Origin and Development of Jainism

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Z_Shwetambar_Sthanakvasi_Jain_Sabha_Hirak_Jayanti_Granth_012052.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250233/1

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Origin and Development of Jainism
Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of supremacy of human being over gods, equality of all the world. It has a rich spiritual, cultural and literary beings, opposition to the supremacy of Brahmins and heritage to its credit. Indian religious quest has two to animal sacrifices and emphasis on moral values main streams - Vedic ( Brāhmaṇic ) and śramaņic. were some of the fundamental tendencies of Among the living world religions Jainism, as well as sramanic tradition. We also find that some of the Buddhism, belong to the śramanic trend of Indian above mentioned tendencies such as renunciation and culture. There were some other Sramanic religions emancipation were totally absent from the earlier also but they either like Ājivikas, disappeared in the form of Vedic religion. These concepts were course of time or like Sārkhya-Yoga and other contributed by the Sramaņas to Indian culture in ascetic systems of Hindu religions, became part and general and Hinduism in particular. parcel of great Hindu religion by adopting some Antiquity of Jaina Tradition tenets of Vedic religion.
The antiquity of Jainism goes back to the preSramanic tradition is spiritualistic and historic period of Indian culture. In support of this soteriological in its very nature. It lays special view Prof. H. Zimmer observes, "there is truth in the emphasis on renunciation of worldly belongings and Jaina idea that their religion goes back to remote enjoyments and on emancipation from worldly exist- antiquity, the antiquity in question being that of the ence, i.e., the cycle of birth and death. It may be Pre-Aryan" (Philosophies of India, p. 60 ). We find accepted without any contradiction that these very references to Vrätyas and Arhatas in Rgveda and ideas of emancipation (mokṣa/mukti/nirvāņa/ Atharvaveda, the oldest texts of the Indian literature. kaivalya ) and renunciation ( tyāga/samyama These Vrâtyas and Arhatas of Vedic period are the vairāgya ) have been cultivated by the Sramaņas. ancestors of Jainas. They are also known as Asceticism is the fundamental concept of Šramanic Sramaņas in Upanişadic period. Alongwith the tradition. It is on this ground that the religions of references of Vrātyas, Arhatas and Śramaņas in Śramanic tradition such as Jainism and Buddhism Vedas and Upanişadas, we find mention there of differ from the early Vedic religion. The early Vedic some Jaina Tirtharkaras such as Rşabha, Ajita and religion was against asceticism and emphasized the Aristanemi. It conclusively prooves that Jainism, in material welfare of the individual and the society. its oldest form as Vrātya or Arhata tradition, was The Vedic seers in their hymns were praising the prevalent at the time of the composition of Vedas worldly existence and praying for their own health hence its antiquity goes back to pre-Vedic period, and wealth as well as of their fellow beings, while the i.e., at least three to five thousand years before Śramaņas were condemning this worldly existence Christian era. Secondly, in Mohen-jo-daro and and propounding the theory that this worldly Harappa some seals of meditating Yogis have been existence is full of suffering and the ultimate end of found, which show that the tradition of performing human life is to get rid of the cycle of birth and death. meditation and Yoga-sadhana was present much Austerity, renunciation, emancipation, atheism, the prior in Indian Culture to the arrival of Aryans and

