Jaina Literature and Philosophy a Critical Approach

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001936/1

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Pārsvanātha Vidyāpitha Series No. 106
पार्श्वनाथ
वाराणसी
e
ra
JAINA LITERATURE AND
PHILOSPHY
А
CRITICAL APPROACH
Dr. Sagarmal Jain
Pārsvanātha Vidyāpitha
Varanasi - 5
contentional
For Price 2. Dersonalise.lv
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Pārsvanātha Vidyapitha Series No. 106
Jaina Literature and Philosphy
A Critical Approach
Author : Dr. Sagarmal Jain Editor : Dr. A.K. Singh First Editon : 1998 Price : Re. 100.00 Composed at : Sarita Computers. Varanasi
Vardhman Mudranalya, Varanasi
Publisher : Pārsvanātha Vidyāpitha
ITI Road Karaundi, Varanasi - 221005

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Pārsvanātha Vidyāpītha Series No.- 106
JAINA LITERATURE & PHILOSOPHY
Dr. Sagarmal Jain
Editor Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh
वाराणसी
Pārsvanātha Vidyāpīķha
Varanasi

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Pārsvanātha Vidyāpītha Series No. 106
Title
: Jaina Literature & Philosophy
Publisher
: Pārsvanātha Vidyāpītha
ITI Road, Karaundi Varanasi - 221005
Phone
: 316521, 318046
Fax
: 0542 - 318046
First Edition
: 1999
ISBN
: 81-86715-28-2
Price
: 200.00 only
Type Setting at
: Sarita Computers, Aurangabad, Varanasi - 10
Printed at
: Ratna Printing Press, Varanasi.

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Publisher's Note
Present title "Jaina Literature and Philosophy" is a compilation of some of the important articles authored by Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Director, Parshvanath Vidyapeetha. These articles are Scholarly monographs on different aspects of Jaina Philosophy and Religion. The articles of this volume give us a beautiful account of Origin and Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion, History of Jaina literature ranging from canonical period to C-10.A.D., History of Jaina Tradition, Jaina Epistemology, Metaphysics, Ethics along with many more thought provoking articles on present day's world problem and to their solutions.
We extend our sincere thanks to Prof. Jain who contributed such beautiful articles and entrusted to us for its publication.
We are thankful to Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh, Editor of the Volume.
Our thanks are also due to Dr. Shriprakash Pandey and Dr. Vijay Kumar Jain, who managed it through the press.
We hope, this book will definitely be very useful to the researchers, beginners in Jaina Philosophy & Religion as well as general readers interested in knowning main tenets of Jainism in nutshell.
B.N. Jain
Secretary Parshvanath Vidyapeetha

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CONTENTS
Page
1. Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A.D.) 2. Origin and Development of Jainism 3. Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 4. Brāhmanic and Śramanic Cultures : A Comparative Study 5. Samatva Yoga : The Fundamental Teaching of Jainism and Gita 6. Jaina Concept of Peace 7. Religious Harmony and Fellowship of Faiths : A Jaina Perspective 8. The solution of world problem ; A Jaina Perspective 9. The Concept of Non-Violence in Jainism 10. The Role of Parents, Teachers and Society in Instilling Culture Values 11. Equanimity and Meditation (Sâmāyika and Dhyāna) 12. The concept of Vibhajjavāda and its impact on Philosophical and Religious
Tolerance in Buddhism and Jainism 13 The Teachings of Arhat Pārsva and The Distinctness of His Sect 14. Reconsidering the Date of the Nirvāṇa of Lord Mahāvīra 15. Prof. K.S. Murty's Philosophy of Peace and Non-Violence
1-14 15-21 22-60 61-62 63-65 66-73 74-83 83-88 89-93 93-95 96-97
90-100 101-105 106-114 115-118

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Jaina Literature [From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
Jaina Literature of Early Period
the canonical literature belongs to this period, though Ancient Indian Literature was composed their final editing and writing on palm-leaves belong mainly in three languages, i.e., Saṁskṛta, Pāli and to c. 5th A. D. Among Svetämbara canons, except the Prāksta. Out of these three Pāli is nothing but a shade Nandisātra and the later edition of Praśnavyākarana, of Prakrta language. As a literary language, Prāksta, most works were composed before the c. 3rd A. D. being a group of various local dialects as Māgadhi, No doubt, some interpolations and changes did take Pali, Paiśāci, Sauraseni, Mahārāștri, was never place therein at the time of Valabhi Council yet they developed as a single language but as a group of are clearly traceable. It would be a great mistake if on languages. Various types of Apabhramśa were also account of these interpolations and changes the whole developed from Prāksta. Its various shades developed of the Āgamas are regarded as posterior. Although according to their different places and time. If we most of the works of this period contain the religious consider these three main languages from religious preachings with some popular parables and stories as point of view, all the Vedic religious literature is well as religious code of conduct, certain works deal found in Samskrta while the Jaina canonical and with Jaina cosmology, metaphysics, Karma philosoBuddhist literature is in Prākṣta and Pali, respecti- phy and theory of knowledge also. The list of canonively. So far as the Jaina religious literature of early cal literature is, for the first time, found in Nandisutra period is concerned, it was mainly written in Prākrta (c. 5th A. D.). If we accept Nandisutra as a work of known as Präkrta canons. Jainas started writing from c. 5th A. D., all the works referred to ir. Nandisūtra c. 3rd 4th A. D. in Saṁskṛta but notably these belong to a date prior to it. But they all were not Samskrta works are based on Prākṣta works whether composed in a single spur of moment. All the as an independent or in the form of commentaries. canonical works, it seems are composed in during So far as the Jaina literature ( of early period )
ied)
C:
c. 5th B. C. to c. 4th-5th A. D., i.e., within one prior to c. 3rd A. D. is concerned, barring few of the
fshe
thouse
thousand years. The works mentioned in the Nandiearly philosophical and literary treatises, it is mainly sutra are the following: confined to the canonical literature only. Majority of

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
Āgama
Angabāhya
Other than Avaśyaka
Angapravista 1. Acārānga 2. Sutrakrtānga 3. Sthānānga 4. Samavāyānga 5. Vyakhyāprajñapti 6. Jñātādharmakatha 7. Upāsakadaśanga 8. Antakrddaśānga 9. Anuttaraupapātikadaśanga 10. Praśnavyākarana 11. Vipākasutra 12. Drstivāda
Āvaśyaka 1. Sāmāyika 2. Caturvimśatistava 3. Vandana 4. Pratikramana 5. Kāyotsarga 6. Pratyakhyāna
Kalika Uttarādhyayana Daśāśrutaskandha Kalpa Vyavahāra Niśitha Mahānisitha Rşibhāşita Jambūdvipaprajñapti Dvipasāgaraprajñapti Candraprajñapti Kşullikāvimānapravibhakti Mohallika Vimānapravibhakti Angaculika Vaggaculikā Vivāhacülikā Arunopapāta Varunopapāta Garunopapāta Dharanopapāta Vaiśramanopapāta Velandharopapāta Devendropapāta Utthānaśruta Samutthānaśruta Nägaparijñāpanika Narakāvalika Kalpikā Kalpāvatāmsika Puspita Puspacūlika Vrsnidaśa
Utkālika Daśavaikalika Kalpikākalpika Cullakalpaśruta Mahākalpaśruta Aupapātika Rājapraśniya Jivābhigama Prajnapana Mahāprajñāpana Pramādāpramada Nandisutra Anuyogadvāra Devendrastava Tandulavaicărika Candravedhyaka Suryaprajñapti Paurusimandala Mandalapraveśa Vidyācaraņa Viniscaya Ganividya Dhyanavibhakti Maranavibhakti Ātmavisodhi Vitarāgaśruta Samlekhanaśruta Vihārakalpa Caranavidhi Aturpratyakhyāna Mahāpratyākhyāna

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
Unfortunately, all the above mentioned works are not available, today. Some of them are lost. Out of twelve Anga Agamas, the 7th chapter of Acaranga (Mahaparijña) and the major portion of Dṛṣṭivada are said to be extinct. So far as the subjectmatter of 7th chapter of Acaränga is concerned, in my opinion, it was mainly related to the Jinakalpa or strict code of conduct of naked monks. When the followers of this strict code of conduct disappeared gradually, no serious efforts were made to restore it and finally it got lost. Likewise, the twelfth Anga Drstivada, said to be containing five parts (i) Parikarma, (ii) Sutra, (iii) Pūrvagata, (iv) Anuyoga and (v) Culika, seems to have dealt mainly with the philosophical doctrines of other schools of thought including the Parsva tradition. Pūrvagata, the third part of Dṛṣṭivada, exclusively, dealt with the doctrines of Parsva tradition, later on accepted as the doctrines of Mahavira. All these works were preserved only through oral tradition, because, Jaina monks and nuns were strictly prohobited to write on palm-leaves, those days. That study and preservation of the Jaina literature, written on palm-leaves were prohibited due to the strict observance of non-violence. They were of the opinion that in the process of writing, studying and preserving the palm-leaf works, the injury to the Jivas was inevitable. That is why, they made no efforts to restore them in written form. This was the reason behind the loss of Drstiväda as well as some other Agamas. In my opinion, Drstivada, in particular, became extinct, because of following factors firstly, its contents were not fully in accordance with Mahavira's tradition and were mostly related with philosophical discussions of other traditions and schools, hence unable to arouse interest in Jaina monks. Secondly, the concepts, accepted by Mahavira's tradition, were included in other Agamic texts also, hence Jaina monks did not make any effort to preserve the Purva literature. Thirdly, due to the oral tradition, other Anga agamas could not remain

intact. We find that earlier subject-matter of Praśnavyakarana has been completely changed. Similarly, partial changes as well as some additions are also noted in the subject-matter of Jñatadharmakatha, Antakṛddaśänga, Anuttraupapatika and Vipakasutra. Among the secondary canons (Anga-bahya agamas) following works, known as Kalika and Utkalika, respectively were also lost in due course of time. The details of such canons are as under: Kalikasutra not available presently
Kṣullikavimǎnapravibhakti Mahallikavimānapravibhakti
1.
2.
3.
Angaculika
4.
Vaggaculikā
5.
Vivahaculika
6.
Aruņotapăda
7. Varunotapada Garunotapada
8.
9.
Dharapotapada 10. Vaiśramanotapāda 11. Velandarotapăda 12. Devendrotapada 13. Utthanaśruta 14. Samutthānaśruta 15. Nagaprajñaptipanika. Utkalikasūtra not available presently
1. Kalpikäkalpika
2. Culakalpika
3. Mahaprajñāpanā 4. Pramadapramäda 5. Paurusimandala
6. Mandala Praveśa 7. Vidyacaraṇa Viniscaya
8. Dhyanavibhakti
9. Vitaraga Śruta
10. Viharakalpa
11. Caraṇavidhi.
3

About the subject-matter of these Kālika and Utkālikasūtras, not extant today, it is very difficult to

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Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
comment upon. Their subject-matter can be inferred on the basis of their titles only. One Angasūtra, i. e., Dṛṣṭivada, 15 Kalikasūtra and 11 Utkalikasutras, thus, the number of extinct or not available texts, comes to be 27, in total. Except these 27, all the 51 texts are available. At present six Avaśyakas being counted as one, the number finally becomes 46. It is not possible here to deliberate on the corresponding authorship, date and subject-matter of each and every text of this list in this article, so I shall discuss, in short, only few important works in their chronological order.
Primary Canons (Angas)
Acaranga is considered as the oldest of all the works of the early period. According to the scholars, the first part of Acārānga belongs to the c. 5th-4th B. C. This part contains the original preachings of Lord Mahavira. It deals with the spiritual preachings alongwith the basic principles of non-violence and ethical code of conduct, prescribed for Jania monks and nuns. Its last chapter depicts a real picture of the ascetic life of Lord Mahavira. The 7th chapter of the first part is supposed to be lost after the composition of its Niryukti, i. e., c. 2nd-3rd A. D. The second part of Acaränga is known as Āyaracala - an appendix. It mainly deals with the detailed rules and regulations or the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns alongwith some of the events of the life of Mahavira. Modern scholars opine that the second part of Acārānga was composed during the c. 2nd-1st B. C. Another improtant canonical work of this era is Sūtrakṛtänga dating c. 4th-3rd B. C. This work is also full of spiritual and moral preachings but its peculiarity lies in the presentaion of different philosophical views prevalent in that particular era. Like Acaranga, it also comprises two parts ( Śrutaskandhas). Scholars are of the opinion that the second part of Sutrakṛtänga is some what posterior to the first. The third important work in chronological

order of the Jaina canonical literature is Isibhāsiyāim (Rṣibhāṣitaṁ ). All the scholars of Prākṛta and Jainology: Western and Indian, consider it of c. 4th-3rd B. C. It marks the catholicity of early Jaina thinkers. It contains the ethical preachings as well as philosophical views of forty-five thinkers. Out of these Narada, Asitadevala, Angirasa, Pārāśara, Aruns, Nārāyaṇa, Yājñavalkya, Uddālaka, Vidura etc. definitely belong to Upanisadic tradition. Similarly, Sariputta, Vajjiputta, Mahākāśyapa etc. belong to Buddhist tradition while Parsva and Vardhamana belong to the Jaina tradition. A few others are of other independent Śramanic tradition, not extant today. This work shows that in the early period the Upanisadic and other Śramanic traditions were tolerant as well as respectful to each other.
Uttaradhyayana and Daśavaikālika are other important works of this early phase. Uttaradhyayana contains thirty-six chapters, mainly dealing with the religious preachings as well as some metaphysical doctrines of Jainism. Some chapters of this text are regarded as the later additions by the scholars but in no way they are later than the c. 2nd or 1st B. C. The next work Daśavaikālika, composed by Arya Śayyambhava (c. 5th-4th B. C.) mainly deals with the ethical code of conduct of Jania monks and nuns alongwith the spiritual discourses and preachings. However, we can not deny the possibility of the interpolations to the some extent in its final editing.
The other works dealing with the ethical code of conduct are Niśitha, Daśāśrutaskandha (Āyāradaśā), Vyavahāra and Kalpa, all composed by Arya Bhadrabahu inc. 3rd B. C. These works, not only deal with the code of conduct but with transgressions and atonements also.
Against general belief, that all the Angas are composed by the Ganadharas, direct disciples of Lord Mahavira, some opine that except Acaranga and Sūtrakṛtānga, all the Angas are composed later on. In

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
my opinion, it is very difficult to assign any particular date or authorship to these extant works because of containing different levels of the development of Jaina thought, occurred through different ages.
After Acārārga and Sutrakrtānga, next two Angas in successive order are Sthānānga and Samavāyānga. They may be considered as encyclopaedia of early Jaina thoughts and beliefs, mainly based on the numbers more or less similar to Anguttaranikaya of Buddhist tradition. Both these works provide more information about the Jaina order and development of Jaina thoughts of the later period, i.e., c. 3rd-4th A.D. The next in the list is Bhagavati (Vyakhyāprajñapti ) mainly dealing with different aspects of Jaina philosophy. According to a group of scholars, this voluminous work, was composed at different phases and not at one time. Evidently, it has references to the later works like Prajñāpanā, Anuyogadvāra, etc. be- longing to c. 1st-4th A. D. and side by side, depicts various earlier original concepts, witnessing change in the process of development of Jaina thoughts. The next work of early period is Jñatādharmakathā. Second part of this work is considerably later than the first. The first contains mainly stories preached by Lord Mahāvira to his disciples. Its 19 chapters, refer- red to in Avasyaka-sūtra, are undoubtedly, com- posed in the early period. The next among Anga canons is Upāsakadaśānga, considered as the first work related to the code of conduct of lay devotees (Śrāvakas ). It comprises life-sketches of ten promi- nent lay followers of Lord Mahāvira. Not having any trace of any later work, it belongs to the early period. Antakyddaśanga deals with the life-stories and ascetic life of the persons, attaining their salvation in the last span of their life. According to Sthānānga, it has only ten chapters dealing with life-stories of 10 persons. But present volume contains life-stories of 93 persons. It clearly shows that not at the time of Valabhi Vācană alone but even after that some additional matters
were incorporated in Sthānāriga. Same is the case with Anuttaropapātikadaśānga. Its early edition contained life-stories of only ten persons who attained Sarvārthasiddhi Vimāna and were supposed to attain liberation in their next births. Of Jaina canon Praśnavyākaranadaśā, unfortunately, the earlier contents are totally extinct. It seems that the present subject matter of this work was incorporated in aroundc. 7th A.D. Its extant edition deals with five asravas, viz., violence, untruthfulness, theft, unchastity and possessiveness alongwith five samvaras, viz., truthfulness, nonstealing, chastity and non-possession. Last available work of Anga canon is Vipākadaśā, dealing with fruits of merit and demerits. Secondary Canons (Upānga )
The first work of the secondary canons is Aupapātika, dealing with the episode of Suryabhadeva. It also depicts a beautiful picture of ancient art and architecture. On the basis of this depiction, scholars date this work not earlier thanc. 1st-2nd A.D. The next work of this category is Rājapraśniya which, so far its subject matter is concerned, is more similar to the Buddhist Pāli canon - Paseniyasutta. The third and the fourth, Jivabhigama and Prajnapanā, respectively, deal with the Jaina metaphysics in general and the concepts of jiva and ajiva in particular. The authorship of Prajñāpanā is attributed to Arya śyāma (c. 1st A.D.). Out of these twelve secondary canonical works only Prajñāpanā's authorship is known. About the authorship of other works, we are still in dark. The fifth one is Jambūdvipaprajñapti, mainly dealing with Jaina Geography in addition to the lifehistory of Rşabhadeva. The subject matter of next two works, Sūryaprajñapti and Candraprajñapti are related with Jaina cosmology in general and Jaina astronomy in particular. Scholars date thesec. 2nd-1st B.C. Other five works of this bunch are very short and rather of less important.
Besides Anga & Upānga canonical literature,

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
Candrakavedhyaka, Tandulavaicārika, Āturpratya
1. Āvaśyakaniryukti, khyāna, Mahāpratyākhyāna, Maranavibhakti, mainly
2. Daśavaikalikaniryukti, concerned with the Jaina Sādhanā, are known as
3. Uttarādhyayananiryukti, Prakirņakas, in general and Samadhimarana in
4. Ācārānganiryukti, particular. All these works are, undoubtedly earlier to
5. Sutrakītānganiryukti, the c. 4th-5th A.D.
6. Daśāśrutaskandhaniryukti, Among the non-canonical works of this
7. Kalpaniryukti and period, very few in number are extant, namely
8. Vyavahāraniryukti. Tattvārtha-sūtra and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd 4th
Apart from these, two more Niryuktis -Ogha A. D. ), Paumacariya of Vimalasuri (c. 2nd-5th and Pinda are also available, but considered to be the A. D.) and Digambar works composed in Sauraseni part ofĀvasyakaniryukti and Daśavaikalikaniryukti, Prakrta like Kasayapahuda of Gunadhara (c. 4th A. respectively, hence, not independent works. We also D. ) and Satkhandāgama of Puşpadanta Bhūtabali have a mention of two more Niryuktis on Sürya(about c. 5th A. D.). Apart from these, the works of prajñapti and Rşibhāṣita, but they are extinct now. Kundakunda, Samantabhadra and Siddhasena
To conclude, we can say that more than Divakara may also be considered as the works of
hundred works could be considered to belong to this early period. Scholars differ on the exact date of com
early period but about thirty of them are now extinct. position of these works, except that of Tattvārthasūtra. They date these in between c. 2nd-5th A. D.
Jaina Literature of this period
The evolution and changes occurred in Jaina Among non-canonical literature, the first
thought and practice duringc. 3rd-10th A. D. is traceNiryuktis, ten in number, are of great importance.
able through its literature. For literature is the mirror These ( Niryuktis ) mainly explain the meaning of
of the cultural development of any society. The prime Jaina technical terms from the various stand-points
period of the composition of literary works of Jainism alongwith the brief account of the subject matter of
corresponds to c. 3rd-10th A. D. Almost all the imthat particular Āgama. Scholars widely differ about
portant works of Jainism were finally composed and the time and authorship of Niryuktis except that of
edited in this period. The literature, which emerged in Govindaniryukti. Some are of the opinion that these
this period, may be divided into five categories : Niryuktis are composed by Bhadrabāhu-I (c. 3rd B.
1. Āgamas and their commentaries. C.) while others consider these to be composed by Bhadrabahu-II, the brother of Varahamihira (c. 6th
2. Philosophical works. A. D. ). But in my humble opinion, as external and
3. Works related to the Jaina religious pracinternal evidences show it was neither of Bhadra- the bāhu-I or of Bhadrabāhu-II. But, Aryabhadra of c.
4. Jaina epics and other narrative literature. 2nd-3rd A. D., in all probability, was the author of
5. Secular Literature of Jainas. these Niryuktis. I have given various reasons in 1. Agamas and their Commentaries support of this view in my independent article . As I have already mentioned that except published in Sagara Jaina Vidyābhārati (Pārsvanātha Nandisutra and present edition of Praśnavyākarana, Vidyāpitha, Varanasi, 1994). Presently, we have most of the Agamas were composed before c. 3rd A. only the following Niryuktis :
D. but their final editing had been done only in the

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
c. 5th A. D. At the time of this final editing, interpola
Among Bhāșya, Viseşāvaśyakabhäşya is the tion of many later developed philosophical concepts most important. It is the first work of Svetāmbara traand informations regarding the Jaina order creaped dition, dealing with the problems of Jaina philosophy into these. The Nandisūtra, the āgamic work compo- with minute details. The concept of five-fold knowsed during this period, deals with the Jaina theory of ledge has been discussed elaborately with a critical five-fold knowledge as well as contains its later de- approach herein. Among various proofs given for the velopments which took place ine. 4th-5th A. D. Simi- existence of soul, one bears similarity to that of Rene larly, the drastic changes in the original subject- Descartes (c. 16th A. D. ), a Western philosopher, matter of Praśnavyākarana and partial changes in proving the existence of soul through doubt itself. In Antakņddaśa and Anuttaraupapātikadaśa also oc- Viseşāvasyakabhāşya, various contrary views of curred during this period. Almost all the Prākta and Jaina ācāryas are mentioned and reviewed alongwith some of the early Samskrta commentaries on the the views of some rebellious Jaina thinkers, i.e., Jaina Āgamas were written in this period, in form of Nihnavas. It also deals with the differences of Niryuktis (c. 3rd-4th A. D. ),Bhāsyas (c. 6th A.D.) Svetāmbara and Digambara traditions regarding the and Cūrņis (c. 7th A. D.). This period is of great successiveness and simultaneity of Kevalajñana and literary importance because majority of the Āgamic Kevaladarśana as well as the problem of nacked-ness works were finally edited and some of them were of the monk with full details. Other Bhāşyas mainly even composed also in this period.
deal with the ethical code of conduct of ascetics with
their exceptions and the conditions in which these Besides these Niryuktis, Oghaniryukti and
exceptions could be followed alongwith their atonePindaniryukti are also available but Oghaniryukti is
ments, The Bhāşyas, dealing with the code of conduct considered as the part of Āvaśyakaniryukti and
of monks are-Daśavaikālikabhāsya, UttaradhyayanaPindaniryukti as the part of Daśavaikālikaniryukti,
bhāsya, Byhatkalpabhāsya, Vyavahārabhāsya, Niśithahence they are not independent works. Though,
bhāsya and Jitakalpabhāsya. Some of the Bhaşyas Niryuktis on Suryaprajñapti andĶşibhāșita are refer
also contain some informations of historical imporred to in Āvaśyakaniryukti (Verse 85 ) but at present
tance. As the authors of the Bhāsya, we have only two these two are not available. The Niśíthaniryukti, con
names : Jinabhadragani and Sanghadasagasi. Jinasidered to be the part of Ācāranganiryukti is mixed
bhadragani is the author of Viseșāvaśyakabhășya with its Bhāsya. All these Niryuktis are written in
while Sanghadāsagani is the author of Brhatkalpa, Prakrta verses and deal very precisely with the con
Vyavahära and Niśithabhāsyā. Of these two Sanghatents of the respective Āgamas.
dāsagani is supposed to be senior to Jinabhadra, beAfter Niryukti, Bhāsyas onāgamic texts were cause Jinabhadra, in his work Viseșanavati has refercomposed in c. 5th-6th A. D. The Bhasyas are more red the Vasudevahindi, a work authored by Sanghaexhaustive and elaborate than those of Niryuktis. dāsagani. The period of Jinabhadra, is undoubtedly, They were also composed in Prāksta verses. Bhāsyas the latter half of the c. 6th A. D. As Sanghadāsagani are quite prolific in their contents referring to various was senior to Jinabhadragani, it leaves no room for concepts of Jaina philosophy and the code of the con- doubt that he must have flourished in second half of duct for monks and nuns with their exceptions and the c. 6th A.D. All these bhāsyas are of considerable punishments.
length, composed in Prāksta verses and deal with

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
their subjects exhaustively. We find a rich cultural vittikära. Santisūri has written a commentary on data and some informations about the cultural history Uttarādhyayanasūtra. Both of these later Samskrta of India in the Bhāsyas.
commentators flourished, during c. 10th-11th A. D. Next, the Cūrnis, unlike the Niryuktis and This trend of commentary-writing is still current in Bhāşyas are written in prose. Niryuktis and Bhāşyas Svetāmbara tradition. are written in Prāksta only, while the Cūrnis in
In Digambara tradition, Kasāyapāhudasutta Prākta mixed with Samskrta. Among Cūrņis — and Satkhandāgama are considered as equivalent to Āvasyaka, Daśavaikālika, Uttarādhyayana, Sūtra- agamas. These works are written in c. 4th-5th A. D. krtānga, Anuyogadvāra, Nandi and Nisitha, are the On Kaşāyapāhudasutta first commentary was written most important.
by Yativrşabha in the form ofCūrni-sutras inc. 6th A. All these Cūrnis were written by Jinadāsa- D. After that inc. 9th A. D. Virasena wrote two comgani Mahattara. In Nandicūrni it is clearly mentioned mentaries Jayadhavala and Dhavala on Kaşāyathat this work was completed in Saka Samvat 598 pāhuda and Șatkhandāgama, respectively. Mahacorresponding to 676 A. D. It is, therefore, concluded dhavalā is a commentary on the one part of that most of the important Cūrnis were written in c. Satkhandāgama, written by his disciple Jinasena. 7th A. D. Some Cūrnis viz., Daśavaikālika of These commentaries mainly deal with Jaina philosoAgastyasimha and Cūrņisūtras on Kasāyapāhuda- phy in general and Karma theory in particular. sutta are the earlier among the Cūrņi literature.
2. Important Philosophical Works of this period Among whole of the commentary literature
Among the Jaina philosophical works comCürmis hold an important place because first, they posed between c. 3rd-10th A.D., the Tattvärthasūtra, deal with the various subjects and are directly concer- with its auto-commentary by Umāsvāti, is the pioneer ned with social and cultural heritage of Jainism. Sec
one and may be considered as the first systematic ondly, they supply so many informations about the work on Jaina philosophy. Composed in c. 3rd A. D., Jaina History pertaining c. 1st-6th A. D.
it also has the credit of being the first Samskrta work Cūrnis were succeeded by Samskrta com- of Jaina literature, written in the style of other mentaries, written on different Āgamic texts, known Sūtragranthas of Indian philosophy. The especiality as Vittis or Vivaranas. Among Samskrta commenta- of this work is that it is equally respected as well as tors Haribhadrasuri is the earliest, flourished in the accepted by both the sects of Jainism — Svetāmbara middle of the c. 8th A. D. He wrote commentaries on and Digambara. It encompasses ten chapters dealing Avaśyaka, Daśavaikalika, Jivabhigama, Prajñāpanā, with Jaina metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Its Nandi, Anuyogadvāra and Pindaniryukti. Silanka- first chapter deals mainly with Jaina theory of knowlcārya, flourished in the c. 9th A. D. believed to have edge, Naya and Niksepa, second with Jiva ( living written several commentaries on Agamas but unfor- substance ), third and fourth with hells and heavens, tunately at present only two commentaries on fifth with Jaina metaphysics, sixth to ninth chapters Acāranga and Satrakrtānga, are available. After with Jaina doctrine of Karma and Jaina sādhanā or Silānka, Abhayadevasüri and Santisūri are the promi- ethical code of conduct of house-holders and monks, nent names among commentators. Abhayadevasűri respectively. Finally, the tenth one deals with the has commented on nine of eleven Angas except concept of liberation (mokşa). Notably, the concept Ācārānga and Sūtrakrtānga, hence called Navāngi- of Gunasthāna and Saptabhanginaya ( Seven-fold

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
judgement ) are totally absent in it. This shows that these concepts came into existence later duringc. 5th- 6th A.D.
After Tattvārthasūtra, Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara's Sanmatitarka is the next critical and important work, composed in c. 4th A. D. in Prakrta verses. It explains critically the concept of dravya (substance ), guna (properties ), paryāya (modes) and their mutual relationship on the basis of the Jaina theory of Naya, Niksepa and Anekāntavāda (nonabsolutism ). It is the first work in which one-sided views of other philosophers are critically examined to establish Jaina theory of Anekāntavāda. Some of the Dvātrimsaka-dvatrimsikäs, of the same author, also, critically examine the philosophical views of other Indian schools under the pretext of praising the Jina. Even if the refutation of the philosophical views of other schools of Indian philosophy is found in the canonical works also, they are neither critical nor systematic in their approach. Siddhasena for the first time. critically examined the views of other Indian philosophies, showing their logical inconsistencies. So far as the works on Jaina epistemology are concer- ned, Nyāyāvatāra of Siddhasena may be considered the first work on Jaina logic. This work provides the
gic. This work provides the base to understand the later gradual developments in Jaina logic, particularly the contribution of Akalanka and Vidyānandi in this regard.
Anekāntavāda. Aptamimāmsā is an important work which establishes the concepts of Jainism after a critical evaluation of those of the other schools of Indian philosophy.
Another important work of this age is Dvādaśāranayacakra, authored by Mallavādi inc. 5th A. D., aiming to establish Jaina theory of Anekantavāda by pointing out inconsistencies in the thoughts of other schools of Indian philosophy. The style of this work is somewhat different from that of Sanmatitarka and Aptamimāṁsā, as these two later works are composed in verses and deal with their subiect-matter in a precise manner. Nayacakra is composed in prose and deals with its subject-matter exhaustively. The distinguishing feature of Dvadaśāranayacakra is that it critically examines the views of one philosophical school through the arguments of its opponent. In this way it makes a circle (cakra ) in which the last school of thought is refuted or critically examined by the first one. On the basis of these three important works, this age is known as "The Age of Critical Presentation of Anekantavāda". Besides 'Anekantajayapatākā' and 'Anekantavādapraveśa' of Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D. ) also deal with the same subject matter, but in a different manner. Višeşavasyakabhāşya, of Jinabhadragani Kşamāśramana, is one of the important work of this age. In Svetāmbara tradition it is the first work which deals with various problems of Jaina philosophy in detail and with minute observation. In Digambara Tradition also the Tattvārthasūtra is considered as the first systematic work on Jaina philosophy. The oldest available commentary on Tattvārthasūtra in Digambara tradition is Pajyapāda Deva-nandi's Sarvārthasiddhi which is next to Svopajña-bhāsya ( autocommentary of Umāsvāti). It is composed in the first half of c. 6th A. D.
During c. 8th A. D. two more commentaries were produced namely Akalanka's Tattvārtha vārttika
Among the writers of the Digambara sect, who wrote independent philosophical treatises, Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D.) occupies an important place. His Aptamimāṁsā is a noted scholarly presentation. It immitates Sanmatitarka of Siddhasena, in style but differs in language. Sanmatitarka is in Prakrta verses, while Aptamimāṁsā is in Samsksta verses. It also critically evaluates the one-sided views of other philosophies. These two works namely, Sanmatitarka and Aptamimāṁsā, may be considered as the prime works for the exposition of Jaina theory of

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Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
and Vidyanandi's Ślokavārttika which are of great importance. Both of these works not only propound the Jaina philosophy but also critically evaluate and estimate the other philosophical systems. Like other works, these commentaries also discuss the points of dispute between Śvetambara and Digambara sects, such as the concept of women's liberation ( strimukti ), the taking of food by omniscients (kevalibhukti) etc. At the same time in Svetambara tradition too, two commentaries on Tattvārthasūtra, namely Tattvärthadhigamasutra and Tattvärthasūtravārttika by Siddhasenagani (c. 7th) and Haribhadra (c. 8th) respectively, were brought out.
systems of Indian philosophy. In Śāstravārtāsamuccaya, he has paid more respect and veneration to the other schools of thought. It was Haribhadra who for the first time started the cult of commentary writing in Samskṛta which was developed by Śilanka (c. 9th A. D.) and Abhayadevasūri ( latter part of c. 11th A. D. ). These commentaries not only explain the facts about the different agamic topics but also critically examine the philosophical concepts.

During this period a number of spiritualistic treatises appeared. Kundakunda added distinct idea to Jaina spirituality through his voluminous literature. According to Digambaras, his period is supposed to be c. 1st A. D., mainly based on the evidence of Markara Abhilekha which has already been proved as fake inscription. According to new researches his period has been established as c. 6th A. D. (See - Aspects of Jainology, Vol. III, ed. by Prof. M. A. Dhaky & Prof. S. M. Jain, P. V., 1991, p. 8). He has contributed a lot to the field of Jaina philosophy, by writing his distinguished works as Samayasāra, Pravacanasāra, Niyamasāra etc.
The composition of independent works on Jaina doctrine of Karma starts with c. 4th A. D. In Digambara tradition the independent works on Jaina doctrine of Karma composed during c. 4th-10th A. D. are Mahakarma-prakṛti-prabhṛta (Ṣatakhaṇḍaśāstra) by Puspadanta Bhūtabali (c. 4th A. D.), Kaṣāyaprabhrta by Gunadhara (c. 4th A. D.), Kasayaprabhṛta Curni by Yativṛṣabha (c. 6th A. D.), Dhavalā Țikā and Jayadhavala Ṭikā by Virasena (c. 9th A. D.) and Gommaṭasara by Nemicandra Siddhantacakravarti 3. Works on Religious Practices and Ethics (c. 10th A. D.). Similarly, in Svetambara tradition The literature related to Jaina religious pracKarmaprakṛti by Śivaśarmasuri (c. 5th A. D.), tices may be divided into following five categories: Pracina-Satkarmagrantha, Śataka and Saptatika by Śivaśarmasuri and Pañcasangraha are the noted treatises composed during this age. All these works present detailed description of Jaina Philosophy in general and Jaina doctrine of Karma in particular.
(i) Hymns composed in the praise of Tirthankaras.
(ii) Works related to the modes of worship, rituals and religious ceremonies.
(iii) Works concerned with religious preach
(iv) Works-composed on Jaina Sādhanā and
Yoga.
Haribhadrasuri composed more than eighty ings. works on different aspects of Jaina philosophy and religion. He developed a Jaina system of Yoga on the basis of Patanjali's Yoga and established some new concepts of Jaina Yoga. Haribhadra was a prolific writer who has written on every aspect of Jaina philosophy and religion. His Saddarśanasamuccaya and Śāstravārtāsamuccaya are two important works which describe comparatively the thoughts of other
(v) Works related to the Code of Conduct of Monks and Nuns as well as house-holders.
Under the first category Dvatrimśikās of Siddhasena Divakara (c. 4th A. D.) hold an important place. He has written 32 Dvātrimśikās out of which first five, 11th and 21st are composed in the
seven

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D.)
praise of different Tirtharkaras. Many of these Dvā- works of this category. trimśikās, apart from praising the Tirthankaras,
The third category of religious literature incritically examine the theories of other philosophical cludes the works such as Kundakunda's Astasystems. The next important work of this eulogical pāhuda, Pajyapāda Devanandi's Istopadeśa and literature is Samantabhadra's Svayambhūstotra. It Dharmadāsagani's Upadeśamālā composed in consists of 143 ślokas written in praise of twenty-four Prākrta, Samskrta and Prakrta, respectively. However, Tirtharkaras. Kundukunda's Daśabhakti is also an the authorship of Upadeśamālā is a matter of dispute. important work dealing with ten-fold laksanas of Above mentioned both the works lucidly record the dharma. Another most popular and well-received preachings of religious doctrines. Haribhadra has also work, respected equally by both the sects — contributed some works such as Upadeśapada, Svetambara and Digambara, is Mānatunga's Dharmabinduprakarana, Upadeśaprakarana and Bhaktāmarastotra (c. 6th A.D. ) composed in the Sambodhaprakaraņa to this theme. praise of first Tirtharkara Rşabhadeva.
The fourth category related to Jaina sādhana The second category encompasses the work and Yoga, abounds in its literature. Praśamaratirelated to Jaina modes of worship and rituals. The prakarana by Umāsvāti (c. 3rd 4th A. D. ) may be first work of this category was Pujāprakarana by regarded as the first work of this category. Pujyapāda Umāsvāti but unfortunately it is not available. Simi- Devanandi's Samadhitantra (c. 6th A. D. ) also belarly, in Digambara tradition some more treatises longs to the same category. On Jaina Yoga Harirelated to this theme viz. Arhatpratistha and Jinā- bhadra contributed a lot by writing several books on bhiseka, both authored by Pujyapāda Devanandi (c. Jaina yoga. Yogavimsikā, Yogaśataka, Yogabindu, 6th A. D. ), are also not available today. A few works Yogadrstisamuccaya and Dhyanaśataka are some of on Jaina modes of worship were also composed but his important works on Jaina yoga. presently except some of Pañcāśakas and other works
The fifth category comprises the works comby Haribhadra, none of these are available. Among
posed on Jaina ethics and code of conduct for Jaina ninteen Pañcaśakas only following are related to this
monks and nuns. It is the category to which several theme :
works have been contributed by the Ācāryas of both (i) Dikṣāvidhi
the sects - Svetāmbara and Digambara. In Svetāmbara (ii) Caityavandanavidhi
tradition, apart from commentaries (Bhāşyas and (iii) Pājāvidhi
Carnis ) written on Jaina Āgamas on this very theme, (iv)Jinabhavana-nirmana-vidhi
some independent works were also composed, parti(v) Pratisthā-vidhi and
cularly dealing with the ethical code of conduct of (vi) Jinayātrā-vidhi.
Jaina ascetics and lay-followers. Among these works, Haribhadra has discussed the subjects in his Umāsvāti's 'Srăvakaprajñapti' may be regarded as the Sodaśakas also. Some Sodasakas such as Pratistha - first, but unfortunately it is also not available. In vidhi, Pūjāphala and Diksādhikāra may be regarded Digambara tradition, Malācāra and Bhagavatias related to this theme. Pancasakas are composed in Aradhana, are the important works elaborately dealPrākrta, while Sodasakas in Sanskrta. Haribhadra's ing with the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. Caityavandana alongwith its auto-commentary Caitya
In my opinion, Mulācāra and Bhagavativandana-bhāsya and Pratisthākalpa are the noted Aradhana basically belong to Yapaniya tradition and

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
not to Digambara. I have proved this on the basis of between c. 12th-14th A. D. multiple internal as well as external evidences in my
In the first category Caupannamahāpurusabook Jaina Dharma ka Yapaniya Sampradāya. In cariam of silankācārya (c. 9th A. D. ) depicts the life Digambara tradition Ratnakarandaśrāvakācāra of of 54 out of 63 Salakapurusas, leaving out 9 PratiSamantabhadra (c. 6th A. D.) is regarded as the first
vasudevas, in Prūksta. Containing 10,800 verses, it work composed on the ethical code of conduct for
deals with 19 characters out of 54, exhaustively, Jaina house-holders, however, its authorship is also a while the remaining characters have been described matter of dispute. In Svetāmbara tradition after only in few pages. It belongs to Svetämbara tradition. 'Uvasagadasão', the seventh anga of Jaina canons, In Digambara tradition. Jinasena and his pupil Guna'Savayapannatti' by Haribhadra is the first available bhadra (c. 9th A. D.) also composed Mahapurāna or work, dealing with the code of conduct for Jaina lay
Trişaşticaritra in Samskrta. It is divided in two parts - devotees. Some independent works dealing with the Adipurina and Uttarapurana, describing the life of 63 atonement (Prāyaścitta ) were also written in this
great personalities of Jainism. On the same theme period among which Jinabhadra's Titakalpa' stands as Puspadanta also composed one of the greatest work the most important work. Later on, on the basis of of Apabhramsa language, namely TrişastimahāpurușaJitakalpa, Indranandi's Chedapindaśāstra and Cheda
gunālankāru (laterc. 10th A. D.). Puspadanta carries śāstra by unknown writer were composed in Yapaniya to perfection the possibility of Apabhramśa as a tradition. Especiality of these two works lies in the vehicle of poetry. fact that they not only prescribe the laws of the atone
Second type includes many Kathās, ākhyānas ment for Jaina monks and nuns but for the male and
and Caritas in Saṁskṛta, Prakrta and Apabhraṁsa. It female lay-devotees also.
deals mainly with the biographies of individual 4. Jaina Narrative Literature
Tirthankaras and other celebrated personalities of Jaina narrative literature of this period is gene- their times. The first and foremost work of the correrally divided into five categories, viz. (i) biographies sponding period is certainly Paumacariya, of Vimalaof the 63 illustrious personalities (Salakāpuruṣas ) sūri (c. 2nd-Sth A.D.) of Naila or Nagila Kula, described together in one book, (ii) life-stories of which deals with the life-stories of Laksmana and these religious great personalities described indepen- Ravana. It is a pioneer work of Jainas on Ramakathā. dently in a work, (iii) religious tales in romantic It has considerable impact on one work of Ravişena's form, (iv) semi-historical prabandhas and (v) com- Padmacarita (c. 7th A. D.) in Samskrta and Svayapilation of stories in the form of kathākoșas.
mbhu's Paumacariu ( c. 8th A. D.) in However, main objective of the narratives Apabhramsa. There is also another version of Jaina was religious exhortation meant for the masses. It Rāmakathā represented by Gunabhadra ( 898 A. D.) may be noted that most of the literature of this form, in Uttarapurāna and followed by some other excluding canonical texts belong to this period, i.e.,c. Digambara writers of (c. 10th A. D. ). Some other 3rd-10th A. D. Though some prominent works of the works of this category are Pārsvābhyudaya by Jinanarrative literature such as Trişastiśalākāpuruṣa of sena (c. 9th A. D.), Harivamsapurāņa by other Hemacandra, semi-historical prabandhas — Jinasena (c. 9th A.D.). Vardhamănacarita by Asaga, Prabhāvakacarita, Prabandha-cintămaņi, ākhyānaka- Neminirvānamahākāvya by Vāgbhatta, Candramaņikośa, Prabandhakuśa, etc., have been composed prabhacarita by Virasena and some Kannada works

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
such as Adipurāņa by Pumpa and Santipurāņa by existence to the final liberation. The conversion of the Ponna (c. 10th A. D. ) may also be included in this cruel king Marudatta to Jainism is the theme of this category. It is also to be noted that stories of Rāma work. No literature representing the fourth type, i.e., and Krşņa are well recognised in Jaina tradition and semi-historical prabandhas has been written in correJaina writers composed so many independent works sponding period. All these prabandhas are written on the life of these two great personalities, accordingly. after c. 12th A. D. The third typs marks an interesting phase in
The last type is represented by the compilaIndian literature, in which religious tales are pre- tion of stories or Kathakosas. The stories contained sented in a romantic form. The Tarangalola of in these works have got a definite moral purpose to be Padaliptasuri in Prākrta is lost but its epitome in propogated and as such teachers and preachers could Samsksta Tarangāvati indicates that it might have use them independently without any specific context, possessed engrossing literary qualities. Then there is throughout there discourses. Many of the Kathakosas the Vasudevahindi of Sanghadāsagani (c. 6th A. D.). are of anonymous composition. Vasudevahindi is probably the Mahārāştri version of
the well known work of this type is Gunadhya's famous Brhatkatha, written in Sātavāhana Dharmopadeśamala of Jaisimhastri ( 867 A. D. ) period. Vasudeva, the father of the Krşna, the roman
composed in Praksta. The work has auto-commentary tic hero of this novel, evidently remind us of and has 156 stories. Brhatkathākośa, composed in Naravāhanadatta, the Hero of Gunadhya. Next there 931 A. D. by Harişeņa, is also one of the important is Samaräiccakahā of Haribhadra in Prākta described works of Yapaniya tradition of Jainism. It is very inby author as religious story, i. e., Dharmakatha. The formative Jaina text of early medieval period. fortune of the hero Samarāditya is traced through his
5. The Secular Literature of Jainas 9 previous births. The underlying principle of these narratives is the doctrine of Karma. Haribhadra's
As defined, being a realistic system with a Dhurtākhyāna in Prāksta is also one of the important
portant high spiritualistic bias, the basic texts of Jainism deal
en sp works of Jaina literature. It shows through this imagi
with the phenomena of the spiritual kingdom as well nary tale how skilfully the incredible legends of as physical universe. Jaina Acāryas introduced variHindu Mythology could be ridiculed. Next,
ous learnings aiming at the developement of Kuvalayamala ( Mahārāștri Prākrta ) by svetāmbara
personalities and character, preservation of its culācārya Udyotanasūri, composed in 799 A. D. shows
tural heritage, shoulder the responsibilities of the author's thorough acquaintance with works of previ
ascetic and house-holders in society and performance ous writers by referring to them. He has beautifully
of religious duties. These aims are achieved by learndescribed the corrupt city life. Upamitibhava
ing such subjects as could strike the balance between prapañcakatha is composed in Samskrta in 906 A.D. the spiritual as well as worldly life. by Siddharşi. The work of Siddharşi is an elaborate The earlier Jaina canons mention different and extensive allegory. It is a narrative consisting of subjects dealing with worldly phenomena. Satraseries of birth stories, i. e., the hero of all the stories is kệtānga, Bhagavati, Samavāyanga, Nandisūtra, the same person in different births. Ācārya proposes Prajñāpanā, Jambūdvipaprajñapti, Candra and Sūryato explain the mundane carrier of the soul (Jiva ) un- prajñapti describe various aspects of biology, gramder the name of samsāri jiva from the lowest stage of mar, chanda, nirukta, jyotisa, geography, astronomy

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Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
etc., but in Agamas these different subjects are intermingled. Realising necessities of some independent works regarding worldly phenomena, Jaina ācāryas composed some secular literature dealing with the physical phenomena.
As the result, by the beginning of c. 3rd A. D. several independent works were composed on various subjects such as Astronomy, Astrology, Geography, Mathematics, Biology, Arts and Architecture, Linguistic and Medicinal discipline, i. e., Ayurveda, etc. It would be in the fitness of the things
to record some of the details about such works, viz. Lokavibhaga of Sarvanandi ( c. 6th A. D. ) and Tiloyapannatti of Yati-vṛsabha composed in Prakṛta, are two important works on Astronomy and Geography. Some more works like Umasvati's Jambudvipasamāsa and Kṣetravicara (c. 3rd A. D.) and Bṛhatkṣetrasamāsa of Jinabhadragaṇi Kṣamāśramaṇa (c. 7th A. D.) also dealt with Geography and some aspects of Jaina cosmology. Among these works,

Kṣetravicara is not available today. Jivasamāsa and Jivavicara as well as Tandulavaicārika are the works dealing with Jaina Biology. Pujyapada Devanandi (c. 6th A. D.) had composed a treatise named Vaidyakaśastra dealing with Ayurvedic medicines, but this work is also not available. Jyotiṣakarandaka is a Prakirṇaka which deals with Jaina Astrology. In the field of grammar, Jainendra Vyakarana or Endravyakarana of Indranandi (c. 6th A. D. ), Śākaṭāyana Vyakarana alongwith its auto-commentary, Amogha
Vṛtti of Palyakirti Sākaṭāyana (c. 9th A. D. ) and Śvayambhu Vyakarana of Tribhuvana Svayambhu (c. 8th A. D.) are regarded as important works of this category.
The literary evolution of Jainas, particularly in Prākṛta, which took place during c. 5th B.C.-10th A. D. shows that the Jaina ācāryas were versatile genius. They composed various treatises on different subjects but mainly on philosophical and religious topics.

