Study Of Indian Philosophy In Germany And Austria

Author(s): Wilhelm Halbfass
Publisher: Wilhelm Halbfass
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269267/1

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THE STUDY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA: A SURVEY OF RECENT CONTRIBUTIONS
(1965-1972) By
WILHELM HALBFASS, Philadelphia (U.S.A.)
I. Historical Introduction
The study of Indian thought in Germany owes much of its initial momentum to Romantic nostalgia: "For the German Romanticists,.. India..was a symbol of their own spiritual origin and homeland, their own forgotten depth "1. Novalis, Görres, occasionally Schelling, to some extent already J. G. Herder, and above all Friedrich Schlegel were the heralds of this Romantic myth of India Friedrich as the cradle of mankind "2. It remains symptomatic that Schlegel's brother August Wilhelm became the first professor of Sanskrit in Germany (Bonn 1818); and still in his later British years, Max Müller was well aware of the Romantic roots of his own Indological interest. 3-G.W.F. Hegel, the most powerful critic of Romantic nostalgia, represents a different and highly critical approach to Indian thought; yet, he is a keen and watchful observer and tries to deal philosophically with Indian philosophy. 4 Other, and lesser, figures also demonstrate how Indian philosophy, however insufficiently known, enters the horizon of philosophers and historians of philosophy and contributes to articulating the idea of a world history of philosophy. K.J.H. Windischmann, e.g., includes Indian philosophy, with the aid of his son, the Sanskritist F.H.H. Windischmann, in his unfinished "Philosophy in the Progress of World History" (Die Philosophie im Fortgang der Weltgeschichte. I: Die Grundlage der Philosophie im Morgenlande, 4 vols., Bonn 1827-1834). The philosopherSanskritist O. Frank presents an edition and German translation of Sadananda's Vedantasära (München-Leipzig 1835), one of the favorite texts in the early days of the study of Vedanta ( also dealt with by F.H.H. Windischmann in the fourth volume of his father's work; E. Röer, 1845; L. Poley, 18695).
1 Halbfass, W. Hegel on the Philosophy of the Hindus. In: German Scholars on India (Varanasi 1973), p. 107-122.
2 Loc. cit.
3 Cf. India-What Can It Teach Us? (London 1883) 29-33.
4 E.g. in his Berlin "Lectures on the History of Philosophy" (Vorlesungen über die Geschichte der Philosophie); cf. Halbfass, W. loc.cit.
5 Cf. Windisch, E. Geschichte der Sanskrit-Philologie und indischen Altertumskunde (I: Strassburg 1917; II: Berlin und Leipzig 1920: Grundriß der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde I, 1, B) 63 ff.; 207; 210 f. Potter, K. H. BIP; to Potter's list of translations, the German translation in O. Böhtlingk's Sanskrit-Chrestomathie (Leipzig 1909) nas to be added.

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The general and philosophical interest in Indian thought was, however, most successfully promoted by A. Schopenhauer—with the somewhat questionable effect, that it became almost automatically associated with “idealism " on the one hand,“ pessimism” on the other hand. Inspired by Schopenhauer, P. Deussen became one of the most devoted Western students of Sanskrit and of Indian philosophy. His translations of sixty Upanişads and of Sankara's Brahmasūtrabhāşya 6, as well as the six volumes of his “ Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie” (General History of Philosophy, Leipzig 1894-1913; vols. 1-3 on Indian philosophy), bear witness to a unique combination of a somewhat one-sided enthusiasm with thorough scholarship. Deussen's younger contemporary, the philosopher-theologian R. Otto, contributes especially to the knowledge of Visişțădvaita?; and in general, Indian thought has become a really tangible factor of German thought and culture in the first decades of the 20th century. However, the attitude of the more conservative academic historians of philosophy remains hesitant, if not explicitly negative. Statements reach from basic doubts as to the accessibility and intelligibility of Indian philosophy 8 to categorically denying the title of philosophy to Indian thought.' In spite of the repeatedly manifested interest of such leading 20th century thinkers as M. Scheler, M. Heidegger and K. Jaspers 10, we may say that the contributions of German philosophers resp. academic teachers of philosophy to the interpretation of Indian philosophy remain somewhat scattered and casual; and there has been a certain tendency to leave this field to less academic thinkers, such as L. Ziegler, the count H. Keyserling, and H. Kassner.
