Rules Concerning Speech in The Ayaranga and Dasaveyaliya Sutras

Author(s): Collete Caillat
Publisher: Z_Aspect_of_Jainology_Part_3_Pundit_Dalsukh_Malvaniya_012017.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250282/1

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THE RULES CONCERNING SPEECH (BHĀSĀ) IN THE ĀYARANGA-AND DASAVEYÁLIYA-SUTTAS
Collette Caillat
One of the major vows taken by the ascetics of ancient India, whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or Jaina, is "not to make any untrue statement!.” In fact, this prescription applies to each and every individual, for (as is well known), speech is assumed to exert extremely potent forces. It is therefore quite natural that the Šāstras lay down rules about what is or is not to be said, and where, when, how it should be uttered, not only on solemn occasions, but also in daily life. Such prescriptions are specified in the Scriptures of the Buddhists and the Jainas
1. For a general survey and appraisal, H. JACOBI, SBE 22 (London. 1884,
repr. Delhi, 1964), Introduction, p. XXII ff. 2. For general considerations on "oral rites", M. MAUSS, Theorie de la
magie, reprinted in Sociologie et anthropologie, Paris, 1950, p. 48 ff.--As far as India is concerned, L. RENOU, Etudes vediques et pāņineennes, 1, Paris 1955 (Institut de Civilisation Indienne de 'Universite de Paris 1), p. 1-27; IDEM, Etudes sur le vocabulaire du Rgveda, Pondichery, 1958 (Institut Francais d'Indologie 5), on nāman, p. 10-12 le nom n'est jamais" "pretexte, apparence" (oppose a "realite"); il est au contraire la realite meme, il touche a l'essence de l'etre....", p. 11). Moreover, see, e.g., many of J. Gonda's books and articles, among others, Jan GONDA, Die Religionen Indiens I, Veda und älterer Hinduismus (Die Religionen der Menschheit. Herausgegeben von C. M. Schroder, 11),
Stuttgart, 1960, p, 21 ff. (Das Wort"). 3. Vāg ghy evaitat sarvam || vācā hyevaitat sarvam aptam,
“Everything here is speech ./ for by speech everything here is obtained", Satapatha Brāhmaṇa 10.5.1.3 (ed. A. Weber; Berlin-London, 1885 translation J. Eggeling SBE 43, Oxford, 1897, repr. Delhi, 1963); cf. ib, 14.3.2.20:
vācyarthāh niyatāḥ sarve, vār-mālā väg-nisritāḥ "all things (have their nature) determined by speech; speech is their root, and from speech they proceed", Mn 4,256 (trsl, G. Bühler);
vãi-mayāniha astrăại -nisthani tathaiba ca
tasmād vācah param nästi väg ghi sarvasya karanam, "the śāstras are made up of words, and words are the source of everything", Natyaśāstra, 9.3 (ed. M. Ghosh, Calcutta, 1967, trsl. Id, Calcutta, 1951, BI 272).
ta

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as well as in the Dharmaśāstras; but, whereas in the last mentioned books, the rules concern all social categories, in the Buddhist Pāli Tipitaka and in the Jaina Siddhānta, they are first and foremost meant for the members of the religious community
The Svetămbara Jainas have expressed their views on bhāsā (bhasa) in several passages of their canon?. The topic is investigated from different angles in various parts of Viyahapannatti, V yakhya-prajñapti, and systematically treated in the eleventh chapter, called "bhāsā-paya", of the Pannavaņā--a precious survey of which we owe to Pandit Daisukh Malvania. Moreover, the first Anga and the second Mülasutra of the canor deal with bhāsā from the point of view of discipline, in their famous chapters which I propose to consider here; they are Ayar (anga-sutta) 2.4.1-2 (in prose), Dasaveyaliya-sutta 7 (in verses) 3. I shall not examine the interconnexions between both, they have been studied by Dr. Ghatage in NIA 1.2 (may 1938, p. 130-137)*. I only wish to show that a comparison between these developments and their old Brahmanic counterparts5 help to realize how the Jainas have succeeded in .1 References to canonical developments concerning bhāså in W.
SCHUBRING, Die Lehre der Jainas...., Berlin u. Leipzig, 1935 (GIAPHA 3.7) p. 103-104 = IDEM, The Doctrine of the Jainas, Delhi...., 1962 $ 74. For Viyahapannatti, cf. J. DELEU, Viyahapannatti...., Brugge 1970 (Rijksuniv. te Gent, Werken uitgegeven door de Fac. van Letteren en
Wijsbegeerte 151), Index of terms and topics, p. 345. 2. Cf. Pannavanasuttam, Ed. PUNYAVIJAYA-MALVANIA-BHOJAK,
Bombay 1971 (Jaina-Agama Series 9), Part 2, Introduction, p. 84-88 (translated into English by Dr. Nagin J. SHAH, p. 321-326,"on spoken language").
I had the good fortune to read this chapter with Pandit Dalsukh Malvania: I wish to seize this opportunity to express my affectionate gratitude to him, his family and circle of friends. The Jaina (and Buddhist) statements concerning addhamā gaha bhasă (māgaha-bhāsā, mūla-bhāsā), etc., will not be taken into consideration, as
they would be irrelevant from the present point of view. 3. As noted by Schubring, the odd chapters of Dasav are concerned with
special subjects (Dasav, Introduction, p. VI); in particular, different aspects of (right) conduct are examined therein. “Parallel passages in the Daśavaikālika and the Acãrânga”; A. M. . Ghatage's conclusion is that Dasav 7 is older than Ayār 2.4. Schubring's opinion, on the contrary, is that “Dasav is later than Ayār. If in its slokas it contains such pādas as scattered in the prose of Ăyar/./ the latter
represent an ancient stock....", Doctrine § 74 n. 2. 5. On the comparative antiquity of Gaut DhS, etc., and of Buddhist-Jaina
canonical scriptures, JACOBI, loc. cit., p. XXX ff,