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Origin and Development of Jainism
Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of supremacy of human being over gods, equality of all the world. It has a rich spiritual, cultural and literary beings, opposition to the supremacy of Brahmins and heritage to its credit. Indian religious quest has two to animal sacrifices and emphasis on moral values main streams — Vedic (Brāhmaṇic ) and śramaņic. were some of the fundamental tendencies of Among the living world religions Jainism, as well as Sramaņic tradition. We also find that some of the Buddhism, belong to the Sramanic trend of Indian above mentioned tendencies such as renunciation and culture. There were some other Sramanic religions emancipation were totally absent from the earlier also but they either like Ājivikas, disappeared in the form of Vedic religion. These concepts were course of time or like Sankhya-Yoga and other contributed by the śramaņas to Indian culture in ascetic systems of Hindu religions, became part and general and Hinduism in particular. parcel of great Hindu religion by adopting some Antiquity of Jaina Tradition tenets of Vedic religion.
The antiquity of Jainism goes back to the preŠramanic tradition is spiritualistic and historic period of Indian culture. In support of this soteriological in its very nature. It lays special view Prof. H. Zimmer observes, "there is truth in the emphasis on renunciation of worldly belongings and Jaina idea that their religion goes back to remote enjoyments and on emancipation from worldly exist- antiquity, the antiquity in question being that of the ence, i.e., the cycle of birth and death. It may be Pre-Aryan" (Philosophies of India, p. 60 ). We find accepted without any contradiction that these very references to Vrātyas and Arhatas in Rgveda and ideas of emancipation (mokṣa/mukti/nirvāņa Atharvaveda, the oldest texts of the Indian literature. kaivalya ) and renunciation ( tyāga/samyama/ These Vratyas and Arhatas of Vedic period are the vairāgya ) have been cultivated by the Sramaņas. ancestors of Jainas. They are also known as Asceticism is the fundamental concept of Sramanic śramaņas in Upanişadic period. Alongwith the tradition. It is on this ground that the religions of references of Vrătyas, Arhatas and śramaņas in Śramanic tradition such as Jainism and Buddhism Vedas and Upanişadas, we find mention there of differ from the early Vedic religion. The early Vedic some Jaina Tirtharkaras such as Rşabha, Ajita and religion was against asceticism and emphasized the Aristanemi. It conclusively prooves that Jainism, in material welfare of the individual and the society. its oldest form as Vratya or Arhata tradition, was The Vedic seers in their hymns were praising the prevalent at the time of the composition of Vedas worldly existence and praying for their own health hence its antiquity goes back to pre-Vedic period, and wealth as well as of their fellow beings, while the i.e., at least three to five thousand years before Śramaņas were condemning this worldly existence Christian era. Secondly, in Mohen-jo-daro and and propounding the theory that this worldly Harappa some seals of meditating Yogis have been existence is full of suffering and the ultimate end of found, which show that the tradition of performing human life is to get rid of the cycle of birth and death. meditation and Yoga-sādhanā was present much Austerity, renunciation, emancipation, atheism, the prior in Indian Culture to the arrival of Aryans and

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Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
their Yajña rituals because no Yajña-vedi is found in these excavations.* At that time present Jainism was known as a Vratya-dharma or Arhat-dharma.
Later on, in the Upanisadic period (c. 800 B. C.) the Vratyas, Arhatas and Śramaņas were divided into various religious schools. At that time (c. 800 B. C. to 500 A. D. ). Jainism was known as Nirgrathadharma. In Buddhist Pāli Tripitaka and the ancient Jaina canons as well as in the pillar-edicts of Aśoka the religion of Lord Parsva and the Mahavira is mentioned in the name of Nirgrantha Dharma. Historicity of Lord Parsva, the 23rd Tirthankara, is now well established and accepted by all the scholars. According to Jaina tradition the predecessor of Lord Pārsva is Ariṣṭanemi. He is supposed to be the real cousin of Lord Kṛṣṇa. Thus, the historicity of Aristanemi can also be established on the basis of the historicity of Lord Kṛṣṇa. If we hold Lord Krsna to be a historic person, then Ariṣṭanemi is also historical. We find his name not only in Vedas but in Upanisadas and Hindu Purāņas also. Some scholars furnish an inscriptional evidence to prove the historicity of Ariṣṭanemi (Neminatha ). There is found a Copper deed of gift of a Babilonian King Nebuchandrazar ( 1140 B. C.) at Prabhaspattan in Gujrat. It, as per reading of Dr. Prananath (T.O.I., dt. March 19, 1935), indicates that the King must have come to Mount Revata to pay homage to Lord Neminatha. Though the reading is not accepted by all the scholars yet we cannot reject it as totally false. Lord Nami of Mithila, the 21st Tirthankara of Jainas, is also accepted as a Rși in Upaniṣadic and Hindu Paurāņic tradition. So far as the historicity of Lord
Rṣabha is concerned, it is a well established fact that not only his name but his life-story and teachings also occur in Bhagavat and some other Purāņas. According to Prof. Dalasukh Malvania, who is well
Yajña-Vedi has been identified in some Indus Valley sites such as Kalibangam. (Editor)

read in Buddhist canons, the name of some Jaina Tirthankaras such as Rṣabha, Padma, Candraprabha, Puspadanta, Vimala, Dharma, Nami, Ariṣṭanemi and Mahavira also occur in Buddhist literature in the form of previous Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Pratyekabuddhas. Theragatha also mentions the Vaddhamāṇa Thera. According to its earlier commentary, Aṭṭakatha, he was Licchaviputra. In my humble opinion, he was not else than Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Jaina Tirthankara. Thus, it can be said with a degree of certainty that all the Jaina Tirthankaras are not legendary characters. Though, it may be true that some legendary characteristics might have crept into the life-stories of Jaina Tirthankaras presented in Jaina Purāņas, their very existence can not be challenged. Whether we accept the historicity of Jaina Tirthankara or not, it is beyond doubt that the Jaina ideas of renunciation, austerity, penance, self-mortification, non-violence, celebacy, meditation etc. were prevalent in the pre Vedic period. Sri Ramchandra observes that, "Upanisads represent the Brahmanical spiritual thought. As seen later, the Brāhmaṇas did not accept spiritualism truthfully. They borrowed spiritual thoughts from their Pre-Aryan adversaries, now friends, in a perverted manner.... The Śramanic culture was ascetic, atheistic, pluralistic and 'realistic' in content.* This comes out clearest from a consideration of the earliest faith of the Jainas — one of the oldest living surviving sects of the Munis. The pre-Upanisadic materialistic (Pravṛtti-Dharmic) Vedic thought later evolved pseudo-spiritual thought (NivṛttiDharmic) mainly through the influences of the MuniŚramana culture, in pre-Buddhistic times, within its fold (Ramchandra Jain - The Most Ancient Aryan Society, pp. 48-49 ). It is this semi-materialistic and semi-spiritualistic thought which gave birth to a new form of religion, which is known as Hinduism.
Cf. The editor's "Studies in the Origin of Buddhism." (Editor)

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Origin and Development of Jainism
Hinduism is nothing but an assimilation of Vedic and Śramaņic traditions. Jainism & Hinduism
However, these two distinct trends ( Brāhmaṇic) as well as Sramanic have been prevalent in Indian Culture from its earliest days. But
But our culture, being a composite one, a water-tight compartment among its different shades is not feasi. ble at all. We cannot understand Indian Culture completely without understanding its these two
e two different constituents, Viz., Śramanic and Vedic, developed later on in the form of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. So one thing must be clear in our mind, that studies and researches in the field of Indology are not possible in isolation. In fact, Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism are so inter- mingled and mutually influenced by each other that to have a proper understanding of one, the under- standing of other is essential. No doubt, these different trends are distinguishable but, at the same time, we must realize that they are not separable. Though on the basis of some peculiarities in theory and practice we can distinguish them yet it is very difficult to make a complete separation, because none of these trends remained uninfluenced by one another. The earlier Sramanic trend and its later shades such as Jainism and Buddhism had influenced the Vedic tradition, which later on developed in the form of Hinduism. The concepts of tapas or austerity, asceticism, liberation, meditation, equanimity and non-violence, which were earlier absent in Vedas, came into existence in Hinduism through śramanic influence. The Upanişadas and the Gita have evolved some new spiritualistic definitions of Vedic rituals and they are the representatives of the dialogue which had taken place in Šramanic and Vedic traditions. The Upanişadic trend of Hinduism is not a pure form of Vedic religion. It incorporates in itself the various Sramaņic tenets and gives a new dimension to Vedic
religion. Thus, we can say that Hinduism is an intermingled state of Vedic and Sramanic traditions. The voice, raised by our ancient Upanişadic Rșis and Munis as well as Sramaņas against ritualistic emphasis of Vedic tradition and worldly outlook of caste-ridden caste-ridd
Brahminism, became stronger in Jainism and Buddhism along with the other minor Sramaņic sects. Thus, the Upanişadic trend as well as Jainism and Buddhism provided a resort to those fed up with up with Vedic ritualism and the worldly outlook towards life. to
Not only Jainism and Buddhism but some other sects and schools of Indian thought such as Ajivikas and Sankhyas also adopted more or less a similar attitude towards Vedic ritualism. However, Jainism and Buddhism are more candid and forthcoming in their opposition towards Vedic ritualism. They reject outrightly the animal-sacrifice in Yajñas, birth-based caste-system and the infallibility of the Vedas. In the form of Mahāvira and Buddha, the most prominent rationalist preachers, we find the real crusaders, whose tirade against caste-ridden and ritualistic Brahminism, crippled with its inner inadequacies, gave a severe jolt to it. Jainism and Buddhism have come forward to sweep away the long accumulated excrescences grown on Indian culture in the form of rituals, casteism and superstitions. But we shall be mistaken if we presume that in their attempt to clear off the dirt of Vedic ritualism, Jainism and Buddhism remained intact. They were also influenced by Vedic rituals considerably. Afterc. 3rd or 4th A.D., ritualism in the new form of Tantrika rituals crept into Jainism and Buddhism and became part and parcel of their religious practices and mode of worship. With the impact of Hindu Tantrism, Jainas adopted various Hindu deities and their mode of worship with some variations, suited to their religious temperament but were alien to it ( Jainism ) in its pure form. Jaina

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
concept of Śasanadevatās or Yakşa-Yaksis is nothing and laid the foundation of enmity and disintegration but a Jaina version of Hindu deities. As I have pointed in this great Indian culture. But, in reality, it was not a out earlier, the influence has been reciprocal. This revolt but a reformer's crusade. In fact, Vedic and can be discerned from the fact that on the one side sramanic traditions are not rival traditions as some of Hinduism, accepted Rsabha and Buddha as incarna- the Western and Indian scholars wrongly constitute, tion of God, while, on the other, Jainism included they are complementary to each other. These two Rāma and Krsna in its list of Salakāpurusas, great represent the two aspects of human existence - personalities. A number of Hindu gods and goddesses physical as well as spiritual. There has been a are accepted as consorts of Tirthankaras such as Kāli, deliberate effort to creat a gulf between Jainism and Mahakali, Cakreśvari, Ambikā, Padmāvati, Siddhikā Buddhism on the one hand and Hinduism on the and some others as independent deities such as other, by Western Scholars. Unfortunately, some Sarasvati and Lakşmi. It is to be noted that the Jainas Indian scholars, even Jaina scholars have supported have included Rāma and Krsna in their list of sixty- their point of view, but in my humble opinion this is a three great personalities before c. 3rd A.D. because a false step taken in a wrong direction. It is true that mention of Krsna in the early canonical text is found. sramanic and Vedic traditions have divergent views Not only this, an epic on the story of Rama was on certain religious and philosophical issues, their composed in Jaina tradition by Vimalasuri in between ideals of living also differ considerably, but this does c. Ist-5th A. D. Similarly the image of Jaina Sarasvati not mean that they are rivals or enemies of each other. (c. 2nd A. D.) is also found at Kankāli Țila, Mathura. As reason and passion, śreya and preya, inspite of Thus, evidently various Hindu dieties were included being different in their very nature, are the compoin Jainism before c. 3rd A. D.
nents of the same human personality, so is the case The moot point, I intend to come to, is that with Sramanic and Vedic traditions. Though different religious traditions of our great Indian inheriting distinct features, they are the components culture have exchanged various concepts from one of one whole Indian culture. Jainism and Buddhism another. It is the duty of the scholars to study and are not rivals to Hinduism, but what they preach to highlight this mutual impact which is the need of the the Indian society may be termed as an advanced hour and thus, to bridge the gulf that exists between stage in the field of spirituality as compared to Vedic different religious systems due to the ignorance of ritualism. If the Upanişadic trend, inspite of taking a their interactions and that of history of mutual divergent stand from Vedic ritualism, is considered impacts. Though it is true that Šramanic tradition in as part and parcel of Hinduism and an advance togeneral and Jainism and Buddhism in particular have wards spirituality, what is difficulty in measuring some distinct features, discriminating them from the Jainism and Buddhism with the same yardstick ? If early Vedic or Brāhmanic tradition yet they are not Upanişadic tradition is considered as an advancement alien faiths. They are the children of the same soil and from Vedic ritualism to spiritualism, then we have to they come forward with a bold reformative spirit. It accept that Buddhism and Jainism have also followed would be a great mistake if we consider that Jainism same path with a more enthusiastic spirit. They stand and Buddhism, are a mere revolt against Brāhminism for the upliftment of the weaker section of Indian or faiths alien to Hinduism. The Western scholars society and redemption from priesthood and ritualism. have committed a blunder in high-lighting this view They preach the religion of common man, based on

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Origin and Development of Jainism
the firm footing of moral virtues, instead of on some evidence that the stream of Indian spiritualism is one external rituals.
at its source. We may not have a proper understanding Today, scholars working in the field of of the various trends if we treat them in isolation. Jainology need a new approach to reinterpret the
Ācārānga, Sūtrakịtānga and Rşibhāșita may be relationship of Jainism with Hinduism, particularly
understood in a better way only in the light of its Upanișadic trend, in the light of ancient Jaina texts
Upanişadas and vice-a-versa. Similarly the Suttaof c. 4th and 3rd B. C. such as Acāränga, Sutra
nipäta, Dhammapada, Theragātha and other works of krtānga and Isibhāsiyāim. I am sure that an impartial
Pali canon may only be studied properly in the light and careful study of these texts will remove the
of Prākta Jaina canons and the Upanişadas. misconception that Jainism and Hinduism are rival Jainism and Buddhism religions. In Ācārārga, a number of passages bearing
As already mentioned Jainism and Buddhism, affinity with Upanişadas, in their words and style as both belong to the same Šramanic tradition of Indian well as in essence are found. Ācārānga mentions culture. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainas and Sramana and Brāhmaṇa simultaneously, not as rivals, Gautama, the Buddha, are contemporaries, flourished as considered later on. In Sūtrakrtănga (c. 4th B.C.), in the c. 6th and 5th B. C., at a time when the simple we find a mention of some Upanişadic Rsis such as natured worshipper of early Vedic religion became Videhanami, Bāhuka, Asitadevala, Dvaipāyana, caste-ridden and ritualistic. Western thinkers regard Parāśara and others. They are accepted by Jainas as both of them as the rebel children of Hinduism but the Rșis of their own tradition though they followed they are really, the reformers. They provide a spiritual different codes of conduct. Sutrakịtānga, addresses meaning to the Vedic rituals and challenge the them as great ascetics and great men, who attained infallibility of the Vedas and undercut the indisputhe ultimate goal of life, i.e., liberation. Isibhāsiyāim table superiority of the Brāhmaṇas. Both, being (Rşibhāșita ), considered formerly as the part of Jaina atheistic in nature hence, do not accept the concept of canon, also mentions the teachings of Narada, God as a creator and controller of the world. They Asitadevala, Angirasa, Pārāśara, Aruns, Nārāyaṇa, establish the supre-macy of man instead of the God Yajñavalkya, Uddalaka, Vidura and many other and other deities and declare that man himself is the Upanișadic Rşis, depiced as Arhat Rşis. These referen- maker of his own destiny. It is the man alone and ces of the Jaina canonical works not only prove the none else who can attain even Godhood through his open-mindedness of Jainism, but also that the stream moral life and spiritual practices. For both of them of Indian spiritualism is one at its source, irrespective every living being is capable of attaining Nirvāņa, of divisions later on into Upanişadic, Buddhist, Jaina, i.e., Godhood or Buddhahood. Both of them rejected Ajivika and other rivulets. The work Rşibhāşita is a the concept of grace of God. For them, solely our clear testimony to the assimilative and tolerant nature own self, is responsible for misfortune as well as of Indian thought in general and Jaina thought in sufferings. Thus, they both accept the supremacy of particular. Today, the society, deeply bogged into self and law of karma. Moral code, preached by communal separatism and strife, such great works are Buddha and Mahāvira, in general sense is also similar. our torch bearers.
To get rid of the cycle of birth and death, i.e., from Thus, the position accorded to the Upanişadic worldly sufferings, is the common end of Buddhism, Rșis in early ascred texts of Jainism is a clear Jainism and the Upanișadic thinkers. Both, Buddhism

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and Jainism preach five silas or mahāvratas, with only one difference, that is, in place of non-possession of Mahāvira, Buddha preaches non-consumption of intoxicative drugs.
The major differences between these two sister religions from the view-point of metaphysics and ethical code are following:
(a) First, while the Upanisadic thinkers contemplate one eternal and immutable reality behind the world of phenomena and plurality, the Buddha found everything impermanent and changing and thus substanceless Niḥsvabhāva and sorrowful. Mahāvira synthesised both the above extreme views, he saw no contradiction between permanence and change. For him being and becoming - both are the aspects of the same reality. He defined reality as origination, decay and permanence. Lord Mahavira never believed in absolute permanence or total cessation.
(b) Secondly, the philosophical approach of Buddhism towards other philosophical doctrines was negative, while that of Jainism was positive. Lord Buddha preached that one should not fall in or accept any of the drstis, i. e., philosophical view-point, whether it is of eternalism or of nihilism, because being one-sided, none of them represent a right viewpoint. But Mahāvira said that both the doctrines are partially true, if they are viewed from different angles; so one should not discard one's opponent's view, as totally false. For Jainas different opposite views may be acceptable from different angles. To Mahāvira nothing was absolutely true or false, hence, he remained positive in his approach all the time. Again, while Buddhism laid stress only on the changing aspect of reality, Jainism gave due consideration to the changing as well as the eternal aspect of reality.
( Regarding moral and religious practices. Jainism advocates rigorous and strict austerities, while Buddha condemns this rigorous outlook and recommends a middle path.
Inspite of similarity in their mission, Buddhism flourished more on others' soils than on its native land and established itself as a world religion, while Jainism could never had a firm-footing on the foreign soil. It remained firmly rooted in India through all the periods of Indian history, while Buddhism, after c. 9th-10th A. D. was totally uprooted from its own land of origin. Why did these two religions meet the diametrically opposite fates ? There were many reasons behind it. To name a few, Buddhism in its early days found such royal patrons as emperor Asoka and Kaniska, fired with the missionary zeal of spreading it outside India and had the territory of their empire across the Indian borders. Though Jainism also in its early days found some royal patrons as Candragupta Maurya, Samprati and Khāravela, yet they did not try for the expansion of Jainism on foreign soil. Moreover, the Jaina monks did not choose to go outside India, because it was very difficult for them to observe their strict code of conduct outside the country and they did not like to be flexible in their code of conduct. Another most important reason was that the Buddha had recommended the middle-path and remained flexible throughout his life, in prescribing the moral code for his monks and nuns. This middle-path and flexibility, made Buddhism more adaptable to the foreign soil. But due to the same reasons Buddhism was so adapted by Hinduism that it could not retain its independent entity in India. First of all the middlepath of Buddha was not very far from the teachings of the Gitā. Not only this, Mahāyāna an offshoot of Buddhism had very little to mark it out from the original stock of Hinduism. Secondly, the Buddha himself was accepted as the ninth incarnation of Vişnu. Thirdly, flexibility in moral code made the life of Buddhist monks so luxurious and even corrupt that in India they could not retain the respect of common men. Jainism, on the other hand, throughout, had a

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Origin and Development of Jainism
leaning towards extremism and remained strict and mostly inflexible in its moral code. That is why, Jaina monks could not go and propagate Jainism across the boundaries of India. Fourthly, owing to its strict code of conduct even for a house-holder it was not easily adaptable in foreign countries. However, it helped in retaining the faith of the common men and its own entity in India. Thus, the extremism of Jaina religion while on the one hand prevented its expansion in India and abroad, but on the other hand, it proved to be the sole cause of its survival in India. It was because of the strict austerities associated with Jain- ism that it remained a closed set, little understood beyond its adherents. Even the unusual absorbing power of Hinduism could not absorb it. This speaks of its originality, capable of withstanding the chall-
enge of Hinduism. Last but not least among the causes of the extinction of Buddhism from the Indian soil was that Buddhism never tried to develop the order of laymen and lay-women. By the word 'order' they mean the order of monks and nuns. But Jainism always laid stress on the four-fold order of monks, nuns, laymen and lay-women and that was why it did not lose its identity.
Thus, the two parallel religions, having their origin against the same socio-religious back-ground and beginning their journeys together, drifted wide apart and had altogether a different history. Buddhism almost vanished in India, but prospered in China, Japan, Srilanka and many other countries; Jainism remained in India, neither expanding nor suffering from further shrinking.

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
(c. 3rd-10th A. D. ] The Western scholars often remark that the tions, changes and developments took place in Jaina Indian philosophies and religions are not dynamic but thoughts and practices. Jainas were proud of the rigostatic. But this remark is not tenable when we study rous and austere life-styles of their monks. But in the any Indian Philosophy or religious tradition from post Nirvana era of Mahavira some relaxations and historical point of view. We notice a sequence of exception creeped into the code of conduct of Jaina changes and developments in their thoughts and monks. Not only the junior monks, i. e., Kșullakas, practices. This is true with regard to Jainism as well keeping three, two or one cloth alongwith a bowl but as other schools of Indian philosophy.
the senior monks, having accepted nudity also started Though the basic tenets such as non-violence,
keeping one woolen blanket to save themselves from self-control etc. of Jainism, in thought and practice,
the extreme cold of northern region and also a bowl remained the same throughout the ages yet their
for accepting the alms, particularly some liquids, explanations and their applications were modified in
necessary in the old age. Thus, the code of Jinakalpa conformity with time and circumstances by Jaina
and Sthavirakalpa along with sāmāyik-căritra Tirtharikaras and Acaryas. Even in the earlier times, (junior monk-hood ) and Chedopasthāpaniyacaritra every successive Tirthankara made reforms and
(senior monk-hood ) came into existence, which, changes in the religious practices and ethical code of later
later on, after c. 2nd A. D. divided Jainism into conduct as per the need of his age. As regards the
Schism such as Digambara, Svetāmbara and Yapaniya, code of conduct of monks and nuns, 23rd chapter of with th
ter of with their own Codes of Conduct. Uttarādhyayana, Avaśyakaniryukti ( verses 1258
It was the first phase of major changes in the 1262 ) and some other commentaries on Jaina canons Jaina code of conduct, particularly the one for Jaina clearly maintain that the religious code of Mahāvira monks and nuns. The second phase is known as and his predecessor Lord Pārśva and other Caityavāsa, i. e., the temple based living of monks. Tirtharkaras were different. It was found that where- With the advent of idol worship and the acquisition of as Lord Aristanemi laid more stress to avoid the great wealth in the name of these temples and deities violence and cruelity towards animal kingdom in by the community, the ceremonial-ritualistic aspect social rituals such as marriage ceremonies etc. Lord of religion became dominating and the monks started Pārsva opposed the violence in the name of religious taking interest in external and pompous modes of austerities ( practices ). Lord Mahāvira discovered religious practices. There also developed a special the root cause of violence in the will for the accumu- group of administrator clergies. Thus, the Bhattārakas lation of wealth and lust for worldly enjoyment hence in the Digambara sect and the Yatis in Svetāmbara laid much stress on celebacy and non-possession and sect, started living under luxurious conditions, prescribed a new religious code of conduct. Not only became managers of the temples and temple associain the earlier period but in the above said period, i. e., ted properties and assumed control over the templecorresponding c. 3rd-10th A.D. also, several revolu- rituals as well as over certain part of community

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
living in a certain province. In their time, the code of Anekāntavāda (c. 4th-6th A. D.). conduct of monks and nuns remained confined into
(iii) The age of systematization of Jaina the books only and did not appear in the practical life. philosophy (c. 7th-10th A. D.). Against this situation a revolution was
This nomenclature underlies the tendencies, worked out, in Digambara tradition by Kundakunda dominating the particular era. However, this division (c. 6th A. D.) and in Svetāmbara tradition by is only a tentative one. No water tight compartment in Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.). But this revolution failed the division of ages is possible. The tendencies of one to reap any fruit and remained ineffective and the age can be traced in other ages also. For example, institution of Bhattārakas and Yatis thrived in the Agamic age terminates with c. 3rd A. D. but the final later centuries also. Its only credit was that the tradi- editing as well as the composition of some Agamic tion of the real ascetics, following the rigorous path of texts continued up to the c. Sth A. D. Not only this but Mahāvira, could be saved for some centuries. Again the date of composition of commentaries on Āgamas in Svetāmbara tradition, a great revolution took place extends up to the c. 11th A. D. Similar is the case in the c. 10th A. D. under the leadership of Jineśvara- with the age of critical presentation of Anekāntavāda; süri against the temple based living of the monks, i.e., as seeds of Anekānta can be traced in Agamas such as Caityavāsa and administrator clergies. Due to this Bhagavatisütra etc. but its critical presentation contirevolution Kharataragaccha came into existence in nued not only upto Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.) but upto the c. 10-11th A. D. This revolutionary and reforma- Yaśovijaya and Vimaldas (c. 17th A. D.). Similarly tive spirit continued in Jaina community in the later the age of philosophical systematization commences centuries also and owing to that sub-sects Tapa- from c. 7th A. D. but the actual effort in this direction gaccha (c. 12th A. D. ), Lonkāgaccha (c. 15th A.D.), starts from the composition of Tattvārthasutra and its Sthānakavāsi (c. 16th A. D.) and Terăpanthi (c. 18th auto-commentary by Umāsväti long before during the A. D.) came into existence in Svetambara tradition. c. 3rd A. D. and continued upto the period of YasoSimilarly, in Digambara tradition also Banārasimata vijaya, i. e., the c. 17th A. D. Thus, it is very difficult Digambara Terapantha (c. 16th A. D. ) and Tarana- to divide these ages strictly into a particular framepantha a non-idol worshipper sect, came forward work of time. with their reformative outlook. In fact, it is due to the The Age of Āgamas impact of Hindu devotionalism and Tantrism that the
Most of the Āgamic literature was composed ritualistic idol-worship started in Jainism and it is that during c. 5th B. C.-3rd A. D. but some of Āgamic due to the Muslim impact non-idol worship sects texts like Nandisutra and the present edition of such as Lorikāgaccha, Sthanakavāsi, Terapantha and Praśnavyākarana were composed in c. 5th-6th A. D. Taranapantha took birth in Jainism. This shows that in In the most important councils (Vācanās ), which practice Jainism is not a static but a dynamic religion. were held at Mathura and Valabhi in c. 4th-5th A. D.
So far as the changes in the Jaina thought are respectively, for editing and rewriting of these concerned, Jaina scholars divided their history of Agamas, some new additions and alterations were philosophical development in three ages which are as also made and that is why some of the Agamas under:
contain some informations and conceptions, develop(i) The Agama Age (c. 5th B. C.-3rd A.D.). ed later in c. 4th-5th, in Jaina philosophy. (ii) The age of critical presentation of The Āgamas are mainly concerned with the

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religious code of conduct and moral preaching. Pt. Dalasukha Malvania rightly observes that Anga Agama deals with moral code of conduct (Caritanuyoga) rather than metaphysics (Dravyanuyoga). So far as the subject-matter of Agamas is concerned this position remains the same upto the period of Niryuktis (c. 3rd-5th A. D.), Bhāṣyas (c. 6th A. D.) and even Cürnis (c. 7th A. D.). Some scattered seeds of philosophical discussions maay no doubt be seen in some of the Agamas and their commentaries; but Viseṣāvasyakabhāṣya, mainly a work full of philosophical discussions, is an exception.
Age of Critical Presentation of Anekantavāda
Similar is the case with the second era, i. e., the age of critical presentation of Anekantavada. So far as Anekantavada is concerned, it can be traced in Agamas as a mere conception. Its critical presentation as a Jaina doctrine was introduced with the works of Siddhasena Divakara and Samantabhadra inc. 4th5th, respectively. The treatises, composed by them, mainly for critical presentation of Anekantavada also worked as a base for the age of philosophical systematization.
Siddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka and Dvātrimśikas is regarded as the first book of critical philosophy. The concept of Pañcajñāna (Five-fold knowledge) is, for the first time, critically analysed in its subtle form in the said composition. It embraces other different contemporary views prevalent in Jaina tradition. The author dives deep in evaluating the established concepts in Jainism rather than peeping outside in different systems.
In the works attributed to this age, particularly in commentaries on Tattvärthasutra, the first extant commentary, after the auto-commentary of Umasvati, is Sarvärthasiddhi of Pujyapada ( first half of the c. 6th A. D..). It not only depicts the concept of Gunasthana but rather describes it with more details.

Akalanka's Rājavärttika and Vidyanandi's Ślokavārttika are the two works, regarded as main contributions in Digambara tradition. Both these works critically elaborate the contents of Tattvärtha. Through, these works we can assume that, the differ-ences between Digambara and Śvetambara became more prominent in this era and the disputes on the problems of 'Stri-mukti', 'Kevali-bhukti' and simultaneousness and succesiveness of Jñanopayoga and Darśanopayoga of Kevali came into prominence. Along with these internal disputes of Jaina sects, logical refutation of other schools of thought, is also the main characteristic of this age. All the important philosophical works, composed in this particular era, critically evaluate the views of other schools of thoughts and try to establish Jaina view of non-absolutism, based on their theory of Anekāntavāda, as most logical and
true.
The Main Objective of Early Jainism
Before discussing the early metaphysics and epistemology of Jainas it would be proper to discuss the main objective of early Jainism and its attitude towards life, which is to get rid of the cycle of birth and death and thus, to emancipate man from sufferings. It tries to track down sufferings to their very root. The famous Jaina text of an early period Uttaradhyayanasütra says:
kāmāṇugiddhippabhavam khu dukkham savvassa logassa sadevagassa. jam kāiyam mānasiyam ca kiñci
tassa antagam gacchai viyarago. (32.19) That is the root of all physical as well as mental sufferings of everybody, including the gods, is the desire for enjoyment. Only a dispassionate attitude can put an end to them. It is true that materialism seeks to eliminate sufferings, through the fulfilment of human desires, but it cannot eradicate the prime cause from which the stream of suffering wells up. Materialism does not have at its disposal an effective

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25
means for quenching the thirst of a man permanently. life. Spirituality consists in realising these higher Not only this, its attempts at the temporary appease- values of life. ment of a yearning, have the opposite effect of flaring
Jaina spirituality teaches us that happiness or it up like the fire fed by an oblation of butter. It is unhappiness is centred in the soul and not in worldly clearly noted in the Uttarādhyayana :
objects. Pleasure and pain are self-created. They are suvanna-rūpassa u pavvayābhave
subjective in nature also. They do not depend totally siya hu kelāsasama asamkhayā.
on the objects, but depend also on the attitude of a narassa luddhassa na tehim kiñci
person towards them. The Uttarādhyayanasūtra iccha u āgāsasamā aṇantiyā. (9.48 )
( 20.37 ) mentions: That is even if an infinite number of gold and
appă katta vikattā ya, duhāna ya suhāņa ya silver mountains, each as large as the Kailāśa, are
appā mittamamittam ca, duppatthiyasupatthio. conjured up, they would not lead to the final extin
That the self (atma ) is both the doer and the ction of human desires, because desires are infinite enjoyer of happiness and misery. It is its own friend like space. Not only Jainism but all spiritual tradi- when it acts righteously and foe when it acts unrighttions unanimously hold that the root cause of sorrow eously. An unconquered self is its own enemy, unis attachment, lust or a sense of mineness. The ful- conquered passions and sense organs of the self are filment of desires is not the means of ending them. its own enemy. Oh monk ! having conquered them, I Though a materialistic perspective can bring material move righteously. prosperity, it cannot make us free from attachments
In another Jaina text of the early period Auraand yearnings. Our materialistic outlook can be com- paccākkhānam (c. 3rd A. D.) it is mentioned : pared to our attempt of chopping the branches off
ego me sasado appā, ņānadamsanasamjuo while watering the roots of a tree. In the above men
sesā me bahira bhāvā, savve samjogalakkhanā. tioned gāthā, it is clearly pointed out that desires are
samjogamūlājiveņam, pattā dukkhaparamparā endless just as space (Akaśa ) and it is very difficult
tamhā samjogasambandhar, savvablavena vosire. to fulfil all of them. If mankind is to be freed from
(26.27) selfishness, violence, exploitation, corruption and
The soul endowed with knowledge and peraffliction stemming from them, it is necessary to out- ception alone is permanent, all other objects are alien grow materialistic outlook and to develop an attitude,
to self. All the serious miseries, suffered by self, are which may be described as spiritual.
the result of individual's sense of 'mine' or attachThe word Adhyatma, the Samskrta equiva- ment towards the alien objects and so it is imperative lent of spirituality derived from adhi+ ātmā, implies to abandon completely the sense of mine' with regard the superiority and sublimity of Ātman, the soul to the external objects. In short, according to Jainism force. In the oldest Jaina text Ācāranga, the word not identifying oneself with the objects not belonging ajjhatthavisohi, connotes, inner purity of the self, to the soul, is the starting point of spiritual practice which is the ultimate goal of Jaina-Sadhanā. Accor- (sādhanā ). Non-alignment with material object is the ding to Jainism, the realisation of physical amenities pre-requisite for self-realisation, the main objective or creature comforts is not the ultimate aim of life. of early Jainism. According to it, renouncement of There are some higher ideals of life which are over attachment is the same as the emergence of a balanand above the mere biological and economic needs of ced view of even-sightedness ( samadrstita ).

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The reason, as to why Jainism regards abandonment of 'sense of mine' or of attachment as the only means for self-realisation, is that so long as there is attachment in a man, his attention is fixed not on self or soul, but on not-self, i.e., material objects. Materialism thrives on this object-oriented attitude or indulgence in the not-self. According to the Jaina philosophers, the identification with the not-self and regarding worldly object as a source of happiness or unhappiness, are the hallmarks of materialism. This is considered as a wrong view-point. The right viewpoint regards the self as of supreme value and aims at the realisation of its quiddity or its ideal unconditioned state of pure knower, which is free from attachment and passions. It is mentioned in Samayasara (209):
evar sammaithi appāṇani munadi jaṇagasahāvam. that the self, possessed of a right view-point, realises the pure soul as knowledge. Thus according to Jainism the right view-point regards self as pure knower (śuddha draṣṭā) and distinct from not-self. This detached attitude only can free one from one's mental as well as physical sufferings. Cause of Bondage and Suffering of the Self
Jainism maintains that the attachment (Raga) and delusion (Moha) obscure our spiritual nature and are responsible for our worldly existence and suffering. The most intense väsana is hṛdayagranthi, which is a deep attachment towards senseobjects and worldly desires. The oldest nomenclature of Jaina sect is Niggantha-dhamma. The word Niggantha means the one who has unknotted his hṛdayagranthi, i.e., the 'mine'-complex. It means, in other words, one who has eradicated ones attachments and passions. The word, 'Jaina', also conveys the same meaning; a true Jaina is one who has conquered one's passions. According to Lord Mahavira, "to remain attached to sensuous objects is to remain in the whirl" (Acaranga, 1.1.5). The attachment towards sensuous

objects is the root of our worldly existence (Acaranga, 1.2.1). Further, it is also mentioned in the Acaranga, 1.3.1, "only he who knows the nature of the sensuous objects is possessed of self, knowledge, scripture, Law (dhamma) and Truth (bambha )." The five senses together with anger, pride, delusion and desire are difficult to be conquered, but when the self is conquered, all these are completely conquered (Uttaradhyayana, 9.36). Just as the female crane is produced from the egg and the egg from the crane, in the same way desire is produced by delusion and delusion by desire (Uttaradhyayana, 32.6). Attachment and hatred are the seeds of karma and delusion is the source of attachment and hatred. Karma is the root of birth and death. This cycle of birth and death is the sole cause of misery. Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no greed, while greed is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment" (Uttaradhyayana, 32.8). According to the Tattvärthasutra 8.1, a famous Jaina text, perverse attitude (mithya-darśana ), non-abstinence (avirati ), spiritual inertia (pramada ), passions (kaṣāya) and activity (Yoga) these five are the conditions of bondage. We can say that mithyadarśana (perverse attitude), mithya-jñāna (perverse knowledge) and mithya-caritra (immoral conduct) are also responsible for our worldly exis-tence or bondage. But perversity of knowledge and conduct depends upon the perversity of attitude. Thus, the perversity of attitude, which is due to darśana-moha is one of the important factors of bondage. Nonabstinence, spiritual inertia and passions are due to the presence of perverse attitude. Though activities of mind, body and speech known as Yoga are considered the cause of bondage yet these, in theirselves re incapable of bondage unless by perverse attitude and passions. They are only the cause of Asrava (in

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power for its fruition.
The Karmas are of eight types ( i ) jñānāvarana knowledge obscuring, (ii) Darśanavarana: perception obscuring, (iii) Vedaniya: feeling producing, (iv) Mohaniya : deluding, (v) Ayu : age determining, (vi) Nama : body or personality determining, (vii) Gotra: status determining and (viii) Antaraya : obstructive (Tattvärthasūtra, 8.5).
flux of karmic matter), not the cause of bondage. Bondage is possible only through the Yoga in association with perverse attitude and passions. The perverse attitude (mithya-darśana) and the passions (Kaṣayas) are mutually cause and effect of each other just as the egg and the hen or the seed and the tree. We can not fix the priority of one over the other, passions are due to the perverse attitude and perverse attitude is due to the passions.

27
Among these eight types of karma, Jñānāvaraṇa, darśanavaraṇa, mohaniya and antaraya these four are considered as destructive karma or ghāti karma, because they obscure the natural faculties of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power, respectively. The other four-vedaniya, ayu, nāma and gotra are called aghati or non-destructive karma. They are only responsible for bodily existence of present life and incapable of continuing the cycle of birth and death. It is only due to the deluding karma (mohaniya karma) that the cycle of birth and death continues. This deluding karma is responsibile for perversity of attitude and the passions. The emancipation of soul is only possible when the perversity of attitude is destroyed and passions are overcome.
Early Jaina Doctrine of Karma/Bondage
According to Jaina philosophy every activity of mind, speech and body is followed by the influx of a finer type of atoms, which are technically known as karma-vargaṇā-pudgala. In the presence of passions, this influx (asrava) of karmic matter cause bondage, which is of four types - 1. Kind (prakṛti), 2. quantity (pradeśa), 3. duration (sthiti) and 4. intensity (anubhāga) (Tattvārthasūtra, 8.4). The activities of mind, body and speech, technically known as yogas, determine the prakṛti and the pradeśa of karmicmatter while the passions determine the dura-tion ( sthiti) and the intensity (anubhaga -mild or intense power of fruition) of the Karma. Karma, in Jainism is the binding principle. It binds the soul with the body hence responsibile for our wordly existence. Karma has the same place in Jainism, as unseen potency (adṛṣṭa) in Nyaya, Prakṛti in Sankhya, Maya in Vedanta, Vāsanā in Buddhism, Sakti in Śaivism and Pāśa (trap) in Śākta school. Karma is something foreign which veils the natural faculties of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power. It is also responsible for our pleasant and unpleasant experiences and worldly existence. According to Vidyanandi, two functions of the Karma are to obscure the natural faculties of soul and to defile the soul. Jainism also believes in the same modus operandi of karma. According to it karma itself is compe-tent to produce its fruit in due course of time and there is no need of God or other external the pivot on which all the ethico-religious philoso
The attainment of emancipation or mukti is
The Uttaradhyayanasūtra says that just as a tree with its root dried up, does not grow even though it is watered, similarly actions (Karma) do not grow up when delusion (moha oravidya) is destroyed (28. 30). One devoid of a right attitude (darśana ) cannot have right knowledge (jñāna) and there can not be rectitude of will (carana-guna) without right knowledge (jñāna ). One devoid of the rectitude of will cannot have emancipation from evil will and one devoid of emancipation from evil will (induced by karma ) cannot attain final emancipation (32.9).
The Ultimate End : Mokşa

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phies of India revolve. Jainism maintains that the four non-destructive karmas, i.e., Nāma, Gotra, liberation - the perfect and purified state of the soul, Ayuşya and Vedaniya, are not exhausted the soul of is the only and ultimate goal of every individual. Arhat remains in a highly refined physical body and Mukti does not mean in Jainism, the losing of one's preaches truth to the world. Shedding physical and own identity. The self retains its identity even in the kārmic body, when these four non-destructive karmas state of liberation.
are exhausted the soul of Arhat goes upto the topIn Acărănga the nature of Paramātmā (the most of the universe - abode of liberated soul known immaculate soul) is described as that which is be- as siddhasila, remains there eternally and enjoys peryond the grasp of logic and intellect. He is one and
fect knowledge, perfect power, perfect perception alone. He is harmless. He is neither long nor short,
and perfect bliss ( Niyamasāra, 181-182 ). Thus, nor a circle nor a triangle. nor a quadrilateral nor a emancipation, according to Jainism, is nothing but sphere. He is neither black nor blue, nor red, nor
realisation of one's own real nature. yellow, nor white. He is neither pungent nor bitter, Jaina Sadhana in Early Period nor astringent, nor sour, nor sweet. He is neither hard
In the earliest Jaina ägamas, particularly in nor soft, neither heavy nor light, neither cold nor hot, Ācāränga and Uttaradhyayana, we have a mention of neither greasy nor dry. He is not subject to birth and Triyāma. Caturyāma and Pañcayāma. Though decay. He is free from attachment. He is simileless. Acārānga mentions Triyama, it does not give any deHe baffles all terminology. There is no word to des- tail about it. Its commentator Silanka had derived the cribe. He is neither sound nor form, nor odour, nor
meaning of three-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right taste, nor touch. (Ayāro - Ed. Yuvācārya Maha
faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct. But in my prajña, J. V. B., Ladnun, 1981, pp. 262-266.)
opinion this derivation of Silanka is hardly in accorIn the Niyamasāra ( 181 ), 'Being' (astitva ), dance with its real meaning. Triyāma refers to the the pure existence is considered to be one of the three vows - Non-violence, Truth and Non-possesqualities of a liberated soul. Moksa, according to sion. Jaina tradition is very firm in maintaining that Jainism, means a complete perfection and purifica- Lord Pārśva, the twenty-third Tirthankara had preation of soul. In the state of liberation there is neither ched Caturyāma - Non-violence, Truthfulness, Nonpain nor pleasure, nor any obstruction, nor any anno- stealing and Non-possesiveness. Mahāvira added one yance, nor delusion, nor any anxiety. A liberated soul more yāma celebacy as an independent vow in the is really free from all sorts of impurities and from the Cāturyāma of Pārśva and thus, introduced Pañcacycle of birth and death (Niyamasāra, 178-180 ). In yāma. Formerly, it was taken for granted that woman liberation the soul realises the ananta-catustaya, i.e., is also a possession and no one can enjoy her without infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinte bliss having her in his own possession. But Mahāvira took and infinite power. This ananta-catustaya is the in- it as an independent vow. In some of the canonical herent nature of the soul. Jainism believes that every works we also have a five-fold path of liberation but individual soul has the potentialities of Godhood and in a different way as Right faith, Right knowledge, the soul can attain to it. By shedding away all the Right conduct, Right penance and Right efforts. In kārmic particles of four destructive karmas (ghāti- Uttarādhyayana as well as in the works of Kundakarma ), the soul attains Arhathood, which is the kunda the four-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right state of vitarăga-daśā or jivana-mukti. So long as the faith, Right knowledge, Right conduct and Right pen

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ance are mentioned. Here Right effort has been Jaina scripture. merged into Right penance. Similarly, later on merg
So far as Samyak-Caritra (Right conduct ) is ing the Right penance into Right conduct, Umāsvāti
concerned, the meaning of the term remains the same prescribed the three-fold path of liberation in his throughout the ages. It encompasses the observance Tattvārthasūtra (c. 3rd A. D. ). Acāränga has also of five great vows (mahāvratas ), five vigilances mentioned the three-fold path in a different form, (samitis ), three controls (guptis ) and ten dharmas. namely — non-violence (nikşiptadanda ), wisdom This right conduct is exclusively prescribed for the (prajña ) and ecstasy (samadhi ) which is more like monks and nuns. Similarly, five minor vows ( anuthe three-fold path of prajña, sila ( supplementary Vratas ), three guna-vratas and four sikşāvratas as well vow) and samadhi of Buddhism. Satraktänga and as eleven Pratimās are prescribed as a right-conduct some other canonical works also mention two-fold for the house-holders (Śrävakas ). According to both path of liberation, i.e., vidya (wisdom ) and carana - the sects Svetämbara and Digambara, the code of (conduct ( Viljacarana pamokkho ). We see that conduct of Jaina monks and nuns was very rigorous at there are different views about the path of liberation the time of Mahāvira (c. 6th B. C.) but with the pasbut Jainas never accepted single path either of knowl
sage of time, coming to the period of Bhadrabāhu-I, ( edge or devotion or action. They believe that neither c. 3rd B.C.) it became lenient. By this period various knowledge, nor faith nor conduct alone can be regar- exceptions in the five great vows as well as in other ded as a means of salvation. But all the three com- rules and regulations of Jaina monks and nuns has bined together make an integrated path of liberation been accepted. This lenient tendency is clearly visible which is a peculiarity of Jainism. In this integration in the Chedasūtras of Bhadrabahu-l in the form of we have a reflection of its non-absolutistic approach atonements of the various exceptions and transgresAnekāntavāda, the central doctrine of Jainism.
sions in the code of conduct. This liberalism in the Now, if we take each constituent of the three- code of conduct culminates in c. 6th-7th. In Bhāsyas fold path, separately, Right faith (Samyak Darśana ) and Cūrņis of Chedasūtras, one can find ample comes first. In earliest canonical works such as examples of this liberalism. It is quite difficult to Acărănga and Sūtraktārga, the term Darsana is used mention all those changes which took place in the either in the sense of self-realisation or right vision Jaina code of conduct during the period of c. 3rd (right attitude). As 'faith' it is used for the first time B.C.-3rd A. D., because of two reasons - firstly, in Uttarădhyayana, and there it means nine catego- some of the exceptions mentioned in Bhäsyas (c. 6th ries (Tattvas ). The same meaning is retained in A. D.) and Curnis (c. 7th A. D.) might have come in Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra while defining Samyak- practice after c. 3rd A. D. A period which is beyond Darsana. But after c. 3rd 4th the meaning is also the purview of this article and secondly, it is imposchanged and Samyak-Darsana is defined as faith, sible to include, all the changes that occurred, in the Vina' as a Deva (Ideal ), Nirgrantha as a Guru frame of this brief article. Here we can only refer the ( Teacher and non-violence as a Dharma.
scholars to see these Chedasūtras and their commenSimilarly, the term Samyak-Jrāna ( Right taries. knowlege ) is used in the sense of discriminative
The major changes which took place during knowledge of self and not-self in the earlier canons. above period are regarding the use of clothes and begBut later on the term is used as the knowledge of ging bowls by Jaina monks. On the basis of the fig

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ures of Jaina monks and nuns inscribed on the pedestals of Jina-images of Mathura (c. 1st B. C.-2nd A. D.) it can be easily inferred that by that time the use of clothes and begging bowls was in vogue, though the ideal state of nudity was intact. The figures of monks found at Mathura are almost nude but are depicted having a folded large piece of cloth, on their left arm, may be a woolen blanket, and which seems to be instrumental in hiding their nudity. Similarly, there are certain figures of Jaina monks, having begging bowls in their hands. These figures clearly show that in these centuries, i. e., c. 2nd B. C.-3rd A. D., the use of woolen blanket and begging bowls was common atleast among the Jaina monks and nuns of North India. But in South India, practice of nudity remained intact in that period.
The Cause of Schism and Caityavāsa
Remarkably, it was this use of blanket and begging bowls, along with certain other exceptions in the code of conduct which led to the schism in Jainas into Śvetambara, Digambara and Yapaniya. According to Avasyakamula-bhāṣya, the controversy regarding the use of clothes and begging bowl was raised first time after 606 years of the Nirvana of Lord Mahavira, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. D.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of Nihnavas
Jāmāli
Tiṣyagupta
Asadha
bhūti
Asvamitra
Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
Dhanagupta

However, on the basis of facts, narrated above, it can be concluded that liberalism in the rigorous code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns caused the schism into Śvetambara, Digambara and Caityavāsa, i. e., living in temples or Mathas in Jaina order. This tendency of living in the temples of Jaina monks and nuns further caused the deterioration in their strict code of conduct and various exceptions were accepted into general rules. This liberalism, later on, also gave birth to the various Tantrika Sadhanās in Jainism.
Though on the basis of the code of conduct, particularly the use of clothes and bowls, the first sectarian division took place inc. 1st-2nd A. D. But prior to that, we have also trace of another type of differences in Jaina order particularly pertaining to doctrines, started in the life-time of Lord Mahavira itself.
In Jaina tradition, the persons, having doctrinal differences with the tradition of Mahavira, are called as Nihnavas. These Nihnavas were seven in number. Avaśyakaniryukti (Verse 778-783) and Uttaradhyayananiryukti ( Verse 165-178) mention the following Nihnavas and their basic differences from the traditional Jainism along with time and place of their origin. The names of Nihnavas and their details are as under:
Time of Origination
Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahavira's tradition
Bahuratavāda (An action, in the process of completion, can't be called completed, it is uncompleted.
Jiva-pradeśavada (Any one pradeśa of the soul 16 years after Mahā
can be called as Jiva.
vira's enlightenment.
Avyaktavāda (difficult to say who is who).
Samucchinnavada (All the objects are transient and get destroyed just after their origination.) Dvikriyavada (possibility of having two experiences simultaneously.)
14 years after Mahāvira's enlightenment.

