Jaina Literature form earliest time to century 10th AD

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Z_Shwetambar_Sthanakvasi_Jain_Sabha_Hirak_Jayanti_Granth_012052.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250158/1

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Jaina Literature From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. 1 Jaina Literature of Early Period the canonical literature belongs to this period, though Ancient Indian Literature was composed their final editing and writing on palm-leaves belong mainly in three languages, i.e., Samskrta, Pali and to c. 5th A. D. Among Svetambara canons, except the Praksta. Out of these three Pali is nothing but a shade Nandisatra and the later edition of Prasnavyakarana, of Praksta language. As a literary language, Prakrta, most works were composed before the c. 3rd A. D. being a group of various local dialects as Magadhi, No doubt, some interpolations and changes did take Pali, Paisaci, Sauraseni, Maharastri, was never place therein at the time of Valabhi Council yet they developed as a single language but as a group of are clearly traceable. It would be a great mistake if on languages. Various types of Apabhramsa were also account of these interpolations and changes the whole developed from Prakrta. Its various shades developed of the Agamas are regarded as posterior. Although according to their different places and time. If we most of the works of this period contain the religious consider these three main languages from religious preachings with some popular parables and stories as point of view, all the Vedic religious literature is well as religious code of conduct, certain works deal found in Samsketa while the Jaina canonical and with Jaina cosmology, metaphysics, Karma philosoBuddhist literature is in Praksta and Pali, respecti- phy and theory of knowledge also. The list of canonively. So far as the Jaina religious literature of early cal literature is, for the first time, found in Nandisatra period is concerned, it was mainly written in Prakrta (c. 5th A. D.). If we accept Nandisutra as a work of known as Prakrta canons. Jainas started writing from c. 5th A. D., all the works referred to ir. Nandisatra c. 3rd 4th A. D. in Samskrta but notably these belong to a date prior to it. But they all were not Samskrta works are based on Prakita works whether composed in a single spur of moment. All the as an independent or in the form of commentaries. canonical works, it seems are composed in during So far as the Jaina literature (of early period) c. 5th B. C. to c. 4th-5th A. D., i.e., within one prior to c. 3rd A. D. is concerned, barring few of the thousand years. The works mentioned in the Nandiearly philosophical and literary treatises, it is mainly sutra are the following: confined to the canonical literature only. Majority of

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI Agama Angapravista Angabahya Other than Avasyaka 1. Acaranga 2. Satrakrtanga 3. Sthananga 4. Samavayanga 5. Vyakhyaprajnapti 6. Jnatadharmakatha 7. Upasakadasanga 8. Antakrddasanga 9. Anuttaraupapatikadasanga 10. Prasnavyakarana 11. Vipakasutra 12. Dsstivada Avasyaka 1. Samayika 2. Caturvimsatistava 3. Vandana 4. Pratikramana 5. Kayotsarga 6. Pratyakhyana Kalika Uttaradhyayana Dasasrutaskandha Kalpa Vyavahara Nisitha Mahanisitha Rsibhasita Jambudvipaprajnapti Dvipasagaraprajnapti Candraprajnapti Ksullikavimanapravibhakti Mohallika Vimanapravibhakti Angaculika Vaggaculika Vivahaculika Arunopapata Varunopapata Garunopapata Dharanopapata Vaisramanopapata Velandharopapata Devendropapata Utthanasruta Samutthanasruta Nagaparijnapanika Narakavalika Kalpika Kalpavatamsika Puspita Puspaculika Vrsnidasa Utkalika Dasavaikalika Kalpikakalpika Cullakalpasruta Mahakalpasruta Aupapatika Rajaprasniya Jivabhigama Prajnapana Mahaprajnapana Pramadapramada Nandisutra Anuyogadvara Devendrastava Tandulavaicarika Candravedhyaka Suryaprajnapti Paurusimandala Mandalapravesa Vidyacarana Viniscaya Ganividya Dhyanavibhakti Maranavibhakti Atmavisodhi Vitaragasruta Samlekhanasruta Viharakalpa Caranavidhi Aturpratyakhyana Mahapratyakhyana

