Synthesis of Yoga in Vaisnavism of Ramanuja

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THE SYSTHESIS OF YOGA IN VAISNAVISM OF RAMANUJA b S. M. S. Chani Vaisnavism as developed by Ramanuja is one of the oldest living religions of India, having its origin in the RgVeda, the earliest religious literature of the world. It is a monotheistic system which upholds Visnu as the ultimate Reality (paratattva) and believes that the exclusive and devoted worship of this Deity leads to the realization of the highest Spiritual Goal ( parama-purusartha)For this purpose it has laid down a way of life which among other things covers a religious and spiritual discipline (sadhana). Unlike Saivism and Saktaism, the other two major living religions of India, it has a philosophical basis and constitutes a part of the Visistadvaita Vedanta expounded by Ramanuja on the authoritative sources of the Upanisads, Vedanta-sutra and Bhagavadgita - the triple foundation of Vedanta'. Vaisnavism of Ramanuja is thus closely related to the visistadvaita Vedanta of Ramanuja. The two are complimentary, one representing the theoretical study of the philosophical doctrines and the other representing the practical side of Vedanta dealing with the way of life leading to the realization of the Supreme Spiritual Goal. Sadhana or the ways and means of attainment of Visnu, which is the highest goal occupies an important place both in the Visistadvaita Vedanta system and the Religion of Vaisnavism. The term yoga in Vaisnavism, in its broadest sense applies to this sadhana. The sanskrit term 'yoga' bears several meanings? In Patanjala yoga, the term is used in the technical sense as concentration of mind (citta-vrtti nirodha). It is applicable to the eight-fold discipline (astanga-yoga) to be practiced for achieving samadhi leading to the state of Kaivalya or the existence of purusa (individual self) as totally free from the association of the mind (citta) and its functions. In the Bhagavadgita the term yoga is employed in different contexts meaning different things. In the Upanisads and the Vedanta systems, it is applicable to the sadhana or means of attainment of the Supreme Goal and in particular to dhyana or meditation. In some modern religious movements, the term generally refers to the practice of meditation in different forms. However in Vedanta, the term yoga is applicable specifically to the sadhana or the religious and spiritual discipline laid down for the sole purpose of achieving the spiritual goal (paramapurusartha). For details, see S.M. Srinivasa Chari - Vaisnavism, its Philosophy, Theology and Religious Discipline, chapter 1. ? See Amarakosa, yogah sannahanopaya dhyana sangati yuktisu

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What is the nature of yoga as sadhana in Vaisnavism of Ramanuja? How this doctrine of sadhana has been formulated by Ramanuja by synthesizing different theories on yoga as presented in the Upanisads, Puranas, Pancaratra treatises, Patanjala yoga school, Vedanta-sutra of Badarayana and Bhagavadgita in particular? How the doctrine of sadhana developed by Ramanuja differs from Patanjala yoga, Sankara's Advaita Vedanta and other post-Ramanuja theistic schools of Vedanta and also some of the modern religious movements? These are the important points that need to be considered to understand properly the theory of yoga in the Vaisnavism of Ramanuja. The present article is primarily devoted to this matter. he Vedanta is regarded as a moksa-sastra or a system of philosophy primarily intended to teach the ways and means of liberation from the bondage in the form of cycle of birth 5 and death in which the individual souls are caught up. The mere knowledge of the Ultimate Reality and other ontological principles is of no value unless it leads to the attainment of a higher goal. Thus the Tattiriya Upanisad states: 'Brahmavid-apnoti param - "The knower of Brahman attains the Supreme Goal". The Vedanta therefore accords equal importance to the sadhana which is the means of attainment of a trustul goal. Hence the Vedanta-sutra of sage Badarayana which is the basic manual of Vedanta philosophy comprising four adhyayas, devotes the first two parts to the discussion of Brahman which is the Ultimate Reality and the entire third adhyaya titled Sadhanadhyaya' deals with the nature of sadhana, while the fourth adhyaya titled 'Phaladhyaya'is concerned with the discussion of the nature of the Goal. The Upanisads which are the fundamental source-book$ for Vedanta philosophy deal mainly with the nature of Reality and also enjoin the observance of sadhana for the attainment of Brahman. The Bhagavad-gita which is another important source-book for Vedanta lays greater emphasis on sadhana. The Yoga darsana of Patanjali which is one of the important schools of Indian philosophy, is also devoted mainly to lay down an elaborate religio-spiritual discipline for achieving Samadhi, leading to Kaivalya, a state of total liberation of purusa or the individual self from the shackles of bondage. The theory of yoga in the correct sense of sadhana or upaya for attainment of a higher Spiritual Goal should therefore take into consideration the teachings contained in all these sourcebooks viz. Upanisads, the Vedanta-sutra, the Bhagavad-gita, the Yoga darsana of Patanjali and allied treatises such as Visnu-purana and Bhagavata among the puranas. A sound and philosophical doctrine of yoga as means to moksa or the liberation of the

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soul from bondage should incorporate all these ideas and present a consolidated doctrine of sadhana. As will be seen later, such a perfect synthesis of yoga is brought about only by Ramanuja in the Vaisnavism developed by him, unlike the other schools of Vaisnavism of the post-Ramanuja period. Briefly stated, Bhakti-yoga, according to Ramanuja, is the direct means to moksa. This view is based on the authority of the Bhagavad-gita which explicitly states that the Supreme Deity in the name of Lord Krsna, who is the very Brahman of the Upanisads, cannot be attained by any other means than ananya-bhakti. But according to some Upanisads, jnana which is also termed as Vedana is the direct means to Brahman. Thus states the Mundaka Upanisad: Brahma-veda brahmaiva bhavati - "he who knows Brahman becomes Brahman". The Svetasvatara Upanisad explicitly states that other than the knowledge of Brahman, there is no other means of escape from human bondage. Thus it says: tamevam viditva atimrtyum eti, na anyan pantha vidyate ayanaya. On the authority of these Upanisadic teachings, Samkara maintains the theory that only by means of knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Goal is to be attained. The jnana or the knowledge conceived as the means (upaya) does not refer to mere verbal knowledge derived from the study of scriptural texts (sravana), the reflection over what is studied to gain conviction (manana) and meditation on the truth (nididhyasana), but the intuitional knowledge (aparoksa-inana) in the form of the realization of the identity of jivatman and Brahman (atmaikya-jnana). In view of this Samkara admits that the jnana-yoga taught in the Bhagavad-gita is itself the direct means to the Supreme Goal. The term Vidya employed by Badarayana as the direct means to moksa^ is interpreted by Samkara to mean that only through atmaikya-jnana, the Supreme Goal (purusartha) is attained. There are also several Upanisadic texts which affirm that upasana, also termed as dhyana and nididhyasana which means unceasing meditation on Brahman is the direct means to the attainment of Brahman. The scriptural injunctions such as upasita, dhyayika, mididhyasitavyah tes refer to the observation et meditation m Brahman 3 Bg. XI-53and 54. na'ham vedair na tapasa na danena no ce'jyaya sakha evamvidho drastum drstavan-asi mam yatha bhaktya-tu ananyaya sakya aham evamvidho'rjuna jnatum drastum ca tattvena pravestum ca parantapa * See V.S.III-4-1 purusartho atah (vidyatah) iti badarayanah sabdat as the means to the Supreme Goal. Ik How then Ramanuja is justified in advancing the Theory 1 Rhakti-yoga as the dired Sadhana to moksa? Further the term