214 years after Mahavira's Nirvana.
220 years after Mahavira's Nirvana.
228 years after Mahavira's Nirvana.
Place of Origination Śrāvasti
Rṣabhapur
Śvetämbikā
Mithila
Ulukatira

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No.
Name of Nihnavas
Time of Origination
Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahavira's tradition
Place of Origination Antaranjia
Rohagupta
Trairāśikavāda or no-Jivavāda (three categories in world - living beings, non-living beings, neither living nor non-non-living
544 years after Mahavira's Nirvāņa.
beings.
Daśapur
Gosthamahila
Abaddhikayāda (Karma-particles only touch the soul - pradeśas.
544 years after Mahavira's Nirvāņa.
Apart from these, some divisions took place both. Except some issues on the ethical code of in the Jaina order only due to administrative needs. In - conduct in which he makes some additions later on, Kalpasūtrasthavirăvali, the Jaina order is said to be Mahāvira accepts the metaphysics and epistemology divided in various Ganas, Kulas and Sakhās. This of Parśva as it is. The reference of Jnānapravāda, the type of division was based neither on any theoretical fifth one of fourteen Pūrvas (the literature belonging differences nor on the Code of Con-duct. This to the tradition of Mahāvira's predecessor Lord division of Gana, Kula and Sakhă was based on the Pāráva ) also proves that before Mahāvira there was a hierarchy of the spiritual teachers or on the basis of concept of Pancajñanavāda assigned to Nirgrantha the group of the monks belonging to a particular tradition of Pārsva and was later developed in region. The final division of the Jaina church such as Mahavira's tradition. Acārānga and Sūtrakştānga, the Svetāmbara, Digambara and Yapaniya came into oldest extant Jaina literature, do not bear any mark of existence in the c. 4th-5th A. D. as we do not find any the discussion over the theory of knowledge, whereas literary or epigraphic evidence for these sectarian Uttarādhyayana, Sthānānga, Samavāyānga. divisions dated pre-c. 4th-5th A. D.
Bhagavati, Anuyogadvāra and Nandisutra, elaboratDevelopment of Jaina Theory of Knowledge ely discuss the gradual development of the concep
The development of Jaina theory of five-fold tion of Pañcajñanavāda. It suggests that although the knowledge extends over a long period of 2600 years. theory of five-fold knowledge (Pañcajñānavāda ) The tradition of Mahāvira's predecessor Pārsvanātha was derived from Pārsva's tradition, it was later on (c. 800 B. C.) bears clear marks of Pancajñana or developed by Mahavira. five-fold knowledge, a preliminary conception of
Pt. Dalasukha Malvania, in his well-known Jaina epistemology. In Rājapraśniyasutra ( 165 ) book 'Agama Yuga ka Jaina Darśana' has mentioned Arya Keşi; a follower of Pārsva tradition, called him- three stages of the development of Pañcajñānavāda self believer of the theory of five-fold knowledge and based on the chronology of Jaina Āgamas. At the explained the same to King Paesi. Uttaradhyayana first stage knowledge was divided into five types — also the same refers. It is remarkable that there is not Mati (the knowledge obtained through the sensemuch difference between Pārsva and Mahāvira, so far organs ( indriya ), quasi-sense-organs (anindriya), as their Metaphysics and Epistemology are concerned. and mind (mana ), Śruta ( scriptural knowledge ); Had there been any difference on these issues, it Avadhi ( clairvoyance ); Manah-paryaya (telepathy would have been definitely mentioned in Bhagavati or knowledge of others' mind ) and Kevala (perfect and Uttarādhyayana, both pointing out the differences knowledge comprehending all substances and their regarding ethical code of conduct the traditions of modifications or omniscience ). The description of

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five-fold knowledge, found in Bhagavatisūtra, is in vācaka, respectively. Regarding the authorship of accordance with this first stage. The Sthānanga and Anuyogadvarasūtra scholars have different opinions Umāsvāti's Tattvärthasūtra (c. 3rd A.D.) refer the as to whether Aryarakṣita himself is the author or second stage where the knowledge is divided into two some one else. So far as the question of Aryarakṣita is main heads (i) Pratyakṣa ( direct knowledge concerned it is a fact that he for the first time transincorporating sensory and scriptural knowledge) and lated the Jaina technical terms by Anuyoga-vidhi. It (ii) Parokṣa (indirect knowledge which incorpora- is the text of philosophical method. In the beginning, tes the three extra-sensory knowledge ). Umäsväti Anuyogadvarasutra mentions that mati, avadhi, also supports this two-fold division. At this stage, it manah-paryaya and kevala these four types of was supposed that apart from the cognition depend- knowledge depend on experience only. They can not ing on the soul alone (Atmasāpekṣa Jñana ), the be preached where as śrutajñāna can be studied and cognition depending on sense-organs and quasi- preached. At this third stage of development Anusense-organs (indriya-anindriya sapekṣa ), depend- yogadvära gives importance to the four-fold division. ing on the intellect (buddhi sapekṣa) and the cog- In this third stage of development particularly based nition depending on the Agamas, should be consi- on Nandi and Anuyogadvara, the cognition dependdered as Indirect knowledge (Parokṣa Jñana ). It ing on sense-organs, even being considered transcenbecame a special feature of Jaina Epistemology dently as indirect (parokṣa), was also included in because others were considering it as a direct know- direct knowledge (pratyakṣa) following the concept ledge (pratyakṣa ). The development of this second of other traditions and it was designated as samstage was very essential as it was to pave the way of vyavahārika pratyakṣa ( perception according to the synthesis between the theory of knowledge (Jñana- common usage or ordinary perception). vada) and validity of knowledge. At this stage, the knowledge (Jñana) itself was considered as an instrument of valid knowledge (pramāņa) and was divided into Direct knowledge (pratyakṣa) and Indirect knowledge (parokṣa ).
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The third stage of the development is represented by Nandisūtra (c. 5th A. D. ). In the whole of the Agamas, Nandisūtra is the only composition which thoroughly deals with the theory of five-fold knowledge. In Nandisūtra another development is also visible where the sense-cognition is included in pratyakṣa, following the common tradition. The second work, dealing with the conception of five-fold knowledge is Anuyogadvarasutra (c. 2nd). Anuyogadvara is earlier than Nandisutra because former does not include sense cognition in Direct knowledge as the latter does. It is believed that Anuyogadvara and Nandisūtra are compiled by Aryarakṣita and Deva

In my opinion, primarily empirical sensual cognition was included in darśana and contemplative matijñāna was confined only to the deliberative intellectual knowledge (vimarśātmaka jñāna ). This distinction was also recommended in later period. Four early classifications of matijñāna, i.e., avagraha, ihā, avaya and dhāraṇā are also considered as deliberative knowledge but when sensory cognition was included in matijñāna, the question arose as to how the knowledge, originated from sense-organs, would be regarded as indirect knowledge. Consequently, it was accepted as samvyavahārika pratyaksa (perception according to common usage) following the other philosophical traditions.
To synthesize the first stage of five-fold knowledge with two-fold classification of pramāṇapratyakṣa and paroksa of second stage, a third stage was introduced. An attempt was also made to

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correlate the Jaina concept of pratyakșa ( direct change in later periods also. Similarly the scriptural knowledge ) with the concept of perception knowledge also continued to be considered as indirect (pratyakşa ) of other philosophical traditions.
(parokşa ). But among the two classes of matijñana -
indriyajanya matijñāna (originated from senses ) and Akalanka (c. 8th A. D.) who contributed a
manojanya mati-jñana (originated from mind ), the parallel system of Jaina logic based on the Āgamic conception and some later Acāryas classified the
sense originated matijñāna was considered asparokşa
from the transcendental (pāramārthika ) point of pratyakṣa into two parts, i.e. sarvyāvahärika
view and pratyakșa from the point of view of pratyakșa ( perception according to common usage )
common usage ( saṁvyāvahārika ). The other tradiand pāramārthika pratyaksa (transcendental percep
tions were considering sense originated matijñāna as tion ). Its brief reference can be traced in Nandisutra and a detailed one in Jinabhadra's Viseşāvasyaka
pratyakşa. When discussions over Pramāņaśāstra
( science of valid cognition ) started, the matijñana, bhasya (c. 700 A. D.). Akalanka etc. have followed
originated from mind, was further divided in different the same two-fold concept of pratyakşa.
classes and got assimilated with different Pramānas. So it is clear that the conception of five-fold After Nandisutra the development of this conception knowledge is quite old but its gradual development of the five-fold knowledge is found in Višeşāvasyakatook place only during the c. 3rd-7th A. D. Because bhāsya where not only its different classifications are Tattvārthasūtra and its auto-commentary, both donot mentioned but the doubts regarding the very concept refer these two types of pratyaksa-saṁvyāvahārika and the solutions are also discussed. This era witnesand pāramārthika. By that period mati-jñana was sed intensive discussions over the relationship of considered as parokşa. The hypothesis of these two darśana and jñāna as well as śrutajñāna and matitypes of pratyakṣa - samvyāvahārika and pāramār- jñana. thika came into existence after c. 3rd-4th A. D. in the
The development of the conception of fiveperiod of Nandisutra (c. 5th A. D. ) as the above fold knowledge continued during the c. 3rd-7th A. D. division was clearly mentioned in this text.
but it got interrupted after the c. 7th A. D. and discus
sions over Pramāņavāda (science of valid cognition) Bhagavatisātra refers to Nandisutra and
started. This is noteworthy that Pramāņavāda in Anuyogadvāra for the details about the Jaina theory
Jainism was the result of the impact of other philosoof knowledge. It concludes that this portion was
phical traditions. incorporated in Bhagavati at the time of Valabhi Vācana (c. 5th A. D.). Sthānānga's classification of Jaina Concept of Pramāņa knowledge as pratyakṣa and parokșa, also is contem
The then
The theory of five-fold knowledge, originally porary to Tattvarthasutra (c. 4th A. D.). In the above belonged to Jainas but the case is different with the mentioned scriptures avadhijñana ( clairvoyance), theory of Pramāņa. This latter conception is borromanah-paryaya-jñana (telepathy or knowledge of wed by Jainas from other philosophical traditions. others' mind ) and kevalajñāna (perfect knowledge The concept of Pramāņa in Jaina philosophy came comprehending all the substance and their modes,
into existence in c. 3rd 4th A. D. and continued to i.e., Omniscience ), all being beyond the range of our senses are considered as transcendental perception or
Jaina Ācāryas, first of all accepted the conself perception. This conception did not undergo any cept of Pramāņa as it was prevalent in other philoso

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phical traditions, particularly in Nyāya and Sankhya mentioned only three types of Pramānas. Umāsvāti school, but in due course of time they got it associated (c. 3rd 4th A. D.) for the first time declared five-fold with their concept of five-fold knowledge. Thus, what- knowledge as Pramāṇa and divided it into two classes ever development of Jaina theory of Pramāna is seen Pratyaksa and Parokya. Later on, Nandisūtra divided in Jainism, is the result of its synthesis with Pañca- Pratyaksa in two sub-classes Sāmvyāvahārika and jñanavāda. While classifying the Pramāņa some new Pāramārthika, including sensory perception into the concepts came into existence. They are undoubtedly first one and Avadhi, Manah-paryaya and Kevala into unique contributions of Jaina philosophy. For insta- the second, respectively. The four Āgamic divisions of nce, Smộti (memory ), Pratyabhijña ( recognition) Matijñāna—Avagraha (the cognition of an object as and Tarka ( Induction ) were for the first time such without a further positing of the appropriate considered as Pramāņa.
name, class, etc. ); īhā ( the thought process that is We shall now see as to how the development undertaken with a view to specifically ascertain the of Pramanavāda took place in Jaina āgamas. Jaina general object that has been grasped by avagraha ); āgamas refer three and four types of Pramāna Avāya (when further attentiveness to final ascertainaccepted by Sankhya and Naiyāyikas, respectively. ment takes place regarding the particular feature Sthānanga clearly mentions three types of Vyavasāya grasped at the stage of Iha ) and Dhāraņā (the constant ( determinate cognition), i.e.. Pratyaksa (perception ), stream of the ascertainment, the impression left Prātyika and Anugāmika (inference) whereas behind it and the memory made possible by this Bhagavati mentions four types of Vyavasāya, i.e., impression, all these operations or the form of matiPratyaksa. Anumāna. Upamāna ( comparison and jñana are called dhārana ) were accepted as the two Agama ( verbal testimony ). Similarly, in Sthānāriga classes of sensory perception. The indirect knowfour types of pramānas called Hetu are mentioned. ledge (Parokşa-jñāna ) enumerated the cognition In this way Sthānārga mentions both, three
originated from mind ( manasajanya jñāna ) and fold and four-fold classification of Pramāņa in the
Verbal testimony ( Śrutajñāna ) with a view that form of Vyavasāya and Hetu, respectively. Anuyoga
Inference (Anumāna ) etc. are the forms of Manasadvārasutra not only clearly mentions four types of any Pramāņa but also elaborately discusses each of them.
Thus, the attempt to synthesize the concept of The details about the four Pramānas given by Pramāna with the theory of five-fold knowledge in Anuyogadvārasatra is very much similar to that of the true sense begins from the period of Umāsvāti. Nyāya school. As I have stated earlier, Bhagavati Ācārya Umāsvāti maintains that these five types of refers to the Anuyogadvāra for more details about cognition ( knowledge ) are five pramānas and the Pramāņas. It indicates that at the time of Valabhi divides these five cognition into two Pramānas - council (c. 5th A. D.) the concept of four types of direct and indirect. Pt. Malvania has observed that the Pramāņa had already been accepted by Jaina first attempt of this synthesis was made in Anuyogaphilosophers but when Pramāņavāda got synthesized dvārasütra, the only text accommodating Naiyāyika's with the conception of five-fold knowledge, the four-fold division of Pramāņa into knowledge. But Upamāna (comparison ) had no place in it.
this attempt not being in accordance with the Jaina Later, Siddhasena Divākara in his Nyāyāva- view, the later scholars tried to solve this problem and tāra and Haribhadrasūri in his Anekāntajayapatakā ultimately succeeded in doing so. They discussed the

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concept of Pramānas on the base of five-fold knowledge of Jaina Āgamas. According to Nyāya- śāstra, the cognition originated from Mind (mānasa- janya jñāna) is of two types — Pratyaksa and Parokşa. The knowledge originated from mind which experiences pleasure and pain, is Direct knowledge (pratyakşa) whereas the inference (anumāna ) and comparison (upamāna ) are Indirect forms of know- ledge (paroksa ). So having considered sensory-per- ception of Matijñāna as Sāmvyāvahārika Pratyakşa (perception according to common usage ), cognition based on intellect ( Bauddhika Jñāna ) as inference ( anumāna ) and verbal testimony Śrutajñāna ) as Agama pramâna. Jainas synthesized the conception of five-fold knowledge with the Pramānaśāstra of the other schools of Indian philosophy. In Anuyogadvārasutra, Pratyakṣa is divided in two heads, i. e., (1) perception originated from sense-organs (indriya- janya ) and (2) perception originated from quasisense-organs (no-indriya ). Quasi-sense originated perception included avadhi, manah-paryaya and kevalajñāna. This concept of knowledge carries the same meaning as the one, conveyed by the transcendental knowledge in other philosophical traditions. The distinction between ordinary perception (Laukika Pratyakşa ) and Transcendental perception (Alaukika Pratyakşa ) of Vaiseșikas is accepted by the Jainas under the name of Sāṁvyāvahārika and Päramärthika Pratyaksa and was synthesized later on with their conception of five-fold knowledge (pañcajñānavāda).
). According to Pt. Dalasukha Malvania the Āgamic period (c. 5th A. D. ) has no trace of any independent discussion over Pramāņa. Till that period Jainācāryas have collected the opinions of other philo- sophical schools in their treatises. In the correspon- ding period a number of traditions on the types of Pramāṇa were prevalent. Jaina Agamas refer tradi- tions of three and four types of Pramānas. The mention of three types of Pramānas — Pratyaksa
(perception ), Anumāna ( inference ) and Agama (verbal testimony ), refers to the old Sankhya System. While mention of four pramāṇas including Upamāna (comparison ) belongs to Naiyāyikas. It clearly shows that by the end of c. 5th A. D. the concept of Pramāna as an independent concept was not developed in Jainism. The first work which elaborately deals with the Pramānaśāstra is Siddhasena's Nyāyāvatāra. The period of Siddhasena Divākara is fixed as c. 4th-5th A.D. Nyāyāvatāra mentions three Āgamic divisions of Pramāņa, i.e., perception, inference and verbal testimony (Agama ). Though Siddhasena has expressed briefly the Jaina opinion on the Nyāya-śāstra of Sankhya and Nyaya but he has followed mostly the old tradition, accepted by Jaina Agamas. At some places he has only revised the definitions of Pramāna of other schools on the basis of Jaina theory of Nonabsolutism (Anekantavāda ).
Nyāyāvatāra clearly follows the Agamic tradition, as far as the description of Pramāņa is concerned. It, no where, mentions the later developed concept of Smrti (memory ), Pratyabhijña (recognition) and Tarka ( indirect proof : tarka is not by itself, a source of valid knowledge, though it is valuable in suggesting hypothesis which leads indirectly to right knowledge ) as Pramāņa. This proves that Nyāyavatāra is undoubtedly an ancient text compiled by Siddhasena Divākara. After Nyāyāvatāra, the literary works which discuss the concept of Pramāņa are Pujyapāda's Sarvārthasiddhi ( c. 6th A. D. ) of Digambara tradition, Siddhasenagani's commentary on Tattvārtha-bhāsya (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra's Anekāntajayapatākā (c. 8th A. D. ) of Svetāmbara tradition. In these works there is no trace of Pramāņa like Smrti etc. This concept is discussed for the first time in the works of Akalanka ( c. 8th A. D.) and Siddharşi's commentary on Nyāyāvatāra (c. 9th A. D.) of Digambara and Svetāmbara traditions, respectively. The independent development of Jaina Nyāya

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commences from the period of Akalanka, who for the first time expounded Smrti, Pratyabhijña and Tarka as independent Pramānas. The Jaina theory of Nyāya was given a new direction in the c. 8th A. D. Akalanka not only established Smrti, Pratyabhijña and Tarka as independent Pramāņa but also revised the definitions or meanings of Perception, Inference and Āgama, given by Siddhasena and Samantabhadra. In his definition of Pramāņa, he introduced a new term avisamvădi in place of svapara-avabhāşaka. Most probably, this characteristic of changing defini- tions was borrowed from the Buddhist tradition. It was an especiality of Akalarka that he logically evaluated even the pre-established conceptions, hence rightly called the father of Jaina Nyāya. His works Laghiyastraya, Nyāyaviniscaya, Siddhi- viniscaya and Pramāṇasangraha are related to the Jaina Nyāya. Pramāṇasangraha is the Akalanka's last work in which matured Jaina Nyāya, especially Pramāņa-sastra, is elaborately discussed. Though in his earlier works he mentioned Smsti, Pratyabhijñā and Tarka as Pramāna yet as independent Pramānas, these are established only in this work. As such from the point of view of the history of Jaina Pramāņaśāstra this is a valuable work giving new dimension to the concept of pramana.
In the history of Indian logic the Jaina logicians, in the c. 8th A. D., for the first time accepted memory (Smrti ), recognition (Pratyabhijña ) and induction ( Tarka ) as a Pramāna. This is Jaina's special contribution to the field of Indian Pramāņaśästra. Not even a single tradition of Indian logic accepts memory (smrti ) as an independent Pramāņa. Only Vedanta-paribhasa, a work of c. 16th A. D., mentions Smrti as Pramāņa. Though Naiyāyikas had accepted recognition (pratyabhijña ) as a kind of perception (pratyaksa pramāna ) yet neither they regarded it as an independent Pramāņa nor accepted Smrti as its cause (hetu ). Jainas maintained, in case
Smrti is not Pramāna, how recognition (Pratyabhijña ) can be accepted as Pramāna because in absence of memory (Smrti ), Pratyabhijña is not possible. If memory (Smrti ) is not Pramāna, Pratyabhijñā also a combination of past memory and present perception can not be considered as Pramāņa, because Pratyabhijña is based on Smrti. Similarly, Jainas established Tarka as independent pramāna because in the absence of Tarka Pramāņa, Vyāpti ( universal relation ) is not possible and without Vyāpti, inference (Anumāna) is quite impossible. To solve this problem Naiyāyikas accepted Sāmānya Lakşaņa Pratyāsatti (generic nature of individuals ). Jainas accepted Tarka Pramāņa at the place of Naiyāyika's Sāmānya Laksana Pratyāsatti which is more extensive than that and may be called Inductive leap ( āgamana). Jainas maintained induction (āgamana ) and deduction (nigamana ) of Western Logic and introduced them in the name of Tarka and Anumāna as an independent Pramāna, respectively. An independent Tarka Pramāna was needed because acquisition of Samanya (generality) through perception is not possible and without Samānya, Vyāpti is not possible. Similarly in absence of Vyāpti, Inference (anumāna ) is impossible. Since in Jainism, Sāmānya Laksana Pratyāsatti is no where mentioned as a kind of perception, Jainas established Tarka as independent Pramāņa to solve the problem of Vyāpti. As Pratyabhijña was needed for Tarka and Smrti for Pratyabhijña, Jainas accepted all these three as independent Pramāņa.
It was Akalanka (c. 8th A. D. ) who for the first time referred these three types of independent Pramāņa in Digambara tradition. Before Akalanka, his predecessors Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D. ) and Pūjyapāda (c. 6th A.D.) do not make any mention of it. In Svetambara tradition, Siddhasena Divākara (c. 4th A. D. ), Jinabhadra (c. 6th A. D. ), Siddhasena Gani (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.)

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mention nothing about these three independent Pramāņas. In Śvetambara tradition, as per my knowledge, only Siddharși (c. 9th A. D. ), in his commentary of Nyāyāvatāra has mentioned the validity of these three independent Pramāņas.
Thus, in Digambara tradition from c. 8th A.D. and in svetambara tradition by the end of c. 9th A.D. memory (smṛti ), recognition ( pratyabhijñā) and induction (tarka ) were established as independent Pramāṇa. Earliest works on Jaina logic were in brief and mainly concerned with the Jaina concept of Pramāna. Works on Jaina logic, composed later on were a healthy review of the conceptions of Pramāņa prevalent in other philosophical traditions. Patrasvami's Trilakṣaṇakadarthana was the first one to refute the Hetulakṣaṇa of Dinnaga. Vidyanandi (c. 9th A. D.) wrote Pramāṇaparikṣā to evaluate the characteristics of Pramana, their divisions and subdivisions, prevalent in other philosophical traditions. In this period some more works pertaining to Jaina logic (Pramāṇaśāstra) had been composed but seem to be destroyed. In Digambara tradition, Prabhacandra's Nyayakumudacandra and Prameyakamalamärtaṇḍa are two of some prominent works composed in c. 10th-11th A. D. Both of the works are the commentaries on Akalanka's Laghiyastrayi and in Śvetambara tradition, Vadidevasüri's Pramāṇanayatattvaloka and its commentary Syädvādaratnākara (c. 11th A. D.) are well known works on Jaina logic. After that Hemcandra's Pramāṇa-mimāmsā (c. 12th A. D.) is an important work which mainly deals with the concept of pramāņa though it is incomplete. The development of Navya-nyaya (Neo-logistic system) begins with the entry of Gangesh Upadhyaya in the field of Indian Nyaya in c. 13th A. D. But for four centuries the Jaina logicians were unacquainted with this new literary genre and continued to follow the style of Vadidevasūri. Thus, the development of Jaina Logic (Nyayaśāstra) remained interrupted after

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c. 12th A.D. It was Yasovijaya who followed the style of Navyanyaya and for the first time composed Tarkabhāṣā and Nyāyabindu in Navyanyāya style, in the latter part of c. 17th A.D. In Digambara tradition, Saptabhangitarangani was written by Vimaladas following the same style.
Thus, we can conclude that it is only from c. 3rd A. D.-12th A. D. when Jaina logic made its progress and opened a new vistas for its further development.
Development of the Theory of Non-absolutism (Anekantavāda) and Syādvāda
Non-violence in practice, non-absolutistic approach in thought and conditional predication or qualified assertion (Syäiväda) in speech are the pillars upon which the splendid palace of Jainism is erected. Theory of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda) is the central philosophy of Jainism. So far as the historical development of this theory of Anekāntavada is concerned, its historical development can be divided into three phases. Its first phase begins with the preachings of Mahavira, i. e., c. 6th B. C. and is extended upto the composition of Umasvati's Tattvärthasutra (first half of the c. 4th A. D. ). It was the period of origination of Anekāntavāda. Basically, the non-violent and tolerant attitude of Mahavira hel
ped much in the development of the non-absolutistic principle of Anekāntavāda. In Sutrakṛtänga, he clearly opines, "one who praises one's own view-point and discards other's view as a false-one and thus, distorts the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death."
It follows that Mahavira preached the uttermost carefulness regarding one's speech. In his opinion speech should be unassaulting as well as true. He warned his disciple monks against making unwarranted categorical assertions or negations. He instructed them to make only a conditional statement (Vibhajjavaya Vägarejja ). It is the Vibhajjavāda

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from which the theory of non-absolutism (Anekānta- vāda. Though the theory of Vibhajjavāda was comvāda ) emerged. Sūtrakītānga, in its first chapter mon to both - Jainism and Buddhism but so far as records various contemporary one-sided doctrines Buddhist approach to the metaphysical doctrine is regarding the nature of soul and creation of the concerned, it was a negative one, while Mahāvira's universe. Mahāvira's approach to all these doctrines was a positive one. Lord Buddha maintained that is non-absolutistic or relative. In every case, whether whether it is eternalism or nihilism, none of these can it was the problem of eternalism (Šāśvatavāda ) and be regarded as true because any one-sided approach nihilism (Ucchedavāda ) about the soul or that of neither represents a right vision regarding Reality nor finiteness and infiniteness of the world or that iden- it explains our practical problems of sorrow and tity and difference of body and soul or also that of sufferings. That is why he kept mum while answering monism and pluralism, Mahāvira's approach was the questions related to the metaphysics. It is due to this never absolutistc but relativistic. It was firmly negative approach that Buddha's theory of Nihilism maintained in Jaina canons that the nature of reality is came into existence later on in Buddhism. On the complex and multi-dimensional as well as confluence other hand, Mahāvira's approach towards these oneof many self-contradictory attributes, so it can be sided views was positive. He tried to synthesize these approached and explained from various angles or different views on the basis of his theory of view-points. It is believed that Tirtharikara Mahāvira Anekāntavāda. while explaining the reality uttered first sentence as
The synthesis is found for the first time in tripod (tripadi ), i.e., Uppannei, Vigamei, Dhuvei Va. Bhagavatisutra, wherein, on the basis of two main Accordingly in Jainism Reality / 'Sat' is defined as divisions of Nayas - substantial standpoint (Dravyapossessing origination, decay and permanence rthika Naya ) and modal standpoint ( Paryāyarthika (Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat : Tattvārtha, 5.29). Nava) as well as Niscaya Naya, Vyavahāra Naya and This three-fold nature of Reality is the base of the different Niksepas (Positing and Gateways of inJaina theory of Non-absolutism. On the one hand, the vestigations (Anuyogadvāras ) such as Substance nature of Reality is complex, i. e., a synthesis of (dravya ) space (desa ).time (kāla). mode (bhava). opposites : identity and difference, permanence and name (nāma), symbol (sthapanā ), potentiality change, oneness and manyness and so on, and on the
(dravya ), actuality (bhāva ) etc. He has synthesised other hand scope of our experience, knowledge and
the various opposite view-points. So it is clear that in even expression is limited and relative, so we can not
the first phase, i. e., before c. 3rd A. D. Vibhajjavāda know the Reality as a whole from any particular angle.
of Lord Mahāvira was fully developed in the positive Our every knowledge about the Reality will always
and synthesising theory of Anekāntavāda along with be partial and relative only and in that position our
its subsidiary doctrines such as the doctrine of expression or statement about the Reality will be standpoint (Nayavāda etc. Thus, along with the orialways relative and not categorical (ārpitā närpite gination of Anekāntavāda, the doctrines of Naya, siddhe : Tattvārtha, 5). In canonical age we have an Niksepa and Anuyogadvāra came into existence. account of only this much discussion about
The second phase of the development of NonAnekāntavāda.
absolutism / Anekāntavāda began with Siddhasena Thus, in the first phase of its development, Divakara's Sanmatitarka (c. 4th A.D.), continue till this theory was evolved from the theory of Vibhajja- the Haribhadra's works such as Şaddarśana

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samuccaya, Śāstravārtāsamuccaya (c. 8th A. D.) etc. This second phase has three main characteristics firstly, apart from the Agamic Nayas, ie, Dravyarthika (Substantial) and Paryāyārthika (modal ) or Niścaya (Ideal) and Vyavahāra (practical view-point), the doctrine of Seven-fold Nayas, i.e., Naigama (considering both the general and particular properties of the thing ), Sangraha (considering general properties of an object), Vyavahāra (considering specific properties of an object), Rjusūtra (confined only to the present mode of an object), Śabda (treating with synonyms ), Samabhirūdha (taking into cosideration only etymological meaning of word. According to this Naya, even word has a different meaning) and Evambhūta Naya (denoting object in its actual state of performing its natural function) was developed. Though the Agamic Nayas remained in vogue till the Kundakunda's period (c. 6th A. D.).
It is to be noted that in earlier Āgamas such as Acaranga, Sütrakṛtānga, Uttaradhyayana etc., this concept of seven-fold view-point (Nayas) is absent. Only in Anuyogadvārasūtra and Nandisūtra this concept of seven-fold view-point is found but these are the works of thec. 2nd-4th A.D. InSamaväyänga, it is an interpolation. Secondly, in Tattvärthasūtra (first half of c. 4th A. D.) the number of basic viewpoints are five. The Samabhirudha and Evambhūta are accepted as sub-types of Sabdanaya. Siddhasena Divakara (c. 4th A. D.) in his Sanmatitarka has accepted six Nayas, he does not mention Naigama Naya. Thus, we may conclude that the number of Nayas, as seven, was finalised later on but prior to the end of c. 5th A. D. Only with one exception of Mallavādi (c. 5th ), who mentions twelve Nayas in his work 'Dvašaranayacakra', development in the number of Nayas became stagnant because of the development of the doctrine of Anuyogadvaras, i. e., the gateways of investigation. These twelve Nayas of

39
Mallavādi are some what different in their names and presentation. Though the author showed the relationship between the traditional seven Nayas and his twelve Nayas [ See : Malvania D., Agama Yuga kā Jaina Darśana, p. 312. ] though doctrine of Anuyogadvaras (gateways of the investigation) can be traced in some of the Agamas of later period as Bhagavati, Samavayanga, Prajñāpana and Anuyogadvārasūtra yet the number of these gateways of investigation never remained constant. In Tattvārthasūtra, it was only eight while in Dhavalā tika of Satkhaṇḍāgama its numbers were increased upto eighty. This doctrine of gateways of investigation is nothing but viewing, understanding and explaining the nature of the things with their multiple facets or aspects and thus it can also be considered as a development of Vibhajyavāda and Anekāntavāda. Here, it is noteworthy that this increase in the number of the Nayas (view-points) or the Anuyogadvaras was well received by later Jaina thinkers because the earlier Acaryas kept the door open in this regard. Siddhasena Divakara clearly mentions in his work Sanmatitarka (second half of thec. 4th A. D.) that number of view-points can be as much as the way of linguistic expressions. (Sanmatitarka, 3/47)
Doctrine of Seven-fold Predication (Saptabhangi)
The second main characteristic of this second phase of the development of Anekāntavāda, is the doctrine of seven-fold predications or the seven ways of expressions (Saptabhangi). The concept, regarding the ways of expressions, dates back to the Vedic period. The two forms of expressions / predicationsaffirmation and negation, are accepted by all. These two depend on existence or non-existence. By negating both the existence and non-existence, we have a third way of expression Avyaktavyata, i.e., inexpressibility. By accepting the both a fourth way of expression was emerged, comprising both affirmation and negation. These four ways of expression are well

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accepted in Upanisadas and Buddhism. So far as Jainism is concerned it is in the Bhagavatisūtra where for the first time these different ways of expressions (Bhangas) are found. In Bhagavatisūtra (9/5) while dealing with the concept of Hell, Heaven and abode of Siddhas, Lord Mahavira mentioned only three ways of expression, i. e., affirmation, negation and inexpressibility but while dealing with the aggregates of the different numbers of atom, he mentioned more than twenty-three ways of expressions. Pt. Dalsukha Malvania is right when he says that of course we have seven predications or Saptabhangi in Bhagavatisūtra, but in my humble opinion these different ways of expressions (Bhangas) do not represent the doctrine of seven-fold predications rather it is only a prior state. Here, these ways of expressions are framed on the number of atoms in aggregates. Secondly, this discussion may be a later interpolation because in Tattvärthasutra and its auto-commentary, this concept ( )
of seven-fold predication is absent. Thirdly, it is also clear that neither in Bhagavatisutra nor in the Tattvärthasūtra and it's auto-commentary, the theory of seven-fold predication is systematically presented in its logical form, with number of predications as seven and only seven. For the first time in Siddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka, this theory of seven-fold predication is logically presented. After that in Aptamimamsa of Samantabhadra ( c. 5th ), Sarvärthasiddhi of Pujyapada (c. 6th), Pañcāstikāya (14) and Pravacanasara (2/23 ) of Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) and some other later works of this period this doctrine of seven-fold conditional predication has been discussed in detail. In general, there are only three types of our linguistic expression - affirmation, negation and inexpressibility. On the basis of these three fundamental ways of linguistic expressions and their combinations mathematically only seven predications are possible neither more nor less. In order to show the conditionality or relativity of these seven-fold predi

cations Jaina ācāryas put a qualifying mark before each of the predication / statement, so that the affirmation or negation or even in-expressibility of predication may not be taken as absolute. This qualifying mark is the word 'Syat' (), which being put before every predication, removes the every possibility of uncertainity and indefiniteness of the predication and make the predication conditional as well as relative. The seven-fold conditional predications are as follows:
1. Conditional affirmation ( R) 2. Conditional negation (k) 3. Conditional inexpressibility (3) 4. Conditional affirmation and negation respectively ( स्यात् अस्ति च नास्ति च )
5. Conditional affirmation and inexpressibility ( स्यात् अस्ति च अवक्तव्यं च )
6. Conditional negation and inexpressibility
7. Conditional affirmation, negation and inexpressibility ( स्यात् अस्ति च नास्ति च अवक्तव्यं च )
It is noteworthy that for Jainas inexpressibility (anirvacaniyatā or avyaktavyata ) does not denote absolute inexpressibility as Vedanta means. It is only conditional inexpressibility because simultaneous affirmation and negation are not possible in our linguistic expressions.
The Jaina doctrines of non-absolutism, conditional predication and view-points yielded good results particularly in that age of philosophical disputation as well as religious and social conflicts. Though the Jaina thinkers made optical estimation of the philosophical assumptions of other schools of thought yet they paid proper respect to them and accepted their Truth value on the basis of different Nayas. In this regard the views of Siddhasena Divakara and Haribhadra are commendable. Siddhasena tried to establish the truth value of other schools of thought on different view-points. He said Sankhya school is

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true from substantial view-point, while Buddhist view is true from the view-point which is confined to only present mode of an object (Rjusūtra Naya ).
He further remarks that all schools of thought are true when they are understood from their own standpoint and so far as they do not reject the truth- value of others. A non-absolutist does not divide them into the category of true and false. The same spirit is also followed by Haribhadra in his works such as sastravārtāsamuccaya and Şaddarśana- samuccaya. It is only Haribhadra, who in his Şad darśanasamuccaya, presented all the six schools of thought in their true spirit and without condemning them. No other work in the history of Indian philo- sophy has been written till date in such a noble spirit. In this period, Jaina ācāryas tried to syn-thesize the different conflicting views and thus tried to establish harmony and peace in the society. Historical Development of Jaina Metaphysics Astikāya
The doctrine of pañcāstikāya which refers to the five constituents of the universe is regarded as the most original theory of Jainism. There is, of course, no mention of pañcāstikāya in Ācārānga, but it is found in the Parśva chapter of Rşibhāşita (c. 4th B. C. ). This shows that this concept belongs to the tradition of Pärśva (c. 8th B. C.). In the tradition of Mahavira, however, we find its first reference in Bhagavatisutra (about c. 1st B. C.).
In Jaina philosophy the word astikāya means the substance which exists ( asti ) with an extension in the space, i.e., constituent component ( kāya ). In Jaina philosophy jiva, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and pudgala - these five are regarded as astikāyas from the very ancient times, and there is no change in this concept, even today. They can be translated as the living beings (jiva ), Space (akaśa ), Medium of motion and rest (dharma-adharma taken together) and Matter (pudgala ).
Among these five astikāyas, three of them - dharma, adharma and akāśa are thought of as unitary and remaining two - jiva and pudgala as infinite in number. From the c. 3rd-10th A. D. there is no major change in the concept execpt that, with the development of the concept of saddravya (the six-fold theory of substance ), time (kala ) was also accepted as an unextended substance (anastikāya ). The debate whether time can be regarded as an independent substance or not begins with thec. 3rd 4th A. D. or even before the composition of Tattvārthasutra; and the difference of opinion in this regard continues upto the time of Viśeşāvaśyakabhāşya (c. 7th A. D. ). Some of the Jaina philosophers regarded time as an independent substance while the others did not. But subsequently Digambara and Svetāmbara both the traditions synthesized the concept of astikaya and dravya and both of them agreed to accept time asanastikaya, i.e., an independent unextended substance.
The idea of Pancastikaya is, distinctly, an original concept of the Jainas. We do not find it in any other ancient philosophical system, except that in the ancient times astikāya has a broad and general meaning, denoting anything that exists (asti ); but in due course of time there developed a distinction between astikāya and anastikāya and the former was taken to be an extended substance in space. Technically speaking astikāya is a multi-spatial substance ( bahupradesi-dravya ), i.e., a substance which is extended in space. Pañcāstikāya
The Jaina concept of Şaddravya ( theory of six substances ) has developed from this very idea of pañcastikāya by adding time as an independent substance in the earlier concept of pañcāstikāya. The concept of Şaddravya came into existence during the c. 1st-2nd A. D. Thus the concept of pañcāstikāya is definitely a very old concept because we find its reference in the Pārśva chapter of Isibhāsiyaim, one

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of the oldest scriptures. Till the period of Ācārānga move his hands. Thus, the concept of dharma and and the first Śrutaskandha of Sutrakrtanga we donot adharma as the respective medium of motion and rest, find any reference to this concept so far as the seems to be a later concept. This idea has arrived by Mahāvira's tradition is concerned. Thus, we can say the time of the composition of Tattvārthasūtra (i.e. in that the concept basically belongs to Pārsva tradition. the second half of the c. 3rd or first half of the When tire followers of Pārsva were included in the c. fourth ). The allusions made in Bhagavati and other Mahāvira's order, their concept of pañcāstikāya, along scriptures clearly show that the meanings of with some other concepts, was also accepted in the dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya in those days Mahavira's tradition. Bhagavatisutra for the first time were identical to the meaning of the terms dharma mentions that the world is made of dharma, adharma, and adharma as pious and sinful respectively. Thus, akaśa, jiva and pudgala. Isibhāsiyāim only refers to the concept of dharma andadharma as the medium of the five astikāyas but has not mentioned their names. motion and rest, respectively, seems to be a latter Even, if the names were decided, we find no descri- concept, but this idea has arrived by the time of the ption as to their exact nature and function. Further, composition of Tattvårthasūtra (i.e., c. 3rd A.D.). In the meaning that we understand of the pañcastikāya, Uttarādhyayana, chapter 28th also dharma and today, is gradually ascribed to them in due course of adharma are mentioned as the medium of motion and time. We find atleast two references in the Bhagavati- rest respectively, but according to scholars this sūtra which clarify that the dharma-astikāya and the chapter is a later addition of the c. 1st or 2nd A. D. adharma-astikāya at that time did not mean media of
Seven Categories motion and rest, respectively. In the 20th śataka of Bhagavatisatra, it is mentioned that abstinence from
In SatrakȚtănga (2/5-765-782 ) we find two the eighteen places of sin and observance of the five
categories of being (asti ) and not-being (năsti). The
elements which are classified under being category vigilances (samitis ) alongwith three controls (guptis ) is dharmăstikāya, while indulging in the eighteen
are — loka (universe), aloka ( space beyond places of sin and not following the five vigilances
universe ) jiva ( the living-being ), dharma, adharma, (samitis ) and the three controls (guptis ) is, called
bandha, mokşa, punya, pāpa, āsrava, samvara,
vedana, nirjarā, kriyā, akriyā, krodha, māna, lobha, adharmāstikāya. In the 16th śataka of Bhagavati
prema, dveșa, caturanta, samsāra, deva, devi, siddhi, sutra, the question is raised whether a deity (deva ) standing at the end of the universe (unoccupied space)
asiddhi, siddhanijasthāna, aādhu, asādhu and kalyana. can move his hands outside the universe (aloka ) ?
This detailed list is abridged in the second The answer given to this question is not only negative part ( śrutaskandha ) of Sūtrakıtārga. Here we find but is also explanatory. It says that as the movement the mention of jiva-ajiva, punya-pāpa, āsravaof Jiva and Ajiva is possible only through matter samvara, vedanā-nirjarā, kriyā-adhikarana, bandha (pudgala ) and as there is complete absence ofjivas and mokşa. It is an earlier stage, as Pt. Dalsukha and the pudgalas in the aloka, the movement of the Malvania observes, the concept of nine-fold elements hands of the diety is impossible there. If dharma is developed from this very list after deleting vedanā, dravya was considered as a medium of motion, at that kriya and adhikaraņa from it. This is alluded, in time the answer would have been in different way, Samavāyārga and Uttarādhyayana, approximately c. i.e., due to the absence of dharma-dravya he can not 2nd or 3rd A. D. Out of these nine-fold elements

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Umāsvāti presents, the concept of seven elements (tattvas ) including punya and pāpa under āsrava, in the c. 3rd 4th. We find discussions of the seven-fold or nine-fold categories (tattva ) in the later composed scriptures of both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions. This shows that the concept of seven categories (tattva ) has also its origin in Sūtraktănga and has taken final shape in due course of time and got finalised in c. 3rd or 4th A. D. During the c. 7th- 10th A.D. these ideas had properly conceptualised as it is described in details with their various classes and sub-classes.
We find that at the root of the formulation of the concepts of seven or nine-fold categories, six-fold substances and the six-fold jivanikāya, is the basic idea of Pañcâstikāva. The Jaina thinkers, of course, have developed the concept of six substances by synthesizing their conception of Pañcastikāya and the idea of substance as it is found in the other philoso- phical systems. In the following pages we will try to see as to how it has worked out. Substance
What is known as substance is the fundamental constituent of the universe. The sat, of the ancient Indian philosophical traditions, has taken the form of dravya ( substance ) later on. As a matter of fact, the philosophical traditions which regard the ultimate reality as one and unchangeable have adopted the world 'Sat' and those which consider the reality as many and changeable have used the word substance (dravya ), instead of 'sat. In the systems of Indian thought like Nyāya and Vaiseșika etc. the use of the word substance (dravya ) or padartha remains in vogue. So far as the Jaina philosophy is concerned though we find the term dravya in Ācārānga yet the word is not used in any technical sense.
In Uttaradhyayana, the word 'dravya' is men- tioned for the first time. That particular chapter of Uttaradhyayana, where in dravya is discussed, is reg-
arded as relatively later, ofc. 2nd or 3rd A. D., by the scholars. There we find that not only the word dravya ( substance ) is used, but the mutual relation among the substance, attributes and modes are also discussed. Substance is defined as substratum of attributes (guņāņām āsavo davvo ). In my opinion, this definition of substance, given in Uttarādhyayana, seems to be influenced by the Nyāya-Vaiseșika school. Pujyapāda Devanandi defined substance as an aggregate of attributes in his commentary on Tattvārthasatra, known as Sarvărthasiddhi (c. 5th or 6th A. D.). This definition seems to be influenced by the Buddhist Skandhavāda. In favour of this view Pujyapada has quoted 'gunanam samuo davvo' from the scriptures. This shows that this concept should have been prior to the c. 6th. Both the definition of substance as 'substratum of attributes' and 'aggregate of attributes' should have been in my opinion, prevalent before the c. 3rd. By synthesizing these two views through Jaina theory of Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism) the substance is defined for the first time, as that which possesses attributes and modes in Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasutra.
Six-substances ($addravya )
We have already stated that the concept of saddravya ( six substances) has been developed from the idea of pañcāstikāya. By adding 'time' as an independent substance in pañcâstikaya, the concept of six substances (șaddravya ) is formulated. Though from c. 2nd-7th A.D., 'Time' was always a matter of discussion whether it is an independent substance or not (as it is indicated in several works from Tattvārthasūtra to Visesavasyakabhäsya), yet finally it was accepted as an independent substance. It was c. 7th A. D. when both the Svetambara and Digambara traditions agreed to accept the idea of saddravya and no change occurred in the theory afterwards. The six substances are now classified into the following three main divisions--astikaya-anastik Tya, jiva ( living ),

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ajiva (non-living) and murta-amūrta. In the first classification - dharma, adharma, ākāśa, jiva and pudgala - these five are regarded as astikaya and 'Time' as anastikāya ( unextended substance ). In the second classification dharma, adharma, ākāśa, pudgala and kāla are regarded as Ajiva (Non-living beings) and the Jiva is considered as living being. In the last classification jiva, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and kāla are regarded as amurta (abstract) and pudgala (matter) as marta (concrete). We have already stated that the development of the concept of substance in the Jaina philosophy is almost influenced by the Nyaya-Vaiseṣika philosophy. Jainācāryas have synthesised the Vaiseșika idea of substance with their own concept of pañcastikāya. As such while in Vaiseṣika there are nine substances, the Jainas, by adding time to pañcāstikāya have made them six in all. Jiva, ākāśa and kāla remained common in both. Prthvi, ap, tejas and marut - the four, out of the five mahābhūtas which are regarded as substances in the Vaśeşika are not recognised by the Jainas as independent substances. They are only considered as varieties of jiva-dravya. The Jainas have also not accepted
'dik' and 'mana' as independent substances, instead they have included three others - dharma, adharma and pudgala in their scheme of substances. It may also be noted that while the other traditions have treated pṛthvi, ap, vayu and agni as jada (nonliving), the Jainas regard them as living. Thus, the Jaina concept of six substances (saddravya ) seems to be quite original. We can only find its partial similarity with other traditions. The main reason behind this is that the Jainas have developed their idea of six substances (saḍdravya ) on the line of their own theory of pañcästikäya.
Şadjivanikāya
Along with pañcāstikāya, we also find the concept of sadjivanikaya (six-fold living beings) in Jaina canons. This concept has developed from

jivāstikāya, one of the kāyas in pañcāstikāya. The six kinds of jivāstikāya are — earth (pṛthvikaya), water (apkaya), air (vayukaya ), fire (tejas-kaya). vegitation (vanaspatikāya) and mobile beings (trasakāya ). The use of the word kaya (body) for earth etc. is found since remote past. In Palitripitaka Ajitakeśa-kambali, calls pṛthvi, ap, tejas and vāyu the four bhutas as kaya but Pakudhakaccayana adds three more to the list, i.e., happiness (sukha ), sufferings (duḥkha) and the living being (jiva) and make them seven in number. The Jainas position is a little different. First they regard the five-jiva, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and pudgala as kaya (astikāya) and then include pṛthvi, ap, tejas, vāyu, vanaspati and trasa, six in all, underjīvanikāya. Thus, there are two concepts-pañcāstikāya and ṣadjivanikāya and both of them have been prevalent in Jainism in thec. 4th-3rd B. C. in their crude form, but were developed and systematised in c. 3rd-5th A. D.
Distinct references of ṣadjivanikaya are available in the first chapter of Acaranga and in Sūtrakṛtānga also. It is accepted by all the scholars that all these scriptures are of the c. 4th B. C. and are conte
mporary to the older part of Pali Tripitaka and earlier Upanisadas. It is likely that these concepts might have belonged to Mahavira.
The concept of pañcāstikāya basically belongs to the Parsva tradition. It is recoginsed in the tradition of the Mahavira also while interpreting the world. There is a reference in the Bhagavatisūtra to the effect that Mahavira has accepted the Parsva ideas that the universe is made of Pañcāstikāya.
I do not agree with Pt. Malvania's opinion that the concept of pañcāstikāya is a later developed concept. It is true, of course, that in the earlier works of Mahavira's tradition there is mention of only sadjivanikaya and not of pañcästikäya. But when the Parsva tradition merged with that of the Mahavira,

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the philosophical ideas of the former also got their which they transmigrate from one Yoni to another and way in the latter. As such, the idea of pañcāstikāya the manner in which they take their food etc. A type was basically of Pārsva tradition, so it could find its ofjivas are called anasyata there. From this, we can place in Bhagavatisātra after its merging in conclude that the idea of anantakäya ( infinite jiva in Māhāvira's tradition.
one body) and pratyekakāya (Onejiva in one body)
came into existence in c. 3rd 4th. The decision as to other living beings but even earth, water, fire and air which of the creatures (jivas ) are to be included in too, as living beings. This is a very typical Jaina con
the two, three or the four sensed jiva, respectively is cept. In the other systems, such as Nyāya -Vaisesika also finalised afterwards. In Bhagavati, it takes the etc. these four elements are considered as mahā- form ofjiva-ajiva division, however, the concept has bhutas and as such jada (unconscious, inanimate). fully developed by the time of Prajnapanā because Among the mahābhūtas, akāśa (space) is the only there we have detailed discussions on indriya, ahāra, element, regarded as non-living (ajiva ) in both the paryapti etc. traditions (Jainism as well as Nyāya-Vaiseșika ).
After the c. 3rd an important change occurred That is whyākāśa is included in pañcāstikāya but has in the classification of mobile and immobile being no place in sadjivanikāya in which only the other (trasa and sthāvara ). Right from Ācāranga to four, viz., earth, water, fire and air are included. The
Tattvărthasūtra, earth, water and vegetation are Jaina thinkers accept not only the life as dependent on regarded as immobile (sthāvara ) and fire, air and the earth, water and the like but also as living too. That is
two, three, four and five-sensed living creatures as why the abstinence from violence towards earth,
mobile (trasa ). The last chapter of Uttaradhyayana, water, air, fire and vegetation is so prominently pres
Kundakunda's Pañcāstikāyasăra and Umāsvāti's cribed in the Jaina Sadhanā, parti-cularly for the Tattvārthasutra confirm it. Afterwards not only earth, Muni's. The subtleness and the extre-me that we find
water and vegetation but all the one-sensed beings are in the observance of non-violence (Ahimsa ) in the regarded as immobile. However, due to the moveJainism have their roots in the idea ofşadjivanikaya. ment seen in fire and air it becomes difficult to regard If we regard earth etc. under the category of the living them as immobile. The root cause of the problem was beings, it is but natural to abstain from their violence. that in those days the two or more sensed beings were
The conception ofşadjivanikāya in Jainism is called trasa, hence it was thought that other than two the oldest one. It is accepted as such from its origin to or more sensed beings all the one sensed beings are date. It is difficult to say that it has undergone any considered as sthāvara ( immobile ). This shows the fundamental change between c. 3rd-10th except that change which had taken place in the c. 5th-6th in the some important issues regarding their classification trasa-sthāvara classification, approximately. After have been raised and some detailed informations that in both the Svetambara and Digambara sects, the about their body, their way of taking food, their concept of pañcasthāvara has found firm footings. It language, their classes, sub-classes etc. are depicted is noteworthy here that when air and fire are regarded in Prajñāpanā and Jivājivābhigama. According to Pt. as trasa, there is the use of the term udara (urala ) for Malvania there is a description in the second chapter trasa. In the beginning the criterion of classification of Sūtrakrtānga, known as Ahāraparijña, regarding of trasa-sthāvara is made from the point of view of the yonis in which jivas take the birth and the way in moveability of things, and as air and fire are

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moveable in nature they are thought of as trasa. The moveable nature of vayu is so apparent that it is called trasa, first of all out of five one sensed beings. By minute observations, it is seen that fire too has a tendency of gradual expansion through fuel so it is also included into trasa (mobile). But the move-ment of water is regarded as possible only due to the low level of the earth so movement is not its own nature. Therefore, water, like the vegetation is also taken as sthāvara (immobile ). As the movement in air and fire is inherent so these two are considered as trasa and other as sthavaras. Further when the two or more sensed jivas are recognised as immobile (sthavara) the problem of reconciling this view with Agamic statements arose. In the Svetambara schools this reconciliation is marked as the basis of the distinction of labdhi and gati. From the standpoint of the labdhi, air and fire are viewed as immobile (sthavara) but viewed from the angle of movement (gati) they remain mobile (trasa). In the Dhavala commentary of Digambara tradition (c. 10th) the problem is solved differently. It is said that the basis of calling air and fire as sthavara, is not their movement but their Nama-karma origin. Jayasenācārya, the commentator of pañcastikāya of Kundakunda, solves the problem by making a distinction between niscayanaya and vyavahara-naya. According to him, the earth, water and vegetation are included into pañca sthavara because of their Nama-karma origin, but air and fire classification under pañcasthavars are only from the practical point of view (vyavahāra). From niścayanaya they are trasa as they actually appear to be mobile. All these excercises really are worthwhile
attempts to reconcile the differences, cropped of during respective contentions of the ancient and the later scriptures.
So far as the question of different classifications of jivas are concerned they are crystalised during the c. 3rd-10th. In that period the concepts of

Jivasthana, Märgaṇāsthāna, Guṇasthāna have also developed. Wherever these topics have been discussed in the Anga-Agamas such as Bhagavati etc. the reference has been made to Anga-bahya Agamas (External authorities) such as Prajñāpanā etc. It confirms that these theories are developed after the c. 2nd. First they are discussed in the Anga-bahya Agamas and afterwards at the time of Valabhi-vācanā they are included in Anga-agamas with the note that for detailed discussions relevant Anga-bahya scriptures are to be seen.
Jaina Theory of Guṇasthäna and its Developement The doctrine of fourteen stages of spiritual development (Gunasthana) is one of the most popular theories of Jainism. Except Samaväyänga, none of the canonical work refers to this theory. Scholars are of the strong opinion that the reference relating to Gunasthana found in Samavāyānga is an interpolation incorporated at the time of second Valabhi Council (c. 5th A. D. ). The Niryuktis are also silent about this theory, except the present edition of Avasakaniryukti wherein, two gathās mention the names of these fourteen Gunasthanas. This is remarkable that till the time of Haribhadra's commentary on Avasyaka Niryukti, these two gathās were not accepted as Niryukti gāthās as in his commentary, he has clearly mentioned that these gathās has been quoted by him from the Sangrahani-sutra.
It seems that till the c. 4th A. D. the concept of these fourteen stages of spiritual development has not come into existence. Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra throwing light on almost every aspect of Jaina philosophy and religion including various stages of spiritual development does not mention the fourteen Gunasthanas as such. The same is the case with its auto-commentary. Though in the ninth chapter of the Tattvärthasutra the author has mentioned four, seven and ten stages of spiritual development, yet he does not make any mention of these fourteen stages in it.