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga
binding into an organic unity prescriptions which are also found, but more or less scattered, in different sections of the Dhs, and which have been somewhat differe. ntly elaborated in the Pāli scriptures. In fact, as is natural, the Jainas' ethical teachings in this field are linked with their metaphysical tenets.
Let me first sketch how the DhS approach the subject.
Sometimes--exceptionally--the approach is a general one; e. g., when ApDhS introduces the chapters on penance, it explains that "A wise man who has eradi. cated the (faults) which destroy creatures, obtains salvation"1. "(These are) anger exultation, grumbling, covetousness, perplexity, doing injury, hypocrisy, lying, gluttony, calumny, envy, lust, secret hatred, neglect to keep the senses in subjection, neglect to concentrate the mind...",krodho harso roso lobho moho dambho droho mrşodyainātyāşa-parivādāvisāyā kāma-manyu anātmyam @yogas, teşām yoga-mülo nirghātaḥ (ApDhS 1.8.23.5) On the contrary, "freedom from anger (akrodha-)...., truthfulness (satyavacana-)..., silencing slander (2-paió una-) uprightness, affability (arjava-mārdava-)...., peace with all created beings, concentration (of the mind on the contemplation of the Atman), regulation of one's conduct according to that of the Aryas (āryava-) - these (good qualities) have been settled by the agreement (of the wise) for all (the four) orders....”? Similar precepts are also ordained by Manu, who applies them to the snātaka : . satyadharmāryavratteşu fauce caivārametsada
vāg-bahūdara-samyatah,
"Let him always delight in truthfulness,...; let him keep his speech, his arms and his belly under control” (Mn 4.175). As a matter of fact, Manu is in accordance with Gautama who, among the duties of the Snātaka (ch. 9). prescribes :
He shall keep his organ, his stomach, his hands, his feet, his tongue, and his eyes under due restraint”4, further :
satya-dharma (68), ārya-vrttaḥ (69... syāt (72), “He shall always speak the truth.” “He shall conduct himself (as becomes) an Aryan."
1. nirhytya bhūta dāhiyān kşemam gacchati panditah,
(trsl. Bühler). 2. Ib 6. Cf. also 1.11.31.25 (trsl., SBE 1.11.31.23) :
krodhadimsca bhüta-dahiyān dosan varjayet, "and let him (the snātaka) avoid the faults that destroy the creatures,
such as anger and the like.” 3. Bühler translates : "in truthfulness, (obedience to the sacred law *";
but cf. Gaut DhS, 9.68, infra. 4. na Sifnodara-pāni-pada-vāk-caksuś cäpalāni kuryāt.

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Thus, rules regarding speech are, in fact, but the application to a particular case of general injuctions to keep one's organs (organs of sense, organs of action and manas) under complete control (cf. Mn 2.88) the organ of speech being the tenth in the list.
Therefore, it would seem normal that, in the Dhs, general instructions should be given about the proper use of Vāc. Nevertheless, most of the time, in the texts, the rules are laid down for specific categories of individuals : the householder, or, more often, the brahmacārin, the student who has returned home, the snātaka...
Now, what are these rules ? Two sets can be distinguished : (1) the rules connected with salutation; (2) the rules which might be termed apotropaic, whether the danger is visible or occult.
(1) It is well known that "reverential salutation" is looked upon as strengthening vardhana.2 Conversely, as stressed in a floating stanza, "he who habitually salutes and constantly pays........ reverence to the aged obtains an increase of four (things), (namely) glory, length of life, fame, (and) strength". 3
abhivāda-filasya nityam urddhopasevinaḥ
catvāri sampravardhante, kirtir ayur yato bulam (Mbh. 5.39.60). The same view is expressed among the Buddhists. 4
With minor variants, Mn (2.121) applies the maxim to the brahm acărin : catvāri tasya vardhante, āyuh prajñü yašo balam.
As a matter of fact, in the Dhs, much importance is attached to terms of address and to saluting -a topic to which the sixth chapter of the Gaut DhS is 1. vāk caiva dašami smrta, Mn 2. 90 d. -
Compare Asoka, Rock Edict XII (C), recommending vaca- (vaci-) gutti
and, infra, Uttarajjhayaņa 24. 22-23. 2. J. Gonda, IIJ 8 (1964), p. 14, quoting RV 6.51.8. 3. For concordances, L. Sternbach, Mahā-subhāṣita-samgraha 2, Hoshiarpur
1976 (Vishveshvaranand Vedic Research Institute, V. Indological Series
69, no 2336, compare 2337-8). Trsl. following Bühler, Mn 2.121. 4. abhivādana-silissa niccam vaddhapacāyino
cattaro dhammā vaddhanti : ayu vanno sukham balam, Dhp 109, of which the Gāndhāri Dharmapada rendering is :
ahivadana-filisa nica dridhavayarino catvari tasa vardhadi
ayo kirta suha bala (ed. J. Brough, London ...., 1962, London Oriental Series, 7), 172. 5. Cf-Kane, History of Dharmaśāstra, 2.1, p. 333 ff., specially 336 ff.,
ubi alia.

