Syntactic Gleanings From Bhartharis Trikandi

Author(s): Ashok Aklujkar
Publisher: Ashok Aklujkar
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269697/1

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Syntactic gleanings from Bharthari's Trikandi
Ashok Aklujkar University of British Columbia (Canada)
1.1. Bharthari's Trikandi or Vakyapadiyal is chronologically the fourth major surviving text in the Papinian tradition, coming after the works associated with Papini, Katyayana, and Patanjali. For a linguist interested in theories of language and grammar, it is a text of greater direct importance than its three surviving predecessors, for it is the first explicit and sustained statement of a theoretical kind on language and grammar that we have available in the Papinian tradition. In its case, we do not generally have to speculate on an implicit view of language and grammar (as in the case of the Aşadhyayi or the Varttika), nor do we have just a few tantalizing and colloquially worded theoretical statements interspersed in a mass of derivational detail (as in the Mahabhayya). For syntax in particular, it is a mine of information and insights, as its name, Vakyapadiya, to some extent implics.?
Since the discussion of the Sanskrit grammarians usually proceeds as if Sanskrit is the only language to be analysed for theoretical gains, the Vakyapadiya does not contain a general consideration of syntax, i.c., a general syntactic theory or a theory of syntax in the abstract, with reference to languages other than Sanskrit or in explicit universalist terms. One is required to put such a theory together on the basis of some general statements by the author and on the basis of certain other statements of his which, although made in the context of Sanskrit, seem to have been intended as universally applicable.
Even as far as the syntax of Sanskrit is concemed, the work is not intended as an exhaustive or exclusive treatment of the topic. It rather concentrates on particular aspects and cases, but it does so in a remarkably rich and rewarding manner.
1.2. Two of the possible approaches that a paper exploring the Trikandi from the syntactic point of view could take are already indicated by what I have said so far. The paper could either deal with what the Trikandi has to say in the area of a general theory of syntax or it could concern itself with the Trikandi's observations on the syntax of Sanskrit
There is, however, a third possible approach: The first two books of the Trikandi, the main text of which is written in verses (karikas), traditionally include an explanatory and supplementary prosc gloss known as Vitti (V).' Anyone who has done sufficient reading in Sanskrit sastra (particularly philo

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sophical) prose, is struck by this Vṛtti as a work having a distinctive style. The distinctiveness of its style, in turn, is due to its diction, certain embellishments, and some devices adopted to get the point across, as well as to its syntax. Therefore, a third approach to the Trikandi appropriate in a volume devoted to Sanskrit syntax would be one of studying the syntax of the Vitti. It is this approach that I intend to take.
1.3. My selection of syntactic features of the Vakyapadiya Vitti for inclusion in the following discussion is naturally determined by my impressions of what is commonly known about the syntax of Classical Sanskrit and about the syntax of Sanskrit philosophical commentarial prose in particular. I shall set aside, or mention only as background, those features which I believe are common knowledge. Given the limitations of space, I shall further confine myself to word order.
2.1. It is well known that the connectives ca 'and' and va 'or' commonly occur at the end of the set of items they connect. Only rarely are they used after each single item. One can add a specification to this observation on the basis of works like the Vakyapadiya Vitti: If the second member of a pair joined by ca or vd contains a qualifier (usually an attributive adjective), then ca or va is placed after that qualifier, not at the end of the whole second member. Illustrative examples 10 are:
(1)
... sastra-vyavahāram anupatati, sastra-vyavahara-sadṛśam ca laukikam bheda-vyavaharam. (V 1.24-6)11
"(The abstracted word meaning) supports (i.e., serves as the basis of) the statements seen in the science (of grammar) and those analytical statements of the users (of the language) which are similar to statements seen in the science (of grammar)."
... jñāne sastra-pürvake va prayoge... (V 1.155)12
(2)
(Merit consists in) knowing (the grammatical expressions) or in using them subsequent to (learning what) the science (or grammar has to say about such expressions)."
