Jaina Shrines In India

Author(s): O P Tandon
Publisher: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting Vovernment of India
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007008/1

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JAINA SHRINES IN INDIA O.P. Tandon

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JAINA SHRINES IN INDIA O. P. TANDON PUBLICATIONS DIVISION MINISTRY OF INFORMATION AND BROADCASTING GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

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October 1986 (Kartika 1908) (c) PUBLICATIONS DIVISION Price: Rs. 18.00 PUBLISHED BY THE DIRECTOR PUBLICATIONS DIVISION MINISTRY OF INFORMATION AND BROADCASTING GOVERNMENT OF INDIA PATIALA HOUSE NEW DELHI-110001 Sales Emporia : Publications Division SUPER BAZAR CONNAUGHT CIRCUS NEW DELHI-110001 COMMERCE HOUSE CURRIMBHOY ROAD BALLARD PIER BOMBAY-400038 8 ESPLANADE EAST CALCUTTA-700069 LL AUDITORIUM ANNA SALAI MADRAS600002 BIHAR STATE CO-OPERATIVE BANK BUILDING ASHOKA RAJ PATH PATNA-800004 PRESS ROAD TRIVANDRUM-695001. 10-B STATION ROAD LUCKNOW--226019 STATE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM BUILDING PUBLIC GARDEN HYDERABAD-500004 PRINTED AT DELHI PRESS NEW DELHI

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Preface saMsArAbdhe pArasya taraNe tIrtha miSyate / - Ada ga gifagaru 'One who transcends this world ocean), is called a tirtha'. This and alike truisms imply that on a visit to 'shrines' or 'tirthas' one takes time off from one's worldly attachments and moves in search of peace of mind and purity of soul. Tirthas are places associated with life and deeds of great teachers and are embellished with one or many shrines dedicated to the deities of one or many religions, depending on the cosmopolitan character of the place or the builder (devotee). There is hardly a religion in the world which is not manifested in the form of a concrete construction symbolising the presence of the Supreme God or one or many of his associates, worshipped with almost equal devotion. It is more so in India, a country known for its philosophy of religious toleration from time immemorial. Throughout the length and breadth of the country, the land is set with beautiful monuments and sculptures like a bejewelled necklace. These shrines are exquisite examples of art and architecture spread out in time and space presenting the unifying and integrating character of our cultural heritage. No other form of medium has proved more instrumental in representing the nation's 'unity in diversity' than these monuments of cultural ethos. The objective of the present book, 'Jaina Shrines in India' is to reach ordinary educated readers. The reader is to be told or rather re-told about the more famous of shrines associated with Tirthankaras in particular and Jaina religion in general so that he may know of their location, antiquity, historicity or chronology and also the more important legends and stories about the places and persons connected with and some facts about the artistic and architectural features. Every attempt will, therefore, be made to avoid controversies and as far as possible, only established facts will be used as the basis of information contained in the forthcoming pages. A short but representative bibliography is given at the end for those of the readers who may be motivated to know more about these places of pilgrimage and of historical interest. The illustrations in this book are also very selective, keeping in view the scope of the book. A few line drawings have been added to give some idea of the various components of a temple and the nomenclature thereof. A map of the country indicating the place name of the shrines will further assist the reader in knowing the geographical context and in planning his visit to these places. The first chapter of the book is devoted intentionally to the origin of the Jaina religion, its cardinal principles, philosophy and tradition as a backdrop to the whole setting. A complete list of the twenty-four Tirthankaras starting with Rsabhanatha or Adinatha and ending with Vardhamana Mahavira has been appended to familiarise the readers with even those great teachers and exponents of the Jaina religion about whom very little is generally known.

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Acknowledgement I am grateful to Shri Lalit Kumar and Dr. Buddha Rashmi Mani for helping me in more than one ways. My sincerest thanks are due to the Centre for Art & Archaeology, IIAS, Ramnagar, Varanasi, and the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, for providing me the photographs. I also thank Shri Karna Man Singh and Shri Mani respectively of the Bharat Kala Bhavan and Archaeological Survey of India for the design of the Cover page as well as the line-drawings in this book. Shri P. Basu has typed the script in a record time and deserves thanks for the same. But for the constant reminders of my wife, Usha, towards my commitment and bearing with me the pains without tears, this book may not have seen the light of the day even now. I remain, therefore, most beholden to her. I do very much appreciate the patience shown by friends in the Publications Division for overlooking the delay on my part in completing this assignment. Buddha Purnima (May 26, 1983) Varanasi O. P. TANDON

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Contents Introduction I. JAINA PHILOSOPHY AND ITS MANIFESTATIONS IN ART AND ARCHITECTURE II. EXTENT AND EXPANSION Dispersal of Shrines 1. EAST INDIA : (Bihar, Bengal, Orissa) II. NORTH INDIA : (Uttar Pradesh) III. CENTRAL INDIA : (Madhya Pradesh) IV. WEST INDIA : (Rajasthan, Gujarat) V. DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA : (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnatak, Kerala, Tamil Nadu) Appendix : LIST OF TIRTHANKARAS Bibliography

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Introduction

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I. Jaina Philosophy and its Manifestations in Art and Architecture JAINA religion has a great antiquity. is one of the oldest religions in India. Literary references take it back to Vedic Jainism believes in the eternal existence of period. The name, Rsabhanatha or Vrsa- the six substances-soul (jiva), matter bha finds mention in the Rigveda several (pudgala), medium of motion (dharma), times. The two corner pillars of Jainism- medium of rest (adharma), space (akasa) Ahimsa (non-violence/non-injury) and Tapa and time (kala). Out of these six substan(meditation) appear to be developed forms ces, we can feel, see and experience only one of the philosophical saplings rooted in the and, that is matter (pudgala) because its Vedas. Some scholars have even suggested form can be seen. Then, one more substhat a famous seal from Mohenjodaro that tance soul (jiva) is alive in guna. While shows a human figure in the Kayotsarga all others are motionless, the soul, however, (self-dedicatory) posture-a distinctive cannot stay without the assistance of matter practice of the Jaina ascetics in the perfor- (pudgala). A separation is possible only mance of penance, may have its roots into when the life transcends all the worldly the Harappan art. Another seal bearing attachments and soul is free of the bond the so-called Pasupati (a form of Siva) has (matter). Here again one may notice the been suggestively identified with a Tir- similarity between the Jaina concept of thankara i.e. Saintly Soul (perhaps Rsabhan- jiva (soul) and the Vedic concept of Atman atha). Without going into the merits or (soul). demerits of the controvertible interpretation, it may suffice to state that these suggestions indicate a very early antiquity for Jainism. It is certainly much older than Buddhism as Buddha and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, were almost contemporaries. Among other pointers towards its earlier past are the traditions. Neminatha, the twenty-second Tirthankara is co-related with Lord Krishna of Mahabharata fame; Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, preceded Mahavira by about 250 years and Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, is said to have attained nirvana in 527 B.C. The period of Paryvanatha, who is said to have been born at Varanasi, is dated between 877-777 B.C. The fact that twenty-two Tirthankaras had lived anterior to Paravanatha, and after allowing a reasonable time gap, one can fairly well imagine that Jainism The cardinal principles of Jainism are nirvana and anekantavada or the theory of non-absolutism and ahimsa (non-injury in thought, word and deed). The principle of ahimsa as believed and practised in the Jaina religion, knows no limits. It is all pervasive and goes to the extent of decrying even forceful arguments in favour of one aspect or one view in comparison to another. One of the greatest exponents of ahimsa of our times was Gandhiji and even Mao came closer to Jaina philosophy when he preached that 'let hundred flowers bloom.' The term 'pilgrim' implies 'one journeying through life as a stranger in the world'. This idea is very close to a believer in Jainism. While he is obliged to be performing his duties and fulfilling his obligations, he is all along moving as a stranger or as a distant observer. The underlying spirit of aloofness

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faina Shrines in India BIJAPURAKA KALASA AMALA-SARA SIKHARA PRATIK ARNA-UPARATHAT ++PRATIKARNA -- UPARATHA KARNA-REKNA 4 -KARNA-REKHA - URU-SANGA CHADYA SIKHARA OF REKHA-MANDIRA

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Introduction and detachment keeps him, the pilgrim, nent in this context. He writes : "The steady on his journey through the world. majestic aloofness of the perfected, balanced, His steps are guided by triratna (three absolutely self-contained figure of the saint jewels)-right faith, right knowledge and becomes emphasized in its triumphant isolaright conduct. His pilgrimage (spiritual) tion. The image of the released one seems is complete only when he attains nirvana. to be neither animate nor inanimate, but In Jainism, a place of pilgrimage is called a pervaded by a strange and timeless calm. tirtha, popularly known as a place of worship It is human in shape and feature, yet as and is also called a 'shrine'. inhuman as an icicle; and thus expresses In India, pilgrimage to holy places in perfectly the idea of successful withdrawal one's lifetime is considered a sacred duty. from the round of life and death, personal There is hardly an Indian, may be belonging cares, individual destiny, desires, sufferings, to any religious faith, who does not carry and events." Zimmer did find his 'sermon the desire to travel to these holy places and in stone' in the following words: prepares for it in every possible manner and "One should make images of Par suffers all kinds of inconveniences to reach (natha, 23rd tirthankara) and pay them his destination, the tirtha kshetra, and homage for the effect of his darsana, not makes his offering to the Supreme Being. because of any hope that the great being His faith in the presence of God at such himself might condescend to assist a worplaces is unshaken and it is this faith which shipper; for the Jaina saviors-the 'Makers sustains him throughout his journey regard of the River-Crossing' (tirthankaras) as they less of pain, perseverence and poverty. are called-dwell in a supernal zone at the ceiling of the universe, beyond the reach of It is no surprise, therefore, that the rich prayer; there is no possibility of their assiscultural milieu of the country owes a great tance descending from that high and lumideal to the builders of Jaina religious faith nous place to the clouded sphere of human not only in quantity but equally so in effort...Jainism, that is to say, is not atheistic, aesthetic grandeur and artistic merit. it is transtheistic... The Makers of the RiverThe Jaina art, thus having its genesis in Crossing are beyond cosmic event as well religion carries its philosophical and spiritual as the problems of biography; they are cannons to artistic creations quite faith- transcendent, cleaned of temporality, omnifully, sometimes even to the detriment of its scient, actionless, and absolutely at peace." growth. The Jaina sculptures particularly Nevertheless, in the execution of other deities invite criticism on this account. The very where the master-craftsman was not handisimplicity and uniformity in their execution capped by the cannonical rigidities or by the give sometimes less credit to the skill of impressed force of the Tirthankara, he disthe artist yet in many cases it brings out the plays the wealth of his genius most magniinherent physical strength, and the innate ficently and yet avoiding eroticism or calm and dignity of the Tirthankara in a unethical subjects. The Jaina architecture superb manner. The remarks made by was also greatly influenced by the tenets of Heinrich Zimmer while referring to the Jaina religion. The requirements of the colossus statue of Bahubali (Plate I) at ascetics and other believers had a natural Sravanabelgola (Karnataka) are very perti- effect both on its location and purpose. Philosophies of India, Part III, Jaina Images, pp. 211-2 *Philosophies of India, Part III, Jainism, pp. 181-2