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] Unfortunately, all the above mentioned works are not available, today. Some of them are lost. Out of twelve Anga Agamas, the 7th chapter of Acaranga (Mahaparijna) and the major portion of Drstivada are said to be extinct. So far as the subjectmatter of 7th chapter of Acaranga is concerned, in my opinion, it was mainly related to the Jinakalpa or strict code of conduct of naked monks. When the followers of this strict code of conduct disappeared gradually, no serious efforts were made to restore it and finally it got lost. Likewise, the twelfth Anga Drstivada, said to be containing five parts (i) Parikarma, (ii) Sutra, (iii) Purvagata, (iv) Anuyoga and (v) Culika, seems to have dealt mainly with the philosophical doctrines of other schools of thought including the Parsva tradition. Purvagata, the third part of Drstivada, exclusively, dealt with the doctrines of Parsva tradition, later on accepted as the doctrines of Mahavira. All these works were preserved only through oral tradition, because, Jaina monks and nuns were strictly prohobited to write on palm-leaves, those days. That study and preservation of the Jaina literature, written on palm-leaves were prohibited due to the strict observance of non-violence. They were of the opinion that in the process of writing, studying and preserving the palm-leaf works, the injury to the Jivas was inevitable. That is why, they made no efforts to restore them in written form. This was the reason behind the loss of Drstivada as well as some other agamas. In my opinion, Drstivada, in particular, became extinct, because of following factors firstly, its contents were not fully in accordance with Mahavira's tradition and were mostly related with philosophical discussions of other traditions and schools, hence unable to arouse interest in Jaina monks. Secondly, the concepts, accepted by Mahavira's tradition, were included in other Agamic texts also, hence Jaina monks did not make any effort to preserve the Purva literature. Thirdly, due to the oral tradition, other Anga agamas could not remain intact. We find that earlier subject-matter of Prasnavyakarana has been completely changed. Similarly, partial changes as well as some additions are also noted in the subject-matter of Jnatadharmakatha, Antakyddasanga, Anuttraupapatika and Vipakasutra. Among the secondary canons (Anga-bahya agamas) following works, known as Kalika and Utkalika, respectively were also lost in due course of time. The details of such canons are as under: Kalikasutra not available presently 1. 2. 3. Angactilika 4. Vaggaculika 5. Vivahaculika 6. Arunotapada 7. Varunotapada 8. Garunotapada 9. Dharanotapada 10. Vaisramanotapada 11. Velandarotapada 12. Devendrotapada 13. Utthanasruta 14. Samutthanasruta 15. Nagaprajnaptipanika. Utkalikasutra not available presently Ksullikavimanapravibhakti Mahallikavimanapravibhakti 1. Kalpikakalpika 2. Culakalpika 3. Mahaprajnapana 4. Pramadapramada 5. Paurusimandala 6. Mandala Pravesa 7. Vidyacarana Viniscaya 8. Dhyanavibhakti 9. Vitaraga Sruta 10. Viharakalpa 11. Caranavidhi. 3 About the subject-matter of these Kalika and Utkalikasutras, not extant today, it is very difficult to

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI comment upon. Their subject-matter can be inferred order of the Jaina canonical literature is Isibhasiyaim on the basis of their titles only. One Angasutra, i.e., (Rsibhasitam ). All the scholars of Prakrta and JainoDrstivada, 15 Kalikasutra and 11 Utkalikasutras, logy: Western and Indian, consider it of c. 4th-3rd B. thus, the number of extinct or not available texts, C. It marks the catholicity of early Jaina thinkers. It comes to be 27, in total. Except these 27, all the 51 contains the ethical preachings as well as philosophitexts are available. At present six Avasyakas being cal views of forty-five thinkers. Out of these Narada, counted as one, the number finally becomes 46. It is Asitadevala, Angirasa, Parasara, Aruns, Narayana, not possible here to deliberate on the corresponding Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka, Vidura etc. definitely belong authorship, date and subject-matter of each and every to Upanisadic tradition. Similarly, Sariputta, Vajjitext of this list in this article, so I shall discuss, in putta, Mahakasyapa etc. belong to Buddhist tradition short, only few important works in their chronologi- while Parsva and Vardhamana belong to the Jaina cal order. tradition. A few others are of other independent Primary Canons ( Angas ) Sramanic tradition, not extant today. This work Acaranga is considered as the oldest of all the shows that in the early period the Upanisadic and works of the early period. According to the scholars, other Sramanic traditions were tolerant as well as the first part of Acaranga belongs to the c. 5th-4th B. respectul to each other. C. This part contains the original preachings of Lord Uttaradhyayana and Dasavaikalika are other Mahavira. It deals with the spiritual preachings important works of this early phase. Uttaradhyayana alongwith the basic principles of non-violence and contains thirty-six chapters, mainly dealing with the ethical code of conduct, prescribed for Jania monks religious preachings as well as some metaphysical and nuns. Its last chapter depicts a real picture of the doctrines of Jainism. Some chapters of this text are ascetic life of Lord Mahavira. The 7th chapter of the regarded as the later additions by the scholars but in first part is supposed to be lost after the composition no way they are later than the c. 2nd or 1st B. C. The of its Niryukti, i. e.,c. 2nd 3rd A. D. The second part next work Dasavaikalika, composed by Arya of Acaranga is known as Ayaracula - an appendix. Sayyambhava (c. 5th-4th B. C.) mainly deals with It mainly deals with the detailed rules and regulations the ethical code of conduct of Jania monks and nuns or the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns alongwith the spiritual discourses and preachings. alongwith some of the events of the life of Mahavira. However, we can not deny the possibility of the Modern scholars opine that the second part of interpolations to the some extent in its final editing. Acaranga was composed during the c. 2nd-Ist B. C. The other works dealing with the ethical code Another improtant canonical work of this era is of conduct are Nisitha, Dasasrutaskandha (AyaraSutrakrtanga dating c. 4th-3rd B. C. This work is also dasa ), Vyavahara and Kalpa, all composed by Arya full of spiritual and moral preachings but its Bhadrabahu inc. 3rd B. C. These works, not only deal peculiarity lies in the presentaion of different philoso- with the code of conduct but with transgressions and phical views prevalent in that particular era. Like atonements also. Acaranga, it also comprises two parts ( Sruta- Against general belief, that all the Angas are skandhas ). Scholars are of the opinion that the second composed by the Ganadharas, direct disciples of Lord part of Sutrakstanga is some what posterior to the first. Mahavira, some opine that except Acaranga and The third important work in chronological Sutrakitanga, all the Angas are composed later on. In

