXII a).
Sakti from Bhinmal: Sakti, Gauri or Pārvati from Bhinmal, represents fertility and vegetation. The peculiar seating posture of the goddess comes from a very old tradition, tracing back to the Indus-Valley Civilization. The origin of these types of figure has been suggested by Dr. Stella Kramrisch to be the Vedic conception of Aditi, the Earth, the All-Mother. The two lotuses show that she was regarded as a form of Gauri. The beautiful head-dress, the long eyes, the squarish face with a broad fore-head, the meagre Ornaments etc. enable us to assign the sculpture to at least the C. 8th Century A. D., on stylistic grounds.-U. P. Shah, Baroda Museum Bulletin, 1955-56)-( Plate LXXII b).
Kubera from Kavi : There have been a few sculptures discovered from Lāța or Southern Gujarat which could be assigned to the late Gupta or to the Rāştrakūta period, as suggesting a good deal of artistic activity and advanced taste in this area. A wide popularity of the Saivite or Pāśupata cult is in evidence in Lāța in the Gupta and postGupta periods. Sculptures from Karvan testify to the prevalance of the style of sculptures executed under the Gupta traditions. Ancient Kāpikā is the same as the modern town Kävi in Jambusar Taluka, Broach District, situated not far from the Gulf of Cambay. From this place was discovered by M. R. Majmudar in 1940 the tiny sculpture of Kubera executed on a piece of green schist. It measures 12 inches by 8 inches.
In this magnificently conceived figure of the pot-bellied god Kubera, the Kalasodara, a somewhat stout type of anatomy is adopted by the sculptor to convey the beautyform and pose of remarkable charm and dignity. In the figure, all the lines balance and harmonize in a scheme of plastic composition which has a logic entirely of its own. A subtle sense of restraint and a skilful welding of the different plastic values of the limbs keep the artist from stepping into the abyss of the grotesque, or the quagmire of the ludicrous. This points out that it is not by the use of a conventional anatomy, a thinwaisted frame or exquisitely posed figure that the Indian Sculptor attains his consummation. He is as happy in expressing spiritual values through his thin-waisted figures as through those with thick-waisted and stout proportions.
The right leg of the figure is so held up as to place the foot at a point which furnishes an artistic device to indicate the plumb-line, the vertical axis running through the centre of the composition, with reference to which the limbs, the other elements of the composition, are skilfully related. This happily translates the idea of serenity and repose,
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the underlying motif of the iconographic conception. The smile on the face is remarkable. -- Plate LXXIII)..
A somewhat crude figure of Kubera was noticed in a step-well at Bhinmāl (Southern Marwar). It has all the outlines of the contour in high relief. The ekāvuli and the deep navel on the pot-belly arrest our attention. However, the general pose of the sculpture affords a good contrast to the Kāvi image.
Rama from Kadvar Varaha Temple: A loose Sculpture of Rāma, with a bow and arrow in hand is lying at the Varāha temple at Kadvār, four miles from Prabhāsa.(Plate LXX a ).
Balarama from Kavi : The sculpture of Haladhara Balarāma actually shown with a tracter (hula) in the right hand, secured from this site, evinces the self-same postGupta affinities of style and is made from the same green stone. Both these pieces are in Dr. M. R. Majmudar's collection.-( Plate LXX b).
A Music Party Sculpture : in green schist from the Winchester Museum Collection, Surat, has great stylistic affinities with the Kubera from Kāvi. It measures 10" X 12". This is being illustrated through the kind offices of Shri Rajendra Surakatha, the Honorary Curator of the Surat Museum.-( Plate LXXVIII).
Collosal Jaina Images : Round about the end of this period, many Jaina images in stone were produced employing the formula of the Buddha or the cult of the gigantic Yaksa image. Those at Tārangā, Pāțan, Satrunjaya, Ābu and Girnar, to mention the most known, possess undoubted simplicity of form and considerable feeling ; but they are usually marked by a rigidness which make them unimaginative and monotonous. The execution of images of this period, however, seems to be perfect, but gaudy and much stereotyped. The figures are generally beautifully and delicately ornamented, the expression being natural, serene and peaceful. The frame of the body, the garments, the various ornaments and the symbols are faithfully depicted according to the dhyāna prescribed in the Silpa texts; yet they lack something very vital.
Buddhist Sculptures: Tara : In the Pāla period, i.e. especially during the reign of the Pāla king Rāmapāla, people in Bengal knew of the existence of at least three Buddhist temples in Gujarat, containing images of three Buddhist deities: Tārā, Kuru. kullā and Cundā. This is known from the three miniatures of an illustrated Mss of Pancavimśati Sahasrikā Prajñāpāramita (now in Baroda Museum), copied in Circa 1092 A.D., which throw light on the state of Buddhism in Lāțadeśa or Gujarat. These miniatures illustrate the three deities in the three principal Buddhist temples in Gujarat. The legends below them read as follows :
(1) Lāhtadese Tārāpure Tārā (2) Lähtadese Kurukullaśikhare Kurukulla (3) Lähtadeśe V umkaranagare Cundā
As the artists could depict the deities and temples in their miniatures, (Plate LXXIX) it is not nnreasonable to suppose that Bengal Buddhists used to come on pil
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grimage to Tārāpura, Kurukulla Sikhara and Vumkara Nagara in Gujarat, which were held sacred under the Buddhist Tāntrism. Tārāpura can be identified with the village near Cambay, and Kurukulla Sikhara may be the Tárangā hill. The third cannot be traced.--( B. Bhattacharya, 22 Buddhist Miniatures from Bengal', Baroda Museum Bulletin, Vol. I, No. I, 1943-44).- Plate LXXIX ).
Jaina Tirtha of Taranga: At Tārangā Hill, which is a Jaina tirtha since Kumārapāla (1143-1174 A.D.), who restored the temple of Ajitanātha, is situated near the small village of Timbā among the hills, on the west bank of the Sābarmati river, in N. Gujarat. There are three peaks, and in the basin of it are situated the Jaina sanctuaries. Near the ravines are two shrines which are Buddhistic. In the Kumārapāla pratibodha of Somaprabhācārya ( 12th century A.D.) in Prākrit-Apabhramsa, in the story of Khapuțācārya, a king named Vatsarāja is mentioned, who though converted a Jaina, had built the temple of Buddhist Tărā:
ताराइ बुद्धदेवीइ मंदिरं कारियं पुव्वं ।
आसन्नगिरिम्मि तओ, भन्नइ ताराउरं ति इमो ।। and the city was called Tārāpura. After becoming a Jaina, Vatsarāja built the temple of Siddhāyikā, the Yakși of Mahāvīra. Thus, even according to the Jaina tradition, Jainism followed Buddhism even on this hill.
Tara on Taranga Hill: Image of Tārā (4' height), locally known as Dharanamātā is housed in a small shrine near the Tăraņa-mātā temple. Nine Buddhist images including one of Avalokitesvara Padmapāņi were noticed. The goddess Varada-Tārā is seated in the lalita pose, on a lotus seat, on which her left leg is folded, with her right foot hanging down and resting on a small lotus. Her right hand, the palm of which is broken off and rests on her thigh, must have been in the varada pose. The left hand, though broken, shows the remnants of the lotus and its stalk. Over the halo of lustre behind her head, there is a picturesque ornament with a double-winged bird, over which on a lotus-seat is seated Amitabha, perhaps, because, she is the counter-part of Avalokitesvara, who emanates from the Dhyāni Buddha Amitābha. Just on the pedestal, in the characters of the late 8th or early 9th century A.D. is inscribed the Buddhist creed :
ये धर्मा हेतुप्रभवा हेतुं तेषां तथागतो ह्यवदत् ।
तेषां च यो निरोध एवं वादी महाश्रमणः ।। There are also four seated Buddhas in a dark cave nearby.-(Plate LXXX).
Buddha from Nagara : A seated image of a Dhyāni Buddha is situated on a small hillock in Nagarā, the ancient site of a city about four miles from modern Cambay. The full-size sculpture can be seen even today in situ.-( Plate LVI b).
Statue of Buddha on Isalva Hill: A full length statue of the Buddha, which was mistaken for Dhundhalimalla, a local saint, was reported to have been found lying on the top of the Isalvä hill, near Valā.--( Annual Report, Watson Museum, Rajkot, 1938-9; p. 29).
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A Female Sculpture from Paldi: This was unearthed from Paldi, the site of old Karņāvati, and is at present located in the H. K. College Collection, Aśrama Road, Ahmedabad. It has all the stylistic peculiarities of the pre-Solanki sculptures, assignable to the Pratihāra period, not later than early roth century A.D.-(Plate LXXXI).
Adi-varaha Coins : Base Silver and Copper Coins with the figure of Adi-varāha an incarnation of Vişnu-on the obverse, and a Nāgari legend in two lines, mentioning the name of the ruler of the Gurjara-Pratihāra dynasty on the reverse, are known for a long time, and have engaged the attention of several scholars.--['Note on Adi-varāha Coins', K. M. Munshi, Glory that was Gurjara Deśa (1955), Appendix VI, Pp. 215 ). Some of these coins are reported to be in the Baroda Museum, but they could not be traced.
The coins issued by Bhoja have the legend Srimad-Adi-varāha on the reverse, while those of Vināyakapāladeva have the boar on the obverse, and the king's name on the reverse. The full obverse device does not appear in its entirety on any single coin; and it has to be pieced to-gether from a number of specimens. The reverse has an inscription in two lines, written in the characters of the gth and roth Centuries. The first line mentions that and the second fake. Below the legend is an altar in between two other devices.
Coins of Bappa Raval : Pandit Gaurishankar Ojha had illustrated and described a gold coin of Bappā Rāval (JASB, 1927: Numismatic Supplement, No. XXIII, p. 14-18). Dr. A. S. Altekar published another coin of the same ruler Vopparāja in 1933 (Proceedings, VII All-India Oriental Conference, Pp. 703-5) with a revised and reconstructed reading of the legend, originally published with the reading by Dr. Hoernle, with a drawing, as Śri Dhairyarāja in 1881 (Proc., A.S.B.), and by R. Burns in 1904 (JASB, 1904, p. 65; Pl. I, No. 2) as Śri Vigharāha. Altekar proposed a third reading Vopparāja, which, in a way, is the name of the same king whose coin is published by Ojhaji.
The obverse of both these coins is identical. Immediately below the legend, at the left end of the coin, there is a triśüla, and then to its right a Sivalinga on a platform of two steps. To the right of the Sivalinga is the sacred Nandi, his effigy being worn out in Ojhaji's coin, but quite clear on the present one. Below Siva and Nandi, in both the coins, there is a man lying prostrate. Both the coins have a dotted border.
The reverse of the two shows a slight variation. The devices are the same in two, but the cow faces the right in Ojhaji's coin, it faces to the left in the second one. Of the three symbols above the cow, the chhatra is very clear in the present coin. The chhatra and cauri are to the left and right, respectively of the sun.
The period of the coin is early mediaeval. The emblems on the coin-Śiva and Nandi and a man lying prostrate before them, the cow and the calf on the reverse, makes it probable that it belongs to Bappā Rāval of Chitor. Nandi represents Ekalingaji, the deity of king Bappă, and the man lying prostrate before them is probably the king himself. The cow is Kamadhenu cow of Hārita Rşi, the preceptor of the king. The wheel above the cow stands for the sun, and suggests the solar descent of the king issuing the coin, while
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the 5 and 17 testify to the independent sovereign position of king Bappa.--( Plate LXXXII a).
Indo-Sassanian Coins :—These coins of different patterns and sizes were current in Rajputana, Malwa and Gujarat between the 8th and 11th centuries A.D. These are thick and circular pieces bearing a crude head of the king of Sassanian pattern on one side, and a series of lines and dots all over the other side. These lines and dots represent the fire-altar of the Sassanian coins. Bhandarkar presumes (Carmichael lectures ', 1921, p. 208) that the Gurjaras strongly imbibed the Sassanian coinage, and that is why the standard weight of a dramma comes to 65 grains, quite near to the Greek drachma, weighing only 66 grains. The name dramma was restricted to silver coins alone. Various rulers of this period issued drammas named after them. Thus we find-Srimadadivarāha dramma, (EI, I, p. 175, 1. 27), called after Bhoja-Adivarāha of the Pratihāra dynasty.
Gadhia Coins :-One popular tradition in Gujarat ascribes gadhiā coins to Gardhabhilla, who is mentioned in the Jaina story in Kālakācārya Kathānaka, as living in ist Century B.C. But this does not seem to be plausible as these coins cannot be so early. From the beginning, Cunningham, and Bhagvanlal Indraji maintained and demonstrated how these coins were mere copies and subsequent degraded forms of the Indo-Sassanian coinage. According to Wilford, Gardabhi is the name of a Sassanian dynasty and is identified with Varaharan Gur ( 420 A.D.). According to Taylor, the latter was fond of hunting wild ass; and the Hūras, in derision, might have called his coinage as “ Ass-money", and it was Sanskritised in India. He derived Gadhiā' in this way: Gardabhiya < Gaddhahiya Page #419

Plate LXXX
Sculpture of Tārā from Tāranga Hill, with the Buddhist formula : T9791: etc.
in the late sth century script, at the bottom. (p. 278)

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Plate LXXXI
A Female Sculpture from Paldi, Ahmedabad, H. K. Arts College Collection, Ahmedabad,
(p. 279)

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Plate LXXXII
Indo-Sassanian Coins ( 1-2) Early Sassanian Coins, precursors of Gadhia Coins. Reverse shows
the Sassanian Fire-altar. (3-3) Early Gadhiā, Thin Fabric: Degeneration of the bust on the
obverse, and of the altar on the reverse, can be marked. (4-4) Later Gadhiā, Thick Fabric : Further deformation of the bust and
the altar, shown as lines and dots.
A Coin of Bappa
(5-5) A Coin of Gurjara-Pratihāra king Bappa : Obverse and Reverse. For Personal & Private Use Only

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Plate LXXXIII
Sākambhari Inscription of Jayasimha Siddharāja in Jodhpur Museum, gives the starting Samvat year of Mūlarāja's reign in symbolic words, which are underlined.
(Vasu 8, Nanda 9, Nidhi 9) (p. 264)
वसुनंदनिधौ वर्षे व्यतीते विक्रमार्कतः । मूलदेवनरेशस्तु चूडामणिरभूद् भुवि ।। .

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the dots and lines displaced the early forms, till the whole thing became a caricature of the fire-altar.
Bhagvanlal Indraji arrived at the chronological range of these coins by a process of elimination. In Gujarat, he found a great gap in the numismatic tradition between the Valabhis and the Muslims. Hence he attributed this coinage to this intermediary period. The White Huns (Ephthalites ) who invaded India in the middle of 5th Century during the reign of Skandagupta, were responsible for introducing this coinage in India. The Hūņa domination of Persia was completed during the reign of Firoz (470-481 A.D.), and his coinage seems to have been copied by the Hūņa rulers in India, specially Toramāņa ( 490-515 A. D.). Hence the beginning of this coinage may be dated to the 6th Century or later.
But unfortunately, as these coins are not inscribed, the Gadhiās have become an enigma, though its long allotted range can be justified on the grounds of gradual deterioration of a well-established type with a sufficiently large geographic distribution. We have, however, literary referer ces from Arabic travellers of the oth Century that these coins were definitely being used in Western India. These coins were referred to as Tatariya Dirhams, by Ibn Khorodbeh ( who died in 912 A. D.), and Sulaiman, who specifically says that they were current in the Ráştrakūta kingdom (Balhāra ) and Gujarat.---( Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, P. 313).
The first imitations of Toramāņa were current in Western Rajputana till the sack of Valabhi in 776 A.D. or in 789 A.D. Vincent Smith ascribed the coins with a clear profile to the 8th and the beginning of the gth century. The Gadhiks were current in Gujarat and Malwa upto the beginning of the Muslim rule. Hence the rough chronology of these coins is suggested as follows:-(1) The coins with the clear profile may be ascribed to the 8th to 9th centuries, (2) A transitional form with a rough profile, but clear perceptible features like the nostril, mouth and chin to the oth-11th centuries.- B. Subbarao, Baroda Through the Ages, pp. 79-81 )-( Plate LXXXII).
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APPENDIX
GEOGRAPHICAL DATA
FROM PURANIC TRADITION
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INTRODUCTORY
In the absence of the critical editions of the Purāņas, it is very difficult to say which portion is genuine and which spurious. Hence it becomes a difficult task to give the exact chronology of the Puranas. Under these circumstances, for the material taken from the Puranas for the Chronology of Gujarat, the dates of the Puranas are accepted as given by the late Sri Durgāśankar Sästrl, in his standard book Purāṇa-vivecana. These dates. are, therefore, subject to later modification in the light of further research in the field of Puranic Studies.
About this portion of data, mostly gathered from Brahmanical, Buddhistic and Jaina Literary Tradition-namely the Epics, the Purāņas and the later literary works inspired by them, there does not exist any recorded date. However, the geographical data-consisting of references to villages, towns, rivers, mountains and places of pilgrimage and the various regions of colonisation and the settlements of various tribes, along with the dynastic lists of kings and families-afford rich material for interpretation.
It is needless to say that against the general Epic and Puranic background, this account would bring into focus the geographic data on Gujarat.

