Some Jain Versions of Act of Truth Theme

Author(s): Paul Dundas
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Some Jain Versions of the
‘Act of Truth' Theme
Paul Dundas
Scholars of Hindu and Buddhist narrative have long been familiar with the authoritative verbal action which takes the name "act of truth" or "truth act" from the Pāli expression saccakiriya. Having its origins in the Veda and deriving its force from the perception that truth (satya) is closely connected both ontologically and etymologically with existent reality (sat), an act of truth effects its result for the person activating it through the magic power of words which enunciate something indubitably true, at least for the utterer. According to George Thompson, who has recently put the subject on a more sophisticated footing in terms both of general theoretical background and exegesis of specific Vedic examples, an act of truth is "an act of personal authority, an assertion that rests on the power of the performer to accomplish sometimes very remarkable things....by the mere utterance of certain words, and in a recognisably regular and formal way". Thompson goes on to mention that all earlier scholarly accounts of the Vedic act of truth have pointed to the occurrence within it of a phrase corresponding to "by (that) truth...", i.e. satyena, or in early Vedic versions rtena, sometimes prefaced by tena? Use of the word "truth" seems then to have been an integral part of this verbal action at the outset.
However, just as attitudes towards the authority and status of the Veda did not remain fixed in ancient Indian society, so the literary context of the truth act also changed, even to the extent, so Brown suggested, of its migrating to the Near East and being employed in mutated form in a famous episode in the life of Jesus occurring in the Gospel of St. Matthew3. If the Vedic vision of the near cosmic power of truth gradually weakened, alternative visions of what constituted truth emerged in the non-brahman

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Some Jain Versions of the 'Act of Truth' Theme
śramana milieu. Renate Söhnen-Thieme has argued that the act of truth (which she also calls "truth-spell") disappeared in the post-Vedic Brahmanas, where its function was replaced by an appeal to what had come to be perceived as the more efficacious powers of knowledge and asceticism, while it continued in narrative literature such as the Buddhist Jātakas (as well as, of course, the two great epics)".
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Unfortunately, although the Buddhist versions of the act of truth have often been referred to, little attention has been paid to the possibility of the occurrence of acts of truth in Jain literature. Bloomfield's description in his lengthy analysis of the late sixteenth century Bhāvadeva Sûri's Parsvanathacarita of such an act (in this case called satyaśrävană), in which a queen obtains passage across a river and back again by declarations of the truth of her husband's fidelity and an ascetic's sanctity, seems to have been the only Jain example noticed by earlier scholars working in this area".
Certainly, the Jain scriptural canon, unlike its Buddhist equivalent, does not seem to have proved fertile ground for this narrative theme. The early Jain scriptural view of truth was that it was interlinked with restraint and nonviolence and without any obvious magical powers. However, this is not in itself reason to discount the possibility of Jain versions of the act of truth, even in the canon. In a recent paper, Professor Colette Caillat has drawn attention to the fact that the well-known chapter 12 of the Uttaradhyayana Sutra, in which the Jain monk Harikeśa, the true brahman, is supernaturally protected from physical violence at the hands of a group of sacrificing brahmans, evinces what "amounts to "an Act of Truth" " performed by the purohita's wife who bears formal witness to his genuine asceticism'. John Cort has also drawn attention to at least one other act of truth in Hemacandra's version of the life of Mahavira in his Triṣastiśalakāpuruşacarita. These do suggest the possibility that there may be rather more examples, albeit in slightly altered shape, of Jain acts of truth than scholarship has yet allowed. Without in any way intending to be exhaustive, I draw attention here to a few of these, taken from medieval narrative literature, in the hope that they may be of some interest to the great scholar who is being honoured by this volume.
Of the examples I will describe, most are connected with marital fidelity. One example, however, refers to the truth of the Jain religion and