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
their Yajña rituals because no Yaña-vedi is found in read in Buddhist canons, the name of some Jaina these excavations. At that time present Jainism was Tirtharkaras such as Rşabha, Padma, Candraprabha, known as a Vrătya-dharma or Arhat-dharma. Puşpadanta, Vimala, Dharma, Nami, Ariștanemi and
Later on, in the Upanişadic period (c. 800 B. Mahāvira also occur in Buddhist literature in the form C.) the Vrătyas, Arhatas and Sramaņas were divided of previous Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Pratyekainto various religious schools. At that time (c.800 B. buddhas. Theragātha also mentions the Vaddhamāņa C. to 500 A. D. ). Jainism was known as Nirgratha- Thera. According to its earlier commentary, Attadharma. In Buddhist Pali Tripitaka and the ancient kathā, he was Licchaviputra. In my humble opinion, Jaina canons as well as in the pillar-edicts of Asoka he was not else than Vardhamāna Mahāvira, the 24th the religion of Lord Parśva and the Mahāvira is Jaina Tirtharikara. Thus, it can be said with a degree mentioned in the name of Nirgrantha Dharma. of certainty that all the Jaina Tirtharikaras are not Historicity of Lord Pārsva, the 23rd Tirthařkara, is legendary characters. Though, it may be true that now well established and accepted by all the scholars. some legendary characteristics might have crept into According to Jaina tradition the predecessor of Lord the life-stories of Jaina Tirthankaras presented in Pārsva is Aristanemi. He is supposed to be the real Jaina Purāņas, their very existence can not be challencousin of Lord Krsna. Thus, the historicity of ged. Whether we accept the historicity of Jaina Aristanemi can also be established on the basis of the 'Tirthankara or not, it is beyond doubt that the Jaina historicity of Lord Krsna. If we hold Lord Krsna to be ideas of renunciation, austerity, penance, self-mortia historic person, then Aristanemi is also historical. fication, non-violence, celebacy, meditation etc. were We find his name not only in Vedas but in prevalent in the pre Vedic period. Sri Ramchandra Upanişadas and Hindu Purāṇas also. Some scholars observes that, "Upanişads represent the Brahmanical furnish an inscriptional evidence to prove the spiritual thought: As seen later, the Brāhmaṇas did historicity of Aristanemi ( Neminātha ). There is not accept spiritualism truthfully. They borrowed found a Copper deed of gift of a Babilonian King spiritual thoughts from their Pre-Aryan adversaries, Nebuchandrazar ( 1140 B. C. ) at Prabhaspattan in now friends, in a perverted manner.... The Šramanic Gujrat. It, as per reading of Dr. Prananath (T.O.I., dt. culture was ascetic, atheistic, pluralistic and March 19, 1935), indicates that the King must have 'realistic' in content.* This comes out clearest from a come to Mount Revata to pay homage to Lord consideration of the earliest faith of the Jainas — one Neminātha. Though the reading is not accepted by all of the oldest living surviving sects of the Munis. The the scholars yet we cannot reject it as totally false. pre-Upanişadic materialistic ( Pravrtti-Dharmic ) Vedic Lord Nami of Mithila, the 21st Tirthankara of Jainas, thought later evolved pseudo-spiritual thought (Nivịttiis also accepted as a Rși in Upanişadic and Hindu Dharmic ) mainly through the influences of the MuniPaurāņic tradition. So far as the historicity of Lord śramaņa culture, in pre-Buddhistic times, within its Rşabha is concerned, it is a well established fact that fold ( Ramchandra Jain — The Most Ancient Aryan not only his name but his life-story and teachings also Society, pp. 48-49 ). It is this semi-materialistic and occur in Bhagavat and some other Purāņas. semi-spiritualistic thought which gave birth to a new According to Prof. Dalasukh Malvania, who is well- form of religion, which is known as Hinduism.
Yajña-Vedi has been identified in some Indus * Cf.: The editor's "Studies in the Origin of Buddhism." Valley sites such as Kalibangam. (Editor)
(Editor)