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SANSKRIT TEXTS
Abbreviation
Name
Edition
Approximate
Date
Aşt.
Aştādhyāyi of Pāṇini Mahābhārata
500 B. C. C. 200 A. D.
мъh.
(1) B.O.R.I. ed. ( 2 ). Kumbhakonam
ed. Venkațeśvara ed. Nirnayasāgara ed. Venkateśvara ed.
Vā.
C. 330 A. D. C. 400 A. D. 5th Cent. A. D.
Venkateśvara ed.
Vs.
Venkateśvara ed.
6th Cent. A. D.
Venkateśvara ed.
7th Cent. A. D.
Hv. Harivamsa Rām.
Rāmāyana
Vāyupurāņa 6 Raghu. Megha etc. Works of Kalidasa Br.
Brahmapurāņa Bd. Brahmāndapurāņa Ak.
Amarakośa
Vişnupurāņa Brih. Brihat Samhita of
Varāhamihira Āya. Cunni Āvassaya cunni
Vām. Vāmanapurāņa Mkd. Märkandeyapurāna Krm. Kūrmapurāna Vrh. Varāhapurana Mts. Matsyapurāna
Bhāgavatapurāņa Kvm. Kāvyamimānsă of
Rājasekhara Agni.
Agnipurāna Garga. Gargasanhita Grd. Garudapurāņa Skd. Skandapurāna Bhvs. Bhavisyapurana Pdm. Padmapuranta Vtki Vividha Tirtha Kalpa
8th Cent. A. D.
Bhg.
Nirņaya Sāgara ed.
G. O. Series
9th Cent. A. D.
Venkateśvara ed.
foth Cent. A. D.
Itth Cent. A. D. 13th Cent. A. D.
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PLACE-NAMES
Acalesvara --referred to in Skd. I. ii, 29. 88. Amarakantaka-referred to in Skd. V. i. 16; 15. 16. Attalaja -Attālaja (Skd. 66. 110 ) or Aļālayijagrama or Attālayajagrăma.-(Skd.
I. ii. 66 111;) -Amālaya-(Skd. I. II. 66.-113) or Aļālija v. I. Adyālaya.-(Skd. I. ii.
66. 110). Anupa -(Mbh. 1. 209. 17) Cf. AMRITÀ adtaifa afa à i
--(Mbh. II. 23. 19); (Mbh. III. 116. 19); -(Hv. II. 66. 103); (Vā. I. 45. 134); (Bd. I. ii. 16. 66-67) as situated on
the slopes of the Vindhya.-(Skd. I. ii-1, 73). - Anūpa and Kaccha are mentioned as the regions, in which water prepon
derates. Thus they are mere general terms and do not refer to a particular
country. 1999 ringle estretay: 1-(Ak. II. 10). Ambuda ---for Arbuda ( Mt, Abu).-(MBh., I. 245. 30 ) (Kumbha. ed). Aparanta -(MBh. I. 210. I) Cf.
सोपरान्तेषु तीर्थानि । ___ तानि सर्वाणि गत्वा स प्रभासमुपजग्मिवान् ॥ -mentioned as including following countries :-Sürpäkara (i.e. Surparaka), Kelavana, Durga, Kälitaka, Puleya, Surāla,
Rūpasa, Tāpasa, Turasita, Parakşara, Nasikyadya, Antaranarmadā, Bhānu ( ru ) kaccha, Māheya, śāśvata (i. e. Sārasvata ), Kacchiya, Surāstra, (Nor
th Gujarat) and Arbuda.-(Vā. I. 45.128-131 ). -as including-Süryāraka (i.e. Śūrpāraka, modern Sopara ), Kalivana,
Durgala, Kuntala, Pauleya, Kirāta, Rūpaka, Tăpaka, Kariti, Karandhara, Näsika, Antaranarmadā, Kaccha, Māheya, Sārasvata, Kacchiya, Surāșțra, Anarta (North Gujarat), and Arbuda.--(Bd. I. ii. 16.60-64). -Sea-coast line including Anarta, Saurāşțra, Kaccha etc. ).-( Raghu.). -as including—Śūrpāraka, Kalidhana, Lola,(?) and Talakata countries.
-(Br. 25. 58-59). -as including Vå ( Nā )sikya, Antaranarmada, Bharukaccha, Māheya,
Sarasvata, Kacchika, Saurāstra, A narta (North Gujarat), and Arbuda.
( Mts. 114.50-51 ). - as including Śūrpāraka, Väridhana, Nāsikānta, Sunarmadā, Da( Bhā)ru
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kaccha, Mäheya, Sārasvata, Vätsiya, Surāştra, Avantya and Arbuda countries.-(Vām. 13.51-53 ). -as including the following countries : --Sūryāraka (Sürpāraka), Kālibala,
Durga, Cămikața, Pulinda, Sumina, Rūpapa, Sväpada, Kurumin, Kathākşara, (Karaşkara), Lohajamșa, Văjiya, Rājabhadraka, Tosala, Kosala, Traipura, Vidis, (Tuşara, Tumbura, Karaskara), Näsikyava( dya), Uttaranarmadă, Bhi(a) rukaccha, Māheya, Särasvata, Kāśmira (ie. Kacchika),
Surāştra, Avantya and Arbuda.-(MKD. 54-59-63). - included certain countries either in the North or in the North-West.
(MKd. 54.36-42 ). Aparantya - when the eclipse happens in Tulā rāśi, people of Aparāntya (Western
border) will suffer.-(Brih. 5-40). Arbuda - Arbuda region was popular for good horses, according to Pargiter, whose
remark is based on the MBh. II.-4726 n. - described as a country presided over by Saturn.-(Brih. 16.31 ). - when Saturn is eclipsed, the people living in the regions surrounding the
Arbuda mountain, suffer.-( Brih. 5.68). the asterisms Abhijit, Sravana, Dhanişthă, Rohini, Jyeșthā, Āşadhā and Anuradhā appertain to the circle of Indra. This circle brings trouble to the people of the Arbuda region.-( Brih. 32.19). -Mt. Ābu (MBh. III. 80.57); Mt. Ābu (Skd. I. 11-29-71). -In Vividha-Tirtha-Kalpa (VIII. v. 25 ) it is said that Arbuda was formerly known as Nandivardhana'. Further, this work gives a non-Jaina version as to why it was named as Arbuda'. Moreover, it says that this mountain is born of Himadri.-(VTk. V 25).
-Spoken of as a country in the Madhyadeśa.-(MKD. 54. 36-42 ). Arbudaksetra-Described in detail, the region at the peak and round about Mount Abu.
--(Skd. VIII. iii). Avanti -While describing the journey of the Kavyapuruşa,' Rājasekhara says
that the former went to 'Avanti countries' which consist of Avanti, Vaidiśa, Surāṣtra, Mālava, Arbuda and Bhțgukaccha. (Cf. 6: Asafa saya 499-afat-972-731 731741 ART 1-(KvM. ch. 3, p. 9, GOS. 1934).
This shows the wide range of the Avanti Kingdom of which Surāştra,
Arbuda and even Bhrigukaccha formed parts. Anarta -Region comprising North Gujarat and Surāşțra whose capital was
Kućasthali or Dväraka.-MBh. I. 244.5; I. 246.19; 1. 245.29; Kumbha. ed.);

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PLACE-NAMES
289
V'ā. 86, 24; Vā. I. 45, 131; Bd. I ii, 1663; Mts. 114, 51; Bhg. X 67, 8; Bhg. IX 3, 28; Bhg. I, 14, 20. -Region comprising North Gujarat and Surāṣtra, the capital of which was
Kuśasthali or Dyārakā.-(MBh. III. 14.14; 15.9, 18; 16. 14; 180. 25). -as combined with Nairsta country Ānartanairytah.-(MBh. VI. 9-51;
(Pdm. III, 6-46). -explained as a country of Anarta, the son of Manu's son Saryāti.-( Hv.
I. 10. 31-33). -enumerated among the countries in the South-West.-( Brih. 14. 17). -mentioned among the countries, the kings of which are destroyed when
asterisms, viz: Višākhā and Anurādhā are hurt by malefic planets.-( Brih.
14. 32-33). ---classed among the countries presided over by Saturn.-( Brih. 16. 31). -when Rāhu is seen eclipsing the Sun or the Moon in the lunar month of
Āśvayuj, the people of Anarta will perish.-( Brih. V. 80). -stands for a battle, a dancing hall, and also for the country in the Amarakośa.
staaf: ZEYTafaqaat: 1-( Ak. III. 63). -Anarta is the first country conquered by Arjuna during his conquest of the West.- (MBh. II. 23. 14). Gurjara people are mentioned along with the people like Maruka, Kāśika, Darda, Bhaumeya, Națanartaka, Karņāța, Kāmsyakuțţa, Padmajāla, Sutivara, Barbara, Yavana and Abhiraka.-(ii. 48. 20 ). [This portion, however, cannot be earlier than the 7th Century
A.D. as is clear from the names of some later tribes mentioned here. ] - people are described as 'Nața', 'Nartaka' and 'Gäyaka', and as being driven out of the city as a measure against the attack of Sālva.-(MBh.
III. 15.12-13). Anartaka - meaning warriors. Here 'Anartaka' seems to refer to North Gujarat.
-(MBh. VIII. 80.17). Anartapura - Another name of modern Vadnagar (North Gujarat).-(Skd. VI. 196 ;
211-4). Anartapuri -i.e. Kuśasthali or the ancient Dvārakā.- Bhg. I. 14.25).
Kuśasthali was constructed, in the ocean by Anarta's son Revata : (Sce,
also Bhg. IX. 3.28). Anandapura - Modern Vadnagar in North Gujarat.-(Krm. I. 35.15; Skd. VI. 40, 50-51). Abhira -A country in the South.-(Bd. I. ii. 16.57.).
It may be taken as a country in Gujarat ; ( Vā. 46.124). C37

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-enumerated among the countries in the South-West.-( Brik. 14.18). -classed among the countries situated in the South.-(Brik. 14.12). -enumerated among the countries presided over by Saturn.-(Brih. 16.31). -when the Sun or the Moon is eclipsed in sign Karkața, the Abhira people will suffer. Brik. 5.38).
Bhuja
-The five asterisms beginning with Jyestha, constitute the fifth Mandala. If Venus be overpowered here, he destroys the Abhira people.-(Brik. 9. 19).

-are cow-herds; and the Abhira wife of a Mahaśūdra is called 'Abhiri'. [Cf. गोपगोपालगोसंख्या गोधुगा भीरबलवा - ( 4k. II. 57 ) and आभीरी तु महाशूङ्गी जातिga: —(4. II. 13).] The camp of the Abhiras is called 'Abhirapalli'. Cf. घोषे आभीरपक्षी स्यात् । ( Ak. II. 20).
Bharukaccha -Region surrounding modern Broach.-(MBk. II. 28. 50, 28.47 n., 50 n.;
Mkd. 55.21; Bhg. VIII 18, 20).
-described as one of the countries situated in the South-(Brih. 14. II). -Moon is described to be the Lord of Bharukaccha and other countries, as presiding over them.-( Brih. 16. 6).
-Amarakanṭaka, the source of the river Narmada.-( Megha).
B
-A person of the Malavya type (as described in 69.10), proves to be a cultured king, and rules over the countries such as Malava, Bharukaccha, Surastra, Lata, Sindhu, and the regions of the Päriyåtra mountain, having amassed wealth by dint of prowess.-(Brih. 69. 11).
-This gives us a fair idea about the geography of Gujarat in the days of Varahamihira. He seems to refer to that region which is surrounded by Malwa in the North-East, Broach in the South-West, Surästra in the West and Sindh in the North-West.
Bhrigutirtha Modern Broach.- Krm. II. 41. 1-5);
(N. B.-Umashankar Joshi (PG., 169 n.) and Dr. Altekar: (ATCGK, 4) are not correct when they say that there is no clear reference to Lǎța in the Brhatsamhita).
भृगुतीर्थं प्रभासं च तथा चामरकण्टकम् । - ( Agni. 219-66). -The story of its origin is also given.-( Skd. V. i. 181-182).
-Known after the name of Sripati's son Bhujavarma who conquered the Bhillas and established the kingdom'.-(Bhus. III. iv. 2. 31-32:
भुजवर्मा ततोऽभवत् । जिला स शवरान् भिठान् तत्र राष्ट्रमकारयत् । भुजदेशस्ततो जातः प्रसिद्धोऽभूत्महीतले ।

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--Modern Khedabrahmā in the old Idar State.-( Pdm. VI. 134-34 ).
Brahma khetaka
с
Camatkara- - Modern Vadnagar.-(Skd. VI. 13.28 ). pura
- Described as situated in the Hățakeśvarakşetra, where is Ānarteśvara.
(Skd. VI. 65.2) As the city derived its name 'Anandapura' from the Anandeśvara.(Skd.
VI. 40-50-51 ), the name Anartapura may have come from Anarteśvara. -Haţakeśvara Kşetra round the modern Vadnagar. Its extension is five koşas.-(Skd. VI. 16. 3. 6). It was established for the Brāhmins by king
called Camatkāra, whence its name.-(Skd. VI. 16. 6). Campaka- (Modern Câmpāner). A city on the bank of the Vetravati (Vātraka) nagara
where Vidāruņa, a wicked king was cured of his leprosy, by taking bath in
that river.- Pdm. VI. 133. 5). Candrabhaga -a river near Dvārakā, invoked by the sage Angiras and constituting the
Pancanadatirtha' with other rivers.-(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 47-48). --a river meeting Sābaramati, to the west of Ahmedabad, near Dūdheśvara
i. e. near the Harijana Aśrama.-( Pdm. VI. 155. 3). Its greatness is due to the Lord Candreśvara on its bank.-(Pdm. VI. 156. 4).
D Dharmaranya--Its origin; its different names during the four ages; its holy places; a list ksetra
of 55 villages presented by Rāma to the Brāhmins; the villages which were rehabitated by the Brāhmins and so on.-(Skd. III. ii. chs. 9 to 39). -The region surrounding Modherā in the North Gujarat. It is called Dharmāraṇya, Satyamandira, Vedabhavana, and Moheraka respectively in the Satya, Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali ages.—(Skd. III. ii. 40.67). Its origin
is ascribed to Dharma, the son of Sun.-(Skd. III. ii. 8.44). Durjayanta -This seems to be another name of the mountain Ujjayanta (modern
Girnār), as it is mentioned along with Puspa, Raivataka, and Arbuda
mountains.-( Mkd. 54.14). Dvaraka -Krşņa is described to have brought Arjuna at Dvārakā through Prabhāsa
and Raivataka.-(MBh. I. 210. 8, 15). There was a garden between Raivataka and Dvārākā. On their return journey from a festival at Raivataka, the Yadavas saw Arjuna, in the guise of an ascetic.-(MBh. I. 240.2-3 Kumbha, ed.). There was an island in the ocean, near Dvārakā. A festival of Mahādeva, for the good of Subhadrā, was celebrated in the Antardvipa.-(MBh. I. 241.71 Kumbha. ed.). The citizens reached there by boats.-(MBh. I. 241.76. Kumbha. ed.). When Arjuna came out of
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Dvārkā after having kidnapped Subhadrā, he was all along looking at the
Raivataka gate.—(243.38 Kumbha. ed.). -According to another reading, Subhadra was kidnapped by Arjuna, when
he was returning to Dvärakā, after having worshipped the Raivataka mountain.-(244.6-7, in the footnote, Kumbha. ed.). -Arjuna reached Hastināpura, from Raivataka, after having crossed the Ujjayini peak, the wells etc. of Anarta, the Ambuda (i.e. Ābu) mountain
and the countries like Sālva, Nişāda and so on.-( 245. 28-29 Kumbha ed.). - A place resorted to by Krşņa, who left Mathurā for Dvāraka, to protect the Yadavas from the repeated attacks of the powerful king Jarā sandha. -(MBh. II. 13. 65 ). The Yadavas went to the west and took shelter in the Kuśasthali. They repaired the fortress, which was now unaccessible even to gods: and resorting to which, even the ladies could face the enemies boldly. Yādavas were now free from danger. They rejoiced on seeing the tall mountain and the Mädhava-tirtha ( Acc. to v.l. in the Kumbha ed., they thought that they have crossed the fear of Jarāsandha.)
- MBh. II. 13. 49. 52). -Krşņa informs the kings that 'Siśupāla burnt Dvārakā, though he was our own nephew, when Bhojarāja was playing on the Raivataka mountain, and when he knew that we had gone to Prāgjyotişpura'.-(MBh. II. 42. 7-8). -Was destroyed by Sālva, to avenge the death of Siśupāla at the hands of
Krsna, when the latter was yet at Indraprastha.-( MBh. III. 15. 5-7). -Measures were taken to protect Dvārakā against the attack of Sālva:
Bridges were destroyed; transport by boats was prohibited; ditches were made unassailable by nails; the surrounding land was made uneven on all sides upto one koșa. Of course, the fortress of Dvārakā was naturally well protected and unassailable. This shows its strategic importance. -
(MBh. III. 16.15-17). --Mentioned after Prabhāsa, Piņdāraka and Ujjayanta among the holy
places of Surāṣtra as situated in the South.-(MBh. III. 80.82; 86.21 ). It is also called 'Dvāravati :-( MCh. III. 80.82 ). --Balarāma went to Dvārakā after the Gadā Yuddha of Duryodhana and
Bhima.-(MBh. IX. 61.38). -Immediately after his residence in Dvārakā, Aśvatthāmā went to stay
just at the back of it, where the sea ends.-(M Bh. X. II. II-12). - Krşņa visits Dvārakā once after the destruction of the Yādavas.-( MBh.
XVI. 5.7). Arjuna, coming from Hastinapura, sees Dvārakā,' disfigured like a widow':-(MBh. XVI. 6.4).
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Dvaraka
-Vasudeva informs Arjuna that when he arrives at Dvärakā, the ocean will gulp away the entire city with fortress etc.-(MBh. XVI. 7.22); Arjuna accordingly warned the inhabitants to come out.-(MBh. XVI. 8.11 ), and as soon as they came out, the ocean began to flow over it.-( MBh. XVI. 8. 42-44). -Yadavas established Dvārakā, not because of the fear of Jarasandha only-(Hv. I. 56.35), but also of Kālayavana.-(Hv. I. 35.20-22). It was a pleasure-spot in the land of king Sindhurāja. The Raivataka mountain was not very far from it.-(Hv. I. 56.16-30). -had a vast sea-coast; was situated in the midst of the ocean; and was
unaccessible, even to the gods.-(Hv. II. 55.103). Excellant Mountain Raivataka served as an ornament to its city-gate.-(Hv. II. 55.110 ). It is described as a 'Vāridurga':-( Hv. II. 57.5). Garuda informs Kțşņa that the ocean will provide more land if required.-(Hv. II. 55.13). Kļşņa accordingly asks for twelve yojana land and Dvārkā came into existance. It was decorated not by one mountain (Raivata) only, but by five mountains.—(Hv. II. 63.22). Piņdāraka does not seem to be too far from Raivata, as in the description of water-sport at Piņdāraka, many are de
scribed to have gone to Raivataka and returned.-(Hv. II. 88.52). -rebuilt by Viśvakarmā at the instance of Indra on Krşņa's return after the destruction of Vajranābha.- Hv. II, 98.4-5). Raivataka was in the East, Pancavarna in the South, Kșaya in the West and Veņumān in the North. There were five forests such as Pancajanya etc.-(Hv. II. 98.1417). Mahānadi flowed through it.—(Hv. II. 98.23). Dvārakā extended upto eight yojanas. Its length was twelve Yojanas: and its suburbs occupied double the space than the city itself (Hv. II. 98. 27). Even the ladies could fight with the enemies—such well-built it was.--(Hv. II. 98. 29). - In the fight with Paundra, who invaded Dvārakā, the horses faced the horses and elephants faced the elephants.-(Hv. III. 94. 10). Kțşņa had adopted the 'Mudra' (passport) method, and without it none could enter or leave Dvārakā.-(Hv. III. 74. 24-25). There were other islands also, surrounding Dvārakā; as Ekalavya when defeated by Balarama is described to have entered one at a distance of five yojanas.-(Hv. III. 102. 5-6). -Salt was profusely available at Dvārakā, as is seen from Hamsadimbhaka's request to Krşņa to bring ample salt during the sacrifice of Brahmadatta.
-(Hv. III. 115. 28). -Reva the son of Anarta, finds, on his return from Brahmasabhā, that
Kuśasthali, the capital of his country Anarta, is inhabited by Yādavas, that it has many doors and that it is known as 'Dväramati':-( Vå. I. 86. 27).