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D.) my opinion, it is very difficult to assign any particular were incorporated in Sthananga. Same is the case date or authorship to these extant works because of with Anuttaropapatikadasanga. Its early edition concontaining different levels of the development of tained life-stories of only ten persons who attained Jaina thought, occurred through different ages. Sarvarthasiddhi Vimana and were supposed to attain After Acaranga and Sutrakrtanga, next two liberation in their next births. Of Jaina canon PrasnaAngas in successive order are Sthanarga and Sama vyakaranadasa, unfortunately, the earlier contents are vayanga. They may be considered as encyclopaedia totally extinct. It seems that the present subject-matter of early Jaina thoughts and beliefs, mainly based on of this work was incorporated in aroundc. 7th A.D. Its on the numbers more or less similar to Anguttaranikaya extant edition deals with five asravas, viz., violence, of Buddhist tradition. Both these works provide more untruthfulness, theft, unchastity and possessiveness information about the Jaina order and development of alongwith five samvaras, viz., truthfulness, nonJaina thoughts of the later period, i.e., c. 3rd 4th A.D. stealing, chastity and non-possession. Last available The next in the list is Bhagavati (Vyakhyaprajnapti) work of Anga canon is Vipakadasa, dealing with mainly dealing with different aspects of Jaina philo fruits of merit and demerits. sophy. According to a group of scholars, this Secondary Canons (Upanga ) voluminous work, was composed at different phases The first work of the secondary canons is and not at one time. Evidently, it has references to the Aupapatika, dealing with the episode of Suryabhalater works like Prajnapana, Anuyogadvara, etc. be- deva. It also depicts a beautiful picture of ancient art longing to c. 1st-4th A. D. and side by side, depicts and architecture. On the basis of this depiction, various earlier original concepts, witnessing change scholars date this work not earlier thanc. 1st-2nd A.D. in the process of development of Jaina thoughts. The The next work of this category is Rajaprasniya which, next work of early period is Jnatadharmakatha. so far its subject matter is concerned, is more similar Second part of this work is considerably later than the to the Buddhist Pali canon - Paseniyasutta. The third first. The first contains mainly stories preached by and the fourth, Jivabhigama and Prajnapana, respecLord Mahavira to his disciples. Its 19 chapters, refer- tively, deal with the Jaina metaphysics in general and red to in Avasyaka-sutra, are undoubtedly, com- the concepts of jiva and ajiva in particular. The posed in the early period. The next among Anga authorship of Prajnapana is attributed to Arya Syama canons is Upasakadasanga, considered as the first (c. Ist A.D.). Out of these twelve secondary canowork related to the code of conduct of lay devotees nical works only Prajnapana's authorship is known. (Sravakas ). It comprises life-sketches of ten promi- About the authorship of other works, we are still in nent lay followers of Lord Mahavira. Not having any dark. The fifth one is Jambudvipaprajnapti, mainly trace of any later work, it belongs to the early period. dealing with Jaina Geography in addition to the lifeAntakyddasanga deals with the life-stories and ascetic history of Rsabhadeva. The subject matter of next life of the persons, attaining their salvation in the last two works, Suryaprajnapti and Candraprajnapti are span of their life. According to Sthananga, it has only related with Jaina cosmology in general and Jaina ten chapters dealing with life-stories of 10 persons. astronomy in particular. Scholars date thesec. 2nd-1st But present volume contains life-stories of 93 persons. B.C. Other five works of this bunch are very short and It clearly shows that not at the time of Valabhi Vacana rather of less important. alone but even after that some additional matters Besides Anga & Upanga canonical literature,

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI Candrakavedhyaka, Tandulavaicarika, Aturpratya- 1. Avasyakaniryukti, khyana, Mahapratyakhyana, Maranavibhakti, mainly 2. Dasavaikalikaniryukti, concerned with the Jaina Sadhana, are known as 3. Uttaradhyayananiryukti, Prakimakas, in general and Samadhimarana in 4. Acaranganiryukti, particular. All these works are, undoubtedly earlier to 5. Sutrakitanganiryukti, the c. 4th-5th A.D. 6. Dasasrutaskandhaniryukti, Among the non-canonical works of this 7. Kalpaniryukti and period, very few in number are extant, namely 8. Vyavaharaniryukti. Tattvartha-sutra and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd 4th Apart from these, two more Niryuktis - Ogha A. D.), Paumacariya of Vimalasuri (c. 2nd-5th and Pinda are also available, but considered to be the A. D.) and Digambar works composed in Sauraseni part of Avasyakaniryukti and Dasavaikalikaniryukti, Praksta like Kasayapahuda of Gunadhara (c. 4th A. respectively, hence, not independent works. We also D. ) and Satkhandagama of Puspadanta Bhutabali have a mention of two more Niryuktis on Surya( about c. 5th A. D.). Apart from these, the works of prajnapti and Rsibhasita, but they are extinct now. Kundakunda, Samantabhadra and Siddhasena To conclude, we can say that more than Divakara may also be considered as the works of hundred works could be considered to belong to this early period. Scholars differ on the exact date of com early period but about thirty of them are now extinct. position of these works, except that of Tattvarthasutra. They date these in between c. 2nd-5th A. D. Jaina Literature of this period The evolution and changes occurred in Jaina Among non-canonical literature, the first thought and practice during c. 3rd-10th A. D. is traceNiryuktis, ten in number, are of great importance. able through its literature. For literature is the mirror These ( Niryuktis ) mainly explain the meaning of of the cultural development of any society. The prime Jaina technical terms from the various stand-points period of the composition of literary works of Jainism alongwith the brief account of the subject matter of corresponds to c. 3rd-10th A. D. Almost all the imthat particular Agama. Scholars widely differ about portant works of Jainism were finally composed and the time and authorship of Niryuktis except that of edited in this period. The literature, which emerged in Govindaniryukti. Some are of the opinion that these this period, may be divided into five categories : Niryuktis are composed by Bhadrabahu-I (c. 3rd B. C.) while others consider these to be composed by 1. Agamas and their commentaries. Bhadrabahu-II, the brother of Varahamihira (c. 6th 2. Philosophical works. A. D.). But in my humble opinion, as external and 3. Works related to the Jaina religious pracinternal evidences show it was neither of Bhadra tices. bahu-I or of Bhadrabahu-II. But, Aryabhadra of c. 4. Jaina epics and other narrative literature. 2nd-3rd A. D., in all probability, was the author of 5. Secular Literature of Jainas. these Niryuktis. I have given various reasons in 1. Agamas and their Commentaries support of this view in my independent article As I have already mentioned that except published in Sagara Jaina Vidyabharati (Parsvanatha Nandisatra and present edition of Prasnavyakarana, Vidyapitha, Varanasi, 1994 ). Presently, we have most of the Agamas were composed before c. 3rd A. only the following Niryuktis : D. but their final editing had been done only in the