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Origin and Development of Jainism
Hinduism is nothing but an assimilation of Vedic and śramanic traditions. Jainism & Hinduism
However, these two distinct trends ( Brāhmanic ) as well as śramaņic have been prevalent in Indian Culture from its earliest days. But our culture, being a composite one, a water-tight compartment among its different shades is not feasible at all. We cannot understand Indian Culture completely without understanding its these two
two different constituents, Viz., Śramanic and Vedic, developed later on in the form of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. So one thing must be clear in our mind, that studies and researches in the field of Indology are not possible in isolation. In fact, Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism are so inter- mingled and mutually influenced by each other that to have a proper understanding of one, the under- standing of other is essential. No doubt, these different trends are distinguishable but, at the same time, we must realize that they are not separable. Though on the basis of some peculiarities in theory and practice we can distinguish them yet it is very difficult to make a complete separation, because none of these trends remained uninfluenced by one another. The earlier śramanic trend and its later shades such as Jainism and Buddhism had influenced the Vedic tradition, which later on developed in the form of Hinduism. The concepts of tapas or austerity, asceticism, liberation, meditation, equanimity and non-violence, which were earlier absent in Vedas, came into existence in Hinduism through Sramanic influence. The Upanişadas and the Gita have evolved some new spiritualistic definitions of Vedic rituals and they are the representatives of the dialogue which had taken place in Šramanic and Vedic traditions. The Upanişadic trend of Hinduism is not a pure form of Vedic religion. It incorporates in itself the various Śramanic tenets and gives a new dimension to Vedic
religion. Thus, we can say that Hinduism is an intermingled state of Vedic and śramanic traditions. The voice, raised by our ancient Upanișadic Řșis and Munis as well as śramaņas against ritualistic emphasis of Vedic tradition and worldly outlook of caste-ridden Brahminism, became stronger in Jainism and Buddhism along with the other minor Śramaņic sects. Thus, the Upanișadic trend as well as Jainism and Buddhism provided a resort to those fed up with up with Vedic ritualism and the worldly outlook tov
Not only Jainism and Buddhism but some other sects and schools of Indian thought such as Ajivikas and Sārkhyas also adopted more or less a similar attitude towards Vedic ritualism. However, Jainism and Buddhism are more candid and forthcoming in their opposition towards Vedic ritualism. They reject outrightly the animal-sacrifice in Yajñas, birth-based caste-system and the infallibility of the Vedas. In the form of Mahāvira and Buddha, the most prominent rationalist preachers, we find the real crusaders, whose tirade against caste-ridden and ritualistic Brahminism, crippled with its inner inadequacies, gave a severe jolt to it. Jainism and Buddhism have come forward to sweep away the long accumulated excrescences grown on Indian culture in the form of rituals, casteism and superstitions. But we shall be mistaken if we presume that in their attempt to clear off the dirt of Vedic ritualism, Jainism and Buddhism remained intact. They were also influenced by Vedic rituals considerably. Afterc. 3rd or 4th A.D., ritualism in the new form of Tantrika rituals crept into Jainism and Buddhism and became part and parcel of their religious practices and mode of worship. With the impact of Hindu Tantrism, Jainas adopted various Hindu deities and their mode of worship with some variations, suited to their religious temperament but were alien to it ( Jainism ) in its pure form. Jaina

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concept of Sasanadevatās or Yaksa-Yaksis is nothing but a Jaina version of Hindu deities. As I have pointed out earlier, the influence has been reciprocal. This can be discerned from the fact that on the one side Hinduism, accepted Rṣabha and Buddha as incarnation of God, while, on the other, Jainism included Rama and Krsna in its list of Salakāpurusas, great personalities. A number of Hindu gods and goddesses are accepted as consorts of Tirthankaras such as Kāli, Mahakali, Cakreśvari, Ambika, Padmavati, Siddhika and some others as independent deities such as Sarasvati and Laksmi. It is to be noted that the Jainas have included Rama and Kṛṣṇa in their list of sixtythree great personalities before c. 3rd A.D. because a mention of Kṛṣṇa in the early canonical text is found. Not only this, an epic on the story of Rama was composed in Jaina tradition by Vimalasūri in between c. Ist-5th A. D. Similarly the image of Jaina Sarasvati (c. 2nd A. D.) is also found at Kankali Ţilā, Mathura. Thus, evidently various Hindu dieties were included in Jainism before c. 3rd A. D.
The moot point, I intend to come to, is that different religious traditions of our great Indian culture have exchanged various concepts from one another. It is the duty of the scholars to study and highlight this mutual impact which is the need of the hour and thus, to bridge the gulf that exists between different religious systems due to the ignorance of their interactions and that of history of mutual impacts. Though it is true that Śramanic tradition in general and Jainism and Buddhism in particular have some distinct features, discriminating them from the early Vedic or Brahmanic tradition yet they are not alien faiths. They are the children of the same soil and they come forward with a bold reformative spirit. It would be a great mistake if we consider that Jainism and Buddhism, are a mere revolt against Brahminism or faiths alien to Hinduism. The Western scholars have committed a blunder in high-lighting this view

and laid the foundation of enmity and disintegration in this great Indian culture. But, in reality, it was not a revolt but a reformer's crusade. In fact, Vedic and Śramanic traditions are not rival traditions as some of the Western and Indian scholars wrongly constitute, they are complementary to each other. These two represent the two aspects of human existence physical as well as spiritual. There has been at deliberate effort to creat a gulf between Jainism and Buddhism on the one hand and Hinduism on the other, by Western Scholars. Unfortunately, some Indian scholars, even Jaina scholars have supported their point of view, but in my humble opinion this is a false step taken in a wrong direction. It is true that Śramanic and Vedic traditions have divergent views on certain religious and philosophical issues, their ideals of living also differ considerably, but this does not mean that they are rivals or enemies of each other. As reason and passion, śreya and preya, inspite of being different in their very nature, are the components of the same human personality, so is the case with Śramanic and Vedic traditions. Though inheriting distinct features, they are the components of one whole Indian culture. Jainism and Buddhism are not rivals to Hinduism, but what they preach to the Indian society may be termed as an advanced stage in the field of spirituality as compared to Vedic ritualism. If the Upanisadic trend, inspite of taking a divergent stand from Vedic ritualism, is considered as part and parcel of Hinduism and an advance towards spirituality, what is difficulty in measuring Jainism and Buddhism with the same yardstick? If Upanisadic tradition is considered as an advancement from Vedic ritualism to spiritualism, then we have to accept that Buddhism and Jainism have also followed same path with a more enthusiastic spirit. They stand for the upliftment of the weaker section of Indian society and redemption from priesthood and ritualism. They preach the religion of common man, based on