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-identical with Kuśasthali in the Anarta country.:-( Mts., 12. 22; 69.9);
also called as 'Dväravati':-( Mts. 13. 38). -Kșşņa asked the ocean to give twelve yojana land; and created, when his
request was granted, Dvārakā, with an irresistible fortress. This was done to save the Yadavas from the attacks of Jarāsandha and Kālayavana.
-(Vs. V. 23. 9-13). --On his return, Raivata finds that his Kuśasthali is changed into Dvārakā
and that Balarāma is residing there.-(Vs. IV. 1.91 ). - In the absence of Raivata, Kuśasthali was destroyed by Punyajana
demons.-(Vs. IV. 2.1). -Dvārakā was destroyed by the ocean. The ocean, however, could not destroy till today, the dwelling of Krşņa, who is always present there. This holy place destroys the sin of those who see it.-(Vs. 38. 9-11). It is also called 'Dvāravati'.-(Vs. V. 24.7). -Constructed by Krsna due to the fear of Jarāsandha and Kālayavana. He created a water-fortress in the ocean. It was twelve yojana long.(Bhg. X. 50.50; 72.31; 74.37; 77.4; Bhg. XI. 30.10). Formerly it was known as Kuśasthali created by Revata, in the ocean.-(Bhg. IX. 3.28). -as Dvāravati, the holy earth, from which it is powerful to remove the sins of Kali age.-(Skd. II. 2.9). Rāma asks Vasiștha about the Adidyārakā (Skd. II. 32.48); a holy place where people get liberation, if they give up their body there.--(Skd. III. ii. 26 ). -Kuśasthali', got its name from Rāma's son Kuśa, who established it.
The river Gomati flows by the side of the ocean.-(Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4); by the side of it, there is the 'Pancanada-tirtha' made up of five rivers : Gomati, Laksmaņā, Candrabhāgā, Kuśāvati and Jámbavati.-(Skd. VII.
iv, 14. 47-48). -Kșelra, a holy place extending upto five Kosas.-(Skd. VII. iv. 4.52). --Its various Tirthas are described in the Adh. 3 to 20. -A name of Dvārakā (Bhg. III, 3, 12, XI. 30. 5). (Cf. Fart fuadelacali
Bhg. III. 3. 12. a I Heratat atati quaa: 1 (Bhg. XI. 30.5); -A holy place on the bank of the Sarasvati.-(Skd. III. ii. 25. II; Skd. • VII. i. 35-75).
Dvaravati
Girinagara Girimunja
---described as one of the countries situated in the South.-( Brih. 14. II). -the mountain near Pancanada, and on the way from Dvárakā to Arbuda.
This seems to refer to the mountain Orjayat.-( MBh. III).
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Gomati --a river flowing near the temple of the Lord Vişņu at Dvārakā.-(Skd. III.
ii. 31. 15; Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4). Also known as Púrvaganga.-(Skd. VII. iv. 5. 49). Its greatness is extolled.-(Skd. VII. iv. 6. 7). Its origin is described as 'Cakra-tirtha' from where the Disc of Vişņu viz., the Sudarsana' came out of water.-(Skd. VII. iv. 5. 42). -A river flowing by the side of Western Sea near Kuśāvati established by
Rāma's son Kuśa ( 2.3-4). It merges into the ocean, near Dvárakā, after having washed the feet of the Lord.-(Skd. VII. iv-5.47). It is one of the four rivers giving rise to the Pancadanada-tirtha'; was invoked by
the Prajāpati Marici.-(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 47-48). - river Gomukhi on Mount Abu (Skd. 3.42, 6.2.3); countries on the bank
of this river are described as presided over by Mars.-(Brih. 16.12). Gujari. -a place in the Hāțakeśvara Kșetra where the Goddess of that name
presides.--(Skd. VI. 254, 42). Gurjara ---mentioned as a country along with the Barbara, Yavana and Abhiraka
countries.-(MBh. II. after 48, 20, p. 475 n.). --a country, where Bhakti becomes defunct : (Pdm. VI, 193-52) :
उत्पन्ना द्रावीडे साऽहं वृद्धि कर्णाटके गता।
क्वचित् क्वचिन्महाराष्ट्र गुर्जरे विलयं गता। Gurjaratra -A country having seventy thousand ( 70,000) villages.-(Skd. I. ii. 39.141 ).
н Hastimati --A river (modern Hāthamati), got dried up by the curse of sage Kaundinya.
--(Pdm. VI. 145-14). It meets, Sābhramati-gangā, where the 'Sangamesvara-tirtha' is also mentioned.—(Pdm. VI. 145-16). This Sangameśvara may be identified with Sangamanātha in the Bhiloạā district of the Idar
State. Hatakesvara--Kșetra round modern Vadnagara (N. G.), south-west of Arbuda (Abu) ksetra
mountain, situated in the Anarta country.-(Skd. VI. 4.42). - Later on it was called as “Camatkārapura kşetra' also. Its length and breadth were five Kosas.--(Skd. VI. 16.3.6; 20.72, 73.37). Gayasirsa, Haripāda and Gokarņeśvara are to the east, west and south-north of it.
-( 16.40 ). -Different Tirthas-such as Baktaśộnga, (Skd. VI. 7.11-31 ), Sankhatirtha
(VI. 10), Pitrakūpikā (VI. 19, 25-32). Bala-Māņdava-tirtha, etc. are
described.-( VI. 20 f). Hataki - A river in the Hāțakeśvara Kşetra. It yields gold.-(Bhg. V. 24.17). Hiranya- -The river Haraṇāva, flowing near Khedabrahmā in Idar State.-( Pdm. Hiranmayi VI. 134. 56; 136-3; 140-3-5).
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J
Jayanta -Another name of Ujjayanta (modern Girnar); as it is mentioned with other mountains of Gujarat.-( Vrh. 85.3).
к Kaccha -Pāṇini refers to place-names ending with the words 'Kaccha', 'Agni',
Vaktra’ and Garta' (IV, 2.126 ). No examples of these names are found in the Sūtras and in Patanjali Bhāsya ; but there was the wellknown seaport called Bhrgukaccha (Bharukacch, Jātaka No. 463 ) or Broach. The Kāśikā instances under ! Kaccha', Dāru-Kaccha and Pippala-Kaccha; under 'Agni', Kandāgni and Vibhujāgni; under
Vaktra', Indra-Vaktra and Sindhu-Vaktra; under Garta' Bahugarta and Cakragarta.
While identifying these various names, Dr. Agrawala says :-" Here we have four pairs of eight geographical names, preserved as grammatical examples from antiquity. A careful glance at the map of Western India affords clue to their identification. Standing at the head of the Gulf of Cambay we have to our left, Pippali-Kaccha, the sea-coast of Pippali, comprising the delta areas of Sābarmati, Mahi, Narmadā and Tāpi rivers of which the old name is still preserved in Piplā or 'Rajpiplā'. To our right is the sea-coast of Kathiawar, literally equivalent to Dāru-Kaccha (Dāru-Kāștha ).-(V. S. Agrawala : India as known to Pāṇini, pp.
65-66). Kaccha-Bhuj - Agni-Purāņa refers to a burning sandy tract equivalent to Skt. Iriņa or
Ranna. Vibhujāgni' refers to the great Rann of Kaccha-Bhuja in the north-west, and Kandāgni' to the little Rann of Kaccha towards the
north-east, traces of its names being preserved in the sea-port of Kandalā. Kaccha -(MBh. VI. 10.55); one of the countries of the Aparānta (Bd. I. ii, 16.
60-84). It, also mentions 'Kacchipa' in the same place; enumarated
among the countries in the South.-(Brih. 14.16). -when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Kaccha will be subject to all sorts of miseries for
seven months.-( Brih. 4.22). Kacchapa -When the eclipse happens in Tulā rāsi, the people of Kacchapa will suffer.
-(Brih. V.40). Kacchamandala-(modern Kaccha) mentioned as one of the countries.-(Skd. I-ii-1-73). Kacchiya -(modern Kaccha )-as one of the countries of the Aparänta.-(Vā; I. 45.
128-131 ). Kacchika - Modern Kaccha)- as one of the countries of Aparānta.-(Mts; 114.
50-51).
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Kacchara -Enumerated among the countries in the North.-( Brih. 14.27). For
quotation, vide under “Mālava'. This shows that it is different from
Kaccha, which is in the south. Kapadavan- - Modern Kapadvanja. The MBh. (II. 29.6) mentions it in the west, aka, Karpata along with Mālava and other countries. It may, therefore, stand for the
region near Mālava country.
-- Modern Kapadvanja.-(Skd. III. ii. 39.27; III. ii. 39.123). Karnata -A demon of this name was attacked by Goddess Srimātā, near Satya
mandira (i.e. Modherā). The demon ran in the form of a disease, went to the sea-coast in the south and established in the Karnața country.-- (Skd. III. ii. 18. 75-77).
This story, apparently of not before the time of Kumārpāla, suggests either that North Gujarat had to face an attack of Karņāțaka or a group of people being troubled by diseases and other difficulties, left Modhera
and established themselves in the South. Kasmira ---( corrupt form for modern Kaccha) as one of the countries of the Apa
ränta.-( Mkd. 54-14). Kukura - A country to the north of Gujarat.-( MBh. VI. 9. 42, Kumbha ed.). Kusasthali -The Mbh. describes it as situated in the West near Raivataka mountain,
on the sea-coast.-( MBh. II. 13. 49. 65). - Dvārakā described to have been constructed in place of Kuśasthali (Hv.
I. 35. 22-22), as belonging to Raivata (Hv. II. 55. 7); and the Raivata mountain is described as an ornament to the city-gate of Kuśasthali(Hv. II. 55. 110). It is also described as situated in the midst of the ocean.-( Hv. II. 55. 101-103 ). On his return from Brahmaloka, Raivata saw it altogether.-( Hv. I. ii. 4; Br. 5-37). -Ruled over by Revata.-(Vā. I. 86. 24), who saw it surrounded by the
Yādavas, and having many doors and looking beautiful, was given the name Dvāravati':-(Vā. I. 86. 27; Mts. 12. 22; 69. 9). - describes Dvārakā as situated in the place of Raivata's Kuśasthali, and as occupied by Balarāma.-(Vs. IV. I. 91). It was destroyed by Punyajana demons before Kakumdmi Raivata returned from Brahmaloka.-(Vs. 2. I). On his arrival, he saw it different altogether.-(Vs. IV. 1. 94). Raivata's father Revata, the son of Anarta was enjoying the Anarta country, and staying in Kuśasthali. Thus it seems to be a capital of Anarta.-(Vs. IV.
1. 64-65 ). ---Situated on the coast of Western sea; was established by Kuśa, where the
river Gomati flows. It is in the Anarta and is also known as Dväravati.(Skd. VII. iv. 2. 3-4).
C 38
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Kusavati -One of the five rivers in the Dvārakā-kşetra giving rise to 'Pancanada
-tirtha':-(Skd. VII. iv, 14-47-48). Khetaka -(modern Khedā) as situated in the North.-(Vam.), on the Vetravati
(Vātraka) river.-( Pdm. VI. 133. 19). Korillapura -a place on the bank of the river Narmadā, (modern Koral), where one and
half crore latent holy places are existing.-(Skd. V. i. 231-45). Krtasmara -a huge mountain on the border line of the sea in the Prabhāsakşetra. It
was burnt by the Vadavānala, which he wanted to take from Sarasvati, who thus clearly avoided his proposal to marry her. Its stones are used by the artists in constructing the houses and temples.-(Skd. VII. i. 33.64-90 ). At present there is no such mountain, not even a hill, in that place. It may be the quarry of the Porbunder stone.
L Lada
-ie. Lāța-as having 21000 Villages.-(Skd. I. ii. 39.146 ). Lata
-This is South Gujarat.-( Brih. 69.11). See, Bharukacca' (iii above). -Name of a country, (Grd., 55.16) which evolved a particular literary style of expression: ta 2 : 1 -(Agni. 340.4).
M Mahanadi - Modern Mahi river; spoken as originating from Pāriyātra mountain.
(Bd. I. ii. 16.27-28). Mahi
-Sugriva, while showing the way to Vinata--one of the monkey-chiefs-for
the search of Sītā, speaks of the river Mahi, along with which, another
river Kālamahi is also mentioned.-(Rāma, IV. 40.20 ).
-the river.-( Br. 25.24 ; Vām. 13.24 ; Mkd. 54.19). Mahinagara - An ancient name of Cambay.-(Skd. I. ii.-42; 244; 48. 21; 49. 2, 3;
56.5; 57.1, 7; 66.117, 129). Mahi and are frequently referred to.-(Skd. I. ii-3, 23-29). MahisagaraSangamaKsetra - The place where the river Mahi meets the ocean.— Skd. I. ii, 66.125 ). Mahita - Modern Mahi river.-( MBh. VI. 10.20 ). It is also called Mahi':
(Mbh. VI. 10.49 ). Mahati - Modern river Mahi.-( Va. I. 45.97 ; Mts. 114.237). Mahi-tatajah -The persons dwelling on the banks of river Mahi are presided over by
Saturn.—( Brih. 16.32 ). Maru -Sandy region in the north of Mt. Ābu ( modern Mārwada). It is men
tioned as one of the western regions conquered by Nakul.-( MBh. II. 29.5; 48.20 after n.).
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299
-Classed in the Brihatsamhità among the countries presided over by Ketu ( Brih.. 16.38 ), when the eclipse happens in Tulā rāśi, the people of Maru will suffer (Brih.. 5.40 ); enumerated among the countries in the Central region (Brih. 14.2); when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Maru i.e. Marwad will
be subjected to all sorts of miseries for seven months.-( Brih. 4.22 ). Marukaccha -Enumerated among the countries in the North-West.-( Brih. 14-23 ). Malava -Enumerated among the countries in the north.—( Brih. 14. 27). Moheraka Modern Modhera (in N. G.), a very prosperous city.-(Skd. III. ii, 2-1).
N Nagara - Modern Vadnagar, a nagara (city) constructed by king Camatkāra,
hence known as Camatkārapura':-(Skd. VI. II. 64); later on, the word 'Nagara' is used not in the sense of a city, but for a place of that name.
Its etymology is explained as Na-gara' (poison) and the Lord is described to have promised that by uttering the formula 'Na garam' the serpents will run away from there.-(Skd. VI. 114. 76-78, 149. 107-108,
176. 3 etc.). Maulisthana -A town near Nșsimha tirtha, where the Sabarmati meets the sea.
(Pdm. VI. 174. 88). Narmada -Raghu. VI. 42, 46 Málavikā.-P. 9; river Narmada -Narmadā and holy places on its bank are described in Mts. (Chs. 190
193), also in Krm. (II. 41, 42), going round the Vindhya mountain and merging into the Western sea. (Kum, Ch. 12, p. 68). -According to Brihat Samhitā the regions of the eastern half of the Narmadā
district, are described as presided over by the Sun.-( Brih. 16. I), while those in the western half of the Narmadā are described as presided over by the Mars.-( Brih. 16. 9); -If at the time of an eclipse, Mars also, by his conjunction with the Sun or the Moon as the case may be, be eclipsed, the people living at the banks
of the Narmadā will suffer misery.-( Brih. 5. 64). Nisada -A country forming the northern boundary of Gujarat.-( MBh. II. 28-5;
MBh. VI. 10. 50 ).
Pancanada
-A Tirtha near Dvaraka, where five rivers-viz. Gomati, Lakşamaņā, Kusavati, Candrabhāgā, and Jāṁbavati-meet. The rivers were invoked by five Prajāpatis, viz., Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha and Pāvana respectively.(Skd. VII. iv. 14. 45-48).
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Parnasa
Pascaddesa
- Modern Banās river in the North Gujarat.-( MBh. VI. 10.30; 9. 31, Kuinbha ed. ; Pdm. III. 6. 26; Vām. 13. 24). .
Kāvyamimānsā (Ch. 17, p. 94) furnishes valuable information as regards the countries, mountains, rivers and products of Western India. - Paścāddeśāh', is situated after the region called Devasabha, which " is
also the name of a mountain in the Western India, and as such, this may be identified with the mountainous parts of either the Dewās state or Udaipur where the Dhebar lake is situated. The countries in this part are given in the following order : Devasabhā, Surāştra, Dāśeraka (Mālava ), Travaņa, Bhrigukaccha, Kacchiya, Ānarta, Arbuda, Brāhmaṇavāha and Yavana. A good picture of Western India is given here by Rajasekhara.
(Kum., Chap. XVII). -The region has following mountains :-Govardhana, Girinagara, Deva
sabhā, Mālyaśikhara, and Arbuda. NameGirinagara' originally denoted
a city near that mountain called Raivataka. -The rivers of this region are:-Sarasvati ( near Pātan ), Švabhravati
( Sabarmati at Ahmedabad ), Vārtaghni (Vātraka, a tributary of Sābarmati), Mahi which falls into the Gulf of Cambay, and Hidimbā ( either the river Chambal which flows through the Hidimbā forest, or the river Gambhirā, a tributary of Siprā in Central India ). -This region is further described as producing Karira, Bamboo or thorny plant growing in deserts and fed upon by camels, Pilu, (A tree : careya Arborea or Salvadora Persica ), Guggulu (Boellium ), Kharjura ( Date tree), and Karabha ( particular plant ). --Classed as a city presided over by Saturn.—( Brih. 16.32 ). The reference
in singular (Prabhāsam) shows that it refers to the city only. --Origin of Prabhāsa-tirtha is narrated as under, in Āvassaya-cunni
(pt. II, p. 197):-In the vamśa of the Pāndavas, there flourished a king named Pāņdusena. He had two daughters named Mati and Sumati. They were once coming to Saurāṣtra in a ship. On their way the sea became stormy. At that time Mati and Sumati acted as if they had taken dikṣā, while other passengers began to offer salutation to Skanda and Rudra and the like. After some time a ship-wreck took place, and both the sisters died and became finally emancipated. Susthita, the presiding deity of Lavaņa sea, celebrated the event of their salvation. A celestial light took place there; and henceforth this place (Prabhāsa)
became a tirtha named as “ Prabhāsa-tirtha ".-( Āva; Pt. II. 197). -Bhāsa (v. 3150) on Kappa' mentions Pabhāsa (Sk. Prabhāsa) and
Abbuya (Sk. Arbuda mountain). In its Cunni and Visesacunni it is
Prabhasa
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Pariyatra
Prabhasaksetra-of Surăştra is described in detail.-(Skd. VII. i. 4-365). -the mountain range surrounding the south-west regions of Malava. -When Saturn is eclipsed, the inhabitants of the Pariyātra mountain suffer loss very soon.-( Brih. 5.68); enumerated among the countries etc., situated in the Central region.-( Brih. 14.4).
-The region known as Haṭakcśvara kşetra where modern Vadnagar (North Gujarat) is situated.-(Skd. VI. 1.63-65 4.51-55). Patalavadava -A city on the bank of Säbhramati (modern Sabarmati).-( Pdm. VI. 134-58). Pindarka -A tirtha on the sea-coast near Dvārkā or Prabhāsa.-(MBh. III. 80.82;
86.18; Hv. II, 88.4; Vs. V. 37.6).
Patala
Raivata
Raivataka
PLACE-NAMES

301
stated that in a pilgrimage sankhadi used to take place in Pabhasa and mount Abbuya.
-It was convenient for Jalakridā (water-sports) also. Yadavas were enjoying the bath in it; and it was not far away from Raivata and Dvāraka.(Hv. II. 88.52).
R
-It was a mountain different from Ujjayanta (Girnår) near Dvåraka. During a festival people went there on foot, as well as with the help of different vehicles.-(MBh. I, 211.3: 211.6).
-It was a hill-station as well as a place of religious importance.-(MBh. I. 210. 9-10; 211.6; 212-1). It was also important from the military stand-point. Vipṛthuśravā was kept there for watch.-(MBk. I-244. I-4 Kumbha. ed.).
-It was placed near Dvåraka by Raivata, the son of Anarta. This Raivatal is described as the son of Srisaila.-(Garga. XII. 14.6-36; 9.32-33).
-Narada describes it as a 'hand raised by Prithvi to invite virtuous people.(Shd. I. ii. 5. 1-2).
-A mountain near the Ujjayanta (Girnär) in the west.-(Skd. VII. ii. 16. 72-73; 26.83)
-Damodara form of Visnu is installed there.-(Shd. VII.ii.g. 229). -During the abduction of Subhadra, the Mahabharata describes Arjuna going to Indraprastha via Raivataka, the peak called Ujjayini, the lakes of Ānarta, and Ambuda i.e. Arbuda.-(MBh. I. 245. 27-29 Kumbha. ed.). The critical edition (p. 965, para 115, line 32) reads' munjavata. i.e. the Mt. Raivata.-(Bhg. V.19.16).
-Brihatsamhita classes it among the countries presided over by Saturn.
(Brih. 16.31). Raivataka is here mentioned not as a mountain but as the region surrounding the mountain Raivataka (Modern Girnär); enumerat

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302
Reva
Riksa
Riksavat
Setika
Surparaka
-(modern Sitapuḍā mountain) mentioned as one of the seven Kulaparvatas. (MBh. III. 58. 20). Rullapura -Modern Jhillatirtha, well-known in the Vadhiyär District.-(Skd. VII, i).
S
-River Sedhi-one of the currents of the river Sabarmati.-(Pdm. VI. 136-3).
-A city in the Thana district, 37 miles north to Bombay and four miles in the north-west from Bassein.-(MBh. II. 28. 43; MBh. III. 118. 8, 14). -Parasurama had lived there (MBh. III. 83. 40; 86. 9), on the Caturangana mountain (MBh. XII. 49. 67). This Tirtha is placed in the north of Gokarna.-(Bhg, X. 79. 20).
Surpara
Surparaka
Sarasvati
Sabarmati
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
ed with Surăstra and other countries, as lying, in the south-west.-( Brih. 14.19).