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] c. Sth A. D. At the time of this final editing, interpola Among Bhasya, Visesavasyakabhasya is the tion of many later developed philosophical concepts most important. It is the first work of Svetambara traand informations regarding the Jaina order creaped dition, dealing with the problems of Jaina philosophy into these. The Nandisatra, the agamic work compo- with minute details. The concept of five-fold knowsed during this period, deals with the Jaina theory of ledge has been discussed elaborately with a critical five-fold knowledge as well as contains its later de- approach herein. Among various proofs given for the velopments which took place inc. 4th-5th A. D. Simi- existence of soul, one bears similarity to that of Rene larly, the drastic changes in the original subject Descartes (c. 16th A. D. ), a Western philosopher, matter of Prasnavyakarana and partial changes in proving the existence of soul through doubt itself. In Antakyddasa and Anuttaraupapatikadasa also oc- Visesavasyakabhasya, various contrary views of curred during this period. Almost all the Praksta and Jaina acaryas are mentioned and reviewed alongwith some of the early Samskrta commentaries on the the views of some rebellious Jaina thinkers, i.e., Jaina Agamas were written in this period, in form of Nihnavas. It also deals with the differences of Niryuktis (c. 3rd 4th A. D.),Bhasyas (c. 6th A. D.) Svetambara and Digambara traditions regarding the and Curnis (c. 7th A. D.). This period is of great successiveness and simultaneity of Kevalajnana and literary importance because majority of the Agamic Kevaladarsana as well as the problem of nacked-ness works were finally edited and some of them were of the monk with full details. Other Bhasyas mainly even composed also in this period. deal with the ethical code of conduct of ascetics with their exceptions and the conditions in which these Besides these Niryuktis, Oghaniryukti and exceptions could be followed alongwith their atonePindaniryukti are also available but Oghaniryukti is ments. The Bhasyas, dealing with the code of conduct considered as the part of Avasyakaniryukti and of monks are -Dasavaikalikabhasya, UttaradhyayanaPindaniryukti as the part of Dasavaikalikaniryukti, bhasya, Bshatkalpabhasya, Vyavaharabhasya, Nisithahence they are not independent works. Though, bhasya and Jitakalpabhasya. Some of the Bhasyas Niryuktis on Suryaprajnapti and Rsibhasita are refer also contain some informations of historical imporred to in Avasyakaniryukti (Verse 85 ) but at present tance. As the authors of the Bhasya, we have only two these two are not available. The Nisithaniryukti, con names : Jinabhadragani and Sanghadasagani. Jinasidered to be the part of Acaranganiryukti is mixed bhadragani is the author of Visesavasyakabhasya with its Bhasya. All these Niryuktis are written in while Sanghadasagani is the author of Brhatkalpa, Prakrta verses and deal very precisely with the con Vyavahara and Nisithabhasya. Of these two Sanghatents of the respective Agamas. dasagani is supposed to be senior to Jinabhadra, beAfter Niryukti, Bhasyas onagamic texts were cause Jinabhadra, in his work Visesanavati has refercomposed in c. 5th-6th A. D. The Bhasyas are more red the Vasudevahindi, a work authored by Sanghaexhaustive and elaborate than those of Niryuktis. dasagani. The period of Jinabhadra, is undoubtedly, They were also composed in Prakrta verses. Bhasyas the latter half of the c. 6th A. D. As Sanghadasagani are quite prolific in their contents referring to various was senior to Jinabhadragani, it leaves no room for concepts of Jaina philosophy and the code of the con- doubt that he must have flourished in second half of duct for monks and nuns with their exceptions and the c. 6th A.D. All these bhasyas are of considerable punishments. length, composed in Prakrta verses and deal with