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wholly devoted. Actually, most Dhs give details on proper behaviour in this connexion, whether regarding the time and circumstances, the gestures, the words, intonation syntax......... Generally, though, saluting is not treated as an independent subject; Mn, for instance, includes the topic in the chapter dealing with studentship, where it is specified which words the young man must use according to the age, sex, learning, social status.... of the person whom he addresses (2.121129), and according to circumstances (2.49). Similarly, ApDhS inserts this special, subject in one of the chapters about the general obligations of the Vedic student (1.2.5.15 ff.), his behaviour while begging (1.1.3.28.30, cf; Gaut DhS 2.36), or, again, the conduct of the student who has returned home (1.4.14.7 ff., particularly 1.4. 14. 26-31).... Thus, the matter is considered separately in several developments, where it is discussed with more or less detail :
(2) The same remark would apply to the second set of rules, those which I proposed to term apotropaic. They seem to be given mainly for the snätaka; and to remain comparatively unchanged.
Before stressing that the snātaka should abide by truth, satyadharma ....syāt (9.61, supra), Gautama considers several utterances which are to be avoided. The same warnings recur in other Dhs, especially in ApDhs, the sūtras of which can be conveniently examined (1.11.31. 5-16):
5. And he shall not speak evil of the gods or of the king, (parus am cobhayotdevatänam räjñaśca .... varjayet),
8. He shall not mention the blemishes of a cow, of sacrificial presents, or of a girl.
9. And he shall not announce it .... if a cow does damage (by eating corn or grain in a field).
10. (Nor shall he call attention to it) if a cow is together with her calf....
11-12. And of a cow which is not a milch-cow he shall not say 'She is not a milch-cow'. He must say “This is a cow which will become a milch-cow'.
(nádhenum adhenur iti brāyāt, dhenu-bhavyetyeva brūyat),
16. If he sees a rainbow, he must not say to others, 'Here is Indra's bow'. ? 1. For proper words, ApDhS 1.4.14.26-29; pluti of final vowel, ib 1.2.5.17,
Vas 13.46, Mn 2.125, Pan 8.2.83, quoted in Kane, ib, p. 340; syntax,
GautDhS 2.36, ApDhS 1.1.3 28-30, Mn 2.69. 2. gor daksiņānām kumāryāś ca parivādan varjayet (8)
stthantom ca gãm năcakşita (9) samspstām ca vatsenänimitte (10) nendradhanur iti parasmai prabrāyāt (18)

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Similarly, GautDhS 9.22 remarks :"( ....in speaking of a rainbow (he shall use the word) mani-dhanus (the jewelled bow) instead of Indra-dhanus'!!!-a prescription which is in agreement with Baudh DhS 2.3.6. 11.12, and VasDhS 12.32.*
The prohibitions and injunctions detailed above are likewise given in the other Dhs. The implied justification can be deduced from the following observation, by ApDhS :
näsau 'me sapatna' iti brüyāt; yady 'asau me sapatna' iti brüyad dvişantam bhrātsvyam janayet,
"In company) he shall not say, 'This person is my enemy'. If he says "This person is my enemy', he will raise for himself an enemy, who will show his hatred” ApDhS 1.11.31.15).3
Now, these remarks are made in a khanda which warns against dangerous words and acts, and points to those which are conducive to welfare (1.11.31.6; 14, etc.); similarly, khanda 32 dissuades from visits to countries inhabited by inferior men, from mixing in assemblies and crowds (1.11.32. 18-19); it also advises the snātaka not "to cross a river swimming"'4 and not to use "ships of doubtful (solidity)" (26-27). To revert to speech : we can include in this review a rule laid down for both the snātaka and the householder, who are advised not to "talk of a doubtful matter as if it were clear" (2.5.12.21, cf. 1.11.32.22). This last recommendation leads us back to the observance of truthfulness, which should not be interpreted as an encouragement to use cruel words. On the contrary, Manu stresses:
hināngānatiriktāngānvidyā-hinänvayo-'dhikan rūpa-dravina-hināns ca jäti-hinašca nāksipet,
1. manidhanur itindradhanuḥ. 2. Compare, a little differently, Mn 4.59.
On beliefs connected with rainbow, M. Mauss, "Theorie de la magie", reprinted in Sociologie et anthropologie, Paris, 1950, p. 32; S. H. Webster, Le tabou, (French translation), Paris, 1952, p. 227 and n. 1.For the same warning, Prof, Gonda kindly refers me to several other texts : PārG 2.7.13, Vaikh Dh 3.2.12, Ath Paris 72.1.6, and to the old saying in The Netherlands, that it is a bridge for the deceased to go to heaven, (cf. H. Bachtold-Staubli, Handwörterbuch des deutschen
Abersglaubens. Berlin, 1927-1942, 6 vol., s. v. Regenbogen). 3. 1.11.31.17 in the text, but 15 in the translation. 4. bāhūbhyain ca nadi-taraṇam (scil. varjayet), (26); cf. 1.2.5.9; 1.5.15.11 (and
the note SBE 2, p. 55): 1.11.32.26; also Mn 4.77, 5. nāvām ca sāmśayikim (scil. varjayet), (27). 6. na samé aye pratyaksavad brüyāt.

