Remarks On History Of Jaina Meditation

Author(s): Johannes Bronkhorst
Publisher: Johannes Bronkhorst
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269554/1

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Remarks on the History of Jaina Meditation
Johannes Bronkhorst
1. The canonical texts of the Svetāmbara Jainas contain very litle information about meditation. All important passages have been discussed else. where (Bronkhorst, 1986: ch. 3), so that a brief restatement of the main results will be sufficient here.
The earliest road to liberation which is still discernible in the texts, esp. in the Ayäranga, is a direct response to the idea that suffering is the result of acuvity. The evil effects of activity are avoided by renouncing activity. In this way no new karman is bound by the soul, and karman that had already been bound is destroyed, as the Uutarajjhayana (29.37/1139) explains. Renounce ing activity is done in a most radical way, culminating in motionlessness until death. Motionlessness of the mind is but one aspect of this, which receives but little attention in the old texts. One early passage (Uttarajjhayana 29.72/ 1174) speaks of "pure meditation (sukkajjhana, Skt. sukla dhyāna), which is entered when less than the time of a muhūra is left of life. In this pure meditation only subtle activity initially remains; then after the activities of mind, speech and body, including breathing, have been stopped the monk is in pure meditation in which all activity has been cut off, and in which the last remains of karman are being destroyed. The ninth (or eighth) chapter of Ayarangal indicates that meditation (hana, Skt. dhyāna) was not confined to the last moments before death. Mahāvīra is here said to meditate "day and night." He is also said to meditale on objects in the external world.
Besides these few early passages there are more extensive descriptions in later classificatory texts. The nature of these texts brought it about that every thing that can be covered by the term jhana is enumerated here. This is much more than 'meditation alone; also thinking' is covered by this term. The resulting enumeration contains four types of dhyāna: (1) afflicted (arta, Skt. arta). (2) wrathful (rodda, Skt. raudra), (3) pious (dhamma, Skt. dharmya) and (4) pure (sukka, Skt. sukla). They are described as follows in the

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Thānanga (4.1.61-72/247), and almost identically in the Viyahapannatul and Uvaväiya:
confusion is complete in Avussaya Sulta 4.23.4, where the monk is made to repent these four types of dhyāna; obviously only the first two are such as should be repented, and these are no forms of meditation. The later tradition, when looking for canonical guidance regarding meditation, was henceforth confronted with a list of four kinds of meditation', only the last one of which, viz. 'pure meditation, should properly be regarded as such.
Afficted dhyāna is of four kinds: (1) (one) is joined with what is not liked and also accompanied by the thought of separation therefrom: (2) [onc] is joined with what Is liked and also accompanied by the thought of non-separation therefrom; (3) (one) is joined with discase and also accompanied by the thought of separation therefrom; and (4) (one) is joined with the experience of agreeable pleasures and also accompanied by the thought of non-separation therefrom. These are the four characteristics of afflicted dhyāna: aying, grief, weeping and lamentation
Wrathful dhyāna is of four kinds: connected with injury, connected with robbery, connected with theft and connected with the protection for worldly goods). These are the four characteristics of wrathful dhyana: (one) has abundant hatred, much hatred, hatred due to ignorance and hatred until the end which is death.
Pious dhyāna is of four kinds and has four manifestations: examination of the commandments for the Jinas), examination of sins, examination of the results for actions) and examination of the forms (or the constituents of the world). These are the four characteristics of pious dhyāna: liking for the commandments for the Jinas), liking for the natural state, liking for the scriptures and liking for pervasive study of the sacred texts). These are the four supports of pious dhyana: recitation,
uestioning, repeution and reflection. These are the four reflections of pious dhyāna: reflection on being alone, reflection on transitoriness, reflection on there being no refuge and reflection on birth and rebirth of living beings.
Pure dhyāna is of four kinds and has four manifestations: (1) (one) in which there is consideration of multiplicity and change of object: (2) (one) in which there is consideration of oneness and no change of object; (3) (one) in which activity has become subue and from which there is no return; and (4) (one) in which (all) ac tivity has been cut off and from which one does not fall back. These are the four characteristics of pure meditation: absence of agitation, absence of delusion, discriminating insight and renunciation. These are the four supports of pure meditation: forbearance, freedom, softness and straightness. These are the four relections of pure meditation: relection on infinity, reflection on change, reflection on what is inauspicious and reflection on sin.
2. The strange confusion described in section 1 was followed by an even more dramatic development. 'Pure meditation came to be considered inac. cessible in the present age (in this world). Sometimes this is slated explicitly. as for example in Hemacandra's Yogaśāstra. More often it is expressed by saying that one has to know the Pūrvas in order to reach the first two stages of pure meditation. The fourteen Purvas once constituted the twelfth Anga of the Jaina canon, but they were lost at an carly date. Already the Tattvärtha Sūtra (9.40; see Bronkhorst, 1985: 176, 1791.) states that knowledge of the Purvas is a precondition for entering pure meditation. This means that already in the time between 150 and 350 C.E. pure meditation was considered no longer attainable in this world.
Such an early date finds support elsewhere. We have seen that the canoni. cal description of the four dhyānas assigns four reflections (anupreksä) each to dharmya dhyana and sukla dhyāna, in the following manner:
In dharmya dhyana: (1) reflection on being alone (egar uppeha, Skt.
ekarvanspreksā) (2) reflection on transitoriness (aniccaruppehå, Skt.
anityānupreksā) (3) reflection on there being no refuge (asaranānu.
ppeha, Skt. asaraṇānupreksā) (4) reflection on birth and rebirth of living beings
(samsărānuppeha, Skt. sansárānuprekrā) In sukla dhyāna: (1) reflection on infinity (anantavattiyānuppeha)
(2) reflection on change (vippariņāmānuppehā) (3) reflection on what is inauspicious (asubhanuppeha) (4) reflection on sin (avāyānuppeha)
These four kinds of dhyāna, however, came to be looked upon as four types of meditation, enumerated among the different kinds of Inner asceticism; 50 Viyahapannatui 25.7.217, 237f./580, 6001. and Uvaväiya, soction 30. (The