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bhakti or bhakti-yoga is not mentioned in the principal Upanisads or the Vedanta-sutra of Badarayana, except in the Bhagavad-gita and the Vaisnava puranas such as Visnu-purana and Bhagavata. These are some of the important issues which are to be clarified before formulating the theory of bhakti-yoga as sadhana. Besides, the Yoga-darsana founded by Patanjali is acknowledged as a separate school of thought, though it is closely affiliated to the Sankhya darsana, which has developed in addition to the metaphysical doctrines, the details of the religio-spiritual discipline under the name of astanga-yoga or eight-fold discipline as upaya for the attainment of a spiritual goal. Though the Yoga-darsana is rejected by Badarayana as far as its philosophical doctrines are concerned, the yoga-sadhana in the form of astanga-yoga is generally acceptable to him since some of the yogangas are referred to in the Vedanta-sutra, while describing the components of upasana. Ramanuja was therefore required to synthesize all these points in formulating bhakti-yoga as the direct sadhana to moksa. HS Ramanuja is aware that the term 'bhakti' is not mentioned in the Upanisads. Nevertheless he points out that the concept of bhakti is implicit in the Upanisadic texts teaching the nature of sadhana for moksa. The Mundaka Upanisad and also the Katha Upanisad make a significant statement describing how Paramatman (Brahman) is attained by an aspirant of moksa. Thus it states: 'na'yam atma pravacanena labhyo na medhaya na bahuna srutena; yamevaisa vrnute tena labhyah; tasyaisa atma vivrnute tanum svam. It means - "This self (Brahman) cannot be attained by the study of Vedas, nor by meditation, nor through much hearing. He is to be attained only by one whom the Self (Paramatman) chooses. To such a person the Self (Paramatman) reveals its true nature". This statement does not refer directly to a specific sadhana to be pursued by an individual seeking to realize God, apart from the grace of God. Prima facie it appears to contradict the following statement of the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad enjoining the observance of a sadhana for realizing Atman (Brahman): "Atma va are drastavyah, srotavyo, mantavyo nididhyasitavyah"6. It means - "It is the Atman (Paramatman) who is to be seen (realized), to be heard, to be reflected on and meditated upon". Without entering into the discussion of the different interpretations of this text by the commentators, it may be noted that this significant teaching imparted by sage Yajnavalkya to Maitreyi, wife of Yanavalkya, seeking to know how to achieve immortality s Mund Up. III-2-3. See also Katha. Up. I-2-23 Br. Up. Il-4-5

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mentions (amrtattva), lists the various steps to be undertaken for attaining Brahman viz. sravana or learning from a qualified preceptor about philosophical truths, manana or reflection over what is learnt to gain conviction and nididhyasana or the constant unceasing meditation on the Reality culminating in the darsana or direct intuition (saksatkara) of the Atman. Thus there is apparent conflict between the two texts - the statement of Brhadaranyaka enjoining the observance of nididhyasana and the statement of the Mundaka regarding the futility of sravana, manana and meditation to attain Atman. But the Upanisads being the kevealed_scripture, cannot present two conflicting teachings. Such apparent conflicts need to be overcome by adopting the principles of interpretation provided by the Mimansakas. According to the rules of interpretation, the statement of the Mundaka Upanisad is treated as a visista-vidhi or as an injunction with specific qualification. Its implication as explained by Ramanuja is that mere sravana (hearing), mere manana (reflection) and mere nididhyasana (meditation) undertaken without intense love for Paramatman cannot serve as a means to attain God. Only that individual on whom God showers His grace (yamaiva esa vrnute), he alone can achieve Him (tena labhyah). The question then arises: Whom God chooses to receive His grace? The answer, according to Ramanuja is that the person who is dearest to God, is chosen by Him (priyatama eva hi varaniyo bhavati). Otherwise the dispensation of grace would be arbitrary and God would be subject to partiality and cruelty (vaisamya nairghanya dosa). Who is then the dearest to God? The answer to this as pointed out in the Gita is, he who craves to have eternal union with God and meditates on Him with devotion is the dearest to God ( atyanta priya) and to such a person He bestows divine vision. In offering this explanation Ramanuja seeks the support of the Bhagavad-gita. The following verse of the Bhagavad-gita elucidates the Mundaka Upanisad. Naham vedair na tapasa na danena na ce'iyaya Sakya eva m-vidho drastum drastavan as mam yatha Bhaktya tu ananyaya sakya aham evovidho'rjuna Jnatum drastum ca tattvena pravestum ca parantapa See RB 1-1-1, the section dealing with faghu Siddhanta * See Bg. XI - 53 and 54

