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GEORGE BURCH
of the soul are illusory objects (except the "witness," which is the knowing self), the states of the soul are states of illusion, and the functions of the soul do not lead to "alternative absolutes" but knowing leads to the one absolute of blissful freedom through knowledge. The conclusion can also be elaborated by epistemological studies, as in Philosophy of the Self and Vedantic Epistemology. But such studies are posterior to metaphysics, for Vedantic epistemology, like any epistemology, is essentially a rational support for metaphysical conclusions already accepted on other grounds, and, while useful in offering easy steps to a difficult goal, it distinguishes grades of knowledge rather than grades of reality, which does not have grades. The conclusion does, however, present two important metaphysical problems, one concerning the illusory object, the other concerning the real subject.
If the world is illusory, the problem arises of distinguishing between the phenomenal world of ordinary experience which we all share and the world of dreams or hallucinations peculiar to each individual. Historically this problem has divided Advaita Vedantists into two schools. All agree that the self is real and that objects seen in dreams are unreal, but how about the objects seen in waking experience? According to realism (srishti-drishtivada, literally "being-seeing-ism," to be perceived follows as a consequence from being), we see the illusion because it exists. According to subjectivism (drishti-srishti-vada, "seeing-being. ism," to be follows as a consequence from being perceived), the illusion exists because we see it. Realists distinguish two kinds of illusion. A mirage is produced by external causes, is seen by all observers in the same position, and although non-existent somehow is still there even if nobody sees it. A hallucination, on the contrary, is produced by internal causes, is seen by only one individual, and has no sort of existence apart from him. According to the realists the world is an illusion created by God (or rather, as Hindus put it, created, sustained, and destroyed by God under his three aspects Brahmā, Vishnu, Siva). God creates the world as a magician creates an illusion on the stage, and we individuals (likewise created by God) then see this illusory world as the spectators see the magician's illusion, realistically--although by clear thinking we may avoid being deceived by it. The world is