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI their subjects exhaustively. We find a rich cultural data and some informations about the cultural history of India in the Bhasyas. Next, the Curnis, unlike the Niryuktis and Bhasyas are written in prose. Niryuktis and Bhasyas are written in Praksta only, while the Curnis in Prakrta mixed with Samskrta. Among Curnis -- Avasyaka, Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana, Sutra- krtanga, Anuyogadvara, Nandi and Nisitha, are the most important. All these Curnis were written by Jinadasa- gani Mahattara. In Nandicurni it is clearly mentioned that this work was completed in saka Samvat 598 corresponding to 676 A. D. It is, therefore, concluded that most of the important Curnis were written in c. 7th A. D. Some Curnis viz., Dasavaikalika of Agastyasimha and Curnisutras on Kasayapahuda sutta are the earlier among the Curni literature. Among whole of the commentary literature Curnis hold an important place because first, they deal with the various subjects and are directly concer- ned with social and cultural heritage of Jainism. Sec- ondly, they supply so many informations about the Jaina History pertaining c. Ist-6th A. D. Curnis were succeeded by Samskrta com- mentaries, written on different Agamic texts, known as Vittis or Vivaranas. Among Samskrta commenta- tors Haribhadrasuri is the earliest, flourished in the middle of the c. 8th A. D. He wrote commentaries on Avasyaka, Dasavaikalika, Jivabhigama, Prajnapana, Nandi, Anuyogadvara and Pindaniryukti. Silanka- carya, flourished in the c. 9th A. D. believed to have written several commentaries on Agamas but unfor- tunately at present only two commentaries on Acaranga and Sutrakstanga, are available. After Silanka, Abhayadevasuri and santisuri are the promi- nent names among commentators. Abhayadevasuri has commented on nine of eleven Angas except Acaranga and Sutrakitanga, hence called Navargi- vrttikara. Santisuri has written a commentary on Uttaradhyayanasutra. Both of these later Samsksta commentators flourished, during c. 10th-11th A. D. This trend of commentary-writing is still current in Svetambara tradition. In Digambara tradition, Kasayapahudasutta and Satkhandagama are considered as equivalent to agamas. These works are written in c. 4th-5th A. D. On Kasayapahudasutta first commentary was written by Yativrsabha in the form ofCurni-sutras inc. 6th A. D. After that inc. 9th A. D. Virasena wrote two commentaries Jayadhavala and Dhavala on Kasayapahuda and Satkhandagama, respectively. Mahadhavala is a commentary on the one part of Satkhandagama, written by his disciple Jinasena. These commentaries mainly deal with Jaina philosophy in general and Karma theory in particular. 2. Important Philosophical Works of this Period Among the Jaina philosophical works composed between c. 3rd-10th A.D., the Tattvarthasutra, with its auto-commentary by Umasvati, is the pioneer one and may be considered as the first systematic work on Jaina philosophy. Composed in c. 3rd A. D., it also has the credit of being the first Samskrta work of Jaina literature, written in the style of other Sutragranthas of Indian philosophy. The especiality of this work is that it is equally respected as well as accepted by both the sects of Jainism - Svetambara and Digambara. It encompasses ten chapters dealing with Jaina metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Its first chapter deals mainly with Jaina theory of knowledge, Naya and Niksepa, second with Jiva ( living substance ), third and fourth with hells and heavens, fifth with Jaina metaphysics, sixth to ninth chapters with Jaina doctrine of Karma and Jaina sadhana or ethical code of conduct of house-holders and monks, respectively. Finally, the tenth one deals with the concept of liberation (moksa). Notably, the concept of Gunasthana and Saptabhanginaya ( Seven-fold

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Jaina Literature [From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D.) judgement ) are totally absent in it. This shows that Anekantavada. Aptamimamsa is an important work these concepts came into existence later duringc. 5th- which establishes the concepts of Jainism after a criti6th A.D. cal evaluation of those of the other schools of Indian After Tattvarthasutra, Acarya Siddhasena philosophy. Divakara's Sanmatitarka is the next critical and Another important work of this age is important work, composed in c. 4th A. D. in Prakta Dvadasaranayacakra, authored by Mallavadi inc. Sth verses. It explains critically the concept of dravya A. D., aiming to establish Jaina theory of Anekanta( substance ), guna ( properties ), paryaya ( modes) vada by pointing out inconsistencies in the thoughts and their mutual relationship on the basis of the Jaina of other schools of Indian philosophy. The style of theory of Naya, Niksepa and Anekantavada ( non this work is somewhat different from that of absolutism ). It is the first work in which one-sided Sanmatitarka and Aptamimamsa, as these two later views of other philosophers are critically examined to works are composed in verses and deal with their subestablish Jaina theory of Anekantavada. Some of the ject-matter in a precise manner. Nayacakra is comDvatrimsaka-dvatrimsikas, of the same author, also, posed in prose and deals with its subject matter excritically examine the philosophical views of other haustively. The distinguishing feature of DvadasaraIndian schools under the pretext of praising the Jina. nayacakra is that it critically examines the views of Even if the refutation of the philosophical views of one philosophical school through the arguments of its other schools of Indian philosophy is found in the ca opponent. In this way it makes a circle ( cakra ) in nonical works also, they are neither critical nor sys which the last school of thought is refuted or critically tematic in their approach. Siddhasena for the first examined by the first one. On the basis of these three time, critically examined the views of other Indian important works, this age is known as "The Age of philosophies, showing their logical inconsistencies. Critical Presentation of Anekantavada". Besides So far as the works on Jaina epistemology are concer- 'Anekantajayapataka' and 'Anekantavadapravesa' of ned, Nyayavatara of Siddhasena may be considered Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D. ) also deal with the same the first work on Jaina logic. This work provides the subiect-matter, but in a different manner. Vises - base to understand the later gradual developments in vasyakabhasya, of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana, is Jaina logic, particularly the contribution of Akalanka one of the important work of this age. In svetambara and Vidyanandi in this regard. tradition it is the first work which deals with various Among the writers of the Digambara sect, problems of Jaina philosophy in detail and with who wrote independent philosophical treatises, minute observation. In Digambara Tradition also the Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D.) occupies an important Tattvarthasutra is considered as the first systematic place. His Aptamimamsa is a noted scholarly presen work on Jaina philosophy. The oldest available tation. It immitates Sanmatitarka of Siddhasena, in commentary on Tattvarthasutra in Digambara tradi tion style but differs in language. Sanmatitarka is in Prakrta is Pujyapada Deva-nandi's Sarvarthaverses, while Aptamimamsa is in Samskrta verses. It siddhi which is next to Svopajna-bhasya ( autoalso critically evaluates the one-sided views of other commentary of Umasvati). It is composed in the first philosophies. These two works namely, Sanmatitarka half of c. 6th A. D. and Aptamimamsa, may be considered as the prime During c. 8th A. D. two more commentaries works for the exposition of Jaina theory of were produced namely Akalanka's Tattvarthavarttika