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might best be treated first. It occurs in the tenth century Digambara Harisena's Brhatkathakośa, a story collection intended to illustrate the verses of Sivārya's Bhagavati Ārādhana'. Story fifty-four of this anthology, “The Enlightenment of Rudradatta by his Wife (Rudradattapriyaprabodha)" exemplifies the virtue of not giving up one's religion, the context being the relationship between the saiva and Digambara Jain communities to The Saiva Rudradatta ostensibly abandons his religion in order to marry the pious Jain girl Jinamati but then reverts to Saivism after the wedding. Although his wife suggests to him that they each follow their separate religious paths, he refuses to allow her to practise Jainism and tries to force her to convert to saivism. One day, the city in which they live is set on fire by attacking barbarians and their house threatened by the conflagration. The couple agree that they will both follow whichever deity protects the house. To this end, they each perform an act of truth, Rudradatta faces north and, after calling upon the guardian deities, affirms the supremacy of Siva, by whose will the world proceeds, the Saiva path and initiation into it, calling upon the god for protection, if these claims are indeed soll.
But "although he invoked the true name of siva" (mahādevasya sannäma gļhnato'py asya), the fire burns all the more fiercely, and continues to do so even when Rudradatta invokes other Hindu gods. In response to his plea to call upon the Jina to protect them, Jinamati, "having ritually undertaken an act of abstention" (pratyakhyānamn vidhāya), enunciates her act of truth with the words, "If the Jinas are endowed with omniscience, free from passion, without mishap, lacking in passion or mishap, if the religious path of nonviolence taught by them is concerned with compassion for all creatures and is the basis of the happiness of heaven and earth, if the Jain ascetic initiation removes rebirth, then let it quickly protect me and my husband and sons”12. She then made an offering to the Jina and stood in the kāyotsarga position and, while she was carrying out this observance "with firm mind” (sthiramanasā), the fire ceased and the barbarians fled in fear. As a result of this miracle, Rudradatta became a Jain.
The second example occurs in story seven (the Vimalakahā) of Maheśvara Suri's (first half of eleventh century) Nanapamcamikahão, a narrative collection illustrating the benefits of observing the Jñānapañcamī festival day!3. The early part of the story describes

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Vimala's previous births. He was originally a brahman, deeply preoccupied with the necessity of purity of food, who cut off his affectionate wife's hands on learning that she had been secretly mixing milk into his meals in order to increase his strength. Despite his remorse, he was subsequently reborn himself without hands in a poor family as Tumtaa (“Handless")?4. Then through acknowledging the power of the Jñānapañcamí day he was reborn as Vimala in Benares (Vārānasi) with magical healing power in his hands. The queen of the city became smitten with adulterous passion for him, but he did not respond to her advances, claiming that a secret wrong could not go unhidden in the world, 15 since the five gods of the directions would see it. In anger, the queen falsely told her husband the king that she had been raped by Vimala (v. 76), as a result of which he cut off Vimala's hands (v. 89). Vimala then in front of the onlookers fixed his thought on the Jina and "without his hands" (ujjhiyatumtī) made an act of truth (vv. 93-4): "My fate is thus (?). If I have no fault with regard to what the king in his anger says about me, then let my hands grow as they were before"16. Then immediately the goddess who had been Vimala's wife in his existence as a brahman restored his hands, making them glow with shining light to awaken the assembled people to the Jain religion.
The next two examples occur in the Brhatkathākośa (nos. 88-90) dealing with female chastity in illustration of Bhagavatī Ārādhanā v. 999.
The first of these is the story of Rohinī, the wife of Vasudeva, and is connected with the Krsna cycle. The scene is the city of Saurī at the border of śūrasena. Because of Rohini's great affection for her son, the ninth Baladeva, it is popularly but falsely (v. 6 : satyena parivarjitām) assumed they are lovers. Vasudeva curses his wife and gets her to stand in the käyotsarga position in the middle of the river Yamunā when it is in spate. Rohini gets the river to stop its course and the people acknowledge her purity. She then makes an act of truth (v. 21), requesting the Yamunā, if she is indeed pure, to flow to the north of the city instead of the south? The river heard the voice of Rohini "which was endowed with truth and firmness" (satyadhairyasametāyāh) and flowed on the north side of the city, which because of her statement (vākya) it does even now. As a result of this miracle (prātihārya), many pure minded men and women became Jains.