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dhyāna' were, very understandably, considered bud forms of meditation.) This means that two historical developments-(1) the addition of 'pious meditation under the heading 'meditation' (dhyāna), and (2) the exclusion of 'pure meditation from il-left later meditators with a canonical 'description of meditation' which was never meant for such a purpose.
The Tattvārtha Süura (9.7) enumerales twelve reflections. They are: (1) reflection on transitoriness (aniryarupreksā) (2) reflection on there being no refuge (asaranānupreksā) (3) reflection on birth and rebirth of living beings (samsārānuprekrā) (4) reflection on being alone (ekatvānupreksā) (5) reflection on the otherness (of body and soul] (anyatvānuprekça) (6) reflection on impurity (afucirvānupreksā) (7) reflection on influx (of karman) (äsravänuprekşd) (8) reflection on restraint (sarvarānupreksā) (9) reflection on the destruction of karman (nirjaranuprekça) (10) reflection on the world (lokānupreksa) (11) reflection on the difficulty of attaining enlightenment (bodhidur.
labhānupreksā) (12) reflection on the truth well explained by the doctrine (dharmasva.
khyātatattvänuprekşā)
3. It can cause no surprise that the practice of meditation has often been neglected in the subsequent history of Jainism. Yet Jainism never totally abandoned it. Adelheid Mette has recently (1987) drawn attention to a legend from the carly post-canonical Avasyakacūrmi, in which Mahavira's main disciple Golama emphasizes the importance of control of thought (dhyānanigraha) above outward signs of penance. This tendency persisted. A number of later Jaina works deal with meditation. But how did these later authors treat the subject? One option was to simply repeat the canonical classification, thus simply ignoring the problem. Several authors, however, chose other solutions, such as the following:
We see that the Tattvārtha Süura includes the four reflections connected with dharmya dhyāna, but not the four connected with sukla dhyana. This list, in the same or slightly different order, and sometimes substituting bhāvanā for anuprekšā, occurs in numerous other works, some of them late-canonical (Mahānisia, Maranasamähn) or early non-canonical (Kundakunda, Vaffakera, Śivărya). But the four reflections of sukla dhyāna are absent from all these lists. This supports the view that "pure meditation was no longer considered to be attainable when these lists were made. Interestingly, Sivärya's Bhagavati-Ārādhanā (1705, 1710) describes all the twelve reflections as supports (alambana) of "pious meditation' (dharmya dhyana).
The reasons why 'pure meditation came to be looked upon as no longer attainable in this world seem clear. It appears to be the almost unavoidable consequence of the gradual exaltation of the Jina, and of the state of liberation preached by him. A comparable development took place in Buddhism, where already early superhuman qualities came to be ascribed to Arhants (see Bareau, 1957) and release was postponed to a next life.
Whatever the reason why 'pure meditation' became excluded from actual practice, it is clear that all existing practice had henceforth to be assimilated to the descriptions of 'pious meditation. (Afflicted dhyāna' and 'wrathful
(1) An obvious step to take was to drop afflicted (arta) and wrathful (raudra) dhyana from the canonical classification, and retain only pious (dharmya) and pure (sukla) dhyāna. This is done in Virasena's Dhavalā on Satkhamdāgama Suva 5.4.26 (vol. 13, pp. 70-88). Another interesting feature of the description in the Dhavală is that the only difference between pious and pure meditation is stated to lie in the duration: short in the former, long in the latter (pp. 74-75). It is of course needless to point out that nothing in the canonical description of these two forms of meditation Warrants such an idea.
(2) An extension of the canonical description are the four types of dhyana called pindastha, padastha, rūpastha and rūpäilta. They are often looked upon as belonging under the fourth manifestation of dharmya dhyana, ex. amination of forms' (samsthanavicaya). They are mentioned in a number of works, among them Yogindudeva's Yogasära (v. 98) and Subhacandra's Jānămava (ch. 37-40). The lengthy description of these forms of meditation in the animava shows that they consist in visualizing objects and mantras inside and outside the body, the rūpäilta meditation, more particularly, has as