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"I cannot be seen in the form you have seen me now either by the Vedas, or by austerities or by gifts or by sacrifices. But by unswerving (single-minded) devotion to me, O Arjuna, i can thus be truly known truly seen and entered into (attained)." The first verse points out that by mere study of the sacred texts it is not possible to know Paramatman fully. Nor is it possible to know Him fully through the performance of yaga or sacrifices and other austerities (tapas) and also offering gifts. That is, none of these acts devoid of bhakti towards Paramatman, serves the purpose of knowing Him in His true form with His full glory. In what other way can He be known? The second verse of the Gita answers this. It is only through the means of ananya-bhakti towards Paramatman that it is possible to know Him fully in all His aspects. Ananya-bhakti is needed not only for knowing Paramatman (jnatum) in His full ffom, but also for obtaining His full vision (drastum) and also to attain Him (pravestum). These are the three stages - a) Full knowledge b) vision and c) attainment in moksa and all the three are possible only by ananya-bhakti. Thus it may be observed that the concept of bhakti or bhakti-yoga as the direct means of attainment of Paramatman is implicit in the Upanisadic text enjoining meditation (nididhyasana), but it is made explicit in the verses of the Gita. Further the word bhakti bears the same meaning as nididhyasana or meditation mentioned in the Upanisads. The word bhakti is derived from the root 'bhaj' which means seva or meditation (bhaj sevayam). According to the Nighantu ( glossary of Vedic terms), the terms seva, bhakti and upasti bear the same meaning. The term seva is therefore taken to mean 'bhakti'. In common usage bhakti is understood as love towards the respected or elderly person (mahaniya visaye pritih), as compared to love towards a child. Priti or love is a state of knowledge, a mental disposition. Bhakti therefore means unceasing meditation with intense love towards the Supreme Being (sneha-purvamanudhyanam) "See Srutaprakasika, commentary on Ramanuja Bhasya on VS 1-1-1 'seva bhaktir upasti iti naighantukah 10 Ibid: sneha purvam-anudhyanam bhaktirity-abhidhiyate

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The general concept of bhakti in the sense of devotion or reverence to a Deity is accepted by all religions. This kind of bhakti of a general character is not regarded by Ramanuja as the direct means to moksa. As will be explained later, bhakti as upaya or sadhana for moksa refers to the rigorous religio-spiritual discipline to be undertaken by a qualified aspirant for moksa and it is to be pursued continuously for the life time until the total liberation from bondage is secured. The more appropriate term for bhakti as upaya is bhakti-yoga as outlined in the Bhagavad-gita. In fact, the central doctrine of the Bhagavad-gita, according to Ramanuja, is the advocacy of bhakti-yoga as the direct means of attainment of the Supreme Goal. Thus in a characteristic way, he states in the preface to his Gita-bhasya that Lord Krsna, under the pretext of persuading Arjuna to fight the war, introduced bhakti-yoga, as aided by karma-yoga and jnana-yoga, which is enjoined in the Upanisads as the direct means to the Supreme Goal'? In the Upanisadic parlance, this bhakti-yoga is termed as upasana. Badarayana employs the term Vidya to denote upasana as the means to the Supreme Goal. As will be explained later while dealing with the nature of sadhana, this bhakti-yoga or upasana on Brahman, referred to in the Upanisads and the Vedanta-sutra involves not merely bhakti towards God in a general sense as commonly understood, but a rigorous religio-spiritual discipline including astanga-yoga enunciated in the Yoga system. It should also be preceded by the acquisition of philosophic knowledge of jivatman and Paramatman, the strict performance of prescribed rituals without any selfish motive, purely as Divine service and also meditation on the jivatman (nana-yoga), as outlined in the Gita. - Yoga as upaya or the means to moksa in the visistadvaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism expounded by Ramanuja refers to such a religio-spiritual discipline. Before we discuss the details regarding the nature of the sadhana in Vaisnavism, Ramanuja examines the issue whether jnana, also termed vedana and darsana is a direct means to the Supreme Goal,as claimed by Samkara and if so, what is its relation to bhakti-yoga as enunciated in the Gita?. This is an important controversial issue in "See RB on B.G, preface. Pandu-tanaya yuddha protsahana vyajena paramapurusartha-laksana sadhanataya vedantoditam svavisayam jnana-karma anugrahitam bhakti-yogam avatarayamasa.

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8 Vedanta and it needs to be clarified to understand the theory of Ramanuja on the subject of yoga. As pointed out earlier, the Upanisadic texts mention that veda or vedana meaning knowledge of Brahman, is the direct means to realize Brahman. Thus states the Svetalsvatara: 'tamevam vjditva mrtyum atyeti, na'nyah pantha ayanaya vidyate? The Taittiriya says: 'Brahmavia paramapnoti'. On the basis of such texts Sarkara maintains that jnana is the direct means for the attainment of Brahman. The Vedanta-sutra also eites the expression 'vidya' derived from the root word 'vid' or 'to know'. Vidya is interpreted by Samkara as atmaikya-snana' in accordance with these Upanisadic texts. The upasana, dhyana, nididhyasana etc. which mean meditation on Brahman, is taken as subsidiary means to bhakti-yoga, referred to in the Gita. Ramanuja does not question the basic teaching of the Upanisad that jnana is the means to moksa. The issue which he raises is: What is the kind of knowledge that serves as the means to moksa? Is it the knowledge of Brahman as generated by the Upanisadic texts or is it jnana in some other form? The first kind of jnana is known as vakyartha-jnana or the knowledge which arises from the study of the Upanisads which teach the identity of Brahman with the individual self, as conceived by the Advaita Vedanta, on the basis of the premise that jivatman is identical with Brahman. But such a verbal knowledge derived from the study of the sacred texts is not found to remove the bondage To meet this objection a modified view is presented by the Advaitin. It is not mere verbal knowledge which is mediate in character (paroksa) that removes bondage, but on the contrary, a kind of intensive knowledge of immediate character (aparoksa-inana) generated by constant meditation, culminating in the direct realization of the identity of the individual self with Brahman (atmaikya-jnana) that serves as the means to the liberation from bondage. This view is also rejected by Ramanuja as untenable on the in bast of detailedkfritisakexamination of all-arguments advanced by Saikara be defence of this theory the After a gritical analysis of the theory advanced by Samkara, Ramanuja comes to the conclusion that jnana or knowledge of Brahman referred to in the Upanisads as the Sec RB. Hol, section on faghusiddhantar tetats.