Most of the pioneering and fundamental work has been done by Indologists, such as O. Strauss ( for some time co-worker of P. Deussen ), G. Thibaut, R. Garbe, also H. von Glasenapp, H. Jacobi, P. Hacker and, with a very different approach, W. Ruben. Others, like E. Hultzsch, E. Windisch, F.O.
6 Sechzig Upanishad's des Veda (Leipzig 1897); Die Sūtra's des Vedānta.... nebst dem vollständigen Commentare des Çankara (Leipzig 1887).
7 Cf. Dipikā des Nivāsa (Tübingen 1916); Rāmānuja, Siddhānta (Jena 1917); among his other contributions, cf., e.g., Vişnu-Nārāyaṇa (Jena 1917); West-Östliche Mystik (Gotha 1916).
8 Cf. H.-G. Gadamer, Preface to : Dilthey, W.:. Grundriß der allgemeinen Geschichte der Philosophie (Frankfurt 1949) 18.
9 E.g. Windelband, W.: Lehrbuch der Geschichte der Philosophie (Tübingen 16 1957), 22, although granting the possibility of certain steps towards philosophy in Oriental cultures, presents the history of philosophy as a strictly European phenomenon and explicitly excludes Chinese and Indian thought.--A brief discussion of the problem of the applicability of the term "philosophy" to Indian thought is given by W. Ruben (cf. the book referred to in n. 33).
10 Cf. the sections on the Buddha and Nāgārjuna in Jaspers' Die großen Philosophen (München 1957), also H. von Glasenapp, Das Indienbild deutscher Denker (Stuttgart 1960). OJ22

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Schrader, H. Oldenberg, whose main interest is in other areas of Indian studies, at least occasionally turn towards Indian philosophy. 11
The most distinguished living representative of the study of Indian philosophy in Europe is, no doubt, E. Frauwallner of Vienna. Starting around 1930, with pioneering contributions to the study of early Samkhya and, above all, of the school of Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti, his research covers all major fields of Indian philosophy, with the exception of Vedānta. Two volumes of his Geschichte der indischen Philosophie (Salzburg 1953 and 1956 ) have been published so far.12—Frauwallner's work is continued by a group of former disciples of his, such as G. Oberhammer and E. Steinkellner (now his successors in Vienna), L, Schmithausen, T. Vetter, G. Chemparathy, who pursue the study of Indian philosophy in the sense of working towards a sober and literal understanding of important sources, and of trying to integrate them into their proper historical context. As a rule, systematic philosophical evaluation and comparative studies are put aside by this group.- Apart from Vienna, the universities of Münster (P. Hacker ) and Hamburg (L. Schmithausen ; A. Wezler ) can now be regarded as centres for the study of Indian philosophy in the Germanspeaking area of Europe.13
Except for a few casual hints, the following brief survey of books and articles, which contribute to the study of Indian philosophy (not Indian thought in general) on an academic level of research, will be confined to the period from 1965 to 1972. Primary attention will be paid to contributions in German. - I am neither claiming completeness nor complete neutrality. II. Buddhist Philosophy
Although E. Frauwallner's interest and scholarly competence cover many different areas of Indian thought, his name will above all remain connected with the exploration of that school of Buddhist philosophy which is known as the school of Buddhist Logic' and is most notably represented by Dinnāga and Dharmakīrti; since the 1930ies. Frauwallper's efforts laid the foundations of a much more comprehensive and historically adequate understanding than it had been accessible to Th. Stcherbatsky.14 It is true that his most recent contribu
11 Cf. the indices in E. Windisch's Geschichte (see above, n. 5) and in BIP.
12 These two volumes have been translated into English by V. M. Bedekar (History of Indian Philosophy, 2 vols., Delhi 1972 ).
13 Marburg may be mentioned in this connection as a place where special attention is paid to Bharthari (cf. W. Rau's philological work on the Vāk yapadiya and its manuscript tradition; P. S. Sharma's translation of the Kālasamuddeśa of the Vāk yapadiya (together with - Helārāja's Vrtti; Delhi 1972) was written as a doctoral dissertation under the guidance of
