Jaina Literature From Eearliest Time To C 10th AD

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Z_Jaina_Literature_and_Philosophy_a_Critical_Approach_001936_HR.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269736/1

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. J Jaina Literature of Early Period Ancient Indian Literature was composed mainly in three languages, i.e., Samskrta, Pali and Prakrta. Out of these three Pali is nothing but a shade of Prakrta language. As a literary language, Prakrta, being a group of various local dialects as Magadhi, Pali, Paisaci. Sauraseni, Maharastri, was never developed as a single language but as a group of languages. Various types of Apabhramsa were also developed from Prakrta. Its various shades developed according to their different places and time. If we consider these three main languages from religious point of view, all the Vedic religious literature is found in Samskrta while the Jaina canonical and Buddhist literature is in Prakrta and Pali, respectively. So far as the Jaina religious literature of early period is concerned, it was mainly written in Prakrta known as Prakrta canons. Jainas started writing from c. 3rd-4th A. D. in Samskrta but notably these Samskrta works are based on Prakrta works whether as an independent or in the form of commentaries. the canonical literature belongs to this period, though their final editing and writing on palm-leaves belong to c. 5th A. D. Among Svetambara canons, except the Nandisutra and the later edition of Prasnavyakarana, most works were composed before the c. 3rd A. D. No doubt, some interpolations and changes did take place therein at the time of Valabhi Council yet they are clearly traceable. It would be a great mistake if on account of these interpolations and changes the whole of the Agamas are regarded as posterior. Although most of the works of this period contain the religious preachings with some popular parables and stories as well as religious code of conduct, certain works deal with Jaina cosmology, metaphysics, Karma philosophy and theory of knowledge also. The list of canonical literature is, for the first time, found in Nandisutra (c. 5th A. D. ). If we accept Nandisutra as a work of c. 5th A. D., all the works referred to ir Nandisutra belong to a date prior to it. But they all were not composed in a single spur of moment. All the canonical works, it seems are composed in during c. 5th B. C. to c. 4th-5th A. D., i.e., within one thousand years. The works mentioned in the Nandisutra are the following: So far as the Jaina literature (of early period) prior to c. 3rd A. D. is concerned, barring few of the early philosophical and literary treatises, it is mainly confined to the canonical literature only. Majority of

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2 Angapravista 1. Acaranga 2. 3. Sutrakrtanga Sthananga 4. Samavayanga 5. Vyakhyaprajnapti 6. Jnatadharmakatha 7. Upasakadasanga 8. Antakrddasanga 9. Anuttaraupapatikadasanga 10. Prasnavyakarana 11. Vipakasutra 12. Drstivada Agama Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI Avasyaka 1. Samayika 2. Caturvimsatistava 3. Vandana 4. Pratikramana 5. Kayotsarga 6. Pratyakhyana Angabahya Kalika Uttaradhyayana Dasasrutaskandha Kalpa Vyavahara Nisitha Mahanisitha Rsibhasita Other than Avasyaka Jambudvipaprajnapti Dvipasagaraprajapti Candraprajnapti Ksullikavimanapravibhakti Mohallika Vimanapravibhakti Angaculika Vaggaculika Vivahaculika Arunopapata Varunopapata Garunopapata Dharanopapata Vaisramanopapata Velandharopapata Devendropapata Utthanasruta Samutthanasruta Nagaparijnapanika Narakavalika Kalpika Kalpavatamsika Puspita Puspaculika Vrsnidasa Utkalika Dasavaikalika Kalpikakalpika Cullakalpasruta Mahakalpasruta Aupapatika Rajaprasniya Jivabhigama Prajnapana Mahaprajnapana Pramadapramada Nandisutra Anuyogadvara Devendrastava Tandulavaicarika Candravedhyaka Suryaprajnapti Paurusimandala Mandalapravesa Vidyacarana Viniscaya Ganividya Dhyanavibhakti Maranavibhakti Atmavisodhi Vitaragadruta Samlekhanasruta Viharakalpa Caranavidhi Aturpratyakhyana Mahapratyakhyana