-The holy places on its bank are described in the Revakhanda'.-(Skd. V; Raghu. VI. 43: Megha. 19) or Santami, (Sakuntala. p. 42).
-The river Narmadă, is described as a beloved embracing her lord, the Vindhya mountain, which was stemmed by the sage Agastya.-( Brih. 12. 7).
-Modern Sätapuda mountain)-mentioned as one of the seven Kulaparvatas-(Bd. I. ii-16. 34; Mts. 114. 28; Vam., 46. 103).
-The diamonds got from this country are spoken of as having dark colour. -Brih. 8o. 6).
-Enumerated in the Geographical chapter', among the countries in the Daksinapatha (southern India).-( Kvm. Ch. 17, p. 93).
The rivers Narmada and Täpf are also included in this region.-(Cf. Narmada-Tapi-payoşni-Godavari Gangadya Nadyah: (Ibid., p. 94).
-A river meeting the ocean near Prabhasa in Surastra.-(MBh. IX. 35.22! 36.33):
-The country where the Sarasvati river disappears, is presided over by Saturn.- Brih. 16.31). The Sarasvata countries (i. e. countries surrounding the river Sarasvati) are described as situated in the central region of India.-( Brih. 14.2).
-The pair of names Vatraka' and 'Garta' refers to Bahugarta' and
Bahugarta refers most likely to the Svabhramati, literally the river of holes Cakragarta refers to the region of Cakratirtha on the Gomati, near Dvārakā in Prabhasa-Kṣetra. The two in
Cakragarta', (IV. 2.126).
"
valley of the Sabarmati, Skt. or pits (Svabhra hole, pit ).
4

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Sabhramati -An account of its origin, given :-Vasistha seated under a plaksa tree, looked, with the Varupa-mantra, at Viśvämitra, with the great sambhrama (confusion). He gazed there, and from two holes on the ground, arose two streams of water, one was called: 'Sarasvati' the other Sabhramati', as it was caused through Sambhrama.-( Skd. VI. 173.14)
Sarasvata
PLACE-NAMES
303
dicated the peculiarity of the natural terrain formed by undulating loessic dunes. (V. S. Agravala ; India as known to Panini, Pp. 65-66).
-flowing near Ahmedabad. Originates from Nandikunda, crosses the Abu and meets the Dakşiņodadhi.-(Pdm. VI. 135. 1; 136.2). Its four names in four ages are Kritavatl, Girikarnika, Candanā and Säbhramati.-(Pdm. VI. 134. 25-26).
-Its seven currents-viz. Sabhramati, Sețikā, Valkini, Hiranmayl, Hasti mati, Vetramati and Bhadramukhi-meet at Vikirṇatirtha (Pdm. ch. 136). Different tirthas on it are described in chs. 136-174, among which Vamanatirtharaja (Modern Vautha) (Pdm. Ch. 160) and Vārtraghni(Modern Vatraka )-sangama tirtha (Pdm. Ch. 168) are also included. -Sabhramati's original name was Švabhravati-( full of caverns). Its surrounding region was also known as Svabhra' as is clear from Girnar rock-inscription of Kṣatrapa Rudradaman (150-A.D.)-(See, Sankalia, Studies in Historical and Cultural Geography of Gujarat, pp. 86-87).
Skandapura Modern Vadnagar (N.G.). An idol of Kartikeya and his vehicle peacock are seen even today in the remnants of the Kirtistambha there.-(Skd. VI. 71.38).
Surastra
-The region round the river Sarasvati of Gujarat.-( Bd. I. ii. 16. 27-28). -The region is included in the Aparänta region along with Anarta and
Surastra. (Mts. 114. 50-51; Mhd. 54.19).
Stambhatirtha-Modern Cambay or Khambhat.-(Skd. I. ii-31 58. 27. 37, 58, 59, 66). Its other names were:-Khambhāyata, Trambavati or Tamralipta, Mahanagara, Bhogavati, Päpavati, and Karpavati.-(Vide, R. B. Jote, Khambhat no Itihasa. p. 14).

Stambhapura-Modern Cambay-( Skd. I. ii. 21). A deity there was known as Stambhesvara. (Skd. I. ii. 3. 40; 35. 10). Its various Tirthas are mentioned in Chs. 13-64 of Skd. I. ii.
-(MBh. II. 38. 39-40; MBh. III. 86. 16, 20; MBh. VI. 10. 47; Bhg. III. 1.
24).
-It is also called 'Svarăştra' (MBh. VI. 10. 47 n.). Enumerated among the countries in the south-west.-( Brih. 14. 19). -According to Brhatsamhita when Saturn is in Punarvasu, the people of Surastra will come to grief.-( Brih. 10. 6).

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-The diamonds (precious stones) got from Surāştra are having reddish
lustre.-( Brih. 80. 6). - Surāṣtra will be in trouble during the circle of Indra to which belong the asterisms such as Abhijit, Sravana, Dhanişthā, Jyesthā, Aşādhā and
Anurādhā.-(Brih. 32. 19). -During an earthquake of the wind-circle, the people of Surāştra will suffer.
--(Brih. 32. II). -the Surāştra country will be affected when the eclipse happens in the
lunar month of Bhādrapada.-(Brih. 5.79). --Surāşțra is enumerated among the eight countries which are the sources of
best pearls.-( Brih. 81.2), others being Simhalaka, Paraloka, Tāmraparņi, Persia, the North country, Pāņdyavațaka and the Himalayas.-( Brih., 81.2). The pearls of Surāstra are further described as neither too big nor too
small, and hued like butter. (81.4). -A man belonging to the Mālavya type reigns over Surāṣtra country along with other countries.-(Brih., 60.11); when the Moon's orb is divided into two by the contact of Venus in the middle, the people of Surāṣtra will
be subjected to all sorts of miseries for seven months.-( Brih. 4.22). Surastra -is classed among the countries presided over by the Mercury.-(Brih.
16.17 ) by Saturn (Brih. 5.69). Umashankar Joshi (PG, 40) says that according to Brih., 16.15-19, the regions of Sindhu and Sarasvati and of Surāṣtra were preponderating in Națas and Nartakas. But it is difficult to derive such a conclusion, as the work only mentions these regions as well as some persons like Națas etc. which are presided over by Mercury. - The people of Surāşțra will be immediately destroyed, when Saturn is
eclipsed.-( Brih. 5.68). -If Venus is overpowered in the fifth Mandala, consisting of five asterisms beginning with Jyeșthā, the people of Surāṣtra will be destroyed. -( Brih.
9.19). Saurastra -Consisting of 55,000 villages.-( Skd. I. ii. 39.145 ). It formed, the part
of Aparānta, and was known as 'Surāştra' also. Suvarnarekha-A river to the north-east of Vāmananagara or Vanasthali, modern Vanthali.-(Skd. VII. ii. 14.2).
т Talasvami -It may refer to Tulasiśyāma, in the Prabhāsakşetra.-(Skd. VII. i. 330.
-2-3). Tarattaranga - One of the Tīrthas on the river Sarasvati. This may refer to Tārangā in
the North Gujarat,- Skd. VII, 1. 35.46).
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PLACE-NAMES
305
Tapi
Tarakapura
-One of the rivers rising from the Vindhya Mt.-( Va. I. 46.102; Be. I. ii,
16.32; Mts. 114.27; Mkd. 54.24; Krm. I. 47-34). — The river is described as Sutoyā' (having good water) and the regions on its banks are included among the rivers and countries presided over by Mars. The adjective 'Sutoyā' suggests the abundance of water in that river
and the prosperity of the regions on its bank.--( Brih. 16.12). - Mentioned as a daughter of Chāyā by the Sun, with her twin brother
Sanaiścara.-(Skd. V. i. 56. 50 ). - Mahinagara is also known as “Tarakapura':-(Skd. I. ii. 31. 28). .
U -a variant reading for Ujjayanta', a big mountain near Somanātha ; and
Raivataka is spoken of as situated in the West of it.-(Skd. VII. ii. 1. 68). -i. e. Giranar mountain is mentioned as one of the holy places of Saurāṣtra.
-(MBN. III. 89. 18-20 ). -Also spelt as Ujjanta (Va. I. 45-92 ) and mentioned along with the Puşpagiri and Raivataka mountains.-(Va. 1. 77. 52; Bd. I. ii. 16. 22; Vām. 13.
18). - Modern Unjha, a place of Umādevi, near Hāțakeśvara kşetra (modern
Vadnagar ).-(Skd. II ; Skd., Venkateśvara Press ed.).
Udayanta
Ujjayanta
Umapura
V
Valabhi
Valkini Vastrapatha
Vamananagara Vataghni
-a capital of King Saryāti who gave his daughter Sukanyā to Cyavana
Bhārgava.-(Skd. VII. i. 282. I). It is modern Vala in Saurāṣtra. Sarasvati and its Tirthas are described.-(Skd. VII, 1. 35). - This may refer to the river Vekali in the old Idar State. - The region surrounding Girnar in Saurāṣtra. It is mentioned here along
with other Tirthas.-(MBh. III. 80. 108; Skd. VII. ii. 16. 72-73). -Also called 'Raivataka-kşetra.'-(Skd. VII. ii. 1-2). Its extant Tirthas
etc. are described in detail in this Khanda. ...Vāmanasthali or modern Vanthali in Saurāṣtra was established by Vāmana
after having suppressed Bali.-(Skd. VII. ii. 10. 13). - Modern Vätraka river. Both the rivers are described as originating from
Pāriyātra mountain.-(Br, 25. 28). -Sātapuļā range.-( Megha 19). - This may refer to river Viśvāmitri flowing near Baroda.-(MBh. VI.
6. 26; Pdm. JII, 6-21). - Modern Vātraka river meeting Sābarmati. (Pdm, VI. 133.1, 18; 136.4); on its bank Khetakanagara ( Modern Kheda ) is situated. (Pdm. VI.
Vindhapada Visvamitra
Vetravati
c39

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
133.19 ). Originally the term Vetravati denoted the river Beţvā which meets Yamunā and flows near Bhopal. Vetravati of the Meghadūta (Pdm. VI. I. 26 ), is this river. The reference of the Padmapurāna', however, shows, that in later times, Vātraka was known as Vetravati'. -Described as presided over by Mars.-( Brih. 16.9). -This seems to be another name of Ujjayanta,( modern Girnara ), mention
ed with the Puşpagiri, Raivata and Arbuda mountains.-( Brih. 25.27). - Modern Vātraka river as flowing from the Pāriyātra mountain meeting Sābarmati (Vā. I. 45.97; Mts. 114-23; Vām. 13 23-24; Mkd. 54.19; Krm. I. 47-29; Pdm. VI. 134.56, also called 'Vartrighni' Padm. VI. 168).
Vaijanta
Vritraghni
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ADDENDA
EXCAVATIONS AT DEVANI MORI':
[Discovery of a Stupa and Vihara of late Ksatrapa Period ]
&
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ADDENDA EXCAVATIONS AT DEVANI MORI': [ Discovery of a Stupa and Vihara of late Ksatrapa Period ]
Devani Mori, Taluka Bhiloda, District Sabarkantha, was excavated by Professor Dr. B. Subbarao, Dr. R. N. Mehta and Shri S. N. Chowdhary under the auspices of the Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda. This is a Buddhist monastic settlement with the remnants of a large stūpa and a few vihāras. During this season, the stūpa and the vihāra were exposed. In the local tradition, the site is described as “ Bhojarājā no Țekro" (mound of Bhoja ).
Site : The site is picturesquely situated to the east of the gorge, through which the river Meśvo (a tributary of Sabarmati) cuts through the Arāvallis to enter the plains of North Gujarat.-( Plate LXXXIV). To the west and north of the proposed dam at this gorge is the old pilgrim-town of Śāmalāji, which is already well-known for its wealth of sculptures with strong Gāndhāra and Gupta traditions. Šāmalāji is a small fortified town of the Ksatrapa period, and recent diggings in the village have revealed parts of the ramparts-wall of the Kșatrapa period. Hence it is natural that the Buddhists chose the site east of the gorge, away from the town of old Sämalāji.
Stupa : Stūpa is a massive structure with two square platforms on which the cupola rested. At its base it measures 86 feet square and its height, as it stands today, is 34 feet above the ground level. The top of the lower platform, which is 7'-10" high, serves as the pradaksiņa-patha also. The face of this platform is divided into eleven bays by 12 pilasters with modified “Indo-Corinthian" capitals. Above the capitals is a decorated frieze of three rows of bricks. The lowest course consists of bricks of chequer-pattern with alternate grids made deep. The next one is a floral pattern (vine-motiff?). Finally comes the row of recessed projections. This entire face of the platform has several recesses and mouldings and stands 7'-10' above on a foundation of pebbly gravel in concrete.
The second square platform has ten pilasters on each side and they are located exactly as the lower ones with intervals of 6-8". These ten pilasters have nine bays for decoration. Unfortunately, this platform has suffered great destruction, and only the lower three feet are intact. But here again there was a round moulding in the middle, and there is a row of well-burnt off-set bricks projecting above the wall. On this row have been found nearly ten pilasters still in situ.-( Plate LXXXV).
From the way in which the collapsed figures of the Buddha, the fragments of the arches of the niches (Chaitya-arch ) and a number of smaller pilasters, which fit in with the base of these arches, have been found, it is possible to reconstruct the position of the images. All the figures of the Buddha have tapering tops. In the arch-fragments also, we noticed that some of them are complete with a medallion (Plate LXXXVI) or have wedge-shaped

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CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
cuts to take the top of the Buddha image. From the four sides of the stūpa, fragments of about 17 images have been found, out of which nearly 13 could be reconstructed fully. -(Plate LXXXVII). Three loose heads were also found.-(Plate LXXXVIII). Besides in the central bay, the lower fragments of a true arch with beautiful decorations were found. The arch from the east face has a diameter of 3'-6". There were in all four arches in the four directions. Two of them show the pūrņa-kumbha motiff. One of them has two sitting lions on either side.
The pattern of the image niche is also to be conjectured on this basis.-- (Plate LXXIX). In the centre of the larger pilasters were two smaller pilasters with plain bases and Indo-Corinthian caps, 16 inches long and located 2'-10" apart. The arch, made in two pieces, rested on these capitals. As there are roughly equal number of empty and full arches, it is possible to conjecture that there were in all about 16 figures on the four sides. These details are being worked out carefully. The exact decoration above these niches is purely conjectural, but a large number of decorative patterns of the type found on the lower platform were also found, suggesting the possiblity of repetition of the same pattern.
Phases: As the stūpa is very much damaged, there is no convincing evidence about the exact phases. But the round moulding on pradaksiņā-patha is considerably damaged, and at places we see a restoration. In the course of this restoration, they indiscriminately used decorated and plain bricks. Similarly, in one of the sections where a part of the lower platform is damaged we see a similar mixture. Finally, during the last phases of the stūpa, they re-erected the images of Buddha by increasing the number of courses of bricks above the off-set bricks, containing the bases of the pilasters. Looking at the range of evidence from the vihāra as well as the stūpa, it is possible to postulate at least two phases of the stūpa for the present. Buddha Figures : (13" x 24" ):
From the plan of the stūpa, as well as the evidence of drapery etc., it is possible to derive the stūpa and the art it represents from the Gāndhāra region. In his latest study of the Gāndhāran art in Pakistān, Ingholt divides it into four phases represented by four groups of decorative features. Itlay Lyons and Harold Ingholt, Gāndhāran Art in Pākistān, New York, 1957). The latest group dated by him between 400-460 A.D. is characterised by drapery indicated by paired parallel lines. Of the 17 images in Dhyāna mudrā recovered so far, 14 of them belong to this group. But the most interesting image is one with very prominent ribbed drapery and a platform with double lotus-pedestal. We have another image with slightly raised folds of the drapery. But the most noteworthy feature is the absence of the folds of the sanghati covering the foot. In all the images both the legs are bare. Even in the drapery, both the styles are represented. Some of them have both the shoulders covered, while the right shoulder is left bare in some of the images.
In the matter of hair-styles also, there are two distinct traditions. Majority of them have the usual hair-style in spirals turning right and ușniśa. But one, the most

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311
beautiful of all, has the typical upward flowing Gāndhära hair-style, highly conventionalized.-(Plate LXXXIX). A Terracotta Seal-Tablet :
One of the most important finds is the Seal depicting the complete Stūpa. Looking at the whole group of images, their drapery, hair-style, uşņiśa etc., it is possible to date this group to the Late Gāndhāra period ( 'Indo-Afghan School of Marshall ) or to the 4th Group of Ingholt. Some of the images with ribbed drapery and the Gāndhāra hair suggest Group III, which he dates from 300-400 A.D.. Since Group III of Gāndhāra is already acknowledged to show features of the Mathura school, we see here also Central Indian influences. Thus we have a phase of Art of the Late Kşatrapa period and showing blending of Gāndhāra and Early Gupta traditions.
It is difficult to be dogmatic at this stage, as these finds arouse profound questions of the relation between the Western Indian and Central Indian art-traditions. As Marshall put it in connection with the finds from Taxilā of the Indo-Afghan School, “Both in pure decorative beauty and in the expression of religious sentiment and in these spheres, it established new and far-reaching traditions, which profoundly influenced the character of the Gupta and the later Medieval art of India."-(Taxilā, p. 522).
In view of the chronological overlaps between the Late Kșatrapa, Late Gāndhāra with the Early Gupta, it is possible to visualize certain regional diversities and other affinities without any dogmatic assertions of origins. Thus we can see that this stūpa with its square platforms essentially belongs to the Gāndhāra tradition. Its nearest parallel is the one at Mohra Moradu at Taxilā.
For the sheer beauty of its terracotta and brick-work it is nearer to the stūpa at Mirpur Khās in Sind. Almost all the decorative motiffs on the bricks of Mirpur Khās are repeated here, but these are, possibly earlier in date. In Gujarat this represents the heyday of the Kşatrapas and the Maitrakas of Valabhi.
Vihara : The Vihāra, which is situated to the south of the stūpa, measures about 120 feet square. Unfortunately the vihāra has suffered tremendously at the hands of the brick-robbers and the entire outer walls have been more or less destroyed. The monastery contains eight cells each, on each of the four sides, with a brick-paved court-yard in the centre. On the southern side, the central cell has a platform with moulded bricks on all the four sides and it has a very fine stone-paved floor. This suggests the Shrine-room. Similarly, on the western side of the court-yard there is a small platform in the centre, probably to serve as a stage, as in other monasteries outside Gujarat. The bricks measure 16" X 10" X 3', and they fall within the known brick-sizes of the Kșatrapa and the Maitraka period.
Phases of the Vihara: In the first phase, the monastery was slightly smaller and it had a compound-wall in addition to the outer wall of the monastery. The main drain from the court-yard flowed out on the North-West corner of the monastery. In the second

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phase, the whole level of the monastery was raised by about 4 feet by filling with fresh yellow silt. At this phase the outer wall of the monastery and the compound-wall were joined, and a thick outer wall about 12 feet wide, with mouldings on the outer face, was constructed.
The last phase of the stupa marks a definite deterioration of the maintenance, and the walls were reconstructed in a very crude way; sometimes even broken bricks were used. Besides, the sizes of the bricks on the floor of the third period were slightly smaller than the rest. The most interesting evidence, however, is provided by the main drain in the NorthAs the floor-levels and plinth-levels were raised, the drain-level was also raised. Thus we see the drains of the three periods at one spot on the outer wall.
Coins: A number of coins were found from the debris of the stupa as well as of the Vihara. On the floor associated with the 2nd phase were found nine silver coins of the Kṣatrapas. As the regnal years are not given, it is not possible to assign the exact years. However, one of them belongs to Viśvasena, who ruled from 293-305 A.D.. The other coins belong to Rudrasena; but it is difficult to decide to which Rudrasena of the Western Kṣatrapa dynasty it belongs. Similarly, there is another name ending "Dannah" which is equally vague.
The most interesting coin is one of Sarva Bhaṭṭārka, the founder of the dynasty of Maitrakas of Valabhi, found in the debris of the stapa. Thus on numismatic evidence it is safe to infer that the stapa and the vihara were built in the early 3rd century and it lasted upto the beginning of the 7th century A.D..
Pottery: This numismatic evidence is also borne out by the pottery. It includes large number of fragments of the Red Polished Ware, dated from a number of sites in Gujarat to the 1st five centuries of the Christian Era. A number of typical sprinklers and spouts were recovered, one of the sprinklers is in the characteristic Kaolin ware as at Vadnagar and Kopḍāpur (Andhra).
Other antiquities: The most interesting one was a Terracotta Seal showing the figure of the stapa in the centre with two Bodhisattvas (?), referred to above. One of them seems to be Bodhisattva Padmapani. This figure will be very useful for the ultimate. reconstruction of the stapa, and agrees very well in proportions to the remnants of the stapa.
A large number of iron-nails and tile-fragments suggest the nature of the roof. The tile is a flat one, about 10" X 6", and has two holes similar to the tiles of the Satavahana period from Kolhapur and from Intvä, near Girnar.

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Plate LXXXIV

General view of the Stūpa, Devani Mori, Sāmalāji area. (P. 309 )

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Plate LXXXV
(A) General view of the exposed Vihāra, showing cells and two floors of the
Central Court yard. (p. 309)
(B) Face of the lower platform, showing the pilasters and the decorated frieze
of the Lower platform. (p. 309)

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Piate LXXXVI

(A)
Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering
both the shoulders. -Devani Mori Stupa.
(B)

Terracotta Seated Buddha, with drapery covering
both the shoulders.-Devani Mori Stupa.

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Plate LXXXVII

(A) Terracotta Buddha Head,
Devani Mori Stūpa, Sāmalāji.
(B) Terracotta Round Medallion,
from Devani Mori stūpa.