W. Rau).-Two of Frauwallner's disciples, T. Vetter and G. Chemparathy, are now teaching at Utrecht (Holland).
14 Cf. the Frauwallner bibliography in BGI,

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tions focus on other themes; but his work is being continued by some of his disciples, mainly by E. Steinkellner and T. Vetter. After his Erkenntnisprobleme bei Dharmakirti ( Wien 1964; VKSKSO. 1 ), which attempts a systematic philosophical interpretation of epistemological issues in Dharmakīrti's Pramāņavārttika, Vetter published Dharmakirti's Pramāņaviniscayaḥ, 1. Kapitel : Pratyakşam (Wien 1965; VKSKSO. 3), containing the Tibetan version which is the basis of our knowledge of this text, together with an introduction, a German translation and the Sanskrit fragments which were known at that time. Although the Pramāņaviniścaya reproduces a good deal of the textual material, especially of the verses, of the earlier and more famous Pramāņavārttika, its mode of presentation is in a sense purified, i.e. more strictly epistemological.15.-In 1968, a text was published in India which turned out to be an extremely rich mine of textual information on important thinkers of the Ist mellenium A.D., among them Dharmakirti-sc. Bhāsarvajña's Nyāyabhūşaņa.16 Its numerous quotations from the first chapter of the Pramāņaviniscaya, which had not been identified as such by the editor, have recently been collected by E. Steinkellner ( New SanskritFragments of Pramāņaviniscayaḥ, First Chapter. WZKS 16, 1972, 199-206 ), and they add considerably to restoring the original wording of the text.-An edition of the second chapter of the Pramāņaviniscaya (on svårthānumāna ), which incorporates the relevant passages from the-Nyāyabhūșaņa, has been prepared by Steinkellner and is in the press; a translation will follow.17 Already in 1967, Steinkellner made accessible another Dharmakirti text, apparently a product of his later years—the Hetubindu Dharmakirti's Hetubinduḥ. 2 vols., Wien 1967; VKSKSO 4.5; Tibetan text, reconstruction of the Sanskrit text, German translation and extensive notes). That an actual and proper restoration of the Sanskrit text became possible in this case is mainly due to the fact that, in addition to the Tibetan translation, a paraphrasing commentary (by Arcaţa ) and a sub-commentary (by Durvekamiśra ) in Sanskrit were systematically consulted. As its title indicates, the Hetubindu deals with the types of logical reasons, basically the svabhāvahetu and the kāryahetu, but it also contains an interesting discussion of the proof of momentariness' (kşaņikatvānumāna); its presentation by Steinkellner is a model case of a rigorously philoiogical approach, which tries to understand Dharmakirti's words in their own context and horizon, and deliberately abstains from any further-reaching "philosophical" evaluation.
Several other contributions by Steinkelloer have to be mentioned in this connection : Bemerkungen zu lśvarasena's Lehre vom Grund (WZKSO 10,
15 Cf. also Vetter, T.: Das Problem des metaphysischen Beweises in der logisch-erkenntnistheoretischen Periode der indischen Philosophie. (ZDMG 118, 1968, 351-356; on Dharmakirti's criticism of what Vetter calls the "metaphysical proof").
16 Ed. Yozindrānanda, Värānasi 1968 (Şaddarśanaprakāśana granthamälä 1). 17 In VKSKS.

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1966, 73-85 ) examines some statements in Dharmakīrti's Pramāņavārttikasvavrtti (with special reference to the vaidharmyavacanārtha ) which are attributed to Dharmakirti's teacher Iśvarasena ; this throws some light on the hitherto rather obscure development between Diönāga and Dharmakīrti-Die Entwicklung des kşaņikatvānumānam bei Dharmakirti ( BGI 361-377) shows that the proof of momentariness' undergoes a development in Dharmakīrti's thought, from more traditional forms to its most advanced stage, the sattvānumāna in the Pramāņaviniscaya 18.-Wirklichkeit und Begriff bei Dharmakirti (WZKS 15, 1971, 179-211 ) systematically examines the usage of one of Dharmakirti's most important terms, svabhāva, in the first chapter of the Pramāņavārttika ( 347 occurrences ). It classifies the meanings of this term according to its ontological, epistemological and logical functions and shows how its basic ontological meaning ("Eigenwesen', 'own-being') remains decisive for its specifically logical functions, notably in the compound svabhāvahetu ; this is a result which is definitely incompatible with Stcherbatsky's widely accepted interpretation of the syabhāvahetu inference as "analytical proposition" in the Kantian sense. 19 - Regarding the theme of “inference ", A. Wezler's Dinnāga's Kritik an der Schlusslehre des Nyāya und die Deutung von Nyāyasūtra 1. 1. 5 (ZDMG, Supplement 1/3, 1968, 834-840 ) may be mentioned, which discusses Dinnāga's criticism of the Nyāya theory of inference and the meaning and implications of Nyāya-sūtra I. 1. 5.