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Jaina Literature From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] anim tvorio o Unfortunately, all the above mentioned intact. We find that earlier subject-matter of works are not available, today. Some of them are lost. Prasnavyakarana has been completely changed. Out of twelve Anga Agamas, the 7th chapter of Similarly, partial changes as well as some additions Acaranga (Mahaparijna ) and the major portion of are also noted in the subject matter of natadharmaDrstivada are said to be extinct. So far as the subject- katha, Antakyddasarga, Anuttraupapatika and Vipakamatter of 7th chapter of Acaranga is concerned, in sutra. Among the secondary canons (Anga-bahya my opinion, it was mainly related to the Jinakalpa oragamas ) following works, known as Kalika and strict code of conduct of naked monks. When the Utkalika, respectively were also lost in due course of followers of this strict code of conduct disappeared time. The details of such canons are as under: gradually, no serious efforts were made to restore it Kalikasutra not available presently -- and finally it got lost. Likewise, the twelfth Anga 1. Ksullikavimanapravibhakti Drstivada, said to be containing five parts ( i ) Pari Mahallikavimanapravibhakti karma, (ii) Sutra, (iii) Purvagata, (iv) Anuyoga Angaculika and (v) Calika, seems to have dealt mainly with the 4. Vaggaculika philosophical doctrines of other schools of thought 5. Vivahaculika including the Parsva tradition. Purvagata, the third Arunotapada part of Drstivada, exclusively, dealt with the doctrines Varunotapada of Parsva tradition, later on accepted as the doctrines Garunotapada of Mahavira. All these works were preserved only 9. Dharanotapada through oral tradition, because, Jaina monks and nuns 10. Vaisramanotapada were strictly prohobited to write on palm-leaves, 11. Velandarotapada those days. That study and preservation of the Jaina 12. Devendrotapada literature, written on palm-leaves were prohibited due 13. Utthanasruta to the strict observance of non-violence. They were of 14. Samutthanasruta the opinion that in the process of writing, studying 15. Nagaprajnaptipanika. and preserving the palm-leaf works, the injury to the Jivas was inevitable. That is why, they made no Utkalikasutra not available presently efforts to restore them in written form. This was the 1. Kalpikakalpika reason behind the loss of Drstivada as well as some 2. Culakalpika other agamas. In my opinion, Drstivada, in particular, 3. Mahaprajnapana became extinct, because of following factors 4. Pramadapramada firstly, its contents were not fully in accordance with 5. Paurusimandala Mahavira's tradition and were mostly related with 6. Mandala Pravesa philosophical discussions of other traditions and 7. Vidyacarana Viniscaya schools, hence unable to arouse interest in Jaina 8. Dhyanavibhakti monks. Secondly, the concepts, accepted by 9. Vitaraga Sruta Mahavira's tradition, were included in other Agamic 10. Viharakalpa texts also, hence Jaina monks did not make any effort 11. Caranavidhi. to preserve the Purva literature. Thirdly, due to the About the subject matter of these Kalika and oral tradition, other Anga agamas could not remain Utkalikasutras, not extant today, it is very difficult to