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The second example (Bṛhatkathākośa 89) is a highly condensed version of the story of Sītā. Here she is simply depicted in upright terms, whereas an earlier retelling of the Rāmāyaṇa in the Brhatkathākosa has presented the violence of the story of Rama's war against Rāvana and the demons as her responsibility (84.57)18.
Jambu-jyoti
The scene is the city of Saketa in the region of Vinītā1. Rāma ignites. a fire to test Sita's purity (suddhyartham), whereupon (v. 4) she makes an act of truth: "If I have desired any man other than Rama even in my mind, oh people (!), then burn me, fire; otherwise do not do so"20. Having spoken thus, Sītā, urged on by Rama, entered the fire which then became a great lotuspond. Immediately after this miracle (prātihārya) devised (prakalpitam) by the gods, Sită took dikṣā (v. 7).
According to Kulkarni,21 the source for Sītā becoming a nun is Ravişena's (seventh century) version of the Rāmāyaṇa, the Padmapurāṇa, and it might be worth juxtaposing Harisena's version with the more formal and elaborate example of the act of truth given by Ravisena which actually uses the word "satyam"22. Sarga 105 of the Padmapurāṇa deals with Sītā's entering the fire. Firstly, she assumes the kayotsarga posture for an instant, praises the Jinas, the siddhas and all monks (vv. 21-2) and then performs an act of truth (vv. 25-8): "I do not even in a dream exalt (? param.... samudvahāmi) in deed, thought (or) speech any other man except Rāma. This is my truth (satyam). If I speak this falsely (anṛtam), then let this fire consume me instantaneously even though I have not entered it. If I do not even in my thoughts exalt any other man than Rama, then let this fire not burn me, pure as I am. This fire can burn me (if I am) heretical, evil, low and unchaste but should not do so, as I am chaste and dutiful"23. She then entered the fire, whereupon it became water.

We might at this juncture ask on the basis of the examples given above whether there is such a phenomenon as a standard Jain version of the act of truth. The Jain examples clearly share a common shape (whether or not the gods of the directions are invoked) with their Hindu and Buddhist equivalents by utilising the formula of the type "if something is the case, then let this be the result". However, the Jain versions (with the exception of the Padmapurāṇa) clearly do not feel it necessary to integrate the word satya into the utterance. What is more marked is the linkage with some

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sort of specifically Jain observance, such as the kāyotsarga posture and/or mental concentration on the Jina. It is as much the power and truth of Jain practice as of truth itself that effects the desired miraculous result and the ensuing conversion of many witnesses to Jainism.
This can be seen quite clearly in story ninety of the Brhatkathakośa which follows immediately after the stories of Rohini and Sītā described above, serving almost as a commentary upon them. Jinadatta falsely accuses (abhyākhyānam dadau) his wife Jinadāsī of adultery as they are travelling to Mithilā through a forest. Because of this she performs kāyotsarga near a lion "with the aim of (establishing) the purity of her conduct" (svacăritravisuddhyartham). The lion pays homage to her with triple pradaksinā as she performs the pratimā and goes off without harming her. "Having purified herself carefully there through this ritual” (anena vidhinā tatra sodhayitva svam ādarat) she took to asceticism, having paid homage to the tirthankara Sumati. Many men in the caravan became Jains (Jinadharmam prapedire) after seeing such a miracle (v.7). Here the context of accusation and miraculous justification remains the same as in the earlier examples, except that the result is now gained exclusively through the reconfirming of pure Jain behaviour.
My final example shows how the act of truth theme could be recast in a rather different narrative context. It occurs in the first chapter of the Pañcatantra, not normally thought of as a Jain text, situated as it is in a more general world of folklore, nitiśāstra and brahman lore. Although attempts to establish the supposed originals of Indian narrative collections are problematic, Edgerton's reconstruction of the text has come to be the version in general scholarly use24. Nonetheless, the Jain monk Pūrnabhadra Suri's recension dating from the end of the twelfth century has remained an important version through which the Pañcatantra has been mediated to an English-reading audience25. Although it is a particularly good example of the Jain appropriation of pan-Indian literary genres and texts, no study seems to have yet been dedicated to elucidating to what extent Pūrnabhadra's version of the Pañcatantra might have a specifically Jain flavour compared to Edgerton's reconstructed original. However, one passage does throw interesting light on the treatment of the act of truth theme and the manner in which it could be varied.