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basis of detailed critical examination of all arguments advanced by Saskara in defence of this theory? After a critical analysis of the theory advanced by Samkara, Ramanuja comes to the conclusion that jnana or knowledge of Brahman referred to in the Upanisads as the means to moksa should develop itself into steadfast meditation or bhakti (bhaktirupapanna jnana). This explanation has the full support of the Upanisadic teachings. The Brartadaranyaka Upanisad states: 'tamevan dhiro vijnaya prajnam kurvita'. It means that only after knowing Brahman (by means of study of the Scripture and reflection thereon), the upasana is to be performed 13. The Chandogya text says: 'yastam atmanan anuvidya vijanati 14. It means that after one has known the true nature of Atman (Brahman), one practices meditation. The Brhadaranya, enjoins more specifically: "Atma va are drastavyah, srotavyo mantavyo nididhyasitavyah"5. This significant teaching made by sage Yajnavalkya to Maitreyi to teach the ways and means of attaining immortality (amrta) sums up the nature of the sadhana to be pursued for attaining moksa. As interpreted by Ramanuja, it enjoins nididhyasana or meditation on Atman (Brahman) preceded by Sravana (learning from sacred texts) and manana (reflection on what is taught) and nididhyasana or unceasing meditation on Brahman, culminating in darsana or the vivid vision of Brahman almost similar to the visual perception of an object (darsana-samanakarata). According to Ramanuja, darsana referred to in the text is not the goal in the form of actual realization of Brahman, as some commentators interpret, but it is a perfected state of meditation (nididhyasana) and not the actual direct vision of Brahman which is possible only after one has been totally disembodied from bondage and attained the higher abode of Visnu (paramapada). Darsana is therefore a specific term used for nididhyasana, which is a general term. As will be explained presently, the terms darsana, jnana, vedana bear the same meaning as the terms such as nididhyasana, dhyana, dhruva-smrti employed in the Upanisads. These are synonymous terms. Otherwise, it would amount to the admission of different paths to moksa. But as the goal is the same viz. attainment of Brahman, all these paths cannot be different. Nor can they be taken as alternative paths. Taking the instance of darsana and nididhyasana, darsana in the form of direct vision of Brahman is an easier method, 12 See RB. I-1-1, section on Laghusiddhanta for details 13 Br. Up. IV-4-21 tamevam dhiro vijnaya prajnam kurvita. Prajnam means upasana. 14 Ch. Up. VIII-12-6 15 Br. Up. VI-5-6

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linol -lothereas nididhyasana is a rigorous method to be pursued for a long time. These two cannot be taken as alternativan pathsfvikalpa saton aloining the same goal. i This view is supported by the fact that the very Upanisadic texts dealing with the upaya" no mortisa to moksa, employ the terms darsana and upasana as interchangeable words in one and the same passage. Thus, in the Chandogya Upanisad discussing the manner of doing upasana on Brahman, the passage commences with the statement 'mano brahmeti upasita'16 which means 'Brahman is to be contemplated as manas', by using the term 'upasita'. While concluding this passage, it is stated: 'ya evam veda" meaning 'he who knows thus'. The term veda is used here in place of upasana mentioned at the commencement. Taking into consideration the context of the passage, veda at the concluding statement means the same as upa sana used in the beginning. In another passage of the Chandogya Upanisad referring to the greatness of Raikva, the opening sentence states: 'yastat veda tat sa veda 18 meaning 'what Raikva knows that is to be known' etc. While concluding this narration it is stated: "Whatever devata you contemplate (tvam upaste)"9, tell me in detail about the same deity". In this passage, unlike the previous one, the term veda is used at the beginning and the word upaste is used at the end. If we take into consideration both these passages, it is obvious that according to the Upanisads, vedana and upasana bear the same meaning. Otherwise it would amount to the admission of two different means for moksa and it is unlikely that the Upanisads prescribe two different means for attaining the same goal. Further, according to Ramanuja, the different terms used in the Upanisads such as upasana, dhyana, smrti-santati, vedana and darsana are to be taken to mean the same as bhakti referred to in the Gita and implied in the text of the Mundaka as pointed out earlier. The main reason for this conclusion is that if these terms are understood differently, it would amount to the admission of several means (upayas) to moksa. Since the goal to be achieved is the same, the means cannot be different. It should therefore be admitted that all these terms bear the same import. According to the principle of interpretation laid down by the Mimamsakas, when different terms are used in the same context, the general term should be taken to bear the meaning of the specific term. Accordingly in the presen/jnana, darsana, vedana, dhyana, upasana, dhruva-smrti which are employed in the Upanisads as upaya for moksa, are treated as general terms whereas bhakti mentioned in the Bhagavad-gita as upaya jo moksa is taken as a Star 16 Ch. Up. III-18 17 Ch. Up. TI.. 18 18 Ch. Up. TV-1-4 ! Ch. Up. IV-2-2 -to.

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specific term meaning unswerving devotion to God. The term bhakti, according to the etymological meaning (bhaj sevayam) is the same as upasana. As already observed upasana and vedana are employed as interchangeable words in the Upanisads. Taking all these facts into consideration, Ramanuja comes to the conclusion that bhakti-yoga as the spiritual discipline is the upaya to moksa and that this view is in consonance with the teachings of the Upanisads and the Vedanta-sutra. Nature of bhakti-yoga What is the nature of bhakti-yoga which is advocated in the Vaisnavism of Ramanuja as the direct upaya to moksa? The principal Upanisads which generally speak of several Brahma-vidyas or upasana of different types do not throw much light on the method of practicing upasana except certain general characteristics of it. Nor does the Vedantasutra, which accords such an important place to it, the major part of the third adhyaya being titled sadhanadhyaya doos not present a comprehensive and consolidated account of its practice step-by-step, as the yoga-sutras of Patanjali describe the eight limbs of yoga. Though the later religious literature such as the Itihasas and Puranas with the exception of the Bhagavad-gita commend the practice of bhakti-yoga and other forms of yoga, they do not provide us a practical guide to the practice of bhakti-yoga. The only important Vedanta treatise which deals in detail with the bhakti-yoga is the Bhagavad-gita. Uffet Ramanuja, in his introduction to the Gita-bhasya openly states that the Gita is primarily intended to teach bhakti-yoga. In a characteristic way he says: "The Supreme Being, out of compassion towards humanity, incarnated Himself as Lord Krsna and under the pretext of inducing Arjuna to fight the war, taught bhakti-yoga aided by jnana and karma which is enjoined in the Upanisads as the direct means to moksa, the highest Goal of human endeavor"20. The words 'vedantoditam...bhakti-yogam' in this statement clearly establishes that bhakti-yoga taught in the Gita as direct sadhana is in accordance with the teachings of the Upanisads. He is therefore fully justified in advocating the doctrine of bhakti-yoga as the direct means to moksa and also incorporating all the details furnished in the Gita about yoga as sadhana along with whatever materialis available in the Vedanta-sutra. hazten 20 See fn. 11 1