The situation in these instances is the same as when ca, va, hi, tu, etc. join clauses. There they generally appear after the first major word of the clause they connect to a preceding clause. The qualifier of the second member in the above instances enjoys a status similar to that of a word introducing a clause,13
2.2. Another peculiarity about the placing of ca and va, regarding which I do not recall reading anything in the discussions of Sanskrit syntax, is that words which add emphasis, such as api and eva push ca and va from the second position in the clause to the third place; 14 cf. (3) and (4). And the same displacement is seen in the case of hi, as in (5).
(3)
yo 'pi cabhidhata śrota va... (V 1.24-6)
'And the speaker or hearer who...'
pakṣantare 'pi ca... (V 1.37)
'And even under the other view (under which an already existing effect is simply manifested)..."
(4)
(5)
AKLUJKAR: SYNTACTIC GLEANINGS
tasyapi ca pratyayyasya... (V 1.62) 'And even of that signatum...' teşăm api ca... (V 1.73) 'And even of those (phonemes)...' smrti-käle 'pi ca... (V 1.132)
'And even at the time of recollection...' saiva ca... (V 1.5) 'And that (language) itself..." vaca eva va... (V 1.12)
'Or, of language itself...'
sarve 'pi hi vadino... (V 1.30).
'Indeed, all participants in philosophical discussion...'
gopallavipā]ladayo 'pi hi (V 1.123)
Indeed (or since such is the state of affairs), even persons like cowherds and shepherds..."
vyaktir eva [hi] gaur, näkṛtiḥ (V 1.69-70)15
For it is an individual that is a cow, not a universal.'
3
2.3 I have sometimes wondered if there once was a difference of connotation between an expression of the type 'X ca Y ca' and an expression of the type 'X Y ca. There are several passages in the Vakyapadiya Vṛtti, some of them quotations, which indicate that the first type of construction was favored, at least by the Vitti author and by some of his predecessors, when two items clearly belonging to two different groups in the speaker's perception (especially items logically opposed to each other) 16 were to be expressed together. See the examples in (6) (8).17
(6)
prajñāna-rūpa-pākas 18 casamprakhyana-rupa-pakaś cāpām prāṇo rasaḥ, sa khalv avarti canavarti ceti. ... dvaitinaḥ khalv apy ahuḥ. nityaś canityaś ca mătră-yonayaḥ, yāsu rūpi cărūpi ca, sūksmaṁ ca sthülam cedam bhuvanam vişaktam iti... indriya-grāmaś căntaryāmi ca, buddhiś ca kşetrajñaś ceti. (V 1.8)
(Some say:) "Prana, which has a maturation in the form of consciousness (or Knowledge) as well as a maturation in the form of matter (or nescience), is the essence of the Waters. It is verily one that returns (in the case of some) and one that does not return (in the case of others)."... The Dualists too, indeed, say: "The sources of discrete entities are permanent as well as impermanent (i.e., some sources are permanent and some are not), (sources) in which this universe, the one having form as well as the one lacking form, the subtle as well as the gross (i.e., this universe in its amorphous as well as non-amorphous and subtle as well as gross aspects), is attached."... the set of senses and the Internal Controller, the intellect (or mind) and the Knower of the Field (Self/soul)."

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the least arguable to a characterization specific to a particular line of thinking, or in a way that shows awareness of possible objections. One may not always be able to determine which of these possible ways of looking at his order is the right way or whether there is in fact only one right way, but one can be certain that a specific movement conducive to the author's goal of effective communication is there.22 In fact, if one does not assume such a movement or something similar to it, one may not have any explanation for the order seen in words appearing in the same case and performing a common or identical syntactical role.23 Note, for example, the following: (11) abhinnat sarnhta-kramad antah-saminivesinah Sabda-lattvad...