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"Let him (the snataka) not insult those who have redundant limbs or are deficient in limbs, nor those destitute of knowledge, nor very aged men, nor those who have no beauty or wealth, nor those who are of low birth." As a matter of fact, avoiding lies and avoiding harshness are both combined in the fourfold prescription emphasized by Mn (4.138):
satyam brüyat, priyam brūpānna brüyätsatyamapriyam, priyam ca nanṛtam brayad efa dharmah sanitanaḥ,
"Let him (the snātaka) say what is true, let him say what is pleasing, let him utter no disagreable truth, and let him utter no pleasant falsehood; that is the eternal
law" a
Parallels for this aphorism are quoted from Visau- and Yajaavalkya-Dhs, from the epics.... More could be adduced from Buddhist and Jaina scriptures. Let us now turn to the Jainas.
7
First of all, one fact is remarkable: that two old canonical texts each devote one whole chapter completely to the examination of the different species of bhasa ("bhäsä-jaya"), and to right conduct with regard to speech. This proves the very great importance attached to the subject by the Jaina teachers, and by the Jaina. tradition. No less remarkable is the endeavour of Ayär and Dasav to explain what their guiding principles are; they can be summarized as follows: on the one hand, it is imperative to respect truth-an effort which involves the constant observance. of self-control, samyama- (Amg samjama); on the other hand, it is necessary to bine respect for truth with respect for ahimsa. Such is the complex behaviour advo
1.
Mn 4.141.
2. sukta rükṣaḥ parusa vaco na bräyät, BaudhDhS 2.3,20, "let him (the snätaka) not make empty, ill-sounding, or harsh speeches" (Bühler's trsl.)
3.
........... nākosmad apriyam vadet,
nahitam nanṛtam caiva......., Yajnavalkya DhS (ed. Stenzlér BerlinLondon, 1849), 1.132, "on no account should he say (anything) disagreeable, noxious, or, again, untrue.....
näflilam kirtayet (72) nonṛtam (73) napriyam (74),
Visņusmrti, ch. 71 (ed. J. Jolly, Calcutta 1881, repr. 1962); satyam vaded vyahṛtam tad dvitiyam,
dharmam vaded vyährtam tat trtiyam,
priyam vaded vyahṛtam tac caturtham. MBh (Bh) 12.288.38, (similar to Mn, loc. cit.; compare, infra, the Buddhist definition of subhasita).
Of Rama, it is said that, even if spoken to harshly, he never gave a harsh answer, Ram 2.1.10 (on which Gonda, Selected Studies, Leiden, 1975, p. 514).