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Origin and Development of Jainism
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the firm footing of moral virtues, instead of on some evidence that the stream of Indian spiritualism is one external rituals.
at its source. We may not have a proper understanding Today, scholars working in the field of of the various trends if we treat them in isolation. Jainology need a new approach to reinterpret the
Ācārārga, Sūtrakītānga and Rşibhāṣita may be relationship of Jainism with Hinduism, particularly
understood in a better way only in the light of its Upanişadic trend, in the light of ancient Jaina texts
Upanişadas and vice-a-versa. Similarly the Suttaof c. 4th and 3rd B. C. such as Ācārānga, Sutra
nipāta, Dhammapada, Theragātha and other works of krtānga and Isibhāsiyāim. I am sure that an impartial
Pāli canon may only be studied properly in the light and careful study of these texts will remove the
of Prākta Jaina canons and the Upanişadas. misconception that Jainism and Hinduism are rival Jainism and Buddhism religions. In Ācārānga, a number of passages bearing As already mentioned Jainism and Buddhism, affinity with Upanişadas, in their words and style as both belong to the same Šramanic tradition of Indian well as in essence are found. Ācārānga mentions culture. Mahavira, the 24th Tirtharikara of Jainas and Śramana and Brāhmaṇa simultaneously, not as rivals, Gautama, the Buddha, are contemporaries, flourished as considered later on. In Sūtrakrtānga (c. 4th B.C.), in the c. 6th and 5th B. C., at a time when the simple we find a mention of some Upanişadic Rșis such as natured worshipper of early Vedic religion became Videhanami, Bāhuka, Asitadevala, Dvaipāyana, caste-ridden and ritualistic. Western thinkers regard Pārāśara and others. They are accepted by Jainas as both of them as the rebel children of Hinduism but the Rsis of their own tradition though they followed they are really, the reformers. They provide a spiritual different codes of conduct. Sūtrakṛtānga, addresses meaning to the Vedic rituals and challenge the them as great ascetics and great men, who attained infallibility of the Vedas and undercut the indisputhe ultimate goal of life, i.e., liberation. Isibhāsiyāim table superiority of the Brāhmaṇas. Both, being (Rşibhāşita ), considered formerly as the part of Jaina atheistic in nature hence, do not accept the concept of canon, also mentions the teachings of Nārada, God as a creator and controller of the world. They Asitadevala, Angirasa, Pārāśara, Aruņs, Nārāyaṇa, establish the supre-macy of man instead of the God Yajñavalkya, Uddālaka, Vidura and many other and other deities and declare that man himself is the Upanişadic Rşis, depiced as Arhat Rşis. These referen- maker of his own destiny. It is the man alone and ces of the Jaina canonical works not only prove the none else who can attain even Godhood through his open-mindedness of Jainism, but also that the stream moral life and spiritual practices. For both of them of Indian spiritualism is one at its source, irrespective every living being is capable of attaining Nirvana, of divisions later on into Upanişadic, Buddhist, Jaina, i.e., Godhood or Buddhahood. Both of them rejected Ajivika and other rivulets. The work Rșibhāșita is a the concept of grace of God. For them, solely our clear testimony to the assimilative and tolerant nature own self, is responsible for misfortune as well as of Indian thought in general and Jaina thought in sufferings. Thus, they both accept the supremacy of particular. Today, the society, deeply bogged into self and law of karma. Moral code, preached by communal separatism and strife, such great works are Buddha and Mahāvira, in general sense is also similar. our torch bearers.
To get rid of the cycle of birth and death, i.e., from Thus, the position accorded to the Upanişadic worldly sufferings, is the common end of Buddhism, Rșis in early ascred texts of Jainism is a clear Jainism and the Upanişadic thinkers. Both, Buddhism