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Faina Shrines in India 10 boood Doordat 5 Poco 0 PEOBE 0 PLAN OF A TEMPLE I, BALANAKA; 2, SRNGARA-CATUSKI; 3, RANGA-MANDAPA; 4, NAVA-CATUSKI; 5, DVARA; 6, CATUSKI; 7, GUDHA-MANDAPA; 8, JAGATI, 9, GARBHA-GRHA; 10, DVARA K; 5, DVARA - CATUSKI: 3 GATI; 9

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Introduction 7 Essentially Jaina architecture is divided into two distinct categories-- (i) domestic architecture or ghara-derasaras and, (ii)stone and wooden temple architecture. A number of dwelling houses with wood carvings of either a tirthankara image or mangala chinha (auspicious sign) are known. This is a special feature of Jaina community. A wooden facade is a common characteristic of a Jaina house. Other architectural members, such as windows, pillars, beams and brackets etc., were carved lavishly. Windows with jali or screen and either projected or built within the wall with carvings are also very commonly found in areas near Patan in Gujarat. It is difficult to fix these dwelling houses chronologically but Census of India (1961), part VII-A(2) gives a statement at its end mentioning dwelling houses with wood carvings in different parts of Gujarat assigning probable dates. There is a contextual story ascribed to Uda Mehta. Once the famous temples on the holy mountain Satrunjaya were of wood. On one occasion, Uda Mehta noticed a mouse carrying a burning wick. He at once realized the danger to the wooden temples and resolved to build them in stone. This was ultimately fulfilled by his son. Temple architecture is essentially an offshoot of icon or image worship which has been prevalent amongst the Jainas from very early times as in the case of several other religions as well. From about the fourth century B.C., evidence is available of the existence of cave temples and struc- tures resembling shrines and temples. The prevalent styles both in time and space were adopted for the construction of these temples but very many characteristic features were also introduced under the influence of Jaina religion to make it appear a distinctive art. In some areas entire cities of temples' were built. Construction of pillared chambers was one of their favourite forms of architecture and decorative sculpture added a further aura of distinctiveness. The many examples of rich carvings and bass-reliefs are of such intense human interest that it counterbalances the austere asceticism symbolized in the huge, stoic and nude Jina images. Another Jaina contribution is the free-standing pillar in front of a temple called the mana-stambha. It is a prototype of such pillars which are said to have stood within the entrances to the samavasarana (audience hall) of the Tirthankara. The stupa was also an early form of structural architecture as revealed by the archaeological excavations at Kankali-tila site at Mathura. This form of structure, however, was given up by the Jainas by about the close of the Gupta period. A close and analytical study of their monuments, sculpture and architecture in particular, through the ages, proves convincingly the impact of ideology and spirit of Jaina religion and culture. Although part and parcel of the general Indian cultural milieu, they do make a creditable claim for a unit of study in view of their religious and ethical background which aims at evolving the soul into God and cultivating the qualities of pious living with a sense of detachment ascribed to a stranger or onlooker in this world.

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II. Extent and Expansion THE biographical, geographical records, the textual references and the architectural remain provide a fairly good idea of the extent of Jaina religion. Exceptions apart, it hardly crossed the frontiers of the country as the non-existent vestiges of Jaina art outside India indicate. But the mainland was certainly swept by them completely. From the accounts of places visited by Mahavira during the long span of thirty years of his missionary wanderings when he moved with a dynamic force and spread the gospel of Jainism, it is evident that he visited Bihar, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh. According to some traditions, Mahavira visited even more distant places, including Orissa and South India. The more important of the places recor- ded, as visited by Mahavira during his missionary coverage of the country, are as indicated below. Bihar : Rajgir, Monghyr, Champa (Bhagalpur), Lohardaga in Ranchi district, Malaya, Mithila, Nalanda, Vaishali (Basarh), Dalbhum (Singhbhum) ; Uttar Pradesh : Prayaga, Kaushambi (near Allahabad). Sravasti (Gonda-Bahraich district), Varanasi, Sumsumarapur (near Chunar, Mirzapur district); Bengal : Radha (West Bengal), Siddhanagar (Birbhum district), Suhama (South West Bengal), Purulia ; and Orissa : Tosali (Dhauli, Puri district). There are references to many other places which are associated with Mahavira but it has not been possible to locate them. This is as far as the contemporary times go. But in the centuries following Mahavira, Jainism continued to spread out as many historical personages either took to the teachings of Mahavira or the people's catholicity helped the growth of this religion also along with Brahmanism and Buddhism. According to the tradition, both Bimbisara and Ajatsatru were devotees of Mahavira. Ajatsatru's successor, Udayi is said to have built a Jaina temple at Pataliputra (Patna). The succeeding kings of the Nanda dynasty also patronised Jainism. A little later in about first century B.C., King Kharvela of Cheta dynasty ruling in Kalinga (Orissa) brought back to his kingdom the Tina image that had been taken away by one of the Nanda kings to Magadha (Bihar). This fact is mentioned in the inscription of Kharvela and is, therefore, reliable. It does establish that Jainism had spread in Orissa by the time of the Nandas. Some of the Mauryan Kings, who succeeded the Nandas also extended their patronage to Jainism. One of the most famous emperors of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta is ascribed with strong leaning towards this religion. He is credited to have accompanied Bhadrabahu, a well-known Jaina savant to South India during a famine and is further said to have died by practising a fast. There are also references to the presence of Sramanas (ascetics) in the court of Chandragupta in the accounts left by Megasthenes. Some of these evidences, even though later, do suggest that Jainism had spread to South India as early as fourth century B.C. Although there is hardly any mention of Ashoka, the great Mauryan emperor, in the Jaina chronicles, there are eloquent references about Kunala, son of Ashoka. It is further mentioned that Samprati, son of Kunala, contributed greatly to peror, in the Jaina chroni Mauryan em contemporary times go. But

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PLATE I: Bahubali also known as Gomateshvara at Sravanabelagola (Karnataka)

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PLATE II : Mathura Ayagapatta

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PLATE III : Maladevi Temple at Gyaraspur PLATE IV: Deogarh Temple

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PLATE V : Ghantai Temple, Khajuraho

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Introduction the spread of Jainism. He was the disciple of Arya Suhastin and offered alms to Jaina monks. As Samprati was the Viceroy of Ujjain, the spread of the religion to Madhya Pradesh by about third century B. C. is established. According to Brihat Kalpa- surra Bhasya, Samprati is also credited with making the regions of Andhra, Dravida, Maharashtra and Coorg etc., safe for Jaina monks. Lohanipur (Patna) stone torso and Parsvanatha in bronze at Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, are regarded early Jaina images belonging to the Mauryan period. The force of Jainism was in the western parts of India beyond Ujjain by about the second century B.C. Literary traditions credit Salisukha, brother of Samprati for this contribution in Saurashtra. Of course, the traditional association goes back to the times of twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha, who renounced the world in Kathiawar. As far as South India is concerned, Jainism attained the status of a state religion during the rule of Ganga dynasty in about second century A.D. Many kings of this dynasty were great devotees of Jaina religion and made munificent grants to their temples, monasteries and other establishments. The Kadamba dynasty (fourth century A.D. onwards) also patronized this religion as is recorded in a number of inscriptions of this period. These epigraphical evidences reveal a wealth of information about the existence of various sects in Jainism and also about the practices of image worship. The Chera and the Chola dynasties in the South also extended their patronage to Jaina religion through grant of lands etc. Journeying upwards again, Mathura in north India developed as a great centre of Jainism. The remains of structural activity as revealed by the excavations at Kankali-tila at Mathura, images of Tirthankaras, sculp- tural fragments depicting stories from the lives of Tirtharkaras, architectural members and railing pillars with sculptures carved on them belonging to the period of Kushanas, all are evidences of the importance of the place. Numerous inscriptions throw ample light on the large following of the religion in this region. Saurashtra (Gujarat) continued to feel the firm hold of Jainism in the early centuries of the Christian era. The find of a Tirthankara image belonging to Circa 300 A.D. and the fact that two councils were held at Valabhi in the fourth and fifth centuries provide ample evidence about it. The Gupta rulers, maintaining rich traditions of religious toleration extended their help in numerous ways inspite of the fact that they had revived Brahmanism. Their rule known as the Golden period of Indian history allowed carving of images and construction of temples, etc. Ramagupta is known to have patronised three images of Tirthankara in Vidisa. During the regime of Harshavardhana, Jainism somehow survived in this part of the mainland but it spread out in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Central India also. The subsequent history of Jainism throughout the length and breadth of the country is a story of stabilisation during successive ruling dynasties, such as Pratiharas in north India, the Chandellas in Central India, the Haihayas, the Paramaras, the Kacchapaghatas and the Gohadavalas over parts of Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. These dynasties ruled during ninth to thirteenth century A.D. In medieval period again there was a spurt in its various activities. The Rashtrakutas (808-88 A.D.) and the Chalukyas (940-1299 A.D.) added considerably to the splendour that was already there, particularly in the region of Gujarat. The people of this land have remained predominantly vegetarian due to popular belief in the Jaina ethics of ahimsa (non-injury). Abu, Girnar

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IO Jaina Shrines in India and Satrunjaya hills were the favourite sites for temple construction. Rajasthan also witnessed almost similar popular wave of Jainism as evidenced in the art and architectural remains ascribed to the medieval period. Every movement whether it is religious, political or social, has its rise and fall, has its period of glorification and decadence and that of awakening and slumber. Jainism has been no exception. But taking into account the periods of persecution as well as the loss of State patronage, the popularity it not only gained but maintained, and the rich cultural heritage which was created under its impact and influence, and which started from about fourth century B.C. in a visual form and continues even in our times, speaks of its ethics and morals. It has overwhelmed both time and space and still has a very large following in the country particularly amongst traders and merchants. Their affluence is reflected in their activities--social, cultural and even architectural.