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object 'the highest self' (paramätman) which consists of consciousness and bliss (cidanandamaya) and is without form (amurta). The suspicion of influence from similar forms of Hindu meditation seems justified. We find the same four kinds of meditation mentioned and similarly described in a number of texts, among them the Kubjikämata Tantra ch. 17-19, the Malinīvijayottara Tantra ch. 2 and 19, Abhinavagupta's Tantraloka (10.241f.), the Navacakreśvara Tantra (Mahaprajña, 1978: 9) and the Gurugită (vv. 119f.). Note that by adopting these forms of meditation the Jainas could interpret dharmya dhyana as a form of real 'meditation', not of 'thinking' (see section 1, above).
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(3) A far more drastic departure from the scriptures is made by Haribhadra in his Yogadrştisamuccaya. Haribhadra does not deny that what he writes goes beyond the scriptures:
This (kind of Yoga] called '[Yoga of] competence' is best; its means have been indicated in the scriptures [but] its range goes beyond them in matters of detail because of the abundance of energy. (v.5)
The precise causes leading to the state called siddhi are not in their totality correctly understood by the Yogins from the scriptures alone. (v. 6)
Haribhadra then proceeds to collect information on "this best form of Yoga" from "various works on Yoga," as he admits towards the end of his book (v. 207). The course of Yoga which he describes consists of eight stages. These stages are said to correspond with the eight stages mentioned in works by other authors, among them Patanjali.? All these stages cover of course far more than meditation alone, but even in the last stages nothing resembling the canonical descriptions of meditation shows up. Haribhadra's break with tradition is complete in this respect.
(4) Hemacandra's Yogaśästra constitutes a special case. Hemacandra describes traditional forms of meditation in chapters (prakäfa) 7 to 11. He follows here to a large extent earlier texts like, in particular, the Jñānāmṇava; this means that he includes forms of meditation such as pindastha, padastha, rūpastha and rūpätita. What makes Hemacandra special is his twelfth chapter. It begins with a verse which deserves to be quoted:
Remarks on the History of Jaina Meditation
What is learnt from the occan of scriptures [and] from the mouth of the teacher has here been completely shown; now [however] the pure truth as it has been obtained through experience will be explained,10
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From what follows in chapter 12 it is clear that something quite different from what precedes is introduced. Most noteworthy is Hemacandra's insistence on not using constraint. If one exerts no restraint on the mind it will reach peace, not otherwise:
Wherever the mind goes, don't restrain it from [going] there; for what is restrained becomes stronger, what is not restrained becomes peaceful.
The mind is like an elephant in rut, which becomes stronger when restrained with effort, but comes to peace after satisfying its needs without restraint.11
Nothing could better illustrate the remarkability of Hemacandra's views in the context of Jainism than the example of an elephant which must satisfy its sexual needs. Equally remarkable is verse 51, where Hemacandra expresses indifference concerning the question whether the result of these practices is liberation or not:
It may be liberation or not, but it certainly is the highest bliss, in which all forms of happiness appear as if nothing.12
The editor of the Yogaśāstra, Muni Jambuvijaya, has found very similar ideas, often expressed in virtually identical words, in a work entitled Amanaska Yoga, which is attributed to Gorakşa Nätha. It seems therefore that Hemacandra again introduced new practices into the Jaina tradition, be sides or perhaps rather instead of the traditional practices. These 'traditional' practices included in this case the additions made by such authors as Subhacandra.
4. These few examples must suffice to show that the history of Jaina meditation is not continuous. The canonical description which came to be held authoritative was itself the result of scholastic activity which had little understanding for the practice of meditation. Those later authors who had a practical interest in meditation felt free to work rather independently from the