As noted above, E. Frauwallner has recently been less concerned with the school of Dinnāga and Dbarmakirti. 20 In the field of Buddhist studies, he has mainly been engaged in the study of Abhidharma. In a series of four articles Abhidharma-Studien, published between 1963 and 1972 21, he discusses problems which may not be philosophical in any strict and proper sense of this word, but are nevertheless historically very important for the beginnings and early developments of Buddhist philosophy and have to be taken into consideration for an adequate understanding of that stage of development which was reached in Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakośa. Starting with the early systematizations of
18 Cf. in this connection Steinkellner's review of A.C.S. McDermott, An Eleventh-Century Buddhist Logic of Exists (Dordrecht 1969). IIJ 14 (1972) 115-118.
19 This theme was developed in a paper read by Steinkellner at the 183rd meeting of the American Oriental Society, March 1973 (Washington, D.C.).-Cf. in this connection G. Oberhammer, Der Svābhāvika-Sambandha, eingeschichtlicher Beitrag zur Nyāya-Logik (WZKSO 8, 1964, 131-181); on Dinnāga and Dharmakirti : 135-139.
20 But see his translation of a passage from Dinnaga's Pramänasamuccaya in Materialien zur ältesten Erkenntnislehre der Karmamimāmsā (Wien 1968; VKSKSO 6).
21 I. Pancaskandhakam und Pancavastukam (WZKSO 7, 1963, 20-36 ); II. Die kanonischen Abhidharma-Werke (WZKSO 8, 1964, 59-99); III. Der Abhisamayavādah (WZKS 15, 1971, 69-102); IV. Der Abhidharma der anderen Schulen (WZKS 15, 1971 103-121; 16, 1972, 95-152),

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the Pañcaskandhaka and the Pañcavastuka 22, he follows the development of Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma literature, discusses its agreements with Pāli Abhidhamma works and the possibility of a common source, emphasizes the role of Dharmasri (Abhidharmasāra) as precursor of Vasubandhu, and finally reconsiders the Pāli Abhidhammapițaka and the Sariputräbhidharma which has been attributed to the Dharmaguptaka school.–At this point, we may express our hope that the third volume of Frauwallner's Geschichte der indischen Philosophie (History of Indian Philosophy) will be published soon and thus add to our understanding of the hitherto rather opaque philosophical developments in the Hinayāna schools.
A new and thorough analysis of one of the most basic and central teachings of Buddhism, the pratiyasamutpāda formula, is given by F. Bernhard, the editor of a monumental critical edition of the Udānavarga 23, in his article Zur Interpretation der Pratilyasamutpāda-Formel (BGI 53-63 ); his conclusion is “that originally the second part of the pratityasamutpada formula was not a continuation but a parallel of the first part ” 24.-Referring to Bernhard's edition, L. Schmithausen presents a long series of penetrating philological observations concerning the different recensions of this text: Zu den Rezensionen des Udänavargah (WZKS 14, 1970, 47-124); Philologische Bemerkungen zum Ratnagotravibhāga (Philological Remarks on the Ratnagotravibhäga ) follow one year later ( WZKS 15, 1971, 123-177). Other documents of the scholarship and linguistic sovereignty of this master philologist among contemporary students of Indian thought are : Der Nirvāņa-Abschnitt in der Viniscayasamgrahaņi der Yogācārabhūmiņ (Wien 1969, VKSKSO 9), making accessible, with the help of Tibetan, Chinese and Mongolian versions, an important section of the Yogācārabhūmi, which introduces a new concept of nirvāṇa and has not been preserved in the Sanskrit original ; Zur Literaturgeschichte der älteren YogācāraSchule (ZDMG, Supplement 1/3, 1968, 809-821 ), which discusses problems of the literary history of the older Yogācāra school ; Sautrántika-Voraussetzungen in Vimsatikā und Trimśikā (WZKSO 11, 1967, 109-136), which points out certain doctrinal divergences between these two short treatises by Vasubandhu, especially the fact that the term alayavijñāna does not occur in the Vimsatikā and that it does not advocate the Yogācārin's “eightfold complex of mental series ", which we have in the Trimsika. However, Schmithausen finds certain
22 Cf. in this connection J. Imanishi, Das Pañcavastukam und die Pañcavastukaribhāsā (Göttingen 1969; Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Piilologischhistorische Klasse g. 1959, Nr. 1). Imanishi presents and analyses Sanskrit Abhidharma fragments from the famous Turfan manuscripts.