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Dispersal of Shrines

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1. East India EAST India which served as nucleus of the and the saint who passed away in A.D. 57 ethical and historical background of Jaina raises serious doubts. The architecture of art, has provided fewer monuments than these caves has not much in particular to its counterparts in the other regions of the the Jaina art as such. The western cave, country. It is not proposed to enter here measuring 10.3 X5.2 m has an entrance into the details of the Jaina literary tradi- of 2 Xi m and a window of .9 x.76 m tions and the inconographic subtleties of dimention. The roof is cut into an arch. the different types of the structural complex There are the images of the Jinas in relief. including the numerous categories of The inscription found on the inner walls, vimanas, toranas, pillars and arches which door jambs and the front wall are obliterated add colour and grace to the buildings. For beyond recognition. The eastern cave, not our purpose, it would suffice to enumerate far removed, stands on a lower level. The the remains of the particular sacred shrines cave is oblong and is smaller than the tracing but briefly, their religious antece- other. From traces of the images of dents as contained in important myths Vishnu, it appears that the cave was occuand tradition. pied by the Vaishnavas sometime when At Rajgir, there are two rock-hewn Jainism lost hold on the local people. The caves known as Sonabhandara shrines which cave, however, does contain images of may be assigned to the third or fourth Jinas. In some parts of these caves there century A.D. The western cave of this are traces of high polish on the walls. group was identified by Cunningham with The temple on Vaibhavagiri at Rajgir the Saptaparni cave of the Vaibhara hills. is in ruined condition. It consists of a It is held that the first Buddhist Council central chamber surrounded by a courtyard in Buddha's time was convened here. which is flanked on all sides by rows of According to a Sanskrit inscription, these cells. Certain Jina images were found there. two caves were constructed at the instance As one proceeds from Rajgir, there are of Muni Vaira (Sanskrit Vajra) and it con- the Taina remains at Lohanipur (Patna) tained images of Arhats. Muni Vaira of from where two nude stone torsos were the inscription has been identified with the discovered including the lower portion of Svetambara acharya, who passed into a head and mutiliated limbs and the plinth nirvana in about A.D. 57. The Sonabhandara of a brick structure, 2.68 m square. A caves accord very well in points of cons worn out silver punch-marked coin was truction and purpose with the Mauryan reported from this structure but as no Barabar and Nagarjuni caves. planned excavation was carried at LohaniThe association of the Digambara pur, this Jaina establishment could not be Jainas with Vaibhavagiri is supported by highlighted. But it is assumed that the Hsuan-Tsang. The concurrence of the torsos belong to the Mauryan period. A Muni from the identification of the presumption supports these figures to have Svetambara Muni Vaira mentioned in been carved in the Kayotsarga (self-dedithe inscription of the third-fourth century catory) posture.

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Jaina Shrines in India At Chausa, a hoard of eighteen Jaina appears that the Jaina sramanas who lived bronzes was discovered. It is possible that there must have undergone rigorous discimany early Jaina monuments are still lying plinc although these abnegating monks had unnoticed or uncared for in this area. to give way to later initiates in the discipline These images belong to a period from pre- who decorated the ceiling of the verandahs Kushan to Gupta age. From the general with elaborate carvings and sculptures. lakshanas of the locks of hair and serpent There are two types of caves : (a) plain hoods, Rishabhanatha and Parsvanatha may y caves, i.e., without pillared verandah and clearly be identified from amongst these amongst these (b) pillared caves. It is difficult to ascertain images. the chronology of the construction of the Jainism does not appear to have been caves only on simple architectural pretenpopular in West Bengal. The story in sions. The interior apsidal structure of Acharanga Sutta of Mahavira's inhospitable the Udayagiri monument recalls its analogue treatment in Vajrabhumi and Suhmabhumi to the Chaityagrihas at Barabar hills and in Radha confirms this. The Divyavadana, Kondivte in Maharashtra. The Jaina however, traces the efflorescence of Jaina Chaityagrihas are similar to the Buddhist and Ajivika sects in north Bengal (Pundra- ones with their apse, side-aisles and nave. vardhana) in the time of Ashoka. The It may be recalled that the decorative popularity of Jaina sects in Bengal is further patterns of Bharhut and Sanchi monuments proved by the mention of a Jina monk in a are also present in the Jaina structures, for Mathura inscription with the epithet example, motifs like the merlin, the honeyRaraka, who hailed from West Bengal suckle and winged animal figures appear Jaina monuments of early periods are copiously in these monuments. conspicuously absent in Bengal inspite of The situation regarding the sway of the discovery of a copper plate grant of Jaina cults in East India seems to have the year 159, Gupta Samrat mentioning the much improved in the early medieval period. worship of Arhats by a Brahmana couple During ninth to eleventh centuries Jaina at Vata-Gohali which was under a Nir art shows traces of opulence side by side grantha Sramanacharya. with the Buddhist and Brahmanical art The passage of time has spared more courses. Dinajpur appears to have been a Jaina monuments in Orissa which has been centre of Jaina activity from where a a stronghold of Jaina faith for a considerable prominent image of Rishabhanatha in the time from the fourth century B.C. The sitting posture was discovered. Jaina first eminent shrine appears to have been in images have been found in large numbers the Hathigumpha cave of the Udayagiri hill from the northern part of East Bengal. A near Bhubaneshwar. The cave confirms Yakshi of Neminatha supposedly represented the famous Kharavela inscription. The in the figure of Ambika was discovered in Udayagiri and Khandagiri hills were Jaina bronze at Nalgora (24 parganas). The resorts in the close proximity of Kalinga. The popularity of Jaina religion in the eleventh caves may be assigned to the early centuries century is attested by a Kayotsarga figure of the pre-christian era. In later periods, of Jina Parsvanatha, accompanied by twentythese caves grew into shrines with additions three miniature images of Jinas, which were of reliefs of Tirthankaras. From the all found in association at Kantabeniya. appearance of the dimensions of the Rani- Jaina figures of rare artistic quality have gumpha cave of the Udayagiri hills, it been discovered in Burdwan from Sat

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Dispersal of Shrines 15 Deuliya temple. This brick temple belongs It would be interesting to classify and to the rekha class of Orissan temples having arrange the various figures of the Tirthana straight and perpendicular garbhagriha karas and associated Jaina images which with a curvilinear sikhara. The temple is have been discovered from different sites of plain but the sikhara is richly ornamented East India. Since the fortunes of the faith with scroll-work and the Chaitya window have never been constant, marked developpattern. ments and decay are noticed in Jaina art. Architectural remains, copiously found Some noticeable Jaina icons were found throughout the region, have not been proin Midnapur district. They are all of the perly studied but it is possible to distinguish Tirthankaras showing fine workmanship of the medieval monuments from those of the the tenth-eleventh centuries. In the same early settings. In many cases, it is possible class of images, figure the images of Parsvanatha from Deul Bhira (Bankura) and to relate the various icons to some deul (temple) from where Jaina images with the images found at Ambikanagar, Chitgiri, cult marks have been recovered and which Barkota, Pareshnath, Chiada, Kendua and are not accidental. such other sites from where Debala Mitra discovered a number of Jaina relics. In Orissa, the entire Mayurbhanja and Cuttack areas evince traces of Jaina temples The village of Pareshnath (Parsavnatha) and images. The very few Jaina images had a temple dedicated to the same Tir that have been found in relief inside the thankara. At Kendua also architectural caves at Surajpohar (district Goalpara) in fragments of a stone temple were found. Assam, tell of a feeble approach of Jaina On both of these sites, Parsvanatha's images enthusiasts in this far east corner of India. were discovered. This area encircling In the Mughal period, Jaina mercantile Ambikanagar was an important centre of communities settled in the east. Two Jainism. inscriptions from Dacca record the erection Ruined Jaina shrines are located in the of Jaina temples by the members of a Jaina districts of Dhanbad and Purulia. Some mercantile community which hailed from such sites are Chara, Sanka, Sanera, Boram, western India. Traces of Rajasthani origin Malrampur, Palma, Arsa, Deoli, Kakhira, can be seen in the Jaina temples at Jiaganj Lathondungri and Dulmi. At Deoli and Ajimganj near Murshidabad. The (Purulia) there was a parichayatana group of famous Badridas temple in Calcutta is a temples. work of decorative architecture.

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II. North India MATHURA holds a pre-eminent place in the art of Indian iconography and new architectural complex that developed in the wake of fresh motivations of Kushana plastic arts. The city has yielded numerous Jaina temples and relics which are associated with the Jaina tradition. According to Jinaprabha Suri (14th Century) Mathura had a stipa of gold and jewels which had been built by the goddess Kubera in honour of Suparsvanatha, the seventh Tirthankara. Another tradition records Mathura to be the birthplace of Neminatha which has been contested by another tradition found in the Uttara Purana. Mathura which is famous for Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina shrines, developed famous schools of art which may be traced back to the second century B.C. This is supported by an inscription recording the dedication of a pasada torana by a Sravaka called Uttarada Saka. Several dedications of Viharas, devakulas and ayagapatas (Pl. II) are known from Mathura. The Kankali Tila, explored by Cunningham, Growse and Fuhrer, yielded a very large number of temple remains, sculptures, ayagapata and components of gateways. Inscriptions on the slabs and images provide varied ganas, sakhas and Kulas. These are the Jaina's sangha. The architrave of the gateway of stupa at Mathura is suggestive of the city life of the mercantile classes which patronised the Jaina faith to a vast extent. Regarding the earliest Jaina sanctuary at Mathura, it is possible to surmise that it was based on the production of apsidal and quadrilateral shrines as of the Buddhists. Mathura being a prolific centre of art, we find a preponderance of the Jina and other images. The second phase of development of the temple art is manifested in temples such as the Sobhanatha temple at Sravasti which was constructed by the Gahadavala princes. A damaged brick structure alone is found of this temple. The principal images found in the main shrine are those of Adinatha and other Jinas and Gomedha and Ambika. The temple presents a welter of undefined brick structure of various periods which shows frequent renovation and the undiminished enthusiasm of the Jainas for their faith. In the excavations at Atranjikhera (Ataranjiya of the Jaina texts) a small temple dedicated to Suparsvanatha was found. A similar Jaina establishment has been found at Hastinapur from where a status of Santinatha was recovered which contained an inscription of A.D. 1176. Ahichchhatra which is principally a Saivite site, has a modern Jaina temple built many decades ago and which has sought to popularise the belief that the name Ahichchhatra, the serpent's hooded umbrella is derived from a legend in the life of Parsvanatha. The temple contains several Jaina images. A more accurate idea of the Gahadavala architecture can be had from the remains of a Jaina shrine at Batesvara (Agra) and the Parasnatha Temple at Bijnaur. Some normative character distinguishes the architectural designs of these temples from the contemporary Brahmanical and Buddhist temple specimen. Currently, however, we find a Jaina temple complex known as Manya at Dwarhat in district Almora. The principal building material of this temple is stone and not brick as had been usual with the temples of the central Ganga valley.