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10 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI and Vidyanandi's slokavarttika which are of great systems of Indian philosophy. In Sastravartaimportance. Both of these works not only propound samuccaya, he has paid more respect and veneration the Jaina philosophy but also critically evaluate and to the other schools of thought. It was Haribhadra estimate the other philosophical systems. Like other who for the first time started the cult of commentary works, these commentaries also discuss the points of writing in Samskrta which was developed by Silanka dispute between Svetambara and Digambara sects, (c. 9th A. D.) and Abhayadevasuri ( latter part ofc. such as the concept of women's liberation ( stri- 11th A. D. ). These commentaries not only explain mukti ), the taking of food by omniscients ( kevali- the facts about the different agamic topics but also bhukti ) etc. At the same time in Svetambara tradition critically examine the philosophical concepts. too, two commentaries on Tattvarthasutra, namely During this period a number of spiritualistic Tattvarthadhigamasutra and Tattvarthasutravarttika treatises appeared. Kundakunda added distinct idea to by Siddhasenagani (c. 7th ) and Haribhadra (c. 8th ) Jaina spirituality through his voluminous literature. respectively, were brought out. According to Digambaras, his period is supposed to The composition of independent works on be c. 1st A. D., mainly based on the evidence of Jaina doctrine of Karma starts with c. 4th A. D. In Markara Abhilekha which has already been proved as Digambara tradition the independent works on Jaina fake inscription. According to new researches his pedoctrine of Karma composed duringc. 4th-10th A. D. riod has been established as c. 6th A. D. (See - Asare Mahakarma-prakiti-prabhita (Satakhandasastra ) pects of Jainology, Vol. III, ed. by Prof. M. A. Dhaky by Puspadanta Bhutabali (C. 4th A. D.), Kasayapra- & Prof. S. M. Jain, P. V., 1991, p. 8). He has contribbhita by Gunadhara (c. 4th A. D.), Kasayaprabhita uted a lot to the field of Jaina philosophy, by writing Curni by Yativrsabha (c. 6th A. D. ), Dhavala Tika his distinguished works as Samayasara, Pravacanaand Jayadhavala Tika by Virasena (c. 9th A. D.) and sara, Niyamasara etc. Gommatasara by Nemicandra Siddhantacakravarti 3. Works on Religious Practices and Ethics (c. 10th A. D.). Similarly, in Svetambara tradition The literature related to Jaina religious pracKarmapraksti by Sivasarmasuri ( c. 5th A. D.), tices may be divided into following five categories : Pracina-Satkarmagrantha, Sataka and Saptatika by (i) Hymns composed in the praise of Sivasarmasuri and Pancasangraha are the noted trea- Tirtharkaras. tises composed during this age. All these works (ii) Works related to the modes of worship, present detailed description of Jaina Philosophy in rituals and religious ceremonies. general and Jaina doctrine of Karma in particular. (iii) Works concerned with religious preachHaribhadrasuri composed more than eightyings. works on different aspects of Jaina philosophy and (iv) Works composed on Jaina Sadhana and religion. He developed a Jaina system of Yoga on the Yoga. basis of Patanjali's Yoga and established some new (v) Works related to the Code of Conduct of concepts of Jaina Yoga. Haribhadra was a prolific Monks and Nuns as well as house-holders. writer who has written on every aspect of Jaina phi- Under the first category Dvatrimsikas of losophy and religion. His Saddarsanasamuccaya and Siddhasena Divakara (c. 4th A. D.) hold an important Sastravarasamuccaya are two important works place. He has written 32 Dvatrimsikas out of which which describe comparatively the thoughts of other seven - first five, 11th and 21st are composed in the