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The story in question is one of the most cynical in Sanskrit narrative literature. It involves a weaver, his adulterous wife and her gobetween, a barber's wife. The two women have changed places to deceive the weaver and enable his wife to go and meet her lover. In a fit of drunken rage, the weaver mutilates the gobetween, thinking it was his wife, by cutting off her nose. The weaver's wife returns and the wretched gobetween goes back home with her nose in her hands. When the weaver, having emerged from his stupor, starts to upbraid his wife again, she, who is of course unmutilated, performs a spurious act of truth to convince him of her chastity : "To hell with you, evil man ! Who is capable of mutilating me, an extremely virtuous woman ? Hear me, guardian deities of the directions. If I have not known even in my thoughts any man other than the husband I married when young, then by this truth (anena satyena) let my face become whole.”26 The result is that the weaver on seeing his faithless wife's face, nose and all, is duped into reconciliation with her.
Falk, in his study of the sources of the Pañcatantra, has shown how the original author of the text (whether or not he was a brahman called Vişnuśarman) adopted ethically positive stories and themes from the Jātaka collection and the Mahabharata but adapted and reshaped them to fit a new narrative context of cynical and selfish worldly wisdom and counteracting quickwittedeness27. The episode of the weaver and his wife, while not referred to by Falk, exemplifies this excellently. Here we have an almost audacious reversal of the act of truth theme designed to demonstrate the cleverness of the wicked and the gullibility of the slowwitted. Its force in the Pañcatantra, or at least this version of it, could only come from a prior familiarity with earlier "standard" examples of acts of truth employing the word satya and intended to effect a miraculous result through affirmation of a moral or religious truth.
The Jain Purnabhadra's version, while not in any way squeamish about the narrative theme, does away with the specific invocation of truth found in Edgerton's reconstructed version and instead makes the weaver's wife ascribe the "miracle" to the gods of the directions being compelled to restore her nose by the power of her chastity28. In this respect, Pūrnabhadra seems to follow the structure of the acts of truth found in the Brhatkathākośa and Nanapamcamikahão described above.

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Annotation : 1. George Thompson, "On Truth-Acts in Vedic", Indo-Iranian Journal (forthcoming).
Cf. also Alex Wayman, "The Hindu-Buddhist Rite of Truth-An Interpretation”, in Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Studies in Indian Linguistics (Professor M. B. Emeneau Şastipūrti Volume), Deccan College, Poona University and Annamalai University, Annamalainagar : Centre of Advanced Study in Linguistics 1968, pp. 365-69 who wishes to translate kiriyā/kriyā as "rite". Cf., more recently, Catherine WeinbergerThomas, Cendres d'Immortalité : La crémation des veuves en Inde, Editions de Seuil 1996, pp. 31-2. Although she does not deal specifically with the satyakriya, Weinberger-Thomas offers an apt characterisation of truth in the Indian context as something which has the capacity to create by virtue of emanating from that
quality which is itself true (sat). 2. Thompson op. cit. 3. See W. N. Brown, The Indian and Christian Miracles of Walking on the Water,
Chicago-London 1928, for a treatment of possible parallels in the accounts of Christ and the Buddha walking on water. For further discussion, see Norbert Klatt, Literarkritische Beiträge zum Problem Christlich-Buddhistischer Parallelen, Köln:
E. J. Brill 1982, pp. 182-98. 4. Söhnen-Thieme, "On the Concept and Function of satya ("truth") in Ancient Indian
Literature", International Conference on Sanskrit and Related Studies : September 23-26, 1993 (Proceedings), Cracow : The Enigma Press 1995, p. 240. The act of truth theme was still being used as late as the sixteenth century. For a Telugu version occurring in Allasāni Peddana's Manucaritramu, see David Shulman, "First Man, Forest Mother : Telugu Humanism in the Age of Krsnadevarāya" in David Shulman (ed.), Syllables of Sky: Studies in South Indian Civilisation in honour of
Velcheru Narayana Rao, Delhi : Oxford University Press 1995, p. 135. 5. Maurice Bloomfield, The Life and Stories of the Jaina Savior Pārsvanātha, Delhi :
Gian Publishing House 1985 (reprint), pp. 80-1. This is referred to by W. Norman Brown, "The Metaphysics of the Truth Act(* Satyakriya)", in Mélanges d'Indianisme à la Mémoire de Louis Renou, Publications de Institut de Civilisation Indiennes
Vol. 28, Paris : Editions E. de Boccard 1968, p. 176. 6. See Colette Caillat, “The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhāṣā) in the Āyāranga-and
Dasaveyaliya-Suttas", in M. A. Dhaky and Sagarmal Jain (ed.), Pt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania Felicitation Volume 1 : Aspects of Jainology Vol. III, Varanasi : P. V. Research Institute 1991, pp. 7 and 10. Jain philosophical and linguistic views on