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ADDENDA
313
ADDITIONAL NOTES Page 14 : Footnote : The discovery of a large dockyard attested to the water
borne trade practised by the inhabitants of Lothal. Situated at the eastern end of the mound, it was roughly trapezoid on plan, its eastern and western embankments were each 710 ft. long; the northern measured 124 ft. and the southern 116 ft. The greatest extant height of the embankment was 14 ft. Boats could enter the harbour at high tide, through an opening in the eastern embankment, the dwarf-wall near the entrance being meant to retain water even at low tide. A spill-channel existed in the southern embankment for the outlet of excess water ; at the mouth of the channel could be seen two grooves for a sliding door. Narrow steps at the end and grooves at regular intervals in the side-walls of the channel suggested that a door could have been made to rest against wooden logs at desired places to maintain the required level of water.-( Indian
Archaeology- A Review, 1958-59 : p. 14). Page 34 : Line 10: Reference : JBBRAS, XV, pp. 273-328. Page 44: Line 7: Reference : EI, XVI, 1919. Page 44
The Ghosundi Stone Inscription (C. 100 B. C.): by K. P. Jayaswal-(El; XVI, pp. 25-27, 1919)-( See-p. 44 supra).
The inscription is in the Northern Brāhmi of the late Maurya or Sunga period. The age of the inscription is between 200 B.C. and 150 B.C., (since put at C. 100 B.C. in The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 438). It is post-Aśoken in its script.
The inscription is important from the point of view of the language employed. This is a pure Sanskrit record. In the word 14, it seems, the third conjunct letter () is omitted through mistake; because in inscribing a conjunct of three letters, the smallest member is omitted. The three lines read as under :
(?) ... 75147a yrightga ..... (2) ...Feat Ta[ ]x40 #410-419&at 21
() ...-PISI-PERT F1702 FT Ra:] Page 56: Add 80 A.D. Devasenasūri, in his Darśanasāra ( V. 11) and Bhavasangraha before 83 A.D. (Vs. 52-75 ) ascribes the origin of the Seva dā' (Svetapața
Svetāmbara ) Sect to Valabhi, and assigns it to V.S. 136 ( 79.80
A.D.) C40
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Page 59: Line 15 : Page 60 : Line 29:
Page 62
The Digambara tradition pertaining to Bhadrabāhu, ascribes the origin of the Svetāmbara Sect to a king of Valabhi.
The Digambara Sect assigns the origin of the Kāmbalika Sect' to Vira S. 609 (82-83 A.D.)--Harişena, Byhatkathākośa, Bhadrabāhu Kathānaka, Vs. 69-80 ).--(Shastri, H. G., Maitrakakālina Gujarat, p. 417-18.) . Add on the coins ' after 'inscriptions' Add, whose name is identified with Nahapāna', before 'Nabhovāhana'. Andhāu Stone-Inscript on of the time of Rudradāman (dated 130 A. D., S. year 52) by R. D. Banerji :-( El., XVI, pp. 19-25)-( See P. 62-63 Supra ).
The mention of Castana, son of Ysāmotika, immediately before the name of his grandson Rudradāman, son of Jayadāman, in the four lithic records from Andhāu, without any connecting link, has led scholars to make a number of conjectures; because the word age is probably omitted. The date of these inscriptions had better be ascribed to the conjoint reign of Caştana and Rudradāman.
Eventhough Rudradāman was an independent monarch, he never used the title 794 alone. This is true of all princes of this dynasty and of FIAT Sath.
There is not a single coin or inscription of this dynasty, in which the title 159 is used by itself, and not in combination with the titles HE 1974 or 479. In fact, Andhāu inscriptions are the only records known, which mention Caştana or Rudradāman as राजन् s and not as महाक्षत्रप s.
Inscription, described as 'C', which contains three lines, has been illustrated (See Plate XVII A), and reads as under :(१) राज्ञो चाष्टनस यस[1]मोतिकपुत्रस राज्ञो रुद्रदामस जयदामपुत्रस वर्षे द्विपंशाशे ५०,२ (२) फगुण बहुलस द्वितियं वा २ यशदताये सीहमितघिता सेनिकगोत्राण शामणेरिये (३) मदनेन सीहिलपुत्रेन कुटुंबिनिये [ लष्टि] उथापिता । Add' as Kșatrapa' before 'coins.' Add on his coins and before ' Ksatrapa'. Add. like the fall of Valabhi' before' a similar event'. Add 'Kārtikādi' before 'The Valabhi Era'. This date, however, does not hold good, in consideration of the chronology of the Maitraka kingdom, which was not even founded by this time.
Page 66: Line 34 : Page 67: Line 5: Page 85: Line 23 :
Page 87: Line 3:
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ADDENDA
315
Page 93 : Add
Khambhâlidā Caves ; Buddhist Caves in District Madhya Sau"âştra : Sri P. P. Pandya discovered groups of Buddhist caves at Khambhāliņā, carved in the banks of a stream, meeting the Bhādar river, four miles up-stream from Jetpur. These are ascribed, on grounds of the sculptural style, to the Third-fourth Century A.D.
There are five groups of caves : the first group consists of seven caves of varied dimensions which were probably meant for the Bhikşus, as resting places.
The second group seems to be the most important : it consists of three caves, the central one of which was the Caitya-hall, flanked by large sculptures, representing the Bodhisattvas, Padmapāņi Avalokitesvara on the left and Vajrapāņi on the right, showing devotees under the shelter of trees, and having a worn-out Stūpa at its apsidal end.
The third group is totally hidden under heaps of stones and earth. The fourth one consists of three small caves on the left bank, while the fifth one comprises of a single cell on the right bank up-stream.-(Indian Archaeology-A Review : 1958-59, p. 70.)
An Inscription on terracotta flesh-rubber pot-sherd, excavated from Prabhāsa Pāțan Excavations in 1956-57 is deciphered by the late P. P. Pandya as Z A Hg full-( See, P. 94, Supra). The fragmentary Rajkot Museum Stone-Inscription of the Kșatrapa period, was first noticed by the late P. P. Pandya in 1959. An estampage of the same was kindly supplied by Shri J. M. Nanavati, Officiating Government Archaeologist, Gujarat State.
This has been read by Dr. H. G. Shastri as under :(?) [1]T HET47969...... 74.........7 (?) ...... .............. # 9754
(3) ......... la..........F# E T'F....... Excepting the words Rājño Mahākṣatrapasya, nothing can be made out. Antiquities : Kșatrapa Period: Impressions, received from the Director of Archaeology, Baroda, under Bombay State, Baroda District : Findspot, Amreli’: were deciphered and printed in the Annual Report on Indian Epigraphy for 1953-54, published in 1960: as under :
Page 94 : Line 4:
P. 94: Line 19:
Page 95: Antiquities :
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Page 95 : Terracottas :
(1) Pot-sherd: Ring of an earthen pot : Letters in Sanskrit,
Brāhmi Script. Seems to read ( Mā) gha-yukta (Sukla)] in characters of about 3rd Century A.D.-( See, A. R. Ep.
1952-53, App. B, No. 38.) (2) Clay-Seal: Sanskrit, Northern Alphabet : Reads Aji[ta]sya,
in characters of about 5th Century. (3) Lead-Seal: Reads Iśvarasya, in characters of about the
4th Century. (4) Terra-cotta Seal: Seems to read Dasu [ka], in characters
of the 3rd Century. . In the excavated deposits of earth were found (by Shri K. V. Saundara Rajan, Superintendent of Archaeology, Western Circle, from the top of the Buddhist caves at Uparkot, Junagadh, and in rock-cut wells and pits,) the Red Polished Ware, Kşatrapa coins of lead, largely belonging to Rudrasena II (348-78 A.D.), terracotta figurines, including Yakşas, sealings, bullae with Yaksa and a Kşatrapa ruler. These datable objects pertain broadly to the second half of the 4th century A.D.
A terracotta figurine was reclaimed from the debris around the Khāprā-Koạiā caves at Junagadh, ascribable to the Secondthird Century A.D.. It had similarity with the statue of Kaniska from Mathura on the one hand, and with the Scythian warrior from Nāgārjunakoņdā on the other.-( Indian Archaelogy--A Review, 1958-59, PP. 70-71 )
Items left out from the detailed Note in the 'Antiquities Section ', are mentioned below for reference, as under :Plate XVIII A
(A) Painted and incised pottery from Rozdi, Ātkoţ and Prabhāsa in Saurāṣtra. Sculptures : Ksatrapa Period : Plate XVIII A
(B) A Head from the Kunda at Sojitrā near Cambay, discovered by Dr. Bhailalbhai Patel, ex-Vice- hancellor, Vallabha Vidyapitha,- now in the Vallabha Virlyānagar Museum : -(C. 200-300 A.D.) Plate XX:
A Kșatrapa head, obtained from the Tāpi river, is now in the Surat Museum.-(Front & Back Views). Plate LXXXVI :
Two Terracotta Seated Buddhas from Deyani Mori Stupa.
P. 96 Add :
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ADDENDA
317
Page 227 : Add in
776 A.D.
P. 269 Ajanţă Scene:
Plate LXXXVII:
Two Terracotta Buddha-heads, from Devani Mori Stūpa. Plate LXXXIX:
A Terracotta Head of Buddha, from Devani Mori Stūpa, with Gāndhāran hair-style. Plate LVIII:
(B) Incense-burner from Akoțā hoard of Bronzes and Metal work. Besides the gods of the pantheon, it is noteworthy that objects useful in daily worship were also dealt with artistically. Fall of Valabhi : On examining the different dates given in the Prabandhas, Dr. H. G. Shastri has observed that the year mentioned in the Prabandha-kośa is, in fact, 375 and not 573, as read by the Editor, that the real date for the Fall of Valabhi is V. S. 845, and that the other date, viz., Vira S. 845 = V. S. 375 is simply caused by mis-ascribing the year 845 to the Vira era. The Mleccha-pati who destroyed Valabhi is identified with the Arab Governor of Mansura in Sindh, on the evidence of Alberuni ( Vol. I, pp. 192 f.).-(H. G. Shastri, Maitrakakālina Gujarat, I, pp. 195 f.). The most probable date for the fall of Valabhi, is, therefore, 789 A.D. Plate No. LIX (A):
The illustration, wherein the germs of the style of Western Indian Miniatures, viz., the angularity of faces and the protruding of the further eye beyond the facial line are visible, is taken from Ajanță Cave No. 17.
The identification of the scene kindly supplied by Shri R. A. Thatte, Artist-Modeller, Department of Archaeology, M. S. University of Baroda, is as under :
On the left side of the Shrine-wall, on the lower portion, the Scene is ‘Buddha putting Questions to Mahāmoggalāyana. and Sāriputta,' wherein people of different countries, like the Scythians, Persians and Arabians are depicted, who had gathered for listening to the Questions and Answers. The faces are shown in wrapt attention, and the treatment of their eyes is noteworthy. Plate LXXII:
(A) Siva-Pārvati from Rodā.
(B) Viņāpāņi Siva from Koțeśvara, near Ambāji. Plate LXXV:
(A) Agni, as a Dikpāla from Osiā temple, Marwad. Plate LXXIV:
(A) Vämana becoming Virāța, from Osiā temple, Marwad.
P. 275: Sculptures :
P. 277:
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P. 213 and 277
(B) Hari-Hara, a composite sculpture of Vişnu and Siva, from Osiā temple, Marwad. Plate XLVIII:
(B) Vāyu, from Śāmalāji, with name inscribed. Plate LXXIX:
(B) Inscription on the back-side of the Life-size Kotyarka Mahudi Bronze (Plate LIII).
The one line inscription on the back of its Prabhāvali, which could not be deciphered so far, has been read by Dr. B. Ch. Chhabra Shastri as under :
“From the ink-impression of the inscription, it can be made out that it contains the well-known Buddhist formula, namely, Ye dharmāh etc. It ends with Mahāśraranah instead of the more common form Mahāśramanah. The characters belong to a later period, say, after 800 A.D."
Another ink-impression, bit less clear, was sent to Dr. D. C. Sircar, Government Epigraphist for India, Ootacamund, South India, the too well-known Scholar-Editor of “Select Inscriptions". He was requested to decipher the same, so as to afford a clue regarding the identity of the bronze.
Dr. Sircar writes "Two of the words in the inscription appear to read Ch [ai] tya and Srāva [ka]. From the latter word, it may be possible to infer that it is a Jaina epigraph. ... The characters belong to the Southern alphabets and may be assigned to about the 8th or gth century A.D."
The word, however, read as Śrāva [ka] by Dr. Sircar has been read as Mahāśravanah by Dr. Chhabra, his ink-impression, perhaps, having been more clear. The conjecture of the letter [ka] may have been for [na] h. Thus the reading which Dr. Chhabra has given, may be accepted for our purpose.
This reading, conclusively settles the question regarding the religion to which the bronze belongs. It is purely Buddhistic. - See, Plate LII). Plate XC:
The image of Gadādhara Vişnu, known as Śāmalāji, from the long Gadā reaching the feet, and still in regular worship at the shrine of rather a later date, is in the sculptural style of Vişnu, from Bhinmāl (Plate XLII) and Tenne (Plate XLIV.), illustrated above. It may not be later than Sth century A.D. The shrine, on the banks of the Meśvo river has come to be more known after the recent discovery of the late Kșatrapa Period Stūpa and Vihāra at Devani Mori, the site of the village nearby.
P. 312

Page #465

INDEX
А Abhidhāna Rajendra I, 26 Abhidhānaratnamālā of Halāyudha, 256 Abhinavagupta, Com. on Nāțya Šāstra,
242 Ābhira, 289 Abhiras, 67, 78 , Ābhira Vasurāka, 89 Abhonā Plates, 124 Acharya, G. V., 70, 72, 91, 92, 145, 198 Ādinātha Head from Akoțā, 212 A few Early Sculptures from Gujarat',
Journal Oriental Institute, Dec. 1951,
212
Age of Imperial Guptas, 194 Age of the Nardas and Mauryas : 31, - 32, 36 'Agrahāra', 177 Agrawāla, R.C., 203, 273 Agrawāla, V.S., Dr.: 25, 97 Ahar (Rājasthān), 7 A History of the Guptas, 117, 120, 121 Ahmedabad Plates of Siyaka II, 263 Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi, 137, 166 Aiyangar, S. Krisnaswamy, Dr., 146 Akālavarşa Krşņarāja, 249 Akoțā Bronzes, 201
- Jivantasvāmi, 211 Akoțā Clay-seals, 95 Akotā Excavations: 95 Alberuni, 134 Alexander, 41 Aliņā Plates of Siladitya V, 154, 226 Allahabad Pillar Inscription, 89, 107 Allan, J., 43 Allaśakti, Sendraka King, 124 Allațarāja, 261
Altekar, A.S., Dr., 69, 77, 108, 109, 139,
140, 182, 185, 223, 224, 225, 228, 232, 236, 243, 246, 247, 252, 252,
253, 254, 256, 257, 262, 279 Ambikā Bronze, 212 Amreli, 37 Amreli Plates, 163 Amreli Seal of Siladitya, 195 Amreli Terracottas, 95 Anahilapattana, 221 Ananta-Vişnu from Sāmalāji
- Mahāvişņu from Kanauj, 209 Ancient Geography of India, 25, 281 Ancient History of Saurastra, 132, 147,
172, 228 Andhakas, 22 Andhaka-Vrspi, 43 Andhāu Inscriptions, System of Joint
Rule, 62 An Imperial History of India, 169 Anthropological Society Journal, 97 Antiquarian Remains at Sopārā: 34 'Antiquities from Kārvan': 104 Antiquities of India: 'Chronology of
India': 114 Antroli-Chhāroli Plates, 225 Ann. Rep. Arch. Dep. Baroda, 37, 95,
114 Annual Report Arch. Survey of India, 37 Ann. Rep. Bombay Record Offiee, 115 Anūpa, 54, 287 Anustu Plates of Karka, 237 Apabhramśakāvyatrayī, 229 Aparānta, 25, 287 Apollodotus II: 41, 42 Arbuda, 288 Arjuna, 23
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Arthaśāstra, 31, 43, 250
-Age of, 32 Art School of Ancient West', 201 Asoka : 29, 32, 33, 34, 65, 113 Asoka, 113 Asokan Inscriptions, 30 Aştādhyāyi, 22 Aśvamedha--of Kumāragupta, 108
- of Dahrasena, 110 A Terracotta Peacock from Samalāji,
discovered by S. N. Chaudhari, 206 A Toraņa at Śāmalāji', N. Guj.,
Juurnal M. S. Univ. Baroda, Vol.
VIII, 1959, 271 Attana, a wrestler : 158 A Unique Image of Jivantasvāmi':
Journal Oriental Institute, Sep. 1951,
212 Avanti, 288 Avākhala Siva, 204 Ākara, 54 Āma alias Nāgāvaloka, 240 Amrā, 7 Anandapura, (0-man-to-pu-lo) 170 Ānarta, 8, 21, 26, 288, 289 Anarta, King : 21 Āndhras, 54 Āndhra Inscriptions, 55 Andhra lead Coins, Ramanlal Desai's
Collection : 104 Arbudas, 136 Archaeology of Gujarat, 37, 53, 45, 92,
110, 213, 273 Archaeological Survey of Western India
II: 93 Architectural Remains at Kadvār and
Pāțan, 270 Arab aur Bhārat ke Sambandha (Hindi),
178 Ārab Settlements : 47 Arab (Tajjika) Invasion of Gujarat, 190
Ārab Invasion on Valabhi, 134 Arya Khapuța Sūri, 45 Aryakşemiśvara's Candakauśika, 258 Arya Manjusri Mülakalpa, ref. to King
Sila, 155 Āryans, 21 Aryans, home of, 21 Avaśyakacūrni, 26, 158
B Badaun Inscription, 88 Bagumrā Plates, 166, 177, 246 Barton Museum Inscription of Bhoja
deva, 247, 258 Balarāma, 22, 277 Balasri Gautami, Queen, 63 Banerji and Sukhtankar, 71 Banāsa, river, 57 Bappabhatti Sūri, 194, 223, 240 Bandhuvarman, 116 Basak, Radhagovind, Prof., 30 Bibliography of Coin-Hoards in Bombay
State, 128 Baraļā (Balaba or Valabhi), 134 Baroda Grant of Karka I, 173, 235 Baroda Museum Bulletin, 37, 97, 98,
208, 210, 213, 270, 274, 275, 276,
278 Baroda Through The Ages, 95, 96, 235,
281 Bäbā Pyārā's Matha, Junagadh : 37,
- Inscription, 70, 94 Bāgh Fresco, Fourth Scene : 121, 122 Bala-Bhārata or Pracanda-Pandava,
Sanskrit Play, 261 Bālacarita, 24 Bāla-Rāmāyaṇa, Sanskrit play, 261 Bāņa, author of Kādambari', etc. 148,
157, 176 Barnett, L. D., Dr., 114 Bāņțiä Plates, 151 Besanagar, 38
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Plate LXXXVIII
(A) Terracotta Architectural pieces, from Devani Mori Stūpa.
(B) Terracotta Filled Arch of the niche.
Devani Mori Stūpa, Śāmalāji.

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(A) Terracotta Head of a Buddha, with the typical upward flowing Gāndhāra hair-style, from Devani Mori Stupa.
(B) Terracotta Buddha Head from Devani Mari Stupa, Sămataji.