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PLATE VI: Parsvanatha Temple, Khajuraho

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PLATE VII: Adinatha Temple, Khajuraho

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PLATE VIII: Jaina Temple, Chittorgarh PLATE IX: Mahavira Temple, Osian

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PLATEX: Mahavira Temple at Kumbharia (Banaskantha) PLATE XI : Kirti Stambha and Temple, Chittorgarh

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Dispersal of Shrines In the period of Gahadavalas, bricks temple was commissioned at the instance had been quite popular in the construction of Raja Harsukh Rai at Dharampura in of new shrines. This explains the reason Delhi in 1800 A.D. and the construction why many of these temples are not in situ. was completed in the late nineteenth Most of the Jaina temple and others have century. sadly suffered the ravages of time. How Delhi, which possesses modern Jaina ever, the miniature shrines preserved till temples, had been once a centre of Jaina to-day, present a very good idea of the forms of Jaina temples in this region. There worship during the Chahamana rule. Traces are two such deva-kuliras in the Allahabad of Jaina temples, scattered pieces of pillars and pilasters in some cases bearing Jina museum. These are ascribed to roth-irth figures, have been found in the vicinity of centuries. Such shrines were in all pro the old Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in bability established to have served as the Mehrauli. The temple has been so very model for new constructions of temple. dilapidated that except architectural Besides these, the sculptural remains show remnants and broken sculptural friezes of that the temples were built at Hastinapur, Jinas, no construction stands intact. Similar Varanasi, Ayodhya, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, traces of Jaina establishment have been Kanyakubja and Sravasti, etc. Structural noticed at Hansi which belongs to the same similarties with the small deva-kulikas have period. These pieces resemble the remains been observed in the temples, such as, Adi found in the Bikaner area. Medieval Jaina natha temple at Ayodhya (C. 18th century) temples have also been found in the interior considered to be the holiest Jaina pilgrimage centre; Parsvanatha temple at Tirlokpur in of the Kangra hills. district Barabanki (C. 18th century); From North India, the centre of Jaina Parsvanatha Temple at his birthplace at activities successively shifted to the western Bhelupura in Varanasi, the latter is dated and central parts of India. Contributions to the period of Akbar. There are also of the Deccan and far south were not less shrines of late Mughal period at Agra, significant as we find some of the most Sauripura and Firozabad. The Lal-mandir elegant Jaina monuments that thrived of in Delhi was built in 1656 A.D. Another late in those regions.

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III. Central India THE earliest temple remains of Jaina architecture found in Central India are those which have been brought to light in the Vidisa district, particularly at Durjanpur. Images of Tirthankaras bearing inscription on their pedestals and in some cases with winged lions and dharmachakra symbols have given substance to the identification of the site as an old Jaina shrine. The Jaina images which have been found there, are not only important from the standpoint of Jaina iconography but they speak of a general iconographic embellishment characteristic of the Gupta period. According to an inscription, several of these images had been ordered to be made by Maharajadhiraja Ramagupta on the advice of Chelu-kshamana who belonged to the Digambara sect. In one of the Udayagiri caves (cave 20), is found an inscription of the time of Kumaragupta I (A.D. 426) which mentions the making of an image of Parsvanatha. The sculpture is lost but the shrine is there in ruins. In the same way, a hill site, Sira Pahadi, near Nachna, famous for its Siva temple of the Gupta period, contains a group of Jaina sculptures which must have adorned a Jaina temple, contemporary of the Siva shrine of the Gupta period. The Yakshas and the Gandharvas figure prominently in the icons which lie scattered in the Sondani and Aihole regions known for its Jaina associations. It is possible that Sira-Pahadi near Nachna represented a Jaina centre in the proximity of the Brahmanical centre at the same place. Some remarkable Jina images were carried by Joanna Williams from Nachna to Panna. There was a Jaina settlement at Deogarh in the Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh. A detailed study of Deogarh was made by Klaus Bruhn. Similar images have been found at Gwalior. There are two rock-cut reliefs of the late Gupta period which presage a temple area where these images were first noticed. A continued belt of Jaina sculptural art is found in the vicinity of Gwalior. The same kind of images of Tirthankaras Yakshas and Yakshis have been found at Kundalpur, Pithaora (Satna), Jabalpur, Tewar, Tewar, Rajanpur-Khinkhini, Gandhawal (Dewas) in Malwa. The Gwalior fort itself is in possession of a huge stone image of the Tomara period. The Ambika Yakshi and her consort are found represented among the images which recall the Buddhist Panchika and Hariti figures of the Kushana and Gupta periods. Badhoh in Vidisa is an early medieval site of the Pratihara period which has traces of Jaina idiom, although the site is Brahmanical. In the same district there is a more famous site at Gyaraspur which contains the widely known Maladevi temple (Pl. III). It is an excellent specimen of Pratihara architecture. Its sanctum pancharatha on plan, crowned by a curvilinear sikhara of the nagara type. The temple contains besides the Jaina Tirthankaras and Yaksha figures, an image of four-armed Saraswati holding the vina. There is also another image of the same goddess holding lotus, book and water-vessel. The remarkable iconography adds grace to the art of the Maladevi temple. Happily, there exists a sequential group of temples at Deogarh. This complex has a series of thirty-one Jaina temples which

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Dispersal of Shrines date from the ninth to the twelfth centuries trict Hamirpur. Understandably, new or possibly the latter limit could be even fusions of architectonic principles and idioms extended by one or more centuries. Some were arrived at in the new centres of Jaina of these temples are situated in a close clus- activity besides the centrally placed Khater. The temples have been chronologically juraho, Mahoba and Deogarh Jaina cities. studied and the distinctions have been These were the places known as Chanderi, pronouncedly earmarked. Thus, there is Dudhai, Chandpur, Madanpur forming found in them not only a wide range but one temple complex in Jhansi district. rich variety of elegance and decorative Their artistic achievements extend upto texture. the fourteenth century. The non-sectarian Special mention may be made of temple attitude of the rulers was responsible for No. 12 of Deogarh group of temples (Pl. the glowing contribution to the richness of IV). It consists of a mula-prasada sur the Jaina composition in the entire Rajput rounded by a flat-roofed ambulatory enclosed zone of Central India. That is one of the by walls made up of pillars filled between reasons why we find admixture of so many by perforated jalis (grills). On the north, different styles and distinctive peculiarities east and south sides, doors are set through in the planned devices of these medieval these walls opposite the Bhadra, projections monuments. Khajuraho being the principal of the mula-prasada leading to the ambu site of inspiration, its Jaina group of art latory. The main doors to the west, origi comprises the Adinatha, Santinatha and nally perhaps no more elaborate than the Parsvanatha temples, besides many old three other doors projecting into the ambu and modern shrines. The temples have latory hall have now been replaced by later been renovated more than once which speaks door-frames which may be chronologically of the deep interest of Jainas and the liberal assigned to Circa 994 A.D. Attached to the inclination of the rulers. There are certain west of this temple, is a large open qua Jaina temples which are remarkable for drangle, which is followed by a separate their motifs only. chatushki. The Ghantai Temple of Khajuraho is so During the successive rule of the over- called because of its bell and chain ornamenlords of the Chandelas, Kalachuris and tation on its pillars (Pl. V). From the fact Paramaras, although greater emphasis of having found a Buddhist icon from this always lay upon the Hindu faith and its temple, Cunningham had thought it to be manifestations in art. Tainas enjoyed frequent a Buddhist monument at first, though he favours of the ruling dynasties and official changed his view as specific Jaina material dignitaries besides the trading class which was discovered from there. gifted them munificently. In the series of medieval temples, the It is known to history that Khajuraho best preserved and richly carved temple is which was the capital of the Chandelas, that of Parsvanatha at Khajuraho (Pl. VI), had an influential Jaina population who which was built in 954 A.D. by Pahila, a were responsible for the construction of favourite of King Dhanga. The temple is many Jaina temples. Jaina images belonging oblong on plan with an axial projection on to the tenth to twelfth centuries are enshrined its two shorter sides. The hall of the main in the temples, the latest having been made shrine has sculptural bands besides latticed in the time of Madanavarma. Medieval windows which make provision for defused Jaina art is also prolific in Mahoba in dis- light inside. The temple contains a modern was of Parsvan atha mos responsible for the population who

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20 Jaina Shrines in India image of Parsvanatha made of black marble here even today. A significant point regarwhich was installed in 1860. ding the architecture of this temple is that its pinnacle is in the nagara style. The latter temple at Un has a combination of the features of the Paramara and Chalukya styles of architecture. The Adinatha (Pl. VII) and Santinatha temples at Khajuraho are virtually the replicas of the Parsvanatha temple representing the nagara and Chalukya styles. Several categories of art of the Chandelas which have been defined by scholars, include, (a) the cult images made according to the fixed canonical principles, (b) sculptures comprising the Vidya-devis, Sasana-devatas (Yakshas and Yakshis) and Avarana devatas, Dikpalas and other titulary deities forming a subservient role. While the Santinatha temple is exclusively Jaina in concept, the Parsvanatha temple has an exterior head of Siva and peculiarly enough, the representation of a sura-sundari on one of the facades. The admixture of tantricism is apparent in the sculptural sequence of the Parsvanatha temple. Certain other divinities are also common to both the Jaina and Hindu faiths. The Paramara zone of Jaina architecture consists of the temples built in the Chalukya style at Un in west Nirmar district. The temple faces north and has on its plan the sanctum, the antarala and the gudha mandapa connected with lateral ardha-mandapas, trik-mandapa and mukhachatushki. The architectural pattern conforms to the general Chalukya style of architectonic expression. The sanctum of the Un temple which measures 2.44 sq. mts and has a plain corbelled ceiling, contains the image of Santinatha, dated in the Vikrama year 1242 (A.D. 1185). Santinatha is the principal deity (mula nayaka). This image has now been removed to the Indore Museum. The only survival member is its pedestal in situ inside the sanctum. There is another Jaina temple resembling the Santinatha temple at Un. It is called Gwalesvara. Worship is being performed Closely associated with the Paramara and Chalukya style Jaina temples, there is a Kalachuri phase found at Arang in Raipur district. There are many Jaina sculptures of 11th-12th centuries found around the old Jaina temple called the Bhanda-dewal. This temple belongs to the 11th century. It faces west and preserves only the sanctum with chiselled images. The sanctum is placed at a lower level and has some Digambara Jaina figures carved out of black basalt. These are identified with Santinatha, Kunthanatha and Aranatha on the basis of their lanchhanas. The chronology of the enshrined images may be shifted later by one or two centuries. Even during the Islamic rule, Jaina religious spirit could thrive due to its firm spiritual foundation and charitable inclinations of the laity who continued their building activities inspite of casual blows on their religious activities. During this period, some places like Sonagiri, Nainagiri, Pawagiri and Dronagiri in Central India became famous. Malwa, Gwalior and Bundelkhand continued to be important centres of Jaina architectures. In the otherwise iconographic monotony are to be deciphered a number of Sasana-devas, Kshatrapalas, Gandharvas and Kinnaras, besides such divinities as goddesses Sarasvati, Ambika, Padmavati, Chakresvari and others. It is remarkable that the Islamic pressure could neither suppress nor divert the religious spirit. The Gwalior fort has preserved some huge Tirthankara images which have been carved in stone. The royal patronage extended to the construc

