Religious Prayascittas according to old Jaina Ritual

Author(s): Collete Caillat
Publisher: Z_Mahavir_Jain_Vidyalay_Suvarna_Mahotsav_Granth_Part_1_012002.pdf and Mahavir_Jain_Vidyalay_Suvarna_
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The Religious' Prayascittas according to the Old Jaina Ritual COLETTE CAILLAT ALL the religious communities of India have exhorted their people to "redeem" their offences, to "wash" their faults away so as to become "clean" and "purified". Whether Brahmanic, Buddhist or Jaina, the teachers who have elaborated the various atonements have been exposed to the same historical factors, have lived, broadly speaking, in the same social context. It is no wonder, then, that most of the principles on which 1 This paper is a summary of the conclusions which were reached in my book Les expiations dans le rituel ancien des religieux Jaina, Paris 1965, 239 pp. (Publications de l'Institut de Civilisation indienne, serie in-8, fascicule 25). I cannot, in the present essay, show what I have tried to emphasize there, that the Jaina community was constantly humane, that the atonements have been conceived, first and foremost, to help the penitent in every respect. The works which will be the most frequently referred to are : Vav; Nis= Vavahara- und Nisiha-sutta. Herausgegeben von Walther Schubring. Leipzig, 1918 (AKM XV1). The suttas are numbered in the present paper as in Drei Chedasutras des Jaina-Kanons - Ayaradasao, Vavahara, Nisiha - Bearbeitet von Walther Schubring. Mit einem Beitrag von Colette Caillat. Hamburg, 1966. Vyavaharasutra, edited with the Bh (asa) and Malayagiri's ? (ika),

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS: 89 the theory of prayascitta is based are very similar in all Indian circles, -and, furthermore, that they are extremely close to many of the funda Bhavnagar, 1926, [1927], 1928. Note the following corespondance. between the sutta and the commentaries : Vav udd. 1: 1-14 Bh 1 gatha 1-288 15-35: 289-429 1-334 udd. 2: udd. 3: 2 3 T vibhaga I II III (by mistake? here noted IV') Nisitha-sutram. Edited with Bhasya and Curni, 4 vol., Agra 1957-1960. K Das Kalpasutra. Die alte Sammlung jinistischer Monchsvorschriften. Einleitung, Text, Anmerkungen, ubersetzung, Glossar von Walther Schubring. Leipzig, 1905. Jiya Jiyakappa; Jita Jinabhadra's Jitakalpa, mit Auszugen aus Siddhasena's Curni, von Ernst Leumann (Sitzungsberichte der Koniglich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1892, pp. 1195-1210). Uvav (Uvavdiya-sutta) Das Aupapatika Sutra. Erstes Upanga der Jaina. I. Theil. Einleitung, Text und Glossar. Von Dr. Ernst Leumann. Leipzig, 1883 (AKM VIII 2). IV IV = Ayar. 1 (Ayaranga-sutta) Acaranga-sutra. Erster Srutaskandha. Text, Analyse und Glossar von Walther Schubring. Leipzig, 1910 (AKM XII 4). Paksika-sutram. Edited with Yasodeva's commentary, Bombay, 1911 (DLJP). Pravacanasara Nemicandra, Pravacanasaroddhara. 2 vol., Bombay, 1922-1926 (DLJP 58; 64). Samavayanga. Edited with Abhayadeva's vrtti. Bombay, 1918 (Ag.S.). Thananga. Edited with Abhayadeva's vrtti. Bombay, 1918-1920. Ag.S. 1, 2). Doctrine Walther Schubring. The Doctrine of the Jainas. Described after the old Sources. Translated from the revised German Edition by Wolfgang Beurlen. Delhi, 1962. (References are to the paragraphs.) Walther Schubring, Worte Mahaviras. Kritische ubersetzungen aus dem Kanon der Jaina. Gottingen, 1926 (Quellen der Religionsgeschichte 14; 17). Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence. Poona, 1960. Id. History of Jaina Monachism. From Inscriptions and Literature. Poona, 1956 (Deccan College Dissertation Series 17). WZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes, Vienna. ZDMG= Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, Leipzig, Wiesbaden.

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90 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME mental tenets of the Arthasastra. But, though many comparisons could be traced, we must confess that many points still escape us. Therefore in the present state of knowledge, it has seemed best to study Jaina prayascitta from the Jaina point of view, and even, to begin with, mostly restricting the investigation to the Svetambaras' oldest doctrine. It is said to be based on religious tradition (suya, sruta), as opposed to custom (jiya,j ita); it is expressed in the Kappa-, Vavahara- and Nisiha-sutta, whereas jaya is embodied in the Jiya-kappa. Although the Nisiha is traditionally supposed to deal with the "abatement", "non-abatement" and "increase" of the so-called parihara atonement, the bulk of this treatise just quotes the faults that this very parihara is meant to redeem : 1952 cases are listed according to the proposed length of the penance : either one month or four months, each "heavy" or "light" (infra). The parihara is, indeed, a very ancient and important prayascitta. It is not mentioned elsewhere, except precisely in the Kappa and Vavahara, the oldest disciplinary books of the Canon : the reason may be that it grew obsolete very soon. But, thanks to the Nisiha-bhasa and -curni, to the Vavahara-bhasa and -tika, many interesting details about it have been handed down to us. It should be stressed that these commentaries generally deserve to be trusted, whatever their defects, and though important changes had taken place between their redaction and the teaching of the suttas : nevertheless, it has been convincingly shown that they have carefully preserved and transmitted the old tradition.3 THE JAINA COMMUNITY. Before studying the prayascittas, it will prove useful to remember the structure of the Jaina community. For the niggantha does not expiate haphazard, but only after having confessed his offence to his superior. The teacher, duly considering the monk's age, religious status, abilities, physical and moral strength, responsibility and, moreover, the circumstances of the fault, decides which is the right penance, instructs the man accordingly, and, very often, helps him in various ways so that the prayascitta, being correctly effected, may benefit the culprit. 2 Especially ad Vav 1, 17-20 = Nis 20, 17-20; ad Vav 1, 21-24; 2, 1-6; 27-30. Cf. G. Buhler, On the authenticity of the Jaina tradition; etc. WZKM 1, 1887, 165-180; 3, 1889, 233-240; etc. Cf. Schubring, Doctrine p. 49 ubi alia; E. Leumann, Dasavailcalika-sutra and -niryukti, ZDMG 46, 1892, 581-663, especially 592 ; Doctrine SS 43.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 91 TL It is well-known that the Jaina samgha is divided into units called gana (later gaccha); small groups, collected around a famous acarya and his pupils, are known as kula. The monks who have been brought up in the same spiritual "families", or in the same "troups", who therefore have the same spiritual habits, and those who have been instructed at the feet of the same teachers are said to be "of the same party", ega pakkhiya (Vav 2, 26; VavBh 2, 325). The links between those who received the same education are undoubtedly the closer (cf. Bh T, ad Vav 2, 26).4 There have been discussions about the unit named sambhoga. Various opinions have been expressed concerning its attributions. Schubring stresses that the sambhogikas (amg. sambhoiya) conform to the same rules when begging or using the alms.5 More generally, it appears that they observe the same religious conduct (acara), and this is symbolized by the fact that they partake of the same meal, in one and the same "circle".. This is evident in the ritual of the vihar'alocana, which eventually takes place between the members of the sambhoga : those who have come to confess themselves eat with their "commensals", either before the confession if the offence is a small one, or after if the offence is quite heavy, and the culprit is liable to a sort of excommunication. The sambhoiyas are supposed to have the same tastes, and are sometimes called samanunna (Sk. samanojna).8 They are to be distinguished from monks "of another commensality", who, nevertheless show religious zeal (anyasambhogika samvigna) o and from those "with whom sambhoga has been broken", for example because their religious zeal is questionable (bhinnasambhogika amanojna asamvigna)10, and, finally, from the visambhogika (that is the parsvastha, etc. and samyati) who are altogether "excluded from commensality'll 4 This is not surprising : it has been often noted that the Indians are very tolerant concerning the dogma, J. A. Dubois, Moeurs, institutions et ceremonies des peuples de l'Inde I 278; Max Weber, The Religion of India 21; 117; 189; Gonda, Die Religionen Indiens I 351; etc. 5 Doctrine 139. Compare Deo, History 230 and n. 88. sarvais tapo-visesa-pratipanna-varjitaih sadhubhir ekatra mandalyam bhoktavyam, VavT IV 82 b-83 a; sam ekibhuya samana-samacaranam sadhunam bhojanam sambhogah, Samavaya 22 b 7; etc. 7 VavT II 17 b; infra. 8 VavT II 17 a 4; 17 b 3; etc. Cf. sambhogika sama-sukha-duhkha, Vav IV' 45 a 3. 9 Samay. 23 a 4; cf. infra. 10 VavT II 21 a 6. 11 Samav. 22 b 10 ff. Cf. infra.