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the nature of truth are described by Sāgarmal Jain, Jain Bhāṣā-Darsan, Dilli/ Pāšan: Bhogilal Lehercand Bharatiya Saṁskṛti Samsthān 1966, pp. 87-100. Peter Flügel, “Power and Insight in Jain Discourse" (forthcoming), discusses Jain attitudes to language and truth from a sociological perspective.
Although this is not the context in which to discuss cross-cultural notions of truth, it might be worth drawing attention, in passing, to the remarkable account of the nature and function of truth as employed by the Charans (Caranas) or bards in traditional Rajasthan given by Denis Vidal, Violence and Truth: A Rajasthani Kingdom Confronts Colonial Authority, Delhi : Oxford University Press 1997, pp. 100-04. According to Vidal (p. 103), “....the truth-function of the bards cannot be directly defined in terms of values which simply contrast truth with fiction and celebrate the power of the true over the false. The full value of a bard's words was acknowledged, not so much because it enabled truth to overcome falsehood, as because it embodied the much more awe-inspiring capacity to make either "truth"
or "falsehood” prevail, by lending them the power of ritual inspiration". 7. Colette Caillar, "The Beating of the Brahmins (Uttaradhyayana 12)", in Nalini
Balbir and Joachim K. Bautze (ed.), Festschrift Klaus Bruhn, Reinbek : Studien zur
Indologie und Iranistik 1994, pp. 255-66. 8. John E. Cort, Liberation and Wellbeing : A Study of the Svetambar Murtipujak
Jains of North Gujarat, Harvard University Ph. D. dissertation 1989, pp. 419-20. The specific example referred to is of deities burning down a house after an act of truth asserting the genuineness of Mahāvīra's asceticism by Makkhali Gosāla who has been angered by being given stale alms food. According to Cort, there are several acts of truth in this portion of the Trişastisalākāpurusacarita. I refrain from
referring further to this text as I do not have access to the original Sanskrit. 9. Harisena, Bșhatkathākośa, Ed. A. N. Upadhye, Simghi Jain Series, Vol. 17,
Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1943. (The text is precisely dated to ś.s. A.D.
93,- Editers. 10. It might be noted that P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification, Delhi/Varanasi/
Patna : Motilal Banarasidass 1979, p. 300 note 43, cites this story in passing,
albeit without reference to it containing an act of truth. 11. Vv. 50-2 : bho bho śrnuta me vākyam lokapálā manoharam
lokapalanakodyukto Rudradatto jagau tada || yadi mäheśvaro dharmo devo paramah Sivahtasyecchayā pravarteta jagat sarvam hrdi sthitam || yadi