(V 1.12) "From the undifferentiated, sequenceless, internal language principle
(7) sabdavati caśabdä сa smptir nibadhyate. (V 1.29)
nyti (social code), consisting of words as well as bereft of words (i.c., as something articulated as well as something preserved, without the benefit of verbal expression, in conduct only), is composed.' ... te satta-sambandha-matrenopalabdhas canupalabdhas ca... (V 1.57)19 ... they (the words), merely through the relation of existing (i.e.. merely because they exist), when they are apprehended as well as
when they are not apprehended, ...' 2.4. The next peculiarity of the word order of śastric Sanskrit as evidenced in the Vitti appears more interesting to me than the features I have bricly presented so far. It lies in the placing of genitive modifiers. The normal position of a' qualifier in the genitive is, as we know, the same as that of the attributive adjective, namely preceding the noun. In some instances, however, the position is deliberately changed and the word is placed after the noun. The advantage to the author apparently is that it is linked simultaneously to the preceding and the following noun, usually with a different shade of genitival meaning: a kind of
play on meaning results. I will call this strategy the dehali-dipa placing of the genitive: Just as a lamp placed on a threshold illumines the area in front as well as the room behind, so this sandwiched genitive throws light on the preceding as well as the following word; cf. (9) and (10). (9) sa eva hi kalau sakti-vaikalyan nmam pravibhaktango drøyate.
(V 1.5) 'In the age of kali, due to the deficient capacities of men, the same (Ayurveda) appears to men with its branches divided.' jñanatmakatvad va purusasyaiva sarskara-hetavah. (V 1.10320 'Or, (the different lores) bring about the refinement of man alone (not of both man and knowledge, as in the preceding alternative), since
man consists of knowledge.' In all such instances we clearly have a stylistic consideration, or a consideration that had become a convention of Sastric writing for some authors, overriding the processes of natural or ordinary Sanskrit syntax. For a specific gain the usual word order is reversed, a move quite consistent with the Sanskrit culture's extraordinary sensitivity to the possibilities of multiple meaning, word economy, and, in general, larguage play.21
2.5 It seems that in works like the Vakyapadiya Vrtti there is an additional, essentially rhetorical, principle operating behind word order. The author is interested optimally in producing conviction in his reader about the truth of what he states, and minimally in ensuring that the reader understands what he states. Toward these ends, he adopts devices similar to those of a good teacher. He moves from the general to the specific, or from the gross to the subtle, or from
(10)
Here, the first adjective sets up a contrast between the ordinarily experienced language marked by diversity and the language-principle characterized by oneness. The second adjective explains why the language-principle: because sequence, which marks language in communication, is withdrawn in it. Finally, the third adjective indicates why sequence is not there or the fact that at the particular stage of his thinking the author is concerned not with the outgoing language in operation, but with the source of language in operation. (12) tais tu krama-janmabhir ayugapat-kalair avyapadesya-rupair
avayavaiḥ ... sabdantaram arabdhum na sakyate. (V 1.23) "With those sequentially produced, non-simultaneously existent, unidentifiable parts ... (which one has in an individual utterance of a word) it is not possible to bring into existence another entity (or an entity of a different kind, a collectivity having a stable nature, called)
word ... In this instance, cach subsequent adjective takes us nearer to the final assertion and seems to assume a possible question in between. In the utterance of a word, sound particles are produced in a sequence, hence they cannot physically form a unity called word. Well, someone might query, 'Is it not possible that they could all exist together subsequent to their coming into being?' The reply is: 'No, they do not remain in existence at the same time and further, 'Even if they were assumed to coexist, because each is atomic in nature, they do not have expressible forms or known identities; we would not know that they have given rise to a particular word.
Similarly, in (13), cach succeeding adjective makes the statement more plausible. This can be seen through an imagined dialogue of the type (14). (13) yarn söksman nityam atindriyam vācam sayah saksal-krta-dharmino
mantra-dršah paśyanti tam... (V 1.5)
That language, subtle, permanent, and sense-transcending, which the seers who have realized dharma and who see mantras perceive...'