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92 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME On twelve occasions, contacts between sambhogika and visambhogika are severely restricted.12 Moreover, it should be remembered that the corresponding verb, sambhunjittae is used, with sarvasittae "to cohabit", in the formula expressing the admission of a niggantha into a religious group.13 It is a well-known fact that units called sambhoga and saivasa existed in the Buddhist samgha too.14 But their function does not seem to be absolutely identical with that of the Jaina sambhoga. The fact remains that similarities can be traced. Moreover, in both communities, the heaviest prayascittas, characteristically enough, exclude the culprit from one or the other of these kinds of associations or "communions". 15 CLASSIFICATION OF THE RELIGIOUS. The monks who build the samgha bear different names in the different strata of the canonical literature. But, from a practical point of view, their various appellations, whether niggantha, bhikkhu, or samana niggantha, etc., can be considered as synonyms. 16 12 Samav. 21 b - 24 a = NisBh 2071 f.; cf. Abhidhana 7, 207 a - b. 13 Vav 6, 10 f.; 7, 1; 4 f.; cf. K 4, 4; 1, 35. The notion of sambhoga has been considerably elaborated among the Buddhists, cf. Paul Mus, Barabudur *264. The old Vinaya commentary distinguishes two sorts : sambhogo nama dve sambhoga amisa-sambhogo ca dhamma-sambhogo ca. amisa-sambhogo nama amisam deti va patiganhati va...dhamma-sambhogo nama uddisati va uddi sapeti va (Vin IV 137, 29 ff.). 15 Cf. the arrangements against the pataniya monk according to Abhidharmakosa (transl. La Vallee Poussin IV 96). Sk. nirgrantha, amg. niggantha and niyantha, pa. nigantha, etc. About these forms, Jacobi IA 9, 1880, 158 f.; K. R. Norman, JOIB 10, 1961, 349 f.; Vavt explains : nirgato granthad dravyatah suvarn'adi-rupat, bhavato mithyatv'adi-laksanad iti nirgranthah (IV' 27 b 6 f.). Cf. Uttarajjhaya 29, 31. As for the bhikkhu (bhiksu), his name etymologically may well mean "he who lives on alms", a "mendicant" (E. Burnouf, Introduction a l'histoire du buddhisme indien2 p. 245; V. S. Agrawala, India as known to Panini? 382 (ad Pan 3, 2, 168); cf. Schubring IA 39, 259: this fact is not ignored by Malayagiri (cf. bhiksi yacnayam, VavT II 1 b 11): nevertheless, it does not prevent him from establishing a relation between bhiksu and the root bhid-: bhavasya bhedako bhiksuh...., ibid., 5 b-6a. Compare, among the Buddhists, Abhidharmakosa, transl. La Vallee Poussin IV, p. 96 f. a l'ho Panini2 382 anored by it does not preve Whid-: this fact 16 11): nevesveen bhiksu anompare, among . f. ing a relation., ibid., 5 ballee Poussin

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 93 In view of the atonements and penances, the commentators have been led to distinguish between many categories and types of monks. Some of them (the jinakappiya, etc.) are "not concerned" with the gana, therefore are known as niravekkha (nirapeksa, infra), or, again, as gacchaniggaya, "outside the gaccha". Generally, monks do feel "concerned", thus rank as savekkha (sapeksa); it is expressly the case of the ayariya, uvajjhaya and bhikkhu (VavT III 48 b); the various teachers, "residing inside the gaccha" are said to be gacchavasi (ibid. IV 7b). This classification testifies to the fact that, during certain observances, the links between monk and gana have to be released. The jinakalpika must have succeedingly "accomplished the (religious) act", that is a 3 days fast: they are kTtakarana, whereas among the savekkha, some are krtakarana, some are not (ak.). Further, some bhiksus are "strong" (sthira), some are "weak" (asthira) devoid of firmness and resolution (asthire dhTty-avastambha-rahite, VavT III 11 b 7).17 An important distinction, in the Mahanisiha and the commentaries, (though it does not appear in the old canonical books) is that between agiyattha and giyattha or kadajogi : the last-mentioned is well versed in the treatises concerning the begging of food, clothes, and books, and in the cheya-sutta.18 The giyattha, or "adept", is sometimes considered as a "bull" (vasaha, vrsabha) 19, whereas the agiyattha is called a "deer" (miga, mrga).20 Moreover, some monks are recognized as "incompetent" (akovida), while others are competent" (vikovida), which means that these either are giyattha, or have already effected a prayascitta (in fact, probably a parihara), or again amend themselves at the smallest hint (VavT II 97 b 5 ff.) Even among the agiyatthas, some know how to assimilate the instructions, they "digest" them properly (parinamaka); some do not, 17 Cf. VavBh 1, 418; 420 = NisBh 6649; 6651; compare Vav PithBh 160. 18 kadajogi giyattho bhannai. Pind'esana Vattha-Pa'esana Cheya-suy'aiyam sutt'atthao ahiyani jena so giyattho (Jiyakappa cunni, ad Jiya 16 a. Leumann Jita p. 1203; cf. VavPithBh 109, T 38 a 10). 19 Cf. Deo, History 226. 20 VavBh 3, 264; 272; T IV 49 a 12; 58 a 9; III 42 a. Compare the name of the first Tirthamkara, Usabha, Rsabha, and the "leonine" lineage of Mahavira, sih'ubbhava-bhuenam appanenam, Ayar. 2, 15, 2, cf. Doctrine p. 24 n. 3. During the ritual of the confession, the acarya is simhanuga, the culprit monk is krostukanuga (VavT III 42 a). Compare, among the Buddhists, J. Przyluski, Le concile de Rajagrha 115; 239 etc.