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Plate XC
Gadādhara Vişnu: Śāmalāji, (p. 318) In the sculptural style of Bhinamál Vişnu (Plate XLVII) and Tenna Vişnu ( Plate XLIV B)

Page #470

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INDEX
321
Beț Pot-sherd: 94 Barygaza; 41, 44, 47 Bodhi Dynasty, Coins, 65, 98 Bombay Gazetteer I: 29, 48, 49, 56,
58, 75, 78, 116, 121, 126, 151, 160,
210 Bombay Gazetteer, IX, pt. II, 65, 167 Bombay State Transport Review, Nov.,
1957, 209 Bom. Univ. Journal, 37, 97, 104 Boriā Stūpa Relics : 90 Buddha, 26 Buddha on Isālvā Hill, Annual Report,
Watson Museum, Rajkot, 1938-39,
278 * Buddhist Influence in Gujarat and
Saurāştra ', Journal Guj. Res. Soc.,
1939, 213 Buddhist Records of the Western World
-Si-yu-ki', 168, 169 Budhagupta : 110, 131 Buddhist Council, 56 Buddhavarman, Cālukya, 161 Buddhiprakāśa, 71, 113 Bulletin Museums Association of India,
Vol. I, No. 1, 212 Bühler, Dr. 238 Burrow, T., Prof. 136 Burgess : Dr., 93 Burgess and Bhagvānlal, 138 Baudhāyana Dharma Sūtras : 35 Bhagvånlal Indraji, Dr.: 34, 65, 69,
71, 78, 91, 98, 126, 214, 281 Bhațārka, 110, 120, 122, 131 Bhatti, poet, 134 Bhattācārya, B., Dr., 278 Bhațța Nārāyaṇa, author of Veni
samhāra ', 241 Bhadramukha 'in Kșp. Geneology, 73 Bhartsdāman, 77, 81, 82, 100
Bhartsivaddha, 224 41
Bhavabhūti, 184, 222 Bharukaccha, 26, 36, 54, 58, 112, 290 Bharukaccha, Geographical Interpreta
tion: 112 Bharukaccha, Barygaza, Po-lu-kie
ch'e-po',-169 Bharukaccha, (residents): 47 Bhavisayatta Kahā of Dhanapāla, 268 Bhāgatrav ( on Kim), 11, 13 Bhāgavata Purāņa, 24 Bhāndārkar, D. R., Dr., 33, 66, 113,
208, 230 Bhāndārkar, R. G., Sir, 87, 228 Bhāļvā Plates, 151 Bhămodrā Moţā Plates of Droņa
simha, 132 Bhānusakti, 156 Bhāratiya Vidyā, Vol. II, Pt. 1, 229 Bharatiya Vidya : K. M. Munshi
Commemoration Vol. II, 146 Bhāvnagar Plates, 143, 163 Bhavnagar Sanskrit and Prakrit In
scriptions, 71, 151 Bhāvaprakāśana' of Sāradātanaya,
243 Bhilsā, 38 Bhinmal Yakşa, 210 Bhitari Stone Pillar Inscription of
Skandagupta : 108 Bhuj, 290 Bhuj Buddha Bronze, 215 Bhūmaka ( Kșatrapa!, 53
-Copper Coins, 57, 98 Bhūmilikā, 134 Bhūyada, Căpa, 246 Bhūyada of Kalyāṇakataka (Mihira
Bhoja ), 221 Bhojadeva, Gurjara-Pratihāra, 183 Bhogāvo (river), II Bhrgus, 22, 25 Bhrigukaccha, 8
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322
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Brahmagupta, 139 Brahmapuri Excavations: 98 Brahma-sphuţa-siddhānta, 139 Brahmānda Purāna, 112 Brāhmaṇas, 22 Brāhmi Mātřikā from Ābu, 205 Bhrāhmi Script: 33, 53 Bronze Head of Adinātha from Akoțā
Hoard, 126 * Bronze Hoard from Vasantgadh':
Lalit Kalâ, Nos. 1-2, 1957, 213 Bronzes, School of Ancient West, 211
с Caca, usurper of Sindh, 166 Caitya-Vāsa among Jaina Sädhus, 86 Cakrabhșit (Vişnu) Temple on Sudar
sana lake, 120 Cakrapālita, son of Parņadatta, 109,
119
Cambay Plates, 143 Cambridge History of India, 25 Câmaradhāriņi Bronze, 212 Candragupta, I, Maurya: 29, 30, 31, 65 Candragupta I: Issuer of Gold Coins :
107 Candragupta II, Vikramāditya' 89,
107, 108 -silver coins, 113
-gold coins, 114 Canda Pradyota, 26 Carakasamhită, 232 Cașțana, son of Ysāmotika
-54, -portrait-statue, 55, 59,
-silver coins of, 99 Catalogue of Bayānā Hoard of Gupta
Gold Coins : 108 Catalogue of Indian Coins, 43 Catholicity of Valabhi Rulers, 228 Caulukya Dynasty, Origin of, Story :,
Cave Temples : ASWI, 138 Cedi, 78 Ceylon, 43 Chhābrā, B.Ch., Dr., 72,91, 94, 215, 274,
318 Chief Political Divisions in India dur
ing 8th Century': Indian Culture,
Vol. X1, 263 Chhāndogya Upanișad, 24 Chakravarti, S.N., 203, 204 Chalcolithic Culture, 3 Chatterjee, S.K., Dr.: 25, 33, 36 Chronology of India, 31 Chowdhari, Sūryakānta, 271, 308 Cintrā Prasasti Inscription, 88, 267 Clay Seals & Sealings, 196 Clay-Seals of Mahādevi Prabhudamā, 72 Classical Sanskrit Literature, 177 Colonisation of Java, 158 Commentary on Tärānātha's Chapter
on Buddhist Art', Mārg IV ,--201 Conch-shell Ornaments: 95 Coroddaranikas or Dandapāśikas, 225 Crystal Reliquary, 96 Cultural Unity of India, 30 Cultural Significance of Saddle
Querns': 97 Cunningham, A., Sir, 33, 198, 281 Cyavana, 22
D Dabhoi Plates of Govindarāja, 237 Dadda I, Sāmanta, 153 Dadda II, 134, 164, 165 Dahrasena, Trikūțaka ruler, 110, 121 Daläl, C.D., Editor, of 'Udayasundari
kathā', 247 Danda Rāsaka', Literary Tradition,
242 Dāndekar, R. N., Dr., 117, 120, 121 Dandin, 147, 156, 187 Dantidurga, Rāșțrakūța, 219, 223 Dantivarman II, 224
265
Jain Education Interational

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INDEX
323
Darius I, 41 Daśakumāra carita, 147 Daśapura, 54, 58 Dasaratha Sharmā, Dr., 125 Daulatpur Inscription of Bhojadeva I,
241 Delvāļā Mātņikās, 205 Deogarh Jaina Pillar Inscription, 246 Deoli Grant of Krşņa III, 248 Derabhața, 155 Desai, M. D., 98 Desalpur, (in Kaccha ), 13 Description of Gurus in Jābāla ', 233 Description of Monasteries, 200-201 Desi Music, 255 Devakula at Māț: 96 Devala, author of Devala-Smriti, 222,
254 Devali Plates, 185 Devali Plates : Specific ref. to Valabhi
Era, 237, 239 Devarddhi Gani, Kşamāśramana, 117 Devasakti, Pratihāra, 226 'Devi-Mahātmya and Sakti-worship,
with reference to Gujarat', Journal Indian Society of Oriental Art,
Calcutta, 1938, 268 Dhammalipis, 34 Dhaneśvara Sūri, Author of Satrunjaya
Māhātmya, 155 Dhankagiri ( Dhānk), Jaina Sculptures
45, 232 Dhanapāla, author of Päiyalacchi
Nāmamalā, 148, 266 Dharanivaräha of Wadhwan, 239, 261 Dharapațța, youngest son of Bhațārka,
Dharāśraya-Jayasimha, 184 Dharmadāsa Gaņi, 245 Dharmagupta, a scholar from Lāța, 155 Dharmapāla, the Pāla king, founder of
Vikramasila Vidyāpītha, 229, 241 Dharmaraksita, 113 Dharmāraṇya-kşetra, 291 Dharmāranya Māhātmya, 222 Dāhaṇukā, 54 Dāmajādaśri I, 64, 65 Dämajādaśri II, 75, 100 Dāmajādaśri III, 79, 100 Dāmasena, 74, 75, 76, 100 Dhānk Caves, 93 Dhānk Plates, 238 Dhiniki Grant of Jāikadeva, 193 Dhruva I, 231 Dhruvadevi, 113 Dhruvarāja I, 240 Dhruvarāja II, 240 Dhruvasena I, 142 Dhruvasena II, 164, 166 Dhūrtākhyāna, 233 Digambara Sect, rise of : 56 Dikshit, K, N., Rao Bahadur:6, 15,91 Dikshit, M. G., Dr.: 104, III, 127, 173,
181, 182 Dikshit, M. K., 15 Dinabandhu, Artist, 209 Dipavamsa, 25 Dipavamsa and Mahāvamsa, 35 Disintegration of Gupta Empire, 132 Diskalkar, D. B., 123 Diva (Dvipa), 183 Door-frame at Kārvan, 270 Drachms, 42 Dronasimha, younger son of Bhațārka,
110, 132, 141 Dvārakā, 23,291-92-93-91 Dvāśraya Kavya of Hemacandra Sūri,
175
146
Dharasena, son of Bhațārka, 131 Dharasena II, 151 Dharasena III, 163 Dharasena IV, 134, 174
Jain Education Interational

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324
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Fleet, J., Dr., 108, 113, 123, 178 Foote R. B., 4, 5, 15 Foreign Notices of South India, 155 Formula of the Buddhist Creed, 278 Four Ages, 21 Four Pithas' of Sankara, 230 Fourteen Vihāras, round about Valabhi,
181
Dvivedi, Manilal 151 Dudda, niece of Dhruvasena I, 144 Duddā-vihāra, 145 Duff, Mabel : 31 Durga, Commentator of Nirukta, 71 Dynastic History of Northern India, Vol. II, 242, 263, 265
E Earliest Maitraka Grant, 132 Early Aryans in Gujarat, 21 Early History of India, 30, 65, 166, 167 Early Man, 3 'Early Sculptures from Abu ':. Baroda
Museum Bulletin, 224 Eka-mukha Linga, 203 El., VIII, 53, 58, 63 Elliot and Dowson, 255 Elūrā Frescoes, Parent of Western
Indian Miniatures, 225 Elurā Rock-temples, 225 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
XI, 230 Eukratides, Coins :
- found from Gondal and Juna
gadh : 48 Excavation at Gohilvād Timbo, Am
reli: 95 Excavations at Inţvā Hill : 92 Excavations at Timbervā, 38 *Excavations at Vadnagar': M. S.
Univ. Journal: 38 Excavations in Gujarat, ---Series of : 194
F Fa Hien, 107, 168 Fall of Valabhi 845, Samvat 85 First Council of Jainas at Pāšaliputra,
117 Fish'emblem of the Saindhava Royal Seal, 191
tournal Five Vala Plates', Bom. Univ. Journal,
181
Gadhā Stone-Inscription, 73 Gadre, A.S., 72, 102, 156, 163, 181,
183, 213, 237 Ganadhara-sārašataka, 149 Gaņakārikā, 88 Gana pāțha, 26 Gaņas from Sāmalāji, 211 Gāndhāran Art in Pakistan, New York,
1957, 310 Gaņeśa from Harsol, 204 Gaņeśagadh Plates, 143 Gangā-Yamunā Motif on Door-frames,
270 Garuda on Coins, 127 Gautamiputra Satakarni, (Andhra ),
54, 55 59, 60 Gāndhi Lalchand, Pandit, 226, 229 Gānguly, D. C., Dr., 146 Ghaggar Valley, 14 Ghata Jātaka, 24 Ghațiāla Inscription of Kakkuka, 246 Ghosh, A., Dr., 15, 16, 96, 97 Ghosh, B. 146 Ghosundi (Chitodgadh Dist., Rājasthan)
Inscription : 44 Ghumli Flates of Baskaladeva, 259 Ghumli Plates of Jaika II, 224, 240,
247 Ghurye, G.S., Dr. 6, 16 Girinagara, 3, 30 Girnar Inscription of 150 A.D., 55, 65 Glui v that was Gurjaradeśa, I, 221
Jain Education Intemational

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INDEX
325
Glory that was Gurjaradeśa, III, 220,
222, 236, 240, 253, 264, 279 Goetz, H., Dr., 95, 97, 211, 270 Gomati, 295 Gondal Plates, 189 Gopāla, revivor of Nalanda University,
229 Gop temple, 126 Goras Plates, 166 Govindarāja I, Rāştrakūța, 187 Govinda III, Rāştrakūta, 190, 220, 232 Graeco-Aramico Inscription of Asoka,
Kandahār, 29 Grahavarman, Maukhari, 157 Grants to Brāhmaṇas: Maitraka &
Rāştrakūta : Object of, 262 Greenish-blue Schist from Dungarpur,
202 Guhasena, 150, 151 Guide to Antiquities, Historic Period,
Prince of Wales Museum, 203 Gujarat Inscriptions, Vol. I, 145 Gujarati Painting in the 15th Century,
122 Gujarat Research Society Journal, 1939,
Gupta Silver Coin-Hoards, 128 Gupta Temples, 126 Gupta, P. L., 37, 38, 128 Gurjaras, 135 Gurjara Brāhmaṇas, 149 Gurjaradeśa, 149 Gurjara kingdom, Earliest : 136 Gurjaras, Foreign Origin Theory, 136 Gurjaras, Their Origin, 146 Gurjaras of Nāndipuri : 115 Gurjjara (Kiu-che-lo) deśa, 171 Gurjaratrā Bhumi', 241
н Haddalā Grant of Dharaņi Varāha,
257, 258 H. K. Arts College, Ahmedabad, Col
lection, 279 Halāyudha, author of 'Kavi-rahasya',
235
Hallisaka', 24, 242, 243 Handbook of Baroda Muscum Collection,
95
Handbook of Sculptures :
Curzon Museum, Mathura, 97 Harappā, discovery of, 10 Harşavardhana, 133 Harşavardhan Silāditya,
-hero of Bāņa's 'Harşacarita'
96
159
Gujarat, Two Natural Divisions, 3 Gulf of Cambay, 47 Gunamati, 133 Gunda Stone-Inscription, 67 Gupta Coins, 7 Gupta Dynasty, rise of : 82 . Gupta Empire, Western Section : 131 Gupta Era, 85, 107 Gupta Governor at Anandapura, 131 Gupta Inscriptions, 108 Gupta-Licchavi alliance, 107 Gupta Sculptures from Northern
Gujarat', Journal Guj. Res. Soc. XIV & Baroda Museum Bulletin VII, 211
Harşavardhana, pedigree of, 142 Harşacarita, 43, 148 Haribhadra Sūri, Virahānka', 222, 227,
233 Haricandra, 136 Harişena, author of Brihat-kathā
kośa,' 262 Hastimati, 295 Hastināpur, 8 Hāțakeśvara-kşetra, 295 Hatthundi Gotra, 261 Havell, E. B., 122

Page #476

326
Hansot Plates of Bhartrivaddha II,
180, 224 Hathab, 37
Hiranyagarbha ceremony, 223, 257 Hina Yana, reference to: 138 Hinayana, study of, acc. to Hiuen.
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Tsang, 157
Hemacandra Suri, 83, 227
'Head of King' on coins, 62
Hemādri's Vrata-khanda', 239
Heras, H., Rev., 16
Hilol Plates of Cañdräditya, 230, 231
Hindu Polity: 109 Hiuen Tsang, Pilgrim-Scholar, 56, 133.
148, 155
-Visit to India, 164, 171
-Visit to Harsa's Court, 160 History of Bengali Language, 25, 36 'History of Buddhism in Gujarat', Gujarat Research Society Journal, III, 182
History of Dharmasastras, Vol. II, 254 History of Jaina Canonical Literature,
84, 117
History of India, 150-350 A.D., 77 History of Mediaeval Hindu India, Vol. II, 146
History of Rajputānā, Vol. I, 146 History of Village Communities in Western India, 139, 140, 254 Historico-Cultural Ethno-Geography of Gujarat, 66
Hodiwalla, S. H., Prof., 189, 244, 263,
264
Hultzsch, Dr., 123, 132 Hūpas, 109, 118
I
Imperial History of India, 200 Important Sanskrit Inscriptions, Baroda State, 72, 156, 163, 237 Impressed Seals, 94

'Important Coins from Baroda State':
102
India as known to Panini, 25 Indian Archaeology-A Review: 33, 96, 97, 103
Indian Culture, Vol. I, 146 Indian History Congress, Proceedings Calcutta, 125
Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. X, 146
Indian Palaeography, 44 Indika, 31
Indo-Sassanian (Gadhia) Coins, 280,
281
Indra III, Rästrakūta, 258 Indradatta's reign: 115
Indus basin, 3, 6
Indus Script, 13 Ingholt, Harold, 310
Inscribed pot-sherds, Amreli, 196 Inscribed pot-sherd of Guhasena, 197 Inscribed Seals: 94
Inscription of Pulumāvi, C. 126 A.D., 60. Inscription re: Investment, 58 Inscriptions of the Saindhavas, 259 Inṭvā Seal of Rudrasena-Vihara, 72, 94 Invasion of Manyakheța by Siyaka II of Dhară, 267
Invasion of Valabhi by the Tajjikas, 227
Iranians, Settlement of, 188 Isanavarman, 131
Isvaradatta, MKs. 69, 78
Coins of, 103
Isvarasena, Abhira ruler, 78, 67
J Jackson Two New Valabhi Plates', 167
Jacobi, Hermann, Dr., 268
Jadi Rānā, identified with Silähära King Vajjaḍa-deva, 264

Page #477

INDEX
327
Jagan Näth, in Indian Culture, 1939
-I2I Jaina Frescoes at Elūrā, 269 Jaina 'Harivamśa', 229 Jaina Miniature Paintings of Western
India, 162, 269 Jaina Monastery at Ankoțţaka, 211 Jaina Sculptures, Dhānk Caves, 213 Jaina Wall-Painting in the Indra
Sabhā, Cave 32, Elūrā, 201 Jainism, first wave, 71 Jambumārgagrāma, 71 Jarāsandha, 23 Jayabhata I, Gurjara, 161 Jayabhasa II, 175 Jayabhasa III, 187 Jayabhata IV, 134, 191 Jayadāman, Caştana's son, 55 Jayadāmn, Silver coin : 99 Jayadeva, Gitagovinda ', 243 Jayasekhara, 221 Jayaswäl, K. P., 77, 109, 147, 169, 200,
223 Jayāditya Temples at Kāvi, 239 Jayāśraya Mangalarasa, 190 Jābālipura (Jhālor ), 228 Jāika II, 259 Jāikadeva, 134 Jätakas, 36 Jesar Plates, 183 Jhār Plates, 151 Jhote, R. B., author of Khambhāt no
Itihāsa, 303 Jinadatta Sreșthin, 47 Jinadatta Sūri, 149 Jinadeva, 157 Jinavijayaji, Muni, 229 Jinasena, author of 'Harivamsa', 227 Jivadāman, Mahā Ksp., Svāmin
- first to issue dated coins, 66, 70, 100
Jodhpur Inscription of Pratihāra
Bāuka, 136, 241 Joshi, Umāshankar, author of Purāno
mãn Gujarat, 304 Journal Bombay University, 163 Journal Indian Museums Association,
Vol. VIII, 205 Journal Indian Museums Association,
Vol. IX, 274 Journal Indian Museums Association,
Vol. XI, 1955, 213 Journal Numismatic Society of India,
74 Journal Oriental Institute, Vol. I, No. 2,
1952-53, 270 * Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 116 Junāgadh Rock-Inscription of Asoka,
23, 33 Junagadh Inscription of Rudradāman,
65 Junagadh Rock-Inscription of Skanda.
gupta, 109, 119 --the only Gupta Inscription in
Gujarat, 119 Junagadh Museuin Inscription, 70, 84 Junaid, Governor of Sindh, 189, 194 Junnara Cave-Inscription, 59
Jurz' or 'Gurjjara ', 220 Jyeșthuka Desa, --of the Jethyās, 259
к Kaccha, 25, Kacchaka, 25, 55 Kaccha Plates of Jayasimha Mangala
rasa, J.O.I., Jan. 1960, 191 Kadphises, 56 Kaira Copper-plates, 165, 174 Kakkarāja II, 224 Kalacuri, 78 Kalacuri Era, 77 Kalacuri Inscriptions : II Kalacchalā Copper-plate of Isvara
datta : 110