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] 11 praise of different Tirthankaras. Many of these Dva- works of this category. trimsikas, apart from praising the Tirtharkaras, The third category of religious literature incritically examine the theories of other philosophical cludes the works such as Kundakunda's Astasystems. The next important work of this eulogical pahuda, Pujyapada Devanandi's Istopadesa and literature is Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra. It Dharmadasagani's Upadesamala composed in consists of 143slokas written in praise of twenty-four Praksta, Samskrta and Praksta, respectively. However, Tirtharikaras. Kundukunda's Dasabhakti is also an the authorship of Upadesamala is a matter of dispute. important work dealing with ten-fold laksanas of Above mentioned both the works lucidly record the dharma. Another most popular and well-received preachings of religious doctrines. Haribhadra has also work, respected equally by both the sects -- contributed some works such as Upadesapada, Svetambara and Digambara, is Manatunga's Dharmabinduprakarana, Upadesaprakarana and Bhaktamarastotra (C. 6th A.D. ) composed in the Sambodhaprakarana to this theme. praise of first Tirthankara Rsabhadeva. The fourth category related to Jaina sadhana The second category encompasses the work and Yoga, abounds in its literature. Prasamaratirelated to Jaina modes of worship and rituals. The prakarana by Umasvati (c. 3rd 4th A. D. ) may be first work of this category was Pajaprakarana by regarded as the first work of this category. Pujyapada Umasvati but unfortunately it is not available. Simi- Devanandi's Samadhitantra (c. 6th A. D. ) also belarly, in Digambara tradition some more treatises longs to the same category. On Jaina Yoga Harirelated to this theme viz. Arhatpratistha and Jina- bhadra contributed a lot by writing several books on bhiseka, both authored by Pujyapada Devanandi (c. Jaina yoga. Yogavimsika, Yogasataka, Yogabindu, 6th A. D. ), are also not available today. A few works Yogadrstisamuccaya and Dhyanasataka are some of on Jaina modes of worship were also composed but his important works on Jaina yoga... presently except some of Pancasakas and other works The fifth category comprises the works comby Haribhadra, none of these are available. Among posed on Jaina ethics and code of conduct for Jaina ninteen Pancasakas only following are related to this monks and nuns. It is the category to which several theme : works have been contributed by the Acaryas of both (i) Diksavidhi the sects - Svetambara and Digambara. In Svetambara (ii) Caityavandanavidhi tradition, apart from commentaries ( Bhasyas and (iii)Pujavidhi Curnis ) written on Jaina Agamas on this very theme, (iv )Jinabhavana-nirmana-vidhi some independent works were also composed, parti(v) Pratistha-vidhi and cularly dealing with the ethical code of conduct of (vi)Jinayatra-vidhi. Jaina ascetics and lay-followers. Among these works, Haribhadra has discussed the subjects in his Umasvati's 'Sravakaprajnapti' may be regarded as the Sodasakas also. Some Sodasakas such as Pratistha - first, but unfortunately it is also not available. In vidhi, Pujaphala and Diksadhikara may be regarded Digambara tradition, Mulacara and Bhagavatias related to this theme. Pancasakas are composed in Aradhana, are the important works elaborately dealPrakrta, while Sodasakas in Samskrta. Haribhadra's ing with the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. Caityavandana alongwith its auto-commentary Caitya- In my opinion, Mulacara and Bhagavativandana-bhasya and Pratisthakalpa are the noted Aradhana basically belong to Yapaniya tradition and

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12 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI not to Digambara. I have proved this on the basis of between c. 12th-14th A. D. multiple internal as well as external evidences in my In the first category Caupannamahapurusabook Jaina Dharma ka Yapaniya Sampradaya. In cariam of Silarkacarya (c. 9th A. D.) depicts the life Digambara tradition Ratnakarandasravakacara of of 54 out of 63 Salakapurusas, leaving out 9 PratiSamantabhadra (c. 6th A. D.) is regarded as the first vasudevas, in Prakrta. Containing 10,800 verses, it work composed on the ethical code of conduct for deals with 19 characters out of 54, exhaustively, Jaina house-holders, however, its authorship is also a while the remaining characters have been described matter of dispute. In Svetambara tradition after only in few pages. It belongs to Svetambara tradition. 'Uvasagadasao', the seventh anga of Jaina canons, In Digambara tradition, Jinasena and his pupil GunaSavayapannatti' by Haribhadra is the first available bhadra (c. 9th A. D.) also composed Mahapurana or work, dealing with the code of conduct for Jaina lay- Trisasticaritra in Samskrta. It is divided in two parts - devotees. Some independent works dealing with the Adipurana and Uttarapurana, describing the life of 63 atonement (Prayascitta ) were also written in this written in this great personalities of Jainism. On the same theme period among which Jinabhadra's 'Titakalpa' stands as Puspadanta also composed one of the greatest work the most important work. Later on, on the basis of of Apabhramsa language, namely TrisastimahapurusaJitakalpa, Indranandi's Chedapindasastra and Cheda- gunalarikaru ( laterc. 10th A. D.). Puspadanta carries sastra by unknown writer were composed in Yapaniya to perfection the possibility of Apabhramsa as a tradition. Especiality of these two works lies in the vehicle of poetry fact that they not only prescribe the laws of the atone Second type includes many Kathas, akhyanas ment for Jaina monks and nuns but for the male and and Caritas in Samskrta, Praksta and Apabhramsa. It female lay-devotees also. deals mainly with the biographies of individual 4. Jaina Narrative Literature Tirtharikaras and other celebrated personalities of Jaina narrative literature of this period is gene- their times. The first and foremost work of the correrally divided into five categories, viz. (i) biographies sponding period is certainly Paumacariya, of Vimalaof the 63 illustrious personalities (Salakapurusas ) suri ( c. 2nd-5th A.D.) of Naila or Nagila Kula, described together in one book, ( ii ) life-stories of which deals with the life-stories of Laksmana and these religious great personalities described indepen- Ravana. It is a pioneer work of Jainas on Ramakatha. dently in a work, ( iii ) religious tales in romantic It has considerable impact on one work of Ravisena's form, (iv) semi-historical prabandhas and (v) com- Padmacarita ( c. 7th A. D. ) in Samskrta and Svayapilation of stories in the form of kathakonas. mbhu's Paumacariu ( c. 8th A. D.) in However, main objective of the narratives Apabhramsa. There is also another version of Jaina was religious exhortation meant for the masses. It Ramakatha represented by Gunabhadra ( 898 A. D.) may be noted that most of the literature of this form, in Uttarapurana and followed by some other excluding canonical texts belong to this period, i.e.,c. Digambara writers of (c. 10th A. D. ). Some other 3rd-10th A. D. Though some prominent works of the works of this category are Parsvabhyudaya by Jinanarrative literature such as Trisastisalakapurusa of sena (c. 9th A. D. ), Harivamsapurana by other Hemacandra, semi-historical prabandhas -- Jinasena (c. 9th A. D. ). Vardhamanacarita by Asaga, Prabhavakacarita, Prabandha-cintamani, akhyanaka- Neminirvanamahakavya by Vagbhatta, Candramanikosa, Prabandhakusa, etc., have been composed prabhacarita by Virasena and some Kannada works