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Dispersal of Shrines 21 tion of Jaina temples at Narwar, Tumaion, eleventh and succoeding centuries are in Chanderi, Bhanpura and the entire Malwa existence. Temples dedicated to Santinatha region. and Bahubali are among the most significant At Maski near Ujjain, there were two temples at Ahar. Banpur near Tikamgarh Jaina establishments which belonged to the has an interesting temple of Sarvatobhadra Digambara and Svetambara Sects. A Sahasrakuta. The temple is in the nagara temple of Parsvanatha was built in 1461 style and its decorative motifs relate to the A.D. by Sangrama Singh Soni. Images river goddossos, nagagrahas and foliage containing inscriptions of the 14th and 15th centuries are preserved in a temple at Bania Dronagiri in Chharpur region is regarded wadi at Dhar. Dhar had been a great to be a siddha-kshetra and has thirty Jaina centre of learning and in its vicinity, lics shrines spread over the hillocks. These Mandu, famous for its elegant monuments were constructed betwoen 1483 and of the medieval period and the romantic 1529 A.D. stories of the exploits of Rani Rupamati and Baj Bahadur, which live to this day. which live to this day Jaina art and architecture is also consNames of several Jaina scholars like Jhan- picuous though on moderate scales, at jhana and Mandana have been preserved dana have been preserved Chanderi (Chanvisi temple built in 1836 to posterity. Badwani has also many Jaina A.D.), Sonagiri, Nainagiri, Gadaha, Pajatemples. An image of Adinatha. 26 metres nari, Ajaigarh, Golakot, Nannia and places high, is found carved in the rock and on of lesser note around these places. The the adjoining hillock, called Chulgiri, a Ajaigarh Santinatha temple which is of series of twenty-two Taina temples exist. considerable importance was built by Vira Jaina statues and temples are, likewise, Varman Chandela in 1279 A.D.Co found at Alirajpur (Jhabua), Vidisa, Samas butions of rulers of Jaina art have been garh and Bundelkhand and Bhagalkhand remarkable but not less astounding have regions in general. been the sacrifices of the Jaina saints and masons who worked assiduously for the In Sagar district, there are a couple of glorification of their establishments. temples at Bina-Barha. The first temple is of Chandraprabha whose image was The latest phase of Jaina architecture is installed in 1775 by Mahendrakirti. Be- manifested in the shrines built at Semarsides this image, there is also an image of khedi (Vidisa), Malhargarh (Guna), Pajahari Mahavira, 4 metres high. The second and Patna (Sagar), Kolha (Mandasor) and temple dedicated to Santinatha was built at places where the Jaina tradition evince a in 1746. It is 5 metres high and Santina- fusion of styles and aesthetic deterioration. tha is depicted in the Khadgasana. Twenty The rich architectural creations and embelkilometres east of Tikamgarh, at Ahar, lishments gave way to superfluous ornatemples built by Chandela rulers in the mentation in the late medieval period.

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IV. West India THE earliest traces of Jaina art which Bahubali, the son of Rshabhanatha, at followed in the wake of the itineraries of Taxila is only a traditional belief. The the Tirthankaras, are found mentioned in Sirkap stupa is also polemical. an early text of the 4th-5th century A.D., Traditions which refer to the Jaina known as the Vasudeva-hindi. It tells of a councils' meeting simultaneously at Mathura Jivanta-svamin image of Mahavira at Ujjain. and at Valabhi, postulate evidences of This finds mention also in the Brihatkalpa- Jaina establishments in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bhashya (C. 6th century A.D.). Worship of Valabhi, Broach and Sopara. The absence Mahayira and the ratha-yatra festival of of Jaina antiquities belonging to the third his at the time which is attested by the and fourth centuries, does not rule out the Avasyakachurni of Jinadasa. A contro- existence of Jaina sanctuaries altogether versial portrait sculpture of Mahayira made as several Jaina images belonging to the of sandalwood is said to have been worship- above dates have been discovered. H.D. ped by a queen of king Udayana of Kau Sankalia has found unmistakable traces sambi. An old bronze of Parsvanatha which of Taina rock-cut reliefs at Dhank, which is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, date from early fourth century A.D. But the Bombay, signifies its discovery from some Jina figures are more rightly assigned to the findspot whose record is missing. It bears sixth or seventh centuries A.D. A large resemblance to a Jina image from Lohani- hoard of bronze that has been found at pur, preserved in the Patna Museum Akola, specifies Jaina figures of substantial The earliest known architecture in this value. But the real architectural excellence region undoubtedly lay in the rock-caverns was achieved at a succeeding period. in west India's hill promontories. At Juna- Jaina temples appeared at Akola, Valabhi, gadh near Girnar, there is a group of about Vasantagarh and Bhinamal during the sixthtwenty rock cells which were first noticed seventh centuries. This is inferred from by Burgess. The numerous carvings and the finds of Jaina images of the Tirthankaras symbols such as the svastika, srivatsa, which were meant only for worship on a chadrasana and minayugala as found on the large scale. We find references to temples Mathura ayagapatas, appertain the pene- which are now no longer in existence. For tration of Jaina spirit in these parts. Al- example, Vanaraja Chapotkata is stated to though, the symbols in themselves do not have founded the Vanaraja Vihara of Jina establish the Jaina character of these rock- Paisvanatha at Anhilwada, where his miniscut cells, it is possible to relate them to the ter Ninnaya also built a temple in honour Jaina inscription in the absence of definite of Rshabhanatha in about 746 A.D. Ninnaya Buddhist symbols. founded temples at Chandravati and Tharad Marshall drew attention to a Taina stupa in north-west Gujarat at the instance of at Sirkap (Taxila). This is an excep- Vatesvara-suri. tional occurence of a Jaina establishment During the eighth century, both sects in the distant north-west part of India. of the Jainas erected their temples at The mention of a dharma-chakra set up by Prabhasa. The Digambaras founded a

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Dispersal of Shrines temple of Parsvanatha at Una and another daraja gave a charitable endowment to the Jina temple at Khambhat. A renowned Jaina Jaina temple at Vadasama. ni (monk) Yakshadatta is stated to have . The temple of Mahavira at Ghanero in built many temples and holy sanctums in the district Pali and the Jaina temple west India as far as Bhinamal. His succes group at Osian in Rajasthan represent the sor, Udyotana Suri, the author of Kuvalaya style of an early period. The temple at mala completed his work in the Ashtapada Ghanero consisted of prasada of Adinatha at Jalora in 779 A.D. a sanctum with ambulatory, a gudha-mandapa, In the time of Haribhadra Suri (C. eighth trika mandapa and mukha-chatuski which is the century A.D.) there was a famous Jaina entrance porch. The temple is enclosed temple at Chittor (P. VIII). Jayasimha with a high compound wall. Suri (C. 859 A.D.) bears witness to the existence of Jaina temples at Nagaur. In The Osian group of temples represent the early part of the middle ages, we find the early medieval art and architecture. a competition among the Rajput princes The most important among which is the to build Jaina shrines. The Pratihara Mahavira Temple, (Plate IX). On the ruler Nagabhata I (C. 730-56 A.D.) founded paleographical evidences it appears that it a Jaina establishment in honour of his has been built by Nagabhatta I, a Pratihara preceptor Yakshadatta gani. The Jaina Vatsaraja in the last quarter of the 8th century saint is said to have built the famous temples A.D. The sanctum of the temple is enclosed of Sachor and Korta. The Mahavira by an ambulatory, other parts of the temple of Usia was founded by Pratihara temple include Antarala, gudha-mandapa Vatsaraja, sometime during his rule which with lateral wings, trika-mandada and lasted between 772-93 A.D. This became Mukha-chatuski with a flight of steps. At almost a tradition among the Pratihara Phalodhi, a Parsvanatha temple, was built kings to establish Jaina shrines. The in about 1147 A.D. The temple was successor of Vatsaraja, Nagabhata II (739 destroyed by the Muslim invaders but it 833 A.D.) honoured his guru Bappabhatti was subsequently repaired and renovated. Suri and built temples at Kannauj and Gopa Many of its structural parts have been resgiri. Mihirabhoja (C. 836-85 A.D.) favou- tored. The Adhai-Din-Ka-Jhopda mosque red Nanna Suri and Govinda Suri. the two at Ajmer had been a faina temple site. disciples of Bappabhatti. In the same The forms of the shrine and the carving sequel is found the Ghatiala Tina temple on its pillars which is rich in ornamentation built by Pratihara Kakkukaraja in 861 A.D. and decorative scheme testifies the existence Vidagdharaja built a Rshabhanatha temple of Jaina temple. Amer is another Jaina at Hathundi in 917 A.D. and his son and site which has been appropriated by the grandson Mammata and Dhawala renovated Saivites. There is one and the oldest this temple. In the north-west region of Jaina temple in Lal-Shah-Ka-Mandir. Gujarat, Raghusena built a Tina-bhawana at Sanganer preserves another interesting Ramsen in the early oth century. The temple called Singhiji-Ka-Mandir. The Chalukya kings were also favourably dis- style of the shrine is like that of Chalukyan posed towards the Jaina faith. Mularaja I temple in Gujarat and western Rajasthan. (942-95 A.D.) erected Mulavastika for The Chalukyan oi Solanki phase of the Digambara sectaries and a shrine of Jaina art and architecture is one of the Mulanatha Jinadeva for the Svetambaras at richest regional styles which evinces a Patan Anhilavada. In 977 A.D., Chamun- complete execution of the architectonic

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24 Jaina Shrines in India principles and assimilation of iconographic was built in 1032 A.D. and is locally callnorms. A Chalukya temple bears closested the Vimala-Vasahi. It was renovated affinities with the north Indian temples in the twelfth century but the sanctum though it has some distinctive individual gudha-mandapa and trika-mandapa are features. The design of mandapas in a original. The next great marble temple peristylar with richly omamented pillars group is found at Kumbharia (Banaskantha). and decorative designs is unique. The The Mahavira Temple (Pl. X) was built pillars are arranged in an octagonal form in 1062 A.D. It is remarkable that four and have ornamented aj ches. The domical Jaina temples are found round a Saiva ceiling of the mandapa is supported on an temple. At Kumbharia, another temple, octagonal frame of architravas which rest very much similar to the Mahavira temple over pillars and constitute concentric in plan and execution was dedicated to rings converging on the central pendant, Santinatha in C. 1082. A Parsvan atha architecturally known as Padma-sila. temple at Kumbharia is a little later in time, built in the time of Siddharaja Jayasimha Literature alludes to the construction (1094-1144 A.D.). The temple has nine of Jaina temples in Gujarat from the eighth deva-kulikas which are highly decked. The century. Buildings ascribed to this period Neminatha temple at Kumbharia was built have been mentioned before, built at a little later during Siddharaja's reign. Patan-Anhilawada, although all the lite- Its pillars are richly carved and bear resemrary allusions are hard to be traced out in blance to the pillars of the Vimala-Vasali materiality. The earliest known example temple of Mount Abu. A small temple of of Jaina temple in west India is the Adinatha Sambhavanatha built in 1231 A.D. is dimimarble temple which was built by the Dutively laid that contains the general Dandanayaka Vimala on Mount Abu. It features of a Chalukya temple. AMALA-SARIKA CANDRIKA VILL ANDAKA GALA AMLA-SARA