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328
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Kalsar Temple, 272 Kaniska, accession of 53, 56
-successor of Kadphises, 56 Kanha, 24 Kanauj, Imperial Capital, 131 Kapadvanj Plates, 176 Kapadvanj Plates of Krşņa II, 257 Kardama, river, 54 Karjan, river, 5 Karkarāja Suvarņavarşa, 235
- his five Inscriptions, 237 Karpūramañjari, Colophon of, 250 Kathlāl Vişņu Trimārti, 209 Katpur Plates, 151 Kāpadiā, H.R., Prof., 84, 117, 243 King Sila, 201 Kośām Inscription, 90 Koțțarāja, Abhira, 78 Kottammahikā, Goddess, 141 Kotyarka Mother & Child, discovered
by Ravisankar Raval, 206 Kumāra (Kārtikeya ), 108, 204 Kaumāri from Sāmalāji, 206 Kumāragupta I, 108 Kumāragupta : Coins
--Amreli hoard, 114
- Anand hoard, 114 Kuinārapăla-prabandha, 222 Kumārapāla-pratibodha of Somapra
bhācārya, 278 Kuşāņa Empire, dissolution of, 106 Kuśasthali, 22, 297 Kuvalayamālā, 228 Kuvalayamālā (Colophon ), 191 Kuttani-matam, 224 Kaulas, 252 Kautilya: 23, 31 Kādamba Plates of Prabhūtavarşa, 254 Kāku Ranka, 227 Kālaka Sūri, 117 Kālakācārya Katha, 56
Kālidāsa : 108 Kāmboja : 43 Kāṁpilya Vihāra, 246 Kāmpilya Vihara Seal, 197 Kāmrej, 37 Kāmasūtras, 78, 83 Kāņe, P.V., Dr., 35, 254 Kārdamakas-Western Kşatrapas, 53,
54, 55 Kārda maka Kşatrapa family : 99 * Kāri' or Interest on loan, 244 Kārli, 54 Kāili Inscriptions, 59 Kārvan, 37 Kāsindrā Plates, 161 'Kāthiāwād Harappan Culture', 5 Katyāyana's Vārtika, 22 Kāvi plates of Jayabhața IV, 192 Kāvi Plates of Prabhūtavarşa Govinda
rāja, 239 Kävi & Navsāri Plates, 190 Kāvyamīmānsā, 3rd Ed., 251, 252 Kāvyālankāra, 151 Keilhorn, Dr., 88, 132 Kesisūdana from Valā, 210 Keith, B., Dr., 232 Kşaharātas, 53 Kşaharāta Kșatrapa family: 98 Kşatrapa-53 Ksatrapa dominion, extent, 55 Kșatrapa Copper Coins: 102 Kşatrapa Potin Coins : 102 Kşatrapa Coin-Hoards : 101 Kşatrapa Lead Coins, 103 Kşatrapa Inscriptions : 94 Kşemarāja, 241 Kşetrapāla Siva, 204 Krşņa, 23 Kęspa I, Rāştrakūța, 225 Krşņa, Rāştı akūta : the king-builder
of Kailāsanātha Temple, Elurā, 219
Jain Education Intemational

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INDEX
329
Krşpa III, 221 Krsnagiri (Kanheri) Copper-plate, 123 Kļşņswamy, V.D., 16 Kļşņamāchāri, M., 177 Kharoşthi (Script ), 53 Kharoşthi, use of; 55 Kharoşthi inscription of Eukratides
Coins: 49 Khambhālidā Caves; 93 Kharagraha I, 163 Kharagraha II, Dharmāditya, 177
-praised by vyatireka alan kära, 178 Kharataragaccha-patļāvali, 249 Khandālāvālā, Kārl: 201, 216 Khețaka, New Capital of South
Gujarat, 230
Lakulisa, 87, 88 Lakulisa from Kārvan, 204 Lakşmanarājadeva, Kalacuri, 266 Lalit Kalā, Nos. 3-4 33, 201 Land-tax collection in three instal
ments, 250 Lașțis (memorial pillars), 62, 72, 73 Lahara, son of Ninna, 223 Läkhābāval, 7. Lāla-raţtha (Lāța ): 111 Lầnghnaj, 5 Lăța or lāļa, 8, 36, 296 Lāțadeśa, partiality for, . to Rāja
sekhara, 252 Lāța lady, 251 Lāța people, 125 Lāta people : profession of Silk
weaving, 117 Lāțācārya, 139
Làțānuprāsa ', 234 Lāți, 187 Lāți, as one of the Prākrits, 155 Lățiya Riti, 234 Lāțhi Inscription: 94
Legge, Fa-Hian's Record of Buddhistic
Kingdom': 173 Legged Stone Querns: 97 Licchavis, 26 Lilvädevå Jaina Bronzes, 213 Limbodrà Trimūrti Head, 210 Lion-Capitals from Baroda : 96 Location of Bhakti in Regions of India, - 267 Location of the Sects of Candi and
Vinayaka, 267 Logan, A. C., 16 Lothal (mound), discovery of, 10, II Lothal,-drainage system, II
-houses built in rows, II -drains, II ---terracotta, 12 -micro-beads, 12 - painting on earthen vessels, 12 -seals and sealings, 13
-burial, 13 Luders, Dr. 254 Lunsați Plates, 180 Luņāyādā Plates, 225 Lustrous Red Ware, 6
M Madhyamikā, 42 Magnanātha (Mannātha ), 192
Mahattaras', 182 Mahabharata, 22, 23, 24, 35 Mahābhārata War, date of, 9 Mahabhășya, 42 Mahākṣatrapa, 55 Mahākṣatrapa, Office of : 82 Mahāvamśa, 25, 35, 113 Mahāvira, 26 Mahāyāna, studied at Bharukaccha
and Sūrășțra, 157 Mahendra, son of Asoka: 36 Mahendrapala, Pratihāra, 220, 221, 250 Maheśvar, 7, 8
42
Jain Education Intemational

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330
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Mahipāla, Pratihāra ; 220, 221, 250, 251 Mahipāla, Earliest known date, 258
-- bore the name Kārtikeya, 258 Mahi River, dividing line, 3, 220 Mahişamardini from Valā, 208 Mahudi Buddha Bronze, 213 Mahudi Jaina Bronzes, 212 Maitraka Administrative system, 135 Maitraka Grant to a Siva temple, 160 Maitrakas, 131 Maitrakakālina Gujarat: 44, 123, 138,
140, 141, 145, 146, 156, 161, 179,
183, 185, 186 Majmudar, Chandramauli, 274 Majmudar, M. R., Dr., 97, 204, 205,
206, 207, 256, 267, 275, 276, 277 Majumdar, R. C., Dr., 69, 90, 109, 133,
135, 146, 152, 184, 230 Māliā Plates, 151 Malik, S. C., 4 Mallavādin Sūri, 87 Mālwā, 55 Manimekhalai, a Tamil poem, 158 Mandor Stone Plates of Kșişņa-Lilā,
208 Mandsor Inscription, 116, 272 Manju-Sri-Mülakalpa, 147 Mānkad, D. R., Prof., 146 Mānkad, B. L., 199 Mantri Samanta, Porvāda, 226 * Mantri Vimala and his Mantri Vam
sa', Gujarat Itihāsa Sammelana
Proceedings, 1945, 226 Maritime activities of the people of
Valabhi, 223, 147 Marshall, J., Sir : author of Taxila :
311 Marū, 296 Masudi, 265 Mathāmnāya, 231 Mathura, 42
Mathura Museum, 55, 96 Maudgaliputra Tişya, 36 Mauryan Inscriptions: 93 Mauryan rule, 3 Mauryan rule in Gujarat, 21 Māgha, 176, 222, 233, 256 Mālavagaņa: 44 Mānadeva Sūri, 144, 3 Mānatunga, author of Bhaktāmara
Stotra, 157 Mänadeva Sūri, author of Laghu-śānti: Stava, 182 Mändavyapura ( Mandor ), 135 Mānkaņi Copper-Plate, 155 Mārkandeya, 25 Mathuri Vācanā, 117 Mātřikā Sculptures, 205 Mātřikā Sculptures', Gujarat Research
Society Journal, 1950, 205 Mātrikās from Devani Mori, 205 Mc Grindle, Periplus': 49 Medapāța (Mewar ), 222 Medhātithi, 222 Megasthenes, 24, 31 Mehtā, N. C., 122 Mehta, R. N., Dr., 4, 39, 98, 204, 260,
308
Memorial of Abhira Vasurāka, 89 Menander, 41
-- Various poses on coins, 42 Menander, Coins of:
found from near Broach, Junagadh :
48
Microlithic industries, 6 Mihira Bhoja, 220, 221 Mihirakula, 131, 141 Milinda, 42 Miinda panho, 43 Miniatures of Tārā-Temples in Lāța
deśa, 277 Minnagara: 46
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Mirashi, V. V., Principal,
-who reconstructed the giti, 68, 77, 78, III, 192, 198
Mirat-I-Ahmadi, 222
Mirpur Khas, Brahma Bronze, 96, -Stupa terracotta, 214
Mistri, M. M., 187
Mitra, P., 16
Mleccha country Gujarat: 29 Modha Gaccha, 231
Mohen-jo-Daro, discovery of, 10 Moheraka (Modherā), 37, 187 Mohra Moradu Stupa at Taxilā, 311 Moksa Parisad', 155
Moti Chandra, Dr., 96, 162, 269
M. S. University Journal 1954: 94.98 Muir, William, Sir, 228
INDEX
Mūlarāja, 222, 265
Mulva-sara Inscription, 71
Munshi, K. M., Dr., 21, 146, 209, 220, 221, 222, 236, 240, 253, 264, 279 Murrhine (agate and cornelian), 47
N
Nabhovahana, 60
Nadvi, S. S., Prof., 178, 189 Nagaraka, (Nagară), 143 Nahapana, 53 Nahapana, Silver Coins: 99 Nandi, an animal-study, 201 Narmada (river), 3, 25, 299 Narain, A. K., Dr., 41, 42 Navalakhi Plates, 159
Navsari, 37
Navsari Lead Seal: 95
Navsåri Plates of Avanijanāśraya Pulakesi; their historical import
ance, 193
Navsari Plates of Jayabhața III, 187 Navsari Grant of Jayabhața IV, 165 Nayacakra of Devasena, 263 Näiatas, Muslim Ship Captains, 246

Nagabhata II, Pratihāra, 219, 220,
234. 236
Nagarjuna 45, 83, 232 Nagaraja, Mt. Abu 210 Nandipuri, 134
Nandipuri, Capital of Gurjaras, 137 Nandipuri Gurjaras, 137
Nāṇāvați, J. M., 74, 31
Nasik, 54
Nasik-Cave Inscription, 69, 78 Nasik Inscriptions, 57, 58
Natyalastra, 71
Nerur Plates of Mangalaraja, 160 Newton, 198
331
Nihirullaka, 152
: Nikurhbha Allaśakti, 177
Nilakantha Sastri, K. A., 31, 32, 36, 64,
155
Niliväkyämrita of Somadeva Süri, 268 Nogava Plates, 168
Northern Black Polished Ware, N. B. P. Ware',-6, 38
Ninna or Ninnaya, 226
O
Ojha, Gaurishankar, Pandit, 146, 226 'On the Origin of Gurjaras': Guj. Res. Soc. Journal, 147
Osia, Melapura Pattana, 226
P
Paccaddeśa, 300
Pallas Athene, figure of, on Indo-Greek
coins; 49 Panca-nada, 299
Panca siddhantika, 139 Panca-lantra, 244
Pandit Rādhākṛṣṇa, 96 Pandya A.V., 4, 16, 97, 115 Paṇḍya, P.P., 7, 16, 93, 94, 315 P.M.P. (Paramabhaffäraha, Mahārājā
dhiraja, Parameśvara), 225 Paramāra Dynasty, rise of, 239

Page #482

334
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Parasurama, 22 Parnadatta, Governor of Saurāṣtra,
109, 119 Patanjali, 42, 43 Patanjali, Mahābhāşya, 67 Pattolikā, 116 Paura-Velākula (modern Probundar),
260 Padalipta Sūri, 45
-author of Tarangavai : 45 Pāda-tāditaka Bhāna, 124 Pālitānā-Iyavaj Plates, 143 Pālitānā Plates, 123, 143, 151
-refers to Krsna's Dwarka, 123 Palitāna-Valā Plates, 159 Pāndurājjā, Goddess, 141 Pāṇini, 21, 22, 23, 25, 41, 149 Pāṇiniya Sikşā, 124 Pärādā, 54 Pārdi Plates, 119 Pariyātra, 43 Pārsis, First Settlement of, 263 Parvati as Sabarakanyā, 207 Pasupata Ācāryas, 88 Pāțaliputra, 32 Peacock on Kumāragupta's Coins, 114 People of Lāța , 251, 252 Periplus (Guide-book) of the Ery
thraean Sea : 41, 46, 53, 65, 116 Piņdāraka, 301 Plutarch, 42 Poets of Lāța, 233, 234 Portrait Sculptures of Saka-Kušāņa: 96 Potin Coins of Kärdamakas, 75 Pot-sherd of Guhasena, 151 Prabandha Cintamani, 222, 227 Prabandhakośa, 227 Prabhakaravardhana, 154 Prabhāsa, 54, 300 Prabhasa Patan, 8 Prabhāraka carita, 223, 240
Prakashā, 37 Pratihäras, 137
Pratibāras ', Origin of : 241 Prācina Jaina Lekha-Sangraha Pt. II,
261 Prākrit in Drama, 71 - Prākrit, language of Edicts : 33 Pre-history-definition, 3
--culture, 5 Princep, James, Sir, 198 Prince of Wales Museum, 33, 94, 96,
98, 213 Prince of Wales Museum Plates of
Dadda III, 166 Prince of Wales Museum Plates, 192 Přithvisena, 74, 100 Proprietory right of the Soil, 253, 254 Pro. Rep., Arch. Sur. India, Western
Circle 1915, 213 Proto-history, 3
---culture, 8 Pulakesin II, Cālukya, defeated Harsa,
160, 161, 163 Pulakeśi's feudatories, 137 Puļumāvi, Siri, 54, 63 Punch-marked Coins in Baroda
Museum', 37 Purāņas, 8, 21 Purāna Vivecana, 285 Purātana Dakșiņa Gujarat, 151 Purātana Prabandha samgraha, 227 Puri, Baij Nāth, Dr., 136, 147, 150, 158,
236, 244, 246, 248, 249, 255, 265 Puşkara, 54 Puşpadanta, the greatest Apabhraṁsa
poct, 264 --author of 'Mahapurāņa', 'Jasahara Car u', & Nayakumāra Cariu'
.-26.4 Puşyagupta, Vaisya, 30 Puşyamitras, 108, 118
Jain Education Intemational

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Puşyena, Saindhava family: --clay-seal from Vala 191, 194
Pütigandha, 57
Q
Qissa-i-Sanjana, 234
R
Raivata (ka), 301
Ranchhodbhãi, Divän Bahadur, 62
Randle, H. H., 116
Rangpur 5, 7, 10, 13
Ranu-pipli Seated Surya, 274 Rapson, 63, 64, 65
Rao, S. R., 6, 13, 16, 213 Raviprabha Sūri, 174 Radhanpur Copper-Plate, 232 Rajkot Museum Inscription, 94 Rajanyagana, Republics, 31 Rajasekhara, the poet, 221, 222, 250, 251, 252
Rajasekhara, patronised by Yuvarajadeva, 261
Ramaswami, K. S., Pandit, 251 Ranaka, Saindhava King,-donations
to temples, 247
Raval, Ravishankar, 272 Ravana-Vadha or Bhattikavya, 175 Recruiting of soldiers from Lâța, 254 Red Polished Ware, 95, 96
Red & Black Ware, 195
Removal of Jaina Idols from Valabhi, 231
Reu, Visvesvara Nath, Pandit, 264 Revata, 22
Revă, 302
Revenue Records, keeping of, 231 Right to Forced Labour-Vistika, 259 Rigveda Bhasya, author of, go 'Rise of the Rāṣṭrakūta Rule in Gujarat-XVII Indian History Congress 1954. 189, 230 Roman Handle from Akoță, 97

INDEX
Rṣabhadatta (Uşavadāta), 53. 54 Rudrabhuti, Abhira Senapati, 67 Rudradaman I, Mahākṣatrapa, 30, 31,
33, 99, 109, 119 Rudradaman
--accomplishments, 55
Rajan, 55 -Coins, 64
Rudramukha Svāmin, 73
Rudrasena, 78
Rudrasena I, 72, 73, 74, 100
Rudrasena Vihara, 91
Rudrasena II, 79, 100
Rudrasimha I, Son of Rudradaman,
66, 67
-silver coins, 68, 72, 100 Rudrasimha II, 56, 84, 85, 100 Rudrasimha III 106 Rudrat, 151
S
Saivadharma no Sankṣipta Itihasa, 230 Saivite Sculptures (Maitraka Gurjara
Period), 203 Sakas, 42, 89
Saka era, 53
"
Saka Era, Sakabda', 56
333
Sakunikā Vihara, 25 Sankaragana, 137 Sankarācārya, 230 Sarva Bhaṭṭārka, III
Sack of Valabhi, Date of: 227 Saga of Indian Sculpture, 209 Samaraicca-kahā, 233
Samghadaman,
Sandanes', 74, 100
Samprati, grandson of Aśoka: 41 Samudragupta: 107, 114, S.nderaka Gaccha, 257 Sangama-khetaka, 165 Sangamasimha, 145
Sanjan Plates of Govinda III, 235

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334
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Sänkaliā H. D., Dr., 4, 5, 6, 16, 37, 45,
53, 66, 73, 92, 93, 97, 110, 146, 213,
219, 273 Sānkaliā and Karve, 16 Sankheļā Plates, 159, 173, Sanskrit Inscriptions, 66 Sanskrit Language, use of : 30 Sanskrit, the Cultural Language of the
nation, 227 Saragvālā-Lothal, village, II Sarsavņi Plates of Buddharāja, 162 Sarvadarśanasaṁgraha, 88 Sarvāṇia Hoard, 79 'Satrap' of the Kuşāņas, 59 Satyadaman, 66, 100 Saurāştra, 8 Sābarmati (river), 3, II, 303 Śākambhari (Ajmer) 222 Sāketa (Ayodhyā), 42 Sākyas, 26 Sāletore, R. A., Dr., 151 Sāmalāji, 308 Šāmalāji Sculptures, 201 Śāmanera, 63 Sāmbhar (sākambhari) Inscription of
Jayasimha Siddharāja, 264 Sānā Caves : 93 * Sāradă Matha' at Dwarka, 230 Schoff, W.F., Trans. Periplus.' Intro
duction : 46 School of Western Sculptures', IHQ,
1937, 207 Sculpture from Dwarka, 274 Sculpture of Gangā, 270 Sculptures from Koțyarka' Bombay
Univ. Journal, 213 Sculptures from Śāmalāji, 126 Sculptures of Bhairava, 275 Sculptures of Kārtikeya, 275 Sculptures of Kaumāri, 276 Sculptures of Seated Sūrya, 273
Sculptures of Standing Surya, 273 Seşaśāyi Vişnu, 210 Seated Buddha from Nagarā, 278 Seated Surya from Prabhāsa, 273 Select Inscriptions, : 55, 59, 73, 116 Settlement of Iranian Emigrants, 267 Shah, U. P., Dr., 71, 113, 205, 208,
210, 213, 216, 224, 270, 274, 275,
276 Shah, U. P., Dr. & Mehta, R. N., Dr.,
204 Sharmā Dasharath, Dr., 146 Shăstri, Durgăshankar, 230, 285 Shăstri, Hirānanda, Dr., 93, 114, 197,
213 Shastri, Hariprasād G., Dr., 44, 45,
115, 123, 138, 140, 141, 145. 146, 156, 161, 179, 183, 185, 186, 189,
190, 222, 230, 231, 249, 316, 317 Silāditya I, Maitraka, 159 Siladitya II, Derabhat's son, 161 Silāditya, son of Dharasena II, 155 Silāditya III, 134 Sīlāditya IV, 185, 188 Šilāditya V, 189 Šilāditya VI, 225 Šilānka Sūri, 243 Siśupālavadha, 176 Siva-Pārvati Sculptures, 275 Siddharşi, 256 Simhabāhu, 25, 36 Simhala, 35 Simhapura (Sihor), 36 Simbāditya of Gārulaka family, 123 Sircar, D. C., Dr., 55, 56, 57, 59, 73,
116, 260, 318 Si-yu-ki, Trans. by S. Beal, 164 Siyaka II, Paramāra, 221, 263 Skandagupta, 33, 118 Skanda-Kārtikeya from Rajasthan'
Lalit Kala Nos. 3-4. 203