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI comment upon. Their subject-matter can be inferred order of the Jaina canonical literature is Isibhasiyaim on the basis of their titles only. One Angasutra, i. e., (Rsibhasitam ). All the scholars of Prakrta and JainoDrstivada, 15 Kalikasutra and 11 Utkalikasutras, logy : Western and Indian, consider it of c. 4th-3rd B. thus, the number of extinct or not available texts, C. It marks the catholicity of early Jaina thinkers. It comes to be 27, in total. Except these 27, all the 51 contains the ethical preachings as well as philosophitexts are available. At present six Avasyakas being cal views of forty-five thinkers. Out of these Narada, counted as one, the number finally becomes 46. It is Asitadevala, Angirasa, Parasara, Aruns, Narayana, not possible here to deliberate on the corresponding Yajnavalkya, Uddalaka, Vidura etc. definitely belong authorship, date and subject-matter of each and every to Upanisadic tradition. Similarly, Sariputta, Vajjitext of this list in this article, so I shall discuss, in putta, Mahakasyapa etc. belong to Buddhist tradition short, only few important works in their chronologi- while Parsva and Vardhamana belong to the Jaina cal order. tradition. A few others are of other independent Primary Canons ( Angas ) Sramanic tradition, not extant today. This work Acaranga is considered as the oldest of all the shows that in the early period the Upanisadic and works of the early period. According to the scholars, other Sramanic traditions were tolerant as well as the first part of Acaranga belongs to the c. Sth-4th B. respectful to each other. C. This part contains the original preachings of Lord Uttaradhyayana and Dasavaikalika are other Mahavira. It deals with the spiritual preachings important works of this early phase. Uttaradhyayana alongwith the basic principles of non-violence and contains thirty-six chapters, mainly dealing with the ethical code of conduct, prescribed for Jania monks religious preachings as well as some metaphysical and nuns. Its last chapter depicts a real picture of the doctrines of Jainism. Some chapters of this text are ascetic life of Lord Mahavira. The 7th chapter of the regarded as the later additions by the scholars but in first part is supposed to be lost after the composition no way they are later than the c. 2nd or 1st B. C. The of its Niryukti, i.e., c. 2nd-3rd A. D. The second part next work Dasavaikalika, composed by Arya of Acaranga is known as Ayaracula - an appendix. Sayyambhava (c. 5th-4th B. C.) mainly deals with It mainly deals with the detailed rules and regulations the ethical code of conduct of Jania monks and nuns or the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns alongwith the spiritual discourses and preachings. alongwith some of the events of the life of Mahavira. However, we can not deny the possibility of the Modern scholars opine that the second part of interpolations to the some extent in its final editing. Acaranga was composed during the c. 2nd-1st B. C. The other works dealing with the ethical code Another improtant canonical work of this era is of conduct are Nisitha, Dasasrutaskandha (AyaraSutrakrtanga dating c. 4th-3rd B. C. This work is also dasa ), Vyavahara and Kalpa, all composed by Arya full of spiritual and moral preachings but its Bhadrabahu inc. 3rd B. C. These works, not only deal peculiarity lies in the presentaion of different philoso- with the code of conduct but with transgressions and phical views prevalent in that particular era. Like atonements also. Acaranga, it also comprises two parts ( Sruta Against general belief, that all the Angas are skandhas). Scholars are of the opinion that the second composed by the Ganadharas, direct disciples of Lord part of Satrakrtanga is some what posterior to the first. Mahavira, some opine that except Acaranga and The third important work in chronological Sutrakrtanga, all the Argas are composed later on. In

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] my opinion, it is very difficult to assign any particular date or authorship to these extant works because of containing different levels of the development of Jaina thought, occurred through different ages. After Acararga and Sutrakrtanga, next two Angas in successive order are Sthananga and Samavayanga. They may be considered as encyclopaedia of early Jaina thoughts and beliefs, mainly based on the numbers more or less similar to Anguttaranikaya of Buddhist tradition. Both these works provide more information about the Jaina order and development of Jaina thoughts of the later period, i.e., c. 3rd-4th A.D. The next in the list is Bhagavati (Vyakhyaprajnapti ) mainly dealing with different aspects of Jaina philosophy. According to a group of scholars, this voluminous work, was composed at different phases and not at one time. Evidently, it has references to the later works like Prajnapana, Anuyogadvara, etc. be- longing to c. 1st-4th A. D. and side by side, depicts various earlier original concepts, witnessing change in the process of development of Jaina thoughts. The next work of early period is Jnatadharmakatha. Second part of this work is considerably later than the first. The first contains mainly stories preached by Lord Mahavira to his disciples. Its 19 chapters, refer- red to in Avasyaka-sutra, are undoubtedly, com- posed in the early period. The next among Anga canons is Upasakadasanga, considered as the first work related to the code of conduct of lay devotees (Sravakas ). It comprises life-sketches of ten promi- nent lay followers of Lord Mahavira. Not having any trace of any later work, it belongs to the early period. Antakyddasanga deals with the life-stories and ascetic life of the persons, attaining their salvation in the last span of their life. According to Sthananga, it has only ten chapters dealing with life-stories of 10 persons. But present volume contains life-stories of 93 persons. It clearly shows that not at the time of Valabhi Vacana alone but even after that some additional matters were incorporated in Sthanariga. Same is the case with Anuttaropapatikadasanga. Its early edition contained life-stories of only ten persons who attained Sarvarthasiddhi Vimana and were supposed to attain liberation in their next births. Of Jaina canon Prasnavyakaranadasa, unfortunately, the earlier contents are totally extinct. It seems that the present subject matter of this work was incorporated in aroundc. 7th A.D. Its extant edition deals with five asravas, viz., violence, untruthfulness, theft, unchastity and possessiveness alongwith five samvaras, viz., truthfulness, nonstealing, chastity and non-possession. Last available work of Anga canon is Vipakadasa, dealing with fruits of merit and demerits. Secondary Canons (Upanga ) The first work of the secondary canons is Aupapatika, dealing with the episode of Suryabhadeva. It also depicts a beautiful picture of ancient art and architecture. On the basis of this depiction, scholars date this work not earlier thanc. 1st-2nd A.D. The next work of this category is Rajaprasniya which, so far its subject matter is concerned, is more similar to the Buddhist Pali canon - Paseniyasutta. The third and the fourth, Jivabhigama and Prajnapana, respectively, deal with the Jaina metaphysics in general and the concepts of jiva and ajiva in particular. The authorship of Prajnapana is attributed to Arya syama (c. 1st A.D.). Out of these twelve secondary canonical works only Prajnapana's authorship is known. About the authorship of other works, we are still in dark. The fifth one is Jambudvipaprajnapti, mainly dealing with Jaina Geography in addition to the lifehistory of Rsabhadeva. The subject matter of next two works, Suryaprajnapti and Candraprajnapti are related with Jaina cosmology in general and Jaina astronomy in particular. Scholars date thesec. 2nd-1st B.C. Other five works of this bunch are very short and rather of less important. Besides Anga & Upanga canonical literature,