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PLATE XII ; Adinatha Temple, Ranakpur, Rajasthan

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PLATE XIII : Faina Temples Palitana

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PLATE XIV : Cavern inhabitated by Jaina monks, Sitanavasal PLATE XV : faina Cave Temple at Badami

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Dispersal of Shrines In 1919 A D., Dandanayaka Kapaddin are supposed to be the greatest builders erected a Jaina temple at Patan and the of medieval temples. They were brothers minister Udayana constructed a temple of who besides advising the Vaghela kings, Simandhava at Dholak. Udayana also built more than fifty temples including the built a monastery at Khambhat, while Vastupala Vihara and the Parsvanatha Setha Dhawala erected the Muni-Suvrata temple of Girnar, the temple complex of temple at Dholak (built in 1137 A.D.) Satrunjaya, the Adinatha temple of Dholak Hemachandra's Divasraya-kavya alludes and Ashtapada prasada of Prabhas. The to the construction of a temple of Mahavira Asaraja-Viharas of Patan and Junagarh, the at Siddhapura, sometimes referred to as Neminatha temple of Dholak, the Adinatha Siddha-Vihara temple of Prabhasa and the magnificient temples of Khambhat and Dabhoi owe their Dandanayaka Sajjana caused a temple existence to Tejahpala. Tejahpala also of Neminatha to be built on Girnar. Ku- constructed temples at Tharad, Karnavati, marapala (1144-74 A D.) who succeeded Pavagarh, Navasari and Godra in addition Siddharaja as king, built many Jaina temples, to the more renowned Neminatha temple although he was equally prolific about buil- built on Mount Abu. Most of these temples ding Brahmanical temples. He built about lie in a dilapidated condition but their thirty-two Jaina temples besides a Kumara- majesty and elegance cannot escape the Vihara with twenty-four deva-kulikas eyes of the devotee pilgrim or the art histoat Patan. The entire region of Girnar, rian. The best preserved example of Abu, Prabhasa, Satrunjaya and Khambhat Tejahpala's creations is the marble temple extending to Tharad, Mangrol, Idar, Diu of Neminatha which is famous as Lunaand Jalor bear eloquent testimony to his Vasahi shrine (Dilwara) built in 1231 A.D. building activities. Afholika-Vihara built on Mount Abu. The tradition of Vastupala in 1163 A.D. by him to perpetuate the and Tejahapala continued in the generation memory of his guru Hemachandra at of Jagadusa of Bhadravati and Pethada Dhandhuk which was Hemachandra's birth- of Mandu. In their time were built temples place. Following the example of Kumara- at Dhanka, Wadhwan, Satrunjaya and pala, his ministers, Prithvipala, Siddhapala Sewadi (1250-70 A.D.). Prabhasa and Solaand Amrabhatta built temples. Vagbhatta, a kshanpur also had temples built in the late brother of Amrabhatta had also construc- 13th century. Where in later years the ted a huge shrine of Adinatha at Satrunjaya royal patronage was withdrawn, the rich (1155-1167 A.D.). Prithvipala had added Jaina community upheld the munificent a nritya-mandapa to the Vimala-Vasahi artistic traditions. A fine example of this temple built in the time of Kumarapala. is the Chaturmukha Dharani Vihara at None stands today except the Ajitanatha Ranakpur which was built as late as temple of Taranga which was built in 1165 1439 A.D. A.D. At Ghumli, there is a temple of Parsvanatha whose mandapa alone remains Despite lavish proliferation of the sculptoday; it is similar to the navalakha temple tural arts in medieval Jaina temples of West of the same place assigned to the close of India, the inconic standards fall much short the 12th century A.D. In the early 13th of the architectural felicity and massive century, the centre of political gravitation constructions of the temples. In the late shifted to the strongholds of the Vaghelas, medieval period, began the onslaughts of whose ministers Vastupala and Tejahpala the Islamic campaigns which engulfed the

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Faina Shrines in India entire areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat. The on the Vedika and pitha portions. The havoc caused by vandalism was immense principal doorframe bears besides Jina and it led to a comparative decadence in as the lalata-bimba, Ganga and Yamuna, the monumental art of the period. It is, the Vidya-devis and dwarapalas. There is however, praiseworthy that the monu- another Jaina shrine at Chittorgarh in the ments and sculptures of the period could satbis-deodi which belongs to the same preserve, though sporadically, the old spirit. period. Dedicated to Adinatha, all the An interesting treatise on architectural divisions of the temple are finely laid. science, the Vastusara was written by a Jaina Though early in execution (1147 A.D.) author, Thakkura-Pheru in the time of the Phalodhi Parsvanatha temple in Marwar Alauddin Khalji. The work appeared in may be assigned to the medieval period for 1315 A.D. This was undoubtedly an its added glory conveived in renovations attempt at the preservation of the tradition at different stages. In Jaisalmer fort is of architectural principles, ingrafting as it found a temple complex consisting of the does. the plan and elevation of a nagara Lakshman-Vihara dedicated to Parsvanatha temple of north Indian style in west Indian (1417 A.D.), the temple of Sambhavanatha idiom. In the time of Rana Kumbha, Jaina na Kumbna, Jaina (1431 A.D.), the temple of Chandraphabha temples were built at Chittor, specially (1453 A.D.) and the temple of Santinatha dedicated to Adinatha. The Jaina temple (1480 A.D.). of Samara Singha on Girnar Hill (1438 A.D.) and the subsequent temples of Sam The Bikaner group of temples consist pratiraja 1435 A.D.) and Malaka-Vasahi hi of the Parsvanatha temple, built in the 16th (1455 A.D.) on the same hills, speak of century A.D., the Chintamani Rao Bikaji centur the late phase of Jaina composition in which temple of Adinatha, erected in 1505 A.D. a combination of Solanki and nagara temple and the temple of Neminatha constructed styles remained predominant. in 1536 A.D. Rshabhanatha temple at Achalgarh (1510 A.D.) is famous for its Some of the most famous temples of architecture. The Jaina temple at ChandRajasthan belong to this category of Jaina kedi in Kota of the 17th century and the building art. Chittor claims to have been Patodi's temple, established some time one of the foremost centres of medieval during the 17th-18th century, follow the Jaina architecture. The Kirti-stambha of patterns of Bikaner and Jaisalmer temple patterns Rana Kumbha is decidedly a victory tower art. which was accomplished and rebuilt during I n the extreme regions of West India, Rana Kumbha's time in 14th century (Pl. there are some remarkable temples, besides XI). From the structural point of view, those at Girnar, the complex at Miyani the Sringara-chauri Santinatha temple at famous for the Rshabhanatha temple built Chittor (built in 1448 A.D.) is perhaps of in the 13th century, Kathiakot in Kutch greater interest as having a large garbha- for its Jaina temple of the C. 13th Century, griha installed on a pancharatha plan with Thana in Saurashtra known for two Jaina attached Chatushki to its north and west shrines of early medieval period. The sides. The temple exterior contains much series extends to Vadnagar, Sajakpur and elaborate iconographic designs and figures Phadresvara in Kutch and Nadola, Nadlai including reliefs of dik-palas, apsaras, and Jalor group of Jaina temples, all of Sardulas on the fangha and gay depictions which were built in the early medieval of animal and human figures carved age.

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Dispersal of Shrines PRAHARA VIRADU CHAJJA SIRAVATI BHARANI URU-JANGHA CHAJJI JANGHA MANCI KEVALA KALASA KUMBHA !! KHURA 11 MANDOVARA The temple art tradition continued to be prolific in Ranpur or Ranakpur in Mewar. The temple of Adinatha at Ranakpur (Pl. XII) is particularly important for its medieval architecture. It has, besides its usual elegance, a pillar inscription recording its 27 construction in 1439 by Depaka, who had performed the said work at the instance of a pious Jaina Dharanaka. The inscription further mentions the patronage of Rana Kumbha to Jaina architecture which was almost a popular style of construction in west India which had been in favour with masons who contrived its execution without bias for any particular creed. The plan of the Yugadisvara or Adinatha temple shows obvious complexity but may be understood in an idiom which cannot be said to be cumbersome. The fine variety and multiplicity of forms are the salient features of this temple. The same type of temples are found among the famous Dilwara group of temples on Mount Abu. Built in 1459, a temple of Parsvanatha at Dilwara excels the other temples in height and a comprehensive engraveur of figures. of Jaina deities. The same kind of architecture developed during the period in the temple city on the Satrunjaya mountain near Palitana (Pl. XIII). The temples of this phase were built in the early part of the 17th century. Jaina temples of West India abound in with numerous bronze images and miniature paintings, specially in the vicinity of Dungarpur. Some of the metallic sculptures have inscriptions containing the names of sculptors. The names of many luminaries have been restored to history from these inscriptions, such as Lumba, Lepa, Natha and Mandana. The last mentioned imagemaker had also specialised in the construction of buildings. It is important that the temples contain a very large number of icons fulfilling the religious requirements. The Shole temple complex reveals a proliferation of the late classical period.

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V. The Deccan and South India THE penetration of Jainism into penin- northern spur of Badami. Remains of sular India marks its beginning from the some pillars and mandapas with entrance 6th century A.D., when three rising empires openings have been noticed in the region. came to have their sway, viz., the Chalukyas The Menabasti Jaina Cave Temple (Pl. with their capital at Vatapi (Badami), XVI) on the Meguti Hill at Aiholi owes its the Pallavas with their capital at Kanchi origin to the merchant communities which and the Pandyas with their capital at Madu- owned a trade guild of 'the notable five hunrai. These empires elicit the growth of dred'. The temple has icons of Mahavira melloda Jaina architecture and iconography, and Parsvanatha besides the sasana deities painting being another device in which like Dharanendra and Padmavati. There the far south Sittanavasal escarpment came is another two-storeyed cave temple below to glow with some of the finest paintings the Meguti temple. The Caranti-Math that India has ever known. The ascendancy group of temples of Aiholi is stated to have of Jainism in the south continued to radiate sprung up in C.II19 A.D. In the time of the its influence for several centuries, though Rashtrakutas, Ellora became known for its not without rebuffs from the bhakti cults rock-cut caves which have some notable of the Nayanamaras who were Saivas and Jaina features. Apparently there is no the Vaishnava Alavaras. Jainism grew to distinction among the rock-temple architecbe more popular than Buddhism and had ture of the south which follows the same competent rivals in the Saivites and the pattern for the different faiths. The Jaina Vaishnavites. complex at Ellora must have come to a close by the roth century abounding in, The main strongholds of the Jainas were as it does, the various art motifs of Jaina no doubt in the Tamil Nadu, regions which art. Jaina inspiration works throughout had natural caverns and rock-shelters (Pl. the caves of Ellora, especially in the XIV) which proved to be of considerable Gomatesvara and Parsvanatha rock caves. In use to the Jaina ascetics. Traces of such massiveness the pillars of the Jaina temples sanctuaries have been revealed in the ruins know no equals and interspersed among at Tirakkol and Anamalai both of which them are to be found subtle carvings and are in north Arcot district. The Anamalai Tirthankara images. Some of the promicaves contain paintings like those of Ellora nent features of the Dravidian architecture and Sittanavasal. At the Chandragiri hills invariably present in the skilful construction at Sravanabelagola Vallimalai has a famous of the Jaina temples. A uniformly designed cave-temple with figures of Jaina Tirthan- Yeniyavargudi of six temples dated in the karas carved in relief. The temple, however, Ioth century A.D. characterises the Chaluhas now been converted into a Subrah- kyan forms of the arrangement found in the manyam temple. Royal patronage brought famous Patadakal temples which are dediinto existence the first cave temple for cated to Virupaksha. The Pattadakal Vishnu under the patronage of Mangalesa Jaina temple is moderately planned with at Badami. That gave impetus for a soli- massive pillars and pilasters. Temples tary Jaina cave temple (Pl. XV) at the at Gadag, Dambal and Lakkundi built in