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- 94 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME but fear that the prescribed penance be too small as compared with the theoretically incurred prayascitta (aparinamaka); again, some will go too far as regards the assimilation, and will misunderstand their judges' mercy (atiparinamaka).21 All these peculiarities are summarized in the following table : niravekkha savekkha they are gacchaniggaya (Cf. the superiors, who are gacchavasi) 3: jinakappiya parihariya (or parih.) ahalandiya 3 : ayariya uvajjhaya bhikkhu necessarily kayakarana either kayakarana or akayakarana either thira or a(t)thira or agiyattha either giyattha = kadajogi = vasaha = miga is normally parinamaka either parinamaka or aparinamaka or atiparinamaka is vikovida either vikovida or akovida The distinction between the gzyattha and agiyattha is particularly important. It helps to decide which penances are right for which individuals, and, on the other hand, it is taken into account when choosing the chiefs of the community and of its various units. THE NIRAVEKKHAS. As for the gacchaniggayas, or niravekkhas, three classes are mentioned, in the following order : the jinakalpika (jinakappiya), the pariharavisuddhika or suddhapariharika (cf. amg. pariharakappa-tthiya or parihariya), the yathalanda (-pratima) kalpika (ahalandiya). The parihariya's status will be defined along with the atonement called parihara (infra). The jinakappiya follows the 'rule of the Jina" (jinakappa). Unlike 21 VavT II 58 b 6 f.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 95 the monk "of the rule of the theras," who, normally, is not allowed to be alone, the jinakappiya goes about on his own, naked, without any belongings, steadily bearing all inconveniences, restricting his alms-begging in many ways (time, food, space).22 As far as possible, he conforms to what has been Mahavira's practice, during the twelve years after his enlightenment, when he lived as a homeless ascetic.23 This solitude of the jinakappiya (which is so strictly forbidden to the therakappiya) can well be looked upon as an archaic feature. For many, it was well-nigh unbearable.24 There is no doubt that the yathalanda-pratima is archaic and quite obsolete. For the Pravacanasara25 relates its disposals with due reserve ittham tavad asmabhir vyakhyatam (174 a 4)! The ahalandiyas observe various restrictions, especially as far as time is concerned 26: they never beg in one and the same area for more than five days (ibid. 612 f.). Their status appears to be intermediary between that of the therakappiya and that of the jinakappiya. They live five together at the very most.27 Two degrees seem to be recognized according to their proficiency: some still need coaching, and therefore keep links with the gana, or rather with its ayariya, while others are. absolutely free from all ties.28 The ahalandiya and the jinakappiya rank as attacinta (armacintaka): not being hindered by any other task, they concentrate upon their own. self: exerting themselves, they pursue a common aim, they try to gain delivery, pratipattu-kamah (VavT IV' 41 b 7). In the same manner, the parihariya is exhorted to be regardless of his fellows, and to devote himself to his own spiritual progress, att'attha-cintaga.29 In many respects, the atonement called parihara tends to impart the benefits of the jinakappa without altogether depriving the monk of the advantages of the therakappa which he normally. follows. Just like the jinakalpa and the yathalandapratima, this observ. ance is probably but a survival. In a sense, it looks like a sort of 22 Cf. K p. 47, quoting Abhayadeva; Jacobi, SBE 22, 57 Schubring, Worte Mahaviras 100. 23 Cf. Ayar 1, 29 f.; 40 ff.; Schubring, Worte 115 ff. 24 Cf. infra. Compare, among the Buddhists, Majjhima Nikaya 1, 17 ff. 25 Gatha 611-628, p. 172 b-176 a. 26 landam tu hoi kalo, Pravacana 611; cf. 612. 27 panceva hoi gaccho tesim ukkosa-parimanam, ibid. 613; cf. 173 a. 28 gacche pratibaddha apratibaddhas ca, ibid. 173 a 14. 29 VavBh 1, 363. Cf. VavT III 30 b.

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96 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME compromise between the oldest and the new religious life, the latter. being cenobitical, and the former eremetical. Though there are some signs that the niravekkhas' ideal was not always very much appreciated, there is no doubt that they were very proficient monks: they had to live a particularly pure life.20 THE PARIHAVANTAS. On the contrary, the "proud" ones, parihavanta (paribhavant), lack religious zeal. Six types are recognized: the pasattha (paravastha), the ahachanda (yathachanda), the kusila (kusila), the osanna (avasanna), the nitiya or nicca, the samsatta (samsakta),31 They are opposed to those who anxiously strive for delivery. They are excluded from the sambhoga: bhinnasambhogiko 'manojfio 'samvignah (VavT II 21 a 6). It appears that they commonly transgress the rules concerning the alms and the bhikkhu's daily duties (avassaya).33 It is their conduct, then, that is not commendable. But in cases of emergency, they can be resorted to, they can prove quite useful for the community and its members, for they lack neither faith nor knowledge.24 THE PAYACCHITTAS. Like so many other religious communities, the Jainas hold that the atonements purify the culprit of the stain left by the fault; they extract the "dart" that the offence would have been; they help to acquire impeccability, true knowledge, and delivery.35 == They rank as the first among the six "internal austerities", abbhintara (y) a tava, whereas the "external austerities", bahira (y) a tava, mostly consist of various food-restrictions. Thus, "bahya-tapas is AAAAAA 30 It was apparently criticized in some cases, cf. VavT IV' 22 b 6 ff.; 62 a 4 ff. 31 paribhavantah paravasth'adayah, VavT II 28 a 2; parsvasth'adau ayatamane, Abhidhana 5, 659 b, s. v. parih.; dharmac cyuta, Samav. 23 a 12. 32 About the samvigga (sarvigna) or jayamana (yatamana), cf. VavT II 28 a 1; samvigna moksabhilasin, ibid. IV' 73 a 11; viharam icchanti, ibid. II 26 a 12. 33 Cf. VavBh 3, 165, and the relative T (summary in my Expiations 55 ff.); also the commentary of Nis 13, 42 ff. 34 Cf. Vav. 1, 35; VavBh 3, 212 f. 35 VavBh 1, 322 ff.; 2, 47; Uttar 29, 16, cf. SBE 45, 164 and n. 4. 36 Cf. Uvav 30, etc. 37 Uvav ibid.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 97 virtually synonymous with fasting."38 Hence another meaning of tava, tavo, tapas, which, in the recent disciplinary books, is the name of the sixth payacchitta, that mainly consists of fasts : 39 it will be seen that it has replaced the older parihara. THEORETICAL REMARKS. Traditionally, ten atonements are listed: payacchittam tu dasaviham (Uttar 30, 31). They are quoted in a famous gatha: 40 aloyana 1 padikamane 2 misa 3 vivege 4 taha viussagge 5 tava 6 cheya 7 mula 8 anavatthaya 9 ya parancie 10 c'eva. This list is reproduced in many texts, though sometimes with sligh variants.41 The payacchittas, thus, are said to be : "the confession, repentance, mixed (or: both these), restitution, and collectedness; further : austerity, suppressing (part of), radical (suppressing of religious seniority), destitution, exclusion". Though some of these may be theoretical rather than real, it is noteworthy that the Digambaras too teach ten payacchittas which mostly correspond to those of the Svetambaras.42 It must be admitted that alterations took place early enough;43 but, for the present purpose, it will suffice to consider the oldest list, comprising ten items.44 The first two are often alluded to; the last four are mentioned only in the oldest books of discipline (the Kappa-, Vavahara- and Nisihasutta),45 which, on the other hand, give instructions about the fifth, but ignore the third and the fourth. Some teachers contend that the ninth and tenth are to be taken together and counted as one expiation only; moreover, they expulse the first and second, retaining instead the third one that unites them both, and which, according to them, should be called "external" (bahya) to the other six.46 Thus, the Jainas were quite aware of the heterogeneous character of the atonements. The first five, it is true, are somewhat artificially forced into the above 38 R. Williams, Jaina Yoga 238. 39 ZDMG 60, 1906, 538; Doctrine 161. 40 VayPithBh 53; cf. K p. 12; Jita p. 1196 n. 1, ubi alia. 41 (tad-) ubhaya instead of misa, Uvav 30 I'; Jiya 4. 42 Mulacara 5, 164 f. 43 Cf. the list in the Tattvartha, comprising nine payacchittas. 44 Cf. S. B. Deo, Jaina Monastic Jurisprudence 40. 45 Cf. Doctrine 161. 46 VavPith? 36 a 12; Bh 100 b; 108 b. G.J.y. 7