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canonical description, often borrowing elements from non-Jaina schools of meditation.
One of the reasons for this peculiar development was, as we have seen, the hand which people of greater scholastic than meditational capability had in the development and interpretation of the canonical texts. Another factor must have been the relatively minor role played by meditation in Jaina circles. It is true that every now and then there were individuals who had a strong interest in its practice and this might sometimes lead to some kind of "revival' in a certain period and region, such as we seem to be witnessing today among the Terapanthis of northern India." But these individuals had to start almost from scratch, so to speak. They had to look for a teacher, among the Jainas but perhaps more often elsewhere. They also had to decide in how far the canonical guidelines could be considered adequate. This led to the peculiar developments to which attention was drawn in the preceding pages.
8. Yogadrstisamuccaya w. 5-6: fästrasandarsitopayas tadatikräntagocarah/
Saktyudrekid viseșena sāmarthyākhyo'yam ullamah Il 5 l/ siddhyakhyapadasampraptiherubheda na lattvalah / śāstrād evāvagamyante sarvathaiveha yogi.
bhih // 6 11 9. The authors and their lisus of stages are enumeraled in Haribhadra's own com
mentary on v. 16 and tabulated in K.K. Dixit's edition, also under v. 16. 10. Yogaśāstra 12.1: śrulasindhor gurumukhato yad adhigaram tad iha darsitam
samyak / anubhavasiddham idānim prakāsyale tattvam idam amalam // 11. Yogaśāstra 12.27-28: celo'pi yatra yatra pravarlare no latas lalo vāryam/
adhikbhavati hi väritam avāritam santim upayāri Il matto hasil yarnăn nivăryamano'dhik bhavati yadvat / anivāritas iu kämän labdhva sämyati manas
tadvalil 12. Yogasastra 12.51: mokşo'stu mā'stu yadi vã paramānandas tu vidyale sa khalu /
yasmin nikhilasukhāni pratibhāsante na kincid iva II 13. See the various publications of Yuvācārya Maháprajña. This revival' may not be
unconnected with the interest in meditation among non-Indians: see c.8. Mahāpraja, 1980b: 3.
Notes
Bibliography
I would like to thank Muni Jambuvijaya who read with me a number of the texts discussed below.
Note: I have had access to a rather limited number of texts on Jaina meditation. For this reason I include in this bibliography some general works on Jaina meditation which may help those interested in finding further infor. mation: Jainendra Siddhānta Koša, Dige (1981), Mahāprajña (1978: 7-12 ("Prastuti"]). Mehala and Kapadiya (1968: 227–66), Tatia (1951).
1. Yogaśāsta 11.4: duskarai apy adhunikaih sukladhyanak yathalastram. The
editor of the Yogaśāsts, Muni Jambuvijaya, quotes in this connection (p. 1149)
Tattvānuasana 36: ...dhyātuit fuklan ihäkpamān aidanyuginan uddisya.... 2. The order is slightly different in Uvavālya, section 30. 3. Perhaps afucitvamust be identified with asubha- or asubhaya-, as it is sub
stituted by the latter in at least one text; see Upadhye, 1960: Intr. p. 14
(Maranasamahn). 4. See Upadhye, 1960: Iner. 5. In later times the reason adduced for this was often that liberation would become
possible after rebirth in the time of a future Buddha, esp. Maitreya: see Kloppen
borg, 1982:47. 6. This is not to say that the canonical description of pure meditation is very satis
factory. Hemacandra (Yogaśastra 11.11), for example, rightly points out that the
last two stages of "pure meditation concern the body rather than the mind. 7. See further Goudriaan, 1979:61; 1981:54; Gupta, 1979: 178.
Abhinavagupta: Tantrāloka. Edited, with the commentary by Rajánaka Jayaratha, by
Madhusudan Kaul. vol. 7 (Ahnikas 10, 11 & 12). Bombay, 1924. (Kashmir
Series of Texts and Studies, no. 41.) A vassaya Sutta. Edited by Muni Shri Punyavijayaji and PL. Amrita Mohanlal
Bhojak. Bombay: Shri Mahāvīra Jaina Vidyalaya, 1977. (Jaina Agama Series,
no. 15. pp. 331-358.) Barcau, Andre (1957): "Les controverses relatives à la nature de l'Arhant dans le
Bouddhisme ancien." Indo-Iranian Journal 1: 241-250. Bronkhorst, Johannes (1985): "On the chronology of the Tautvärtha Süra and some
early commentaries." Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens 29: 155-184.

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