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12 advocating the doctrine of bhakti-yoga as the direct means to moksa and also incorporating all the details furnished in the Gita about yoga as sadhana along with whatever material is available in the Vedanta-sutra. Though yoga as a darsana or philosophical system is rejected by Badarayana and also by the commentators on the Vedanta-sutra in so far as its philosophical doctrines are concerned, the religio-spiritual discipline under the name of Astanga-yoga is accepted by him with some modification. Thus the Vedantagutras, while discussing the nature and components of vidya or upasana, which according to Badarayana is the direct means to the Parama-purusartha, mention dhyana, the sixth limb of yogangas, asana or steady posture, dharana or concentration of the mind on the object of contemplation, yama or cultivation of ethical values and niyama or scrupulous observance of prescribed rituals. The Bhagavad-gita in the sixth adhyaya, which deals with jnana-yoga according to Ramanuja, for realizing the jivatman (atmavalokana), also refers specifically to a few important limbs of the yoga. Ramanuja therefore acknowledges the need of the yogangas laid down by Patanjali in formulating the theory of bhakti-yoga as the direct sadhana to moksa. While commenting on the Vedanta-sutra which define the nature of dhyana he quotes the following verse from the Visnu-purana: 'tadrupa.pratyaye ca eka santatisca and nispra; tad-dhyanam prathamaih angaih sadbhih nispadyate nrpa?'. It means that the continuous unbroken series of meditation on Brahman is called dhyana and that is to be accomplished by the first six yogangas viz. yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara and dharana. anya Though Ramanuja acknowledges the need of Astanga-yoga of Patanjali as referred to in the Vedanta-Sutra and also Bhagavad-gita, the nature of bhakti-yoga as the direct sadhana to the attainment of Paramatman is much more than what is enunciated in the Patanjala-yoga system. The bhakti-yoga advocated in the Bhagavad-gita which is accepted by Ramanuja as the direct sadhana, unlike Samkara, includes many other features. The first and most important point of difference is that the goal of Patanjalayoga is kaivalya or the attainment of a state of existence by the individual self as totally free from the association of citta and its vrttis or functions. The very second sutra of Patanjali which defines the term yoga as cittavrtti-nirodhah is followed by the sutra reading as: 'tada drastuh svarupe avasthanam', implying that the goal of yoga practice is 2! V.P.V1 - 7-91

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-13 the state of existence of jivatman in its pure form as totally devoid of all influences of citta. The goal of bhakti-yoga as stated in the Bhagavad-gita is the attainment of Paramatman by the individual self. Accordingly, the practice of bhakti or bhakti-yoga covers many other factors. Though the adhyayas 7 to 12 are stated to deal with bhakti-yoga, according to Ramanuja, there is only one verse in the 9th adhyaya which describes the svarupa or essential features of bhakti-yoga. The relevant verse reads: 'manmana bhava madbhakto madyaji mam namaskuru; mamevaisyasi yuktvaivam-atmanam matparayanam 22. The meaning of this verse as explained by Ramanuja is: manmana bhava means that the devotee should focus his mind on Paramatman. Manana denotes dhyana, also named as nididhyasana or upasana or dhruvasmrti in the Upanisads, which means unceasing meditation on Paramatman who is the Supreme Brahman, who is the Supreme Ruler of the Yniverse, who is endowed with infinite auspicious attributes, free from all defilements and who possesses a divine body. The meditation is to be practised with devotion (madbhakta). Madyaji bhava means the devotee should become engaged in the worship of God. The root word 'yaj' means puja or worship and in the present context it refers to the various modes of worship of God as laid down in the Pancaratra treatises (bhagavadaradhana). This again is to be performed with love towards God. Mam namaskuru means to bow down or prostrate with humility to God by regarding Him as the Supreme Being and the jivatman as a humble being solely dependent on Him (sesa). Matparayana means to regard Paramatman alone as the Supreme Goal. Atmanam yuktva means that in this manner the mind is to be disciplined towards God as the Supreme object of attainment. Atman in this context means mind and not Self as Sankara conceives. Mameva aisyasi means that with such a practice of bhakti-yoga one will surely attain only Paramatman. This explanation which is in consonance with the teachings of the Gita establishes that bhakti-yoga is the direct means to Paramatman. This verse refers to three significant concepts viz. manana with bhakti, yajana with bhakti and namaskara with bhakti. The fuller implications of these three terms as explained by Ramanuja and further elucidated by Vedanta Desika, an illustrious successor to Ramanuja, in his Tatparya-candrika (a commentary on Ramanuja Bhasya) will fully bring out the nature of bhakti-yoga. 22 B.G. IX-34.

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-14 14 Dhyana denoted by the word manana does not mean mere meditation on an object as it is ordinarily understood. In the initial stage, the mind is to be focused on the object of contemplation which in the yoga system is called dharana. Dhyana follows dharana. It signifies a constant and continuous reflection on the divine form with all its glory. To be more specific, it means, as Ramanuja explains, reflection on the svarupa or the essential nature, rupa or the divine personality and guna or the auspicious attributes of Brahman. The various upasanas or vidyas such as Sad-vidya, Dahara-vidya, Ananda-vidya, Upakosala-vidya etc enjoined in the Upanisads prescribe the different types of meditation on Brahman as qualified with specific attributes. All these spiritual endeavours involve a conscious effort to think of all the glory of God not for a short period but continuously and repeatedly until such time as the goal is achieved. The flow of thought towards God should be like an unbroken stream of oil poured from a vessel (iailadharavad-avecchinna smrti-santati-rupam). This is what is intended in the expression dhruva-smrtih used in the Chandogya Upanisad for dhyana or upasana. The same truth is reiterated by the Vedanta-sutra when it states that meditation is to be repeated often24. This is to be done, as already pointed out, with deep devotion towards God. According to Ramanuja, dhyana also implies the entire eight-fold discipline known as astanga-yoga of Yoga system. Though the term 'astanga-yoga'is not explicitly mentioned either in the Vedanta-sutra or the Bhagavad-gita, it is implicit in the teachings offered in these texts about the methodology and the components prescribed for the practice of dhyana or dhyana-yoga. In the sixth chapter of the Gita dealing with the jnana-yoga, also named as dhyana-yoga and also in the third adhyaya of the Vedantasutra dealing with the method of observing upasana, some of the yogangas such as steady posture (asana), pranayama, control of the senses for gaining concentration of the mind, are referred to. As stated earlier, Ramanuja openly admits the need of astangas for successful practice of dhyana leading to the attainment of the Spiritual nted out care Goal, this is evident from the fact that Ramanuja, while commentating on the sutras dealing with dhyana, quotes a statement from Visnu-purana which explicitly mentions that dhyana is to be accomplished with the aid of the first six yogangas fettyanam 23 See RB. 1-1-1 24 See VS IV-1-1 avrttih asakrdupadesat - 14