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cated in the introduction and conclusion of Ayar 2.41, where it is recommended (1) to "vomit" the four passions involving violence (vanta koham ca māṇam ca māyam ca Lohan ca), (2) to speak only after due reflection and with constant circumspection". To help attain this ideal aim, bhäsä is analysed into four species (with subdivisions) two of them are absolutely condemned and prohibited, because they are either totally or partly wrong and false; as for the other two, the monk should be educated to use them with discrimination: Dasav 7.1 proclaims :
8
caunham khalu bhāsāņam parisamkhaya panṇavam
donham tu pineyam sikkhe, do na bhasejja savvasos.
Ayär also distinguishes four bhāsā-jāyā, somewhat emphatically: bhikkhu jāņejjā cattari bhasa-jāyāim, tam-jaha: saccam egam padhamam bhāsā-jāyam blyam mosam taiyam, secca-mosam, jam n'eva saccam n'eva mosam n'eva saccāmosam asaccamosam tam cauttham bhasa-jayam, se bemi.... (2.4.1.4). Thus the bhikkhu is invited, trained to recognize: (1) truth, (2) untruth, (3) truth mixed with untruth, (4) "what is neither truth, nor untruth, nor truth mixed with untruth...."4. Consequently, Dasav 7 immediately
1.
se bhikkha va bhikkhuni va vanta koham ca māṇam ca mayam ca lohan ca, apuoli nitthabhasi nisamma-bhās? aturiya-bhāsī vivega-bhāsi samiyae samjae bhasam bhäsejjä.
"a monk or a nun, putting aside wrath, pride, deceit, and greed, considering well, speaking with precision, what one has heard, not too quick, with discrimination, should employ language in moderation and restraint", (Ayar 2.4.2.19 tisl, Jacobi). 2. Compare Dasav 7. 54-57:
chasu samjae, samanie saya jae,
vaejja buddhe hiyam ayulomiyam,
"controlled (in his conduct) towards the six (groups of souls), (and) always restrained in monkhood the wise one shall speak good (and) kind (words)" (56 c-d, trsl. W. Schubring).
3.
"Of the four kinds of speech, the thoughtful (monk) should, after consideration, learn the training in two, (but) should not use the other two. ones at any occasion."
4. Cf. Viyahapannatti, ch. 13, Ed Suttagame, Gurgaon, 1953. vol. 1, 692, 15; Pannavana, ed. Punyavijaya, etc. (Jaina-Agama-Series 9,1), p. 215, §§ 870-876; Thananga ch. 4.1, ed. Suttagame, 223,8 (cattari bhasa-jaya...).
:
See the same fourfold division "truth, untruth, ...." in relation with the first and second guttis (gupti- mapa-gutti, vai-g.), in Uttarajjhāyā 24. 20-23 (ed. J. Charpentier, Upsala, 1921, Archives d'Etudes orientales, 18), i.e. in the chapter concerning the eight panayaga-māyā ("matrices of the Doctrine"). Here, the analysis of the three guttis follows that of the five samitis: the second of these is the bhasa-samiti, "care in speaking"

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proclaims an interdiction "the thoughtful (monk) should not use" "that (form of speech) which is true (but) not to be uttered, that which is half-true, that which is (quite) untrue, none of which is) practised by the Jinas”). The positive recommendation is formulated in the next sloka :
"(But) he should, after deliberation (samuppeham), use a speech not exposed to doubt (asamdiddham giram bhāsejja), that is (a speech) which is neither true nor untrue and (a speech) which is true, provided that it is not to be blamed or rough"
asaccamosam, saccam ca anavajjam akakkasam (Dasav 7.2-3) 2.
Thus, the conceptual frame is firmly set for a discussion on bhāsā to take place. The adduced definitions aim at being both clear and exact (in agreement with the complexity of reality); moreover, they expressly recognize the heterogeneity of charity and truth: further whereas, as we have just seen, Manu merely combined both virtues in, so to say, a formal fourfold pattern, the Jainas strive for complete integration and try to reconcile these sometimes contradictory requirements in a higher synthesis. Their effort can also be evaluated if compared with the
(ib 9-10), which stresses the necessity to expel all passions (compare, supra, ApDhS 1.8.23.5):
kohe māne ya mīyāe lo(b)he ya upanttay a hāse bhae moharie vikahāsu tah'eva ca eyāim attha thàņāim parivajjitu simjae
asāvajjam miyam kale bhāsam bhäsejja pannavam "To give way to anger, pride, deceit and greed, laughter, fear, loquacity and slander; these eight faults should a well-disciplined monk avoid; he should use blameless and concise speech at the proper time" (transl. H. Jacobi, SBE 45, Oxford, 1895, repr. Delhi, 1964, p. 131, and n. 2).
For other references, cf. W. Schubring, Doctrine § 173; P. S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification, Berkeley ..., 1979, 247-8); etc.. Dasav 7.2 : ja ya saccă avattadvā, saccāmosa ya jā, musă ja ya, buddhehi 'ņāinnā, na tam bhāsejja pannavam, Cp. Ayar 2.4.1.6 : se bhikkhū va jā ya bhāsā saccā, jā ya bhāsā mosā, ja ya, bh. saccā-mosā, taha-ppagārain bhāsam sãvajjam sa-kiriyam kakkasam sa-kaduyam nisthuram pharusam anhaya-karim cheda-karim bheda-karim pariyāvanakarim uddavana-karim bhūovaghāiyam abhikamkha no bhāsam bhāsejjā, "a monk or a nun, having well considered, should not use speech-truth, or untruth, or truth mixed with untruth-that is blamable, (speech which is) sinful, rough, stinging, coarse, hard, leading to sins, to discord and factions, to grief and outrage, to destruction of living beings" (trsl. partly following Jacobi).
2.