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false attitudes like the taste of curd mixed with sugar, which is neither sweet nor sour. This is the stage of doubt. In this stage soul accepts neither the perverse attitude nor the right one. It remains in dilemma.
Thus, we may conclude that the theory of the fourteen stages of spiritual development was not prevalent at the time of compilation of Tattvārthasūtra, otherwise, Umāsvāti would have mentioned it.
These evidences show that the theory of fourteen Guņasthānas came into existence after Tattvārthasutra, i.e., c. 4th A. D. For the first time, this theory was introduced along with all its details, in Puspadanta and Bhutabali's Satkhandagama (c. 5th A. D.). After that it is discussed in Pujyapada's Sarvārthasiddhi ( c. 6th A. D.) and Tattvārthabhāsya-tika of Siddhsenagani (c. 7th-8th ) in detail, however, its pre-concept in the form of ten stages was already present in Ācārānganiryukti ( 22-23 ) and Tattvārthasūtra ( 9/47 ). From these ten stages of spiritual development the theory of fourteen Gunasthāna was conceptualised in c. 5th A. D.
These fourteen stages are as follows:
1. The first stage is called mithyādrsti, i.e., perversity of attitude. It is the lowest stage from where the spiritual journey of soul starts. It is considered as a stage of spiritual development only be- cause in this very state the efforts for the attainment of the right vision are made. The process of granthibheda occurs at the end of this stage. At this stage the soul, is in the grip of extreme passions (ananta- nubhandhi kaşaya ).
2. The second stage is known as sāsvādana- samyagdrsti, i.e., to have a momentary taste of the right vision. This is an intermediate stage and it occurs when soul falls from the right attitude towards the false attitude. This stage is called sāsvādanasamyagdrsti because in this stage soul has a taste of right attitude or right version just as a person after eating delicious dishes vomits and has a taste of those dishes in that state of vomiting.
3. The third stage is technically known as samyag-mithyadrsti. It is mixed stage of the right and
4. The fourth stage is aviratasamyagdrsti, a stage of right attitude without right conduct. Though in this scheme of Gunasthāna it is considered to be the fourth stage, but in reality it is the first stage in the upward journey of the soul towards its spiritual heights. It is the stage in which the soul gets the glimpse of truth for the first time. At this stage the self knows right as a right and wrong as a wrong but due to the lack of spiritual strength, inspite of the knowledge and the will, he cannot abstain himself from the wrong path of immorality.
5. The fifth stage is known as deśavirata samyagdrsti. This is the stage of right attitude with partial observance and partial non-observance of moral code. A house-holder, who possesses right vision and observes five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four śikṣāvratas, comes in this category. In this stage one knows what is right and also tries to practise it, but one cannot have full control over one's passions. At this stage there is only partial expression of the energy of self-control. After attaining the fourth stage, if one develops spiritual strength and has control over the second set of four passions, i.e. apratyākhyāni-kaṣāya-catuṣka, one is able to attain this stage.
6. In spiritual journey of the soul, the sixth stage is called pramatta-samyata-gunasthāna. It is the stage in which the self observes right conduct fully. He observes five mahāvratas and other rules of fully moral conduct of a monk, yet he has an attachment towards his body and due to this attachement the spiritual inertia is still there. This is the stage of selfcontrol with spiritual inertia. At the end of this stage the aspirant tries to subside or annihilate the third set

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of four passions and spiritual inertia and climbs the seventh ladder.
7. The seventh stage is the stage of self- control and self awareness alongwith freedom from spiritual inertia, which is technically known as apramatta-samyata-gunasthāna. At this stage the self has full control over his passions and observes the moral code without any negligence. This stage can be attained by overcoming the nine types of pramādas or unawareness and the three sets of four types of passions. From this stage there are two ways open for the upward spiritual journey of the soul. They are technically known as upaśama-śreni and ksapaka- śreņi. Upasama-śreņi is the path of suppression or subsidence while the Kasapaka-śreņi is the path of annihilation. The person, who climbs the ladder of spiritual progress by suppressing his passions, is bound to fall from spiritual heights but the person who climbs up the ladder of spiritual heights through the annihilation of his passions ultimately attains nirvāņa or emancipation.
8. The eighth stage of spiritual development is called apūrvakaraņa. In this stage self attains a special purification and spiritual strength, and thus becomes capable of reducing the duration and the intensity of the previously bonded karmas. At this stage soul performs the four processes of the karma – sthitighata (destruction of the duration of karmas). rasaghāta ( destruction of the intensity of karmas). guna-sarikramana (transformation of the quality of karmic matter) and apurva-sthitibandha (bondage of an unprecedented kind of duration ). This total process is technically known as apūrva-karana. In this stage the soul for the first time experiences the spiritual bliss and tranquility and emotional disturb- ances do not effect it much. At this stage the three sets of four passions alongwith anger and pride of the fourth set disappear, only subtle deceit and greed alongwith nine sub-passions ( instincts ) remain.
9. The ninth stage is named as anivettikarana, because the process of anivịttikarana operates in this stage. It is also known as bādara-samparāya gunasthana, because in this stage there is occasional possibility of the soul being effected by gross passions (bādara-samparāya ), although it has a power of control over them. At this stage, out of nine sub-passions, three types of sexual instinct subside and only six instincts and subtle greed remain, but due to the presence of sub-passions and subtle greed, a fear of attack by gross passions remain. At the end of this stage struggle for spiritual progress comes to an end and the soul climbs the tenth ladder.
10. This stage is named as sūkṣmasamparāyagunasthāna, because at this stage only the subtle form of greed remains. This greed can be interpreted as the subconscious attachment of the soul with the body. When this subtle attachment alongwith remaining sub-passions is subsided or annihilated, the soul ascends to the next stage. The soul, who has made his spiritual progress through the ladder of subsidence (upašama-śreni ) ascends to the eleventh gunasthāna and the soul, which take up the ladder of annihilation (kşapaka-śreņi ), climbs directly to the twelfth stage.
11. This stage is known as upaśāntamohaniyagunasthāna; because in this stage deluding karma remains in the subsided form. It is the highest stage for those who ascend through the ladder of subsidence or suppression. But ultimately the suppressed passions arise and disturb the tranquility of mind. The soul invariably descends from this stage either to the sixth, fifth or fourth or even first stage. This is noteworthy that Jainism does not advocate the process of suppression of the passions for the spiritual progress. This view of Jainism is further supported by the modern psychologists such as Freud etc.
12. The twelfth stage in the spiritual development of the soul is called kşiņamola-gunasthāna. In this stage deluding karma, which is the main obstruc

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tion in the spiritual progress, is completely destroyed. (iii) transcendental self (paramātmā). It is clear that At the end of this stage the rest three ghati-karma, in Jainism these three stages of spiritual quest are a jñānāvarana, darśanāvarana and antarāya are also later developed concept, because neither the canodestroyed and the soul ascends to the thirteenth stage. nical works nor the earlier works of Jaina philosophy 13. This stage is known as sayogi-kevali
of Umasväti, Siddhasena Divakara etc. refer it. In gunasthāna. In this stage soul attains the four infini
Digamabara tradition, for the first time we have a tes, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite perception,
mention of these classification in Ācārya Kunda
m infinite bliss, infinite power and thus becomes omni
kunda's Mokşaprābhrta (4) then in the Pujyapada's scient. It is the highest stage of spiritual development.
Samādhitantra ( 4 ), Svāmikumāra's KārtikeyanuIt is the stage of jivana-mukti of other systems of prekșa
ime of prekşă ( 192 ) and Yogindu's Paramātmaprakasa Indian philosophy. Only due to the existence of four
(13). In Svetāmbara tradition, Haribhadra has mennon-destructive karmas, i.e., ayu (age ), nāma, gotra
tioned these three states of spiritual quest in his work : and vedaniya, soul remains in the body till the span of
These three stages are as under: age determining karma is not exhausted.
1. The extrovert self (bahiratma ): Possesses 14. This stage is named as ayogikevali-guna
perverse attitude hence consequently does not discristhāna, because in this stage the omniscient soul
minates soul from body, regards the external thing as controls its activities of mind, body and speech and
mine and takes keen interest in the worldly enjoythus prepares itself for the final emancipation. In this
ment. stage the remaining four non-destructive karmas are
2. The introvert self (antarātma ): The self, destroyed and the soul, after leaving the body, pro
which possessess the right attitude and therefore, ceeds for its heavenly abode at the top of the universe
clearly distinguishes the soul from the body and the and lives their for time-infinite.
other external belongings is called an introvert self. It
does not take interest in the worldly enjoyments, but Three Stages of Spiritual Quest
meditates on one's own real nature and regards exterThere are two classifications of spiritual nal belongings as alien to it. This has been further quest in Jainism — Theory of fourteen gunasthānas subdivided into three states -(i) lower, (ii) middle already discussed and the theory of three stages of and (iii) higher. The soul belonging to fourth stage of spiritual developments. This second classification is gunasthāna is called lower introvert self. The soul based on Upanişadic classification of the soul. The belonging to the fifth or the sixth stage ofgunasthāna Upanişadas have two, three and four-fold classifica- is called middle introvert self and the soul belonging tion of the soul. In two-fold classification, the soul is to the seventh to twelfth guṇasthāna is called higher of two kinds – antaḥprajñana and bahişprajñāna introvert self. (Māndukyopanişad, 7 ) and in four-fold classifica
3. The transcendental self (paramātma ): The tion, four stages of the soul, are : (i) sleeping state, self, completely free from all sorts of impurities and (ii) dreaming state, (iii) awakened state and (iv) passions such as aversion, attachment, pride, anger, transcendental state ( Māņdūkyopanişad, 2/12). deceit, greed, sexual desire and other sub-passions. Similarly, in Jainism spiritual quest has been sum- According to Jaina tradition this type of self possesmarised in three stages — (i) the extrovert self ses four infinities, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite (bahirātmā ), (ii) the introvert self (antarātma ) and perception, infinite bliss and infinte power. There are

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two categories of transcendental Self-(i) Arhatas caritra ), (three jewels of Jainism ) which are equally and (ii) Siddhas.
recognised and well received in both of the sects of Three-fold Path of Liberation
Jainism - Svetāmbara and Digamabara alongwith The Jaina theory of bondage and liberation of
their sub-sects. the soul is unique in Indian philosophy. Jainism holds
In c. 4th-5th the meaning of the constituents that jiva is bound by its own karmas. With every
of this three-fold path was reinterpreted. For example activity mental or physical and, however, subtle that
the term darśana used in Ācārānga, connoting the may be, the karma particles veils the soul and this is
meaning as 'to see' or 'to observe' got its new interprethe bondage of the jiva. Thus, the cause of the
tation in Uttarădhyayana as 'to believe' or 'to have bondage of the jiva is its own passionate activity of
faith' in categories ( tattvas ), Tattvārthastra also mind, body and speech. As the cause of the bondage supports this meaning. Later on, this meaning of is the union of karma-matter with the soul, the libera
samyak-darśana was replaced by the meaning as to tion means the separation or complete annihilation of
have faith in Arhanta as a 'Deva', i.e., the object of these karma-particles, Jainism prescribes three-fold
worship, Nirgrantha as a teacher ( guru ) and religion path for attainment of liberation. This three-fold
as non-violence or being benevolent to others. This concept witnessed gradual changes in it between
meaning is still in vouge. c. 3rd-10th A. D. Ācāranga for the first time in its 6th
Similarly, the meaning of samyak-jflana or chapter, mentions triyama, but as this term is used right knowledge also got some new interpretation. In there vaguely, it is quite difficult to derive any definite the earlier times Jaina thinkers held that the right meaning from it. That is why the commentators knowledge consists in knowing the things in its real explained it in different ways. Some explained it as nature alongwith its infinite facets. This right knowthree yamas, i.e., non-violence, truth and non- ledge is classified into five types in earlier Agamas possession, while some took it as Right knowledge, as — (i) Matijñana – the knowledge obtained Right faith and Right conduct. In my opinion, this through five senses and the mind. It includes both term connotes the meaning of non-violence (nikhitta- sense perception as well as rational and inferential danda ), reasonableness (prajna) and composure or knowledge, (ii) Srutajplana- the knowledge acquired equanimity of mind. Apart from this three-fold con- through language or through symbols and expresscept we find mention of four-fold path of liberation in ions or scriptural knowledge, (iii) Avadhijñana - Uttaradhyayana and Kundakunda's Pancāstikāya. extra-sensory perception akin to clairvoyance, (iv) This four-fold path includes – Right attitude, Right Manahparyayajñana -- reading the thought-waves of knowledge, Right conduct and Right penance. In others mind and (v) Kevalajñāna - perfect knowSamavāyanga and Sthananga, we find different out- ledge. The detailed description about the developlook as the both of the works mention two-fold, three- ment of these types of knowledge has already been fold, four-fold and five-fold path of liberation. Thus, discussed in the present article under the heading of till the canonical age the number of constituents of 'Jaina Theory of Knowledge'. the path of liberation was not fixed. For the first time Later on, Right knowledge was considered as in the Umāsvāti's Tattvarthasatra it was fixed as the knowledge of the seven categories (tattvas ), i.e., three-right knowledge (samyak-jñana ), right faith jiva (living subtance), ajiva (non-living substance ), (samyak-darśana ) and right conduct ( samyak- asrava (influx of karmic matter ), saṁvara ( stoppage

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vectors of attachment and aversion. From practical point of view right conduct means the adoption of such rules of disciplines as prescribed by the Jinas.
of the influx of the karmic matter ), nirjara ( stoppage of the accumulated karmic matter ) and Mokșa (com- plete annihilation of the karma and to remain in one's pure nature ). But after thec. 3rd A. D. the meaning of right knowledge changed and it was held that right knowledge consisted in the discrimination between the self and not-self. The right knowledge is the knowledge of the pure self but the pure self can be known only through the reference to not-self. Thus, knowing the nature of the not-self and differentiating it from the self is called the science of discrimination (bheda-vijnana ) and this science of discrimination constitutes the real meaning of right knowledge. Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) has made an exhaustive study of the science of discrimination in Samayasara ( 207-210 ). He says anger, deceit etc. are due to the power of fruition of the karmic matter, hence not the real nature of the self. The self is the pure knower. In Istopadeśa ( 33 ) of Pajyapāda Devanandi (c. 6th A. D.) it is mentioned that right knowledge is that in which a clear distinction between the self and not-self is made. Amrtacandra also followed the same meaning of right knowledge in his works. He says the who is liberated (siddha ) has become so, through discrimination of self from not-self and who is in bondage, is so due to its absence (Samayasarakalasa, 132 ). Thus, in Jainism during c. 6th-10th A. D., the right knowledge is equated with this science of discrimination of self and not-self which as a right knowledge was well accepted in Jainism as well as in Gita, Sankhya-Yoga system and Sankara-Vedānta also.
In Jainism right conduct has been described from two points of view – real and practical. In the earlier agamas from real point of view right conduct is considered in which the soul is completely free from passions and perversities. It is the state of equa- nimity of mind. In Jainism, it is maintained that conduct is dharma, dharma is equanimity and equa- nimity means the state of self which is free from the
Later on, right conduct is considered by Jaina thinkers on the basis of its two aspects - external and internal. These two aspects are technically called dravya and bhāva respectively. In Jainism external rightness of an action is to be decided in relation with other living beings. In other words, external rightness of an action depends upon its outer social results. If an action results in the well being of others or cultivates social good from the practical or extrinsic viewpoint, it is called good or right. But the intrinsic purity or righteousness of an action depends on the intention or motive of the doer. It is purity of intention or motive and not the external result, that makes an action' intrinsically good or bad. In earlier times extrinsic aspect was more important for Jainas. In Sutrakytanga the Buddhist view is criticised on the basis that they neglect the external aspect of an action. Later on, stress was given on intrinsic aspect by Jaina themselves. It is considered that an action is wrong if it is actuated by a bad intention, may it lead to the happiness of others. But we must be aware of the fact that Jainism being an integral philosophy does not hold any one-sided view, it gives due importance to the intention as well as the consequences of an action. It adds due imporatnce to the social aspects of morality. Jainas do not believe in the dualism of thought and action. For them a right action is the proof of mental purity and the mental purity is the basis for the righteousness of an action. This outlook about the righteousness of the conduct remained unchanged in the later times also. One should be aware of the fact that the general code of conduct for an house-holder as well as for monks and nuns remained the same from the earliest time to the c. 10th but with the passage of time some changes occurred in the interpretation of such rules.
so.

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In fact, the canonical works have mere skel- were accepted in earlier code of conduct. Secondly, ton of rules and regulations of conduct, it is only in this period is considered very important as most of the Bhaşya (c. 6th A. D.) and Carnis (c. 7th A. D.). the Jaina sects emerged in this period during c. 4thJaina thinkers tried to robe this skelton. They gave not 5th A. D. This period is known as the period of only the various interpretations to the rules and regu- Schism in Jaina history. Three important Jainalations for the monks and nuns as well as for the lay Sects - Digambara, Svetāmbara and Yapaniya have followers, according to their time and circumstances, their origin in this period. This is also to be noted that but discussed in detail their exceptions and atone- before c. 2nd-3rd A. D., the code of conduct of Jaina ments also. In the earlier times, it was maintained that ascetics was very rigorous but from the c. 3rd 4th instead of breaking the rules prescribed for self- many exceptions-relaxations were accepted in their control, it is better to accept the Samadhimarana, but earlier code of conduct. in those centuries it was maintained that one should
The distinguished feature of this age was that protect one's self by all means. A monk or a nun who by this period Jaina ascetics started living in the protected his life by accepting or resorting to the temples and mathas instead of living in outskirts of exception was not considered the guilty of breaking the cities and secluded places. Not only this but insthe rules if his mind was pure. In Oghaniryukti ( 47- tead of following the vow of non-possession, in its 48), it is said that for the proper following of the path true spirit, Jaina monks became the owner of these of liberaton, protection of body is essential. Thus, in temples, mathas and the properties donated to the these centuries accepting the exceptions was favoured. temples. It was only this period when tradition of
So far as the developments or the changes in Caityaväsa, i.e., living in the Jina temples or mathas the ethical code of conduct of monks and nuns are started. Due to the tendency of Caityavāsa Jaina concerned, the period from c. 3rd-10th A. D. must be monks became liberal to some extent in their code of considered of much importance on the two grounds. conduct. They started leading luxurious life ins-tead Firstly, in the c. 4th-5th A. D. a major diversion took of rigorous one. Inspite of these drawbacks of this place in the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. period one thing is very remarkable that most of the Before this said period Jaina sādhanā meant self- important Jaina literature was composed as well as purification, hence exclusively individualistic, but by written in this period. It is noteworthy that in this these centuries, instead of self-purification, stress was period (c. 4th-5th A. D.) writing of the Jaina canons laid on the propagation as well as survival of Jainism as well as other works on palm-leaves was started. in the society. As a result, instead of individual, Jaina The Bhattārakas and Yatis made better efforts to preorder (sargha ) became more important. It was main- serve the treasure trove of Jaina literature. They offertained that at any cost, the image of Jaina order (Jaina ed the medical services not only to Jaina society but society as a whole ) should not be damaged and for to the other people also. Thus, inspite of, some weakthis purpose external behaviour was considered of ness in following the religious code of conduct of much imporance than that of internal purification. A Jaina monks, they got favour of Jaina society at large slogan had been given that an action though pure, if due to their benevolent services to the society. against the general will, should not be followed. Not Development of the Concept of Tirthankara only this, but to maintain the dignity of Jaina sangha and Bhakti Movement in Jainism and propogation of Jaina religion various exceptions
The concept of Tirtharikara is the pivot,

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around which the whole Jaina religion revolves. In more older than that of Dighanikaya. In the whole Jainism, Tirtharkara is regarded as the founder of Jainaāgamic literature, the word 'Tirtharkara' is used religion as well as the object of worship. Generally, for the first time in Uttarādhyayana and in second part the Jaina concept of Tirthankara resembles that of of Ācāranga. Words like Arhat, Jina, Buddha are incarnation (avatāravāda ) of Hinduism. Both carry frequently used in excessive form in the old Āgamas, the same object as they are propounders of religion the synonyms of Tirthankara. Presently, the word but there is a fundamental difference in both of the Tirthankara has become a specific term of Jaina concepts. According to Gita, the purpose behind the tradition. incarnation of God is to propound religion and to
Chronologically, the concept of Tirtharkara destroy the wicked while in Jainism Tirtharkara is
came into existence betweenc. 3rd-1st B. C. So far as only regarded as propounder of religion, not the des
the fully developed concept of Tirthankara is concertroyer of wickeds. Not only this, the second funda
ned, the first complete list of Tirtharkaras is found in mental difference between avatāra and Tirthankara is
the appendix of the Samavāyānga which was incorthat, in former the supreme power or God descends
porated at the time of Valabhi council, i.e., c. 5th on earth to reincarnate himself in different forms in
A.D. Among Jaina agamas the first part of different ages and in this way, He is the one and only
Ācāranga, considered as the oldest extant Jaina text person who reincarnates himself from time to time,
(c. 5th B. C.), mentions the ascetic life of Mahavira on the contrary, in Jainism every Tirtharkara is a
only. Sutrak tanga which describes some special differ-ent person (Soul) and on account of his special
features of Mahavira's life only hints about Parsva's personal efforts (sādhana ) made in previous births,
tradition. Rşibhāsita mentions Parsva and Vardhamana attains the supreme position. Though, it is very diffi
( Mahavira ) as Arhat Rși. The second part of cult to say that in this entire hypothesis of twenty-four
Ācāranga, for the first time describes Mahavira as Tirtharikaras and twenty-four Avatāras, who has taken
Tirtharikara alongwith some details of his parents, to what extent from whom but it is fact that in the
mentioning them as Pārśvāpatya. Uttarādhyayana process of development of their concepts both have
clearly mentions some of the life-incidents of influenced each other.
Tirthankara's like Aristanemi, Parsva and Mahavira, The word Tirthankara is being used from time whereas it indicates only the name of Rşabha, Santi, immemorial. It mainly connotes the meaning as one Kunthu and Ara. Similarly, the Namipavajjā, the 9th who eastablishes four-fold order (caturvidha sargha ). chapter of Uttaradhyayana, elaborately describes the According to the old Buddhist literature, such as, facts about Nami but it does not mention Nami as Dighanikāya and Suttanipāta ( at the time of Buddha Tirtharikara. Even in Kalpasitra, there are some details and Mahavira ) there were flourished several persons about the life of Mahavira, Pārsva, Ariştanemi and who declared themselves as Tirthankaras. Digha- Rşabha out of twenty-four Tirtharkaras. Remaining nikāya mentions the Jñataputra Mahavira as one of names of second to twenty first Tirthankaras, seem to the six Buddha's contemporaneous Tirthankaras. be incorporated in the list of Tirtharkaras, later on in Though, it seems quite amazing because the first c. 4th-5th A. D. In Digambara tradition earliest desŚrutaskandha of Ācāranga and Satrakrtānga, elabo- cription about 24 Tirtharkaras is found for the first rately describing the life of Mahavira, do not call him time in Tiloyapannatti, which is supposed to be comas Tirtharikara. It shows that these agamic texts are posed after c. 5th A. D. So far as iconographical

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
evidences are concerned only images of the four Tirthankaras - Mahavira, Paráva, Ariştanemi and Rşabha - are found during c. 3rd B. C.-1st A. D. The images of other Tirthankaras are of later period, i.e., after c. 2nd-3rd A. D. This suggests that the concept of 24 Tirtharikaras came into existence only after c. 3rd. With the development of the concept of Tirtharikaras the system of their worship ( Paja- paddhati ) also came into prominence.
Jainism emerged as an ascetic religion. Initia- lly, it laid more stress on austerity and meditation. In the beginning all sorts of ceremonial or sacrificial performances (karmakānda ) were totally absent in it. It was only a religion of self-purification. In Āgamas there are no traces of ceremonial performances or any system of idol worship or religious adoration, asking for the grace of God. In Jaina tradition, for the first time the six essential duties ( sadāvaśyakas), i.e., practice for equanimity ( Sāmāyika ), praising twenty- four Tirtharkaras (Caturvimśati stavana ), paying respect to ācāryas ( vandana ), atonement of blemi- shed activities (pratikramana ), mortification (kayotsarga ) and taking some vow (pratyakhyana ) were introduced
Most probably, in c. 2nd-3rd B. C., these six essentials ( sadāvaśyakas) got ordained and established. Archaeological evidences emphatically show that in Jaina tradition, making of the Jaina images was started in c. 3rd 4th B. C., but no evidence found about the modes of worshipping these idols, particularly in ancient Āgamas. For the first time, Rayapaseniyasutta mentions the rituals of worshipp- ing of Jina-image. A comparative study proves that it was only an adoption of Hindu method of worshipp- ing their dieties. Though, some of the portions of Rayapaseniyasutta are undoubtedly old, but the portion which deals with the art of temple building and rituals relating to the worship is still older and belongs to the c. 3rd 4th A. D. To me, it appears that
the development of devotionalism and ceremonial performances in Jainism, started from c. 3rd 4th A. D. In this period, the Hindu system of ceremonial perfomance and worship was adopted in Jainism with minor changes. Starting from the period of Lord Pārsva and Mahāvira upto the c. 2nd A. D., the śramanic tradition in gene-ral and Jainism in particular joined hands in the development of new spiritualistic Hinduism, through condemning all sorts of ceremonial as well as sacri-ficial performances alongwith Vedic sacerdotalism, but Jainism itself started imitating blindly the Hindu rituals in c. 3rd4th, and thus a variety of ceremonial offerings came into existence in the Jaina religious practices. This blind adoption of Hindu practices occured not only in Śvetambara and Yapaniya tradi-tion of Northern India but in the Digambara sect of South India also. As a result, not only the Vaisnava system of worship and ceremonies started in the Jaina temples but sacrificial offerings and ladles became prevalent. Due to these influences of Hindu caste system and untouchability also paved their way in Jainism. Jaina lay-devotees started wearing brahmanical sacred thread (yajñopavita ) and performing sacrifices and sacrificial ladles. Ācāraya Jinasena (c. 8th A. D.) had adopted all the Hindu sanctifying rites (samskāras ), with some modifications in his work Adipurăņa.
Following blindly, the Hindu mantras of worshipping, Jaina lay devotees started invoking and departing the Tirtharikaras in their Paja ceremonies, while according to the Jaina philosophy the Tirtharikaras neither come nor depart after final emancipation, as well as they may not be adored as the object of worship for the worldly attainment, as they are free from all types of attachment and aversion (vitarāga ). But a lay-devotee always remains in search of such a diety who can save him from worldly calamities and help him in worldly attainments. For this purpose

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
55
Jaina ācāryas accepted several Hindu godesses like images was prevalent in c. 4th B. C. The earliest Kali, Mahakali, Padmāvati, Ambika, Siddhāyika, etc. Jaina image, found from Lohānipur, Patna, belongs to as demi-goddesses (Yaksis ). They accepted various Mauryan period (c. 3rd B. C.). Several Jaina images rituals and incantations for worshipping these alongwith epigraphs have been found from Mathura goddesses. Thus, in between c. 5th-8th A. D. several and remains of Jaina temples from Kankalițila. Hindu gods and godesses became part and parcel of Among those, the earliest images date from c. 2nd B. Jaina deities. The special feature of this age was that C.-2nd A. D. Many of these images are found with performing arts like Dance, Music etc., which were dated epigraphs of Kuşāna period, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. strongly opposed in earlier agamas, such as Uttara- D. So far as the literary evidences are concerned, we dhyayana strongly expounds all sorts of dances as for the first time, find in Rayapaseniyasutta, the vexation and songs as lamentation, are cropped in details of temple architecture and the rituals related to Jaina system of worship, gradually. This description idol-worship. The Rāyapaseniyasutta is undoubtedly of fine arts in Rāyapaseniya, as a part of Jaina way of an early work, and its portion dealing with temple worship was incorporated in about the c. 5th A. D. at architecture and various performing arts, by no means, the time of Valabhi-vācanā. This depicts a complete can be of later period than c. 3rd A. D., because its picture of gradual development of fine arts like various incarnations (avatāras ) tally with the archaSculpture, Dance, Music, Drama etc. in Jaina tradi- eological remains of c. 1st-2nd of Kankalițila, tion. When the Tantrism and Vāmamārga came in- Mathurā. vogue in c. 5th-6th A. D., Jainism could not save it
Though the development of various secular self from the impact of these traditions. Being an
arts and sciences was a movement, independent of ascetic and spiritual religion, Jainism was not much
any religious tradition, yet it may be noted that religiaffected with Vāmamārga but Tantrism and ceremo
ous traditions not only contributed in their developnial performances of Hinduism definitely left their
ment, but also decided the direction of development. impact on it.
Jainas believe that various arts and sciences were Development of Various Arts & Architecture in developed by Lord Rşabha, the first Tirtharikara. In Jainism in Early Period
Jaina canonical literature 64 arts of women and 72 Archaeological evidences emphatically show arts of men are mentioned. We have a general that in Jaina tradition the making of Jaina images reference to these arts / sciences in Sätrakstarga, strated in c. 4th-3rd B. C. Though, on the basis of Jñatadharmakatha, Antakyddaśa, Samavāyanga, Harappan Teracotas and seals some Jaina scholars Anuttaraupapatikadaśa,
Rayapaseņiyasutta, opine that tradition of making Jaina images is as old Jambudvipaprajñapti, etc. Though in these canonical as the Harappan culture, yet it is very difficult to works we do not find any details about these yet on prove these teracotas and seals as of Jaina origin. the basis of these works and their commentaries Dr. Later, in the Khārvela epigraphs (c. 2nd B. C.) it is N. L. Jain, in his book ( Scientific Contents in Prakrta clearly mentioned that Nandas (c. 4th B. C.) had Canons, P. V., Varanasi, 1996 ) has presented the taken away the Jaina images from Orissa to Patna following list of various arts and sciences prevalent in which is enough to prove that the making of Jaina c. 2nd-3nd A. D.

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Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
Different Types of Learning Arts and Sciences in Various Canons
56
Number of Learnings
1. Terrestriology (Storms)
2. Meterology
3. Dreamology
4. Astrology
5. Science of Limbal Movement
6. Science of notes (birds)
7. Palmistry
8. Science of Distinctive marks in body
9. Science of Women Studies
10. Science of Men Studies
16. Science of Portridge
17. Science of Quails
18. Science of Young Quails
11. Science of Horses (Training & Management)
12. Science of Elephants (Training & Management)
13. Science of Cows and Oxen
14. Science of Sheep
15. Science of Poultry
19. Science of Royal Wheels
20. Science of Royal Umbrella
21. Science of Royal Sceptre
22. Science of Swords
23. Gemology (Precious Stones)
24. Science of Coinage, Cowries or Special Gems
25. Science of Shieldings
26. Science of Prosperity
27. Science of Fiascos
28. Science of Natural or Acquired Conception
29. Science of Stimulation
30. Atharva-vedic Incantation
31. Science of Jugglery/Magic
32. Science of Oblation with Fire
33. Archery
34. Science of Moon
1
SK

64
2
RP
72

3
AKT
72
4
GDK
72
5
ANU
72
6
JDP
72

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
35. Science of Sun
36. Science of Venus
37. Science of Jupiter
38. Meteorology
39. Science of Glow of Horizon
40. Science of Notes of Animals
41. Science of Notes of Special Birds
42. Prognostics of Dust-falls
43. Prognostics of Hair-falls
44. Prognostics of Meat-falls
45. Prognostics of Blood-falls
46. Science of Goblins
47. Science of Semi-goblins
48. Science of Sleeping
49. Science of Unlocking 50. Candalic Learning/Psychotherapy
51. Shabari (Kiratana) Language
52. Dravida (Tamila) Language
53. Kalingi (Oriya) Language
54. Gauri (A specific cardiolic) Language
55. Gandhari Language
56. Science of Descending
57. Science of Ascending
58. Science of Yawning
59. Science of Sustainance
60. Science of Embracing/Clinging
61. Science of Dispeptisation
62. Science of Surgery and Medicine
63. Demonology/De-demonology
64. Science of Invisibility/Disappearance
65. Art of Writing
66. Mathematics
67. Dramatics
68. Vocal Music
69. Instrumental Music
70. Science of Musical Notes, Phonetics
71. Science of Percussion Instruments
72. Science of Orchestra

1
2

3
4
5
6
57

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
4
*********
73. Art of Gambling 74. Special type of Gambling/Art of Speech 75. Art of Playing by Dice 76. Art of Playing by Special Dice 77. Art of Quick Poetics/Guarding City 78. Water Purification/Ceramics 79. Food Science/Agriculture 80. Art of Soft/Medicated Drinks 81. Textiles and Fabrication 82. Cosmetics and Perfumery 83. Science of Bed-dressing 84. Art of Composing Arya-metrics 85. Art of Riddlery Poetics 86. Magadhan Language Poetics 87. Art of Comp. Non-samsksta 32 Letter Poetics 88. Art of Comp. Gitika-meter Poetics 89. Art of Comp. Anuştup-meter Poetics 90. Chemistry of Silver 91. Chemistry of Gold 92. Art of Goldsmithy 93. Women Cosmetisation 94. Building/Architectural Engineering 95. Town Planning 96. Construction of Army Barracks 97. Science of Measures 98. Astrology/Medicine/Military Science :
Counter movement of Army Art 99. Military Science : Arraying of Army 100. Cyclic Arraying of Army 101. Garudic Arraying of Army 102. Wedge Arraying 103. General Fighting 104. Wrestling 105. Intense Fighting 106. Sight Fighting/Stick Fighting 107. Fist Fighting/Boxing/Pugilistic Fighting 108. Hand-to-Hand Fighting 139. Creeperlike Fighting
|||||||||||||||||||||||||
1933393IIIIIIIIIII3935551SN
*********
3333333333 1333333333333333333333333
sesssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss
<333333333333333333333333333333333Page #65

110. Art of Divnie Arrows/Transformation
111. Art of Swordsmanship
112. Silver Digest (Pak)
113. Gold Digest (Pak)
114. Metal Digest
115. Jewel-Gem Digest
116. Rope Tricks
117. Circular Play-tricks/Playing with Fabrics 118. Special Type of Gambling (Nalika-khela )
119. Art of Piercing Leaves
120. Art of Drilling Hard Earth
121. Art of Animation/Inanimation
122. Science of Omens/Omenology
123. Sc. of Dramatic Dressing/Painting 124. Science of Planet Rahu
125. Planetology
126. Town Planning
127. Army Barracking
128. Horses Training
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
129. Elephant Training
130. Knowledge of Special Learning
131. Science of Incarnation
132. Science of Knowing Secrets
133. Science of Direct Knowing About Objects
134. Planetory Motion/Science of Military
Movements
135. Chemistry of Perfumes
136. Art of Flowering/Tasting of Foods/ Art of
Wax-technique
137. Counter Arraying of Army
138. Art of Home Construction
139. Powder Technology
140. Art of Inanimation
141. Agriculture
142. Science of Architecture
Total

1
64
2
72

3
4
72
5
༨༨༨「 ༨ 「 │
F[| ༨ ༨༨ [ ༨ ||
[ཅེ]། ༨༨༨「 ༨ །།
72
6
「8|| ༨༨༨ [ ༨. 「| | 」
72
59

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
Conclusion
dvāras and doctrine of Syādvāda and Saptabhangi To conclude, I would like to mention here have developed gradually in due course of time. some of the specialities of early Jainism. Though Barring the concept of Saptabhargi, fourteen Guņaearly Jainism was much rigorous in its code of sthānas and six types of Pramānas, all other concepts conduct yet on the other hand it was very liberal in its of Jaina metaphysics and epistemology took their approach. The earliest Jaina canonical works, Sūtra- shape before c. 2nd 3rd A. D. It is the Tattvārthakytarga and Rşibhāşita not only incorporate the sūtra of Umāsvāti and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd preachings of the various sages of Upanişadic, A.D.) in which Jaina philosophy for the first time, Buddhists and some other Sramaņic traditions, but was presented in a systematic form. But it was not the call them Arhat, Rșis, as acceptable to their own last stage of the development of the Jaina philosophy, tradition. Furthermore, Sutrakstānga, propounding since various new definitions and details about these this liberalism, says "One who praises one's own concepts were formulated even after this period views as true and condemns others view as false dis- which I would like to discuss in the second volume of torts the truth and remains confind to the cycle of this project. In developing their own philosophical birth and death." It was the non-violent, liberal and system, Jaina thinkers while on the one hand, have assimilating approach of early Jaina thinkers which accomodated various philosophical concepts of other gave birth to the non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda ), contemporary Indian schools, on the other hand they the fundamental principle of Jaina philosophy. On the synthesised the various contradictory theories of basis of this principle early Jaina thinkers built their Indian schools of thought in such a way that the conphilosophical structure and developed their meta- tradictions are completely dissolved in the non-abphysical and epistemological theories in which they solutistic broader perspective. It is the most important tried to reconcile beautifully the rival views of Indian contribution of early Jaina thinkers to the Indian philosophy. Whether it was the question of philosophy. metaphysical theories or the epistemological prob
But in the process of adopting the thoughts lems of Philosophy, they always tried for the recon
and practices of other Indian systems, particularly ciliation of the opposite conflicting views.
Hinduism, caste-system, untouchability, wearing of Though, some of the basic concepts of Jaina sacred thread and various other rituals also creeped Philosophy such as Pañcāstikāyavāda, eight types of their way in Jainism. As a result spiritualistic Jainism karmagranthi and five-fold knowledge were prevalent became ritualistic. Though it was a later development even before the times of Lord Mahavira or of Lord (c. 6th-7th A. D.) yet, it no doubt had given some Pārsva, but the concepts such as three-fold nature of scratches to the ideal spiritualistic image of Jainism. reality, six substances, two-fold and seven-fold divi- It was necessary, perhaps, for the survival of Jainism sion of Nayas, four-fold Nikṣepas, different Anuyoga- in the middle centuries of Indian history,

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Brāhmaṇic and Áramanic Cultures : A Comparative Study
We cannot appreciate Indian culture completely without understanding its different constituents. i.e. Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. So, one thing must be clear in our mind that studies and researches in the field of Indology are not possible in isolation. In fact, Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism are so intermingled and mutually influenced that to have a proper comprehension of one, the understanding of the others is essential.
However, two distinct trends have been pre dominating in Indian culture from its earliest days, known as Brāhmanic and Sramanic. No doubt, these two trends are distinguishable but at the same time we must be aware of the fact they are not separable. Though on the basis of some peculiarities in theory, we can distinguish them yet in practice, it is very difficult to divaricate them because neither of the two remained uninfluenced by the other. The earlier Sramanic trends and its later phases, Jainism and Buddhism, were influenced by the Vedic tradition and vice a versa. The concept of tapas or austerity, asceticism, liberation, meditation, equanimity and non-violence, earlier absent in the Vedas, came into existence in Hinduism through Sramanic influence. The Upanisadas and the Gită evolved some new spiritual definitions of Vedic rituals. Both are the representatives of the dialogue taken place in Sramanic and Vedic traditions.
The Upanisadic trend of Hinduism is not a pure form of Vedic religion. It incorporated in itself various Sarmanic tenets which gave a new dimension to Vedic religion. Thus, we can say that our Hinduism is an intermingling of Vedic and Sramanic traditions. The vioce raised by our ancient Upanişadic Rşis, Munis and Sramanas against the ritualistic and worldly outlook of caste-ridden Brāhminism, became more strong in the form of Jainism and Buddhism along with other minor Sramanic sects. Infact, the Upanişa- dic trend as well as Jainism and Buddhism provided refuge to those fed up with Vedic ritualism and the worldly outlook on life. Not only Jainism and Buddhism but some other sects and schools of Indian thought such as Ajivakas and Samkhyas also adopted more or less the same course towards Vedic ritualism. However, Jainism and Buddhism were more candid and vehement in their opposition towards Vedic ritualism. They outrightly rejected animal sacrifices in yajñas, the birth-based caste-system and the infallibility
of the Vedas. In Mahảvira and Buddha, the most prominent preachers (exponents), we find the real crusaders; whose tirade, against caste-ridden and ritualistic Brāhminism, touching a low water-mark and crumbling under its inner inadequacies, gave a severe jolt to it. Jainism and Buddhism came forward to sweep away the long accumu-lated excrescence, grown on Indian culture in the form of rituals, casteism, and superstitions.
But we shall be mistaken if we presume that in their attempt to clear away the dirt of Vedic ritualism, Jainism and Buddhism remained untouched. They were also considerably influenced by Vedic rituals. Ritualism, in the new form of Tantric practices, crept into Jainism and Buddhism and became part and parcel of their religious practices and mode of worship. With the impact of Hindu Tantricism, Jainas adopted various Hindu deities and their mode of worship with some changes, which were suited to their religious temperament but were alien to Jainism in its original form. The Jaina concept of Saśana Devatā or
Yakşa-Yaksis is nothing but a Jaina version of Hindu deities. As I have pointed out earlier, the influence has been reciprocal. This can be demonstrated by the fact that on one side Hinduism accepted Rsabha and Buddha as incarnation of God while on the other Jainism included Räma and Krsna in its list of Salākā Puruşas. A number of Hindu Gods and Goddesses were accepted as consorts of Tirthankaras such as Sarasvati, Laksmi, Kāli, Mahākāli, Cakreśvari, Ambika, Padmavati and Siddhika.
The moot point I intend to make is that different religious traditions of our great Indian culture have borrowed various concepts from one another and that it is the duty to study and highlight this mutual impact, which is the need of the hour, and thus bridge the gulf existing between different religious systems.
Though it is true that the Sramanic tradition, in general and Jainism and Buddhism, in particular have some distinct features discriminating them from the Vedic or Brahmanic tradition, yet they are not foreigners. They are the children of the same soil who came forward with a spitit of reform. It is sometimes mistakenly thought that Jainism and Buddhism were a revolt against Brämhanism. Western scholars in particular maintain this notion. But here I would like to say that it was not revolt but reform. In fact. Vedic

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and Śramanic traditions are not rival traditions as some Western and Indian scholars think. There seems to have been a deliberate effort to create a gulf between Jainism and Buddhism on the one hand and Hinduism on the other, by Western scholars. Unfortunately some Indian scholars, even Jaina scholars, also supported their views but in my humble opinion this was a step in the worng direction. It is true that Śramanic and Vedic taditions have divergent views on certain religious and philosophical issues; their ideals of living also differ considerably. But this does not mean that they are rivals or enemies of each other. As passions and reason, śreya and preya, in spite of being different in their very nature, are the components of human personality, so is the case with Śramanic and Vedic traditions. Though inheriting distinct features, they are the components of one whole Indian culture. Jainism and Buddhism were not rivals to Hinduism, but what they preached to the Indian society was an advance stage in the field of spirituality compared to Vedic ritualism.
If the Upanisadic trend, in spite of taking a divergent stand from Vedic ritualism, is considered part and parcel of Hinduism, what is the difficulty in measuring Jainism and Buddhism with the same yardstick? Again if Samkhyas and Mimāmsakas, Advaitists and Dvaitists, in spite of having different philosophies and pathways, belong to the Hinduism, why not Jainism and Buddhism? If the Upanisadic tradition is considered an advance from Vedic ritualism to spirituality, then we have to admit that Buddhism and Jainism have also followed the same path with a more enthusiatic spirit. They worked for the betterment of weaker sections of Indian society and redemption from priesthood and ritualism. They preached the religion of common men, founded on the firm footing of moral virtues rathor on some external rituals.
Today, researchers in the field of Jainology need a new approach to reinterpret the relationship between Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism -- particularly the Upanisadic trend -- in the light of ancient Jaina texts such

as Acārānga, Sūtrakṛtānga, and Isibhāṣiyaim. I am confidant that an impartial and careful study of these texts will remove the misconception that Jainism and Hinduism are rival religions. In Acaranga we find a number of passages similar to those of the Upanisada in word, style as well as in essence. Acārānga mentions Śramana and Brāhmaṇa simultaneously. This proves that for the preacher of Acaranga, Śramana and Brahmana are not rival traditions as they were considered later on. In Sūtrakṛtānga we find mention of some Upanisadic Rṣis such as Videhanami, Bahuk, Asitadevala, Dvaipayana, and Pārāśara. They were accepted as the Ṛsis of their own traditions though they followed a different code of conduct. Sūtrakṛtānga addresses them as great ascetics and great men (maha-puruşa) who attained the ultimate gole of life, i.e. liberation.
Rṣibhāṣita, considered as the part of a Jaina canon, also mentions the teachings of Narada, Asitadevala, Angiras, Parāśara, Aruna, Nārāyana, Yājñavalkya, Uddālaka, Vidura, and others. They have been called Arhat Rṣis. Its writing in the Jaina tradition is sign of the tolerance and openness of Jainism on the one hand. On the other hand it shows that the stream of Indian spirituality is one at its source, irrespective of their division later into the Upanisa-dic, Buddhist, Jaina, Ajivaka and other rivulets. This work is a clear proof of the assimilative and tolerant nature of Indian thought. Today, when we are deeply bogged down in communal separatism and strife, this great work could be an enlightening guide.
Thus, the position, these Upanisadic Rṣis held in early books of Jainism, is clear evidence that the stream of Indian spirituality is one at its source. We cannot have a proper understanding of these trends if we treat them in isolation. Acaranga, Sūtrakṛtānga and Rṣibhāṣita may be understood in a better way only in the light of the Upanisad as and vice a versa. Similarly, the Suttanipata, Dhammapada, Thergatha, and other works of the Pali canon may be properly studied only in the light of the Prakṛta Jaina canons and the Upanisadas.

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Samatva Yoga: The Fundamental Teaching of Jainism and Gitā
Ours is the age of tremendous growth of knowledge and scientific discoveries. Paradoxically, at the same time, we can call it also the age of anxiety and mental tension. Our traditional values and beliefs have been eroded by this growth of scientific knowledge. We know more about the atom than the values needed for a meaningful and peaceful life. We are living in a state of chaos. Our life is full of anxiety, excitement, emotional disorder and value-conflicts. In this age of anxiety American people alone are lavishly draining out more than 10 billion dollars per annum on wine and other alcoholic drugs. Today, what is needed for man is the mental peace and the capacity for complete integration with his own personality and with his social environment. This can only be achieved through the practice of samatva, i.e. mental equanimity or calm disposition. The theory of samatva yoga has been preached in India more than two thousand years ago by Lord Mahāvīra and Lord Kṛṣṇa.
Concept of Samatva in General
The concept of samatva is the cardinal one of Jainism and Gītā. It pivots the ethics of Jainism and Gitā. In English, we can term it as excellent blend of equality, equilibrium, harmony, integration and rightness. But none of these terms depict the true meaning of the word samatva and the exact sense in which it is used in the context of Indian philosophy. hence better to use it without translating it into English. The word samatva has different meanings in different contexts. Sometimes it means a balanced state of mind, undisturbed by all kinds of sorrows and emotional excitements, pleasures and pains and achievements and disappointments. Sometimes it refers to the quality of a personality, completely free from the vectors of aversion and attachment, or that with mental equilibrium (a or fers). The word samatva also denotes the feeling of equality with the fellow-beings (3) Loosely speaking, it also conveys the meaning of social equality and social integration. Ethically, the term sam or samkyak suggests rightness (). We must be aware of the fact that in all its different imports the term samatva is associated with some kind of mental psychological state, having some impact on our social and individual adjustment.

Concept of Samatva in Jainism
In a Jaina text Vyakhyāprajñaptisūtra there is a conversation between Lord Mahavira and Gautama. Gautama asks Mahavira: "What is the nature of soul ?" Mahavira answers, "The nature of soul is samatva (зATE)" Gautama again asks, "What is the ultimate end of soul?", Mahavira replies; "The ultimate end of soul is also samatva ( आयाए सामाइस्स अट्ठे).
This view, the real nature of soul is samatva, is further supported by Acarya Kundakunda. In his famous work Samayasara he deals with the nature of soul. Probably, he is the only Jaina Acarya who used the word samaya or Samayasara instead of Atman or Jiva. The Acarya has purposely used this word for Atman. So far as I know, no commentator of Samayasara has raised the question as to why Kundakunda and used the word samaya for Jiva or soul. I think the word 'samaya' may be a Prakṛt version of Samskṛt word : : which means one who has the quality of samatva. Further, the word Samayasara may also be defined in the similar fashion. It can be concluded, therefore, that one who possesses samatva as his essential nature is called samayasāra (समत्वं यस्य सारं तत् समयसारं ). Acãrya Kundakunda also equated the word 'samaya'with svabhāva or essential nature. He used the words sva-samaya and para-samaya. Sva-samaya means inner characteristics and para-samaya means resultant characteristics. Sva-samaya has been explained as an ultimate end. In this way, according to Kundakunda too, the nature and ultimate end of soul is samatva. Further more, according to the Jaina Ethics the way through which this ultimate end can be achieved is also samatva, known in Prakrit as sāmāiya (5) or samahi (f). In this way, the three basic presuppositions of Jaina Ethics, the moral agent (), the ultimte end (E) and the path through which this ultimate end can be achieved (f), are equated with the term samatva. In Jaina ethics end and means are not external to the moral agent, but part and parcel of his own nature and potentially present in him. Someone may ask : "What is the difference between a siddha and a sadhaka"? My humble answer to this question is that the difference between those two is not qualitative but quantitative in nature. It is a difference between capability and actuality. By means of sadhana, we

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can exhibit only what is potentially present in us. That is How can we reconcile the views of jñana-yoga, karmathe whole process of sādhanā is the transforming of yoga and bhakti-yoga without any common element? My capability into actuality. According to the Jaina tradition, humble suggestion is that only with the concept of samatva if samatva is not our real intrinsic nature, we cannot achieve we can reconcile these different view points, because it by means of sadhana, because sädhanā is nothing but a samatva is a common reconciling factor. Though the practice of samatva. The three-fold path, of right knowledge, question why samatva-yoga is to be considered as the main right belief and right conduct, depends entirely on the theme of Gita?' is still un-answered, I would like to submit concept of samatva for its rightness. The three-fold path is some arguments in support of my view that the Gită is a only an application of samatva to the three aspects of our treatise of samatva-yoga. conscious activities, i.e. knowing, feeling and willing. (1) In the Gitä the term yoga has been used at many According to the Jain Ethics, samatva should be a directive places and in different contexts, we have only two definitions principle of the activities of knowing, feeling and willing of yoga in the whole of Gita. The first one is 'Samatvar
yoga ucyate' (Tucut goud) and the second one is 'yogah Concept of Samatva in Gitā
Karmasu Kausalam' (योगः कर्मसु कौशलम्). But the second one The Ethics of Gită also is solely based on the concept cannot be considered as a categorical definition of yoga it of samatva. The words sama and samatva and their various is only a conditional or a relative definition, because the forms occur in Gitā more than hundred times. The Gită term Karmasu shows a condition. It only tells us that with cntains many references, suggesting that the real nature of reference to certain activity (+), the skill ful performance God is sama and so on. The Gitä equates sam with Brahman, is to be called yoga. But this is not the case with the first the ultimate reality. Acarya Sankara explained this by one. It may be considered a categorical definition of yoga. showing an identity between sam and Brahman, while It simply states that mental equilibrium is to be called Ramanuja and others interpret that the sam is the quality of yoga. Brahman. But for our present purpose it hardly makes any (2) Secondly, in the 6th chapter of Gītā Lord Krsna difference. The Gitä mentiones that the God the amsi (3ies) told Arjuna "Thou must be a yogi because a yogi is superior of which, we are amsa (321), exists in the heart of every to jñanin, karmin and tapasvin', The question is what type individual as a quality of samatva. Not only this but the of yoga does Krsna want to teach Arjuna? It can neither be way through which we can realise that ultimate reality of a jñāna-yoga nor a karma-yoga for the simple reason that God is also samatva-yoga. In this way, the three basic here yogi is considered superior to jñanin and karmin. I presuppositions of the Ethics of Gita- the moral agent, the think here Krsna is asking Arjuna to practise samatva yoga ultimate end and the path through which this ultimate end which is the supreme yoga. can be achieved, are also equated with the term samatva. (3) Thirdly, the concepts of jñana, karma and bhakti
interit their value by samatva only. It is the 'samatva' which Gitä as a treatise of samatva yoga
gives them value and validity. Without samat va they are A question may be asked why samatva-yoga is to be like a cheque or a paper currency, having no intrinsic value considered as the fundamental concept of Gită. Among the of its own. In the absence of samatva, jñana can be a mere commentators of Gitā, there is a serious controversy, whet- knowledge of scriptures but not jñana-yoga, and the same her it is a treatise of jñāna-yoga or bhakti-yoga or karma is true with karma and bhakti also. yoga. Among these commentators, Sankara is the supporter (4) Fourthly, jñāna, karma and bhakti are the mere of jñāna-yoga. To him the knowledge alone can lead us to means for realization of ultimate end, namely, God. But the realization of ultimate reality, the Brahman, While samatva is not only a means but an end itself. It is not for Rāmānuja and others held the view that it is only Bhakti some thing else which stands outside of it. I think according through which we can realise God. Tilaka and Gandhi to the Gită the sam, the brahman and God are one. Thus, supported a third view that fundamental teaching of Gităw e can say that the concept of samatva is the sole basis of is, neither jñana-yoga nor bhakti-yogabut karma-yoga. Dr. the ethics of the Gita. Rādhakrsnan and some others have tried to bring out harmony among these divergent views. But I think the Organic Basis of Samatva Yoga basis on which we can reconcile these views is still missing. What is the justification in saying that our essential

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way, we can say that the concept of samatva has a sound basis for its justification in our organic and psychological nature.
nature and our aim of life is samatva, or that samatva should be the directive principle of our life? What is the ground for its justification? To answer these questions, first of all we must understand the human nature. By human nature I mean his organic and psychological make-up. What do we mean by a living organism? By living organism we mean an organism that has a power to maintain its physiological equilibrium. In Biology, this process has been known as Homeosytasis, which is considered as an important quality of a living organism. The second essential quality of a living organism is its capacity of adjustment with the environment. Whenever a livng organism fails to maintain its physiological equilibrium and adjust itself with its environment it tends towards death. Death is nothing but failure of this process. It follows where there is life, there are efforts to avoid unequilibrium to maintain equilibrium.
Psychological basis of Samatva
Nobody wants to live in a state of mental tension. We like no tension but relaxation, no anxiety but satisfaction. This shows that our psychological nature is working for a mental peace or a mental equilibrium. Freud accepts that there is a conflict between our Id and Super ego but at the same time he agrees that our ego or conscious level is always working to maintain an equilibrium or for the adjustment between these two poles of our personality. It is a fact that there are mental states such as emotional excitements, passions, and frustrations, but we cannot say that they are our intrinsic nature because they do not exist for their own sake; they exist for satisfaction or expression. Secondly, they owe their existence to some other external factors. An important process of our personality is the process of adjustment and adjustment is nothing but a process of restoring peace, harmony and integration. In this
Samatva as a Directive Principle of Living
Some one may remark that the Darwinian theory of evolution goes against the concept of samarva. Darwin presented a theory of the evolution of life, in which he suggested that 'Struggle' for existence is the basic principle of living. Apparently, it is true that there is a struggle for existence in our world and nobody can deny this fact. But due to certain reasons, we cannot call this as directive principle of life. To the question; "Why is it so?" my. humble answer is that first of all this theory is selfcontradictory because its basic concept is subsisting on others, that is, 'living by killing'. Secondly, it is opposed to the basic human nature and even animal nature to some extent. Struggle is not our inner nature (Faya Ut) but it is only a resultant one. It is imposed on us by external factors. Whenever we have to struggle we do it out of necessity and not out of nature, and what is done in compulsion cannot be a guiding principle of our life, for it does not emanate from our inner nature. Thirdly, it goes against the judgements of our factulty of reasoning and the concept of natural law. If nobody has right to take my life, then on the ground of the same reasoning I have no right to take another's life.
The theory of 'live on others', is against the simple rule that all living beings or human beings are potentially equal. According to Lord Krsna the concept of equality and union of all living being (36 dydy can give us a right directive principle of living with fellow-beings and according to Lord Mahāvīra the directive principle of living is not 'live on others', but 'live with others' or 'live for others' (UTURIYYET JCH-14-eare ).