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98 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME enumeration. But it should not be overlooked that the aloyana and padikkamana are the necessary preliminary to all expiations, and, moreover, that they are considered as very difficult observances indeed. The commentaries of the Vavahara's first lesson hold still another view, and consider the payacchittas 1-6 as related, not to the confession etc., but to penances lasting for 25, 20, 15, 10, 5 days, and these as related to various fasts.47 On the other hand, it should be kept in mind that the prescribed payacchitta must be proportionate not only with the fault, but with the culprit's religious rank, and abilities. Consequently, the weakest monks incur the lightest payacchitta, at least according to theory.48 Only the niravekkhas are supposed to redeem their offence absolutely, whereas, for the savekkhas, the eighth is the topmost expiation: it is enjoined solely in the case of the most advanced amongst them, the ayariya kayakarana. Hence the table of equivalences on p. 99. This table seems to be rather theoretical; has it ever been followed in actual practice? In that case some difficulties would have arisen. For, according to it, the parihara is prescribed even to the agitartha, while it is expressly stated elsewhere that this penance should be effected only by gitarthas (infra). Though the evolution of this observance escapes us, one point is certain : the payacchitta known as tava in Uvav, Jiya, etc., is listed in these treatises at exactly the same place where the VavBhT name the (parihara-) tava or tapas, corresponding to the parihara of the Vavaharasutta.49 This substitution of the tava for the old parihara is acknowledged in the Jiya and in the VavBh?.50 Apparently, monks still underwent food restrictions and fasts (which are common features of the parihara and the tava), and were exempted from isolation, which is 47 Compare VavPithBh 164 f. 48 Cf. K p. 12; VavBh 1, 422 f. (=NisBh 6 655; 6 657); Vavt III 49 a ff.; compare Manu 8, 337 f., Arthasastra 3, 10, 43. The actual practice may have been somewhat different (cf. Gonda, Die Religionen Indiens 1, 295); also A. L. Basham, The wonder that was India 120 f., with keen and sympathetic insight. 49 In the canonical formula se s'antara chee va parihare va, the order of the words is dictated by the rythm (cf. Wackernagel (-Debrun ner), Altindische Grammatik 2, 1 p. 166); etc. 50 Cf. Jiya 61; and Leumann p. 1205; VavBh 3, 180 and correspond ing T.

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acarya upadhyaya 6 h i ks u gitartha a gitartha krtak. akstak. sthira asthira sthira asthira Incurred prayascitta krta- akrta karana karana krtak. Sakrtak. krtak. akrtak. krtak. akytak. krtak. akstak. mula mula cheda cheda 6 guru 6 guru 6 laghu 6 laghu 6 laghu 4 guru 4 laghu 4 laghu 1 guru or 4 guru 1 bhinna g. 1 bh. 1. cheda 6 months guru 4 guru laghu 1 guru laghu 1 bhinna g. 20 days g. 20 days g. g. Fast dasama. astama sastha caturtha acamla ekasana purvardha nirvikrtika Fast dasama astama

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100 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME the specific disposal of the parihara.51 This change is not to be wondered at : for solitude had become terrifying in the eyes of the ordinary therakappiya monk;52 but consequently some discrepancies arose: according to theory, the parihara ranks as the sixth atonement, and is lighter than the eighth (mula); in actual practice, however, the VavBhT commonly advise the replacement of the parihara by milder penances, especially by the aforesaid mula. This does not alter the fact that the parihara had occupied a prominent position: the commentaries distinguish between the monk being in it (vattanta) and the monk having gone out of it (niggaya) and incurred a heavier expiation. It is the parihara that is prescribed first, rarely if ever the cheya or the mula. Indeed, it sometimes appears as if the parihara were thought of as the prayascitta : thus, when a pupil asks how many atonements there are, the answer is: their number is limited according to the sutra, meaning the Nisiha-sutta, which deals solely with the parihara occurrences.53 Moreover, when performing it, the monk imitates Mahavira: not only does he live "isolated" (though in his gana) : it is expressly stated that the observance should not exceed six months, the reason being that this was the duration of Mahavira's longest penances.54 THE VEYAVADIYA. The payacchitta washes away the stain left by the fault; however, it is necessary to eliminate what karman has been accumulated during the previous lives. This is effected by a complementary observance, the "service", veyavadiya or veyavacca (vaiyavrtya).55 The custom of vaiyavstya is not specifically Jaina: it is in use among the Buddhists56, and it is taught in the Brahmanical Dharmasutras, etc. Nevertheless, its consequences were bound to be much further-reaching in a well organized community. It is held to be very meritorious. And, if the monk is able to perform it together with the payacchitta, he is advised to do so;57 but it www 51 Cf. supra 8; infra 21; 24. Compare a similar evolution, followed by a rigorist reaction in the case of the ninth and tenth payacchittas, Jiya 91; 100; 102; and Leumann p. 1196. 52 Cf. VavT III 29 b 10; and infra. 53 VavT II 80 b - 81 a, cf. Bh 1, 223-226. 54 VavT II 53 a 11 f.; 79 b 11; 97 a 1; III 16 b 5, etc. 55 Cf. Vav 10, 35; Uttar 29, 43. 56 Cf. Vin I 46-49; IV 326, 1 f. 57 Cf. VavT III 4 a 2 f.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 101 seems that most bhikkhus did not possess the necessary strength.58 In any case, the veyavaliya played a very important part in linking all the members of the samgha and gana together. While the teachers devoted much of their activity to the material and spiritual welfare of their pupils, these had to serve their masters. Moreover, it will appear that, in the course of the hardest payacchittas, some proficient monk and even the superiors were requested to do the penitent's service. On the other hand, the veyavadiya could prove prejudicial to the common monks' progress. Therefore, the teachers were advised to take all necessary measures so that the service would not exhaust the pupils or prevent them from proper study and meditation.59 Various provisions, however, point to the conclusion that veyavadiya soon ranked as one of the noblest observances.60 THE FIRST PAYACCHITTA (aloyana; alocana). The practice of confession was already established in India at the time when Buddha s and Mahavira's communities were developing. It has been stressed that the Brahmanical teachers considered it a very important observance, just like the heterodox did.61 But it seems to have been performed more systematically and perhaps more solemnly among the Bauddhas and Jainas than among the Hindus. On the other hand, the benefits acquired through confessing are very similar in the Buddhist and Jaina books. According to the latter, all faults should be quickly washed away by the adequate atonement; but this, in its turn, cannot succeed except after a correct diagnosis, which the aloyana alone can make possible. Hence, it must be true and honest. The difficulty of this undertaking is acknowledged : it needs fortitude, and, therefore, can be already looked upon as a kind of payacchitta (supra). Moreover, a good monk should express his regrets along with his fault.62 A stereotyped formula, which occurs in the canonical books, details the different stages on the path leading from confession to expiation. Even if the sequence is partly artificial, it shows that the 58 Cf. VavBh 1, 298. 59 As for the able niggantha, he could, in his turn, if necessary, resort to the niravekkhas' practice. 60 Cf. VavT III 8 b; 10 b-11 a. 61 Wilhelm Gampert, Die Suhnezeremonien in der Altindischen Rechtsliteratur 233. 62 Cf. VavT II 57 b 1; 59 a 4 f,