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Buddhist fourfold definition of subhasita vācā, and fourfold vohāra".
analysis of anariya
Now, though the Jaina analysis of bhāsā can be said to be comparatively clear-cut, the attached developments are not always plain to understand. Two points, nevertheless, are manifest: (1) all the prohibitions and injunctions included in the two relevant lessons of Āyār and Dasav can be shown to proceed from the above two fundamental principles, observance of truth based on sam jama, and observance of ahimsa; 52) the various particular prescriptions are, in many cases, akin or similar to those which are laid down in the DhS; but, precisely because the Jaina chapters concentrate on bhāsā exclusively, all the minute rules can easily be reco. gnized as special applications of an underlying theoretical scheme (applied examples of which are evidently liable to be multiplied); moreover, though they start from a multiplicity of particular consideration (most of which are formulated in all Indian sāstras), the Jainas obviously connect them with their own metaphysical system (and their doctrine of jiva-nikāgas, infra), therefore promote a more consistent and general outlook; finally, they tend to include in the bhāsā-chapter remarks which, in the DhS (also : in the Jaina suttas) mainly concern behaviours : Just as bad behaviour should be shunned, words also must clearly, though not aggressively, help discriminate between good and reprehensible conduct; in all possible ways, speech shall conform to the correct norm4. Thus, from the Dasav and Ayar point of view, the scope of bhāsā seems almost unlimited 5.
1.
2.
Idha bhikkhave bhikku subhāsitamyeva bhāsati no dubbhasitam; dhammam yeva bh. no addommam; piyam yeva bh. no appiyam; saccam yeva bh. no alikam. Imehi kho 1. catūhi angehi samannāgatā vāca subhasita hoti no dubbhāsita; anavajja ca ananuvajjā ca viññānam, if a bh. "speak well and not badly, speak righteously and not unrighteously, speak affectionately and not unkindly speak truth and not falsehood, his speech having these four qualities, is well spoken, faultless, and not blamable by the wise", S 1.188.33-189.4 (C. Rhys Davids trsl.). With the “subhāsita-sutta" in S, compare the "subhāsita-sutta" in Sn. 78,5 ff., stanzas 450-454 (cf. infra). Cattaro anariya-vohārā. Musä vādo, pisunā vācā, pharusā vācā, samphappalāpo, "four are the ignoble modes of speech : lying speech, slandering speech, rough speech, frivolous speech", D 3.232. 5-6, etc., cp. M 1.42.10 ff. Cf. ApDhS 1.11.32, supra. Including the grammatical norm, infra. Cf, the conclusion of Dasav 7 stanza 57 : parikkha-bhasi susamah' indie cauk-kasāyāvagae anissie sa niddhune dhutta-malam pure-kadam ārāhae logam imamtaha param-tti bemi,
3.
Cf

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhāsa) in the Ayāranga
Let us consider some of the examples adduced by the texts.
In Pannavaņā, all speech inspired by the four kasāyas, koha māņa..., is assimilated to lie, mosal. On the other hand, according to Ayar, anger etc. are conducive to harsh words ( 2.4.1.1 ) that hurt (ib 6). As such, they are prohibited. For its part, Dasav explains, so to say, the sloka 7.11-35 by emphasizing twice, at the beginning, and towards the end of the development, that a wise monk must (even if it is true) avoid all "rough speech which does harm to living beings :
.... ....pharusā bhāsā guru-bhūovaghäiņi saccă vi så na vattavvā........ (7.11, cf. 29 c-d).
Without going into all the details and possible digressions, it is interesting to review what is prescribed and what is prohibited in the aforesaid passage. Various recommendations are met with which have been seen to be addressed either to the brahmacārin or the snătaka in the Dhs. In Dasav 7.12, it is stressed that defect and mutilations should not be pointed to?; that various personal remarks are unacceptable (though they might be true literally speaking) for they might lead to faults of feeling and of conduct.3 In this connexion, prescribed and recommended terms of address are specified, and detailed in six slokas (14-19). But it is not enough to observe circumspection when addressing mankind : circumspection is necessary also when speaking of all other five sense creatures, pancediya-pāna, and, in particular, no himsă should be suggested against them, whatever their species. Cows, especially, should not be referred to foolishly :
2.
"(he who) speaks after consideration, controls his senses well, has overthrown the four passions, (and) is without (worldly) support purges (his soul) of the dirt resulting from previous evil deeds (and) is sanctified in this world and the next. Thus I say "trsl. Schubring). Compare Pannav chap. 11 § 830-1, the fourfold ohārani-bhāsā: the sacca form is ārähani. Cf. chap. 11 $ 963. tah' eva kāņa m'kāņe' tti .... .... no dae, ".... a monk should not call a one-eyed man ....” by this sante; cf. Āyär 2.4.2.1. een 'anneņa atthena paro jen uvahammai, ayāra-bhāva-dosa-nni, na tai bhāsejja pannavam, “because the person concerned would be hurt by this or similar statement, a thoughtful (monk) should not utter such speech, as he knows (that) faults of conduct and of feeling (would result from it), trsl. cf. Schubring. cf. Ayār 2.4.2.1-2. tah' eva "hole" "gole” tii .... na tam bhāsejja þannavam, 7.14. etc. Cf. Ayār 2.4.1. 8-11 (on how to address or not to address a man, a woman). Compare Chăndogya Upanişad 7.15.2. Dasay 7.22.
4.
5.

