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CHAPTER II
A. The Philosophy of Being or Identity
The Upanişads taught that Brahman is the ultimate reality? although they are not definitely committed to the vivartavāda of Sankara according to which the world is, empirical or phenomenal (māyā or vivarta). Both the Vedic and the Upanișadic seers did not see any incompatibility between conceiving Brahman with and without form (rūpa and arūpa), the whole and its parts and both unity and diversity. The difference (bheda), between Brahman and the world was considered to be internal (svagata) or homogeneous (sajātīya) rather than external or heterogeneous (vijātīya). As a matter
1. The following Upanişadic utterances declare unity but do
so without perhaps repudiating difference as māyā which is not unreasonably believed to have been foisted on them by sankara : mộtyoḥ sa mộtyun gacchati ya iha nāneva paśyati (Katha IV. 11, Twelve Principal Upanişads, TPH. Edn., Vol. I, p. 80). vācārambhaņaṁ vikāro nāmadheyam mịttiketyeva satyam (Chandogya, VI. 1.4, ibid., Vol. III, p. 189). ekamevādvitiyam
(Ibid., VI. 2.1, pp. 190-1). 2. See supra, pp. 15-18 and the footnotes thereon, for the views of
Thibaut and Bhandarkar as well as for the references to the
views of Jacobi and Sukthankar. 3. See Thibaut's remarks, supra, p. 16, f.n. 1 and 2. 4. The notion of difference has been conceived in three forms,
viz., sajātīya, or the difference which exists between something and something else of the same class; vijātīya, or the difference which exists between something belonging to one class and another thing belonging to another class; and,