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102 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME process should not be solely a negative, but also a positive one. monk should confess, repent, blame (his fault in front of his conscience), reprove it (in front of the guru), turn away and be cleansed of it, he should firmly resolve not to do it again, and, finally, perform the adequate payacchitta consisting in austerities: aloejja padikkamejja nindejja garahejja viuttejja visohejja akaranayde abbhutthejja aha'riham tavokammam payacchittam padivajjejja (Vav 1, 35; cf. 6, 10 f.; 7, 1; K 4, 25). Other canonical treatises insist on the benefits that can be derived from aloyana.63 The Vavahara 1, 35 teaches the correct procedure: when he has committed a fault, the bhikkhu should address his confession to his religious superiors, the ayariya and the uvajjhaya; if they are absent, he turns to ordinary monks, preferably of his own, or else of another sambhoga; or even, if none of all these are present, to a layman who will have been asked to carry the religious paraphernalia, and thus will have been given the appearance of a monk (saruviyam); the sutta moreover mentions the pious sanctuaries (sammam-bhaviyaim); if all these are wanting, the bhikkhu should stand in an isolated place and humbly confess to the Saints and Perfect Ones (arahantanam siddhanam antie). Because it is no easy task to confess, the superior must show the utmost kindness to the culprit and go out of his way to help him as far as he can.64 As for the monk, he should confess straightforwardly and confidently, like a child talking to his parents: jaha balo jampanto kajja-m-akajjam ca ujjuyam bhanai.65 To make sure that the confession is honest, the confessors have it repeated three times : 66 if the three accounts are identical, they are held to be true: 63 Uttar 29, 5; cf. Mahanisiha 1, 16; 31 f.; SS.13. Compare VavBh 1, 134 NisBh 6 391, according to which he who has confessed feels light, happy, etc.. 64 Cf. VavT III 39 b 12 ff.; 40 b 2; IV 18 b 5 ff. Hence, nine qualities are required from the superior, VavBh 1, 337-338, ten qualities from the culprit, ibid. 339 b-340 a. = 65 Quoted ad VavBh 1, 133 NisBh 6 392 Ohanijj. 801; cf. Mahanisiha 1,199 a. 66 In conformity with the technique of the sruta-vyavaharin as opposed to that of the agama-vyavaharin, who never errs, and therefore does. not need the help of any stratagem.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 103 ......aloyaventi te u tikkhutto saris'attham apaliunci visarisa parinamato kunci (VavBh 1, 137 = NisBh 6 395). According to VavBhT, there are three types of aloyana : (1) the vihar'a.; (2) the uvasampaya. (upasampad-a.); (3) the avarah'a. (aparudh'a.). The first one is that of the religious life, which is thus laid open : viharam..prakatayanti (VavT II 17 a 6); from the commentaries, we learn that it is the a. addressed by the monk to the superior of his own sambhoga. It takes place at regular intervals, and can be considered as the regular confession The other two occur in special circumstances. The second is that of the monk who, leaving his own gana, wishes to join another company, where he is asked to state his reasons for so doing; the third aloyana is that of an offence by a bhikkhu who has come from another gana for this very purpose. All three can be enunciated globally or point by point, oghena vibhagena ca.67 In fact, the global a. is not resorted to except in cases of emergency;68 othervise, it is allowed only in the vihar'aloyana, if the incurred atonement does not last more than 25 days.69 The length of the confession, the proper time for it, differ according to the type.70 Except for the detailed avarah'a., it does not matter whether the day is auspicious or not.71 The order according to which the offences are recalled is fixed : first the transgressions of the mulaguna, then of the uttaraguna etc.72 The commentators give further details about each of the three sorts of confessions. The sambhoiya monks who come in view of the vihar'aloyana should arrive when the residents have just begun their meal. Thus, they will take it all together, either after the confession if the aloyana is a global one that is in case the monks are liable to a 25 days atonement at the very most), or before the aloyana if it is detailed (the monks having incurred more than 25 days). 67 VavT II 17 b; Bh 1, 52; 62. 68 Cf. similar rules among the Buddhists, Vin 1, 112 f.; 168. 69 VavT II 21 a 9 f.; 11 f.; Bh 1, 52. 70 VavBh 1, 53 = NisBh 6 315. 71 VavBh 1, 54; T II 18 b. 72 Compare the Buddhist Vinaya 1, 112.

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104 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME It is addressed to the eldest (rainiya), or to the second eldest, or to a giyattha ; and it takes place, normally at the end of each fortnight, or after four months, or after a year, or after twelve years at the most.73 The uvasampayaloyana is a very elaborate ceremony.74 It is preceded by a sort of examination of the bhikkhu to make sure whether he is worth being admitted or readmitted into the gana. He cannot be received unless his reasons are pure, and he sincerely wishes to improve his knowledge, faith, conduct. Moreover, it must be checked whether his behaviour in the main is proper. If he is acknowledged to be faultless, he is granted admission, and tested during three days; he himself observes whether the conduct of the ayariya is satisfactory. If all are pleased, the candidate confesses his faults in the established order, 75 then bows to the superior, asking for advice, warning, and stimulus : aloyana me dinna, icchami sarana varana coyanam ti; the guru promises : ajjo amhe sarejja varejja soijja iti.76 The avarahaloyana is performed by a monk who has specially come from another gana to confess particular faults.77 This he must state as soon as he arrives, whether he be questioned or not.78 The superior will enquire about the reasons that lead him to leave his own troup, and will receive him or not according to his answer, just as in the uvasampayaloyana. Normally, this confession is a detailed one. The commentaries stress that it must be given in auspicious surroundings, days, etc.79 The superior and the bhikkhu should look towards the proper direction: the latter towards the East or the North, or the caranti (dik), that is the land where the Lord or any other great teacher has led or is leading his religious life.80 The acarya is seated looking towards the East, the other is on his right, facing the North; or again the acarya is turned to the North, the other is on the left, looking 73 VavBh 1, 51; T II 17 a - b. 74 VavBh 1, 61 - 119 = NisBh 6322-6376. 75 VavBh 1, 119= Nis Bh 6 376. 76 VavT 38 b 11 ff. 77 VavBh 1, 120 - 133 = NisBh 6 377 -6 390. 78 VavT II 39 a 5. 79 VavBh 1, 122-131 = NisBh 6 379 - 6 388. 80 caranti nama yasyam (disi) Bhagavan arhan viharati, samanyatah kevala-inani, etc., VavT II 42 a f.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 105 towards the East or the caranti. The culprit bows, makes the anjali, squats in the utkutuka posture, and confesses, stating whether he sinned purposely or though he was paying due attention to the Rule.81 This ritual reminds one of the Hindu, and still more of the Buddhist ceremonial.82 The commentaries are very particular about the order of precedence. The usual hierarchy between the two men can still be manifested. But the superiority of the confessor over the man who confesses should be clear: this is only too natural, as the confessor, so to speak, symbolizes the Rule. Therefore, he must take his place on a higher seat. As for the man who confesses, he should, theoretically, keep the utkutuka position, which is the pure one, though others can b@ tolerated: yady utkutukah sann alocayati, tatah suddhih (VavT III 42 a 10). Transgressions of etiquette are minutely studied by VavBhT:83 they must be expiated along with the main offences. THE SECOND ATONEMENT (padikkamana, pratikramana). The spirit of this atonement is expressed in the formula tassa miccha me dukkadam," my fault is due to error" 84 It means that the believer will turn away from bad conduct, and resume a salutary behaviour : pratipam kramanam yad aha: "sva-sthanad yat param sthanam pramadasya vasad gatah, tatraiva kramanam bhuyah pratikramanam ucyate".85 It is sometimes considered as the fourth of the ten daily duties (avassaya).86 On the other hand, it seems that the padikkamana is strongly linked with the aloyana (supra); and it is noteworthy that there is no mention of an independent padikkamana ceremony neither in K (4, 25) nor in Vav (1, 35). The padikkamana-suttas consider either all the various faults taken together, or each category of fault individually.87 As far as time is concerned, padikkamana is said to be fivefold, for it takes place at five fixed moments or dates : in the evening to regret the day's faults, in the 81 VavBh 1, 133 = NisBh 6 390. 82 Cf. Kane, History of Dharmasastra 4, 85; Majjhima Nikaya 2, 248, 23 ff.; and Vin 1, 125 f. 83 VavBh 1, 400 - 410, a masterpiece of scholastic work! 84 Cf. VavT III 126 b 3: pratikramen mithya duskrtam tad-visaye dadyat. 85 Pravacana 39 a. 86 Cf. Doctrine 151. 87 Abhidhana 5, 271 ff.