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"If vac or language is subtle, does it really exist?" "It is permanently there."
If it is permanently there, why do we not perceive it?" "You need persons with special qualities to perceive it.'
2.6. Finally, I would like to draw attention to the Vetti's use of parenthetical clauses. These interrupt, if not disturb, the normal word order of the sentences containing them. It is my impression that such, truly parenthetical, clauses are rare in Sanskrit expository prose. Particles and short phrases that indicate hesitation, emotion, etc. on the part of the speaker are occasionally employed in Classical Sanskrit poetry for the appropriate aesthetic effect. There may also be parenthetical particles, phrases, and clauses in the Vedic corpus (Thieme 1944), some of them genuine and some due to factors such as metrical constraints, textual corruption, etc. However, as far as I can recall and ascertain without rereading a large mass of Classical sastric prose, there are very few, if any, truly parenthetical clauses in that body of literature. The Vitti, along with Mandanamiśra's Brahmasiddhi, seems to be a definite, if not a large-scale, exception to this practice. Cf. passages such as (15).
(15)
yatha hi jñānam jñeya-para-tantram jñeya-rupa-pratyavabhasatvād anirdesya-sva-rupam api jñanantarasyeva bhinnām svasyaivätmanaḥ sva-rupa-matram darśayati- tatha hy atyantam anupalabdham apy anyena jñänena smrti-visayatvamṁ pratipadyate-tadvad ayam... (V 1.51)
Just as a cognition, which is dependent upon the object on account of the (invariable) reflection (in it) of the form of the object and which is unspecifiable in terms of its own form, displays the ownform component of itself, (a component) separated as if it were (a form) of another cognition-to clarify: although it is not at all apprehended by another cognition, it becomes an object of recollection in the same way this (word)...'
Here, within the relative clause that begins with yarhd and gives an analogy, we have a parenthetical clause, set off by the two dashes. To illustrate his point that in the process of signification a signifier reveals the signatum as well as its own form, Bharthari employs the analogy of a cognition. A cognition is dependent on the object apprehended in it, in the sense that without that object it would not have any specifiable form. However, it must also be admitted that it reveals its own form as it apprehends or reveals the object that it reveals its own form as it would of another cognition. How can we infer this? From the fact that the contents of even unnoticed cognitions become objects of memory. If I saw a pitcher, I can have a recollection of the form "I saw a pitcher' even if after seeing the pitcher I did not have a reflective or introspective (anuvyavasaya) type of cognition like 'I saw a pitcher.' Now, since what is not experienced is not recollected, it must be concluded that the seeing of the pitcher was experienced (was recorded in consciousness) in some way that when I saw the pitcher my consciousness recorded the pitcher as well as my seeing of it, that is, the object
AKLUJKAR: SYNTACTIC GLEANINGS
of cognition as well as the form of the cognition. This argument is what the clause flanked by dashes states in a syntactically self-sufficient way. Its occurrence in the body of a larger sentence and the absence of a relationship of syntactic dependence on the words of the larger sentence which its words exhibit make it a true parenthetical clause.24
3. In the above discussion I have pointed out certain peculiarities of word order which may hold good only in the case of a specific body of literature written in a particular period, and which may have their origin in what the Vitti author inherited and what his objectives were. In a sequel to the present article, I shall offer a few theoretical observations on word order in Sanskrit.
Notes
*I am happy to acknowledge the financial assistance I received at various times since 1969 from the University of British Columbia Humanities and Social Sciences Research Committee, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute, the American Council of Learned Societies, and the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung of the Federal Republic of Germany. The assistance enabled me to carry out a sustained study of the text with which this paper deals.
Hans Henrich Hock suggested some changes in an earlier draft of this paper that went beyond the usual editorial suggestions for consistency. I wish to thank him for his informed friendly advice.