23 Udänavarga, herausgegeben von F. Bernhard, 2 vols. (Göttingen 1965-1963; Abhandlungen der Akadenie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen. Philologisch-historische Klasse III/54. Sanskrittexte aus den Turfanfunden 10).
24 BGI 63

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Sautrāntika traces also in the Yogācāric Trimśikā. He concludes ( -- relerring, of course, to Frauwallner's "two-Vasubandhu hypothesis"): “On account of these Sautrāotika-elements Vimsatikā and Trimsikā may be attributed to the author of Abhidharmakośa" 25. III. Nyāya and Vaiseșika
The classical period of Nyāya and Vaiseșika in the Ist millenium A.D. is a period of constant conflict with Buddhist philosophy, but at the same time of a remarkable interplay and mediation of ideas. This specific relationship between Nyāya-Vaiseșika and · Buddhist Logic' has, in several exemplary cases, been accentuated by Frauwallper and his disciples.26 However, in their most recent contributions only a somewhat casual attention is paid to the classical and ancient periods of Nyāya and Vaiseșika. L. Schmithausen's Zur Lehre von der vorstellungsfreien Wahrnehmung bei Prasastapāda (WZKS 14, 1970, 125-130 ) critically discusses and rejects M. Hattori's interpretation of the role of
non-qualificative perception' in Prasastapāda 27 and emphasizes the ambiguity which results from the applicability of alocanamātra to both the dravya as qualificand (riseşya ) and its qualifiers (viśeşaņa).-G. Oberhammer, Zur Deutung von Nyāyasūtram 1. 1.5 (WZKSO 10, 1966, 66-72) relates Nyāyasūtra 1.1.5 to a passage in the Carakasamhita and interprets the controversial 'Trividham' as implying trikālam'. The legitimacy of such an interpretation is denied by A. Wezler, Die dreifache Schlußfolgerung im Nyāyasūtra 1. 1.5 (IIJ 11, 1968/69, 190-211 ); Wezler tries to re-interpret the pūrvavat', 'seşavat' and 'sámányavat' in the light of two Buddhist works, sc. the Upāyahrdaya and Pingala's 'commentary on Nāgārjuna's Madhyamakaśāstra.
Some remarkable contributions to the study of Navyanyāya have recently been presented by Frauwallner. His Die Lehre von der zusätzlichen Bestimmung. (upädhiḥ) in Gangesa's Tattvacintamaṇiḥ (Wien 1970, VKSKS 9) gives the text, a German translation and an interpretation of Tattvacintāmaņi II/14 ( with references to the relevant passages in Manikantha and Vardhamana ); this chapter is an important source for our understanding of the concept of upādhi,
25 WZKSO 11, 1967, 136.-Cf. also L. Schmithausen, The Definition of Pratyakşam in the Abhidharmasamuccayaḥ. (WZKS 16, 1972, 153-164); this is a rejoinder to A. Kunst's review of Schmithausen's Mandanamiśra's Vibhiramavivekah (BSOAS 30, 1967), mainly concerning the definition of pratyakṣa in Asanga's Abhidharmasamuccaya as" svasatprakāśābhrānto 'rthaḥ".
26 Cf., e.g. E. Frauwallner, Zu den Fragmenten bud Thistischer Logiker im Nyāy.zvārttikam. (Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 40, 1933, 281-304).
27 Two Types of Non-Qualificative Perception (BGI 161-169).--Classical Vaiseșika is a major field of research for the writer of the present survey; cf. Halbfass, W.: Remarks on the Vaiseșika Concept of Sāmānya, Añjali, Papers on Indology and Buddhism. A Felicitation Vol. pres. to O. H. de A. Wijesekera on his 60th birthday, ed. by J. Tilakasiri (Peradeniya 1970) 137-150; this is followed by several forthcoming publications on related topics.