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106 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME morning to regret those of the night; at the end of every fortnight, of four months, of the year. The ceremonial of the fortnightly repentance is known, thanks to a rather old text, the Pakkhiya-sutta,88 which has been commented upon by Yasodeva. It can be summarized following the Pakkhiya-cunni. The monks first complete their tasks. Then at sun-set, they recite the samaiya-sutta; they collect themselves, recalling all the faults they have committed during that day; they salute (namokkara), recite the hymn to the 24 Jinas, clean themselves, express the praise (kiikamma). They prostrate themselves, then stand up, and confess following the order of precedence. The guru prescribes the payacchitta. They accept it, keep good spiritual dispositions, and recite the padikkamana-sutta. Standing, the guru recites his part, then sits down. The monks bow down and ask for mercy. The guru answers, asking for mercy too.89 The monks enumerate their faults: the eldest should begin, turning first towards the youngest, and asking him for pardon for his various transgressions.90 The latter, prostrate, makes anjali, and in his turn asks for pardon. When all, the guru and the bhikkhus, have finished, they express the praise and proclaim that, after having regretted the faults of the day, they have regretted those committed during the fortnight. Then the guru exhorts to repent correctly : samman padikkamaha. After this, they should collect themselves, meditate upon the Law, recite sutras, the great Vows, Lord Mahavira's praise, the eulogium of religious Tradition and the homage to its teachers, servants, and divinity. Then, prostrate, they recite the five Graces (khamei).91 In the main, the daily repentance follows the same ceremonial, though it is slightly less solemn.92 According to the above account, the ceremony is evidently public. And the Pravacanasara states that padikkamana must take place in front 88 Cf. Doctrine 159; 55. 89 icchami khama-samano uvatthio mi abbhintara-pakkhiyam khameum. - aham avi khamemi tubbhe tti. The ritual is so established in order to inspire humility to every one present. 91 Doctrine 159. 92 Pravacanasara p. 39 a -40 b. 90

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 107 of the guru; nevertheless, if his teacher is away, the bhikkhu can perform it alone.93 It will have been noted that, while the aloyana ritual seems rather simple, the padikkamana looks much more elaborate. A similar feature can be traced in the Buddhists' ceremonial : when the monks have committed an offence, they confess it to the superior; and this confession is auricular. Then, at fixed dates, they meet in an assembly the purity of which is solemnly proclaimed.94 On the other hand, it should be remembered that, in Brahmanical circles, the practice of confession is very old, while it is only in later times that repentance came to be expressed.95 THE THIRD ATONEMENT (misa, misra, or (tad-) ubhaya). It combines aloyani and padikkamana. The peculiar features appear to be these : (1) the repentance is necessarily preceded by the confession, which must be addressed to the guru; (2) the padikkamana immediately follows aloyana, and the regrets are expressed strictly conforming to the guru's advices. 96 THE FOURTH ATONEMENT (viveya, viveka). It is but the restitution of alms which had been accepted, and which later on are found to be impure. The bhikkhu will be considered to be faultless if he gives them back conforming to the Rule (VavPithBh 109). THE FIFTH ATONEMENT (viussagga, vyutsarga; kaussagga). The kaussagga is constantly resorted to in the religious life. It is meant to procure detachment. Various postures help to attain this aim, especially that which is immortalized by the colossal statue of Bahubali at Sravana Belgola. It is emphasized at the end of the kayotsarga-sutra, when the bhikkhu proclaims : "I cast my body off by standing motionless, my self off by keeping silent and meditating", kayam thanenam monenam jhanena appana vosirami.97 In fact, this observance is supposed to have negative and positive results: (1) it destroys the sinful acts; (2) it helps to concentrate, to get rid of laziness, to conquer equanimity.98 93 Ibid., p. 39 b 10. 94 Cf. Raffaele Pettazzoni, La confessione dei peccati 1, 312 ff. 95 Gampert, Suhnezeremonien 234 f. 96 Cf. VavPithT 20 b 6 ff.; 37 a 2. 97 R. Williams, Jaina Yoga 213. 98 Ibid., 213; Vav PithBh 125.

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108 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The length of the exercise is measured in "breaths" (ucchvasa); this unit is equal to the time needed to recite mentally the pada of a sloka, or a namaskara.99 The number of kayotsarga in such and such circumstances is fixed, and so is their duration; they increase when the occasions become more important and solemn. Thus, the religious collects himself before all his enterprises, and does so all the more when they are considered to be more and more difficult. THE SIXTH ATONEMENT (parihara; later replaced by tava, tavo, tapas). The parihara is the setting aside of the monk until he has finished redeeming his fault; he should keep away from those whose behaviour is pure : pariharo varjanam sadhor iti gamyate apanna pariharah tatha hi : sa prayascitti avisuddhatvad visuddha-caranaih sadhubhir yavat prayascittapratipattya na visuddho bhavati, tavat parihriyate.100 While performing this atonement, the bhikkhu has a special status, he is in the state of redeeming, nivvisamana-kappatthii.101 He is considered to be morally outside the troup, gaccha-niggaya, and is not concerned with his companions, niravekkha : he concentrates upon his own spiritual progress, and should strictly adhere to the Rule, att'atthacintaga102. The commentaries give many details about this prayascitta, the name of which they know perfectly well, though they often prefer to say tava, tapas. On the other hand, scholastics, besides this apannaparihara, recognize a suddhaparihara, "p. of the pure", or "pure p." : it is supposed to be either the practice of the Rule by a completely pure monk, or the pure practice.103 In fact, it is never met with in the K, Vav or Nisiha, and it appears as an easy escape for the commentators when the culprit is not proficient enough to be prescribed the real parihara. The commentaries propose it for all who would not be able to bear the parihara or would derive no benefit from it; the nuns, the agiyattha, 104 those who have no strength or vigour : suddhatavo ajjanan agiyatthe dubbale asanghayane (VavBh 1, 359a). woman 99 Cf. Doctrine 161; Williams, ibid., 215; VavPithBh 122; Jiya 22. 100 VavT II 11 a 9. 101 Cf. Doctrine 162. 102 Cf. VavBh 1, 363; supra. 103 VavT II 11 a. An other name is sodhi, cf. VavT IV 16 a. 104 agitarthatvena pariharatapo yogyataya abhavat VavT IV 16 a 5; cf. 17 b 3; passim. d .

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 109 Elsewhere, though, commentaries fix, as a substitute for the parihara, the eighth payacchitta, the "radical" suppression of seniority (mula, VavBh 1, 320 b; T III 11 b). Before prescribing the parihara, the guru must make sure that the penitent is physically, intellectually, spiritually, apt to perform it.105 The VavBh T state that it should be executed only during the rains, so that it may be milder : 106 gimhanam avanno, causu vi vasa'su denti ayariya (VavBh 2, 364 a). Moreover, the penitent should never be left alone : 107 he should stay in places where he can eventually get ready help, especially from another giyattha: thus, thanks to various disposals, this rigorous penance is softened in actual practice. The parihara is either "cumulated" (samcayita, sic!), or not (asamcayita). Though it can be further mitigated, the asamcayita parihara theoretically lasted as many months as the penalty that the religious has incurred. The samcayita parihara is prescribed when the culprit has, in fact, incurred more than six months atonement: from seven at the least to 180 at the most. They are reduced to six, which is the maximum of parihara according to Mahavira's Doctrine (VavT III 1 b). Each of these two types is "liable to abatement" or not (ugghaiya anugghaiya, -ima; (an) udghatika), or, as the commentaries prefer to say, is either "light", or "heavy" (la (g) hu; guru).108 The weight of the penance depends on two factors, time (kala) and austerities (tapas). 109 The samcayita is meant to redeem several offences at the same time. Its total duration is obtained after two operations, which are not detailed if the culprit is gitartha or vikovida, or even parinamaka. They are the sthapana (thavana) "carrying forward", and aropana (arovana) " addition". Taken together, these two operations constitute the samcaya 110 105 VavBh 1, 350 = NisBh 6 584; T III 28 b. 106 However, see Deo, History 155 for the commentaries of Viyah. and Than. 107 ekakinas ca satah pariharatapo na nirvahati, VavT IV 22 b 7 108 Doctrine 162. 109 VavT IV 25 b 2 ff.; K p. 14 n. 1. 110 Cf. VavT II 58 b.