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ) 13 such as Adipurana by Pumpa and santipurana by existence to the final liberation. The conversion of the Ponna (c. 10th A. D. ) may also be included in this cruel king Marudatta to Jainism is the theme of this category. It is also to be noted that stories of Rama work. No literature representing the fourth type, i. e., and Krsna are well recognised in Jaina tradition and semi-historical prabandhas has been written in correJaina writers composed so many independent works sponding period. All these prabandhas are written on the life of these two great personalities, accordingly. after c. 12th A. D. The third typs marks an interesting phase in the last type is represented by the compilaIndian literature, in which religious tales are pre- tion of stories or Kathakosas. The stories contained sented in a romantic form. The Tarangalola of in these works have got a definite moral purpose to be Padaliptasuri in Prakrta is lost but its epitome in propogated and as such teachers and preachers could Samskrta Tarangavati indicates that it might have use them independently without any specific context, possessed engrossing literary qualities. Then there is throughout there discourses. Many of the Kathakosas the Vasudevahindi of Sanghadasagani (c. 6th A. D.). are of anonymous composition. Vasudevahindi is probably the Maharastri version of The well known work of this type is Gunadhya's famous Bihatkatha, written in Satavahana Dharmopadesamala of Jaisimhasuri ( 867 A. D. ) period. Vasudeva, the father of the Krsna, the roman- composed in Prakrta. The work has auto-commentary tic hero of this novel, evidently remind us of and has 156 stories. Brhatkathakosa, composed in Naravahanadatta, the Hero of Gunalhya. Next there 931 A. D. by Harisena, is also one of the important is Samaraiccakaha of Haribhadra in Praksta described works of Yapaniya tradition of Jainism. It is very inby author as religious story, i. e., Dharmakatha. The formative Jaina text of early medieval period. fortune of the hero Samaraditya is traced through his 9 previous births. The underlying principle of these 5. The Secular Literature of Jainas narratives is the doctrine of Karma. Haribhadra's As defined, being a realistic system with a Dhurtakhyana in Praksta is also one of the important high spiritualistic bias, the basic texts of Jainism deal works of Jaina literature. It shows through this imagi- with the phenomena of the spiritual kingdom as well nary tale how skilfully the incredible legends of as physical universe. Jaina Acaryas introduced variHindu Mythology could be ridiculed. Next, ous learnings aiming at the developement of Kuvalayamala ( Maharastri Prakrta ) by Svetambara personalities and character, preservation of its culacarya Udyotanasuri, composed in 799 A. D. shows tural heritage, shoulder the responsibilities of the author's thorough acquaintance with works of previ ascetic and house-holders in society and performance ous writers by referring to them. He has beautifully of religious duties. These aims are achieved by learndescribed the corrupt city life. Upamitibhava ing such subjects as could strike the balance between prapancakatha is composed in Samskrta in 906 A.D. the spiritual as well as worldly life. by Siddharsi. The work of Siddharsi is an elaborate The earlier Jaina canons mention different and extensive allegory. It is a narrative consisting of subjects dealing with worldly phenomena. Sutraseries of birth stories, i. e., the hero of all the stories is kitanga, Bhagavati, Samavayarga, Nandisutra, the same person in different births. Acarya proposes Prajnapana, Jambudvipaprajnapti, Candra and Suryato explain the mundane carrier of the soul (Jiva ) un- prajnapti describe various aspects of biology, gramder the name of samsari jiva from the lowest stage of mar, chanda, nirukta, jyotisa, geography, astronomy

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14 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI its auto-com etc., but in Agamas these different subjects are inter- Ksetravicara is not available today. Jivasamasa and mingled. Realising necessities of some independent Jivavicara as well as Tandulavaicarika are the works works regarding worldly phenomena, Jaina acaryas dealing with Jaina Biology. Pujyapada Devanandi (c. composed some secular literature dealing with the 6th A. D. ) had composed a treatise named Vaidyakaphysical phenomena. sastra dealing with Ayurvedic medicines, but this As the result, by the beginning of c. 3rd A. D. work is also not available. Jyotisakarandaka is a several independent works were composed on vari- Prakirnaka which deals with Jaina Astrology. In the ous subjects such as - Astronomy, Astrology, field of grammar, Jainendra Vyakarana or EndravyaGeography, Mathematics, Biology, Arts and Archi- karana of Indranandi ( c. 6th A. D. ), Sakatayana tecture, Linguistic and Medicinal discipline, i. e., Vyakarana alongwith its auto-commentary, AmoghaAyurveda, etc. It would be in the fitness of the things vitti of Palyakirti Sakatayana (c. 9th A. D. ) and to record some of the details about such works, viz. Svayambhu Vyakarana of Tribhuvana Svayambhu Lokavibhaga of Sarvanandi (c. 6th A. D.) and (c. 8th A. D.) are regarded as important works of this Tiloyapannatti of Yati-vrsabha composed in Prakrta, category. are two important works on Astronomy and Geogra The literary evolution of Jainas, particularly phy. Some more works like Umasvati's Jambu- in Praksta, which took place during c. Sth B.C.-10th dvipasamasa and Ksetravicara (c. 3rd A. D. ) and A. D. shows that the Jaina acaryas were versatile geBrhatksetrasamasa of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana nius. They composed various treatises on different (c. 7th A. D.) also dealt with Geography and some subjects but mainly on philosophical and religious aspects of Jaina cosmology. Among these works, topics.