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Peace: The Need of our Age
We are living in the age of science and technology. The advancement in our scientific knowledge has removed our religious superstitions and false dogmas. But unfortunately and surprisingly, side by side, it has also shaken our mutual faith and faith in moral virtues as well as religio-spiritual values. The old social and spiritual values of life, acting as binding on humanity and based on religious beliefs, had been made irrelevant by scientific knowledge and logical thinking. Till date, we have been unable to formulate or evolve a new value structure, so necessary for meaningful and peaceful living in society, based on our seientific and logical outlook. We are living in a state of total chaos. Infact, the present age is the age of transition, old values have become irrelevant, and new ones have not been yet established. We have more knowledge and faith in atomic structure and power than the values needed for meaningful and peaceful life. Today, we strongly rely on the atomnic power as our true rescuer and discard the religio-spiritual values as mere superstitions. Mr. D.R. Mehta rightly observed, "In the present day world with religion getting separated from daily life and spreading commercialisation killing (violence) has increased manyfold and sensitivity to (others) life whether animal or human has declined in proportion". For us human being is either a complicated machine or at least a developed animal, governed by his instincts and endowed with some faculties of mechanical reasoning. Thus, we have developed a totally materialistic and selfish outlook.
The advancement in all the walks of life and knowledge could not sublimate our animal and selfish nature. The animal instinct lying within us is still forceful and is dominating our individual and social behaviour and due to this our life is full of excitements, emotional disorders and mental tensions. The more advanced a nation, more stronger the grip of these evils of our age over it. The single most specific feature by which our age may be characterised is that of tension. Now a days not only the individuals, but the total human race is living in tension.
Though outwardly we are pleading for peace and non-violence yet by heart we still have strong faith in the law of the jungle, i.e. the dictum-- 'might is right'. We are living for the satisfaction of our animal nature only, though we talk of higher social and spiritual values. This duality

or the gulf between our thought and action is the sole factor disturbing our inner as well as outer peace. Once the faith in higher values or even in our fellow beings is shaken and we start seeing each and every person or a community or a nation with the eyes of doubt, definitely, it is the sign of disturbed mentality.
Because of materialisitc and mechanical outlook our faculty of faith has been destroyed and when the mutual faith and faith in higher values of co-operation and co-existence is destroyed, doubts take pace. The doubt causes fear, fear gives birth to violence and violence triggers violence. The present violence is the result of our materialistic attitude and doubting nature. The most valuable thing, human race has lost in the present age, is none other than peace.
Science and technology has given us all the amenities of life. Though due to the speedy advancement in science and technology, nowadays, life on earth is so luxurious and pleasant as it was never before yet because of the selfish and materialistic outlook and doubting nature of man, which we have developed today, no body is happy and cheerful. We are living in tension all the times and deprived of, even a pleasant sound sleep. The people, materially more affluent having all the amenities of life, are more in the grip of tensions. Medical as well as psychological survey reports of advance nations confirm this fact. Tendency to consume alcoholic and sedative drugs is increasing day by day. It also supports the fact that we have lost our mental peace at the cost of this material advancement. Not only this, we have also been deprived of our natural way of living. S. Bothara maintains "What unfortunately has happened, is that the intoxication of ambition and success has made us forget even the natural discipline, which we, inherited from the animal kingdom"2. Because of the development of mental faculties we have not only denied to accept social or religious checkpost but we also have denied natural checks. Now our life-cart has only accelerator, no break. Our amibitions and desires have no limits. They always remain unfulfilled and these unfulfilled desires create frustrations. These frustrations or resentments are the cause of our mental tensions. Due to the light legged means of transportation, physical distances are no bars to meet the peoples of different nations, cultures and religions and thus, our world is shrinking. But unluckily and disdainfully because of the materialistic and selfish outlook, the distance of our hearts is increasing day by day.

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Instead of developing mutual love, faith and co-operation we are spreading hatred, doubt and hostility and thus deprived of peace, mental as well as environmental, the first and foremost condition of human living. Rabindra Nath Tagore rightly observes, "For man to come near to one another and yet to continue to ignore the claims of humanity is a sure process of suicide"3.
Meaning of Peace in Jainism
The term peace has various connotations. It can be defined in different ways from different angles. Intrinsically peace means a state of tranquility of mind. It is the state in which self rests in its own nature, undisturbed by external factors. Peace means soul devoid of passions and desires. Acaranga, mentions that an aspirant who has attained peace has no desire. Peace means cessation of all desires. Sūtrakītārga equates it with Niravānai.e., the emancipation from all desires, in other word, it is the state of self- contentment or total subjectivity i.e. the state of pure Seer. Ācāränga maintains one who is aware of peace will not fall in the grip of passions. While defining peace, Saint Thomas Aquinas has rightly maintained the same view. He says, "peace implies two things first our self should not be disturbed by external factors and secondly, our desires should find rest in one i.e. the self"6. This inner peace can also be explained from negative and positive view points. Negatively, it is the state of the cessation of all the passions and desires. It is the freedom from the vectors of attachment and aversion. Positively, it is the state of bliss and self contentment. But we must remember that these positive and negative aspects of inner peace are interdependent on each other, they are like the two sides of the same coin and they can not exist without each other. We can only distinguish them but not divide them. The inner peace is not mere and abstract idea, but it is something, which is whole and concrete. It represents our infinite self.
Now we turn to the external peace. While the inner peace is the peace of our self, external peace is the peace of society. We can also define it as environmental peace. In Jainism, the Prākṣt word 'santi' -- Samskrta equivalent Ksanti, also means forgiveness. In Sütrakrtänga, among ten virtues the first and foremost is forgiveness, the basic need for social peace. It is the state of cessation of wars and hostilities, among individuals, individuals and society, different social groups and nations, on the earth. So far as this outer peace or the peace of the society is concerned it
can also be defined in both ways negatively as well as positively. Defined, negatively it is the state of cessation of wars and hostilities. Positively and it is the state of harmonious living of individuals as well as societies and nations. It is the state of social co-operation and co-existance. But we must be aware of the fact that the real external peace is more than non-war. It is a vital peace. It is the state, free from mutual doubts and fears. So far as the doubts and apprehensions against each other exist, inspite of the absence of actual war, really. It is not the state of peace. Because where there is fear, the war exists. In modern world we term it as cold war. War is war, whether it is cold or actual, it disturbs the peace of society. Real external peace is only possible, when our hearts are free from doubts and fear and each and every individual has firm faith not only in the dictum 'Live and Let live'. but 'Live for other.'
According to Jaina Philosopher Umāsvāti, "By nature living beings are made for other, (Parasparopagrahojīvānām)". So long as our hearts are full of doubts and fear and we do not have full control on our selfish animal instincts as well as firm belief in mutual co-operation and co-existence, real social peace on earth will not be possible.
Real peace dawns only if our hearts are full of universal love, which is something different from mere attachment, beacuse, for Jainas attachment is always linked with aversion. But universal love is based on the concept of equality of all beings and firm faith in the doctrine that by nature living beings are made for each other. We must also be aware of the fact that this external or environmental peace depends on the mental peace of individuals, since, our external behaviour is only an expression of our inner will and attitude towards life. Thus, we can say that the various aspects of peace are not mutually exclusive but inclusive. The peace of society or in other words the environmental peace is disturbed, when the inner peace of the individual is disturbed and vice versa. In my humble opinion hostilities and wars are the expressions and outcomes of sick mentality. It is the agressive and selfish outlook of an individual or a society that gives birth to confrontations among individual, individual and society as well as among different social or religious groups and nations. At the root of all types of confrontations and wars, which disturb our environmental peace, there lies the feeling of discontentment as well as will for power, possession and hoarding. Thus social disturbances, conflict and confrontations are only symptoms of our mental tensions or sick

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mentality.
In fact, the peace of society depends on the psychology or mental make-up of its members, but it is also true that our attitude towards life and behavioural pattern is shaped by our social environment and social training. The behavioural pattern and mentality of the members of nonviolent society will surely be different from that of a violent society. While on the one side social norms, ideals and conditions affect the mental make-up and behavioural pattern of the individual, on the other side there are also individuals, who shape the social norms, ideals and conditions.
Though, it is correct that in many cases disturbed social conditions and environmental factors may be responsible for vitiating our mental peace, yet they can not disturb the persons, strong spiritually. According to Jainism spiritually developed soul remains unaffected at his mental level by external factors. But on the other hand disturbed mental state necessarily affects our social and environmental peace. Thus, for Jainas the inner peace of the soul is the cause and that of the society is the effect. Modern tension theory also supports this view. A book namely "Tensions that causes Wars' tells us that 'economic inequalities, insecurities and frustrations create groups and national conflicts, but for Jainas economic inequalities and feeling of insecurities can not disturb those persons, who are selfcontented and free from doubts and fears. So far as the frustrations are concerned they are generated by our ambitions and resentments and can be controlled only by extinction of desires. Therefore, we must try first to retain inner peace or the peace of soul.
In Jaina texts, we find certain references about the importance and nature of peace. In Sūtrakrtänga, it is said that "as the earth is the abode for all living beings so the peace is the abode for all the enlightened beings of past, present and future". These souls having attained the spiritual heights always rest in peace and preaches for peace. For Jainas peace means the tranquility or calmness of mind and so they equated the term peace (santi) with the term equanimity or samata. For them peace rests on mental equanimity and social equality. When mental equanimity is disturbed inner peace is disturbed and when social equlity is disturbed external or social peace is disturbed. Jainism as a religion is nothing but a practice for mental equanimity and social equality. For the same, they use particular Prakṛta word 'samaiya' (samata), the principal concept of the Jainism. It is the pivot around which the whole Jainism

revolves. In English the term 'Samaiya' connotes various meanings such as equanimity, tranquility, equality, harmony and reghteousness, in different contexts. Sometimes it means a balanced state of mind undisturbed by any kind of emotional excitement, plasure or pain, achievement and disappointment, sometimes it refers to the personality, completely free from the vectors of aversion and attachment, i.e. a dispassionate personality. These are the instrinsic definitions of 'Samata or Santi'. But when this word is used extrinsically it means the feeling of equality with all the living beings and thus it conveys social equality and social harmony.
Peace as the Ultimate Goal of Life
According to the Jaina thinkers, the ultimate goal of life is to attain peace or tranquility, our essential nature. In Acǎrängasūtra, one of the earliest Jaina canonical texts, we find two definitions of religion, one as 'tranquility' and other as non-violence. Lord Mahāvīra mentions "Worthy people preached religion as tranquility or equanimity" This tranquility or peace of mind is considered as the core of religious practice, because it is the real nature of living beings, including human beings. In an another Jaina text known as Bhagavatīsūtra, there is a conversation between Lord Mahavira and Gautama. Gautama asked Mahāvīra "What is the nature of self and Mahavira answered 'O Gautama' the nature of self is tranquility i.e. peace. Gautama again asked 'O, Lord what is the ultimate goal of self, Mahavira answered 'O, Gautama, the ultimate goal of self is also to attain tranquility or peace"11.
In Sütrakṛtänga, the term peace is equated with emancipation'. Thus, for Jainas peace, being an essential naturesva-svabhava of self, it is considered as ultimate goal of life.
In Jainism, religion is nothing but a practice for the realisation of one's own essential nature or Sva-svabhava which is nothing but the state of tranquility or peace of mind. This enjoying of one's own essential nature means to remain constant in śākṣibhāva i.e. to remain undisturbed by external factors. It is the state of pure subjectivity which is technically known in Jainism as Sämäyika. In this state, the mind is completely free from constant flickerings, excitements and emotional disorders. To get freedom form mental tensions, the vibhāvas or impure states of mind, is the precondition for enjoying spiritual happiness which is also a positive aspect of inner peace. Nobody wants to live in a state of mental tensions, every one would like not tension but relaxation, not anxiety but contentment. This

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shows that our real nature is working in us for tranquility or mental peace. Religion is nothing but a way of achieving this inner peace. According to Jainism, the duty of a religious order is to explain the means by which man can achieve this peace : inner as well as external. In Jainism, the method of achieving mental peace is called as Sāmāyika, the first and foremost duty among six essential duties of monks and house-holders. Now the question arises how this tranquility (Samatā) can be attained? According to the Jaina view-point, it can be attained through the practice of 'non-attachment'. For attachment is the sole cause of disturbing our inner peace or tranquility.
Attachment, the cause of mental tensions
As I have already mentioned that the most burning problem of our age is the problem of mental tensions. The nations, claiming to be more civilised and economically more advanced, are much more in the grip of mental tension. The main objective of Jainism is to emancipate man from his sufferings and mental tensions. First of all, we must know the cause of these mental tensions. For Jainism, the basic human sufferings are not physical, but mental. These mental sufferings or tensions are due to our attachment towards worldly object. It is the attachment, which is fully responsible for them. The famous Jaina text Uttaradhyayana-sutra mentions "The root of all sufferings- - physical as well as mental, of every body including gods, is attachmnent towards the objects of worldly enjoyment. It is the attachment, which is the root cause of mental tension. Only a detached attitude towards the objects of worldly enjoyment can free mankind from mental tension". According to Lord Mahāvīra to remain attached to sensuous object is to remain in the whirl. He says "Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment". The efforts made to satisfy the human desires through material objects can be likened to the chopping off the branches while watering the roots. Thus, we can conclude that the lust for and the attachment towards the objects of worldly pleasure is the sole cause of human sufferings and conflicts.
If mankind is to be freed from mental tensions, it is necessary to grow a detached outlook in life. Jainism believes that lesser will be the attachment, the greater will be the mental peace. It is only when attachment is vanished, the human mind will be free from mental tensions and emotional disorders.
Non-Possession to reslove economic inequality
The attachment gives birth to desire for possession, occupation and hoarding, which is nothing but an expression of one's greedy attitude. It is told in Jaina scriptures that greediness is the root of all sins. It is the destroyer of all the good qualities. Anger, pride, deceit etc. all are the offshoots of attachment or mineness or greed. Violence, which disturbs our social and environmental peace, is due to the will for possession. In Sūtrakrţănga, it is mentioned that those having possession of whatever sort, great or small, living or non-living, can not get rid or sufferings and conflicts (1/1/2). Possession and hoarding lead to economic inequality, which cause wars, Thus, to achieve peace and the norm of non-violence in social life, the prime need is to restrict the will for possession mental as well as physical also, that is why Mahāvira propounded the vow of complete non-possession for the monks and nuns, while for laity, he propounded the vow of limitation of possession (Parigraha Parimāņa) and vow of control over consumption (Bhogopabhoga Parimāna). Jainism holds that if we want to establish peace on the earth then economic inequality and vast differences in the mode of consumptions should be atleast minimised. Among the causes of wars and conflicts, which disturb our social peace, the will for possession is the prime, because it causes economic disbalance. Due to economic disbalance or inequality, classes of poor and rich came into existence and resulted in class conflicts. According to Jainas, it is only through the self-imposed limitation of possession and simple living, we can restore peace and prosperity on the earth.
Non-Violence as means to establish peace
Tranquility is a personal or inner experience of peace. When it is applied in the social life or it is practised outwardly, it becomes non-violence. Non-violence is a social or outer expression of this inner peace. In Acaranga, Lord Mahavira remarks, "The worthy men of the past, present and the future all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus; all breathing, existing, living and sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, not abused, nor tormented. This is the pure, eternal and unchangeable law or the tenet of religion"16.
In orther words, non-violence is the eternal and pure form of religion. In Jainism, non-violence is the pivot round which its whole ethics revolves. For Jainas, violence represents all the vices and non-violence represents all the virtues. Non-violence is not a single virtue but it is a group

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of virtues. In Praśnavyākaraṇasutra the term non-violence is equated with sixty virtuous qualities, just as peace, harmony, welfare, trust, fearlessness, etc17. Thus, nonviolence is a wider term, which comprehends all the good qualities and virtues.
Non-violence is nothing but to treat all living beings as equal. The concept of equality is the core of the theory of non-violence. The observance of non-violence is to honour each and every form of life. Jainism does not discriminate human beings on the basis of their caste, creed and colour. According to Jaina point of view, all the barriers of caste, creed and colour are artificial. All the huamn beings have equal right to lead a peaceful life. Though violence is unavoidable yet it can not be the directive principle of our living. Because it goes against the judgements of our faculty of reasoning and the concept of natural law. If I think that nobody has any right to take my life then on the same ground of reasoning I have also no right to take another's life. The principle, live on others or 'living by killing' is self-contradictory. The principle of equality propounds that every one has the right to live. The directive principle of living is not Living on other' or 'Living by killing' but 'Living with other' or 'Live for others (Parasparopagrahojīvānām). Though, in our worldly life, complete non-violence is not possible yet our motto should be 'Lesser killing is better Living'. Not struggle but cooperation is the law of life. I need other's co-operation for my very existence and so I should also co-operate in other's living.
Further, we must be aware of the fact that in Jainism non-violence is not merely a negative concept i.e. not to kill; but it has positive side also i.e. service to mankind. Once a question was asked to Mahāvīra, 'O Lord, one person is rendering his services to the needy ones while other is offering Puja to you, of these two, who is the real follower because hs is following my teachings"19
The concept of non-violence and the regard for life is accepted by almost all the religions of the world. But Jainism observes it minutely. Jainism prohibits not only killing of human beings and animals but of the vegetable kingdom also. Harming the plants, polluting water and air are also the act of violence or himsā. Because they disturb ecological balance or peace. Its basic principle is that the life, in whatever form it may be, should be respected. We have no right to take another's life. Schweitzer remarks "To maintain, assist or enhance life is good. To destroy, harm or hinder is evil". He further says. "A day may come when

reverence for all life will win universal recognition"20. "The Daśavaikālika mentions that every one wants to live and not to die, as we do, for this simple reason, Niggan thas prohibit violence"21. It can be said that the Jaina concept of non-violence is extremist and non practical, but we cannot challenge its relevance for human society. Though Jainsim sets its goal as the ideal of total non-violence, external as well as internal, yet the realisation of this ideal in practical life is by no means easy. Non-violence is a spiritual ideal, fully realisable only in the spiritual plane. The real life of an individual is a physio-spiritual complex; at this level complete non-violence is not possible. According to Jaina thinkers the violence is of four kinds: (i) deliberate (samkalpi) or aggressive violence i.c. intentional killing (ii) protective violence i.e. the violence which takes place in saving the life of one's own or his fellow being or in order to make peace and ensure justice in the society (iii) occupational i.e. violence which takes place in doing agriculture or in running the factories and industries (iv) and violence, which is involved in performing the daily routine work of house-holder such as bathing, cooking, walking etc. A person can proceed towards the fulness of non-violent life to the extent as he rises above the physical level. The first form of violence, which is deliberate, is to be shunned by all, because it relates to our mental proclivities. So far as the thoughts are concerned, a man is his own master, so it is obligatory for all to be non-violent in this sphere. External circumstance can influence our mind at this level, but they cannot govern us. From the behavioural point of view, deliberate violence is aggressive. It is neither necessary for self-defence nor for the living. So all can avoid it. The other forms of violence, i.e. protective and occupational are inevitable, so far as man is living on a physical level. But this does not mean that the ideal of non-violence is not practicable and so it is not necessary for human race.
The second form of violence is defensive which takes place in the activity of defence. It becomes necessary for the security of one's own life, the life of his fellow beings and the protection of property. External circumstances may compel a person to resort to be violent or to conter attack in defence of his own life or that of his companions or for the protection of his belongings. As those, who are attached to the physical world and has a social obligation to protect others life and property, are unable to dispense with this defensive violence. A person living in family is unable to keep away completely from this type of violence, because

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he is committed to the security of family members and their belongings. In the same way the persons, who are in government can not get rid of it. For they are the custodians of human rights and national property, Prof. Murty also maintains. "Aggressive and unjust wars have been condemned by Hindu, Buddhist, Jaina scriptures and moralists, but they had to admit that defensive and just wars may have to be undertaken without giving up maitri (friendliness) an karuṇā (compassion) for pepole of both the sides "22
It is true that in our times Gandhi planned a nonviolent method of opposition and applied it successfully. But it is not possible for all to oppose non-violently with success. Only a man, unattached to his body and material objects and with heart free from malice, can protect his rights non-violently. Again, such efforts can bear fruits only in a civilized and cultured human society. A nonviolent opposition may be fruitful only if ranged against an enemy, having a human heart. Its success becomes dubitable if it has to deal with an enemy having no faith in human values and is bent upon serving his selfish motives by violent means.
As far as occupational violence and the violence, taking place in routine-activities of the life, is concerned everyone cannot shake it off. For, so long as a person has to earn his livelihood and to seek fulfilment of his physical needs, deliberate violence of vegitable kingdom is unavoidable. In Jainism, intentional violence to mobile animals by a house-holder has been forbidden even when it becomes necessary for the maintenance of life and occupation. So far as the violence takes place in defensive activites and wars, Jainas hold, that it should be minimised as for as it is possible and innocent persons should not be killed at any cost. Jaina thinkers suggested various methods for nonviolent wars and to minimise the violence in even just wars. The war, fought between Bharata and Bahubali was an example of non-violent war.
Though some or other form of violence is inevitable in our life yet we should not conclude that the observance of non-violence is of no use in the present. Just as violence is inevitable for living, non-violence is also inevitable for the very existence of human race. So far as the existence of human society is concerned it depends on mutual co-operation, sacrifice of one's interest for that of his fellowbeings and regard for others' life. If above mentioned elements are essential for our social life, how can we say that non-violence is not necessary for human life. Society

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does not stand on violence but on non-violence, not on claiming our rights but on accepting the rights of others as our duty. Thus, the non-violence, is an inevitable principle for the existence of human society. At present we are living in an age of nuclear weapons due to which the very existence of human race is in danger. Lord Mahavira has said in Acaränga that there are weapons superior to eact other, but nothing is superior to non-violence23. Only the observance of non-violence, can save the human race. Mutual credibility and the belief in the equality of all beings, can alone restore peace and harmony in human society. Peace can be established and prosperity can be protected on the earth through non-violence and mutual faith-only.
Regard for others ideologies and faith
Fanaticism or intolerance is the another curse of our age. Jainism, since its inception, believes in and preaches for peace, harmony and tolerance. It has been tolerant and respectful towards other faiths and religious ideologies throughout its history of existence. In Jainism, one hardly comes across with instances of religious conflcts involving, violence and bloodshed. Atmost one meets with instances of disputations and strongly worded debates concerning ideological disagreements. The Jaina men of learning, while opposing the different ideologies and religious stand-points, paid full regard to them and accepted that the opponents' convictions may also be valid from a certain stand-point.
Among the causes, generating fanaticism and intolerance, the blind faith is the prime one. It results from passionate attachment, hence is uncritical or 'unexamining' outlook. It causes perverse attitude. In Jainism, various types of attachment are enumerated; among them darśanamoha/dṛṣṭiraga (blind faith), due to its very disposition, has been reackoned "Paramount". In point of fact, it is considered central in religious intolerance. It leads one's attitude towards a strong bias for one's own and against other's religion. Non-attachment is, therefore, considered as a precondition for the right attitude or perception. A perverse, hence defiled attitude renders it impossible to view the things rightly, just as a person wearing coloured glasses or suffering from jaundice is unable to see the true colour of objects as they are. "Attachment and hatred are the two great enemies of philosophical thinking. Truth can reveal itself to an impartial thinker"24
One who is unbiased and impartial can perceive the truth in his opponent's ideologies and faiths and thus, can possess deference to them. Intense attachment unfailingly

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generates blind faith in religious leaders, dogmas, doctrines and rituals and consequently religious intolerance and fanaticism came into existence.
Jainism holds that the slightest even pious attachment, towards the prophet, the path, and the scripture is also an hindrance to a seeker of truth and an aspirant of perfection. Attachment, be it pious or impious, cannot go without aversion or repulsion. Attachment results in blind faith and superstition and repulsion consequences into intolerant conduct. The Jainas, therefore, laid stress on the elimination of attachment, the root cause of bias and intolerance.
Though, in Jainism, right faith plays an important role-- it is one of its three "jewels" - it is the blind faith, which causes intolerance. Jainism, therefore, does not support blind faith. Jaina thinkers maintain that the right faith should be followed by right knowledge. The faith seconded by right knowledge or truthful reasoning cannot be blind one. According to Jaina thinkers, reason and faith are complementary and actually there is no contention between the two. Faith without reason, as the Jaina thinkers aver, is blind and reason without faith is unstendy or vacilliating. They hold that the religious codes and rituals should be critically analysed. In the Uttaradhyayanasūtra, Gautama, the chief disciple of Mahävīra strongly supports this views before Kesi, the pontiff of the church of Jina Pārsva. Said he, "The differences in the Law must be critically evaluated through the faculty of reasoning. It is the reason which can ascertain the truth of Law"25.
If one maintains that religion has to be solely based on faith and there is no place for reason in it, then he will unfailingly develop an outlook that only his prophet is the only saviour of mankind; his mode of worship is the only way of experiencing the bliss and the Laws or Commands of his scripture are only the right one hence he is unable to make a critical estimate of his religious prescriptions. While one who maintains that the reason also plays an important role in the religious life, will critically evaluate the pros and cons of religious prescriptions, rituals and dogmas. An 'attached' or biased person believes in the dictum 'Mine is true'. Acārya Haribhadra says, "I possess no bias for Lord Mahăvira and no prejudice against Kapila and other saints and thinkers; whosoever is rational and logical ought to be accepted."26 Thus, when religion tends to be rational, there will hardly be any room for intolerance. One who is thoroughly rational in religious matters, certainly, would not be rigid and intolerant.
Dogmaticism and fanaticism are the born children of
absolutism. An extremist or absolutist holds that whatsoever he propounds is correct and what others say is false, while a relativist is of the view that he and his opponent, both may be correct if viewed from two different angles hence a relativist adopts a tolerant outlook towards other faiths and ideologies. It is the doctrine of Anekantavada or nonabsolutism of the Jainas, the concept of religious tolerance is based upon. For the Jainas non-violence is the essence of religion from which the concept of non-absolutism Syädväd emanates. Absolutism represents "violence of thought", for, it negates the truth-value of its opponent's view and thus, hurts the feeling of others. A non-violent search for truth finds non-absolutism.
Non-absolutism of the Jainas forbids the individual to be dogmatic and one-sided in approach. It pleads for a broader outlook and an open mindedness, which alone can resolve the conflicts that emerge from differences in ideologies and faiths. Non-absolutism regard the views of the opponent also as true. Remarks Siddhasena Divākara (C. 5th A.D.) "All schools of thought are valid when they are understood from their own stand-point and in so far as they do not discard the truth-value of others. The knower of non-absolutism does not divide them into the category of true and false. They become false only when they reject the truth-value of other."27 It was this broader outlook of non-absolutism which made Jainas tolerant.
While expounding this tolerant outlook of the Jainas, Upadhyāya Yaśovijaya (C. 17th A.D.) mentioned "A true non-absolutist does not disdain to any faith and he treats all the faiths equally like a father to his sons. For, a nonabsolutist does not have any prejudice and biased outlook in his mind. A true believer of syadvāda is that who pays equal regards to all the faiths. To remain impartial to the various faiths is the essence of being religious. A little knowledge which induces a person to be impartial is more worthwhile than the unilateral vast knowledge of scriptures." 28 .
Jainas believe in the unity of world religions, but unity, according to them, does not imply omnivorous unity in which all lose their entity and identity, They believe in the unity in which all the alien faiths will conjoin each other to form an organic whole, without loosing their own independent existence. In other words, it believes in a harmonious co-existence or a liberal synthesis in which though all the organs have their individual existence, yet work for a common goal i.e. the peace of mankind. To eradicate the religious conflicts and violence from the world,

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some may give a slogan, "one world religion", but it is neither possible nor practicable, so far as the diversities in human thoughts are in existence. In the Niyamasara it is said that there are different persons, their different activities or karmas and different levels or capacities, so one should not engage himself in hot discussions, neither with other sects nor within one's own sect."29
Jaina Concept of Peace
Haribhadra remarks that the diversity in the teaching of the sages is due to that in the levels of their disciples or in stand-points adopted by the sages or in the period of time when they preached, or it is only an apparent diversity. Just as a physician prescribes medicine according to the nature of patient, the illness and the climate, so is the case of diversity of religious teachings.30 So far as diversity in time, place, levels and understanding of disciples is inevitable, vividity in religious ideologies and practices is essential. The only way to remove the religious conflicts is to develop a tolerant outlook and to establish harmony among them. Thus, Jaina theory of Anekantavāda prevents us from being dogmatic and one-sided in our approach. It preaches us a broader outlook and open mindedness, more essential in solving the conflicts owing to the differences in ideologies and faiths. Prof. T.G. Kalghatgi rightly observes "The spirit of Anekanta is very much necessary in society, specially in the present day, when conflicting
Reference
1. Bothara, Surendra, Ahimsa:, The Science of Peace, Foreword, D.R. Mehata, p. XVII.
Ibid, p. 46.
2.
3. David, C.W., The Voice of Humanity, p. 1.
4. Acarang (Ayaro), Jaina Visva Bharati Ladnun, 1/7/149. 5. Ibid, 2/4/96.
6. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IX, p. 700. 7. Umäsväti, Tattvärthasutra, 5/21.
8. See, K.S. Murty, The Quest for Peace, p. 157.
9. Sūtrakṛtänga(Suyagado), Jaina Visva Bharati Ladanun,1/
11/36.
10. Acaranga (Ayaro), Jaina Visva Bharati Ladanun, 1/8/3. 11. Bhagavatisūtra (Bhagavai) Jaina Visva Bharati Ladanun,
1/9.
12. Sotrakṛtänga (Suyagado) Jain, Visva Bharati Ladanun, 1/11/11.
13. Uttaradhyayanasutra, ed. by Sadhvi Chandana, 32/19. 14. Ibid, 32/7-8.
15. Daśvaikäliksütra (Dasaveäliyam) Jaina Visva Bharati Ladanun, 5/37.
16. Acaranga (Ayaro), Jaina Viśva Bharati Ladanun, 1/4/1.
17. Praśnavyäkaraṇasūtra, Agama Prakasana Samiti Byavara,

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ideologies are trying to assert supremacy aggressively, Anekanta brings the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance.31
For the present day society what is awfully needed is the virtue of tolerance. This virtue of tolerance i.e. regard for other's ideologies and faiths is maintained 'Jainism from its earlier time by these days. Mahāvīra mentions in Sūtrakṛtänga those, who praise their own faiths and ideologies and blame that of their opponents and thus distort the truth, will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death.32 Jaina philosophers all the time maintain that all the view-points are true in respect of what they have themselves to say, but they are false in so far as they refute totally other's view-points.
Jaina saints also tried to maintain the harmony in different religious-faiths and to avoid religious conflicts. That is why Jainism can survive through the ages.
The basic problems of the present society are mental tensions, poverty, violence, fundamentalism and the conflicts of ideologies and faiths. Jainism try to solve these problems of mankind through three basic tenets of nonattachment (Aparigraha), non-violence (Ahimasa) and nonabsolutism (Anekanta). If mankind collectively observes these three principles, peace and harmony can certainly be established in the world.
2.1.21.
18. Umāsväti, Tattvärthasutra, 5/21.
19. Avasyakavṛtti, Ratlam, pp. 661-662.
20. See, Schweitzer, An Anthology, ed. C.R. Joy, pp. 248-83 Quoted by K.S. Murty, The Quest for Peace, p. 42. Daśvaikālikasūtra (Ladanun), 6/10.
21.
22. K.S. Murty, The Quest for Peace; Prologue, p.XXI.
23. Acaränga (Ayaro) Jaina Viśva Bharati Ladanun, 1/3/4.
24. Tatia, N.M., Studies in Jaina Philosophy, P.V. Research Institute, Varanasi, p 22.
25. Utträdhyayanasūtra, Sanmati Jñänapitha Agra, 23/25. 26. Haribhadra, Lokatattva Nirṇaya, Jaina Grantha Prakashaka Sabha Ahmedabad, Verse 38.
27. Siddhasena, Sanmatiprakarna (Jñanodaya Trust, Ahmedabad), 1/28.
28. Yasovijava, Adhyatmopaniṣat (Jainadharma Prakasaka Sabha, Bhavanagar).
29. Kundkunda Niyamasara, 155 (The Central Jaina Publishing House, Lucknow).
30. Haribhadra, Yogadṛsti Samuccaya, 133 (L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad).
31. Vaiśali Institute Research Bulletin, No. 4,p. 31.
32. Sūtrakṛtänga, (Suyagado), Jaina Viśva Bharati, 1/1/2/25.

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Religious Harmony and Fellowship of Faiths : A Jaina Perspective
Among the most burning problems, the world is facing today, religious fundamentalism and intolerance is the most crucial. The miraculous advancement in science and technology provided us light-legged means of transportation and communication. As a result physical distances have no bars to meet the peoples of different nations, cultures and religions. Our world is shrinking but disdainfully the distances of our hearts are widening day by day. Instead of developing mutual love, cooperation and faith, we are spreading hatred and hostility and thus ignoring the values of harmonious living and co-existence. The blind and mad race of nuclear weapons is a clear indication that the human race is proceeding towards its formidable funeral procession. Rabindranath Tagore rightly observed "For man to come near to one another and yet to ignore the claims of humanity is the sure process of suicide." In the present circumstances, the only way out left for the survival of mankind is to develop a firm belief in mutual co- operation and co-existence. Religious harmony and fellowship of faiths is the first and foremost need of our age.
peace and happiness for the individual and to establish harmony within human socicty. However, as is known from history, countless wars have been fought in the name of the religion. The religion thus remains accused for the inestimable amount of bloodshed of mankind. Of course, it is not of the so-colled men of religion responsible for this horrible consequences. At present religion as such is largely shoved into the background or at best used in the service of political ideologies. If one belives that only his faith, his mode of worship and his political ideologies are the right means for securing peace and happiness for mankind, he cannot be tolerant to the view points of his opponents. The immediacy, therefore, is to develop tolerance to and friendship for others. It is the only approach by which we can generate peace and harmony inside human society.
Can religion as a category, of which Jainism is a part, meet with this challenge of our times? Before this question can be answered we must make a distinction between a true and a false religion. Because a true religion never supports violence, intolerance and fanatical outlook and it cannot per se be made responsible for the ignominious acts committed in the name of religion by such religious leaders who want to serve their vested interest. The barbarity committed in the past and perpetrated in the present in the name of religion is due very largely to the intolerance and fanaticism of the so-called religious leaders and their ignorant followers.
The only way of freeing oneself from this sordid situation is to comprehend the true nature, indeed, to grasp the "essence" of religion and to develop tolerance toward and respect for other's ideologies and faiths.
F or the Jainas, a true religion consists in the practice of equanimity and its foundation is the observance of nonviolence. In the Acarangasūtra, the earliest Jaina text (c. late 4th cent. B.C.), we come across these two definitions of religion: Equanimity is the essence of religion, while the observance of non-violence is its external exposition or a social aspect of religion. The Acäränga mentions that practising of non-violence is the true and eternal religion.
Jainism, since its inception, believes in and preaches for peace, harmony and tolerance. It has been tolerant and respectful toward, other faiths and religious ideologies throughout its history of existence. In Jainism one hardly
Humanity as a Binding Force
Undoubtedly we belong to different faiths, religions and cultures. Our modes of worship as well as way of living also differ to some extent. There is also no denying the fact that our philosophical approaches and viewpoints are divergent but among these diversities there is a common thread of unity which binds all of us, and it is nothing except humanity. We all belong to the same human race. Unfortunately, at present, humanity as such is largely shoved into the background and differences of caste, colour and creed have become more important for us. We have forgotten our essential unity and are conflicting on the basis of these apparent diversities. But we must bear in our mind that it is only humanity which can conjoin the people of different faiths, cultures and nationalities. Jaina ācāryas declared the human race as one (egā maņussa jāi). The difference of caste, culture and creed are not only superficial but mostly the creation of man.
What is True Religion
The ultimate end in view of all religions is to ensure

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comes across instances of religious conflicts involving violence and bloodshed. At most one meets with instance; of disputations and strongly worded debates concerning ideological disagreements. The Jaina men of learning while opposing the different ideologies and religious standpoints, fully paid regard to them and accepted that the opponents' convictions may also be valid from a cretain standpoint.
Humanity as a true form of religion
First of all we are human being and then anything else i.e. Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Sikkhas, Jainas and the like. To be a real human being is a pre-condition for being a real Hindu etc. Our prime duty is to be a human in its real sense. This spirit is echoed in one of the earlier Jaina text Uttaradhyayana wherein Lord Mahavira has laid down four conditions for a true religious being. viz-1. Humanity 2. true faith 3. control over senses and 4. efforts for self-purification'. Thus, we see that among these four conditions of a religious being, humanity occupies the first an the foremost position.
In Jainism religion is defined as a true nature of thing (Vatthu Sahāvo Dhammo) and in the light of the above definition it can be said that humanity is the true religion of mankind. For, it is its essential nature. As a human being if we fail to behave like a human being, we have no right to call ourselves a religious being or even a human being. Bertrand Russell, the eminent philosopher and scientist of our age, suggests "I appeal as a human being to the human beings that remember your humanity and forget the rest. If you can do so the way lies open to a new paradise. If you cannot, nothing lies before you but universal death". And thus, I want to emphasize that humanity is our first and the foremost religion.
What is Humanity?
The question may be raised what we mean by the term humanity? The simple answer is, humanity is nothing but the presence of self-awreness reasonableness and selfcontrol. These three qualities are accepted as distinguishing features between a human being and animal being by all the humanist thinkers of our age. These three basic qualities are comprehended in Jaina concept of three jewels, i.e. Samyak-Darśana (right vision), Samyak-Jñāna cright knowledge) and Sanyak-caritra (right conduct), respectively which also constitute the path of liberation. The presence of these three makes a being a perfect human being.
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Fellowship means Unity in Diversity
Jaina thinkers assert that unity implies diversity. For them unity and diversity are the two facets of the same reality. Reality itself is unity in diversity. Absolute unity i.e. monism and absolute diversity i.e. pluralism, both of the theories are not agreeable to Jainas. According to them from the generic view point reality is one, but when viewed from modal view-point, it is many. Once a question was asked to Lord Mahavira, O' Lord! whether you are one or many. To this Mahavira replied," From substantial view point I am one, but if viewed from changing conditions of mind and body I am different each moment and thus many." This view is further elaborated by Acarya Mallisena. He says "whatsoever is one, is also many?." Really, unity in diversity is the law of nature. Nature everywhere is one, but there is diversity in it, as the natural phenomena differ from each other, so is the case with human beings also. Though all the human beings have some common characteristics and features yet every individual-being differs from others and has some specific qualities. It is also true about religions. All the religions have some common characteristics sharing with others as well as specific qualities of their own. Universal virtues such as nonviolence, friendliness, service to the needy, truthfulness, honesty, control over senses, etc. are commonly shared by all the religions of the world. Unfortunately, at present, these common universal virtues which are the essence of religious practices have been shoved into the background and external rituals, which are divergent in their nature, have become more important. Thus, we have forgotten the essential unity of all the religions and are stressing their diversities.
I am emphasizing the essential unity of all the religions, this does not mean that I am the supporter of one world religion or undermining the specialities and diversities of them. What I intend to say is that the absolute unity and absolute diversity, both are illusory concepts and fellowship of faith means unity in diversity.
Co-operation as Essential Nature of Living Beings
For Jainas co-operation and co-existence are the essential nature of living beings. Darwin's dictum- 'struggle for existence' and the Indian saying- Jivojivasya bhojanam, that is 'life thrives on life' are not acceptable to them.
They maintain that it is not the struggle but the mutual co-operation is the law of life. Umasvati (4th century A.D.) in his work Tattvärthasūtra clearly maintains that mutual

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Aspects of Jainology Volume VI
co-operation is the nature of living beings (parasparopa- graho Jivänăm). Living beings originate, develop and exist with the co-operation of other living beings. So is the case with the human society also, its existence also depends on mutual co-operation, sacrifice of one's own interest in the interest of other fellow beings and regard for other's life, ideology, faith and necessities. If we think that other's services are essential for our existence and living, then we should also co-operate in others living.
If we consider taking the help of others in our living as our right, then on the same ground of logic it is our honest duty to help others in their living. The principle of equality of all beings means that every one has a right to live just as myself and therefore one should not have any right to take other's life.
Thus, for Jainas the directive principle of living is not 'living on other's or "living by killing', but 'living with others' or 'living for others'. They proclaim that co-operation and co-existence are the essential nature of living beings. If it is so, then we must accept that religious tolerance and fellowship of faiths are such principles as should be followed at the bottom of our hearts.
One World Religion : A Myth
In order to eradicate the conficts and stop violence in the name of religion from the world some may give a slogan of one world religion but it is neither feasible nor practicable. So far as the diversities in thoughts and habits, in cultural background and intellectual levels, of the human beings are in existence, the varieties in religious ideologies and practices are essential. Jaina pontiff Haribhadra rightly maintains that the diversity in the teachings of the Sages is due to diversity in the levels of their disciples or the diversity in the standpoints adopted by the Sages themselves or the diversities in place and time i.e. ethinic circumstances in which they preached or it is only apparent diversity. Just as a physician prescribes different medicines according to the condition of patients, his illness and the climatic conditions, so is the case with the diversity in religious preachings also'. Therefore, unity, as well as diviersity both are equally essential for the fellowship of faiths and we should not undermine any one of them. Just as the beauty of a garden consists in the variety of flowers, fruits and plants, in the same way the beauty of the garden of religions depends of the variety of thoughts, ideals and modes of worship.
Equal Regard to all Religions
According to Jainas equal regard to different faiths and religions should be the base of religious harmony and fellowship of faiths. Jaina thinker Acārya Siddhasena Diväkara remarks "just as emerald and other jewels of rare quality and of excellent kind do not acquire the designation of a necklace of jewels and find their position on the chest of human beings so is the case with different religions and faiths. Whatever excellent qualities and virtues they possess unless they are catenated in the common thread of fellowship and have equal regard for others, they can not find their due place in human hearts and can be charged for spreading hostility and hatred in mankind'."
Therefore, one thing we must bear in our mind that if we consider other religions or faiths as inferior to ours or false, real harmony will not be possible. We have to give equal regard to all the faiths and religions. Every religion or mode of worship has its origination in a particular social and cultural background and has its utility and truth value accordingly. As the different parts of body have their own position and utility in their organic whole and work for its common good, so is the case with different religions. Their common goal is to resolve the tensions and conflicts and make life on earth peaceful. For this common goal each and every one has to proceed in his own way according to his own position. Every faith, if working for that particular common goal has equal right to exist and work, and should be given equal regard.
According to Jainācārya Siddhasena Divakara (4th Century A.D.) the divergent view points/faiths may be charged as false only when they negate the truth value of others and claim themselves exclusively true. But if they accept the truth value of others also, they attain reghteousness. He further says, 'Every view-point or faith in its own sphere is right but if all of them arrogate to themselves the whole truth and disregard the views of their rivals, they do not attain right-view, for all the viewpoints are right in their own respective spheres but if they encroach upon the province of other view points and try to refute them, they are wrong''. For Jainas rightness of particular faith or viewpoint depends on the acceptance of rightness of other. Siddhasena further maintains that one who abvocates the view of synoptic characer of truth never discriminates the different faith as right or wrong and thus pays all of them equal regard'?. Today, when fundamentalism is posing a serious threat to communal harmony and equilibrium, unity

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Religious Harmony and Fellowship of Faiths: A Jaina Perspective
of world religions is not only essential but the only way out to protect the human race.
Jainas, too believe in the unity of world religions but unity according to them does not imply omnivorous unity in which all lose their entity and identity. They believe in that type of unity where in all the alien faiths will conjoin each other to form an organic whole without losing their own independent existence and given equal regard. In other words they believe in a harmonious existence and work for a common goal i.e. the welfare of mankind. The only way to remove the religious conflicts and violence from the earth is to develop a tolerant outlook and to establish harmony among various religions.
Now we shall discuss the causes of intolerance and devices suggested for the development of a tolerant outlook and religious harmony by the Jainas.
True Meaning of Religion
So for as the leading causes responsible for the growth of fundamentalism and intolerant outlook are concerned, in my humble opinion, the lack of the true knowledge and understanding of the real nature and purpose of religion is prime. By religion generally we mean to have some uncritcal beliefs in supernatural powers and performance of certain rituals as prescribed in our religious texts, but it is not the true and whole purpose of religion. Haribhadra in his work 'Sambodha Prakarana' (1/1) clearly remarks that the people talk about the path i.e. religion but they do not know that what is the path or religion in its true sense. In the famous Jaina text, Kartikeyanuprekśā (478), dharma (religion) is defined as the real nature of the things. If it is so, then quesition arises what is the real nature of huaman being? In a Jaina text known as Bhagavatisūtra (1/9), it is clearly mentioned that the nature and ultimate end of the soul is equanimity. Lord Mahavira has given two definitions of religion. In Acarängasūtra (1/8/4) he says "worthy people preach that the religion is mental equanimity" Equanimity is considered as the core or essence of religion, because it is the real nature or essence of all the living beings, including human beings also. Equanimity is the state in which consciousness is completely free from constant flickering, excitements and emotional disorders and mind becomes pacific. Haribhadra says whether a person is a Svetambara or a Digambara or a Bauddha or belongs to any other religion, whosoever attains equanimity of mind, will attain the liberation (Sambodha Prakarna, 1/2).
Thus, the attainment as equanimity or relaxation from

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tensions is the essence of religions. Secondly, when we talk of social or behavioural aspect of religion, it is nothing but the observance of non-violence. In Acaranga, (1/4/1) Lord Mahavira propounds, "The worthy men of the past, present and the future will say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus, all breathing, existing, living and sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented" This is the pure, eternal and unchangeable law or the tenet of religion.
Acarya Haribhadra maintains that performance of rituals is only the external form of religion. In its real sense religion means the eradication of passions and lust for material enjoyments as well as the realization of one's own real nature. Thus, for Jainas the true nature and purpose of religion is to attain equanimity and peace in individual as well as in social life. Whatsoever disturbs equanimity and social peace and spreads hostility and violence is not a true form of religion, instead it is Saitana in the cloak of religion. But now-a-days, the essence of religion has been shoved into background and dogmatism, uncritical faith and performance of certain rituals have got precedence. Thus, we have forgotten the end or essence of religion and stuck to the means only. For us it has become more crucial point that while performing prayer, our face should be in the east or in the west, but we have forgotten the purpose of prayer itself. The religion aims at having control over our passions, but unfortunately we are nourishing our passions in the name of religion. Actually, we are fighting for the decoration of the corpse of religion and not caring for its soul. If we want to maintain religious harmony and ensure peace on the earth, we must always remain aware of the end and essence of the religion, instead of external practices and rituals.
The English word religion is derived form the root 'religio' wihch means 'to unite'. On the basis of its etymological meaning we can say that whatsoever divides the mankind, instead of uniting it, cannot be a true form of religion. We must be aware of the fact that a religion in its true sense never supports violence, intolerance and fanatical outlook. A true form of religion is one which establishes harmony instead of hostility, affection and kindness instead of hatred.
Blind Faith - the Root of Intolerance
Among the causes that generate fanaticism and intolerance, blind faith is the principal; it results from passionate attachment hence uncritical or "unexamining"

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outlook. Attachment (Mürcha) according to the Jainas is the cause of bondage. It causes perverse attitude. In Jainism various types of Attachments are enumerated. Among them darśana-moha/drstirāga (blind faith), due to its very nature has been reckoned "paramount". In point of fact, it is considered as a central element in religious intolerance. It leads one's attitude towards a strong bias for one's own and against other's religion. Non-attachment is, therefore, considered as precondition for the right attitude or perception. A perverse, hence defiled attitude renders it impossible to view the things rightly just as a person wearing coloured glasses or suffering from jaundice is unable to see the true colour of objects as they are. Attachment and aversion are the two great enemies of philosophical thinking. Truth can reveal itself to an impartial thinker"13. Non- attachment, as Jainas hold, is not only essential it is imperative in the search of truth. One who is unbiased and impartial can perceive the truth of his opponents's ideologies and faiths and thus can possess deference to them. Intense attachment unfailingly generates blind faith in religious leaders, dogmas, docrtines and rituals and consequently religious intolerance and fanaticism come into existence. The religions which lay more emphasis on faith than reason are narrower and fandamentalist. While the religions according due importance to reason also are more concilia- tory and harmonious. It is the reason or critical outlook which acts as check-post in religious faiths and rituals.
Jainism holds that the uncritical outlook and even pious attachment towards the prophet, the path and the scripture is also an hindrance to a seeker of truth and aspirant of perfection. Attachment results in blind faith and superstition and repulsion consequences into intolerant conduct. The real bondage, as Jainas confirm, is the bondage due to attachment. A person who is in the grip of attachment cannot get rid of imperfection. Gautam, a chief disciple of Lord Mahāvīra, failed to attain omniscience in the life time of Mahāvira on account of his pious attachment towards Mahāvira. Same was the case with Ananda, the chief disciple of Lord Buddha, who could not attain arhathood in the life- time of his "Sastā". Once Gautam asked Mahavira : "Why am I not able to attain the perfect knowledge, while my pupils have reached the goal. "Lord answered: "Oh, Gautam, it is your pious attachment towards me which obstructs you in getting perfect knowledge and emancipation"4. The Jainas therefore laid stress on the elimination of attachment, the root cause of bias and intolerance.
Reason - The Check-Post of Blind Faith
In Jainism right faith, one of its three 'Jewels', plays an important role in emancipation of the soul. On the contrary, the blind faith causes intolerance. Jainism therefore does not support blind faith. Jaina thinkers maintain that the right faith should be followed by right knowledge. The faith followed by right knowledge or truthful reason cannot be blind one. According to Jaina thinkers, reason and faith are complementary and actually there is no contention between the two. Faith without reason, as the Jaina thinkers aver, is blind and reason without faith is unsteady or vacillating. They hold that the religious codes and rituals should be critically analysed. In the Uttaradhyayanasütra, Gautam, the chief disciple of Mahavira, strongly supports this view before Kesi, the pontiff of the church of Jaina Pārsva. He said: "the difference in the Law must be critically evaluated through the faculty of reasoning. It is the reason which can ascertain the truth of Law"16.
If one maintains that religion has to be solely based on faith and there is no place for reason in it, then he will unfailingly develop an outlook that only his prophet, religion and scriptures are true and other's prophets, religions and scriptures are false. He will also firmly believe that his prophet is only savior of mankind; his mode of worship is the only way of experiencing the bliss and the laws or commands of his scripture are the only right ones and thus he remains unable to make critical estimate of his religious prescriptions. While one who maintains that reason also plays an important role in the religious life, will critically evaluate the pros and cons of religious prescriptions, rituals and dogmas. An "attached" or biased person believes in the dictum 'Mine is true' while the "detached" or unbiased person believes in the dictum 'Truth is mine.
. Gunaratnasūri (early 15th cent. A.D.) in his commentary on the saddarśanasamuccaya of Haribhadrasūri (c. 3rd quarter of the 8th cent. A.D.) has quoted a verse, which explains : "a biased person tries to justify whatever he has already accepted, while an unprejudiced person accepts what he feels logically justified"17. Jainism supports 'rational thinking'. Supporting the rational outlook in religious matters Acārya Haribhadra syas : "I possess no bias for Lord Mahāvīra and no prejudice against Kapila and other saints and thinkers. Whosoever is rational and logical ought to be accepted 8". While describing the right faith Amrtacanda (c.early 10th cent. A.D.) condemns three types of idols namely superstitions relating deities, path and

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scriptures. Thus when religion tends to be rational there will hardly be any room for intolerance. One who is thoroughly rational in religious matters, certainly would not be rigid and intolerant.
Non-absolutism of the Jainas refuse to allow the individual to be dogmatic and one-sided in approach. It pleads for a broader outlook and open mindedness, which alone can resolve the conflicts that emerge from differences in ideologies and faiths. Satkari Mookerjee rightly observes that Jainas do not believe in the extremist a priori logic of the absolutists. Pragmatically considered, this logical attitude breeds dogmatism and if carried a step further, engenders fanaticism, the worst passion of human heart22. For non-absolutism the views of the opponent are also true. As Siddhasena Diväkara (5th Cent. A.D.) remarks "All schools of thought are valid when they are understood from their own standpoint and so far as they do not discard the truth-value of others. Hemcandra was a Jaina saint; he composed his works in the praise of Siva. This liberalism is also maintained by later saints who composed their works in Hindi or Gujarati like Anandaghana and many other, till these days. In a Hindi couplet J.K. Mukhtar says
buddha Vira jina Harihara Brahma ya usako svadhina kaho/ bhakti bhāva se prerita ho, yaha citta usi me lina raho //
Non-Absolutism - the Philosophical Basis of Tolerance
Dogmatism and fanaticism are the born children of absolutism. An extremist or absolutist holds that whatsoever he propounds is correct and what others say is false, while a relativist is of the view that he and his opponent both may be correct, if viewed from two different angles and thus a relativist adopts a tolerant outlook towards other faiths and ideologies. It is the doctrine of 'Anekantavada' or non- absolutism of the Jainas on which the concept of religious tolerance is based. For the Jainas non-violence is the essence of religion from which the concept of non-absolutism emanates. Absolutism represents 'violence of thought', for, it negates the truth-value of its opponent's view and thus hurts the feeling of others. A non-violent search for truth finds non-absolutism.
Jaina thinkers are of the view that reality is a complex one.20 It has many facetes, various attributes and various modes. It can be viewed and understood from different angles and thus various judgments may be made about it. Even two contradictory statements about an object may hold true. Since we are finite beings, we can know or experience only a few facets of reality at one time. The reality in its completeness cannot be grasped by us. Only a universal-observer-Sarvajña can comprehend it comple- tely. Yet even for an Omniscient it is impossible to know is and to explain it without a standpoint or viewpoint. This premise can be understood form the following example. -- Take it for granted that every one of us has a camera to clic a snap of a tree. We can have hundreds of photographs but still we find most portion of the tree photographically remains uncovered, and what is more, the photographs differ from each other unless they are taken from the same angle. So is the case with diversified human understanding and knowledge. We only can have a partial and relative view of reality. It is impossible for us to know and describe reality without an angle or viewpoint. While every angle or viewpoint can claim that it gives a true picture of reality but each one only gives a partial and relative picture of reality. On the basis of partial and relative knowledge of reality one can claim no right to discard the views of his opponents as totally false. According to Jaina thinkers the truth-value of opponents must be accepted and respected.
Door of Liberation - Open to All
Jainism holds that the followers of other sects can also achieve emancipation or perfection, if they are able to destroy attachment and aversion. The gateway of salvation is open to all. They do not believe in the narrow outlook that "only the follower of Jainism can achieve emancipation, others will not". In Uttarādhyayana there is a reference to anyalnga-siddhas i.e. the emancipated souls of other sects. The only reason for the attainment of perfection or emancipation, according to Jainas, is to shun the vectors of attachment and aversion. Haribhadra, taunch advocate of religious tolerance remarks : "One, who maintains equanimity of mind will certainly get emancipation whether he may be a Svetāmbara or Digambara or Buddhist or any one else. It is this broad outlook of the Jainas which makes them tolerant to the non-violence of thought.
About the means of liberation, the Jainas are also broadminded. They do not believe that their mode of worship or their religious practice is the only one that represents the way to reach the goal of emancipation. For them, not the external modes of worship, but the right attitude and mentality are the things that makes religious practices fruitful. The Acārānga-sutra mentions that the practices which are considered to be the cause of bondage