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110 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Then, the parihara is set into "motion ", or given (prasthapana, patthavana; dana, according to the Nisiha-cunni).111 The patthavana is said to be of two kinds, 112 the arovana of five sorts;113 among the latter, the "complete" variety, kasina (krtsna) and the akasina appear to be the most important. In the case of akasina the total length is reduced, the "suppression "114 varying so that the remaining expiation be necessary and sufficient to purify the culprit.115 In the case of kasina there are no varying suppressions, but only fixed ones: fifteen days are suppressed at the beginning and five at the end of each month (cf. VavBh 1, 247). The commentators name six sorts of kasina (VavBh 1, 385 = NisBh 6 616); they give details about the fifth (anudghata-ketsna) which is "complete without abatement', and still more about the fourth, or anugraha-kstsna," complete with remission". The remission is granted when the culprit, at the time of confession, expresses his regrets ("ha dusthu kytam"ity adi), or when he is known to be weak.116 The mechanism is explained thus: suppose a monk has successively incurred two parihara of six months each: he will perform only six months altogether. Two cases occur : (1) six days of the six first months have already been performed: the remaining five months 24 days are suppressed; the second group of six months are theoretically prescribed, but in fact, six days are suppressed;117 (2) of the first group of six months, only six days remain to be performed. If a new fault, liable to six months is committed, these six months are theoretically inflicted, but in practice reduced to six days. 118 If there is no remission, the arrangements are as follow: (1) the new fault occurs at the end of the six first days: the remaining five months 24 days are suppressed, while the six months 111 Quoted by Malayagiri VavT III 2 a 10; cf. Bh 1, 294 a. 112 VavBh 1, 412 a = NisBh 6 642 a. 113 VavBh 1, 413 = NisBh 6 643. 114 jhosa, jhosa, jhosayati, eventually explained parityaga, parityajati, VavT III 11 a; 6 a-b. 115 VavT II 86 b 10 ff. 116 VavT III 37 b. 117 Ibid., 7 a - b. 118 Ibid., 7 a.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 111 necessitated by the second offence are maintained. The total is six months six days.119 (2) the new fault occurs at the end of five months 24 days: the remaining six days are suppressed; the second group of six months is maintained. Thus, the total is twelve months less six days.120 The two arrangements that are characteristic of the parihara are apparently signified by the two formulae thavanijjam thavaitta and karanijjan veyavadiyam. Other observances (the "service", study, meditation, fasts) were performed at the same time, but they are not specific The parihara is summed up thus by Malayagiri : 121 the monk first recollects. The teacher, in front of the whole gana, proclaims the rank of the two nigganthas who will assist him. He publicly states which arrangements are to be taken (sthapaniyam..sthapayitva, VavTIII 26 a 1). Lastly, the commentaries record which "services" the penitent will receive from his tutor and from an aid (vaiyavstyan karaniyam, ibid. 2). After the preliminary examination of the niggantha by the guru, after the kayotsarga, and if the astrological conditions are auspicious, the parihara begins.122 Then the teacher says to the religious : kappatthito aham te, anuparihari ya esa te gito,123 "For you, I stand in the Rule..", meaning that, unlike the other religious, he is not to be avoided by the penitent. Though the formula thavanijjam thavaitta has sometimes been misunderstood, there is little doubt that it refers to the arrangements that morally exclude the monk from the society of his companions. 124 The guru sums them up at the beginning of the observance. He asks the other monks not to disturb the penitent who, on the other hand, will not speak to any of them either : esa tavam padivajjai, na kim ci alavati ma ya alavaha,125 119 Ibid., 7 a. 120 Ibid., 7 b. 121 Ibid., 25 b ff. 122 VavBh 1, 350 = NisBh 6 584; VavBh 1, 360; 361a = Nisbh 6 593 a. 123 VavBh 362 a = NisBh 6 594 a. 124 Cf. my discussion in Les Expiations 183 f. and in Drei Chedasutras, ad 1, 17. 125 VavBh 1, 363 a = Nis Bh 6 595 a.

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112 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME Further, the teacher states which are the ten prohibitions restricting the exchanges between the parihariya and the pure nigganthas. They apply both to the penitent and to the others: alavana padipucchana pariyatt' utthana vandanaga matte padilehana samghadaga bhatta-ddanam sambhunjana c'eva.126 Thus, the parihariya (1) will not talk to his companions, nor will they talk to him; (2) will ask them no question about the text or the sense of the sacred books; nor will they ask him; (3) will not study the Doctrine with them, nor they with him; (4) does not stand up in the usual circumstances as a sign of respect, nor do they; (5) does not salute, nor do they; (6) does not offer the various pots, nor do they; (7) does not inspect the baggage with the others, nor do they; (8) does not meet with the others, nor do they; (9) does not present anything to eat or drink, nor do they; (10) does not eat with them nor do they with him. All transgressions should of course be expiated. And it is noteworthy that the heavier atonements are prescribed for the transgressions of points 9 and 10, that is when the trespassers have taken no heed of the various restrictions concerning the exchanges of food and drink.127 This is not mere chance. Other provisions show the importance that was attached to food. At the end of the parihara, the monk and his companions are again allowed to talk to each other, etc. But they do. not eat together before an extra period has elapsed (from five days to one month, proportionally to the length of the parihara). Moreover, it seems that, even during the parihara, the Elder can allow the penitent and the pure monks to meet and study together (Vav 1, 21); they may even for study-purposes be permitted to live together,-in which case they eat separately (ibid. 2, 27). On the contrary, they never partake of the same food, except in cases of extreme emergency if the penitent is becoming exceedingly weak (Vav 2, 28; Bh 2, 371 f.; 374); or if there'is a famine or some sort of calamity in the country (Vav 2, 29 f.) 129 126 VavBh 1, 364 NisBh 2 881 6 596. = 127 VavT III 31 a; IV 17 b; cf. the table in Expiations 185. Vav 2, 27; cf. T IV 80 b aldapan'adini sarvani kriyante, navaram ekam bhojanam ekatra varjyate. 129 About the importance of food, cf. Om Prakash, Foods and drinks in Ancient India, Introduction, etc.; Expiations 187, and n. 1, ubi alia.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 113 The seclusion which is the specific feature of the parihara, has been very much feared, at least if we are to trust the commentaries. The weak are spared this, and for them mula (or suddhaparihara) is prescribed in its place.130 . It even happens that the future parihariya so much fears this observance that he has a nervous breakdown (VavBh 2, 102 a): then the ganavaccheiya should comfort him. His loneliness is somewhat alleviated by the services of the "regular" one (kalpasthita) 131 and of the "second" (anuparihariya, anupariharika): they do the "service" (karanijjam veyavadiyam:.. tabhyam kartavyam, Vav 1, 17 ff.; T III 34 a 1 f.). To serve means to praise or exhort, to criticize, to sustain : anusitthi uvalambhe uvaggahe c'eva... (VavBh 1, 374 b = NisBh 6605 b) : the service can be either material (especially the uvaggaha), or more often spiritual.132 To the kalpasthita, the penitent can address salutations, confession, etc.; the parihariya can question him about the Doctrine; from him, he receives directions concerning the various abstinences.133 Thus, the kalpasthita sustains the monk in his spiritual progress (upagraha). As for the material help, it seems that he rather commits it to the anupariharika. On the other hand, he himself has to give the praise or exhortation (anusistih stuti-karanam va), and the criticism, that should always be benevolent (yat sanunayopadesa-danam esa upalambhah).134 The task of the anuparihariya is defined in VavBh 1, 368 (NisBh 2 885; 6 600) : utthijja nisiijja bhikkham hindejja bhandayam pehe kuviya piya bandhavassa va karei iyaro vi tusinio : The penitent who cannot stand up, sit down, go for alms, inspect his baggage, says: "I try to stand up.."; then the other helps him. But, while helping him, he should not speak a word. 130 yasmat suddhatapasi dasapy alapan'adini padani santi tena karanena tat tapah karkasam na bhavati, VavT III 33 b 8. 131 Compare amg, kappaga, Vav 2, 2;4. 132 VavBh 1, 378 = NisBh 6 610. 133 VavBh 1, 367 = NisBh 2 884; 6 599. 134 Cf. VavT III 34 a. G.J.y. 8