The paper is based on the following primary sources:
(1) Bharthari's Trikandi or Vakyapadiya. I have reproduced the text of the Vitti from my critical edition of the Trikandi (under preparation). Those wishing to verify my references to the Vitti prior to the publication of my edition should consult the editions by K. A. Subramania Iyer:
(a) Vakyapadiya of Bharthari with the Vetti and the Paddhati of Visabha-deva. Poona: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, 1966. (Deccan College Monograph Series, 32.)
(b) The Vakyapadiya of Bharthari, Kända II with the commentary of Punya-raja and the ancient Vetti, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.
I have followed the enumeration of kärikäs in Wilhelm Rau (1977), Bharthari's Vakyapadiya: Die Müla-kärikäs nach den Handschriften herausgegeben und mit einem Pada-Index versehen. (Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 42:4.) Wiesbaden: Steiner. Hence the numbers in my edition and those in the editions by Subramania lyer do not always match. However, they are not far removed from each other.
(2) Patanjali's, Vyakarana-maha-bhasya, ed. by F. Kielhorn, revised ed. by K. V. Abhyankar. Pune: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute.
(3) Yiska's The Nighantu and the Nirukta, ed. by Lakshman Sarup. 1920-7. Reprinted 1967, 1984. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Although the title Vakyapadiya is now used to refer to all of the three books, the older tradition is to confine it to the first two books; see Aklujkar 1969:547-54.
2vukya-pade adhikṛtya kṛtaḥ granthah vakyapadiyam 'Vakyapadiya is a book that deals with sentence and word (the latter mainly as a sentence constituent, not as a lexical item)." Bharthari's chosen subject, then, naturally involves consideration of the relation between word

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1
y
migratory) bolcal views? philosopraninam... (V1.7 found in
and sentence, particularly of the transition from the level of the sentence (vikya) to that of the word, and vice versa. It is with such transitions that syntax is primarily concerned.
In addition to its general meaning explained just now, the title Vakyapadiya seems to have the particular connotation of 's work interested in determining whether the sentence or word is the primary unit of language'; cf. Prabhakura quoted in Aklujkar 1969:552.
On the authorship of the Vakyapadiya-vitti, see Aklujkar 1972
The only other work with which a comparison of the Vrtul has been suggested is the bhasya, attributed to Vyisa or Vindhyavisa, on the Yogasutras. However, the impression that the Vrtti's style is similar to that of the Yogabhasya is more likely to be due to a few passages and expressions that are common to the two texts. (These comnion elements are pointed out in an unpublished paper which I read before the 1970 annual meeting of the American Oriental Society.) There may not be any intrinsic similarity of style between the two works.
5 A detailed study of the diction of the Vitti will be made after its word index, on which I am working, is finalized. As a sample, note the expressions nirjadia 'known', samdcdra 'proper conduct'. pradesa part', abhikhydia 'well known', upavyanjana 'manifestor', prabandha 'continuum, stretch', paridesta 'seen, commonly found (7), wpagraha 'taking on, assuming, and pratilabdha acquired, received (cp. Pali papildbha)'.
E.g. alliteration of p as in (a) or of vin (b). (a) .... prayatnam abhipadyamanah prati-sabdarin paritah paricchinnan sabdatmanah
sarispriann iva manah pranidhatte (V 1.54) .... coming to the effort (of articulation). (the speaker) in the case of each expression, applies his mind as if he is contacting expression-units that are cut off all around (i.e.
the speaker seeks distinct phonetic shapes as he proceeds toward making an utterance) ...' () ... vttisu dāvan eva sphoto vicitram yrttim anuvidhatte (V 1.50).