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and Jainism preach five silas or mahāvratas, with Inspite of similarity in their mission, Buddhonly one difference, that is, in place of non-possession ism flourished more on others' soils than on its native of Mahāvira, Buddha preaches non-consumption of land and established itself as a world religion, while intoxicative drugs.
Jainism could never had a firm-footing on the foreign The major differences between these two soil. It remained firmly rooted in India through all the sister religions from the view-point of metaphysics periods of Indian history, while Buddhism, after c. and ethical code are following:
9th-10th A. D. was totally uprooted from its own land (a) First, while the Upanisadic thinkers of origin. Why did these two religions meet the contemplate one eternal and immutable reality behind diametrically opposite fates ? There were many the world of phenomena and plurality, the Buddha reasons behind it. To name a few, Buddhism in its found everything impermanent and changing and thus early days found such royal patrons as emperor substanceless Nihsvabhāva and sorrowful. Mahavira Asoka and Kaniska, fired with the missionary zeal of synthesised both the above extreme views, he saw no spreading it outside India and had the territory of their contradiction between permanence and change. For empire across the Indian borders. Though Jainis him being and becoming both are the aspects of also in its early days found some royal patrons as the same reality. He defined reality as origination,
Candragupta Maurya, Samprati and Khāravela, yet decay and permanence. Lord Mahāvira never they did not try for the expansion of Jainism on believed in absolute permanence or total cessation.
foreign soil. Moreover, the Jaina monks did not (b) Secondly, the philosophical approach of choose to go outside India, because it was very Buddhism towards other philosophical doctrines was difficult for them to observe their strict code of negative, while that of Jainism was positive. Lord
conduct outside the country and they did not like to be Buddha preached that one should not fall in or accept flexible in their code of conduct. Another most any of the drstis. i. e., philosophical view-point, important reason was that the Buddha had recomwhether it is of eternalism or of ninilism, because mended the middle-path and remained flexible being one-sided, none of them represent a right view
throughout his life, in prescribing the moral code for point. But Mahavira said that both the doctrines are
his monks and nuns. This middle-path and flexibility, partially true, if they are viewed from different
made Buddhism more adaptable to the foreign soil. angles; so one should not discard one's opponent's But due to the same reasons Buddhism was so view, as totally false. For Jainas different opposite
adapted by Hinduism that it could not retain its views may be acceptable from different angles. To independent entity in India. First of all the middleMahavira nothing was absolutely true or false, hence, path of Buddha was not very far from the teachings of he remained positive in his approach all the time.
the Gita. Not only this, Mahāyāna an offshoot of Again, while Buddhism laid stress only on the chang
Buddhism had very little to mark it out from the ing aspect of reality, Jainism gave due consideration
original stock of Hinduism. Secondly, the Buddha to the changing as well as the eternal aspect of reality. himself was accepted as the ninth incarnation of (c) Regarding moral and religious practices,
ng moral and religious practices Vişnu. Thirdly, flexibility in moral code made the life Jainism advocates rigorous and strict austerities,
of Buddhist monks so luxurious and even corrupt that while Buddha condemns this rigorous outlook and in India they could not retain the respect of common recommends a middle path.
men. Jainism, on the other hand, throughout, had a

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Origin and Development of Jainism
leaning towards extremism and remained strict and mostly inflexible in its moral code. That is why, Jaina monks could not go and propagate Jainism across the boundaries of India. Fourthly, owing to its strict code of conduct even for a house-holder it was not easily adaptable in foreign countries. However, it helped in retaining the faith of the common men and its own entity in India. Thus, the extremism of Jaina religion while on the one hand prevented its expansion in India and abroad, but on the other hand, it proved to be the sole cause of its survival in India. It was because of the strict austerities associated with Jain- ism that it remained a closed set, little understood beyond its adherents. Even the unusual absorbing power of Hinduism could not absorb it. This speaks of its originality, capable of withstanding the chall-
enge of Hinduism. Last but not least among the causes of the extinction of Buddhism from the Indian soil was that Buddhism never tried to develop the order of laymen and lay-women. By the word 'order they mean the order of monks and nuns. But Jainism always laid stress on the four-fold order of monks, nuns, laymen and lay-women and that was why it did not lose its identity.
Thus, the two parallel religions, having their origin against the same socio-religious back-ground and beginning their journeys together, drifted wide apart and had altogether a different history. Buddhism almost vanished in India, but prospered in China, Japan, Srilanka and many other countries; Jainism remained in India, neither expanding nor suffering from further shrinking.