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tah' eva gão dujjhão dammā ............ ................ n'evam bhāsejja pannavami
So, "a thoughtful (monk) should not say: '(these) cows should be milked, tamed ....'. He should say: 'this is a young bull', 'this is a milk cow',
juvam-gave tti nam büyā, dhenum rasa-daya tti va?. There can be little doubt that all these rules more or less echo what is to be found in the different sections of the Dhs. But the Jainas adapt them and expatiate further. After they have mentioned the highest beings, the pancendiya-pāņas, they jump to the other extremity of the animate world of the chajjiva-nikāyas-to the immobile jivas, viz, trees (and their fruit), plants, etc.3, which naturally must also be respected, as prescribed in ten slokas (7,26-35) : in fact, all the jivas come to be protected thanks to the warnings against and condemnation of bhữovaghāiņi bhāsā.
Thus, following the thread offered by the first part of Dasav 7 and (though perhaps not so clearly) by Ayār 2.4, we have encountered many of the prescriptions found in the DhS; it is obvious, nevertheless, that, in the Jaina suttas, they are integrated in a comparatively well-defined general structure.
The second part of Dasav 7 warns against colloquial expressions which, in fact, are misleading, as they confuse right and wrong.4 Some concern, for instance, festive entertainments, (crossing, etc., of) rivers .... (36-39), in short, precisely those actions which are criticised in the above quoted khandas of ApDhS (1.11.3132) and connected brahmanic texts : the Jainas retain most of the circumstances detailed in the DhS chapter(s), but, in the present development, they focus the attention on what is commonly-lightly said about them. Caution is also required if the monk should mention actions or preparations which are usually said to be “well done", "well cooked”,
su-kade tti su-pakke tti ..., though they actually imply injury to living beings ! further, he should not issue orders and assertions which might be inconsiderate. Thus, in all the above circumstances, the monk is warned against rashness and lack of self-control6 :
tah' edasamjayam ....... ........... n'evam bhāsejja pannavam.? 1. Cf. Ayār 2.4.2.9. 2. Dasav 7.24-25, cf. Ayār 2.4.2.7-10.
Compare supra, ApDhS, etc. Cf. Ayar 2.4.11-16. Cf. the "lesson" on the six jiva-nikayas, at the beginn
ing of Dasav 4, ed. Leumann, p. 614-5. 4. Cf. Dasav 7. 48-49.
Dasav 7.41-42., cf. Ayar 2.4.2.3-6. 6. Dasav 7. 43.47. 7. Dasav 7.47; ( – 29 d; on the contrary evam bh. p., 39d=44d).

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The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasā) in the Ayāranga
Self-control is further required when speaking of atmospheric phenomena. It will be remembered, in this connection, that Gaut Dhs, etc. specify, in particular, how to mention the rain-bow (supra). But, whereas the DhS seem to express some form of taboo, the Jainas aim at being accurate and consistent; the words chosen by the religious person should not contradict with the objective truths attained by the (Jaina) scientists; therefore, "he should not say that a cloud, the sky, or a man is a god, (but) he should (simply) state (the fact) that a cloud has formed itself or has risen high, or that a thunder-cloud has sent down rain": tah' eva meham va naham va māņavam
na deva deva tti giram vaejjā; *sammucchie unnae vä paoe'
vaejja vā vutthe balāhae'tti (Dasav 7.52). 2 Moreover, the monk will naturally accept seasons and events with due equanimity,
Self-control, samjaya, is all the more advocated as it often happens that false appearances are confused with truth, and hence, are conducive to lies and to sin. 4 Therefore, one should be careful when speaking of doubtful matters--an advice which is also given by ÁpDhs, as we have seen.5 Dasav and Ayår apply this consideration to trivial remarks, especially to those concerning future events, which, by nature, are uncertain; and, also, to those that concern the sex of various animals.
Consequently, attention must also be paid to grammar and grammatical correction, of which Ayar recalls the fundamental constituents (2.4.1.3). Thus,
1. Cf. ApDhS 1.11.31.16, etc. supra. 2. Cf. ib 53; Ayâr 2.4.1.12-13.
Dasav 7.50-51; Ayar 2.4.1.12-13. Dasav 7.5 : vitaham pi taha-mottim jam giram bhāsae naro tamhā so puttho pāveņam ........ “by a speech which has the appearance of truth though it is untrue, a
man is touched by sin" (trsl. Schubring). 5. Cf. Ayår 2.4.1.2. 6. Dasav 7.6-10 (compare Ayär 2.4.1.2) :
jam attham tu na janejja "evam eyam” ti no vae, jattha sanki bhave jam tu "evam eyam" ti no vae, “if (a monk) does not know (or) has some doubt .... he should not say "it
is thus" .... .... (Dasav 7. 8-9 (trsl. Schubring), 7. Dasav 7,21. 8. Cf. Pannav $ 896 (for a discussion on empirical truths, ib § 862).