... in the (fast, medium, and slow) modes of utterance, a linguistic unit imitates diverse modes (i.e., gives the impression of variation in its manner of being) without (really)
changing its (own) extent measure. 7 As the author deals with subtle smantic concepts, he uses paraphrase or restatement much more than is common in Sanskrit expository prose. Note e.. the characterizations of kriya or action is expressed by a verb and of sattva or reified signata in (a), or the statement in (b) on the beginninglessness, as it obtains in a linguistic community, of the 'word: meaning' re. lationship. (a) tasyah pravsttir iti samakhyalayas tattvam sadhyatvam, sadhanakariksati [nksatyam?).
krama-rupopagrahah, kalabhivyakti-hetutvam. aparas tv arthah sattva-matran, tris api kalegu sya-bhāva-sidelham, abhidheyatvena pratyaslamita-brama-rupari, nama-padanibandhanam. (V 1.13) or that action, which is designated pravrtti, the nature is to have a "to be accomplished character, to have an expectancy for means that will bring it about), to assume the form of sequence, to become the cause of the manifestation of time. The other entity, artha, is all that which is existent (or reified), which is accomplished" (or stable, by nature with respect to all of the three times (past, present and future), which, as meaning, has
no sequential form, which is the basis of nominal expressions." (b) asyedam-bhave sati sabdarthayoh so 'yan idi yah sarbandtah so thadesanasya kartum
asakyatyad autpattikah, sva-bhava-siddlho, na kenacit kartra karcit pratipattaranin praty ajaa purvas tat-prathamar kyta id. (V 1.23) . The identity relationship of word and meaning, which (relationship) comes about when there is a relationship of the form this Xi is the meaning) of this (word) X,"is simultaneous with the coming into being (of the word), since meanings cannot be laught; (it) is there by its very nature; (it is not something previously unknown that some agent fashions for the first time for a recipient of information.
For instance, use of the ablative (usually of an abstract noun) to specify the reason behind an assertion and use of the instrumental to specify the Indirect reason is the direct reason is expressed through an ablative.
Awareness of this subtlety allows us to infer that in a phrase like parvam agchildvyaktari arhia vd previously not grasped or indistincuy grasped' (V 1.23) the original reading is more likely to be parvam agrhitdvyaktami vd erhild, with wd after the adverb qualifying the second member. Similarly, we can conclude that if we must introduce a ca, not found in the manu. scripts, into the phrase aritha-vddan artha-dida-prakardini srutiwdkydni (V 1.8) 'explanatory passages (and) those sentences of the stati which are like the explanatory passages', we should introduce it not at the end, but after the adjective of the second member in the pair artha wada and rai-dhya - artha Widan artha-vida-prakiramu ca sruti-ükyani.
Note that throughout this paper, I do not attempt to present a comprehensive collection of cxamples, counterexamples, or apparent counterexamples.
Words or letters not found in the manuscripts of the Villi are put in brackets. Their acceptance into the text of the Vitti is frequently based on the testimony of the ancient commentator Vrsabha who, on the whole, had access to much better manuscripts of the Vitti than we have today.
11 Similar examples are the following: (a) ... sariram, prthag anys ca tirtha-pravidesu prasiddhän arthan... (V 1.38)
... the (subtle transmigratory) body and the various other entities well known in tirtha
pravadas (foundational philosophical views7 philosophies intended for salvation?).' (b) bhinnärthanam (tu) padanám bhinna-padasthanim ca varnanum... (V 1.71)
On the other side, ... of words having different meanings and of phonemes found in
different words. (c) ... śruti-vihitini karmani smrti-nibandhanam ca bhaksyabhaksyädi-niyaman...
(V 1.149) ... the action procedures enjoined by the fruti and the restrictions, based on the smrti.
regarding such matters as what should be eaten and what should not be eaten.' 12Similarly, in ... vydkarana... avadhdranena sadhurva-jAdna-labhyena va sabda-pärvena yogena ... (V 1.159-70), which I shall leave untranslated because a literal translation will not make much sense and a full explanation will take us too far afield.