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as it had been developed in the school of Udayana. 28 The article Prabhakara Upadhyaya (WZKSO 9, 1965, 198-226) discusses the role of the Naiyayika (not the Mimāmsaka) Prabhakara as a forerunner of Gangesa, with special reference to his theory of vyapti and upadhi. Frauwallner's most remarkable contribution in this field, however, is a series of articles on Raghunatha Širomani in WZKS (0): 10 (1966) 86-207; 11 (1967) 140-208; 14 (1970) 161-208. Raghunatha's explication of some passages of the Tattvacintamani (the sāmānyābhāvaprakaraṇa, the vyadhikaraṇadharmāvacchinnābhāvaprakarana and the siddhantalakṣaṇaprakaraṇa) is confronted and compared with that given by his most important predecessors, such as Yajñapati, Jayadeva, Rucidatta, and Vasudeva Sarvabhauma. Thus, Raghunatha's role and position in the development of Navyanyaya is critically examined, and his achievements and his philosophical stature are subjected to some serious questions. What distinguishes him from the older group of Gangeśa commentators (Yajñapti to Vasudeva ), is, in Frauwallner's view, a rather one-sided interest in formal subtleties and in the applicability of concepts and definitions to a variety of often very remote and artificial cases.
IV. Samkhya and Yoga
After a long and remarkable tradition of Samkhya scholarship in Germany and Austria 29, relatively little philosophical attention has been paid to Samkhya and Yoga in the last decade. G. Oberhammer's article Meditation und Mystik im Yoga des Patanjali (WZKSO 9, 1965, 98-118) discusses the meaning and function of samādhi and samāpatti in Pātañjala Yoga. His Gott, Urbild der emanzipierten Existenz im Yoga des Patanjali (Zeitschrift für katholische Theologie, 86, 1964, 197-207) relates Patanjali's idea of God to that of the Great Seer' and points out its prototypical role for the conception of liberated existence. This discussion is to a certain extent continued by A. Wezler, Der Gott des Samkhya: Zu Nyayakusumāñjali 1. 3 (IIJ 12, 1969/70, 255-262); starting with a passage in Udayana's Nyāyakusumāñjali, which is supplemented by a number of thematically related passages, Wezler shows that, already in the days of Pañcasikha, and in spite of the theoretical atheism of Samkhya, Kapila played a quasi-divine role as adividvāms, as prototype of the perfect knower and seer.A very remarkable philological contribution to the study of Samkhya, which has to be mentioned in this connection, is S. A. Srinivasan, Vācaspatimiśra's Tattvakaumudi. Ein Beitrag zur Textkritik bei kontaminierter Überlieferung (Hamburg 1967; Alt-und Neu-Indische Studien 12); it also gives (54 ff.) a careful discussion of the date of Vacaspati and his Tattvakaumudī. 30
28 The text of the anonymous Upadhidarpana, which is also very relevant in this context, will be edited by G. Oberhammer in VKSKS.
29 Cf. Larson, G.: Classical Samkhya (Delhi 1969) 16 ff.
30 Chronological problems concerning Vacaspati (with special reference to his relationship with Mandana, Trilocana, Jayanta ) are also discussed by L. Schmithausen, Some Remarks

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V. Mimämsä and Vedanta
One of the central figures for contemporary research in the field of Indian philosophy is, no doubt, Mandanamiśra. His Vibhramaviveka, according to our present state of knowledge the earliest work of Indian philosophy dealing exclusively with the theme of error, was made fully accessible by L. Schmithausen, Mandanamiśra's Vibhramavivekaḥ. Mit einer Studie zur Entwicklung der indischen Irrtumslehre (Wien 1965; VKSKSO 2). The text of the only known manuscript, an attempted reconstruction, a verse index, German translation and commentary are followed by a comprehensive historical survey of Indien theories of error which leads from the older developments in Mahayana Buddhism, early Vedanta, Vaiseṣika and Mīmāmsā to Diǹnāga, Kumārila, Prabhākara, Dharmakirti, their Naiyayika contemporaries, and to Mandana himself. What is thus presented to us, may be called a specimen of a philologically based philosophical "Problemgeschichte ".-Another contribution to the study of Mandana's thought is T. Vetter, Mandanamiśra's Brahmasiddhiḥ-Brahmakāṇḍaḥ. Übersetzung, Einleitung und Anmerkungen (Wien 1969; VKSKSO 7), containing a German translation, together with introduction and notes, of the Brahma-section of Mandana's Brahmasiddhi 31.-E. Frauwallner, Materialien zur ältesten Erkenntnislehre der· Karmamimāmsā (Wien 1968; VKSKSO 6) deals with problems of earlier Mimāmsā. Specifically, it presents and discusses two of the most important documents of ancient Mimämsä epistemology:
1. Sabarabhasya I.1. 1-5 (Sanskrit and German);
2. Dinnaga's polemics against Mimämsä in the Pramāṇasamuccaya 32 (Tibetan and German). A third section of the book tries to clarify the role of the "vrtlikära " mentioned by Sabarasvamin; according to Frauwallner, he is not identical with the Mimämsä "vrttikära" (identified as Bhavadāsa) who is mentioned in Dinnaga's Pramāṇasamuccaya.