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may be the cause of liberation also.25 It is the intrinsic purity not the external practices which makes the person religious. Haribhadra propounds that neither one who remains without clothes nor one who is white clad, neither a logician nor a metaphysician, nor a devotee of personal cult will get liberation unless he overcomes his passions26 If we accept the existence of the diversity of modes of worship according to the time, place and level of aspirants and lay stress on the intrinsic purity in religious matters then certainly we cannot condemn religious practices of a non-absolutist. They become false only when they reject the truth-value of others27. It was this broader outlook of non-absolutism which made Jainas tolerant.
While expounding this tolerant outlook of the Jainas, Upadhyaya Yasovijaya (17th cent. A.D.) maintains a true non-absolutist does not disdain any faith but treats all the faiths equally as a father does to his sons. For, a nonabsolutist does not have any prejudiced and biased outlook. A true believer of 'Syadvada' (non-absolutism) is one who pays equal regard to all the faiths. To remain impartial to the various faiths is the essence of being religious. A little knowledge which induces a person to be impartial is more worth while than the unilateral vast knowledge of scriptures"
Non-personalism - A Keystone for Tolerance
Jainism opposes the person-cult (person-worship) for it makes the mind biased and intolerant. For the Jainas, the object of veneration and worship is not a person but perfectness i.e. the eradication of attachment and aversion. The Jainas worship the quality or merit of the person not the person. In the sacred namaskara-mantra of the Jainas veneration is paid to the spiritual-posts such as arhat, siddha, ācārya and not the individuals like Mahavira, Rṣabha or anybody else. In the fifth pada we find that the veneration is paid to all the saints of the world. The words 'loye' and 'Savva' demonstrate the geneosity and broader outlook of the Jainas29. It is not person but his spiritual attitude which is to be worshipped. Difference in name, according to the Jainas, is immaterial since every name at its best connotes the same spiritual perfection. Haribhadra in the Yogadrștisamuccaya remarks that 'the ultimate truth transcends all states of worldly existence, called nirvana and is essentially and necessarily 'single" even if it be designated by different names like Sadasiva, Parabrahman, Siddhātmā, Tathāgata, etc.30 Not only in the general sense but etymologically also they convey the same meaning. In the Lokatattva-nimaya

he says, "I venerate all those who are free from all vices and filled with all virtues, be they Brahma, Viṣṇu, Śiva or Jaina". This is further supported by various Jaina thinkers of medieval period as Akalanka, Yogindu, Mänatunga, Hemcandra and many others. While worshiping Lord Siva the Jaina pontiff Hemcandra says: "I worship those who have destroyed attachment and aversion, the seeds of birth and death, be they Bramha, Visnu Śiva of Jina"32. This liberalism of the Jainas on the methods of worship can be supported by the legends of the previous lives of Mahavira. It is said that Mahavira in his previous existences was many times ordinated as a monk of other sects where he practised austerities and attained heaven.
As for scriptures, the Jainas outlook is liberal. They firmly believe that a false scripture (Mithya-Śruta) may be a true scripture (Samyak-Śruta) for a person of right attitude; and true scripture may turn false for a person of perverse attitude. It is not the scripture but the attitude of the follower which makes is true or false. It is the vision of the interpreter and practitioners that counts. In the Nandisutra this standpoint is clearly explained". Thus we can say that the Jainas are neither rigid nor narrowminded in this regard.
References of Religious Tolerance in Jaina Works
References to religious tolerance are abundant in Jaina history. Jaina thinkers have consistently shown deference to other ideologies and faiths. In the Sutrakṛtänga the second earliest Jaina work (c. 2nd cent. B.C.), it is observed that those who praise their own faith and views and discared those of their opponents, possess malice against them hence ramain confined to the cycle of birth and death34. In another famous Jaina work of the same period, the Isibhāsiyaim, the teaching of the forty five renowned saints of Śramanic and Brahmanic, schools of thought such as Narda, Bharadvaja, Mankhali-Gośāla and many others have been presented with due regards35. They are remembered as Arhatṛsi and their teachings are regarded as an Agama. In the history of world religions there is hardly any example in which the teachings of the religious teachers of the opponent sects were included in one's own scriptures with due esteem and honour. Evidently, it indicates the latitudinarian and unprejudiced outlook of the earliest Jaina thinkers. We also have a reference to religious tolerance in the Vyakhyāprajnapti, one of the early works of the Jainas, when an old friend of Gautama, who was initiated in some other religious sect, came to visit him. Mahavira commanded Gautama to welcome him and Gautama did so. Accroding

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to Uttaradhyayana, when Gautama, the chief disciple of faiths. They have always believed in religious harmony Mahavira and Keśi, a prominent pontiff of Pārsvanātha's and fellowship of faiths. sect met at Kośämbi, both paid due regard to each other Though generally Jainas do classify religions in the and discussed the various problems dispassionately and in heretic (mithya-drsti) and non-heretic (samyak-drsti) yet, gentle and friendly manner about the differences of both mithya-dřsti, according to them, is one who possesses onethe sects??
sided view and considers others as totally false, while Haribhadra has not only maintained this latitudinarian samyak-drsti is the one who is unprejudiced and sees the outlook of earlier Jainācāryas, but lent new dimension to it. truth in his opponents views also. It is interesting to note He was born in the age when the intellectuals of the India here that Jainism calls itself a union of heretic views were engaged in hair-splitting philosophical discussions (micchādamsana-samüh). Siddhasena (5th cent. A.D.) and in relentless criticism of one other. Though he also mentions "Be glorious the teachings of Jina which are the critically evaluated the other philosophical and religious union of all the heretic views i.e. the organic synthesis of systems, his outlook was fully liberal and attempted to see one-sided and partial views, essence of spiritual nectar and the truth of his opponent's logic also.
easily graspable to the aspirants of emancipation In the Sastravārtā-samuccaya which is one of the Anandaghana, a mystic Jaina saint of the 17th cent. foremost works illustrating Haribhadra's liberal outlook, it A.D. remarks that just as ocean includes all the rivers so is mentioned that the great saint, venerable Lord Buddha does Jainism all other faiths. Further, he beautifully expounpreached the doctine of Momentariness (Kșanikavāda), ds that all the six heretic schools are the organs of Jina and Non-existence of soul (Anätmavāda), Idealism (Vijñana- one who worships Jina also worships them. Historically våda) and Nothingness (Sünyavada) with a particular we also find that various deities of other sects are adopted intention to vanish the mineness and desire for worldly in Jainism and worshipped by the Jainas. Acārya Somadeva objects and keeping in view the different levels of mental in his work Yaśastilak-campü remarks that where there is development of his followers, like a good physician who no distortion from right faith and accepted vows, one prescribes the medicine according to the disease and nature follow the tradition prevailing in the country." of the patient. He has the same liberal and regardful As we have already said that Jainas believe in the attitude towards Sämkhya and Nyaya schools of Bhrahma- unity of world religions, but unity, according to them, does nical philosophy. He maintains that naturalism (Prakrtivāda) not imply omnivorous unity in which all the alien faiths of Sāmkhya and Isvara karttvavada of the Nyāya school is will conjoin each other to form a organic whole without also true and justified, if viewed from certain standpoint loosing their own independent existence. In other words it Further, the epithets such as the great saint (mahămuni), believes in a harmonious co-existence or a liberal synthesis the venerable (arhat), the good physician (Suvaidya) used in which all the organs have their individual existence, but by him for Buddha and for Kapila shows his generosity work for a common goal i.e. the peace of mankind. To and deference to other religious leaders. Haribhadra's eradicate the religious conflicts and violence from the world, crusade against sectarianism is unique and admirable in the some may give a slogan of "one world religion" but it is history of world-religions.
neither possible nor practicable so far as the diversities in Along with these literary evidences there are some human thoughts are in existence. In the Niyamasära it is epigraphical evidences of religious tolerance of the Jainas said that there are different persons, their different activities also. Some Jaina ācāryās such as Rämkirti and Jaymangala- or karmas and different levels or capacities, so one should sūri wrote the hymns in the praise of Tokalji and goddess not engage himself in hot discussions neither with other Cămunda. Jaina kings such as Kumārpāla, Vişnuvardhansects nor one's own sect.45 and others constructed the temples of Siva and Vişnu along
Haribhadra remarks that the diversity in the teachings with the temple of Jina's
of the sages is due to the diversity in the levels of their Finally, I would like to mention that Jainism has a disciples or the diversity in standpoints adopted by the sound philosophical foundation for religious tolerance and Sages or the diversity in the period of time when they throughout the age, it practically never indulged in preached, or it is only an apparent diversity. Just as a aggressive wars in the name of religion nor did they invoke physician prescribes medicine according to the nature of divine sanction for cruelities against the people of alien patent, its illness and the climate so is the case of diversity

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of religious teachings. So far as diversity in time, place, levels and understanding of disciples is inevitable, variety in religious conflicts is to develop a tolerant outlook and to establish harmony among them.
At last I would like to conclude my paper by quoting a beautiful verse of religious tolence of Acārya Amitagati --
Sattveșu maitrim gunișu pramodam
Klişteşu jiveșu krpäparatvam Madhyasthyabhāvm viparita vrrttau
Sada mamātmā vidahātudeva.“ Oh Lord ! I should be friendly to all the creatures of world and feel delight in meeting the virtuous people. I should always be helpful to those who are in miserable conditions and tolerant to my opponents.
References : 1. David C.V. The Voice of Humanity, (Manikachand Depot.
Ujjain) p.1. 2. ekkā manussa Jāi-Gatha (comp. Ācārya Mahaprajña, Jaina
Visva Bharati. Ladnun, 1993, 1/26. Uttaradhyayanasütra, (Sadhvi Candana, Sanmati Jñānpeeth,
Agra), 3/1. 4. Kārtikeyānupreksā (ed. by A.N. Upadhye, Shrimad Rajchan-
dra Ashram, Agas 1960,- 478. David C.V. The Voice of Humanity. Tatrvárthasūtra (Umāsvāti), Pt. Sukhlalji, P.V. Research
Institute, Varanasi-5, 1/1/1. 7. Bhagavatisútra, 18/10. 8. Tattvarthsūtra (Umāsvāti) 5/21. 9. Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra, L.D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, 1970, 133. 10. Sanmtitarka, (Siddhasena Divākara, ed. Pt. Sukhlalji Sang
havi, Jaina Svetaber Education Board, Bombay, 1939. 11. Ibid. 1/28. 12. Ibid. 1/28. 13. N.M. Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, P.V. Research
Institute, Varanasi, 1958, p.22. 14. (a) Bhagavati-Abhayadeva's Vitti, Rishabhadeva Kesari-
mal, Ratlam, 1937, 14/7. p. 1188. (6) Mukkhamagga pavannanam sineho vaijasimkhalā vīre
jivamtae jão Goyamam jam na kevali-Quoted in Abhidhāna Rajendra, vol. II p. 959 and Kalpasūtra Tika
Vinayavijay, 127, p. 120. 15. pannā samikkhae dhammam/
tattam tatta vinicchayam // - Uttaradhyayana, 23/25, Sanmati Jñanapitha, Agra, 1972. Agrahibata ninisati yuktim yatra tatra matirasya nivista / paksapatarahitasya tu yuktiryatra tatra matireti nivesam / --Quoted in 'Saddarśanasamuccaya' - Gunaratna krta tika, ed. Mahendra Kumar Jain, Bhartiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 2nd
ed., 1981, p. 461. 17. Paksapato na me vire, na dvesah kapilādişu Yuktima
dvacanam yasya, tasya karya parigrahah-LokatattvanirnayaHaribhadra, Jain Granth Prakasaka Sabha, Ahmedabad,
Vikram, 1964, verse 38. 18. Loke sastrabhāse samayabhase ca devatabhase /
nityamap tattvarucina kaitavya-mamudhadrstitvam/26 -- Purusārtha-Siddhyupāya-Amartacandra, The Central Jaina
Publishing House, Ajitasram, Lucknow, 1933. 19. Anantadharmatmakameva tattvam.. /22
Anyayogavyavacchedadvåtrimsikā, Hemacandra. 20. Natthi nayahimvihumam suttam attho ya Jinavayekimci -
Avaşyaka Niryukti, 544. -- Visesavasyaka Bhāsya, L.D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, 1968, 2748. 21. Prof. Satkari Mookerjee, Foundation of World Peace,
Ahimsa and Anekanta, Vaisali Institute Research Bulletin
No. 1, p. 229. 22. Niyayavayanijjasacca, savvanaya paraviyalane moha
Te una na ditthasamao vidhayai sacca va aliye va // -- Sanmati Prakarana, Siddhasena, Jñanodaya Trust,
Ahmedabad 1963. 23. Yasya sarvatra samata nayeşu tanayesviva /
Tasyanekāntavādasya kva nyunādhikasemusi // Ten a syadvādamālambya sarvadarsanatulyatam / Moksoddesavi (dvi) sesena yah pasyati sa sastravit //70/1 Madhyasthyameva sastrartho yena taccăru siddhyati / Sa eva dharmavädah syadanyadbalisavalganam //71/1 Mädhyasthyasahitam hyekapadajnanamapi prama/ Sastrakotih vịthaivanya tathä сoktam mahātamanā //7311 --Adhyatmopanisat-Yosovijaya, Sri Jainadharmarprasaraka
Sabha Bhavanagara, 1st Ed., Vikram, 1965. 24. Namo Arahamtåņam/mamo siddhānam/namo Āyariyānam/
Namo Uvajjhāyanari/namo loye savva sähünam/ Vyakhya prajñāpti, Mahavira Jaina Vidhyalaya, Bombay. Samachim coiya samana kei sapakkhaditthio vamenti, settam Micchasuyam. Vrti-etani bharatadini sastrani mithyadrsteh Mithyātvaparigrhitāni bhavanti, tato Viparitabhinivesavrddhihetutvam mithyaśrutam etänyeva Ca bharatadini Sastrani samyagdrsteh Samyakivaparigrhitani bhavanti-Nandisutra, 72, p. 30. Sri.
Mahavira, Jaina Vidhyalaya, Bombay, 1st ed. 1968. 34. Sayam sayam passamsamtā garaharta param vayam/ Je utatthd visusamti, samsaram te viussiyā //
-- Sūtrakrtänga, 1/1/2/23. 35. Devandradena Arahata isina buiyam/ --Isibhāsiyaim, 1/1,
See also the names of its various chapters, edited by Dr. Walther Schubring, L.D. Instt. of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974.
16.

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36. He khamdaya! sagayam, Khamdaya! Susagayam - Bhagavati, 2/1.
37. Kesikumāra samane goyamam dissama gayam/ Padiruvam padivattim sammam sampadivajjai // -- Uttaradhyayana sutra, Sanmati Jñanpitha, Agra, 1st ed. 23/16.
38. Sāstravārtāsamuccya, L.D. Instt. Ahmedabad, 1969. 6/464, 65, 67.
39. Ibid. 3/207 and 3/237.
40. Jaina Šilalekha Sangraha, vol. III, Introduction by G.C. Chaudhari. See also epigraphs of above mentioned book vol. I, II and III, No. 181, 249, 315, 332, 333, 356, 507, 649, 710.
41. Jaina Šilalekha Sangraha, vol. III, Introduction by G.C. Chaudhari. See also epigraphs of above mentioned book,
We all are human beings first hence the problems, humanity is facing today, are our own. In fact, we, ourselves are solely responsible for their creation and naturaly have to bear their consequences also. Become our earnest duty to ponder over their roots and causes, to suggest their solutions and to make honest efforts for their eradication.
Problem of Mental Tension and its Solution
The growth of scientific knowledge and outlook has reverly jolted our superstitions and false dogmas. But unfortunately, it has shaken our faith in sprtitual and human values also. Today, we have more knowledge of and faith in the atom and atomic power than the values needed for meaningful and peaceful life. We rely more on atomic. weapons as our true rescuer than on our fellow-beings. The advancement in science and technology has provided us amenities for a pleasant living. Today the life on earth has become pleasant and luxurious as it was never before. Yet because of the selfish and materialistic outlook, nobody is happy and satisfied. This advancement, in all walks of life and knowledge, could not sublimate our animal and selfish nature. The animal instinct lying within us is still dominating

vol. I, II and III, No. 181, 249, 315, 332, 333, 356, 507, 649, 710.
83
42. Sanmatitarka Prakaraṇa, 3/69, Jñānodaya Trust, Ahmedābād, 1963.
The Solution of World Problems: A Jaina Perspective
43. Namijinastavan--Anandaghana Granthavali, Śrī Jaina Śreyaskara Manal, Mahesana (1957).
44. Yasastilaka-compu Somadevaśūri, p. 373, Nirnaya sagar, Press, Bombay.
45. Niyamasara, Kundakunda, 155, The Central Jaina Publishing House, Lucknow, 1931.
46. Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya (Haribhadra), L.D. Instt., Ahmedābād,
1970.
47. Sāmāyika Patha 1-Amitagati. Published in Sāmāyikasūtra, Sanmati Jäänapīṭha, Agră.
our individual and social behaviour. What, unfortunately has happened is that the intoxication of ambition and success made us more greedy and egoistic. Our ambitions and desires have no limits. They always remain unfulfilled and the create frustration. Frustration and resentments give birth to mental tensions. These days, the people and nations, more affluent materially having all the amenities of life, are more in the grip of tensions. Medical as well as psychological reports of advanced nations confirm this fact. This shows that the cause of our tensions is not scarcity of the object of necessities, but the endless desires and the lust for worldly enjoyment. Among the most burning problems, the world facing today, that once of mental tension is the prime one. We are living in tension all the time and even a pleasant sound sleephas become a dream. The single and most salient feature by which our age may be characterised is that of tensions.
As a matter of fact, all the problems, we are facing today are created by us hence, their consequences are also to be borne by us.
The main object of Jainism is to emancipate man from his sufferings i.e. mental tensions and thus to attain

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equanimity or tranquility. First of all, we must know the causes of these mental tensions. To Jainism, the basic human sufferings are not physical but mental. These mental sufferings or tensions are due to our attachment towards worldly objects. It is the attachment, fully responsible for them. The famous Jaina text Uttaradhyayana-sutra mentions: "The root of all sufferings : physical as well as mental, of every body including gods, is attachment which is the root cause of mental tension'. Only a detached attitude towards the objects of worldly enjoyment can free mankind from mental tension. According to Lord Mahāvira, to remain attached to sensuous objects is to remain in the whirl. Says he : "Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no greed while greed is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment."2 The efforts, made to satisfy the human desires through material objects, may be likened to the chopping off the branches while watering the roots. He further remarks that uncountable mountains of gold and silver like Kailasa can not satisfy the desires of human beings because desires are endless like sky. Thus, the lust for and the attachment towards the objects of worldly pleasure is the sole cause of human tensions.
If mankind is to be freed from mental tensions, it is necessary to grow a detached outlook in life. Jainism believes that the lesser the attachment, the greater will be the mental peace. It is only when attachment vanishes, the human mind becomes free from mental tensions and emotional disorders and attains equanimity, the ultimate goal of all our religious practices and pursuits.
place. Doubts cause fear, fear produces the sense of insecurity which results in accumulation of weapons. This mad race for accumulation of weapons, is likely to lead to the total annihilation of human race from this planet.
Thus, the problem of survival of mankind is related to the question of disarmament. To meet this aim first of all we will have to develop mutual faith or trust and thus remove the sense of fear and insecurity, the sole cause of armament-race, and then to check the mad race for weapons. Let us think what means have been suggested by the Jainas to solve the problem of human survival and to check the mad race for weapons. For Jainas, it is the sense of insecurity w hich causes fear and vice a versa. Insecurity results in the accumulation of weapons. So it is our prime duty to develop the sence of security among fellow beings. In Sütraktänga, it is clearly mentioned that there is nothing higher than the sense of security which a human being can give to others. The virtue of fearlessness is supreme. It is two-fold (1) one should not fear from others and (2) one should not cause fear to others. A real Jaina saint is one who is free from fear and enmity. When the fear vanishes and enmity dissolves there is no need for armaments. Thus, the sense of secutity and accumulation of arm and weapons are related to each other. Though, arms and weapons are considered as means of security yet these, instead of giving security, generate fear and a sense of insecurity in the opposite party hence a mad race for accumulation of superior weapons starts. Lord Mahāvira had seen this truth centuries before that there is no end to this mad race for weapons. In Acāränga (C. 4th B.C.) he proclaimed "atthi sattham parenaparam natthi asatthar parenaparam"i.e. there are weapons superior to each other, but nothing is superior to aśastra i.e. disarmament or non-violence? It is the selfish and aggressive outlook of an individual or a society that gives birth to war and violence. They are the expressions and outcome of our sick mentality. It is through firm faith in mutual credibility and non-violence that humanity can get rid of this mad race for nuclear weapons and thus can solve the problem of its survival.
The Problem of Survival of Human Race and Disarma- ment
The second important problem, the world is facing today, is the problem of the survival of human race itself. Due to the tremendous advancement in war technology and nuclear weapons, the whole human race is standing on the verge of annihilation. Now it is not the question of survival of any one religion, culture or nation, but of the whole humanity. Today, we have guided missiles but unfortunately, unguided men. The madness, of one nation or even an individual, may lead to the destruction of the whole humanity. Because of the advancement in scientific knowledge and outlook our faculty of faith has been destroyed. When mutual faith and faith in higher values of co-operation and co-existence is destroyed, doubts take
The Problem of War and Violence
At the root of all types of wars and violences there lies the feeling of discontentment as well as the will for power and possession. According to Sūtrakrtānga, the root of violence is attachment or will for possession. A book namely "Tension that causes war" tells us that economic inequalities, insecurities and frustrations create group

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protect his rights through violent means in exceptional cases. But the fact remains that violence for Jainas is an evil and it cannot be justified as a virtue in any case. 10
conflicts. It is true that in the old days the cause of war was only will for power and possession, whether it was the possession of women or land or money. But now-a-days economic inequality, over population, sense of insecurity and unequal treatment on the basis of caste, creed and colour may be added to the causes of wars. Jaina thinkers have all the time condemned war and violence. In Uttaradhyayana, it is said "If you want to fight, fight against your passions. It is much better to fight with one's own passionate self than to fight with others. If some one is to be conquered, it is no other than your own self. One who has got victory over one's own self is greater than the one who conquers thousand and thousand of warriors'.
Jianas aim at complete eradication of war and violence from the earth, it is not possible as long as we are attached to and have possession for any thing-living or non-living, small or great. There are persons and nations who believe in the dictum 'might is right. Though aggressive and unjust, war and violence is not acceptable to Jainas, they agree to the point that all those, attached to physical world and having a social obligation to protect others life and property, are unable to dispense with defensive war and violence. Jainas accept that perfect non-violence is possible only on spiritual plane by a spiritual being, completely free from attachment and aversion and having full faith in the immortality of soul and thus remaining undisturbed by the fear of death and sense of insecurity. The problem of war and violence is mainly concerned with worldly beings. They cannot dispense with defensive and occupational violence. But what is expected of them is to minimize the violence at its lowest. Ignorant and innocent persons should not be killed in wars at any cost. Jaina thinkers have suggested various methods and means for non-violent wars and for reducing violence even in just and defensive wars. They suggested two measures. First the war should be fought without weapons and in the refereeship of some one. The war, fought between Bharat and Bahubali, is an example of such a non-violent war. In our times Gandhiji also planned a non-violent method of opposition and applied it successfully. But it is not possible for all to oppose non violently. Only a man, detached even to his body and his heart free from malice, can protect his right non-violently. In addition to this, such efforts can bear fruits only when raised against one with human heart. Its success becomes dubitable when it has to deal with some one without faith in human values and wants to serve his selfish motives. Jainism permits only a house-holder and not a monk to
Problem of Disintegration of Human Society
The disintegration of human race is also one of the basic problems, humanity is facing today, Really, the human race is one and it is us who have erected the barriers of caste, creed, colour nationalities etc. and thus disintegrated the human race. We must be aware of the fact that our unity is natural while these divisions are artificial and man made. Due to these artificial man made divisions, we all are standing in opposition to one another. Instead of establishing harmony and mutal love, we are spreading hatred and hostility in the name of these man-made artificial divisions of caste, creed and colour. The pity is that we have become thirsty of the blood of our own fellow beings. It is a well known fact that countless wars have been fought on account of these man-made artificial divisions. Not only this, we are claiming the superiority of our own caste, creed and culture over others and thus throwing one class against the other. Now, not only in India but all over the world classconflicts are becoming furious day by day and thus disturbing the peace and harmony of human society.
Jainism, form its inception, accepts the oneness of human race and oppose these man made divisions of caste and creed. Lord Mahavira declared that' human race is one. He further says that there is nothing like inferiority and superiority among them. All men are equal in their potentiality. None is superior and inferior as such. It is not the class but the purification of self or a good conduct that makes one superior. It is only through the concept of equality and unity of mankind, which Jainism preached from the very beginning, that we can eradicate the problem of disintergration and class-conflict. It is mutual faith and co-operation which can help us in this regard. Jaina ācāryas hold that it is not the mutual conflict but mutual cooperation which is the law of living. In his work Tattvärtha Sūtra, Umāsvāti maintains that mutual co-operation is the essential nature of human being". It is only through mutual faith, co-operation and unity that we can pave the way to prosperity and peace of mankind. Jainas believe in the unity of mankind, but unity, for them doesn't mean absolute unity. By unity they mean an organic-whole, in which every organ has its individual existence but works for a common goal. i.e. human good. For them unity means, 'unity in diversity'. They maintain that every race, every

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religion and every culture has full right to exist, with all its Jainas, it is a means for welfare of human society and not peculiarities, but at the same time, it is its pious duty to for one's own enjoyment. The accumulation of wealth in work for the welfare of the whole humanity and be prepared itself is not an evil but it is the attachment towards its to sacrifice its own interest in the larger interest of the hording and lust for its enjoyment which makes it an evil. humanity. In the Jaina text Sthänängasūtra we have the If we want to save the humanity from class-conflicts, we mention of Grāmadharma, Nagaradharma, Rästrah arma will have to accept self-imposed limitation on our etc. referring to one's duty towards one's village, city and possessions and modes of consumption. That is why Lord nation that has to be fulfilled.
Mahävira has propounded the vow of complete non
possession for monks and nuns and vow of limitation of Problem of Economic inequality and Consumer Culture possession for laities. Secondly, to have a check on our
Economic inequality and vast differences in the mode luxurious life and modes of consumption he prescribed the of consumption are the two curses of our age. These disturb vow of limitation in consumption. The property and wealth our social harmony and cause class-conflicts and wars, should be used for the welfare of humanity and to serve the Among the causes of economic inequality, the will for needy, so he prescribed the vow of charity. In Jainism the possession, occupation or hoarding are the prime. vow of charity is named as Atithi samvibhāga. It shows Accumulation of wealth on the one side and the lust, for that charity is not an obligation towards the monks and worldly enjoyment on the other, are jointly responsible for weaker sections of society but through charity we give the emergence of present-day materialistic consumer culture. them what is their right. In Jainism it is the pious duty of A tremendous advancement of the means of worldly a house-holder to fix a limit to his possessions as well as enjoyment and the amenities of life has made us crazy for for his consumption and to use his extra money for the them. Even at the cost of health and wealth we are madly service of mankind. It is through the observation of these chasing them. The vast differences in material possession vows that we can restore peace and harmony in human as well as in the modes of consumption have divided the society and eradicate economic inequality and class human race into two categories of 'Haves' and 'Have nots'. conflicts. At the dawn of human history also, undoubtedly, these classes were existent but never before the vices of jealousy Problem of Conflicts in Ideologies and Faiths and hatred were as alarming as these are today. In the past, Jainism holds that reality is complex. It can be looked generally these classes were co-operative to eace other at and understood from various view-points or angles. For while at present they are in conflicting mood. Not only example, we can have hundreds of photographs of tree disproportionate distribution of wealth, but luxurious life from different angles. Though all of them give a true led by affluent people these days, is the main cause for picture of it form a certain angle yet they differ from each jealousy and hatred in the hearts of the poor.
other. Not only his but neither each of them, nor the whole Though wealth plays an important role in our life and of them can give us a complete picture of that tree. They considered as one of the four puruşarthas i.e. the pursuits individually as well as jointly will give only a partial of life yet if cannot be maintained as the sole end of life. picture of the tree. So is the case with human knowledge Jainas, all the time, consider wealth as a means to lead a life and understanding also, we can have only a partial and and not a destination, Uttaradhyayanasūtra rightly observed, relative picture of reality. We can know and describe the "that no one who is unaware of treasure of one's own reality only from a certain angle or view-point. Though protect one-self by walth's. But it does not mean that Jaina every angle or view-point can claim that it gives a true ācāryas do not realise the importance of wealth in life. picture of reality yet it gives only a partial and relative Acärya Amrtacandra maintains that the property or wealth picture of reality. In fact, we cannot challenge its validity commits violence. Jainas accept the utility of wealth; theor truth-value, but at the same time we must not forget that only thing they want to say that wealth is always a means it is only a partial truth or one-sided view. One who knows and it should not be considered as an end. Not doubt wealth only partial truth or has a one-sided picture of reality, has is considered as a means by materialist and spiritualist as no right to discard the views of his opponents as totally well, the only difference is that for materialist it is a means false. We must accept that the views of our opponents also to lead a luxurious life while for spiritualist, as well as may be true from some other angles. The Jaina theory of
Jainism

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Anekāntavāda emphasises that all the approaches to understand the reality give partial but true picture of reality, and due to their truth-value from a certain angle, we should have regard for other's ideologies and faiths. The Anekānta- vāda forbids to be dogmatic and one-sided in our approach. It preaches us a broader outlook and open mindedness more essential to solve the conflicts taking place due to the differences in ideologies and faiths. Prof. T.G. Kalghatgi rightly observes, "The spirit of Anekanta is very much necessary in society, specially in the present days, when conflicting ideologies are trying to assert supermacy aggressively. Anekänta bring the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance".
For the present-day society what is awfully needed is the virtue of tolerance. This virtue of tolerance i.e. regard for others ideologies and faiths has been maintained in Jainism form the very beginning. Mahävira mentions in the Sūtraktänga, those who praise their own faiths and ideologies and blame those of their opponents and thus distort the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death'?. Jaina philosophers have maintained that all the judgments are true by their own view points, but they are false so far as they refute other's view-points totally. Here I would like to quote verses from works of Haribhadra (C.8th A.D.) and Hemcandra (C. 12th A.D.), which are the best examples of religious tolerance in Jainism. In Lokatattvanimaya Haribhadra says: "I bear no bias towards Lord Mahāvira and no disregard to the Kapila and other saints and thinkers, whatsoever is rational and logical ought to be accepted. Hemacandra in his Mahādeostotra says" "I bow to all those who have overcome attachment and hatred, which are the cause of worldly existence, be they Brahma, Visnu, Siva or Jina''. Thus, Jaina saints have tried all the times to maintain harmony in different religious- faiths and tried to avoid religious conflicts.
The basic problems of present society are mental tensions, violence and conflicts of ideologies and faiths. Jainism had tried to solve these problems of mankind through the three basic tenets of non-attachment or non- possessiveness (aprigraha), non-violence (ahimsa) and nonabsolutism (Anekanta). If mankind observes these three principles, peace and harmony can certainly be established in the world.
economic inequality, political subjugation and class conflicts not only today but from its remote past. Though some of these have assumed an alarming proportion today, yet, no doubt, the most crucial problem of our age is, for coming generation would be, that of ecological disbalance. Only a half century back we could not even think of it. But today, every one is aware of the fact that ecological disbalance is directly related to the very survival of human race. It indicates lack of equilibrium or disbalance of nature and pollution of air, water, etc. It is concerned not only with human beings and their environment, but animal life and plant-life as well.
Jainism presents various solution of this ecological problem through its theory of non-violence. Jainas bold that not only human and animal being but earth, water, air fire and vegetable kingdom are also sentient and living beings. For Jainas to nollute, to disturb, to hurt and to destroy them means commit the violence against them which is a sinful act., it is their firm belief that earth, water, air, fire and vegetable pave the way for the protection of ecological balance. Their every religious activity starts with seeking forgiveness and repentance for disturbing or hurting earth, water, air and vegetation. Jainäcäryas had made various resrictions of the use of water, air and green vegetables, not only for monks and nuns but for laities also. Jainas have laid more emphasis on the protection of wild-life and plants. According to them hunting is one of the seven serious offences or vices. It is prohibited for every Jaina, whether a monk or a laity. Prohibitions for hunting and meat-eating are the fundamental conditions for being a Jaina. The similarity between plant-life and human life is beautifully explained in Ācārängasūtra. To hurt the plant life is as sinful act as to hurt human life. In Jainism monks are not allowed to eat raw-vegetables and to drink unboiled water. They cannot enter the river or tank for bathing. Not only this, there are restrictions for monks on crossing the river on their way of tours. These rules are invogue and observed even today. The Jaina monks and nuns are allowed to drink only boiled water or lifeless water. They can eat only ripe fruits, if their seeds are taken out. Not only monks, but in Jaina community some householders are also observing these rules. Monks and nuns of some of the Jaina sects place a peace of cloth on their mouths to check the air pollution. Jaina monks are not allowed to pluck even a leaf or a flower from a tree. Not only this, while walking they always remain conscious that no insect or greenery is trampled under their feet. They use
Problem of the Preservation of Ecological Equilibrium
The world has been facing a number of problems such as mental tensions, war and violence, ideological conflicts,

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very soft brushes to avoid the violence of smallest living beings. In short, Jaina monks and nuns are over conscious about the pollution of air, water, etc.
So far as Jaina house-holders are concerned they take such vows as to use a limited and little quantity of water and vegetables for their daily use. For a Jaina water is more precious than ghee or butter. To cut forest or to dry the tanks or ponds are considered very serious offence for an house-holder. As per rule, Jaina house-holders are not permitted to run such type of large scale industries which pollute air and water and lead to the violence of plant-life and animal-kingdom. The industries which produce smoke in large quantity are also prohibited by Jainācāryas. These types of industries are termed as 'maharambha'or greatest sin and larger violence. It is considered as one of the causes
for hellish life. Thus, Jainas take into consideration not only the violence of small creatures but even earth, water, air, etc. also. The fifteen types of industries and bussiness prohbited for the house-holder are mainly concerned with. ecological disbalance, pollution of environment and violence of living beings. Jainacaryas permitted agriculture for house-holders, but the use of pesticides in the agriculture is not agreeable to them, because it not only kills the insects but pollutes the atmostpheres as well as our food items also. To use pesticides in agriculture is against their theory of non-violence. Thus, we can conclude that Jainas were well aware of the problem of ecological disbalance and they made certain restrictions to avoid the same and to maintain ecological equilibrium, for it is based on their supreme principle of non-violence.
References 1. Uttaradhyayana, (Byavar) 32/29. 2. Ibid., 32/8. 3. Ibid., 9/48. 4. Acäränga, (Byavar) 1/8/4. 5. Satrakstänga, (Byavar) 1/6/23. 6. Uttarădhyayana, 6/6. 7. Acāränga, 1/3/4. 8. Sätrakritānga, 1/1/1/1. 9. Uttaradhyayana, 9/34. 10. Jain Journal, Vol. 22, July 1987, No. 1, pp. 16-17.
11. Ekka Manussa Jā ? Gatha, 1/26.
(Compiled by Yuvacaraya Maha Prajña, Jaina Visva Bharti,
Ladnun) 12. Ācārānga, 1/2/3/75. 13. Tattvärthasútra, (P.V. Varanasi) 5/21. 14. Sthanarigasūtra, 10/35. 15, Uttaradhyayan, 4/5. 16. Vaishali Institute Research Bulletin, No. 4, p. 31. 17. Satraktäriga, 1/1/2/23. 18. Lokatattvanirnaya (Haribhadra), 38 19. Mahadevastrotra (Hemacandra), 44.

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The Concept of Non-Violence in Jainism
The concept of non-violence has been preached by almost all the religions of the world. All the thinkers of humanity and the founders of religious orders universally accepted it as a core principle of human conduct and cardinal religious virtues. In Indian religions in general and Jainism in particular non-violence is considered as a supreme moral virtue (Ahimsă paramo dharmah).
In Ācāranga, a canonical Jaina Text of 4th cent. B.C., Lord Mahāvīra declares that "All the worthy men of the past, the present and the future say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus, that all the breathing, existing, living and sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented. This is the pure, eternal and unchangeable law or the tenet of religion." "Bhaktaparijñā' also mentions the superiority of non-violence over all other virtues. It says "just as in the world there is nothing higher than mountain Meru and nothing extended than the sky, so also in the world) there is nothing excellent and universal than the virtue of non-violence.2 In Praśnavyākaranasūtra, non-violence is considered as a shelter to all the living beings. In it Ahimsa is equated with sixty virtuous qualities such as peace, harmony, welfare trust, fearlessness etc.' For Jainas non-violence is a wider term comprehending all the virtues. It is not a single virtue but a group of virtues. Ācāryā Amrtacandra in his famous work Purüşārthasiddhupāya maintains that "all moral practices such as truthfulness etc. are included in Ahimsa (non-violence), similarly all the vices are comprehended in Himsā (violence) because virtues do not vitiate the real nature of self while vices do vitiate. Thus, in Jainism nonviolence represents all the virtues and violence all the vices.
The same view is also propounded in the famous Hindu work Mahābhārata. It says 'As the foot-prints of all smaller animals are encompassed in the footprint of an elephant in the same way all the virtues (dharmas) are included in Ahimsā (non-violence). Further it maintains that there is nothing higher than the virtue of non-violences because it comprehends all the virtues' Lord Buddha in Dhammapada also remarks enmity is never appeased by enmity, but only by non-enmity- it is an eternal law.? In other words it is not the violence, but non-violence that can be accepted as an universal law of human conduct.
Not only in indigenous religions, but in the Sematic religions also non-violence is accepted as religious virtues. "Thou shall not kills is one of the ten commandments, which is perscribed by prophet Moses. In the Holy Bible Jesus Christ also said 'Love thy enemy'.' In Islam the supreme being (Allāh) is called the Beneficent (Al-Rahman) and the Merciful (Al-Raheem). These injuctions of the great prophets and law givers of the world show that it is the doctrine of non-violence which can only be a universal law of an advanced human society.
This universal acceptance of the ideal of non-violence does not mean that the ideal has been practised by all the religions of the world, in the same spirit and by all the means. In Vedic religion we have the injunction such as "Consider all the creatures of the world as your friend" or "see all the beings as your ownself"," yet in practice we find that; in early Vedic religion there are sanctions for not only animal sacrifices but for the human sacrifices also. In Vedas, we have the prayers to the deities for the total destruction of the enemy and victory over it. This shows that the primitive religion and early Vedic religion also were not very much cooped with the doctrines of nonviolence. It is also true in the case of Judaism and Islam. Though in Judaism 'thou Shalt not kill' is accepted as one of the ten commandments, but for the Jews people, this injunction only means not to kill the people of their own group and faith. Similarly in Islam, the ideal of non-violence is confined to the follower of their own faith. In it we have the sanction for Jehada. Both of these Sematic religions also have sanction for animal sacrifices. Thus, we can say that in early Vedic religion, Judaism and Islam along with the other primitive form religions of the world, the concept of non-violence is only confined to the non-violence towards the people of one's own group and faith. In the history of Sematic religion." Christianity for the first time totally condemned the human killing. Lord Jesus Christ bestowed his compassion on all the human beings, though in Christianity, we do not have any sanction for animal sacrifices in the name of religion, but for the sake of human food animal killing is allowed in it. In the history of indigenous religions Vaisnavism, Jainism and Buddhism, condemned all the violence towards the animal-kingdom. Though in Buddhist countries meat-eating is a common

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of Jina, there will be unintentional violence of one sensed being of earth, water etc. and there may occur unintentional violence of two or more sensed beings. But they never said that violence done in the name of religion is not violence at all, as Vedic scriptures propound. They say that it is a violence, done for the sake of the greater good of the individual and society. It is a little demerit conducive to greater merit. If in a situation violence is inevitable, Jaina thinkers advice to opt the lesser violence for the greater good. Intentional violence of immobile one-sensed living beings for lively-hood and in religious performances is permitted to house holders only.
practice yet we must be aware of the fact that this does not have any religious sanction on the part of Buddhism. Vaisnavism prohibit the violence towards the vegetable kingdom. It is in Jainism for the first time that the violence towards the vegetable kingdom as well as other subtle being of the water, earth, air and fire is totally shunned off. A Jaina monk neither can eat raw vegetables, nor can accept the meal which is prepared for him. He can drink only boiled water or water which is completely lifeless. He observes non-violence by all the nine means, i.e. (1-3) not to do violence through mind, body and speech, (4-6) not to order for violence through mind, body and speech and (7- 9) not to recommend violence through mind, body and speech.' So far as the conduct of house-holder is considered, he has been prohibited only from the intentional violence of mobilie beings.
In Pali tripitaka, Buddha himself prohibited the meat eating to the monks, if it is seen, known or heard that the animal was killed for them. Though, Buddha allowed his monks to accept invitations for meals i.e. to accept the meals which is prepared for them. Buddha also not prohibited his monks from eating raw vegetable and drinking the water of well or river. All this shows a development in the meaning of the term non-violence. This development did not take place in a chronological order, but through the cultural and rational development of human society. The development in the meaning of the term non-violence is three dimensional : (1) to refrain from the violence of human beings, to vegetable kingdom and life existing in the finest particles of earth, water, air and fire (2) to refrain from the external act to the internal will of violence i.e. from outward violence to inward violence and (3) to refrain from the violence of other self to the violence of one's own self.
Rational Foundation of Non-Violence
Mackenzi, an eminent Western scholar, believes that the ideal of non-violence is an outcome of fear. But Indian thinkers in general and Jainas in particular never accepted this view. For them the basis of non-violence is the concept of equality of all beings. They based this ideal not on the emotional basis but on the firm footings of reason. The Daśavaikälika, a Jaina canonical text of 3rd century B.C. mentions that every one wants to live and not to die. For this simple reason Nigganthas prohibit the violence. It is also mentioned that Just as pain is not dear to oneself, having known this regarding all other beings, one should treat all the beings equally and should keep sympathy with all of them on the simple basis of equality. The simplest rule of our behaviour towards the others is 'whatever you desire for yourself and whatever you do not desire for yourself, desire that or do not desire that for others. This experience of likeness of all beings and the regard for the right of all to live are the basement for the practice of non-violence. It is not only in Jainism, but in Buddhism and Hinduism also non-violence is supported on the rational ground of equality of all beings.
In Dhamampada Lord Buddha also remarks 'All men tremble at torture and love life and fear death, remember that you are like unto them, so do not kill nor cause slaughter.20 In Isopanisad it is declared "For a man who realises this truth, all beings need, become the self; when one thus sees unity, what delusion and what sorrow can one have". This idea of the lşopanisad (6 & 7) is echoed thus, in the Gita: "The man whose self has been integrated by yoga sees the Self in all beings and all beings in the Self : he sees the same everywhere". Sarvatra samadarsinah. "One who sees, by analogy with oneself, the same everywhere, whether it is pleasure or pain, is the best yogi,
Religious sanction for violence and Jaina view-point
The acceptance for the 'inevitability of violence in the social and individual life is something different from giving it a religious sanction. Though Jaina thinkers accept that complete non-violence as they consider it is not possible in this worldly life. Yet neither they gave the religious sanction to the violence nor they degraded this ideal of non-violence by saying it as impracticable. Even if some sort of violence is permitted to the house-holders and in some cases to monks in the Jaina scriptures such as Niśithacūmil 5 etc., they never say that this type of violence is not violence at all. For example, in building the temple

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The Concept of Non-Violence in Jainism
Atm'aupamyena samam paśyati. (Gītā, vi.29,32) Our classical commentators have rightly brought out the implication of this. By analogy with oneself (ätmaupamya) when one realizes that what is good or bad for oneself must be so for others, one would always do only what is good for others. He would be engaged in the welfare of all beings (Sarvabhūtahita), hating none, and with friendliness and compassion for all.
Non-violence is nothing but to treat all living being as equal. The concept of equality is the core of the theory of non-violence. The observance of non-violence is to honour each and every form of life. According to Jaina point of view, all the beings have equal right to lead a peaceful life. Though violence is unavoidable yet it can not be the directive principle of our living, because it goes against the judgements of our faculty of reasoning. If I think that nobody has any right to take my life on the same ground, I have also no right to take another's life. The principle, "live on others' or 'living by killing' is self-contradictory. The principle of equality propounds that every one has the right to live. The directive principle of living is not 'Living on others' or 'Living by killing' but 'Living with others', or Live for others (Parasparopagrahojivānām). Though in our worldly life complete non-violence is not possible yet our motto should be 'Lesser violence is better Living'. It is not the struggle but co-operation is the law of life. I need other's co-operation for my very existence and so I should also co-operate in other's living.
sex-desire etc. An outer act of hurting others vitalities if proeceded by impure thought activity i.e. ill-will then it really becomes an act of violence. On the basis of dravya and bhäva himsă we have four alternatives of violence (1) both intention and act of killing (2) only there is an intention of killing, not the act of killing. (3) act of killing minus intention of killing and (4) neither the act of killing and nor the will, - though apparently it seems an act of hurting.
In Jainism, violence not only involves the killing or causing harms to other beings but it is also related to our ownself. To hurt the vitalities of other beings is called parahimsā, i.e. violence of others while to entertain impure thought activity or ill-will is the violence towards our ownself. Impure thought activity or ill-will injures the real nature of this soul by disturbing its equanimity. The evil thought activity vitiates the purity and equanimity of the soul hence called sva-himsā i.e. violence of our ownself. This violence of our ownself is more than the violence of others, because the later may only be possible when former had taken place. Generally, we cannot kill or cause harm to others without impure thought activity or ill-will i.e. the violence towards others implies the violence of our ownself. Bhaktaparijña mentions "killing of other beings is killing one's ownself and compassion for others is the compassion for one's ownself." Thus, will is the mother of activity. Illwill causes sinful activity. The violence towards others can only be committed after committing violence towards one's ownself. Acäränga says, "he who ignores or negates other beings, ignores or negates one's ownself. He whom you wish to kill or control or on whom you wish to inflict suffering is yourself. 24 We can not kill or harm other without killing our ownself i.e. without vitiating our equanimity, the real nature of ourself. It is the attachment and hatred which make violence possible. In the state of equanimity i.e. non-attachment and non-hatred commission of violerce is an impossibility. Thus, passions necessarily lead to the violence of our ownself as well as to otherselves. Acārya Amrtacandra in his famous work Purüsärthasiddhyupāya mentions "The absence of attachment and other passions is non-violence, while presence of these is violence. This is the essence of Jaina scriptures. There will be no violence even if vitalities are injured when a person is not moved by any kind of passions and is careful in his activity. But if one acts carelessly moved by the influence of passions, there is certainly a violence whether a living being is killed or not. Because a passionate person first
The meaning of Non-violence
The term non-violence (Ahimsā) has various connotations. Generally it means not to kill, slain or hurt any living being. Ahimsā means abstention or refraining from himsā. Himsā means violence, injury, harm, deprivation, mutilation, disfigurement and causing pain and suffering to others. In Tattvārthasūtra the term violence is defined as to hurt the vitalities of a living being through the operation of intense passion infected activity of mind, body and speech. This definition of himsä сovers two aspects external and internal. In Jainism, violence is considered of two types -- Dravyahimsa and Bhāvahimsä.22 The act of harming or hurting is Dravyahimsā i.e. external violence and the intention to hurt or to kill is Bhāvahimsā i.e. internal violence. There is a causal relation between Dravyahimsa and Bhavahimsa. Generally. Dravyahimsă caused by entertaining impure or passionate thought activities such as anger, pride, deceit, greed, sorrow, fear,

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injures his ownself through the self. It does not matter whether there is subsequently an injury is caused to another being or not.N25 The will to injure and act of injuring, both constitute violence, but of these two, first is more vital, so far as the principle of bondage is concerned. Thus, in Jainism every activity of mind, body and speech infatuated with passions and carelessness is called violence and absense of violence is non-violence.
Positive aspect of Non-violence
Further, we must be aware of the fact that in Jainism non-violence is not merely a negative concept i.e. not to kill; but it has positive meaning also as compassion and service to living beings. Once a question was asked to Mahavira 'O Lord, one person is rendering his services to the needy persons while other is offering pūjä to you, of these two who is your real follower, Mahāvira answered 'first one is the real follower of mine, because he is following my teaching 26
Non-violence and War
Just as peace and non-violence are synonyms so are the war and violence. There can be no war without violence. One who is engaged in war is definitely engaged in violence. Though agressive and unjust wars have been condemned by all the religions yet defensive wars are considered as moral and just. Judiasm, Islam, Christianity and Hinduism all support those wars which are fought for a religious and just cause. Islam considers Jehad as a religious duty. In Hinduism Bhagavadgita also supports war for the sake of just cause.
Now, we shall consider the position of Jainas in this regard. Jaina thinkers advocate non-resistance towards all the force whether used justly or unjustly. Jaina monks are totally prohibited for any resistance which involves violence. For Jainas, war is always immoral act, for it is always waged due to our attachment and involve violence: external as well as internal. In Jaina canons it is said "what is the use of fighting with others. If one wants to fight he should fight with himself because it is your passionate self which is to be conquered. One who conquers his ownself conquers four passions and five senses and ultimately conquers all the enemies. 27 All wars have their origin in passions and attachment and so generally speaking are all unjust. Jaina monks are not permitted to violent resistance even for the protection of their own life, but as an exceptional case if the very existence of Jaina order is in danger, they are permitted
even for the violent resistence. In Jaina canons we have the example of Ācārya Kālaka, who engaged himself in warfare against the king of Avanti for the rescue of his nun sister Sarasvati.?? But all that resistances of that nature are considered as an exception. So far as ....... as an moral act.
So far as the house-holders are concerned, they are allowed to involve in such wars, fought for the just cause. But it should be noted here that the war fought for the just cause must be a defensive one and not an offensive one. The aggressive wars faught by Jaina kings were never considered by Jaina thinkers as moral act..
It was Jainism that gave the idea of wars where in violence was not involved. This spirit may will be understood by the story of Bharat and Bahubali; Bharat who wanted to be a Cakravarti King attacked Bahubali who accept his sovereignty. Both were engaged in war, refused to when they were suggested for a non-violent method of war, both of them agreed to. In our age Mahatma Gandhi had demonstrated the way of passive resistance i.e. Satyagraha.
Jainism sets its goal as the ideal of complete nonviolence external as well as internal : The realisation of this ideal in the practical life is by no means easy. Non-violence is a spiritual ideal, fully realisable only in the spiritual plane. The real life of an individual is a physio-spiritual complex; at this level complete non-violence is not possible. According to Jaina thinkers the violence is of four kinds (i) deliberate (Samkalpi) or aggressive violence i.e. intentional killing (ii) protective violence i.e. the violence which takes place in saving the life of one's own or his fellow being or in order to make peace and ensure justice in the society (iii) Occupational i.e. violence taking place in doing agriculture or in running the factories and industries (iv) violence, is involved in performing the daily routine of a house-holder such as bathing, cooking, walking etc. The first form of violence must be shunned by all, because it relates to our mental proclivities. So far as the thoughts are concerned, a man is his own master. So it is obligatory for all to be non-violent in this sphere. From the behavioural point of view, deliberate violence is aggressive. It is neither necessary for self-defence nor for the living.
The Second form of violence is defensive taking place in the activity of defence. It becomes necessary for the security of one's life. External circumstances may compel a person to be a violent or to counter attack in defence of his own life or that of his companions or for the protection of his belongings. A person living in family is unable to