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-15 that dhyana is to be accomplished with the aid of the first six yogangas (dhyanam prathamair-angaih sadbhih nispadyate25. It is therefore obvious that prior to embarking on dhyana, what is needed is the dharana or concentration of the mind on the object of contemplation. This is the sixth limb of the yoga discipline. Dharana in turn presupposes invariably, mental purity by way of cultivation of ethical virtues (yamas), observation of prescribed religious duties (niyamas), a steady posture (asana), control of breath (pranayama), control of the sense organs (pratyahara). It is only such a discipline with all the requisites when perfected a long period of practice that culminates in the actual realization or the direct vision of the object of contemplation. This final stage of yoga practice is known as Samadhi in the Yoga system leading to the state of kaivalya or the realization of the individual self in its purest form. But in Visistadvaita Vedanta, the final stage of bhakti-yoga culminates in the Paramatma-saksatkara or the comprehensive vivid vision of Paramatman leading to moksa or the final liberation of the individual self from bondage. Though bhakti-yoga covers astanga-yoga of Patanjali, its scope is far wider and more comprehensive than Patanjala yoga sadhana.) The yamas and niyamas referred to in the yoga-sutra is of a general nature and these ethical virtues and religious observances are common features of all the spiritual discipline laid down by other schools of thought including Buddhism and Jainism. More than these general ethical and religious principles, the Upanisads and Bhagavad-gita have laid down other requirements to be fulfilled as aids to bhakti-yoga mainly intended for the realization of the Supreme Spiritual Goal. On the authority of an ancient commentator on the Vedanta-sutra known as Vakyakara, Ramanuja prescribes a sevenfold ethical discipline named sadhana-saptaka as an essential requirement for the successful practice of bhakti-yoga28. These are 1) viveka or the purification of the body by consumption of sattvik food which promotes purity of the mind, as stated in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad27. 2) vimoka or getting rid of sensual attachment and anger for securing mental tranquility. 3) abhyasa or repeated reflection on God who is 12 25 V.P. VI-7-91. tadrupa pratyacaika santatisca anyanisprahall; tad-dhyanam prathamair angaih sadbhih nispadyate nrpa... 26 See RB 1-1-1 tallabdhir-viveka-vimoka-abhyasa-kriya-kalyana-anavasada-anuddharsebhyah sambhavat 27 Br. Up ahara'suddhau sattva-suddhih -15.

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- lloc immanent in human souls. 4) kriya or the performance of five-fold religious duty which will provide inner mental strength. 5) kalyana or development of ethical virtues such as honesty, integrity, compassion, benevolence, non-violence etc which will give inner purity. 6) anavasada or freedom from despair due to disappointments and unexpected calamities. 7) anuddharsa or not to be overpowered by excessive joy so that tranquility of the mind is not disturbed. The Vedanta-sutra, based on the text of the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad also refers to the need of the development of virtues as an aid to upasana, such as sama or calmness, dama or control of senses, uparati or inner satisfaction, titiksu or patience and samahitatva or equanimity28. in addition to the ethical discipline, the upasaka embarking on birakii-yoga is required to perform without fail, all the nitya and naimittika karmas or the religious duties laid down as obligatory by the sacred texts purely for the pleasure of God. As taught in the Bhagavd-gita, he should also observe karma-yoga or the performance of prescribed religious acts without any attachments to the deeds and also to the results accruing from it, purely as a divine service for the pleasure of God. On the strength of these teachings of the Upanisads and the Gita, Ramanuja emphasizes that under no circumstances the upasaka should give up the performance of prescribed religious duties and that these have to be observed for the lifetime until the upasana is successfully completed, until the attainment of the Supreme Goal. Thus karma-yoga and jnana-yoga taught in the Bhagavad-gita become an essential anga or subordinate means to bhakti-yoga. The word manana or dhyana stated as one of the three features of bhakti-yoga, covers not merely the eight-fold yoga discipline, but also the observance of karma-yoga and also jnana-yoga. Dhyana, which may be appropriately termed as dhyana-yoga is primarily a mental act (manasa) in the form of unceasing loving meditation on Paramatman. The other two features of bhakti-yoga viz. yajana implied by the word madyaji and namaskara 28 V.S. 111-4-27-samadamady-upetasyat... See also Br. Up. IV-4-23 tasmat evam vit santo danta uparitah titiksuh samahito bhutva atmanyeva atmanam pasvaly pasyet -- -