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Dispersal of Shrines 29 the rith Century represent the later art of Chittoor. Where no inscriptions have the Hoyasalas. been found, the patronage is difficult to ascertain. The medium of construction of early cave temples of the south being stones, The structural stone temples in Tamil granite and charnokite, the early rock- Nadu belonging to the Jaina fold abound in temples belonging to any faith are of mode- Pallava examples, for instance the Chandrarate dimension. Specimens of such temples prabha temple at Jinakanchi, which is a occur in the Madurai taluk at Anamalai, suburb of Kanchipuram. It is still a wellBrattapatti, Sittanavasal, Mankulam, Mut- known centre of Jaina faith. The Chandratupatti, Turuppatankunram, Varichchiyur. natha temple at Vijayamangalam in Similar caves occur in the Melur and Coimbatore district is a Ganga construction Nilakkoottai taluks. with its usual brick work vimana facing GRASA PATTI KEVALA ANTARA-PATRA KARNA JADYA-KUMBHA BHITTI BHITTI BHITTI PITHA In the districts Ramanathapuram, Ti- runelveli and Tiruchchirapalli, Jaina foun- dations which were later converted into Saiva and Vaishnava shrines are overwhel- mingly found, the most prominent of which are decidedly the Sittanavasal (2nd-Ist centuries B.C. to 9th century A.D.) rock- caves, Jaina images of the 7th-9th centuries occur on the overhanging spur of the cavern of Ammachatram hill. The other impor- tant Jaina foundations lie in the districts of Coimbatore, north Arcot, south Arcot and south and the ardha mahamandapa. South of Tondaimandalam, both in the Chola and Pandya regions, there once existed a series of Jaina temples in stone which are inferred from their dilapidated existence and epigraphical references. This group of temples reveal important architectural patterns at Chettipatti in PundukkottaiTiruchirapalli with its characteristic prakara and gopuram. It was in the time of Jajaraja I Chole (985-1014 A.D.) that a series of Jaina shrines had sprung up about which the overhanil. The otheistricts of Jajahaina shrines 5

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30 Faina Shrines in India ne DHVA JA-PURUSA there are inscriptions mentioning the names Jaina temple at Singavaram, the Parsvanatha of such Jaina preceptors who inspired the shrine at Perumandur and the Malainath construction of these memorial shrines. temple, all belonging to the early mediIn the shrines, as usual, one finds the instal- eval period. In north Arcot district, there lation of Jaina Tirthankaras not infrequen- are the temples of Parsvanatha (C. roth tly containing inscriptions in characters of century A.D.), Vardhamana temple (C. the roth-IIth century. 1000 A.D.), Kunthu Tirthankara temple (C. Inth century A.D.) and the Adinatha temple, which was founded about 1260 A.D. -.-DHVAJA-MULA During middle ages, numerous Jaina temples were built owing to royal patronage. These temples are furnished with fine carvings and sculptures. The most prominent example of this is undoubtedly the broadshouldered and grand eloquent figure of Gommata standing erect in the Khadgasana pose with his long arms dangling on either side. Much has been said of this massive and magnificent figure with contemplative eyes, half-closed, and a remarkable sensitivity that goes along with it. The nude figure is indicative of self-abnegation which behoves a Kevalina. Fergusson has talked of this image as "nothing grander or more imposing exists anywhere out of Egypt and even there, no known statue surpasses DHVAJA it in height." The image inspired the colossusness of Gommata found at Karkala (A.D. 1342), Venur (1604 AD.) and the The second important group of masonaryone near Bangalore which also belongs to temples exist in south Karnatak. More the late medieval period. prominent of these are placed in the Chan- Two important temples, the one consdragupta-basti (Pl. XVII) on the Chandra- tructed in the 12th century A.D. known as giri hill at Sravanabelagola The place the Bhagavati-Sakkayar temple and the is notable for Chandragupta Maurya's other belonging to the early decades of the association with the Jaina pontiff 16th century called the Malavanatha temple Bhadrabahu and Jaina icons inshrined in had their shrines popularly venerated at the temples. A remarkable feature is Ramanathapuram. The Bhagavati temple the variegated foliage designs and animal (C.1300 A.D.) of Tirunelveli follows the patterns contained in the freizes, mounted pattern of Ramanathapuram Bhagavation arches with trefoil finials. Sakkayar temple. In the later phase of The Panchakuta-basti in the outskirts Sittanavasal, a shrine of Parsvanatha was of Sravanabelagola shows outstanding popularly adored in the 9th century A.D. vimana architecture which helped in the It depicts elegance and a finer chiselling of codification of the southern Vastusilpa and the rocks which only highly skilled artisans agama treatises. To this class belong the could have accomplished - GRANTHI DHVAJA --- PARVAN

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Dispersal of Shrines Halebid is famous for its series of temples Kerala and the Aya rulers in the south that belong to the middle of the 12th extended patronage to the Jaina faith. In century A.D. It depicts dedications to some of the Chera inscriptions, names of three eminent Jaina Tirtharkaras-Adi- Jaina monks occur for whom cave houses natha, Santinatha and Paravanatha. Jaina had been built by the grandson of Ko-Atan temples that came into existence in the 9th- Cheral Irumporai. Trichur, the capital 12th centuries A.D. in Shimoga Laksh- of the Cheras in the 9th Century was strewn manesvara, Nittura, Tumkus and Palghat with Jaina shrines and in the vicinity of it districts abound in Jaina settlements like Jaina establishments at Kalakkavu in disSule-basti (all in Shimoga) and like bastis attrict Cannanore sprang up in the 8th cenother places right upto the Kanyakumari tury. The foremost rock-shelter of the district, famous for its Nagarajat emple region undoubtedly lay near Chitaral in the at Nagarakoil (C. 1oth century A.D.). Bija- district Kanyakumari. The rock-shelter pur has also a famous Jaina temple at Hallur has numerous Tirthankara figures carved (C. 8th century A.D.) which is known by on at over-hanging rock besides the tradition and the ruins in which the temple inscribed votive images and reliefs of lies embedded. Parsvanatha, Mahavira and Padmavati. The Sravanabelagola group of temples The greatest patron of Jaina faith among the does also have a number of Jaina establish Aya kings was no doubt Vikramaditya ments which would contain a large number Varaguna (C. 885-925 A.D.). He gave gifts if listed into an inventory. There are of golden ornaments to the Bhatariar of bastis commemorating Chandragupta the Tiruchcharanattumalai. Certain votive (emperor), Parsvanatha (Pl. XVIII), Cha figures that have been noticed in these vandaraya, Gommatesvara (Bahubali), Man parts contain inscriptions in Vatteluttu gayi (1325 A.D.), Siddhara (1398 A.D.), characters speaking of donor's names and Cennanna (1673 A.D.), Bandari (1159 A.D.) places that show a growing popularity of the Terina (distt. Hassan), (1117 A.D.), Sasan faith in the 13th century A.D. But no sooner (distt. Hassan) (1117 A.D.). than that, many a Jaina shrine were con verted into Brahmanical shrines. The exisStray settlements of Jaina Sravakas and tence of the Bhagavati temples at TiruchSraddhacharis occur at Chandrabetta hill, charanattumalai and Kallila in district ErnaVenur, Hampi, Nasik at Sirpur in Berar. kulam were transformed from the original The Santisvara-basti at Venur stood in late Taina establishments. Contemporaneous th century A.D.; the Ganigitti temple with the rock-shelters and structural of Hampi was founded in 1385 A.D.; the temples in Kerala. more solid foundations Jaina temple at Anjaneriat Nasik should of structural masonary have been found at be assigned to the 12th century A.D.; the Godapuram (Palghat). Iringalakuda (Tricave temple at Tringalvadi at Nasik was chura) and a Kollam. In later times, many constructed in 1349 A.D. and the cave Taina shrines were possessed by the votaries temple at Sirpur evinced the late phase of of the Brahmanical faith in place of the cave architecture and may be assigned to former syncretic inclinations of the Chera 1278 A.D. rulers. Jaina settlements do exist in Remains in Kerala include not many Kerala even in modern times in the Wynad monuments except those which owed their area of Kozhikoda district and places like existence to the period from the 9th to the Kalpatta, Manantodi and the Edakkal hill Inth centuries when the Cheras in Central where a singular Kerala temple style came

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Jaina Shrines in India - - -- - to be evolved that consists of a combination had shifted it to Devagiri in 1196 A.D. of the comparative modern building artifice Singhana was their most illustrious king. in assonance with the splendour of the One of the later kings, Mahadeva 1260-70 ancient art. A.D.) patronised Himadri who was made The medieval Jaina art of the Deccan a minister under his aegis and who built and South India presents a wide range of temples in the Khandesh area in the Himadarchitectural activities which it owes to panthi style, characteristic of Jaina archithe Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Sitaharas of tecture which had been borrowed from the of the Kavadi-dwipa, the Kadambas of Goa bhumija style of the Paramaras and Solankis. and Mangal and the Yadavas, Kalachuris Temples at Meguti and Sravanabelagola and Kakatiyas, all of which patronised the did not proliferate in late medieval times Jaina community in order to raise money and so did the rock-cut caves of Elephanta to resist the tide of Islamic invasions which and Ellora remain static or conventionally were a regular feature under the sway of slow in their flow of artistic traditions. the Khaljis and the Tuglaqs. Among the Chalukyan monuments, the foremost were the edifices of Brahmajinalaya at Lakkundi (Pl. XIX), the Sankhajinalaya at Ladshmanesvara that are of proven BIJAPURAK sanctity due to their historical associations. Like the Chalukyan monuments, the Rash trakuta and Hoyasala schemes mellowed into KARNIKA elaborate architectonic masonary and de corative artistry. The Hoyasalas were ANDAKA great builders who carried out their experiments one after the other in the southern Mysore regions radiating their influences vhich were imbibed by the later CholaPITHA AND GALA Pandya and Chera kings. Modern structure is found in the temple complex of Sittamur and in the Sangita-mandapan KALASA. of the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparutti kkunaram. The Hoyasala style continued in the temples of Hassan district. Jainism The Chalukyas of Kalyani caused several which enjyoyed the patronage of the above new constructions besides the renovation dynastic rulers and the rich Jaina commuof the existing Jaina shrines and monu nity, extended to all the coastal tracts in ments specially at Lakkundi, Sravanabe the west in south India. Among the notable lagola, Lakshmanesvara and Pattadakal. centres were Humcha, Pomburca (Shimoga) In the time of later Chalukyas, the Kakati and such other sites of lesser note. yas, the Yadavas and the Hoyasalas, hybrid sculptural traditions those of the north and The monuments in the Yadava and the south, took part. The rulers had been Kakatiya realms have been sporadically conscious of a greater unity which they found in the districts of Devagiri, Manmad wanted to transcribe in stone for the sake and Nasik which have a cluster of shrines of homogenity and solidarity. The Yadavas, besides stray remnants. In the eastern part who had their capital in Nasik in early days, of the Deccan, Jaina remains are found