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The Role of Parents, Teachers and Society in Instilling Culture Values
keep away completely from this type of violence because he is committed to the security of family members and their belongings. It will not be possible for him to resist not-violently with success. Only a man, unattached to his body and material objects, his heart free from malice, can protect his rights non-violently. A non-violent opposition only may be fruitful against an enemy with human heart.
So far as occupational violence is concerned everyone cannot shake it off. For so long as a person has to earn his livelihood and to seek fulfilment of his physical needs, deliberate violence of vegetable kingdom is unavoidable. In Jainism intentional violence to mobile animals by a house-holder has been forbidden even when it becomes necessary for the maintenance of life and occupation.
Undoubtedly one or other form of violence is inevitable in our life, but on this basis we can not take deision that the observance of non-violence is of no use in the present. Just as violence is inevitable in the world for living, non
The Role of Parents, Teachers and Society in Instilling Culture Values
Meaning of Culture Values
When we talk about instilling culture-values in our children, we should be clear about one thing: What do we mean by culture-values? What kind of values do we want to teach? Do we want to continue the present hypocritical double standard in the name of culture and tradition? Are we not keeping alive a culture, devoid of any real values, a mere pomp and show, where in the gap between saying and doing is too wide and deep to cover it? Do we want our children to make outward claims of religion, morality, good conduct and behaviour at places of worship, temples, churches and social gatherings while in the work place and at home, to be involved in deception, intrigue and immoral behaviour? I am saying this because perhaps we have the same expectations from our children. Today, we want our youngsters to become successful businessmen, officers or politicians. But whether a person having good character and doing what he thinks and says, may be successful presently in any field? These days, curruption is so widespread in politics, administration and business, it seems

violence is also inevitable for the very existence of human race. So far as the existence of human society is concerned it depends on mutual co-operation, sacrifice of ones interest in the interest of his fellow-beings and regard for other's life. If above mentioned, elements are essential for our social life, how can we say that non-violence is not necessary for human life. Society does not stand on violence but on non-violence, not on fulfilment of self-interest but on sacrifice of self-interest, not accepting our own rights but in accepting the rights of others as our duty. Thus, we can say that the non-violence is an inevitable principle of the existence, for human society. At present we are living in age of nuclear weapons and due to this the existence of human race is in danger. At present it is only the observance of non-violence, which can save the human race. It is mutual credibility and the belief in the equality of human beings which can restore peace and harmony in human society.
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that no one with good character and morals can be successful. Even in the field of so-called religion, the success of such a person is doubtful pecause there too fundamentalist monks, sectarianism, the blind pursuit of name and fame are so strong that the difference between words and deeds is clearly visible. Our so-called 'good', yoga teachers and masters of religious establishments are clear examples of this dualism. Thus, we need to be clear what we mean by building the character of our youngsters. Do we want a 'successful' person or a truthful and honest one? It seems that in our heart of hearts, we want our youngsters to be successful but seemingly truthful and honest. It is a bitter fact that while talking about a wellcultured child, we do not mean more than formal courtesy, etiquette and blindly following old traditions.
Does instilling culture-values imply adopting the modern Western culture of materialism and lavish luxurious living without good conduct and morality? To this end, now-a-days, not only in the prosperous high class but even in the middle class, people have the desire to send their

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children to convents. Though the children in convent schools learn outward formality and etiquette, they are largely poor in moral and spirutual values.
Alternatively, in the name of culture and tradition, do we want to instill sectarianism, religious fanaticism, prejudice and/or lifeless ritualism in our children? Many people who talk of character building have such hollow objectives. They expect their children to have blind faith in religious concepts and traditions.
Thus, before discussing the problems of instilling culture and tradition in our youngsters, we should define what we mean by a cultured person. Does it mean one who is successful in the present atmosphere? Does it mean one who is Westernized in attitude and conduct? Does it mean a child who is religiously attached to traditional rituals? Or do we want our youngsters to have spiritual outlook and to have faith in humanitarian values?
In my view, when we think beyond our personal interests and religious prejudices and set aside indulgence towards our child, we will clearly see that, in reality, a cultured person is one who has good intentions and immaculate conduct. In fact, culture means good character. Culture means moving away from animal instincts and imbibing human values. Culture can be instilled in children by teaching them such qualities as self-control, rational outlook and co-operation. Let us now consider how we can accomplish our goal.
unfortunate that this thinking is dominant not only in the field of education but also among the parents and administrators. Today, parents want their children to study the subjects leading to prosperity and authority. We want our son to become a doctor, an engineer or a government officer not because he will become more useful to the society but because he will have authority and weath. This blind pursuit of power and wealth has polluted our outlook towards education. This materialistic outlook is not producing good educated human beings but it is breeding the 'devil' in us. Our education is turning out everything but a human being. But can an education, not breeding human values and not making man a man be called education? Today, education is related to bread and not to character. Today, the significance of education is not building a good character but producing a clever diplomat. The government is under this delusion. Our (Indian) government thinks that teaching of ethics is against the ideal of secularism, but does secularism imply immorality and unethical conduct? The teaching of ethics has been discarded in the name of secularism. We may print the motto
så vidyā ya vimuktaye (education is, that leads to liberation).
But our present system of education is not concerned with it. Moral and spiritual values do not have any place in today's education although the commissions recently set up by the government have stressed the urgent need for the teaching of morals and ethics in their reports. Today's educators and students, both are slaves of money. On the one hand, the teacher teaches not because he is interested in developing the character of his students but because he gets his salary. On the other hand, the government, the parents and students do not consider him to be a GURU (master) but a servant. When GURU is reduced to the status of a servant, then the expectations of instilling culture values are invain. These days the GURU-student relationship is business like - a bargain. In our ancient scriptures, education has been described as the nectar of life but today it has been reduced to the status of means of earning the livelihood. We have forgotten the basic goal of education. In the words of the famous Urdu poet Firaq: Sabhi kuch to ho raha hai is a tarakki ke jamäne men Magar kyā gajab hai ki ādami insan nahin hotă
(Everything is happening in this age of progress but the tragedy is that man is not becoming a human being.)
Today's education is turning out doctors, engineers,
Avoid Certain Fallacies about Education:
It is unfortunate that most of us do not understand the purpose of education. Neither gaurdians nor teachers, politicians nor society understands the real motive behind what is being taught. Most of us have forgotten that an important purpose of education is instilling-culture values. There seems to be a chaos in the field of education and consequently people merely link education to livelihood. Materialistic thinking limits the purpose of education to prepare an individual to earn his livelhood. However, if the goal of education is just earning bread, what is the difference between man and animal? It is said :
Ahär nidra bhayamaithunam ca
sāmānyametad paśubhih naränām (Eating, sleeping, fear and sex, these four instincts are common between men and animals.)
It is a fact that bread comes first but it is not the ultimate goal of life. So why, only earning the bread is being considered the goal and the end of education? It is

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The Role of Parents, Teachers and Society in Instilling Culture Values
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lawyers, etc. but to some extent, it is not producing good human beings. Unless education instills moral and spiritual values in a child, it can not produce human beings. Our primary responsibility is to make man a man, to instill culture values in our youngsters. The famous American thinker Tufts writes:
Education is for character building, by character building and of character building.
Thus, according to Tufts, the purpose and end of education is to sow the seeds of good character and good values in a human being. Since the independence of India, the commissions, set up to study and suggest reforms of education, headed by the famour philosopher, Dr. Radhakrishnan, the famous scientist, Dr. D.S. Kothari, and the famous educationist, Dr. Mudaliyar, all came to the conclusion that education must relate to human values. As long as this is not done, as long as education does not sow the seeds of good character traits, instead of good human beings, our colleges and universities will continue to turn out people with undersirable attitude and tendencies.
with their children. Thus, how can their children be expected to learn culture values? This also applies to the children of working parents. In many cases, the character traits developed by such children are of the servants and babysitters and not of the parents. Many people send their youngsters to Western-style boarding schools so that their children may not come in the way of their indulgence or they may not pick up the undesirable habits and conduct of their parents. In this context the couplet written by an Urdu poet seems to be appropriate:
Tifl men boo aai kyaa ma baap ke itwaar ki Doodh to dabbe ka hai taaleem hai sarkar ki (How can an offspring adopt the faith of the parents?
He is the given canned milk and (British) government's education.)
We can not depend on others to instill our culture and traditions in our children. If parents want their children to imbibe the sound and health, features of our ancient Indian culture, they will have to lead a clean life of self-control and self-sacrifice. They will have to be immaculate in their livelihood and behaviour.
The Role of Parents and Guardians in Character Building:
It is true that family is the first school for a child where the seeds of culture values are sown. A child spends about 18 out of 24 hours with the family members. Thus, naturally he or she is most influenced by the character of his family members. Now the question arises: Are today's parents in a position to teach good character to their children through their actions? If the parents are busy in the pursuit of their own interests and material pleasures, then it seems impossible for children to learn good values. Many parents of high class, affluent families lead a luxurious life, greatly influenced by materialism of modern culture. It is rather difficult to imagine that their children will keep away from materialism. On the contrary, it is seen that such youngsters develop many undersirable habits and behaviour. First, such families are adopting non-vegetarianism and using intoxicating drinks, thus moving away from good, healthy, clean diet. Secondly, their untamed desires have put a question mark on the purity of their character. Thirdly, because of the greed for money, the reliability and simplicity of their lives is being eroded. It is evident that such atmosphere is not conducive to the building of good character of children. If the parents spend much of their time in offices, parties and clubs, and the children are left in the care of servants and baby-sitters, they lose intimacy
What should Parents and Guardians Do? f. Parents and guardians should have an immaculate,
cultured and ethical conduct so that they produce a
good influence on the youngsters. 2. Parents and guardians should watch the kind of
company their children keep. Peer pressure has
tremendous effect on youngsters. 3. We should select the schools carefully. We should
respect the teachers and teach our youngsters to do the
same. 4. We should select the boarding schools and dormitories
carefully for our youngsters. 5. As far as possible, the children should not be left in the
custody of servants and baby-sitters. We should spend
as much time with our children as possible. 6. We should provide good literature for reading and
should try to keep our children away from 'dirty' books,
films and records. 7. We would educate our children about our values with
the medium of moral stories and the life stories of great
men. 8. We should take our children to meet with noble.
educated and cultured personalities.

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Equanimity and Meditation (Sāmāyika and Dhyana)
Sämäyika is the principal concept of Jainism. It is the first and foremost among six essential duties of a monk as well as of a house-holder. Präkṛta term Sämäiya is translated into English in various ways such as observance of equanimity, viewing all the living beings as one's own self, conception of equality, harmonious state of one's behaviour, integration of personality as well as righteousness of the activities of mind, body and speech. Acarya Kundakunda also used the term samähi (samadhi), in the sense of sämäyika where it means a tensionless state of consciousness or a state of self-absorption'. In its general sense the word sämäyika means a particular religious practice through which one can attain equanimity of mind. It is an end as well as means in itself. As a means it is a practice for attaining equanimity while as an end it is the state in which self is completely free from the flickerings of alternative desires and wishes, excitements and emotional disorders. It is the state of self-absorption or resting in one's own self. In Avasyakaniryukti, it is mentioned that the samayika is nothing but one's own self in its pure form2. Thus, from transcendental point of view, sämäyika means realisation of our own self in its real nature. It is the state in which one is completely free from attachment and aversion. In the same work Arya Bhadra also mentions various synoyms of sāmāyika. According to him equanimity, equality, righte ousness, state of self-absorption, purity, peace, welfare and happiness are the different names of sāmāyika. In An@yogadvarastra, Avasyakaniryukt and Kudakunda's Niyamasara", sāmāyika is explained in various ways. It is said that one who by giving up the movement of uttering words, realised himself with non-attachment, is said to have supreme equanimity'. He, who detached from all injurious or unpious actions, observes three-fold control of body, mind and speech and restrains his senses, is said to have attained equanimity. One who behaves equally as one's own self towards all living beings mobile and immobile, is said to have equanimity". Further, it is said that one who observes self-control, vows and austerities, one in whom attachment and aversion do not cause any disturbance or tension and one who always refrains from indulgence, sorrow and ennui, is said to have attained equanimity or sāmāyika1o
This practice of equanimity is equated with religion it self. In Acaränga, it is said that all the worthy people

preach religion as equanimity". Thus, for Jainas, the observance of religious life is nothing but the practice for the attainment of equanimity. According to them, it is the essence of all types of religious activities and they all, are prescribed only to attain it. Not only in Jainism but in Hinduism also, we find various references in support of equanimity. Gita defines yoga as equanimity12. Similarly, in Bhagvati it is said that the observance of equanimity is the worship of lord13.
The whole frame-work of Jaina sadhana has been built on the foundation of sämäyika i.c. the practice for equanimity. All the religious tenets are made for it. Acārya Haribhadra maintains that one who observes the equanimity or samabhava will surely attain the emancipation, whether he belongs to Svetämbara sect or Digambara sect, whether he is Bauddha or the follower of any other religion. It is said in Jaina religious texts that one who observes hard penances and austerities such as eating once in a month or two as well as one who makes the donations of crores of golden coins every day, can not attain emancipation unless he attains equanimity. It is only through the attainment of equanimity of mind that one can get emancipation or liberation. Acarya Kundakunda says "what is the use of residing in forest, mortification of body, observance of various fasts, study of scriptures and keeping silence etc. to a saint, who is devoid of equanimity" (Niyamasara, 124).
Now we come to the next question how one can attain this equanimity of mind. Mere verbal syaing that I shall observe the equanimity of mind and refrain from all types of injurious activities does not have any meaning unless we seriously practise it in our own life.
For this, first of all, one should know what are the causes which disturb our equanimity of mind and then make a n endeavour to eradicate them.
It is very easy to say that one should observe the equanimity of mind, but in practice it is very diffcult to attain it. As our mental faculty is always in grip of attachment and aversion, what so ever we think or do, is always motivated by either attachment or aversion. Because the vectors of attachment and aversion are solely responsible for the disturbance of mental equanimity so the practice to attain equanimity depends on the eradication of attachment and aversion. So long as we do not eradicate the attachment and aversion, we are unable to attain equanimity.

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Equanimity and Meditation (Sāmāyika and Dhyāna)
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Now, our attention turns to the eradication or attachment and aversion. How we can get rid of these two enemies of equanimity. Attachment is another name of mineness and this mineness can only be uprooted through the contemplation of ektva bhāvanā and anyatva bhāvanā i.e. nothing is mine except my own self. In Aurapaccakhana, it is clearly mentioned that if we want to conquer the mineness we must have to contemplate on the transitory nature of worldly things as well as of our own body. Only he who perceives that the death is coming nearer and nearer every moment, can see the things in their right perspective. samyagdarśana is nothing but to have a proper understanding of the worldly things. One, who perceives one's own death and transitory nature of things, can never be attached to them. When mineness disappears, otherness also disppears. For these two are the relative terms and without one, other also loses its meaning and when the idea of mineness as well as otherness dissolves, attachment and aversion disappears and equanimity dawns.
There is only one way to attain the equanimity of mind and that is through the contemplation of real nature of one's own self as well as of worldly things. One can eradicate the vectors of attachment and aversion and thus attain equanimity. And it is through self-awareness that one can be steady and firm in the state of equanimity or self-absorption. Equanimity needs proper understaning of
real nature of one's own self as well as of others. In Niyamasāra, it is said that one, who meditates in one's own real nature with non-attached thought, activity and realises his self through righteous and pure concentration, can attain the supreme equanimity. One, who always practises the dharma dhyana (righteous meditation) and Sukla dhyāna meditation of pure-form or real nature) can attain the equanimity. Thus, sāmāyika is closely related to meditation, without meditation and self-awareness no one can attain the equanimity of mind. Kundakunda further maintanins that one who is absorbed in righteous and pure meditation is the antarātmā or sādhaka and one who is devoid of such contemplation or meditation is called bahirātmā. The realisation of self is only possible through equanimity and equanimity is possible only through the meditation of one's own real nature (Niyamasara, 15, 147).
At last, I would like to conclude my paper by quoting a beautiful verse of Sāmāyika-patha of Acārya Amitagati
Sattvesu maitrim gunisu pramodam klistesu jiveşua krpaparatvam. Madhyasthyabhāvam Viparita vrttau Sadā mamātmā vidadātudeva.
Oh Lord! I should be friendly to all the creatures of world and feel delight in meeting the virtuous people. I should always be helpful to those who are in miserable conditions and tolerant to my opponents."
References 1. Amgasuttāni-1, Jaina Visva Bharti, Ladanun, 1974. 2. Acārānga Cūrni, Jinadasa Gani.R.K.S.S. Ratlam, 1941. 3. Ācāränga tika (1st Srutaskandha), Siddhacakra Sahitya
Pracāraka Samiti, Surat, 1934. 4. Ayaro-Comment., ed. & trans, by Acärya Mahaprajna, Jaina
Canonical Text Series, Jaina Viśva Bhārati, Ladnun, 1981.
Bhagavatisūtra-Tīkā, Āgamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1918. 6. Jaina Sūtras, Hermann Jacobi, (S.B.E.S. Vo. XXII, pt. 1).
M.L.B.D., Delhi, Rep. ed. 1964.
7. Mahavira-Carita-Mimāṁsā (Guj.) Pt. 1, Pt. D.D. Malavania.
Ramesh Malavania, 8, Opera Society, Ahmedabad, 7, 1992. 8. Niryukti-Sangraha- ed. Vijayanemisuri, Harsa Puspamrta
Jaina Granthamala (189), Lakhabaval, Santipuri, Maharastra,
1989. 9. Sätrakrtānga-Tikä, pt. 1, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1919. 10. Sthānānga-Tika, Seth Maneklal Cunni lal, Ahmedabad,
1937. 11. Vyavahārabhāsya Tikā, Vakil Kesavalal Premchand, 1926.

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The Concept of Vibhajjavada and its Impact on Philosophical and Religious Tolerance in Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism and Jainism both belong to the same Sramanic tradition of Indian Culture, Gautama, the Buddha and Vardhamāna, the Mahavira were contemporaries. The philosophical awakening was the main feature of their age. The various religio-philosophical problems and questions were put before the religious leaders and thinkers and they were expected to answer and to solve these. The various answers were given to the same problem by different thinkers, and owing to this difference of opinions on the philosophical problems, the various philosophical schools emerged in that age. According to the Pali Tripitaka there were sixty two schools or sixty two different views held by different teachers on the nature of man and world, and according to Prākta Agamas there were three hundred sixty schools. Each one of them was claiming that his view was the only right view (samyagdrsti) and other's views were false views (mithyadrsti). But according to Buddha and Mahāvīra all of them have one sided picture of the reality or the phenomenon which is a complicated one. Both of them found that these various philosophical and religious schools and sects were conflicting with each other without understanding the problem itself and cling to onesidedness. This onesidedness, is due to the absence of analytic approach towards the pro- blems and improper method of answering the questions. If philosophical questions are answered catregorically or absolutely they present only onesided picture of the fact or phenomenon and thus create a false notion. According to the Jaina thinkers the onesidedness (ekânta) and the claim that my view is the only right-view (ägraha) are considered as false notions (mithyātva).
For Buddha and Mahāvīra both, the true method of answering the philosophical questions is the method of analysis. Only an analytic approach towards the philosophi- cal problems can give us a right vision. Both of them suggested that the philosophical questions should be answered after analysing them. This method of analysis was called as vibhajjavāda in both the canons. Buddha and Mahavira both claimed themselves as vibhajjavădins. In Buddhist order at the time of Asoka only the Vibhajjavädins were considered as the true followers of Buddha. In Anguttarnikāya it is mentioned that there are four methods of answering a question -- (i) answer to a question en-toto
i.e. absolutely (ekāmśavāda), (ii) answer to a question after analysing it into various parts (vibhaijaväda), (iii) answer to a question by raising a new question and (iv) to keep silence.' Buddha and Mahavira both preferred the second method i.e. vibhajjavāda, though Buddha sometimes used the first, third and fourth methods also. It is mentioned in the texts that Buddha himself claimed as Vibhajjavădin. Prof. S.Dutt in his book "The Buddha and Five After Centuries' says "perhaps the word Vibhajjavādin originally meant one whose method was to divide a matter posited into its component parts and deal with each part separately in his answer and not with the whole matter in en-toto fashion." This method of vibhajjavada i.e. the method of analysis is well illustrated in Subha-sutta of the Majjhimanikäya. Subha asked Lord Buddha, 'whether a busy life of a man of the world is to be preferred or a monk's reposeful life?' Buddha answered - 'the busy life may be a failure or success and so too the life of repose.' Similarly in the Jaina text Bagavatīsūtra, Jayanti asked Mahavira whether sleeping is good or awakening is good ? Lord answered that for a sinner sleeping is good and for a saint awakening is good. This analytic approach towards the problems shows that the relative answer is the proper method to deal with the problems, whether they are philosophical, religious, ethical or the problems of everyday life. Absolute or categorical answer explains only one aspect or the part of the problem and other aspects of the problem remain unexplained.
Thus, we can say that analytic approach towards the problems gives us broader outlook to understand them and we are more nearer to the truth.
It is due to vibhajjavāda, an analytic approach, the theory of anekantavada, in Jainism and sünyavāda in Buddhism came into existence. The positive analytic approach of Lord Mahavira gave birth to anekäntavāda and syādvāda and the negative analytic approach of Lord Buddha later on gave birth to Sünyavada. Both are, in fact, the ofshools of vibhajjaväda, or analytic method. Here I am not going into the details that how the theories of anekantavada and sūnyavāda emerged from vibhajjaväda. It is a matter of an independent paper. Here my submission is that this method of analytic approach towards the philosophical, ethical and other problems, has given a

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broader perspective to understand the things. Buddha and Mahāvira, both condemned onesided narrow outlook. For both, it is the main cause of religious as well as philosophical quarrels leading to intolerence. It is said, "one, who sees only one aspect of the reality is ignorant, a real scholar sees hundreds of aspects of it."2 "The person who possesses only onesided view quarrel with each other." ' In Suttanipäta Lord Buddha says, "He, who does not acknowledge an opponent's doctrine (dhamma), is a fool, a beast, a person of poor understanding. All those who abide by their own views, are fools with a very poor understanding". "One who is firm in his own view and holds that his opponent is a fool; thus he himself brings on strife calling his opponent a fool and impure."' Further, Buddha says "There are two results of a dispute, first it is incomplete (picture of the truth) and secondly it is not enough to bring about tranquility. Having seen this, let no one dispute understanding khema (i.e. peace). It is the place where there is no dispute." "Those who maintain their own dhamma as perfect and other's dhamma as wretched, say that their own views (opinions) are the truth and so having disagreed, they dispute. One becomes low by the condemnation of the others. There will be no one distinguished amongst the dhammas if they condemn other's views." Here I have mentioned only a few passages of Lord Buddha in support of religious tolerance. For further details in this regard, the study Culla-viyūha and Maha-viyüha-suttas (i.e. chapter 50 and 51) of Suttanipāta, is suggested where these points are further elaborated.
Jainism believes in the theory of anekantavāda which means that the views, the ideologies and the faiths of others should be respected. Mahavira like Buddha mentions in Sutrakrtānga. "Those who praise their own faiths and ideologies and blame that of their opponents and thus distort the truth, will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death." It is further maintained that "all the nayas (view-points) are true in respect of what they have themselves to say, but they are false in so far as they refute totally other nayas (i.e. the view points of the opponents). Those, who take different view points (nayas) together and
thus grasp all the aspects of a thing (fact or phenomenon) have a right understanding, just as those who with eyes, are able to grasp an elephant as a whole and not like the blindmen, who take one particular part of an elephant as a whole elephant." It is this broader outlook which can establish harmony among the apparently conflicting views of various religions.
This broader outlook for religious tolerance is maintained in Buddhism till the period of Asoka, because we find so many evidences about religious tolerance and religious co-existence from the inscriptions of Asoka. But I do not know, whether this outlook of religious tolerance and harmony was further maintained or not by Buddhism in India. I request the scholars of Buddhism to enlighten us in this regard. Though it is true that Buddhism has shown this broader outlook every where outside India and remained there co-existing with the earlier religions of those countries.
So far as Jainism is concerned this religious tolerance and harmony is maintained by the later Jaina Acaryas also. In one famous Jaina text of 3rd B.C. namely Isibhāsiyăim the views of different teachers of Sramanic and Brahmanic trends like Narada, Bhāradvāja, Gautama Buddha, Markhali Goşāla and many others, have been presented with regards. They are called as Arhat Rsis and their preachings are regarded as Agamas. I would like to conclude my paper by quoting these two beautiful verses of religious tolerance of Haribhadra (C. 8th A.D.) and Hemacandra (C. 12th A.D.) respectively. Haribhadra says --
na me pakşapāto vire na dveşo kapiladişu / yuktimadvacanar yasya tasya karya parigraha //
I have no bias towards Lord Mahävira and no disregard to Kapila and other saints and thinkers. Whatsoever is rational and logical ought to be accepted. Hemacandra says -
bhava bijankurajanana rāgadyakşayamupagata yasya brahmă vă visnurvă haro va jino-vä namastasmaih//
I bow all those who have overcome the attachment and hatred which are the cause of worldly existence, be they Brahmä, Vişnu, Siva or Jina.
Reference 1. Anguttarnikāya, Vol. II, p. 47. 2. Theragātha, 1/106. 3. Udāna, 6/4. 4. parassa ve dhammamananujanam balo mago hoti nihina
panno
sabbe bala sunihina panna sabbevime ditthi parivvasana
- Suttanipāta, 50/3(880) sakayane capi datthaham vadano kamettha balo ti para daheyya sayameva so methagamavaheyya para vadam balamasuddha dhammam
-- Suttanipata 50161893)

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appam hi etam na alam samaya dube vivadassa phalani brūmi evam pi disva na vivadiyetha khemami passam abibada bhumim
-- Suttanipäta 51/2(896) sakam hi dhammam paripunna mahu annassa dhammassa pana hinamahu evam pi viggataha vivadiyanti sakam sakam sammuti mahu saccam
parassa ce vambhayitena hino na koci dhammesu visesi assa puthu hi annassa vadanti dhammant nihinato samhi davvaham badana
-- Suttanipäta, 51/10-11(904-905) sayam sayam pasamsamta garahamta param vayam je u tattha viusamti samsare te viussiya
-- Sūtrakrtânga, 1/1/2/23. See, Samanasuttam, 728, 730 and 731.
8.
9.

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The Teachings of Arhat Pärśva And The Distinctness of His Sect
Among the Nirgrantha Tirthankaras, the historicity of Arhat Parsva as well as of Jina Vardhamana Mahavira has been fully established. Inscriptional and literary evidences play an important role in establishing the historicity of a person. The earliest inscription relating to Pārsva, of the 2nd or 3rd century A.D.,' has been found from the Kankali Tilā, Mathura. It is inscribed on an image of Parsva, installed by Ghosaka, a disciple of Gani Aggahiniya of the Sthaniyakula of the Kottiya-gana, a sub-order of friars and nuns also noticed in the hagiological list (earlier part, c. A.D. 100) of the Paryuṣaṇa-kalpa (compiled c. A.D. 503/516).2 Though uninscribed, a more than life size sculpture of Parsva (upper part mutilated) and a tiny figure of Pārsva as the central focus of an ayagapatta, both stylistically datable to the period of the Saka king Sodas (c. early 2nd cent. A.D.), prove that Arhat Parsva was venerated in, and arguably before, that period. A metal image of Parsva in the Prince of Wales Museum, variously dated between the 2nd-1st cent. B.C. to c. 2nd cent. A.D., is one more early piece in evidence."
The inscriptional as well as the literary references to the Nirgranthas, however, are met with from c. third century B.C. The term "Niggantha" is mentioned in the inscription of Maurya Aśoka" and is fairly frequently met with in the Pali Tripitaka' (usually, of course, in hateful and denegatory terms) though this cannot be taken as a conclusive evidence for the earlier church of Parsva because the term Niggantha by then also had included the sect of Mahavira. In point of fact, the Pali canon confounded a few views and teachings of these two historical Tirthankaras. As demonstrated in the early days of the Nirgranthic researches by Jacobi," in the Tripitaka it is said that Niggantha Nataputta (Mahavira) preached căturyama-samvara, while in point of fact the preacher of the caturyama-dharma was Arhat Parsva and not Mahavira according to the Ardhamagadhi canon of the Nirgranthas themselves. Mahavira preached five-fold great vows (pañca-mahāvratas) and not the caturyama-samvara.
What we today can know about the teachings of Arhat Parsva and the distinctness of his sect from that of Jina Vardhamana is only through the available Ardhamāgadhi canon preserved in the Northern Church of Mahavira, because the ancient church of Parsva was later progressively

absorbed in the former and the records and texts relating to its hagiology and history are long lost.
Nirgranthologists like Pt. Sukhlal Sanghvi and others were of the opinion that the Purva literature (so often mentioned in the canonical literature from the late Kuṣaṇa period onward) had belonged to Pārsva's tradition. At present, however, no texts of that category of specification exists. Today, in so far as our knowledge of Pārsva's teachings and traditions goes, we are dependent on the canonical literature of Mahavira's tradition, and, to a very small extent, on the Pali canon of the Buddhists as well.
In the Ardhamagadhi canon, the Isibhāsiyāiñ (Rṣibhāşitani) the Acaranga, 12 the second book, the Sutrakṛtānga," the Vyakhyāprajñapti,14 the Jñātādharmakatha, the Uttaradhyayanal and the Raja-Pradesiya," the Narakavalikā,18 and the Sthānanga' reveal some significant references to Pārsva, his teachings as well as traditions. In the Uttaradhyayana,20 the Samaväyänga," the Avasyakaniryukti,22 the Viseṣāvasyakabhasya of Jinabhadragani kṣamäśra-mana, 23 the Avasyakacurn and in the Paryuṣaṇa-kalpa as well as in the Müläcära" of the Yapaniya Church there are references to some distinctive (and hence distinguishing) features of the sects of Parsva and Mahavira.
On Pārsva's life and the history of his times and of his sect, scanty material is traceable in these works; yet it is significant that they contain sufficient material pertaining to the ethical teachings and philosophical doctrines of Pārsva. They also firmly point toward the distinctness of Pārsva's sectarial tradition from that of Vardhamana.27
The Teachings of Parsva in Isibhāsiyāiñ
The earliest and authentic version of Pārsva's philosophy and teachings is encountered in the Isibhāsiyaiñ (Rṣibhāṣitāni),28 a text compiled c. 1st cent. B.C. but often containing material that goes back to c. 4th century B.C., some even perhaps earlier. In a separate article,29 I had suggested that the Isibhäsiyäin, in terms of some of its content, is earlier than the whole of Pali as well as the Ardhamăgadhi canonical literature excepting of corse the first book of the Acaränga. M.A. Dhaky opines that this text belongs to Pārsva's tradition. I, however, hold a different view. In my opinion the text, in earlier times, might have

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been composed in Parsva's tradition as an independent text, but later on it was assimilated in the Praśnavyā karanasūtra, considered to be one of the ten Daśā texts as well as the tenth work among the 11 Anga-books of Mahavira's tradition.
The Isibhâsiyain has an independent chapter on Pārsva's doctrines and teachings. The authenticity of the Pärśva's view presented in this chapter cannot be doubted for various reasons. First, the Isibhäsiyain contains the teachings not only of Pärśva but also of Arhat Vardhamana of the Nirgrantha Church, Mankhali Gośāla of the Ajivaka sect; Vajjiyaputta, Mahakassapa, Indranaga and Sāriputta of the Buddhist Church, and Yajñavalkya, Asita-Devala, and Uddalaka-Aruni of the Vedic tradition. When we compare the views of the aforesaid saints mentioned in the Isibhāsiyāin with the texts of their own traditions, we notice general similarity between them, which by and large proves the authenticity of the content of the Isibhāsiyain. If the author of the work in presenting had remained faithful to the original teachings of the rşis or teachers of the other sects, we must conciude that he also was faithfully presenting the views of Pārsva. Second, we find that the teachings of Parsva presented in the Isibhāsiyaiñ corresponds to that which is stated of Pārsva's church in other canonical works like the Sūtrakrtānga, the Uttaradhyayana, and the Vyakhyāprajñapti. Third, the authenticity as well as high antiquity of the Pårśva-chapter in the Isibhăsiyāiñ can also be supported on the ground that this chapter is represented by its two separate versions. It is said that the second version of this book originally was found in the text named Gati-vyakarana i.e. the Praśnavyakarana. The reference thus runs:
Corrupit ufafa gild HATI SH 315614UT ata 51 बीओ पाढो दिस्सति
The views of these two versions of the same chapter fully correspond to each other with slight difference in content and to an extent in language, a few details figuring more in one than in the other. Thus, at a very early date, two versions (vācanas) of the same subject had existed. This chapter contains philosophical as well as ethical views of Arhat Pārsva. First of all, in this text, the views of Pārśva about the nature of the world are stated. To explain the nature of the world the following five questions were raised: (1) What is the nature of the world (loka)? (2) What are the different planes of the world? (3) To whom the world belongs?
(4) What does one mean by the term) "world"? (5) What is the meaning of the term loka? Answering these five questions Arhat Pärśva said: (1) The world consists of the animate beings and the
inanimate objects. (2) There are four different planes of the world:
(i) Material (dravya) (ii) Spatial (kşetra) (iii) Temporal (kāla)
(iv) Existential (bhāva) (3) World inheres in selfhood. It exists by itself. In the
perspective of commandeering position the world belongs to animate beings but in the perspective of its constitution, it belongs to both animate and the
inanimate (4) As for the existence of the world, it is eternal, with
neither the beginning nor the end but is ever changing
and (thus) dynamic in nature. (5) While explaining the meaning of the term loka, it is
said that this world is called loka, because, it is known or experienced or recognized. (The Sanskrit term lokāyata means to be known or to be recognized.) To explain the nature of motion the following four questions have been raised: (a) What is motion or gati? (b) Who meets this motion? (c) What are the different forms of motion?
(d) Why is it called gati, motion? Answering these questions about the motion Arhat Pärsva said: (a) Any motion or change in existence in animate and in
the inanimate beings is called gati. (b) Animate and inanimate (substances) encounter motion
or change. This change is of four types: substantial,
spatial, temporal and existential. (c) The existence of movement or change is also perennial
with no beginning or end. (d) It is called gati because it has motion. About the karma philosophy and the moral teachings of Arhat Parsva, it is thus recorded: 1. The animate beings possess an upward motion by
their inherent (abstract) nature, while the matter has a
downward motion by its intrinsic nature (inertia). 2. The animate beings reap the fruits of their deeds
according to their (good or bad) karmas or activities, while the changes in inanimate substances take place due to their dynamic nature,

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The animate beings are activity-oriented, the inanimate substances are change-oriented or dynamic in nature.
The animate beings have two types of experience, of pain and pleasure. Only those who can get rid of violence and other evils including wrong viewpoint will have the feeling of bliss. A Nirgrantha, who eats only inanimate things, will meet emancipation and thus will end the transmigratory cycle.
In the second version of this chapter the following additional concepts are also mentioned: (1) The motion is of two types: (i) self-motivated and (ii)
generated by external factors. (2) Whatsoever a person experiences, it is due to his own,
and not due to other's deeds. (3) Those who observe the cäturyama (the fourfold ethical
code beginning with non-violence and ending with non-possession) will be free from the eight-fold karmas and will not be rebom in the four yonis or generic categories.
The essence of the doctrines and ethical teachings of Parsva as embodied and expositioned in the Isibhäsiyain may be thus summarized: (i) The world is eternal with no creator behind it. (ii) Permanence in change is the essential nature of the
world. World is dynamic in disposition. It consists of
the five astikāyas, existentialities. (iii) Substances are of two kinds, animate and inanimate. (iv) The animate possesses an upward motion; the
inanimate (by law of gravity), downward motion. (v) The motion is of two kinds: (a) self-motivated and
(b) directed by external factors. (vi) The gati or transmigratory motion of animate beings
is due to their own karmas, while the motion of
matter is due to its own dynamic nature and inertia. (vii) The karmas are of eight types. (viii) Evil and non-restraint activities consequence in pain
and in the cycle of births and deaths. (ix) Those who indulge in passions and violence cannot
achieve the eternal peace and bliss. (x) Liberation can be achieved through the observance
of four yāmas, self-restraints.
followers of Pārśva and not by Părśva himself. It is in the Isibhāsiyain alone that the original version of Pärśva's teachings is directly and implicitly present. Elsewhere we meet with Pårśva's views by proxy, through the discussions between the followers of Pärśva and that of Mahāvira or in a few instances by Mahävira hemself.
In the Sütrakrtānga," for instance, is incorporated a conversation between Gautama and Udaka-Pedhalaputra, the follower of Pārsva, on the nature and language of the pratyākhyāna-vow of non-violence. In this long discussion Udaka-Pedhālaputra stressed on a technical point that, while taking the vow of non-violence, one must frame it in the language that "I shall not kill the being, who is presently in mobile-form (trasa-bhūta) instead of saying 'I shall not kill any mobile being." Similarly, in the Vyākhyāprajñanti" some observations relating to the difference in minutiae about the nature and meaning of the terms sämāyika, the pratyakhyana, the samvara, the viveka and the vyutsarga have been made during the discussion of Kālāsyavaisyaputra, the follower of Parśva and some sthaviras of the Mahavira's following.
In the Vyākhyāprajñapti" we come across a very interesting and pinpointed discussion between the layfollowers of Mahavira and the śramaņas of Pārsva's tradition on the outcome of restraint and penance. It had been questioned: If the outcome of restraint is to stop the influx of fresh karmas and of penance to liberate the soul from the kärmic bondage, then why the souls are bom as devas in the celestial regions? To this question different answers were given by the framanas of the Pārsva's church. At last Kaśyapa said it is due to the adherence to pious deeds such as penance and restraint that the souls are born as devas in celestial quarters. In the Uttaradhyayana we also come across an interesting dialogue between Gautama and Kesi on aspects relating to the monastic disciplines and spiritual practices; as a result, some distinctive features of Pārsva's teachings surface.
Teachings of Pārsva in other Canonical Works
In the Sūtrakrtānga, the Uttarādhyayana, and the Vyakhyaprajñapti, we find some explanation of, or minute observations on, what is broadly stated in the Isibhāsiyāin. In these texts the views of Parsva are presented by the
Distinctness of Pārsva's Sect
Pārsva as well as Mahāvira belonged to the Nirgrantha section of the Sramanic traditions which had several similarities in doctrines, philosophy, and religious practices. So far as the philosophical aspect of their teachings is concerned, the traditions of Pārsva and Mahavira have much in common. Scholars of Nirgranthology like Pl. Sukhlal Sanghvi and others are of the opinion that the Mahāvira's sect has considerably borrowed from that of

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Pārsva in the field of metaphysics and karma philosophy.35 enjoyment. "If any woman invited or offered herself for The concepts, such as the world is eternal as well as enjoyment to a śramana, then the fulfillment of her sexual dynamic, that it exists by itself and has no creator, are desire was no sin, just as the squeezing of a blister or boil common to both traditions. The concept of permanence in (causes relief) for some time and hasno dangerous change as the nature of Reality, which is the foundational consequences); so it is with the enjoyment of) attractive tenet of the later Nirgrantha doctrine of anekantavāda or (woman). How could, then, there be sin due to that?"38 non-absolutism is also met with in its embryonic form in, From this stanza it follows that some śramanas were and in point of fact is central to, the teachings of Pårøva as interpreting the concept of non-possession in their own well as Mahavira. Similarly, the concept of the five astikayas way. It only meant that, for the one who takes the vow of and the eight-fold karmas are found in the philosophy of non-possession, cannot have a wife or woman. So it became Pārsva as well as Mahāvira. We encounter brief references necessary for Mahāvira explicitly to add celibacy as an to these concepts in the Pārsva-chapter of the Isibhaiyain independent vow and to lay considerable stress on the and more detailed ones in the standard canonical works of observance of this vow. Mahāvira's tradition.
If we contemplate this question historically, we notice Similarly, the concepts of asrava, samvara, nirjarà. that the ancient Vedic rșis used to mary and had progenies. sämäyika, pratyakhyāna and pausadha are also common to After that state in life, on the one hand is followed the both traditions, though there were some differences in the concept of vanaprastha, in which a rsi did have a wife but minutiae of these concepts and observances. The difference observed celibacy; on the other hand, as informed by the in opinion about the nature of pratyākhyāna between Nirgrantha canonical literature, there were śramanas who Gautama and Udaka Pedhālaputra in the Sūtraktănga has were of the view that to enjoy a woman without possessing been earlier noticed. Similarly, the differences in terms of or getting her married was no sin: which is why Mahāvira detail on the practices are noticed in the relevant dialogues included in the fold a separate, clear, definite and in the Vyakhyāprajñapti and in the Uttarădhyayana also. uncompromising vow of celibacy. However, these differences were related mostly to the code In Pärsva's tradition, repentance was not accepted as of conduct and not to the doctrines, philosophy, and an essential daily duty. Only when a monk committed sin principles of ethics as such. The distinctness of Pärsva's or transgression of his vows may he repent. But Mahavira sect lies in its code of conduct, and not in dogma or made repentance an obligatory daily-duty. A monk must philosophy, since it somewhat differed from that of repent every morning and evening whether he committed Mahavira. We shall notice and discuss at this point thea sin and violated his vows or not. In the Sütrakrtanga" and distinctive features of the Parsva's tradition.
in the Vyākhyāprajnaptic as well as in other canonical (1) Pärśva propounded căturyāma-dharma, while works of Mahāvīra's discipline it is known as pratikramanaMahāvira preached the pañcayama-dharma or the five dharma. mahāvratas." According to the Ardhamăgadhi canon, One more difference in monastic practice was that Mahavira added celibacy as an independent vow to the Pārsva did not lay stress on nudity; he rather allowed one cäturyāma-dharma of Parsva. The Sūtrakrtanga mentions or two apparels for his monks (who thus were sacelaka), that Mahävira prohibited having woman, and eating during while stressed on nudity and so Mahāvira's tradition was night hours."
known as acela-dharma. Though the medieval commentator The question arises: Why did Mahavira add celibacy of the Uttaradhyayana holds that Pārsva allowed his as an independent vow? The answer to this question can be śramanas to wear expensive or coloured robe," we possess read in the Sūtrakstānga. In the times of Pārsva, woman no early textual support for such an assumption. was considered a property or possession and it was taken T hese three were the main features distinguishing the for granted that prohibition of possession implied the monastic code of conduct of Pärśva and that of Mahāvira. prohibition of sexual relationship, for no one can enjoy the Along with these three major differences, there also were woman without having her. But, as the Sutrakrtänga informs, some minor differences which are found in the concepts of in the time of Mahāvira, there were some pasattha(wayward) the ten kalpas or planes of asceticism."? For instance, in śramanas, who believed that the prohibition of possession Pārsva's tradition a monk could accept the invitation for did not imply for include) the prohibition of sexual food and also could take food prepared for him; but

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Mahavira forbade this practice. Pärśva allowed his monks to accept the meals prepared for the king; Mahāvira prohibited it. In Mahāvira's tradition it was vital for a friar (or nun) to move from one place to another, except during the rainy season: Also, an ascetic, he had said, must not stay at one place for more than a month. But, according to Pārsva's tradition, a friar could stay at one place as long as he wished. In short, to keep on wandering was essential in Mahavira's but was optional in Pärsva's disciplinary code. Again, Mahāvīra had stressed that an ascetic must stay on at one place during the four months of the rainy season; in Pārsva's tradition this practice was also optional
According to Mahavira an aspirant to friarhood must be initiated probationally. After this testing period, if he is proven eligible, then he may be allowed to be ordinated second time and his seniority was fixed accordingly in the Order or Samgha.
These are some of the distinctive features of Pärsva's philosophy, teachings, and monastic discipline as can be traced out from the early literature. The belief that all Jinas teach the same code of conduct, and that the ascetics of the Pärsva's Order had become wayward by Mahavira's time receives no support from the evidence locked in the earlier canonical books.
NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. See Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X. Appendix. A list of Brāhmi
Inscriptions S.N. 110, p. 20. Kalpasūtra 216. In the various inscriptions of Kankāli Tīlā, Mathurā, we have two readings about this kula of the Kottiya- gana: (1) Thâniya-kula (2) Sthaniya-kula. While in the
Kalpasūtra we have a third reading. Vänijja-kula. 3. Preserved in the Government Museum, Lucknow. 4. This date is after the recent researches by Gritli v.
Mitterwallner CY. U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi 1955, plate 1,
fig. 3. 6. Me Kate ime viyāpata hohonti tỉ niganthesu Pi -- Inscription
No. 7, line 16, Delhi-Topara Inscription See G.P. Malalasekere, Dictionary of Pali-Proper names,
Vol. II, London 1974, pp. 61-65. 8. Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, Part II, (S.B.E. Vol. XLV),
Introduction, p. xxi. 9. (A) Câujjñame niyanthe-Isibhāsiyain, 31.
(B) Cāujjāmo ya jo dhammo jo imo pamcasikkio.
Uttaradhyayana 23/12. 10. See Pt. Sukhalal, Cara Tirthankara (Hindi). (sec. edn.).
Varanasi 1989, pp. 141-43, See also "Introduction", the
Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXII, p. xliv. 11. Isibhâsiyāiñ, 31. 12. Ācāränga II, 15/25. 13. Sūtrakstānga II. 7/8. 14. Vyakhyaprajñapti 1/9/21-24; 2/5/95: 5/9/254-255. 15. Jñātādharma-kathā 2/3/1-6. 16. Uttaradhyayana 23.
17. Rājapradesiya 2/3. 18. Narakāvalika (Niryavaliya-sutra) 3/1. 19. Sthānanga 9/61. 20. Uttaradhyayana 23/12-13; see also commentary of
Sāntyācārya for these verses. 21. Samaväyänga 8/8, 9/4, 16/4, 38/1, 100/4. 22. Auasyaka-niryukti 238 and 1241-1243. 23. Visesavasyaka-bhāsya. 24. Avasyaka-cürni. 25. Paryusana-kalpa (Kalpa-sūtra) 148-156. 26. Mūlācára. 27. See Arhat Parsva. 28. Isibhästyäiñ, 31. 29. See Sagarmal Jain, Rishihhasit : A Study, Jaipur 1988. 30. Isibhāstyain, 31. 31. Sätrakrtänga II, Chapter 7th. 32. Vyākhyāprajñapti 10.9.33. Ibid, 2.5. 33. 34. Uttaradhyayana 23. 35. See Cara Tirthankara for detailed discussion. 36. Uttarādhyayana 23/12. 37. Se väriya ithi saraihhattam-Sotraktänga 1/6/28. 38. Ibid., 1/3/4/9-10. 39. Ibid., 2/7/81. 40. Vyakhyaprajñapti 1/9/123. See also Avašyaka-niryukti 1241 41. Uttarādhyayana 23/12. See also santācārya's tikä on the
above verses. 42. See (a) Avasyaka-niryukti, 1241-1243.
(b) Brhat-Kalpa sutra-bhāsya, 6359-6366.