Page #485

INDEX
335
Skandasvāmi, 90 Skandasvāmi, author of Rigveda Bhā
sya, 113 Smith, Vincent, 30, 65, 121, 281 Soddhala, Kāyastha poet, 229, 247 Somadeva's Kathāsaritsāgara, 268 Somanāth, 6, 38 Somanāth Potsherd, 94 Sopārā Buddha Bronzes, 214 Sopāraka, 57 Sopārā Edicts, 33 Sopārā Stūpa, 91 Sorațh Plates, 151 Sovira, III Sri Bhattarka,
-Sarva Bhattarka, 198 Sribhavana (Sarbhon), 234 Srigupta, founder, Gupta Dynasty, 107 Sringadhara's School of Art of Ancient
West', 161 Śryāśraya Silāditya, 180 Standing Mother, Sculpture, 207 Sthiramati, Ācārya Bhikṣu, 133, 157 Stone Age of Gujarat, 4 Strabo, 41 Studies in Historical Geography and
Cultural Ethnography of Gujarat' Journal Guj. Res. Soc., Nov. 1955,
219 Studies in Indo-Muslim History, 244 Studies in Parsi History, 189, 264 Sura I, Gārulaka, 137, 140 Suviśākha, 55 Subandhu, author of Våsavadattá, 153 Subbarao, B. Dr., 4, 5, 7, 17, 94, 95, 96,
235, 309 Subbarao, B. and Mehta, R.N., 94 Sudarśana lake, 30, 37, 64, 119 Sulaiman, author of Salsilātut
Tawārikh', 244 Suleiman Ibn Hasham, 223
Sun-temples, 272 Sun-worship, reference to, 238 Suppāraka, 112 Surakāthā, Rajendra, 277 Surat Plates, 123 Surat Plates, gift to Aparājaguru, a
Jaina Teacher, 237, 238 Surat Plates of Vyāghrasena, 123 Surāșțra, 32, 303, 304 Surāșțra as. Jānapada-deśa': 111 Surāşțra, famous for bell-metal, 256 Surāṣtra (Su-la-ch'a ), 170 Sureśvara, identified with Maņdana
miśra, 130 Suvarṇasikatā, river, 30 Sūrpāraka, 34, 54, 302 Svetāṁbara Scholars of Valabhi, 254 Syāmilaka, author of Caturbhāni, 125 Svāmi Rudrasena III, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 Svāmi Rudrasena IV, 89 Svāmi Rudrasimha III, 56, 107
Svāmi' rulers, 100 Svāmi-Satyasiinha, father of Rudra
simha III, 89 Svāmi Simhasena, 89 Sylvain Levi, Dr., 66
T Takakusu, I-Tsing's Records of the
Buddhist Religion', 172, 180, 181 Talwalkar, V. R., 96 Talājā Caves, 92 Täjikas, 115 Tāpi, River, 3, 305 Tārā on Tarangā Hill, 278 Tārānātha's History of Buddhism ', 161 Tārāporewālā, I.J.S., Dr., 263 Temple Architecture, Pratihāra Period,
270
Temples (Maitraka-Gurjara Period),
199 Temple of Rşabha at Jābālipura, 229
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336
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
Temples on Western Sea-board, 199 Ten Fragments of Stone Inscriptions'
--reference to Krşna, 123 Terracottas, 95 The Age of Imperial Kanauj. 219, 221,
233, 267 The Age of Imperial Unity, 36, 44, 56,
58, 59, 61, 68, 69, 72, 75, 96 The Age of Imperial Unity, saka-sat
rapas of Western India', pp. 178-190 The Age of Nandas and Mauryas, 64 The Ārbudas, 147 The Bagh Caves, 121 * The Buddhist Group of 8 Bronzes
from Sopārā': Lalit Kalā Nos.
3-4, 215 The Caliphate, Its Rise, Decline and
Fall, 228 The Classical Age, 109, 133, 135, 152,
184 The Cullavaga, 200 The Dhānk Caves : JRAS: 93 The Ekalinga (Udaipur ) Inscription
of Naravāhana, 267 The Glory that was Gurjaradeśa Pt. I,
146 The History of the Gurjara-Pratihāras,
136, 147, 160, 185, 236, 244, 246,
248, 249, 255, 266 The Indo-Greeks : 41, 42 * The Problem of the Chronology of
Cāvadā kings', Indian History Con
gress, Proceedings, 1955, 222 The Rāstrakūtas, and their Times, 182,
223, 224, 225, 228, 236, 243, 250,
257, 262 The Sanskrit and Prakrit MSS. in the
Berlin Library, 149 The Saurāstrans of South India', 116 The Scythian Period, 56 The Vākātaka-Gupta Age, 69
The Vedic Age, 22, 23, 24, 30 Tilakamanjari, 148 Timbervā, 5, 7, 38 Tirtha of Tārangā, 278 Title of Mahākşatrapa : 100 Title Svāmi for MKsp., 86 Thomas, E., 198
Three Ksatrapa Inscriptions', 71 Todd, K.R.V., 6, 17 Torkhade Plates of Buddhavarşa, 236 Toramāņa, the Hūņa, 131 Toramāņa,
-Eran Inscription, 139 Torso of Castana, 96, 97 'Tulā-puruşa ' Ceremony, 257, 260 Tuşāşpa, Yavanarāja Governor, 29,
32, 41 Tradition, 8 * Tradition of Folk-Dances in Guja
rat': Journal Ind. Soc. Oriental
Art, 1949, 256 Traikūțakas, 61, 78, 118 Traikūțaka Coins : 103, 117, 123, 198 Traikūțaka Dynasty, 115 Traikūțaka Era, 77 Traits of people noted in Kuvalaya.
mālā' 229 Trenna, village gifted over, 231 Trisangamaka, 141 Trivikramabhatta, author of Dama
yanti kathā, 253 'Two Copper-plates of Solanki age',
Buddhi Prakāsh, 1951, 243 'Two Sculptures of Pārvati, 'Bhāratiya Vidyā, 1954, 208
U Udbhața, author of 'Kavyālankāra
samgraha', 234 Udayagiri Cave-Inscriptions, 113 Udayaprabha Sūri, 191 Udayasundari Kathā, 229

Page #487

INDEX
337
Udranga'and Uparikara' taxes, 243 Uddyotana Sūri, author of 'Kuvalaya
mālā', 228, 249 Udumbara, Sage, 210 Ujjain, 38, 55 Ujjayini, Capital of Avanti, 229 Ujjayanta, 305 Umā-Maheśvara from Kapuri, 204 Unā Plates, 252 Unā Inscription of Bhojadeva, 248 Upadeśamālā, 245 Upamiti-bhava-prapañca-kathā, 256 Uparkot Caves, 92 Upādhyāya, S. C., Dr., 30 Uşavadāta, public works of, 57 Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 24
Vadnagar, 7, 37 Vadnagar Clay-Seal, 94 Vadia, (Tālukā Pälanpur), 37/ Vaidya, C.V., Rão Bahādur, 146 Vaiśya donations, 154 Vaişnavism, Saivism and other Sects,
87, 203, 228 Vajrasena Sūri: 47 Valabhi, 110, 170, 305 Valabhi Kingdom, 221 Valabhipura, Selection as Capital,
-city of culture, 133 Valabhipura, Headquarters of Senāpati
Bhațārka, 131 Valabhi Council, 83 Valabhi Vācanā, 83 Valabhi, the Ancient Buddhistic Uni
versity': 'Historical and Economical
Studies ', 173 Valabhi Coins, 7, 197-98 Valabhi, Coins in the Baroda Museum':
Journal Numismatic Society of
India, XV, 199 Valabhi Copper-plate seal, 197
Valabhi Era, 85, 123, 132 Valabhi Vidyapitha, 135, 172, 173 Vallabha Vidyānagar Bulletin, 97 Valā Plates, 144, 154, 160 Valā Bauddha Bronze, 213 . Valā Elephant Seal, 197 Vanarāja Cāvadā, 221, 222, 223 Varähadāsa, Senāpati, 152
-Ref. to Dwarka, 152 Varāhadāsa's Copper-plate, 138 Varāhamihira, 139 Varmalāta, 164 Vasantagadh Jaina Bronzes, 213 Vastrāpatha, 305 Vastrapatha Māhātmya : Prabhāsa
khanda, Skandapurāna, 266 Vasumitra (Shih-yu), 56 Vats, M.S., Dr., 6, 17 Vatsarāja, 220, 221 Vatsarāja, Pratihāra king, 226, 228 Vägbhatālankāra, 252 Vākpati, author of Gaudavaho: 189, 222 Vāmana, author of 'Kavyalankára
vșitti', 233 Vasudeva Krşņa, Deification of : 23 Vātsyāyana, 78, 83 Vāvdi Jogiyā Plates, 145 Vākāțakas, 124 Vākāțaka-Gupta Age, 78 Veni-Vatsarāja : 46 Vicārașreni, 222 Vihāras, 90 Vihāras (Bauddha), 200 Vihāras at Valabhi Vidyapitha, 201
Vihara-mandala', 157 Vijaya, prince: 25, 35 Vijayasena, 76, 77, 78, 100 Vikramāditya, personality of: 44 Vikramārka, Căpa of Wadhwan, 240 Vikrama Samvat, 44 Vikramasila Vidyāpitha', 229
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338
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT Vinayapitaka : 112
Western School of Wall-Paintings, 268 Viņāpāņi Siva, Sculpture of, 275
Western Ksatrapas, 54, 89 Virabhadra Siva, 203
Winternitz, History of Sanskrit LiteViradāman, 75, 76, 78, 100
rature, 230 Virời Plates, 163
Y Virji, Krişņākumāri, J., Dr., 132, 147, Yajnaśri, Sātavāhaņa, 58 172, 228
Yajnaśri Satakarņi, Coin of: 90 Vişnu from Bhinmāl, 208
Yajnavarāha Vişnu, temple of : 240 Vişnu on Lotus, 274
Yakşadeya Gani, 224 Vişņu from Tenna, 209
Yakşadeva Sūri III : 46 Vişnu Purāna, 35
Yavana, 41 Visvasena, 56, 82, 83, 84, 100, 312
Yavana Invaders, 41 Visvasimha, 80, 81, 100
Yasodāman, 76, 100, 131 * Visaya-Mahattaras' and 'Rāştra- Yasodāman II, 85, 86, 100 Mahattaras', 257
Yaśastilaka Campū, 266 Vividha-tirtha kalpa, 25, 222, 227, 232 Yadavas, 22, 23, 24, 29 Vrşņis, 22
Yādavas, Migrations, 239 Vịşņi-Rājanya Gaña Coin, 43
Yakini Mahattara, 233 Vșitraghni, 306
Yogarāja, 234 Vyāghrasena Traikūțaka, 123
Yona (Prākrit) : 41 W
Young Princes as Provincial Governors, Watters, Travels II, 169
228 Weber, J., 149
Yuvarājadeva, father-in-law of AmoWema Kadphises, Coin of: 104
ghavarşa III: a patron of Men of Western Indian Paintings, Style; Ref.
letters, 261 in Caturbhāņi', 126 Western School of Sculptures, 202
Zeuner, F.E., 4, 17
Z
Jain Education Intemational

Page #489

ERRATA
P. 25 : Line 14 : Read C.543 B.C. for C.443 B.C.
1 Line 32 : Read that for thae P. 26: Line 4 : Read Nadyādi for Nadvali P. 29 : Line 29: Read Graeco for Greco 30 : Line 31 : Read Orjayat for Urjayat
Line 35: Read Mauryan for Maurva P. 31 : Line 3 : Read Buddha for this king P. 32 : Line I : Read Kośābhisaṁharanam for Kośābhisaṁ haranım P. 33: Line 29 : Read 259 B.C. for 252-1 B.C. P. 34 : Line 21 : Omit and P. 35: Line I: Read successors for successor P. 36 : Line 20 : Omit 244 (Black) P. 36 : Line 33 : Omit very P. 44: Line 18: Read Maitrakakālina for Maitrakalini
: Line 36 : Read 27 for 21 P. 61 : Lire II : Read Caştanasah for Castanasa P. 62 : Line 26 : Read 'in' for 'is' P. 63: Line I: Read Sämaneri for Sämneri
, : Line 3 : Read Śrāmanera for Srāmnera , : Line 8 : Read Balaśri for Bālasri , : Line 29: Read Satakarni for Siri-Pulumiyi » : Line 36: Read dvisaptatitame for dvi-saptittame , : Line 38 : Read Orjayat for Urjayat 64 : Line 5: Read Rudradāman for Rudradāmana „ : Line 10: Read 7şit for 51 . : Line 19: Read dāmna for dāmana „ : Line 19: Read Dāmajadasriya for Dāmajsriya , : Line 22 : Read thTy for 5211Agaka , : Line 23 : Read ghsada for Ghsada
, : Line 24 : Read zāda for Zāda P. 65: Line 38 : Read TF34 for 514TH P. 66: Line 17 : Read Saurāṣtra for Surāṣtra
„ : Line 19: Read Sugrahita for Sugrahita
, : Line 34 : Read struck coins as Ksatrapa for struck coins P. 67 : Line 5: Read after Kșatrapa, on his coins, and P. 68 : Line 13: Read Saurāştra for Saurastra
Line 14 : Read Arbuda for Arbud P. 70 : Line 14 : Read in the years 119-120 for (in the years 11)-29 )
,, : Line 17 : Read 1952 for TATA . : Line 18: Read 1957 for 795798
Jain Education Intemational

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340
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
P. 73: Line 14 : Read This word 37H (?) for The word
„ : Line 21 : Read Silver for Siiver P. 74: Line 21 : Read Samghadāman for Samghadāmā P. 75 :
Omit Lines 12 to 16 P. 83: Line 12 : Read Nāgārjuna for Devardhi Gani P. 85: Line 33: Read continued' for 'introduced P. 91: Line 27 : Read 66' X 58' for 66" X 58"
, : Line 37 : Read 7' X 5' for 7" x 5" P. 93 : Line 31 : Read Khambhālida for Khambhālia P. 102 : Line 24 : Read Jivadāman's for Jivadāmana's P. 107 : Line 4: Read Kūşāņa for Kaśāņa
„ : Line 24 : Read $. 310 for $. 31 P. 109: Line 22 : Read returned for return P. 110: Line 33 : Read Isvaradatta for 1 śvararāta P. 113: Line 18: Read Candragupta for Chandragupta P. 114: Line 6: Read gold for silver P. 116 : Line 28 : Read Khatri'. They for ‘Khatri', who P. 118 : Line 13: Transpose who after Skandagupta P. 119 : Line 5: Read Indradatta for Endradalta , : Line 14: Read CII. for CI.
: Line 31 : Read 456-57 A.D.. above 457-58 A.D. P. 120 : Line 26, 31, 34, 37 39: Read Bhatārka for Bhattarka
. : Line 26 : Read 470 A.D. for 462 A.D. P. 121 : Line 2,7: Read Bhațārka for Bhattarka P. 122 : Line 34 : Read maula for kaula P. 123: Line 7: Read after for during : Line 17 : Read his inscriptions, ( M.G., p. 65) for the Malia copper-plate
Inscription of Dharasena II'. P. 137 : Line 17, 20: Read Nāndipuri for Bharukaccha
: Line 37 : Read Ilao for llas P. 138 : Line 17 : Read C. 470 (Ref. M. G., p. 48) for 495. Add Reference.
, Line 31 : Read C. 480 for 482-499 P. 141 : Line II: Read Pāņdurajjā for Pänduraja
Add Reference—( M. G., p. 374) P. 142 : Line 8: Read CII. for CI. „ : Line 9: Read C. 500 for C. 520
Add Reference : Coronation of Dronasimha,-(M.G., pp. 45, 54-52). P. 145 : Line 1: Transpose word ' mendicants 'as to begin the line.
, : Line 4: Add, Reference: (IA ; IV, 104 ff; HIG, I, No. 27) ... : Line : Read Anandapura for Anand pura .: Line 12 : Read Samihambara for Samihamoara
is : Line 13: Read Süpakārapati Bhațfi; it for Sapakarapati Bhatti ; which. P. 145 : Line 23: Read Sonavvă for Sona vva

Page #491

ERRATA
341
P. 151: Line 29: Read Mimmi for Mimma P. 153 : Line 32 : Read Jayabhata I, father of Dadda II-( 628 A.D.)-(M.G., p. 266)
: Line 33 : Read Nandipuri for Bharukaccha P. 154 : Line 8 : Read Maukhari for Maukari
„ : Line 14 : Read Bhadrapattana for Bhadrapattana P. 155 : Line 6: Omit T'after Silăditya
„ : Line 9: Add Reference-( See, C. 700 Infra) P. 162 : Line 8: Read There is mention of Valabhinagari and king silāditya. It
refers to the temple of śāntināth at Valabhi.-( M.G., p. 493 ). : Line 30: Read Anandapura for Anandpura P. 164; Line 8 : Add Reference-( M.G., p. 120 ) P. 166 : Last Line . Read Last word as xstag: 1 for xtz1: 1-(M.G., p. 286, fn. 146 ) P. 169: Line 14 : Read Vandita palli for Vanditappali P. 178 : Line 38 : Add Reference-(M.G., p. 120 ) P. 179: Line 26, 36 : Read Silāditya III for Siladitya II P. 180 : Line 10 : Read Silāditya II for Silāditya III P. 182 : Line 38 : Read Šiladilya II for Silāditya III P. 183: Line 20: Read Caturvedins for Caiurvedis
» : Line 25: Read Anahila for Anahil
, : Line 25: Read Skandabhata for Skandabhag P. 186 : Line 13 : Add : However, refer to p. 222, infra. P. 187 : Line 6 : Add: - See, p. 87, Supra M.G., p. 491-92 for various dates ) P. 188 : Line 4: Read 699 A.D. for 709 A.D.
„ : Line 15: Read 700 A.D. for 710 A.D. P. 189: Line 6, 14 : Read Silāditya V for Silāditya IV P. 190 : Line 17, 20: Read Mangalarasa for Mangalaras
, : Line 22 : Omit South Gujarat' P. 191 : Line 5: Read Mangalarasaräja for Mangalarāja P. 191 : Line 12 : Add and correct as
Pulakesi Avanijanāśraya succeeded Dharāśraya Jayasimha, because the crown-prince had predeceased the father :-(H. G.
Shastri, Kaccha Plates', Journal Oriental Institute, Jan., 1960). P. 193 : Line 16, 17 : Read Jaikadeva for Jaikadeva
: Line 22 : Add as on P. 191, line 12 , : Line 34 : Read Muslim for Mahomedan P. 195 : Line 21 : Read 15 - for 70
„ . Line 37 : Read Plate XXVII for PlateP. 196 : Line II: Read Plate XXVII A for Plate
, : Line 20: Read vi fort P. 197 : Line 4, 12 : Read Plate XXVII A for Plate
: Line 35: Read Bhatakkah for Bhattakah P. 213 : Line 24 : Read Bauddha for Jaina P. 224': Line 7: Read C. 750 for 750
. : Line 15: Read C. 754 for 754
Jain Education Intemational

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342
CHRONOLOGY OF GUJARAT
P. 226 Line 19: Read Silädilya VII for Siladitya VI
P. 231:
P. 268 : P. 274
P. 277
P. 290
P. 2
295 : P. 295
22 2
P. 299 P. 302 P. 303
Line 12: Line 30: Line 28:
Line 31: Line 19 : Line 20:
:
,,: : Line 33:
:

33 34: Line 15: Line 33: Line 28:
Add-(For details, see M. G., p. 422)
For 'Fall of Valabhi', See M. G., pp. 155-160, and also Addenda on 776 A.D., p. 317
Read जीर्णतां for दिलयं., and add वृन्दावनं पुनः प्राप्य नवीनेव सुरूपिणी ॥ ४९ ॥ Read Plate No. XLIII for LXIX Read Miniatures for Sculptures Read Bhrgu for Bhrigu
Read द्राविडे for द्रावीडे Read via for जीर्णतां बिलब
And Add वृन्दावनं पुनः प्राप्य नवीनेव सुरूपिणी । Read Vadnagar for Vadnagara Read Rakta for Bhakta
Read Bala-mandana for Bala Mandava
Read Na-gara (poisonless) for Na-gara (poison) Read Sabhramati for Sabarmati
Read Khambhayat for Khambhayata
Read Plate No. XLIX for
XXXIV.
Plate XXIA (D): The Block, showing Eros plying the oar, should
be upside down.
Read on Plate LVI Bileśvara for Suträpäda

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