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-17 represent the physical (kayika) and oral (vacika) acts. The root word 'yaj' means puja or worship and in the present context it refers to all the various modes of worship of God as laid down in the Pancaratra treatises. Thus yajana in its broadest sense includes physical as well as oral acts such as arcana or worship in the form of recitation of the names of God, offering flowers fruits and food, lighting lamps, offering incense and sandal paste. In other words, it covers, as stated by Vedanta Desika, the entire mode of worship prescribed by the Pancaratra treatises29. It may be noted in this connection that the different modes of worship of God mentioned in the Bhagavata-purana30 such as sravana or listening to the glory of God, kirtana or singing, smarana or contemplating His greatness, padasevana or offering worship at His feet, arcana offering flowers with recitation of His names, vandana or prostrating before God, dasya or feeling utter dependence on God, sakhyam or loving disposition towards God and atma-nivedanam or surrendering oneself to God - either singly or collectively will not constitute the direct upaya to moksa as believed by some of the Vaisnava movements of post-Ramanuja period. They only sub-serve bhakti-yoga, which as a rigorous religio-spiritual discipline is the direct means (upaya) to moksa. Thus, according to Ramanuja, yoga in the sense of upaya, which is of the nature of bhakti-yoga, also named as upasana, nididhyasana, dhyana and vidya is not a simple meditation on the Dinner self or God, as propagated widely all over the world by several religious modern movements. But on the contrary, it is a rigorous multi-form ethical, religious and spiritual discipline to be undertaken by a spiritual aspirant and continued over a long time for the purpose of attaining God. giratm on According to the teachings of the Bhagavad-gita, bhakti-yoga can also serve as a means to attainment of other goals such as aisvarya or worldy prosperity, kaivalya or the state of blissful existence of the self and artha or wealth. Accordingly the upasakas or those who adopt the pathway of bhakti, are classified into four groups: Artifor the one who aspires for recovery of the lost wealth, jijnasu or the one who desires to attain the blissful state of one's self, artharthi or the one who wishes to acquire material wealth and jnani or the one who craves to attain God. Of all these, jnani is held in high esteem because 29 See Tatparya-candrika on RB IX-34. bhagavat-sastradi prapancita visayo'yam yajir-iti. 30 Bhagavata VII-5-23 31 V-S.H-3-56 Hana sabdadibhedati Bap. Vll-16, See ale SHB -17

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-18 he is the one who does meditation without any selfish purpose exclusively for attaining God. As stated in the Gita, he is regarded by God as His dearest (atyartha-priyah). The bhakti-yoga, which we outlined in foregoing pages, as the direct means to moksa, is the best one. The thirty two vidyas or upasanas mentioned in the Upanisads are of the same nature as bhakti-yoga outlined in the Gita, though they are named differently because of the differences in the description of the object of contemplation viz. Brahman in terms of its attributes as stated in the Vedanta-sutra32. Thus for instance, the upasana on as Brahman sat or the ground of the entire universe is named 'sad-vidya' The upasana on Brahman as an indweller in the inner recess of the heart (dahara-akasa or subtle space) is known as dahara-vidya. As the goal of these upasanas is the same, viz. the attainment of moksa, they are regarded as alternative means (vikalpa) as explained in the Vedanta-sutra33. in all these cases the mode of meditation along with the various ethical and religious requirements explained earlier in connection with bhakti-yoga, remains the same. This is indeed an arduous pathway to moksa. It is beset with innumerable difficulties and hardships and it is almost impossible in the present epoch for anyone to pursue the bhakti-yoga. Even the most competent person like Arjuna who was fully instructed by a person no less than the very God-incarnate, expressed grief towards the end indicating his incapability for the observance of bhakti-yoga. At this stage, the benevolent Lord Krsna, out of compassion and friendly disposition towards Arjuna comes out with the advice to adopt the method of absolute surrender as an easier and alternative pathway to moksa. This is the doctrine of Saranagati or Prapatti. The Vaisnavism as expounded by Ramanuja has adopted this important doctrine. This is also regarded as yoga since it is an upaya or means to moksa. It is essentially an ethico-religious discipline comprising six components and hence called sadanga-yoga analogous to astanga-yoga or the eight-fold discipline of the Yoga system. Though the concept of Saranagati is acceptable to all religious schools, its development as an alternative direct means (upaya) to moksa is unique to Vaisnavism of Ramanuja. It is therefore important that we include a brief outline of this distinctive doctrine of yoga in this chapter. 32 to us. T1-3-56. nana sabdadi Whedat. 33 V.S IIl-3-57 vikalpo avisista-phalatvat See also vs. Il-3-1. -18

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- 19 The Doctrine of Sadanga-yoga or Saranagati According to the Pancaratra treatises, which constitute one of the important sources of authority for Vaisnavism, there are only two ways to attain moksa. It is either bhakti-yoga or prapatti-yoga. Thus it is stated in the Pancaratra samhifa34: bhaktya paramaya va'pi prapattya va mahamate; prapyo'ham na'nyatha prapyo mama kainkarya lipsubhih' - "There are only two ways, either through the means of parama-bhakti or prapatti, that I can be attained by those who crave to do divine service to Me. There is no other way". Both are important means for moksa and have been advocated as alternative methods intended for two different categories of individuals having different capacities and conditions of eligibility. The Upanisads and the Vedanta-sutra have given greater emphasis to bhakti-yoga, also known as upasana, whereas the Vaisnava treatises have accorded greater prominence to prapatti. The Bhagavad-gita has provided details of bhakti-yoga and also briefly mentioned saranagati in a single verse in the concluding portion of the last adhyaya. But the details of the prapatti-yoga, which is more relevant to the present age because of its easy observance by those who are incapable of following any other method and who yet desperately crave for the attainment of God, are developed in the pancaratra treatises by the mystic saints of South India who have themselves adopted this method and in other religious treatises of Ramanuja. CS Both have been sanctioned by the Sruti and Smrti texts. Bhakti-yoga which is a rigorous discipline, is restricted to certain class of individuals. On the other hand, prapatti is recommended as an easier path intended for all, without any restriction of caste, creed and status of the individuals. In view of this, the Vaisnava acaryas right from the time of Nathamuni (9th cent), have given preference to prapatti and advocated it as the easier means of moksa. Prapatti has therefore assumed great significance in Vaisnavism of Ramanuja. The term prapatti is derived from the words 'pra-pad'. Pad' means to move and 'pra' means in the best manner. In the context of upaya, the term implies total self-surrender to God as the sole refuge. A more appropriate Sanskrit term for prapatti is Bharanyasa or atma-niksepa, that is, to place the burden of protection of the self in the care of God. 34 Quoted by Vedanta Desika in his Rahasya-traya-sara. Chapter XXIX