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The Jaina writers usually, after equating their dating with the Saka era, have concluded that after a period of 605 years and 5 months of the Nirvana of Mahāvīra, Saka became king. (Tiloypannatti 4 : 1499; Painnayasuttaim :I part: 1984 - Titthogālipainnayaṁ: (623). On the basis of this postulate, even today, the date of the Nirvana of Mahävira is held to be 527 B.C. Among the modern Jaina writers, Pt. Jugal Kishore Mukhtar (1956 : 26-56), of the Digambara sect, and Muni Sri Kalyana Vijaya (1966 : 159), of the Svetämbara sect, have also held 527 B.C. to be the year of the Vira Nirvāna. From about the 7th century A.D., with a few exceptions, this date has gained recognition. In the Svetămbara tradition, for the first time in the Prakraka entitled "Titthogāli,' (paiņnayasuttaim : I part : 1984 : Titthogāli 623) and in the Digambara tradition, for the first time in Tiloyapannatti (4 : 1499), it is clearly mentioned that 605 years and 5 months after the Nirvana of Mahavira, Saka became king. Both the texts were composed between 600 and 700 A.D. To the best of my knowledge, none of the earlier texts ever showed the difference between the Nirvana of Mahavira and the Saka era. But this much is definite that from about 600-700 A.D., it has been a common notion that the Nirvana of Mahävira took place in the year 605 before Saka. Prior to it, in the Sthaviravali of Kalpasūtra and in the Vacaka genealogy of the Nandisutra, the reference to the hierarchy of Mahavira is found, but there is no mention of the chronology of the Acāryas : therefore, it is difficult to fix a date of the Nirvana of Mahāvira on the basis of these texts. In the Kalpasutra (Sūtra-147, p. 145) only this much is mentioned that now 980 years (according to another version 993 years) have passed since the Vīra Nirvana. This fact makes only this much clear that after 980 or 993 years of Vira Nirvāņa, Ācārya Devarddhigani Kşamāśramana finally edited this last exposition of the present Canon. Similarly, in Sthānanga (7 : 41), Bhagavatīsūtra (9:222-229) and Āvasyaka Niryukti (778- 783), alongwith the reference to Nihnavas, a reference to after how much time of Mahāvīra's life-time and his Nirvāņa were they prevalent is found. Here only there are some clues by comparing which with the external evidences of definite date, we can contemplate the date of Nirvana of Mahāvira.
There have been differences of opinion from the very beginning on the date of Nirvāņa of Mahavira. Although, it has been clearly stated in Tiloyapannatti, a book recognised by the Digambara sect, that 605 years and 5 months after the Nirvāṇa of Mahavira, Saka became the king, there are four different statements found in this book, which are as follows: i. 461 years after Vira Jinendra attained salvation, Saka
became the king. ii. 9785 years after Vira Bhagavān attained salvation,
Saka became the king. iii. 14793 years after Vira Bhagavān attained salvation,
Saka became the king. iv. 605 years and 5 months after Vira Jina attained
salvation, Saka became the king.
Besides this, in Dhavalā; (4:1:44: p. 132-133), a commentary on Sackhandagama, there are three different statements as to after how many years of the Nirvana of Mahavira, Saka (Salivahana Saka) became the king : i. 605 years and 5 months after Vira Nirvāna. ii. 14793 years after Vira Nirvana. iii. 7995 years and 5 months after Vira Nirvana.
In Svetāmbara tradition there are two clear opinions as to how much time after the Nirvana of Lord Mahăvira Devarddhi's last assembly on Agama was held. According to the first opinion, it was composed 980 years after the Vira Nirvāna, whereas according to the second it was composed 993 years after the event.
It is significant also to note that in the Sytämbara tradition, there are two opinions regarding the date of Chandragupta Maurya's accession to the throne. According to the first, he ascended the throne in the year 215 of the Vira Nirvāna. However, in Titthogali Painnaya only this much has been mentioned that (after Vira Nirvāna) the region of the Mauryas started 60 years after the Palakas and 155 years after the Nandas (Painnayasuttäiṁ I part: 1984, Titthogāli Painnaya : 621), whereas according to the second opinion of Hemacandra (Parisista Parva : 8 339),' he ascended the throne 155 years after Vira Nirvana. Similarly, in Laghuposalik Pattāvali (p. 37) it is written that 155 years after Vira Nirvana Candragupta Maurya ascended the throne. Also, in Nagapuriya Tapägaccha

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10
Patļāvali (p. 48) it is written that 155 years after the Vīra Nirvāṇa Candragupta became the king, (Vīrāt 155 varșe Candragupton pah). According to this Pattavali, the reign of Mauryan dynasty ended after 278 years of Vira Nirvāņa. Now the period of 189 B.C. as the end of the Mauryan dynasty can be justified only when the Vira Nirvāṇa is accepted as to be 467 B.C. It is worth mentioning here, that the historians have accepted 187 B.C. to be the date of accession to the throne of Puşyamitra. This second theory, presented by Hemacandra, is a hindrance in ascertaining the year 527 B.C. to be the year of the Nirvāņa of Mahävira. It is clear from these discussions that there has been a controversy regarding the date of the Nirvana of Mahāvira even in ancient times.
Since the old internal evidences regarding the date of the Nirvana of Mahävira were not strong, the Western scholars on the basis of the external evidences alone, tried to ascertain the date of the Nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra; and as a result many new theories came into light regarding the same. The following are the opinions of different scholars regarding the date of Mahävira's Nirvāṇa :
1. Hermann Jacobi' (It is to be noted that initially Hermann Jacobi accepted the traditional date 527 B.C., but later on he chaged his opinion), 476 B.C. He has accepted the reference found in the Parisista Parva of Hemacandra to be authentic which says that 155 years after the Vira Nirvana Candragupta Maurya ascended the throne, and he ascertained the date of Mahāvira's Nirvāṇa on the basis of this reference only.
2. J. Charpentier!0,467 B.C., He followed the opinion of Hemacandra and ascertained that the date of Nirvana of Mahāvira as to be 155 Years before Chandragupta Maurya.
3. Pandit A. Shanti Raja Shastri", 663 B.C., He considered the saka Era to be the Vikrama Era and establish the date of Nirväna of Mahavira as to be 605 years before the Vikrama Era.
4. Prof. Kashi Prasad Jayaswal.', 546 B.C., He has mentioned only the two traditions in his article "Identification of Kalki". He has not ascertained the date of Mahavira's Nirvāna. But at some other places he has considered 546 B.C. to be the date of Mahavira's Nirvana, adding 18 years between Vikarma's birth and his accession to the throne (470+18) he fixes the date of Mahāvira's Nirvāṇa as 488 years before Vikrama.
5. S.V. Venkateswara.", 437 B.C., His assumption is based on the Anand Vikram Era. This Era came into vogue 90 years after the Vikrama Era.
6. Pandit Jugal Kishor Ji Mukhtar.'4, 528 B.C. On the basis of various arguments, he has confirmed the traditional theory.
7. Muni Sri Kalyana Vijaya.', 528 B.C., While confirming the traditional theory, he has tried to remove the inconsistencies of the theory.
8. Prof. P.H.L. Eggermont.6, 252 B.C., The basis of his argument is equating the incident of Samghabheda of Tişyagupta in the Jaina tradition, which took place during the life time of Mahävira in 16th year of his emancipation. With the incident of Samghabheda and the act of drying up of the Bodhi tree by Tisyarakṣita in the Buddha Saṁgha, which took place during the reign of Asoka.
9. V.A. Smith', 527 B.C., He has followed the generally accepted theory.
10. Prof. K.R. Norman", About 400 B.C., Considering Bhadrabahu to be Chandragupta's contemporary, he fixed the period of 5 earlier Acāryas as 75 years, at an average of 15 years each, and thus fixed the date of Mahāvīra's Nirvana as 320+75 = 395 B.C.
In order to determine the date of the Nirvāņa of Mahavira, along with the Jaina literary sources we must also take into account the legendary and epigraphical evidence. We would follow the comparative method to decide which of the above-mentioned assumptions is authentic, and will give priority to the epigraphical evidences, as for as possinble.
Among the contemporaries of Lord Mahāvīra, the names of Lord Buddha, Bimbisāra-Śrenika and Ajātaśatru are well-known. The Buddhist sources give more information abourt them than the Jaina sources. The study of Jaina sources also does not give rise to any doubt about their contemporaneity The Jaina Agamas are mostly silent about Buddha's Life-history, but there are ample references to the contemporary presence of Mahāvīra and Buddha in the Bauddha Tripitaka literature. Here we shall take only two of the references. In the first reference there is a mention of the event of Dighanikāya (Sāmññaphalasutta : 2:1: 7)' in which Ajätasatru meets many of his contemporary religious heads. In this reference, the chief minister of Ajātasatru talks abour Nirgrantha Jñātņputra like this: "Master, this Nirgranta Jñātīputra, is the master of the sect as well as the monastery, teacher of the sect, a scholar, and a renowned Tīrthankara, he is admired by many and respectable gentleman. He has been a long wandering mendicant (Parivrăjaka) and is middle-aged". It can be derived from this statement that at the time of

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Ajātaśatru's accession to the throne Mahavira's age must be distressed and alienated from the Dharma of Nigantha about 50 years, because his Nirvana is supposed to have which was not expressed properly (durakhyata), not properly taken place in the 22nd year of Ajātasatru Kunika's rule. By investigated (duspravedita), unable to redeem (anairyăika), deducting 22 years from his total age of 72 years, it is unable to give peace (ana-upasama-Sarvartanika), not proved that at that time he was 50 years old (see Vira verified by any enlightened (a-Samyak - SambuddhaNirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kala Gananā, pp. 4-5). So far aspravedita) without foundation = a different stupa and without Buddha's case is concerned, he attained his Nirvāna in the a shelter." 8th year of Ajātaśatru's accession to the throne. This is the Thus, we see that in the Tripitaka literature, on the hypothesis of Buddhist writers. This hypothesis given rise one hand where Mahāvīra has been described as middleto two facts. Firstly, when Mahāvira was 50 years old, aged, on the otherhand, there is an information about the Buddha was 72 (80-8), i.e. Buddha was 22 years older than death of Mahavira during the life-time of Buddha. Since, Mahāvira. Secondly, Mahāvira's Nirvana took place 14 according to the sources based on Jaina literature, Mahavira years after Buddha's Nirvana (22-8-14). It is worth died at the age of 72, it is certain that both the facts cannot mentioning here, that in the reference occuring in the be true at the same time. Muni Kalyana Vijaya ji (Vira Dighanikaya (Samaññaphalasutta : 2:2:8), where Nirvāna Samvat aur Jaina Kala Ganană, 1987, p. 12) has Nirgrantha Jñātrputra and other five Tirtharikaras have called the theory of Mahāvīra Nirvāna during the life-time been called middle-aged, there is no mention of Gautama of Buddha as a mistaken concept. He maintains that the Buddha's age, but he must be 72 at that time because this incident of Mahāvira's demise is not a reference to his real event took place during the rule of Ajätasatru Kunika and death, but to a hearsay. It is alos clearly mentioned in Jaina Buddha's Nirvana took place in the 8th year of the rule of Agamic texts that 16 years before his Nirvana, rumour of Ajätaśatru.
his death had spread, hearing which many Jaina Sarmanas But contrary to the above-mentioned fact one finds started shedding tears. Since the incident of the bitteranother information in the Dighanikaya that Mahāvira has argument between Makkhaligosāla, a former disciple of attained Nirvāṇa during Buddha's life-time. The reference Mahāvira, and his other Sramana disciples was linked with from the Dīghanīkāya is as follows (Pāsādikasutta : 6:1 this rumour, the present reference from the Dighanikaya : 1)20
about the dath of Mahāvīra during the life time of Buddha "I heard this once that the Lord was residing in a is not to be taken as that of his real death, rather it indicated palace built in the mango orchard of the Sākyas known as to the rumour of his death by burning fever caused by Vedhaññā in sākya (country).
Tejolesya, hurled upon him by agitated and acutely jealous At that time Nigantha Nätaputta (Tīrthankara Maha- Makkhaligosala after dispute. Vira) had recently died at Påva. A rift was created among Buddha's Nirvana must have taken place one year and the Niganthas after his death. They were divided into two few months after the rumour abour Mahavira's death, groups and were fighting by using arrows of bitter words therefore, Buddha must have attained Nirvana 14 years, 5 at one another - "you don't know this Dharmavinaya months and 15 days before Mahāvira's Nirvana. (=Dharma), I know it. How can you know this Dharma
Since Buddha's Nirvāna took place in the 8th year of vinaya? you are wrong in ascertaining, (your understanding Ajātaśatru Kunika's accession to the throne, Mahāvira's is wrong), I am rightly ascertained. My understandint is Nirvana must have taken place in the 22nd year of his correct. My words are maningful and yours are meaningless. accession. Vira Nirvāna must have taken place in the 22nd The things you should have told first you told in the end year of his accession (Vira Nirvana Sarvat aur Jaina Kala and vice-versa. Your contention is mindless and topsy- Gananā, p. 4). Therefore, it is certain that Mahavira's Nirvana turvy. You presented your theory and withdrew. You try to took place 14 years after the Nirvana of Buddha. The save yourself from this allegation and if your have power, fixation of the date of Buddha's Nirvana would definitely try to save yourself from this allegation and if you have influence the date of Mahāvira's Nirvana. First of all we power, try to resolve it. As if a war (-slaughtering) was shall fix the date of Mahāvira on the basis of the Jaina going on among the Niganthas."
sources and inscriptions and then we will find out what The house-holder disciples of the Nigantha Nātaputta, should be the date of Buddha's Nirvana and whether it is wearing white dresses, also were getting indifferent, supported by the other sources.

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While determining the date of Nirvana of Mahävira, we would have to keep in our mind that the contemporaneity of Acārya Bhadrabahu and Sthūlibhadra with Mahapadma Nanda and Chandragupta Maurya; of Ācārya Suhasti with Samprati; of Arya Mañksu (Mangu), Ārya Nandila, Arya Nāgahasti, Arya VỊddha and Arya Krsna with the period mentioned in their inscriptions and of Arya Devarddhigani kşamāśramana with king Dhruvasena of Valabhi, is not disturbed in any way. The historians have unanimously agreed that Chandragupta ruled from 317 B.C. to 297 B.C. (Majumdar: 1952 : p. 168; Tripathi : 1968 p. 139)., Therefore the same should be the period of Bhadrabāhu and Sthulibhadra also. It is an undisputed fact that Chandragupta had wrested power from the Nandas and that Sthūlibhadra was the son of Sakdāla, the minister of the last Nanda. Therefore, Sthūlibhadra must be the younger contemporary and Bhadrabahu the older contemporary of Chandragupta. This statement that Chandragupta Maurya was initiated into Jaina religion, may or may not be accepted as authentic, still on the basis of the Jaina legends one must accept that both Bhadrabahu and Sthulibhadra were contemporary of Chandragupta. The main reason behind Sthūlibhadra's renunciation could be Mahāpadma Nanda's (the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty) misbehaviour with his father and ultimately his merciless assassination (Titthogālipaiņnayam: 787: Paiņnayasuttaim l part: 1984). Moreover, Sthūlibhadra was initiated by Sambhūtivijaya and not by Bhadrabāhu. At the time of first assembly on composition of Āgama held at Pāšaliputra, instead of Bhadrabahu or Sthūlibhadra, Sambhūtivijaya was the head, because only in that particular assembly it was decided that Bhadrabāhu will make Sthulibhadra to study the Pūrva- texts. Therefore, it seems that the first assembly was held any time during the last phase of the Nanda rule. The period of the first assembly can be accepted as before 155 years of the Vira Nirvana era. If we accept that both the traditional notions are correct and that Acārya Bhadrabāhu remained Acārya from Vira Nirvana Samvat 157 to 170 and that Chandragupta Maurya was enthroned in 215 V.N., then the contemporaneity of the two is not proved. It concludes that Bhadrabahu had already died 45 years before Chandragupta Maurya's accession. On this basis Stholibhadra does not even remain the junior contemporary of Chandragupta Maurya. Therefore we have to accept that Chandragupta Maurya was on throne 155 years after Vira Nirvana. This date has been accepted by Himvanta Sthaviraval (Muni Kalyana Vijaya: Vikram Era 1987:p.
178)22 and Parisista Parva (8 : 339) of Ācārya Hemacandra also. On this basis only the contemporaneity of Bhadrabāhu and Sthulibhadra with Chandragupta Maurya can be also proved. Almost all the Pattāvaliss accept the period of Bhadrabāhu as an Acārya to be 156-170 V.S. (Pattāvali Paråga Samgraha, p. 166; Vividhagacchiya Pattavali Samgraha : I part: 1961: pp. 15, 37, 48). In Digambara tradition also the total period of the three Kevalis and the five Śrutakevalis has been accepted as 162 years. Since Bhadrabāhu was the last Srutakevali, according to the Digambara tradition his year of demise must be the year 162 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat. Thus, despite the fact that there is a difference of 8 years regarding the period of demise of Bhadrabahu as accepted by the two traditions, the contemporaneity of Bhadrabāhu and Chandragupta Maurya is fully justified. Muni Shri Kalyana Vijaya (Sri Pattāvali Parăga Sangraha: 1966:52; Vira Nirvana Sarvat aur Jaina Käla Ganană : p. 137)2), in order to prove the contemporaneity of Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya, accepted the period of Sambhūtivijaya as an Acārya to be 60 years in place of 8 years. In this way, while accepting the date of the Nirvana of Mahavira as 527 B.C., he has tried to establish the contemporaneity of Bhadrabāhu and Chandragupta Maurya. But it is only his imagination (ViraNirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kala Ganana - p. 137 & Pattavali Parāga Samgraha - p. 52)24; there is no authentic proof available. All the Svetāmbara Pattavalis accept the date of the demise of Bhadrabāhu to be the year 170 V.N.S. Also, in Titthogāli it has been indicated that the decay of the knowledge of the fourteen Purvas started in the year 170 V.N.S. Bhadrabahu was only the last of the 14 Pürvadharas. Thus, according to both of the traditions - Svetämbara and Digambara, the date of demise of Bhadrabāhu stands as 170 and 162 of V.N.S. respectively.
On the basis of this fact, the contemporaneity of Bhadrabahu and Sthülibhadra with the last Nanda and Chandragupta Maurya can be proved only if the date of Nirvana of Mahāvira is accepted as 410 years before V.S. or in the year 467 B.C. The other alternatives do not prove the contemporaneity of Bhadrabahu and Sthūlibhadra with the last king of the Nanda dynasty and Chandragupta Maurya. In Titthogali Painnayam (783-794) also the contemporaneity of Sthulibhadra and the king Nanda has been described. Thus on the basis of these facts it appears more logical to accept the date of the Nirvāna of Mahävira as 467 B.C. Himvanta Sthavirävalı also mentions that Chandragupta was enthro in 155 years after the 11

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Nirvana and that Vikramarka lived 410 years after the Vira Nirvana (see Vira Nirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kāla-Gaṇanā, p. 177). This also confirms the theory of accepting the date of Mahavira's Nirvana to be 467 B.C.
Again, in the Jaina tradition the contemporaneity of Arya Suhasti and the king Samprati is unanimously accepted. The historians have acknowledged the period of Samprati to be 231-221 B.C. (Tripathi : 1986: p. 139)25 Accroding to the Jaina Pattavalis, the period of Arya Suhasti as Yuga Pradhana Acarya was 245-291 V.N.S. If we base our calculation on the assumption that Vira Nirvana took place in 527 B.C., we will have to accept that Arya Suhasti became the Yuga Pradhana Acarya in 282 B.C. and died in 236 B.C. In this way, if we consider 527 B.C. to be the year of Vira Nirvana, then, in no way, the contemporaneity of Arya Suhasti and the king Samprati could be established. But, if we accept 467 B.C. to be the year of Vira Nirvana, then the period of Arya Suhasti as an Acārya starts from 222 B.C. (467-245-222). On this basis the contemporaneity is established, but the reign of Samprati extends to only one year during the Acaryaship of Arya Suhasti. But Arya Suhasti had come in contact with Samprati when he was a prince and the ruler of Avanti, and may be at that time Arya Suhasti was an influential Muni inspite of not being a Yuga Pradhana Acarya of the Samgha. It is remarkable that Arya Suhasti was initiated by Sthūlibhadra. According to the Pattavalis, Sthūlibhadra was initiated in 146 V.N.S. and died in 215 V.N.S. It can be derived from this fact that 9 years before Chandragupta Maurya's accession, and during the last Nanda king (Nava Nanda), Arya Sthūlibhadra had already been initiated. If, according to the Pattavalis, the total life of Arya Suhasti is considered to be 100 years and his age at the time of initiation to be 30 years, then he must have been initiated in 221 V.N.S. i.e. 246 B.C. (assuming the date of Vira Nirvana in 467 B.C.) It does prove the contemporaneity of Arya Suhasti with Samprati, but then, there is a difference of 6 years, if he is accepted to have been initiated by Sthūlibhadra himself because 6 years before he got initiated, in 215 V.N.S., Sthulibhadra has already died. It is also possible that Suhasti may have got initiated at the age of 23 or 24, and not at the age of 30. Even then, it is certain that on the basis of the references made in Pattavalis, the contemporaneity of Arya Suhasti and Samprati is possible only by accepting the date of Vira Nirvana as 467 B.C. This contemporaneity is not possible if the date of the Mahāvīra Nirvana is accepted as 527 B.C. or any other later date.

Thus, by accepting the date of the Vira Nirvana as 467 B.C. the contemporaneity of Bhadrabahu and Sthūlibhadra with Mahapadma Nanda and Chandragupta Maurya and that of Arya Suhasti with Samprati can be proved. All other alternatives fail to prove their contemporaneity. Therefore, in my opinion, it will be more appropriate and logical to accept 467 B.C. as the date of the Nirvana of Mahavira.
Now we shall consider the date of the Nirvana of Mahavira also on the basis of some of the inscriptions. Out of five names - Arya Mangu, Arya Nandil, Arya Nagahasti, Arya Kṛṣṇa and Arya Vṛddha, mentioned in Mathurā inscriptions (see Jaina Šilalekha Samgraha, articles 41, 54, 55, 56, 57 and 63) first three are found in Nandisūtra Sthaviravali (Gatha: 27-29) and remaining four names are found in Kalpasūtra. According to the Pattavalis, the period of Arya Mangu as a Yugapradhana Acarya is considered to be in between 451 and 470 V.N.S. (Vira Nirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kāla Ganană, p. 112). On acceptiong the date of the Vira Nirvana Samvat aur Jaina Kāla Ganana, p. 112). On accepting the date of the Vira Nirvana as 467 B.C. his period extends from 16 B.C. to 3 A.D. and if it is 527 B.C. his period extends from 76 B.C. to 57 B.C. Whereas, on the basis of the inscriptions (Jaina Šilalekha Samgraha article No. 54) his period stands as Saka Samvat 52 (Havişka year 52), i.e. 130 A.D. In other words, while considering the period of Arya Mangu as indicated by Pattavalis and inscriptions there is a difference of 200 years if the date of Vira Nirvana is accepted as 527 B.C. and if it is 467 B.C. there is a difference of 127 years.
In several Paṭṭāvalis, even the name of Arya Mangu, is not mentioned. Therefore, the theories, concerning his period, based on the Pattavalis are not authentic. Moreover, the only one Paṭṭāvali called Nandisūtra Sthaviravali, which mentions Arya Mangu, does not indicate the teacher-taught (Guru-Sisya) tradition. Therefore, there are chances of the omission of certain names which has been confirmed by Muni Kalyana Vijayaji himself (Vīra Nirvana samvat aur Jaina kāla Gaṇanā, pp. 121 & 131). Thus it is not possible to establish the date of the Mahavira's Nirvana on the basis of the inscriptional evidences related to Arya Mangu, because on this basis neither the traditional belief in the date of Mahavira's Nirvana as 527 B.C. nor the scholars' opinion, as 467 B.C., could be proved correct. On equating the Pattavalis with the inscriptions, the date of Vira Nirvana falls around 360 B.C. The reason of this uncertainty is the presence of various wrong conceptions regarding the period

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of Arya Mangu.
So far as Arya Nandil is concerned, we find the reference to his name also in the Nandisutra. In the Nandisutra Sthavirāvali (Gäthä, 27-29), his name appears before Arya Nägahasti and after Arya Mangu. There is an inscription of Nandika (Nandil) of the Saka Samvat 32 in the inscriptions of Mathurā (sce Jaina Silalekha Samgraha, article No. 41); in another inscription of the Saka Samvat 93, the name is not clear, only 'Nadi is mentioned there. (see Jaina Silalekha Sangraha, article No. 67). Arya Nandil is referred to also in the Prabandhakośa and in some ancient Pattāvalis, but since at no place there is any reference to his period, it is not possible to establish the date of the Nirvana of Mahavira on the basis fo this inscriptional evidence.
Now let us consider Nāgahasti. Usually in all the Pattāvalis, the date of the demise of Arya Vajra, has been considered as 584 V.N.S. After Arya Vajra, Arya Raksita remained the Yuga Pradhāna Ācārya for 13 years, Pușyamitra for 20 years and Vajrasena for 3 years, i.e. Vajrasena died in the year 620 V.N.S. In Merutunga's Vicāraśreņi, the period of Arya Nagahasti as the Yuga Pradhana has been accepted as continuing for 69 years, i.e. Nāgahastî was the Yuga Pradhana from 621 to 690 V.N.S. (Vira Nirvāna Samvat aur Jaina Kala Ganană, p. 106 note). I Hastahasti of the Mathurā inscription is Nägahasti, then he is also referred to as the guru of Māghahasti in the inscription of the Saka Samvat 54, which establishes him of before 131 A.D.
It we accept the date of the Vira Nirvāna as 467 B.C., then the period of his Yuga Pradhanaship extends between 154 and 223 A.D. According to the inscriptions he had a disciple in 132 A.D. yet one can be content by assuming that he must have initiated some one 22 years before being a Yuga Pradhana. If we accept his life-span to be 100 years, he must have been 11 years old when he is supposed to have initiated Māghahasti. It seems almost impossible to believe that he was able to initiate somebody by his sermons at the age of 11 and that such an underage disciple was able to perform the Murti-Pratisthā. But if, on the basis of the traditional concept, we accept the Vira Nirvāņa year to be before 605 of the Saka Era or 52 B.C., then the references made in the Pattāvalis tally the inscriptional evidences. On this basis his tenure of Yuga Pradhänaship extends from 16 to 85 of the Saka Era, Māghahasti, one of his disciples was able to perform the Mārti-Pratistha by his sermons. Although common sense would hardly accept it as logical that his Yuga Pradhänaship extended for 69 years, yet because of
the fact that it considers the information given in the Pattāvalis to be correct, this inscriptional evidence about Nagahasti supports the date of Vira Nirvāṇa as 527 B.C.
Again, in one of the inscriptional sketches of Mathura, Arya Krsna with that Arya Krsna mentioned after Sivabhūti in Kalpasūtra Sthavirävali (last part 4:1), then his period on the basis of the Pattavalis and Viseșăvaśyakabhāsya (Gatha : 2552-2553), could be established around 609. V.N.S., because as a result of the dispute over clothes between the same Arya Krsna and Sivabhūti the Botika, Nihnava came into extistence. The period of this dispute is fixed as 609 V.N.S. If we accept the Vira Nirväņa year to be 467, then the period of Arya Krsna is supposed to be as 609-467=142 A.D. This inscriptional sketch belongs to 95+78=173 A.D. Since Arya Krsna has been figured as a deity, it is natural that 20-25 years after his death, in 173 A.D., this sketch must have been made by some Arya Arha, one of his follower disciples. In this way, this inscriptional evidence can maintain compatibility with other literary reference only when 467 B.C. is established as the year of the Vira Nirvāna. It is not possible to reconcile it with any other alternatives.
In the Mathură inscriptions (Jaina Silalekha Samgraha: article no. 56 & 59), the name of Arya Výddhahasti is related with two inscriptions. One is from Saka Era 60 (Huvişka year 60) and the other from 79 of the same. According to th Christian era, these inscriptions belong to 138 and 157 A.D. respectively. If he is the Arya VỊddha of the Kalpasūtra Sthavirävali and the Veddhadeva of the Pattāvalis (Vividha Gacchiya Pattāvali Sangraha: p. 17), then according to the Patļāvalis, he was led to perform Mürti Pratistha in Karnataka in the year 695 V.N.S. If we accept 467 B.C. to be the year of the Vira Nirvāņa, then this period can be fixed at 695-467=228 A.D. whereas the inscriptional evidences are from 138 and 157 A.D. But, if according to the traditional concept the date of the Vira Nirvana is accepted as 527 B.C. then his period is to be fixed at 695-527=168 A.D. Therefore, on accepting 527 B.C. to be the Vira Nirvana year, the equation between this inscriptional evidence and the Pattāvali based evidence is found to the matching well. On assuming 25 years to be the average period of tenure of each Acärya, his period should be around 625 V.N.S. because Vrddha occupies the 25th place in Pattāvali. Thus his time can be fixed as 625467=158 A.D. which also proves the 467 B.C. as the period of Vira Nirvana.

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Aspects of Jainology Volume VI
The last evidence, on the basis of which the date of Mahavira's Nirvana can be established is king Dhruvasena's inscriptions and his period. According to the poupular belief, after the Valabhi assembly, first time Kalpasūtra was recited before a congregation at Anandpur (Vadanagar) in order to console the grieved King Dhruvasena on his son's death (Srikalpasütra: 147 pp. 145, Vinaya Vijaya: Commentary: p. 15-16). The period of Valabhi assembly is fixed as 980-993 V.N.S. There are several inscriptions of Dhruvasena available. The priod of Dhruvasena the first, is said to be from 525 to 550 A.D. (Parikh, Rasikalal: 1974 :40). If this event is related to the second year of his accession i.c. 526 A.D., then it is proved that Mahavira's Nirvana must have taken place in 993-526-467 B.C.
Thus atleast three of the six inscriptional evidences prove that the Nirvana of Mahāvīra took place in 467 B.C. Whereas the two evidences may prove 527 B.C. as the period of Vira Nirvana. But the dates based on the Paṭṭāvali could be incorrect; therefore, they cannot be an obstacle in determining the date of the Vira Nirvana as 467 B.C. One of these inscriptions is not helpful in fixing the date. These discrepancies are there also because the authenticity of the periods of the Acaryas given in the Paṭṭāvalī is doubtful and today, we have no grounds to remove these discrepancies. Still we derive from this discussion, that most of the textual and inscriptional evidences confirm the date of Mahavira's Nirvana as 467 B.C. In that case, one will have to accept the date of the Nirvana as 467 B.C. In that case, one will have to accept the date of the Nirvana of Buddha to be 483 B.C., which has been accepted by most of the western scholars, and only then it will be proved that about 15 years (14 years and 5 months) after the Nirvana of Buddha the Nirvana of Mahavira took place.
Notes:
1. a. Nivväṇe Virajine chavväsasadesu pañcavarisesum. Paṇamasesu gadesum sanjado saganio ahavā. b. pañca ya māsā pañca ya vasa chacceva hontivāsasaya pariņivvuassarihato so uppanno sago rāmā. Titthogali Painnayam, 623 2. bahuraya paesa avvattasamucchadugatiga abaddhiyā ceva. satte-e ninhaga khalu titthami u vaḍdhamanassa, (778) bahuraya jamalipabhavā jīvapaesä ya tisaguttao avvatta asaḍhao Samuccheya samittão. (779). gangão dokiriya chaluga terasiyana uppatti. theraya gotthamahila putthamabaddham parūvinti. (780)

savatthi usabhapuram seyaviyä mihilam ullugatiram. purimantaranji dasapura rahavirapuram ca nagaräim (781)
coddasa solasa vāsā cauddasavisuttara ya donni sayä. atthävisǎ ya duve pañceva saya u coyālā. (782) pañca saya calasiya chacceva saya ṇāvottara hoti. nänupattiya duve uppannā viņavveue sesă. (783) 3. Virajine siddhigade causadaigisatthiväsaparimane. kālammi adikkante uppanno ettha sakarão. (461) ahavā vīre siddhe sahassanavakammi sagasayabbhahie. panasidimmi yatide panamase (Y. 9785, M5) sakanio jādo. 1497.
pathantaran.
coddasasahassasagasayatenaudivasakālavicchede. (19793) viresarasiddhīdo uppanno ahavā. 1498. pathantaram
nivväṇe virajine chavasasadesu pañcavarisesu. panamāsesu (Y. 605, M.5) gadesu sanjado saganio ahavä, 1499.
pāthāntaraṁ.
Tiloyapannatti - section 4, 1496 1499. 4. avanidesu pañcamāsahiyapañcuttarachassadavāsāṇi havanti aiso virajinindanivvänagaddiväsädo jāva sagakalassa ādi hodi tavadiyakalo, kudo? (605) edamhi kale sagaṇarindakalammi pakkhitte vaddamānajinanivvudakalagamaṇādo. vuttam ca-pañca ya masa pañcaya vāsā chacceva hoti väsasaya. sagakāleṇa ya sahiya thaveyavvo tado rasi (41) anne ke vi äiriya coddasasahassa - sattasad-tinaudivasesu jiņaṇivväṇadiņādo aikkantesu saganarinduppattim bhananti (14793) vuttam ca-gutti-payattha-bhayaim coddasarayaṇai samaikantaim. pariņivvude jininde to rajja saganaribdassa. (42)
anne ke vi äiriya evam bhananti. tam jaha-sattasahassa ṇavasaya pañcaṇaudivarisesu pañcamāsāhiesu vaḍdhmäṇajinaṇivvudadinado aikkantesu saganarindarajjuppatti jādo ti, ettha gähä
sattasahassa ṇavasada pañcāṇaudī sampañcamāsǎ ya. aikantā vāsāṇam jaiyä taiyā saguppatti: (43) (7995) edesu tisu ekkena hodavvam na tinnamuvadesaṇa saccattam, annonṇavirohado tado jāņiya vattavvaṁ. --Dhavalā tika samanvita Satkhandagama, Khanda 4, Bhaga 1, Pustak 9, p. 132-133 (section 4/1/44) 5. samanassa bhagavao Mahavirassa Jäva savvadukkhapahiņassa navaväsa sayaim vikantaim dasamassa vasasayassa ayam asiime samvacchare kale gacchai,

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vāyanantare puna ayam tenaue sarnvacchare kälar gacchai iha disai.
Sri Kalpasūtra 147, p. 145. 6. pälagaranno sathi panapannasayam viyana nandānam maruyana athasayam tisā puņa pusamitānam.
-- Titthogāli painnayar (Painnaya Suttaim) 621 When 60 päkaja + 155 Nandavansa = 215 years had
passed, the rule of the Maurya dynasty began. 7. a. eveṁ ca Srimahāvīra mülervarsasate, pañcapanca
sadadhike candragupto ābhavannspana.
-- Parisistaparva-Hemacandra, sarga 8/339. b. Laghuposalika pattāvali, Nägapuriyatapägaccha
pattāvali (ed. Jinvijaya 1961) and Himavanta Theravali also acknowledge that Chandragupta Maurya ascended to the throne 155 years after the
Vira Nirvana. 8. It is remarkable that the year of the Vira Nirvana may
be accepted as 527 B.C. only when Chandra Gupta Maurya's accession is accepted to have taken place in the year 215 of the Vira Nirvana era. It the date of his accession is accepted to be the year 155 of the Vira Nirvana, then we should accept 467 B.C. to be the date
of the Vira Nirvana. 9. Jacobi, H., Parisistaparva : year 1891 : P. introduction
p. 5; He considers rhe reference of the Parisistaparva of Hemacandra to be authentic according to which 155 years after the Vira Nirvana, Chandragupta Maurya's accession took place, and on this only basis he
determined the date of the Nirvana of Mahavira. 10. Charpentier, 1992: 13-16; He also based, his arguments
ofn Hemacandra and considered that the Nirvana of Mahāvira took place 155 years before Chandragupta
Maurya. 11. Shastri, A. Shantiraj: Anekānta 1941, Vol. 4, No. 10:
He considered the saka Samvat to be the Vikram Samvat and accepted that 605 years before the Vikram
Samvat Mahāvīra attained Nirvana. 12. Jayaswal, 1917: 151-152; In his article entitled "The
Historical Position of Kalki and his Identification with Yasodharman', he has mentioned only two traditions. He made no mention of the date of the Nirvana of
Mahāvīra. 13. Venkateshwar, 1917, p. 122-130; His opinion is based
on the Anand Vikram Sarvat. This was is vague 10
years after the Vikram Samvat. 14. Mukhtar : 1956 : p. 26-56; On the basis of various
arguments he confirmed the traditon accepted theory.
15. Muni Kalyana Vijaya : Vikrama Samvat aur Jaina
Kālagananā, 1987 : p. 149; while confirming the traditional accepted theory, he also tried to remove its
inconsistencies. 16. Eggermont, P.H.L. He has given his arguments equating
the very event of schism by Tişyagupta which took place during the 16th year of the attainment of Lord Mahāvira with the event of drying the Bodhi tree by Tisyagupta and event of schism in Buddha Order during
the reign of Asoka. 17. Smith : 1969 : 141 He accepted the common popular
theory. 18. Narman, K.R. "Observation on the Dates of the Jina
and Buddha" in Bechert, H. The Dating of the Historical
Buddha, a Pt. I. p. 300-312 Gottingen. 19. aijataropikho rājāmacco răjänar māgadham ajätasatt
um vedehiputtar etadavoca "ayam, deva, nigantho nātaputto sanghi ceva gani ca ganācariyo ca, fato, yasassi, titthakaro, sādhusammato bahujanassa, rattaññu, cirapabbajito, addhagato, vayoanuppatto. Digha
nikaya, Samaññaphalasutta. 2/17, 20. evar me sutam. ekam samayam bhagavā sakkesu
viharati vedhanna nama sakyä tesar ambavane päsāde. tena kho pana samayena nigantho nätaputto pavayam adhunākālankato hoti. tassa kalankiriyaya bhinnä nigantha dvedhikajätā bhandanajäta kalahajätä vivadapannā aññamaññar mukhasattihi vitudantä viharanti." na tvaṁ imaṁ dhammavinayam äjänäsi, aham imam dhammavinayarn äjänami, kim tvalm imam dhammavinayam äjänissasi? micchapatipanno tvamasi, ahamasmi sammăpatipanno. Sahitam me, asahitam te. purevacaniyām pacchã avaca pacchāvacaniyam pure avacea. Adhicinnar te viparávattam āropito te vădo, niggahito tvamasi. cara vādappamokkhaya, nibbethehi vă sace pashosi'ti. vadho yeva kho maññya niganthesu nätaputtiyesu vattati. ye pi niganthassa nātaputtassa sävaka gihi odātavasana te pi niganthesu nätaputtiyesu nibbinnarüpa virattarūpā pati vänarüpa-yatha tam durakkhāte dhammavinaye duppavedite aniyyänike anupasamasamvattanike asammasambuddha-ppavedite
bhinnathupe appațisarane. 21. It is noteworthy that almost all the Swetambara
Pattavalis mention the ame period. 22. It is noteworthy that the original Ms. of the Himavant
asthavirāvali is not available after its Gujarati translation; its Gujarati translation by Pnadit Hiralal Hansraj of Jamnagar, is the only base, It shows that

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Kunika and Udayi ruled for 60 years after the Nirvana of Mahāvira and the Nandas ruled for 94 years there after, and accordingly Chandragupta Maurya's
accession is said to be in 155 V.N.S. 23. Vikram Samvat 1987 : 137; Note that Muniji's effort
to accept the period of Maurya to be 160 instea of 108, considering "muriyānamathasayam" as "muriyanar
sathasayam". is not a historical fact. 24. It should be noted that Muniji's effort to extend
Sambhütivijaya;s period from 8 year to 60-years, and changing 108 year period of the Mauryas (this fact is supporte by history) to 160. years is nothing but an effort to confirm his own hypothesis.
References : 1. Bhagavati (Angasuttäni, Vol. 2) Ed. Muni Nathmal. Jaina
Visva Bharati, Ladnun, V.S. 2031 9: 222-229. Charpentier Jarl, The Uttaradhyayana Sotra, Introduction, Archives D'Etudes Orientales, Publiees Par J.-A. Lundelle,
Vol. 18, Uppsala, 1922. 3. Eggermont, P.H.L., "The Year of Mahavira's decease".
Bechert, H., The Dating of the Historical Buddha, pt. I, pp. 138-51, Gottingen Dhavalātikā Samanvita Satkhandägam, Ed. Hiralal Jain, Sitabarai Luxmichandra Jaina Sahityoddharaka Fund.
Amaravati, 1949.4:1:44: 132-133. 5. Dīghanikāya, vol. I, II, Ed. Bhikshu Jagadish Kashyap,
Bihar Govt. Publication Board, Ist. Edition, Nalanda, 1958. Hemacandra, Parisistaparva, Ed. Tilak Vijaya, Jaina Dharma
Prasaraka Sabha, Bhavanagar, V.S. 1968 7. Himavanta Sthaviravali, Gujarati Trans. by Pt. Hiralal
Hansraj, referred to Muni Kalyana Vijaya, Vira Nirvana
Samvat aur Jaina Kala Gananā, v.s. 1987. 8. Jacobi, V. Hermann, Buddha's and Mahavira's Nirvana and
D. Palitesch Vitiklung Magadhas, Jur Jener Jait - 557. Jaina Silalekha Samgraha (II part) Compiler Vijay Murti Pandit, Manikachand Digambar Granghamala Samiti,
Bombay-4, 1952. 10. Jaiswal, Kashi prasad, Indian Antiquary, Part XL VI, 1917
reprint (1985), Svati Publication. Delhi, p. 145-153. 11. Kalpasūtra, Sri Subodhikānämni Kalpasūtra Tikā, Ed.
Vinaya, Jamnagar, 1939, I. 12. Majumdar, R.C. Ancient India, Motilal Banarasi Dass,
Varanasi, 1952. 13. Mukhtar, Jugal Kishore, Jaina Sähitya aur Itihasa para Visad
Praśna, Shri Vira Sasan Samgha, Calcutta, 1965. 14. Muni Kalyan Vijaya, Vira Nirvāṇa Samvat Aur Jaina Kāla
Ganana, K.V. Shastra Sangraha Samiti, Jalore, V.S. 1987. 15. Nandisutra (Sthavirävali), Ed. Madhukar Muni, Shri Agm
Prakashan Samiti, Beawar, (Rajasthan). 16. Niryukti Samgraha, Ed. Vijayasen Surishvara. Harshapuspa
mrit Jain Granthamala, Lakhabavala, Saurashtra, 1989.
17. Norman K.R. "Observation on the Dates of the Jaina and
Buddha" in Bechert, H. The Dating of the Historical Buddha
Pt. I, p. 300-312, Göttingen. 18. Painnaya Suttaim (Prathamobhāga), Ed. Muni Punya Vijaya,
Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay 1984. 19. Parikha, Rasikalal Chotelal, Gujarât no Räjakiya aura
Sanskritika Itihās, Vol. 2, B.J. Institue, Ahmedabad - 9. 20. Prabandhakośa, Ed. Jina Vijayaji, Singhi Jaina Granthamala,
Shantiniketan, 1935. 21. Shastri, A. Shantiraja, "Bhagavän Mahavira ke Nirvana ki
Samālocanā," Anekānta, Varsa - 4 Kiran - 10. 22. Smith, V.A., The Jaina Stupa & other Antiquities of Mathura,
Indological Book House, Delhi. 23. Sri Kalpasútra, Ed. Manika Muni, Sobhagamal Harakavata,
Ajamer, V.S. 1973. 24. Sri Pattāvaliparāga Sangraha, Ed. Muni Kalyan Vijaya,
K.V. Shastra Samgraha Samiti, Jalore, 1966. 25. Thånam, (Sthänänga) (Añgasuttani) Part I, III, Ed. Vachana
Pramukha Acharya Tulasi, Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun,
V.S. 2031. 26. The Historical Position of Kaliki and his Identification with
Yasodharman, Indian Antiquary, Vol. XLVI, July 1971,
Swati Publication, Delhi 1985. 27. Tiloyapannatti, Ed. Prof. Hiralal Jain and A.N. Upadhya,
Jaina Sanskriti Sanrakshaka Sangha, Solapur 1951. 28. Titthogalipainnaya (Paiņnayasuttaim). Ed. Muni Punya
Vijaya, Mahavira Jaina Mahavidyalaya, Bombay 1984. 29. Tripathi, Ramashankara. 'Präcina Bhärata Ka Itihas. 'Motilal
Banarasi Dass, Delhi, 1968. 30. Uttaradhyayana, Ed. Charpentier. Archives D. Itds Orientals,
Vol. 18, Upasala 1922. 31. Venkateshwara, S.V., The Date of Vardhaman,' Journal of
Royal Asiatic Society, 1917. 32. Višeșāvaśyakabhāsya. Trans, Shah Chunnilal, Agamodaya
Samiti, Bombay. 33. Vividha Gachhiya Pattāvali Samgraha, part I, Ed. Muni Jina
Vijayaji, Singhi Jaina Series - 53. Publ., J.H. Dave, Director, Bharatiya Vidyabhavan, Bombay - 7, 1961.

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Prof. K.S. Murty's Philosophy of Peace and Non-violence
Prof. K.S. Murty is one of the leading Indian Philosophers of our age. For him Philosophy is not the mere abstract thinking about the Ultimate Reality but an honest effort to solve the actual problems of humanity. That is why his work, 'The Quest for Peace' attracts philosophers, as well politicians and sociologists. Here, I would like to confine my observations about Prof. Murty's Philosophy to his work, "The Quest for Peace'. This work is a testimony that his philosophy is related to the concrete and practical life and the actual perennial problems of human society. In this outstanding work he has not only presented the Hindu ideals dealing with the problem of war and peace but also critically analysed the causes of war, disturbing our social peace and the possibility for peace and non-violence. In the process, he critically evaluated the various theories pertaining to war and examined the various philosophies dealing with the concept of non-violence. In addition, at the end of his work, there is an epilogue where in he has suggested the awakening of world consciousness as a way out to get rid of the burning problem of war and violence.
overcoming them." (P. 33)
So far as I understand the philosophy of Prof. K.S. Murty, he opines that the ideals or the norms of the society can not be built, putting aside the actualities of our lives. He never sees the Utopian dreams. Being a realist or actualist he always tries to see the practical-side of the problem. For him philosophy is some thing real or concrete and not mere abstract thinking. It is connected with our day to day problems. The philosophy unable to solve the riddle of our actual life is of no use and only a tool of intellect. He says, "so a social organisation which forgets this (actualities of human nature) and gives up altogether the use of force for maintaining order and enforcing law, based on righteousness, will end in chaos." (P. 32) Thus, we can conclude that Prof. K.S. Murty, about social ideals and norms, always remains a realist, having a deep under-standing of actual human nature.
Prof. K.S. Murty as a Realist
In this epilogue, he firmly maintains that it is only through the awakening of world consciousness that peace and prosperity can be restored on our globe. The most notable thing about Prof. K.S. Murty's 'Philosophy of Peace', is that in his examinations and evaluations he always remains a realist or a practical philosopher. Though he speaks of ideals yet he always keep them on the concrete foundation of actualities of human life. For him, human being is always human being, living with all its animal instincts. He observes, 'Men according to Hindu thinkers are not all sweet, reasonable and potentially saintly. There are some men with divine temperament while others with demonic temperament. In the present age i.e. Kaliyuga, the latter preponderates. Utopian dreams, where all men will lead blissful lives, consider all mankind as one family mutually and unselfishly helping each other, are silly. (P. 31-32) He further maintains. "There is, says Hinduism, an element of evil in human nature, Rajas (activistic tendency) and Tamas (inertia) are not wholly absent in any man; in some they predominate to such an extent that tranquility and goodness-Sattva- are never successful in
An Evaluation of K.S. Murty's Views about NonViolence
With regard to the problems of war and peace or force and non-violence, Prof. Murty admits that the complete eradication of force, violence and wars from the earth is not possible at all. He maintains that so far as injustice and crime exist on the earth, use of force, violence and even war is inevitable. He supports his view by quoating a Chinese sage Mo-Ti, "A sin cannot be controlled except by punishment and not to punish such a terrible criminal is a sin" (P. 15). As long as we are living in the society, it is our prime and foremost duty to maintain social justice. Says, Prof. K.S. Murty, "Otherwise the strong will oppress the weak and society will be like the world of fish- the big ones eating the small. Danda (Punishment), therefore, is necessary (Page 32). For him social justice is primary and peace or non-violence is secondary. He does not advocate that type of peace or non-violence, which distorts the social justice. Says, he, "absolute tolerance of all wrongs done to oneself is not a virtue (P. 33). He further maintains 'Asceticism and celibacy may be good things but they cannot be so for all men. Science, painting and philosophy are good things but they are also not for all men. Similarly, conquest of anger by non-anger, of unrighteousness by righteousness, of evil by love, may be good things, but all are not capable of

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practising them. And it is also important to remember, the Hindu thinkers urge that such behaviour cannot be successful in dealing with all men." (P. 33) Thus, for him one should meet evil with justice and so the tolerance of an evil is not moral at all. "The Peace, which is achieved on the cost of injustice is not good. Says he, the doctrine of noninjury must be reconciled with the necessity to punish those who deserve it and such a punishment may itself be in tune with the spirit of the doctrine. According to Prof. K.S. Murty, one should not tolerate injustice for the sake of non-violence or disturbance of social peace. Aggressive and unjust wars have been condemned by all the Indian thinkers and they hold that just and defensive wars should be undertaken. Those who disturb social peace and do injustice with our fellow being for the sake of their selfish motive, should be punished. But, he holds, this must be done without giving up maitri (friendliness) and karuņā (compassion) (See Prologue Page XXI). Just and defensive wars should be undertaken as a sense of duty and at that time our hearts should be free from malice or ill-will. One should not harbour hatred even towards one's opponent or enemy. So far as Prof. K.S. Murty's view on the above said matter is concerned, it is in confirmity with the ancient thinkers of India. He is throughly correct when he comments, "If reverence for life, taken as an absolute value, were stronger than it is, war would decrease very much in frequency and number." (P. 44) But I am not intune with Prof. Murty when he says "Non-injury unless motivated by compassion becomes a superstition and compassion may sometimes lead us to commit injuries to living beings (Page 44)". I am of this view that non-injury or nonviolence does not emanate from compassion which is an emotional aspect of our being, but it follows from the faculty of reasoning as a sense of duty. Non-violence should be observed as a sense duty or obligation and not mere as a feeling of compassion. Compassion always has a sense of attachment as its root. Whatsoever is motivated by attachment or mineness is always immoral. If once we accept non-violence as an absolute ethical value based on our faculty of reasoning, we have no right to say that "war is not always immoral" and "Ahimsa does not sum up morality" - as Prof. Murty holds. Though I agree with Prof. K.S. Murty that in our worldly life complete non-violence is not possible, it does not mean that complete non-violence is mere a superstition as he maintains. Those, who are attached to worldly possessions or even to worldly life and have a social obligation to protect other's life and property,

are unable to dispense with defenesive violence. But it must be remembered that violence is always violence and it can never be an ethical virtue. Inevitablity of violence in worldly life does not make it ethical or moral. There are certain things in the world which are inevitable or necessary for our life, notwithstanding we can not say all of them as moral. I differ with Prof. Murty's view when he concludes, 'It seems to be silly to admit that all life is equally worthy of reverence (P. 44). In my humble opinion to be worthy of reverence is something different from to be observed perfectly. We cannot challenge the intrinsic value of noninjury or non-violence on the basis of its un-practicability in worldly life. Perfect non-violence, however, is not possible yet it does not mean that it is totally impossible in this world. Those, who are completely detached, even to their body, can observe it perfectly. Prof. Murty's pragmatic equation of morality with practicability and immorality with immpracticability is not very desirable because then morality will lead to selfishness.
May be a situation one has to choose between the two violences - Major and Minor instead of violence and nonviolence. In such a situation Jaina Acaryas suggest one should select a minor violence instead of a major one. Prof. K.S. Murty also observes, though man has the obligation to help all living beings, clearly this is impossible and selection had to be made as to whom he should help and whom he may have to injure... when a human life is endangered by disease-carrying germs it seems to be ethically right to preserve it at the cost of the lives of these germs by administration of antibiotics. The use of ratpoision, germicides and disinfectants like DDT to preserve human life seems morally right because human life is qualitatively more valuable than animal life." (P. 44) But in this statement of Prof. Murty I find the usage of some words as objectionable. My first objection is about his use of word 'ethically or morally right'. Here we must be clear in our mind that our selection between two evils or violences does not make a lesser one ethically or morally right. Violence is an evil and it cannot be morally or ethically right in any case. In our worldly life for the sake of our individual interest or even in the interest of human society, in certain situations we have to make a selection between two evils or vices; but on account of our selection, Vices will never be regarded a virtue. Secondly, the human life may be valuable but not in all the cases, so to say, in a desert, a life of a plant is more valuable than human being. Punishments are prescribed for those human beings who

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hurt animal life or even plants, in our scriptures as well as civil codes of various nations. Now a days, we have already accepted that the use of germicides and hurting of plant life is not good for ecological balance.
Prof. K.S. Murty's Concept of Peace
The concept of peace has two main aspects, internal as well as external. The internal aspect is known as mental peace or tranquility, it is related mainly to the individuals and that too particularly to their mental state. While the external aspect of peace is known as social-peace and is related to the society mental peace depends on the cessation of conflicts which takes place between our passionate self i.e. Id and ideal-self i.e. super ego. So far as the external or social peace is concemed, it depends on our harmonious living as a member of society. It is the state of cessation of conflicts and wars between individual and society and among different religious and social groups as well as nations.
While dealing with the concept of Peace, in his famous work. "The Quest for Peace' Prof. K.S. Murty, has emphasi- sed the social or external aspect of peace, but it does not mean that he underestimated the inner peace. He remarks "Not to have hatred towards any one and to harbour no enmity towards any living being, are cardinal virtues, based on the great truth that it is Ātman that is inundate in all beings. Nirvaira is achieved not by cessation of all reaction to evil, but by making the mind and will, pure. Such purity, according to the Gita, is achieved when one gains inner poise, non-attachment and abandonment of concer with the fruits of actions". (P. 21) He further says "to have no mamata (sense of mine) and ... equanimity in action is the way of obtaining man's highest end."(P. 21)
We must also remember the fact that the external or social peace depends on the inner or mental peace of the members of the society. Society without individuals is something abstract, it is the individual who makes society concrete or real. That is why the inner peace of the individuals is a pre-condition for social peace. A disturbed mind disturbs social peace. In the introduction of Prof. K.S. Murty's book - "The Quest for Peace' our former Prime Minister and an enlightened stateman Dr. P.V.Narasimharao rightly observes "The Peace and equality should be both inner and outer. There could be no peace outside unless there is inner peace. By inner peace, I do not necessarily mean the individual state of mind attained by sādhană,
what I mean is that the minds of all men should reach a state where they are free from fear, free from mistrust, free from the urge for self-aggrandisement and exploitation. Today there is an all-pervading war psychosis, because wars begin in the minds of men, and these minds disrupt peace. The same minds need to be oriented to promote peace and this can be done only by a peace-psychosis. (P. XXIX)
Thus, we can conclude that the peace, inner as well as outer, both are worthy to achieve, but stress should be given on inner peace. For inner peace is the cause and outer peace is an effect. But the position of Prof. K.S. Murty is some what different in this regard.
While examining the various theories of the causes of wars, his approach is also realistic. Though he agrees with spiritualists that all wars have their beginning in our minds but at the same time he holds a realistic position and maintains that working of human mind depends on external situations. In the beginning of sixth chapter of this bookThe Quest for Peace, says, he, "The Unesco constitution says war begins in the mind of men." In as much as all human activity begins in men's minds- for after all without an idea and a will nothing begins- that is an obvious truism. But in so far as men's minds are moulded by their social and cultural environment and by the traditions of their political institutions, we have to seek for the causes of war at the deeper level. You cannot change the working of men's minds, when their civilisation, social organisation and political institutions force them to think and act in certain ways (P. 142)." Thus for him, it is not only men's minds, which are solely responsible for wars and conflicts, but environmental situations also play an important role as a cause of wars and conflicts.
In the sixth chapter of his work, he deals with various theories about the cause of wars and also makes a critical estimate of them. He is not in tune with the various psychological theories which generally hold that war is rooted in human nature. He is also not in agreement with those economists, who hold that population pressures and economic conditions are the sole causes of wars. He does not fully support the tension theory which holds that frustrations create wars. Says he "To conclude whatever the case was in ancient times, modern warfare among great states does not seem to be mainly the effect of tensions either in leaders or in peoples" (P. 161). But to a certain extent he is in tune with Dewey and accepts war as a social

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institution or social pattern.
A way out to Peace
At last he opines that war and violence can not be put to an end without a fundamental alteration in social and cultural structure. It is only through awakening of peace consciousness we can change social and cultural pattern and get rid of wars. He observes "Without informed public opinion and good faith a new world order cannot arise and without coming into existence of a unity of outlook and a community of interests among all men (without national and class differences). There can be no world peace (P.182). Prof. K.S. Murty propounds three principles, namely (a) Homonoia-Human brotherhood, (b) Tolerance and (c) Universal Ethics as the bases of peace. Says he, "If a consistant world view could be evolved in consonance with (if not based upon these three concepts, through the co-operative efforts of the intellectuals of all cultures and if they take pains to make it fashionable among all peoples a universal culture may evolve and make permanent world
peace a possibility." (P. 199) For the cultivation of peace consciousness among peoples, and to make efforts for permanent world peace he suggested to constitute a Respublica-Litteraria. It is the duty of the intellectuals to work hard for the awakening of peace consciousness because, says he peace cannot be brought about by fine phrases and nice lectures but by hard work and sacrifice (P. 214).
Peace demands the sacrifice of selfish interests and narrow outlooks as its price. It is only through the consciousness of 'world family' we can establish peace and secure prosperity on the earth.
अयं निजः परो वेत्ति गणना लघुचेतसाम्, उदारचरितानां तु वसुधैव कुटुम्बकम्।
Reference
All the references, in this article are from Prof. K.S. Murty's book "The Quest for Peace', Ajanta Publications, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi, 1986, page numbers are given in bracket after the quotations.

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