13 This is confirmed by a phrase like the following which approaches the length and function of a clause.
svare hi (or: svapne 'pi) badhiradinäin sabdadi-pratipanari, ghana-samnivistavayavinam ca kudyadinam avayava-vibhagam antarepintar vesmaidisu siksniam arthanam darsanan ... (V 1.36). Making known words, etc., even in a dream, to deaf persons and others who are similar to the deal, and seeing subtle things inside residences without separating the constituents
of thatched walls, etc., which (walls) have densely placed constituents ... Here the talk is of certain spirits and their extraordinary capacities, such as the capacity to make the deaf hear sounds in dreans and the capacity to see through thick walls. sabd dipraryddanam and darsanam form the pair connected by ca, but ca does not appear after either. It is placed after a qualifier (ghand-saminivised vayava 'of those thatched walls, etc. whose constituents are densely placed"), if not an adjective, of darsana, that is, after the first significant word of the second unit as in the case of clauses joined by ca or vd.
141t might be thought that is in phrases such as so 'yam ini ca (V 1.68) has a similar effect. However, so'yam ini means 'identification, superimposition in such instances and has the value of a single, compound, word.
15Cf. repihi (Patanjali 3.1.26.15) cited in V 1.23.
In some cases, hi seems to take the third position, not as a result of the use of Gpl or eva but as a result of its strong association with the subject word; cl.e.g. the examples in (a) and (b).

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"AKLUJKAR: SYNTACTIC GLEANINGS STUDIES IN SANSKRIT SYNTAX a) praviviktah sa hi tasya vastuno Vyavahar ittam rupam. (V 1.24-26) That separated (word meaning) is such a form of that entity which (form) does not figure in communication (i.c., which has reality only as a product or tool of linguistic ana lysis).' (b) prayena sarvo hi svasyam svasyam vidyayam vyakaranam anugacchati. (V 1.14-22) 'Usually everyone follows grammar in his respective branch of learning.' * The observation made in this section makes tair eva (ca) a probable reading in V 1.118, words 13-4. 16Cf. vedam ca vedarigani ca (Yaska 1.20) 'the Veda and the ancillaries of the Veda', samanam ihamananari cadhiyananam ca (Patafjali 1.31) 'of persons interested in and studying one and the same thing'. "The sources of the quotations in example (6) are not known. 18Unless prajnana and asamprakhyana are opposite in meaning (which is possible), the original text here could have been prajnana-rupa-pakas (caprajnana-rupa-pakas ca samprakhyanarupa-pakas) casamprakhyana-rupa-pakas cupam, and the part set off in brackets could have been lost through haplography. 19 Sentences like the following may be excepticns to the observation made in this section or, what is more likely, they may reflect the fact that the concepts connected by ca belonged to antithetical or distinct categories in the author's way of thinking: (a) pradeso 'pi brahmanah sarvarupyam anatikrantas cavikalpas ca. (V 1.9; a citation) The domain of brahman is coterminous with all forms (and hence with all vikalpas "conceptual constructs"), but it is also devoid of or beyond any vikalpa. (b) vedo hi lokanam prakstitvena copadestr-rupatvena ca vivartesu vyavasthasu 'ca vidhata (V 1.10) The Veda fashions the worlds as material cause and also as an instructor or guide in processes of diversification as well as in creations of order or arrangement.' The double employment of ca in some of the verses (karikas) of the Trikandi, as in te lirigais ca sva-sabdcis ca (1.26) and sasthyas ca prathamayas ca (1.67), could be due to constraints of the metre. When ca or va joins three clauses, it may occasionally not figure in the first clause as can be seen from the following: (c) yadi nityanam sabdanam abhivyaktir, janmadi-vikriyapattir va satain, asatam va sopakhya-nirupakhyatvani ... (V 1.28) Whether it is (merely) a manifestation of permanent (basically unchanging) linguistic units, or transformations such as coming into existence in the case of (linguistic units) existing in some other form), or states of being specifiable and being unspecifiable in the case of (previously) inexistent (linguistic units), ...' d) yo 'yam