In the field of Vedanta studies, P. Hacker continued his long series of remarkable contributions to an historical and philological exploration of Advaita literature. In Sankara der Yogin und Sankara der Advaitin (BGI 119-148),
on the Problem of the Dare of Vacaspatimiśra (Journal of the Bihar Research Society 54, 1968, 158-164).
31 It is an interesting coincidence and symptomatic of the growing interest in Mandana that in the same year M. Biardeau published her French translation and analysis of the complete text of the Brahmasiddhi: La philosophie de Mandana Misra, vue à partir de la Brahmasiddhi (Paris 1969; Publications de l'Ecole Française de l'Extrême-Orient. 76).
32 Cf. Frauwallner's rejoinder to the review by H. Scharfe (JAOS 91, 1971, 316-318), mainly concerning problems of translation and the indentity of the "vrttikära": Zum Vrttikāragranthaḥ (WZKS 16, 1972, 165-167).-A major part of the passages translated from the Pramanasamuccaya has been made accessible in the same year by M. Hattori, Dinnaga, On Perception (Cambridge, Mass. 1968; HOS 47).

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Hacker tries to establish the identity of Sarkarabhagavatpāda, author of a Yogabhāşyavivarana (published in 1952), with the famous author of the Brahmasü:rabhásya. This amounts to the thesis that Sankara was first an adherent of Pātañjala Yoga and then turned an Advaitin; in support of his thesis, Hacker finds numerous conceptual affinities to the Patañjala system still in Sankara's authentic Advaita works 32a In Relations of Early Advaitins to Vaişņavism (WZKSO 9, 1965, 147-154 ) he argues for the equally unorhodox thesis that Sankara did not come from a Saiva, but from a Vaişnava milieu. Another Sankara study is T. Vetter, Zur Bedeutung des Illusionismus bei Sankara (BGI 497-423); it distinguishes two kinds of avidyā in Sankara's Brahmasūtrabhāșya, one related to the individual and its liberation, the other one to cosmic illusion, and both different from the avidyā concept of the Māņdūkyakārikābhāşya, which is regarded as an earlier work by Sankara.-An interesting chapter of Advaita philosopy of language is made available in German translation in T. Vetter Sarvajñātman's Samkṣepaśārīrakam, 1. Kapitel : Einführung, Übersetzung und Anmerkungen (Wien 1972; VKSKSO 11.)
A useful survey and analysis of the Pañcapūdikāvivarana of the 10th century Advaita commentator Prakāśātman is given by K. Cammann, Das System des Advaita nai h der Lehre Prakāśātmans (Wiesbaden 1965; Münchener Indologische Studien 4). Some passages in the same text are discussed by L. Schmithausen, Zur advaitischen Theorie der Objekterkenntnis (BGI 329-360); Schmithausen distinguishes and analyses three different theories of objectknowledge in Prakāśātman's Vivaraña. Continuing earlier articles on jīvanmukti in the Upanişads etc. J. F. Sprockhoff examines the concept of jīvanmukti according to Vidyāraṇya's Jivanmuktiviveka in Der Weg zur Erlösung bei Lebzeiten, ihr Wesen und ihr Wert, nach dem Jivanmuktiviveka des Vidyaranya (WZKS 14, 1970, 131-159 ).
Two contributions to the study of Visişğadvaita have recently been brought out by G. Oberhammer : Die Theorie der Schlußfolgerung bei Parāśarabhatta (BGI 253-273 ) illustrates a chapter of Višişțădvaita logic and epistemology between Rāmānuja and Venkatanātha, trying to reconstruct the theory of inference, as expounded by Parāśarabhațţa in his Tattvaratnākara. Problems of early Visisțådvaita, paricularly its connexions with Pāñcarātra, are examined (with special reference to Yamuna's Āgamaprāmāṇya and the relevant passages of Sankara's Brahmasūtrabhāşya) in Yamunamuni's Interpretation von Brahmasūtram 2. 2. 42-45. Untersuchung zur Pāñcarátra-Tradition der Rāmānuja-Schule (Wien 1971; VKSKS 10).