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114 : SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME The reason why the anuparihariya should be a giyattha135 can be readily imagined : he must be sure to act according to the Rule,-and this, precisely, is the case of the "adept". Thus "sustaining" the penitent as far as caritra is concerned, the "second" discharges the superior of heavy tasks: he helps him to spare the necessary time for other duties, especially for teaching all pupils the jnana and darsana.136 THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH ATONEMENTS (cheya, cheda; mula). While the commentaries give a detailed account of the parihara, they give little information concerning cheya and mula. Cheya consists in the partial suppression of the seniority; mula is its "radical" suppression. It is seldom that the canonical books prescribe no atonement before the cheya.137 Generally, K and Vav enjoin a "proportional cheya or parihara", se s'antara chee va parihare va.138 And the commentators deal with the cheya as if it were a substitute for the parihara, or an atonement meant to complete the latter. Its length is calculated like that of the parihara, which it continues or replaces, growing either every five days, or every month, every four months. . 139 Though the explanations given in Vavi vary in the details, it seems a well-established custom to inflict a cheda only when new faults are committed after the prescription or the inception of the parihara: either after a samcayita parihara (first udghata, then anudghata), 140 or after three asamcayita parihara.141 All these rules seem rather theoretical. But there is probably not much to be added, except this: it may be that, at the same time, the religious was advised to study, particularly the Cheya-sutta, that is books dealing especially with discipline.142 135 VavBh 1, 362 = NisBh 6594. About the qualifications of the giyattha, supra 6. 136 In the Buddhist community, no atonement is found which would be identical with the Jaina parihara. But, in many respects, the paticchanna-parivasa can be compared with it (Cf. K p. 12). 137 However K 5, 5 does. 138 K 2, 4-7; Vav 1, 21; 22-24; 3, 2; 4, 11 f.; etc. 139 VavT III 11 a 5 f.; compare Pithu 46 a 7 f. 140 VavT II 97 b 2 f. 141 Ibid., III 2 a - b. 142 Cf. Doctrine 51 f. *

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS: 115 The mula is the eighth and the last atonement that can be prescribed for the Jaina monk living normally in a gana: rather, the acarya is the only one who is liable to this prayascitta (supra). His seniority is completely suppressed. He must begin his religious life afresh, from the vows onwards. But he is not made to observe any tapas.143 On the other hand, a list of those who should be prescribed the mula is given in VavBh 1, 320: tav'atiya-m-asaddahae tava-balje c'eva hoi pariyage dubbala appariname atthira abahussue mulam. They are those who need more than the sixth (or seventh) expiation; who are not confident in the purificatory power of the sixth; or who bear it too easily; etc.; and those who having incurred the ninth or the tenth are not able to perform them succeedingly.144 On the whole, then, mula would appear to be used rather like a substitute: for the ninth and tenth atonements, from which the sapeksas are exempted; for the sixth and seventh when these would be too light; for the sixth if, on the contrary, it exceeds the strength and the maturity of the penitent. THE NINTH AND TENTH ATONEMENTS (anavatthaya, anavasthaya; paranciya, parancita). The ninth atonement is the anavatthaya (=anavasthaya; for anavatthavaya), "destitution". The tenth is known as the "last" in the commentaries: if it had a specific name, it did not come down to us; we only read of the penitent being paranciya (parancita), "excluded". These expiations are prescribed exclusively to the niravekkha religious (the jinakappiya, parihariya, ahalandiya), who have already proved that they are fit to live in solitude. Destitution is incurred by those who have robbed or cheated Jaina or non-Jaina religious people; or who have given a slap in the face (K 4, 3 and Bh ad loc.). Exclusion is proclaimed against those who nourish bad feelings or thoughts, or are lazy, or addicted to homosexuality (K 4, 2); according to Than, to those who (1) break a kula (2) or a gana, (3) who favour violence, (4) because of whose defects violence. progresses, or the right Doctrine can be obliterated, (5) or those who are inquisitive and ask unbecoming questions (300 a). Thus, the paranciya Cf. the commentary ad K 4, 2-3. 144 Cf. T III 11 a - b.

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116 SHRI MAHAVIRA JAINA VIDYALAYA GOLDEN JUBILEE VOLUME is blamed for his dispositions rather than for definite offences.145 Therefore, it seems that he should be excluded once for all. However the Vavahara teaches that he can be taken back into the gana and rehabilitated, just as the anavatthappa (2, 21 and 23; 19 and 22). The rehabilitation is operated by the ganavaccheiya, after due consideration of the penitent's behaviour, and of the gana's wishes. The anavatthaya performs tava after his reordination; the paranciya before it.146 The commentaries of Vav 2, 18-23 define the status of both these penitents together.147 They are excluded from the "circle" or ground where their gana is established: yavad anavasthapyam parancitam va vahati tavad bahih ksetrad avatisthate.148 Consequently, and because he sinned, he is not a real ascetic, but only an apparent one, samyata-rupin.149 Moreover, the paranciya must leave the religious paraphernalia.150 On the other hand, neither he nor the anavatthappa should behave like laymen.151 When begging, they observe restrictions quite similar to those of the jinakappiya.152 Though they are established outside the gana, they receive the daily visit of the ayariya, who enquires after their health, helps them in their study, and if necessary comforts them.153 If he is hindered, he sends them a delegate, either the uvajjhaya, or any. giyattha these should at once inform the penitent of the reasons why they have been asked to come; then they all keep silent, performing the superior's orders,154 If, notwithstanding these measures, the anavatthaya or paranciya grow exhausted, they are taken care of by the ganavaccheiya or by the dyariya (cf. Vav 2, 7-8). It will have been noted that in many respects, the two last atonements are cognate to the parihara. When the time for the religious's readmission into the gana has come, the penitents approach the teacher as if they were lay believers 145 Cf. Doctrine 162. 146 Commentaries of K 4, 2-3; Than. 147 VavT IV 52 a-58 a. 148 Ibid., 53 b 4; cf. 26 a 9. 149 Cf. VavT IV 56 a 1 ff.; cf. Bh 2, 249 f. 150 ThanT 300 b. 151 VavT IV 53 b 5. 152 Ibid., 53 b 6. 153 VavBh 2, 239 f. 154 VavT IV 54 b; cf. supra: the anuparihari.

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THE RELIGIOUS' PRAYASCITTAS : 117 (gihi, Vav 2, 19; 21). This means that they must take care to behave perfectly according to the Rule. They will not bathe, but will wear fine clothes. Then they go to the assembly of bhikkhus, approach the superior and say : "Lord, I wish to hear the Law". The superior recites it. Then the penitent proclaims: "I believe in this righteous Law. Let me leave the world o.155 Though the ganavaccheiya is forbidden to receive the anavatthaya and paranciya into the gana if they do not come as lay believers, the gana may insist that they be rehabilitated : the ganavaccheiya then must comply with the gana's wishes (cf. jaha tassa gamassa pattiyam siya, Vav 2, 22 f.). Four cases are listed, when the penitents need not perform this preliminary ceremonial: (1) because of regard for the king, and because the community is grateful to the penitent for past services (VavBh 2, 243-254); (2) when an ayariya has suffered some prejudice in his gana (ibid. 2, 255); (3) because his people wants him and no other (ibid. 2, 258 f.); (4) if there is a controversy between two ganas the members of which are agiyattha (ibid. 2, 260 ff.). In the Digambara community, the two last atonements were called (9) parihara, (10) saddahana (Mulacara 5, 165; (10) sraddhana, Asadhara, Anagaradharmamota 7, 56). They differ in various details from the Svetambaras' anavasthaya and carama. But the general aim is the same: to release the links between the penitent and his fellow monks, help him to behave correctly, so that he can concentrate on his own spiritual progress, and resume his previous good conduct after readmission into his gana. Meanwhile, he has been placed in conditions which should constantly remind him of Lord Mahavira's example, 155 VavBh 2, 233. NU