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-20 20 It is also known as Saranagati or seeking God as the sole refuge, as implied in the Gita verse: 'mamekam Saranam vraja'. This is not the place to go into the details of this doctrine. We are only concerned here to explain how the observance of self-surrender to God is regarded as Sadanga-yoga, a six-fold yoga discipline or upaya to attain the Supreme Goal. Before we outline the six components of Saranagati, we should take note of two important conditions of eligibility to be fulfilled by an individual who resorts to this pathway. These are akincanya and ananya-gatitva. Akincanya means absolute inability on the part of the individual to adopt any other upaya for moksa such as bhakti-yoga aided by karma-yoga and jnana-yoga, as taught in the Bhagavad-gita. Ananya-gatitva means the deep conviction that no other person or Deity other than the Supreme Being (Visnu) can protect the individual and secure moksa. Both Yamuna and Ramanuja have emphasized these points by imposing on themselves these qualifications, in their ardent prayer for Saranagati The six components of Saranagati as stated by Vedanta Desika on the authority of the Pancaratra treatises are: 1) Anukulya-sankalpa: That is, a determined will on the part of the aspirant to perform only such acts as would please God. 2) Pratikulya-varjana: That is, to refrain from acts which would cause displeasure to God. 3) Karpanya: The feeling of humility arising from the helplessness of an individual in resorting to other means of salvation. 4) Mahavisvasa: The absolute and unshakable faith in God as the sole protector. 5) Goptrtva-varana: To make a request to God, seeking his protection. 6) Atma-niksepa: That is, entrusting the burden of protecting the individual self to the care of God36 35 See Yamuna's Stotra-ratna verse 22.. akiscano ananyagatissaranya, tvad-padamulam saranam prapadye. See also Ramanuja's Saranagati-gadya.....anantakala samiksayapy-adrsta santaropayah 36 For details see S.M.Srinivasa Chari - Vaisnavism, its Philosophy, Theology and Religious Discipline, Chapter 13

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21 Each one of these constitutes an important component of Saranagati and bears farreaching ethical and theological significance. The first two angas have ethical significance since they involve right conduct by way of strictly obeying the commands of the Lord. The sacred texts have prescribed the religious acts to be performed by an individual and prohibited certain acts. These are like the commandments of God and by strictly following the dictum of sastra one incurs the pleasure of God and doing the prohibited acts one incurs His displeasure. An individual being subservient to God i becomes imperative for him to please God by doing the right things and avoid His displeasure by refraining from prohibited acts. The third anga karpanya or humility is an important mental trait to be developed by the aspirant for moksa. It helps to arouse the compassion of God. The fourth anga, mahavisvasa or unshakable faith in God as the only saviour is the most important part of Saranagati. Such a conviction enables an aspirant to perform prapatti without entertaining any doubt regarding its effectiveness to secure moksa for him. The fifth anga, goptrtva-varana implies that the individual who seeks liberation should make a formal request to God to grant him moksa, following the general principle that one grants the desired object only when it is asked for. The sixth part, atma-niksepa or the act of surrendering the self to the care of God is the principal component of prapatti (angi). It is not to be understood as handing over one's soul to the care of God like offering a commodity to another person. The individual caught up in bondage from beginning-less time due to ignorance had assumed that the self belongs to him and that he enjoys full freedom, thereby developing a sense of egoism. After gaining philosophic knowledge through a preceptor, regarding the true nature of jivatman and its relation to Paramatman, he realizes that the self belongs to Paramatman and that he is solely dependent on Him, that it is the property of God and that he does not have any power or capacity to protect it. Atma-niksepa or self-surrender is thus a specific mental state (mati-visesa) qualified by the three important notions a) The self is not mine, but the property of God (svarupa-samarpana), b) That its protection is the responsibility of God (bhara-samarpana) and c) That the happiness derived from its protection is that of God (phala-samarpana). Along with such a mental attitude, the

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hy individual seeking moksa should pray to God formally requesting Him to accept the responsibility of protecting his soul. This is the implication of atma-niksepa and Vedanta Desika has expressed this truth in one verse: 'My self, the responsibility of protecting it, the fruit of its protection, is not mine; it is that of Sripati (God); it is in this manner that a wise person should surrender himself to God. ! There are numerous episodes in Itihasas and Puranas narrating the observance of Saranagati by the celestial deities (devatas), the sages, human beings of all kinds and even the living beings of lower kind such as animals seeking the refuge of the Almighty for securing the desired goals including moksa. The saranagati observed by Visbhisana seeking the protection of Rama in the Ramayana is a classic example. The efficacy of Saranagati or prapatti as a means to moksa cannot be doubted if we bear in mind and also are fully convinced about the noble qualities of the Supreme Ruler and the intimate relation of jiva to God. God is sarva-raksaka, one who is willingly ready to redeem all jivas. He is saranagata-vatsala/one who has natural loving disposition to those who seek His refuge. He is sahaja-suhrt friendly towards all by nature. Besides these divine qualities He is sarvajna (omniscient), sarvasaktiman (omnipotent) and satyasankalpa or one whose words of assurance to the devotee never go false. On the other hand, the individual soul belongs to Tsvara and by virtue of its intrinsic nature it has the potential right and capacity to enjoy the bliss of Brahman. All that stands in its way to attain the spiritual goal is the accumulated karma from a beginning-less time and it is to be overcome by securing the grace of God by the observance of either upasana or selfsurrender. If we bear in mind all these facts, there should be no room for doubt as to whether God would ever respond to our sincere and ardent prayer seeking moksa. Prapatti-yoga, as we have explained, is total self-surrender with an ardent prayer and with unshakable faith in God as the saviour to accept the responsibility of saving the individual self. This point has been brought out clearly in the final teaching imparted to Arjuna by Lord Krsnain the Bhagavad-gita in the following significant verse: 'sarvadharman parityajya mamekam Saranam vraja; aham tva sarva-papebhyo moksayisyami ma'sucah? The implication of this verse as correctly interpreted by the Vaisnava acaryas, is that when an aspirant for moksa is incapable of observing the path of bhakti-yoga along with karma-yoga and snana-yoga, he should surrender himself to God. The allcompassionate and all-powerful God will redeem him from all the sins standing as 37. See Nyasadasaka, verse A. 38. Bq, xvele 66.

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23 obstacles to moksa. The aspirant does not have to grieve any more with regard to the attainment of the goal. Thus according to the Vaisnavism of Ramanuja, yoga in the sense of upaya or the means to the attainment of the Supreme Spiritual Goal applies both to bhakti-yoga as enunciated in the Bhagavad-gita, Upanisads and the Vedanta-sutra and also to prapattiyoga as expounded in the Vaisnava treatises of the Ramanuja school. 23