32a Cf. also Hacker, P.; Notes on the Mandukyopanisad and Sarkara's Agamaśāstra. vivarana. India Major: Congrat. Vol. pres. to J. Gonger, (Leiden 1972) 115-132. 0,23

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WILHELM HALBFASS
VI. Some General and Miscellaneous Contributions :
A representative of the Marxist approach to Indian thought and culture is W. Ruben of East Berlin; accordingly, he emphasizes naturalistic and materialistic trends and tries to understand the development of Indian philosophy in the context of social and economic developments. Among his more recent contributions are Seit wann gibt es Philosophie in Indien? (BGI 295-302 ), which discusses the question of the historical origins of Indian philosophy, and Die gesellschaftliche Entwicklung im alten Indien. Bd. 4: Die Entwicklung der Philosophie (Berlin 1971, VIO 67), a volume on Indian Philosophy which is part of a comprehensive social history of ancient India,33 One of Ruben's disciples, H. Rüstau, discusses two ways of linking Advaita Vedanta philosophy with the ideology of the national liberation movement in India in Swami Vivekananda and Lokamanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Unterschiede und Gemeinsamkeiten ihrer philosophischen Auffassungen (Neue Indienkunde-New Indology.' Festschrift W. Ruben zum 70. Geburtstag. Berlin 1970, VIO 72, 539-549 ).-Another contribution published in East Berlin is R. Hauschild, Die Aştāvakra.Gita (Berlin 1967; Abhandlungen der Sächsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil. -hist. Klasse, 58/2).- Indian approaches to the problem of “proving" the existence of God are discussed by G. Oberhammer, Zum Problem des Gottesbeweises in der indischen Philosophie 34 (Numen. International Review for the History of Religions. 12, 1965, 1-34); mechanistic and theistic types of Hindu cosmogony are contrasted by P. Hacker, Mechanistische und theistische Kosmogonie im Hinduismus ( Zeitschrift für Missionswissemschaft und Religionswissenschaft 49, 1965, 17-28).-D. Schlinghoff, Fragmente einer Palmblatthandschrift philosophischen Inhalts aus Ostturkistan (Ms. Spitzer ) (BGI 323-328 ), presents the oldest known evidence-from a palm-leaf manuscript discovered in Central Asia-for the Parvan arrangement of the Mahābhārata and for the existence of the doctrinal and philosophical parts of the sāntiparvan.35
33 Ruben's book is divided into six main chapters, which discuss six "period” of ancient Indian thought from "Rgvedic mythology ( 1200-900 B.C.)." to what Ruben calls "completion of epistemology (300-500 A.D.)".-One of the special features of the book is that at the end of each chapter it inserts a brief comparison with the respective developments in Greek thought; the main purpose of these synoptic sections is to illustrate how in both cultures different stages of philosophical development are conditioned by corresponding stages of socio-economic development.
34 Oberhammer's article follows the development and its attempted solutions in Nyāya thought fro.n Paksılasvämin and Uddyotakara to Trilocana and Jayanta, including a detailed discussion of Dharmakirti's critical observations concerning the logical legitimacy of proving the existence of God (Isvara ).-In this context, the unpublished doctoral dissertation by G. Chemparathy, Aufkommen und Entwicklung der Lehre von einem höchsten Wesen in Nyāya und Vaiseșika Wien 1963), has to be mentioned; in the meantiine, the author has presented numerous other contributions in this field of research.
35 Cf. D. Schlingloff, The Oldest Extant Paryan-List of the Mahābhārata (JAOS 89, 1967. 334-338).

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THE STUDY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY AND AUSTRIA 375 BGI BIP HOS IIJ JAOS VIO Abbreviations = Beitrage zur Geistesgeschichte Indiens. Festschrift fur E. Frauwaliner (WZKSO 12-13, 1968-69 ) - K. H. Potter, Bibliography of Indian Philosophies (Delhi 1970; Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, 1 ) = Harvard Oriental Series (Cambridge, Mass ) = Indo-Iranian Journal ( 's-Gravenhage ) = Journal of the American Oriental Society (New Haven, Conn.) = Veroffentlichungen des Instituts fur Orientforschung (Deuts che Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin ) = Veroffentlichungen der Kommission fur Sprachen und Kul turen Sud- und Ostasiens [since 1970, vol. 9: Sudasiens ], published by Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Wien), Philosophisch-historische Klasse, in the series of its Sitzungsberichte. = Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Sud- und Ostasiens [ since 1970, vol. 14: Sudasiens ] = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft ( Wiesbaden ) VKSKS[O] WZKSIO] ZDMG