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PLATE XVI : Menabasti Cave Temple, Aihole PLATE XVII : Chandragupta Basti, Sravanabelagola

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PLATE XX: Tem

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MINIM "emples at Hampi

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PLATE XVIII: Parsavanatha Basti, Srazynabelagola PLATE XIX: Brahmajinalaya, Lakkundi

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Dispersal of Shrines in our times in Rayalaseema and Telen- gana regions. Jainism had a late advent in Andhra for the simple reason that Buddhist and Brahmanical influences had been dominant in the land in the earlier times. It was only when these faiths lost their virility in these parts that the dynasties of the Deccan started extending their reasons in order to provide a bulwark against the Islamic hordes. Mention has already been made of the influences of the Pallava and Chera kings and several others including the Kalyani Chalukayas and the Yadyas who contri- buted to the proliferation of Jaina art in the middle ages. The most outstanding remains of Jainism in Tamil Nadu are found among the Trailo- kyanatha at Jina-Kanchi or Tirupparuttikkunram in the Chingleput district, the struc- tural temples of Tirumalai which were further enriched in the time of the Vijaya- nagara rule. Sculptural arts show regional variations at Hampi, Paddatumbalam, Halebid, Sakkaramallur, Villivakkam and Vyasarapadi. During the reign of the Vijayanagara rulers, a number of Jaina acharyas were received into patronage and their capital Hampi was strewn with Chairyalayas and other structural temples to a large extent. This had been a period of efflorescence in the history of Jainism. Examples of Jaina architecture of the period are classed into four kinds as manifested in the temples at Hampi (Pl. XX), stone temples at Bhadkal (north Kanara), Mudhidri (south Kanara) the samadhis of Jaina priests near Mudhidri and the temples with more than one functional storey above the sanctum, the like of which is to be seen in the Santisvara basti temple at Venur. It is possible to find structural temples in the littoral parts of the peninsula that have escaped notice of the investigators but of which there are unmistakable traces which, however, await a compelling evidence.

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Appendix S. TIRTHANKARA EMBLEM KEVALA YAKSHA TREE YAKSHI BIRTHPLACE NO. Bull 1. Risabhanatha/ Adinatha Nyagrodha Chakresvari Bull-faced Gomukha Vinitanagara (Dig Kailasa (Svet.) 2. Ajitanatha Elephant Sapta-parna Mahayaksha Rohini (Dig.)/ Ayodhya Ajitabala (Svet.) 3. Sambhavanatha Horse Sala Trimukha Prajnapti (Dig.)/ Sravasti Duritari (Svet.) 4. Abhinandananatha Ape Piyala Ayodhya Yaksesvara (Dig.) Vajrasrinkhala Nayaka (Svet.) (Dig.)/ Kalika (Svet.) 5. Sumatinatha Priyangu Mahakali (Svet) Ayodhya Heron (Krauncha) Tumburu/ Purusadatta (Dig.) 6. Padmaprabha Red Lotus Chatrabha Kausambi Manovega (Dig.)/ Syama Achyuta Mangupta (Svet.) 7. Suparsvanatha Varanasi Nandyavarta Sirisa (Dig.)/ Svastika (Svet.) Varanandin (Dig.) Matanga (Svet.) Kali Dig.) Santa (Svet.) 8. Chandraprabha Half-moon Naga Vijaya or Syma (Dig.)/Vijaya (Svet.) Jvlamalini (Dig.)/ Chandrapuri Bhrikuti (Svet.) Alligator Malli Ajita 9. Suvidhinatha or Puspadanta Mahakali (Dig.)/ KakandiSutaraka (Svet.) nagara 10. Sitalanatha Pilurikha Bhadrapura Brahma Brahmesvara Manavi (Dig.) Ashoka (Svet.) Svastika (Dig.) Srivatsa (Svet.) 11. Sreyamsanatha Rhinoceros Tinduka Simhapura Isvara (Dig.)/ Yakseta (Svet.) Gauri (Dig.)/ Manavi (Svet.) 12. Vasupujya Buffalo Patalika Kumara Gandhari (Dig.) Champapuri Chanda (Svet.)

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Appendix S. TIRTHANKARA EMBLEM KEVALA NO. TREE 13. Vimalanatha 14. Anantanatha 15. Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthanatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha (Dig.) Or Malli (Svet.) 20. Munisurvrata 21. Naminatha 22. Aristanemi 23. Parsvanatha 24. Vardhamana Mahavira Boar Falcon Deer Goat Tagara flower or Fish (Dig.)/ Nandyavarta (Svet.) Thunderbolt Dadhiparna Kinnara Pitcher Jambu Conchshell Asvattha Patala Nandi Lion Tilaka Amra Tortoise Campaka Asoka Blue Lotus Bakula Vetasa Serpent Dhataki YAKSHA Sanmukha Sala Kimpurusa (Dig.)/Garuda Svet.) Gandharva Kubera Varuna Bhrikuti Saravahana (Dig.)/ Gomedha (Svet.) Dharanandra YAKSHI Kendra (Dig.)/ Ajita (Dig.)/ Yaksendra (Svet.) Dhana (Svet.) Matanga Vairati (Dig.)/ Vidita (Svet.) Anantamati (Dig.)/ Ankusa(Svet.). Manasi (Dig.)/ Kandarpa (Svet.) Vijaya (Dig.)/ Bala (Svet.) BIRTH PLACE Kamilya pura Mahamanasi Hastina (Dig.) pura (Dig.) Nirvani (Svet.) Gajapura (Svet.) Ayodhya. Kusmandini (Dig.)/ Ambika (Svet.) Padmavati Siddhayika Ratnapuri 35 Aparajita (Dig.)/ Mithila Dharanpriya (Svet.) Hastinapura (Dig. Gajapura (Svet.) Hastina pura (Dig.)/ Gajapura (Svet.) Bahurupini (Dig.) Rajagriha /Naradatta (Svet.) Chamundi (Dig.) Mithila /Gandhari (Svet.) Saunyapura Varanasi Kunda grama/ Pavapuri

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Bibliography 1. Bhattacharya, B.C. Jaina Iconography : New Delhi, 1974. 14. Lalwani, K.C. Tr. Kalpasutra of Bhadrababu Swami : Delhi, 1979. 2. Burgess, James. Digambar Jaina Iconography: Varanasi, 1979. 15. Mehta, Jodh Singh. Delwada Jain Temples : Marvels in Marble and the Enchanting places of Abu : Udaipur, 1974 3. Caillat, C. and Ravi Kumar. Jain Cosmology : Delhi, 1981. 4. Dwivedi, R.C. Jain Art and Architecture : Jaipur, 1980 16. Pereira, Jose. Monolithic Jinas : The Iconography of the Jain Temples of Ellora : Delhi, 1978. 5. Fischer, E. and Jain, Jyotindra. Art and Rituals : 2500 Years of Jainism in India. New Delhi, 1967. 17. Raichowdhury, P.C. Jainism in Bihar : Patna, 1956. 18. Ramchandran, T.N. Jaina Monuments of India : Calcutta, 1944. 6. Fisher, Klaus. Caves and Temples of the Jains : Aliganj, 1956. 19. Shah, Premchand. Kalakacharya Katha Sangraha : Ahmedabad, 1959. 7. Ghosh, Amlanand. Jaina Art and Architecture : New Delhi, 1975. 20. Shah, Umakant P. Studies in Jaina Art : Banaras, 1955. 8. Jain, B. Chandra. Devgarh Ki Jain Kala (Hindi): New Delhi, 1974. 21. Shah, Umakant P. Ed. Treasures of Jaina Bhandaras: Ahmedabad 1978. 9. Jain, Chhotelal. Jain Bibliography : New Delhi, 1982. 22. Shah, Umakant P. and Dhaky, M.A. Ed. Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture : Ahmedabad, 1975. 10. Jain, Jyotindra and Fischer, E. Jain Iconography : Leiden, 1978, Pt. I & II. (Iconography of Religions Ser. XIII, 12-13). 23. Sharma, B.N. Jaina Pratimayen (Hindi) : Delhi, 1976. 11. Jain, Niraj. Khajuraho Ka Jain Mandir (Hindi) : Satna, 1967. 24. Singh, Harihar. Jain Temples of Western India : Varanasi, 1982. 12. Jain, Niraj and Jain, Dasrath. Jain Monuments at Khajuraho : Satna, 1968. 25. Sivaramamurti, C. Panorama of Jain Arts (South India): New Delhi, 1983. 13. Lalwani, Ganesh. Ed. Bhagwan Mahavir : Calcutta, 1978. 26. Tiwari, M.N. Prasad. Jaina Pratimavijnan (Hindi) : Varanasi, 1982.

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JODHPUR SRAVASTI . PUNDRAVARDHAN PHALODHI DELHI BIKANER MATHURA JAISALMER. NADOL * JAIPUR . AGRA GHANERAOR *AJMER AHARI AYODHYA VATSALT * KOTA . KAUSAMBI PATNA KUMBHARIAABU CHITTOR. VADNAGAR UDAIPUR KHAJURAHOVARANASI.RAJGIR. TARANGA CHANDERI DEOGARH * SAGAR SEJAKPUR UJJAIN GYARA SPUR VAROHAMAN UN VIDISA *RAIPUR UDAYAGIRI GIRNAR * NASIK JUNAGARHX SATRUNJAYA UN * BIJAPUR * AIHOLE . HAMPI SHIMOGA. HALEBID .CHANDRAGIRI KARKAL. . TUMKUR KANCHI SRAVAN - BELGOLA HASSAN YARCOT COIMBATORE -SALEM PALGHAT SITTANNAVASAL MADURAI TIRUNELVELI RAMNATHPURAM NAGARCOIL

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