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nirvanadīkså syān nirmalā 'vadyavarjitā sa devo raksatın mām ca sarvar lokam sabandhavam 11
12. Vv. 60-2 : kevalajñānsampannā vītarāgā gatāpadah | rāgamohaparityakta yady
arhanto bhavanty ami || ahimsálaksano dharmaḥ sarvasattvadayāparah ! lokadvayasukhādhāras tadukto vidyate yadi || yadi nirvānadīksă syāt
saṁsārocchedakāriņā 'tato mām patiputrādisamyuktām raksatu drutam || 13. Maheśvarasūri, Nanapamcamikahão, Ed. A. S. Gopāņi, Simghi Jain Series Vol.
25, Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1949.
14. For Prākrit tumta and a variety of words connected with it, see R. L. Turner,
A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages. London: Oxford University
Press 1966, entry 5468. (cf. the Gujarāti word 'thurthā (Landless) --- Editors. 15. Here there is an echo of the earlier secret giving of milk, described as gūdhāim
kajjain in v. 18. 16. Vimalo vi jaṇasamakkham hiyae thavuna jinavaram devam | pabhanai ujjhiyatumi
evam ciya majjha divvam tu || jai natthi majjha doso jam rāyā bhanai kohagayacitto
'to nīsararitu hatthā jaha puvim hortayā asi || 17. yady-aham buddhim āyātā dakșinasyā disah purah tao vrajottarām āśām Yamune
mama väkyatah || 18. Cf. V. M. Kulkarni, The Story of Rāma in Jain Literature, Ahmedabad : Saraswati
Pustak Bhandar 1990, p. 148. 19. For Jain usage of the names Sāketa and Vinītā, see Hans Bakker, "Ayodhyā :
le nom et le lieu", Revue de l'Histoire des Religions 203 1986, pp. 59-60.
20. Ramadevam vihâyânyanaram me yadi vāñchitam manasā 'pi janā vahne tato
mām daha mă nyatha || 21. Op. cit. p. 151. 22. Ravisena, Padmapurana, Vol. 3, Ed. Pannālal Jain, Jñänapitha Mürtidevi Jaina
Granthamālā Vol 26, Kāšī: Bhåratīya Jñānapītha 1959. 23. karmanā manasā vācā Rāmam muktvā param naram | samudvahāmi na svapne
py anyar satyam idam mama | yady etad anrtam vācmi tadā mām esa pavakan bhasmasädbhāvam aprāptām api prāpayatu ksanat | atha Padman naram nanyam manasă 'pi vahā[m]y aham | tato yam jvalano dhaksin mā māṁ śuddhisamanvitam || mithyādarśaninīm pāpām kşudrikāṁ vyabhicărinim | jvalano mām dahaty esa satim vratasthitam tu ma !!

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334 Paul Dundas Jambu-jyoti The equivalent passage in the critical edition of the Ramayana 7.88. 10, prior to Sita's rescue by the goddess of the earth, is comparatively abrupt and does not employ the word satya : yathaham Raghavad anyam manasa pi na cintaye | tatha me Madhavi devi vivaram datur arhati || However, the apparatus gives a variant somewhat similar in shape to Ravisena's version : manasa karmana vaca yatha Ramam samarthaye yathaitat satyam uktam me vedmi Ramat param na ca || According to Sohnen-Thieme, op. cit. p. 241, there are no real attestations of an act of truth in the original main stories of both epics, however often the motif occurs in subordinate tales and legends : "Sita's satyakriya, which she uses to disappear forever, is a quite pessimistic and unheard of use of the "truth act", perhaps reflecting the lateness of book seven of the Ramayana." 24. See Franklin Edgerton, The Panchatantra : Volume 1. Text and Critical Apparatus, New Haven : American Oriental Society 1924. Patrick Olivelle, The Pancatantra : The Book of India's Folk Wisdom, Oxford / New York: Oxford University Press 1997 is a recent translation of Edgerton's reconstructed text. The bibliography of this book should be consulted for the scholarly literature voicing scepticism concerning Edgerton's methodology. For the problems entailed in the reconstruction of another narrative text, see Donald Nelson, "Brhatkatha Studies : The Problem of an Ur-text", Journal of Asian Studies 37 1978, pp. 663-76. . 25. See Johannes Hertel, The Panchatantra: A Collection of Hindu Tales in the Recension, called Panchakhyanaka, and dated 1199 A. D., of the Jaina Monk, Purnabhadra, Harvard Oriental Series Vol. 11, Cambridge, Mass : Harvard University 1908. For a recent English version of Purnabhadra's recension, see Visnu Sarma : The Pancarantra, translated by Chandra Rajan, Penguin Books 1993. 26. See Edgerton op. cit. p. 55 : are papa ko mam mahasatim virupayituin samarthah. srnvantu me lokapalah. yady aham kaumaram bhartaram muktva n'anyam parapurusar manasa \pi vedmi, tad anena satyena 'vyangam mukham astu. 27. Harry Falk, Quellen des Pancatantra, Wiesbaden : Otto Harrassowitz 1978. 28. Hertel's edition, p. 30 (punctuation added) : "tad yadi mama satitvam asti, tad ete deva bhuyo 'pi tadrgrupam nasikam kurvantu. atha va manasapi parapuruso 'bhilasitah, tan mam bhasmasan nayantu" iti. evam uktva bhuyo 'pi tam aha, "bho duratman, pasya, me satitvaprabhavena tadrg eva nasika samjata". 000