jata-veda, yas ca (...) pursesv antarah prakaso, yas ca (...) prakasaprakasa yoh prakasayita sabdakhyah prakasah, tatraitat sarvam upanibaddham yavad vastv avastu, yavat sthasnu carisnu ceti. (V 1.12) 'All this, whether it is material or non-material (and) whether it is stationary (or) moving, is fixed in that which is this fire, and which is the intemal light in men, and which is (...) the illuminator of the luminous and the non-luminous, the light called sabda (language).' Contrast the use of ca in every clause in examples like (e). (e) ye cesvara-kala-purusa-vidya-kse trajnan vibhakta-lattvan ahuh, ye canisvaram akalam apurusam avidyam aksetrajnam avidya-matrain eva manyante., ye caikatvanatikramena sarmurcchita-viruddhaparimana-saku-rupa-nirbhasa-parigraham apurvaparam vis vatmanam karanam acaksate, tes am ... (V 1.28) 'Of those who propound distinct (primary causes like) God, Time, Self, Knowledge, and the Knower of the Field, and (of those who entertain only nescience devoid of God, Time. Sell. Knowledge, (or) the Knower of the Field, and (of those) who proclaim as cause an all-encompassing entity in which there are, without any loss of oneness, manifestations of infinite, mutually opposed, and unsegregated capacities and of which there is neither a predecessor nor a successor ...' 20Probably, the following sentences also contain a dehali-dipa use of the genitive: (a) samyag-viparinatau linga-vacanadinam vyakaranam nibandhanam (V 1.11) 'In changing properly the gender, grammatical number, etc., the analysis of gender, grammatical number, etc. is the basis. (6) na hy anityatve sabdadinam sastrarambhe kimcid api prayojanam asti. (V 1.23) 'Under the alternative of impermanency of words, etc., there would be no purpose in beginning the science of words, etc.' 21 As an example of the sensitivity mentioned here, note the following. tathatrasaty api sabda-vyakti-samavaye, sabdakster varnavayavavagraha-praptasamskarabhih kramotpannabhir buddhibhih purvam aglhitavyaktam va grhita samskyte 'ntah-karane carama-vijnanenaksuih paricchidyate. (V 1.23)) 'In the same manner, here too, although there is no aggregation of sound individuals, the form of the word-universal, previously unapprehended or indistinctly apprehended through cognitions which are impressed with the intake of phoneme-parts (i.e., parts in the form of phonemes) and which have arisen in a sequence, is determined with the final cognition. It is determined in the inner organ (or mind) which is modified through cognitions which are impressed with the intake of phoneme-parts and which have arisen in a sequence. Here, the instrumental forms (varnavayavavagraha-prapta-samskarabhih kramotpannabhir buddhibhih) are connected with the adjectival phrase purvam agrhitavyaktan va grhita as well as sanskrte 'ntah-karane. To avoid having to repeat the instrumental forms, the author places samsksie 'ntah-karane immediately after the adjectival phrase and, against the usual practice, allows the substantive (akstih) to be removed from(ils the adjectival phrase qualifying it. 221 would concede that if it were not for the order of expressions we would not be able to know in individual instances what the stages in the progression of thought were. These stages are, after all, not open to observation by others; there is no widespread agreement in their case. However, my point is that there is evidence suggesting that a presumed dialogue with the reader is responsible for the presence of certain expressions at certain points: A kind of bouncing board seems to exist in front of the author and his later words seem to be determined by the effect he thinks the earlier words will produce on the board. 23 The condition 'performing a common or identical syntactic role' is not essential to the point I make. It is more of a methodological condition that serves to ensure that evidence of a clear sort is adduced. If different positions assigned to grammatically similar words are explored, the possibility that the difference in positions could be due to the difference in grammatical function is eliminated. 24 The long sentence yarhaivoiksepana-bhramana-recanddinam ... vyavahuru avatisthante in V 1.23 may likewise be viewed by some as containing a series of parenthetical clauses.