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the Jainas seem to advocate purism, at least as far as possible, and their attitude is noteworthy, as the Buddhists apparently deny that any fundamental connection exists between chaste speech and spiritual achievement. In this case, then, as in several others, the Jainas probably follow the Brahmanic trend more closely than the Buddhists do.
Be that as it may, it is obvious that the Jainas were well aware of the prescriptions concerning speech which are registered in the Dharmasāstras; moreover, in the above quoted Dasav and Ayār chapters, they appear to have added several new bhāsā rules which almost certainly stem from the same common sources, though they seem to have been suggested not so much by the actual wording (in the Dhs they concern deeds) as by their location, (in the Dhs, they are in the immediate context of the rules about speech).
On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the Jainas unweariedly strive to be explicit about the conceptual basis of, and reasons for, the rules they ordain.
This, possibly, helped them to consider floating precepts with fresh eyes, to group them and integrate them in an organic unity. In this respect, whatever their actual sources, the Jainas can be said to have achieved a perfectly original work. Nowhere, in the Ayār and Dasav chapters, is there any mention of retaliation, or any trace of obscure fear of occult forces; on the contrary, all the percepts are wellgrounded on objective considerations—whether scientific, metaphysical and/or ethical. To a certain extent, thanks to these lessons on bhāsā, we can witness how the Jainas have reconsidered generally accepted rules of conduct and recast them to build a really new, and comparatively systematic, code.
1. Cf. the commentary on the (Sn) Subhasita-gutta, in Paramatthajotikā 2.2
(ed. Helmer Smith, London, Pali Text Society, 1917), 397.7-398.7 : yad aññe/. / nāmādihi padehi, lingavacana-vibhatti-kalakärädihi sampattihi ca camannägatam vācam 'subhāsita' ti maññanti, tam dhammato patisedheti, "what some believe, that 'subhāsita' means speech composed with wordsnames, etc.-possessed of gender, inflection, tense marker..... - One lawfully rightly, rejects this view-To avoid dubbhasita means avoiding pesuñña, etc. (supra). Cf. the whole discussion, Pj 2.2.3966 14-398.12, and Saratthapakāsini
(ed. F. L. Woodward, London 19... PTS) 1.272.8-274.22. 2. Cf. JACOBI, SBE 22, Introduction, p. xxix.

Page #15
The Rules Concerning Speech (Bhasa) in the Ayaranga Abbreviations Amg = Ardhamagadhi; ApDhS - Apastambiya Dharma Sutra (ed. G. Buhler, Bombay, 1968; translation G. Buhler, SBE 2, Oxford, 1879; repr. Delhi, 1965); Ayar=Ayararga-sutta (ed. H. Jacobi, London PTS 2) 1882; (Agamodaya Samiti), samvat 1936= A.D. 1880, repr. Delhi 1978; ed. Muni Jambuvijaya, Bombay, 1976 (Jaina-Agama-Series 2. I); transl. H. Jacobi, SBE 22, Oxford, 1884); Baudh (DhS) = Baudhayana Dharma Sastra (ed. E. Hultzsch, Leipzig 1884 + Id, Leipzig 1922 (Abhandlungen fur die Kunde des Morgen-landes. 8.4 and 16.2); transl. G. Buhler, SBE 14, Oxford, 1882, repr. Delhi 1965), BI=Bibliotheca Indica; D=Digha Nikaya (ed. T. W. Rhys Davids, London (PTS) ); Dasav=Dasaveyaliya-sutta (ed. Ernst Leumann, ZDMG 46 (1982), 581-663; Punyavijaya and A.m. Bhojak, Bombay, 1977 (Jaina-Agama-Series 15); transl., cf. Dasaveyaliya Sutta, ed by Ernst Leumann and translated by Walther Schubring, Ahmedabad, 1932; repr. in Walther Schubring, Kleine Schriften, herausgegeben von Klaus Bruhn, Wiesbaden, 1977 (Glasenapp-Stiftung, 13), p. 111-248); DhS =Dharma Sutra/Sastra; Gaut (DhS) =Gautama DhS (ed. F. Stenzler, London, 1876 (Sanskrit Text Society); transl. G. Buhler, SBE 2, Oxford, 1879; repr. Delhi, 1965); M-Majjhima Nikaya (ed. V. Trenckner; R. Chalmers, London (PTS) ); MBh=Mahabharata (ed. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona) Mn=Manava DhS (ed. J. Jolly, London 1887 (Trubner's Oriental Series; transl. G. Buhler, SBE 25, Oxford, 1886); PTS=Pali Text Society, London; RV=Rgveda; S=Samyutta Nikaya (ed. L. Feer, London (PTS) ); Sn-Suttanipata (ed. D. Andersen-H. Smith, London (PTS)); Vas=Vasistha DhS (ed. A. A. Fuhrer, 1883; transl. G. Buhler, SBE 14, Oxford, 1882).