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI Candrakavedhyaka, Tandulavaicarika, Aturpratya 1. Avasyakaniryukti, khyana, Mahapratyakhyana, Maranavibhakti, mainly 2. Dasavaikalikaniryukti, concerned with the Jaina Sadhana, are known as 3. Uttaradhyayananiryukti, Prakirnakas, in general and Samadhimarana in 4. Acaranganiryukti, particular. All these works are, undoubtedly earlier to 5. Sutrakitanganiryukti, the c. 4th-5th A.D. 6. Dasasrutaskandhaniryukti, Among the non-canonical works of this 7. Kalpaniryukti and period, very few in number are extant, namely 8. Vyavaharaniryukti. Tattvartha-sutra and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd 4th Apart from these, two more Niryuktis -Ogha A. D. ), Paumacariya of Vimalasuri (c. 2nd-5th and Pinda are also available, but considered to be the A. D.) and Digambar works composed in Sauraseni part ofAvasyakaniryukti and Dasavaikalikaniryukti, Prakrta like Kasayapahuda of Gunadhara (c. 4th A. respectively, hence, not independent works. We also D. ) and Satkhandagama of Puspadanta Bhutabali have a mention of two more Niryuktis on Surya(about c. 5th A. D.). Apart from these, the works of prajnapti and Rsibhasita, but they are extinct now. Kundakunda, Samantabhadra and Siddhasena To conclude, we can say that more than Divakara may also be considered as the works of hundred works could be considered to belong to this early period. Scholars differ on the exact date of com early period but about thirty of them are now extinct. position of these works, except that of Tattvarthasutra. They date these in between c. 2nd-5th A. D. Jaina Literature of this period The evolution and changes occurred in Jaina Among non-canonical literature, the first thought and practice duringc. 3rd-10th A. D. is traceNiryuktis, ten in number, are of great importance. able through its literature. For literature is the mirror These ( Niryuktis ) mainly explain the meaning of of the cultural development of any society. The prime Jaina technical terms from the various stand-points period of the composition of literary works of Jainism alongwith the brief account of the subject matter of corresponds to c. 3rd-10th A. D. Almost all the imthat particular Agama. Scholars widely differ about portant works of Jainism were finally composed and the time and authorship of Niryuktis except that of edited in this period. The literature, which emerged in Govindaniryukti. Some are of the opinion that these this period, may be divided into five categories : Niryuktis are composed by Bhadrabahu-I (c. 3rd B. 1. Agamas and their commentaries. C.) while others consider these to be composed by Bhadrabahu-II, the brother of Varahamihira (c. 6th 2. Philosophical works. A. D. ). But in my humble opinion, as external and 3. Works related to the Jaina religious pracinternal evidences show it was neither of Bhadra- the bahu-I or of Bhadrabahu-II. But, Aryabhadra of c. 4. Jaina epics and other narrative literature. 2nd-3rd A. D., in all probability, was the author of 5. Secular Literature of Jainas. these Niryuktis. I have given various reasons in 1. Agamas and their Commentaries support of this view in my independent article . As I have already mentioned that except published in Sagara Jaina Vidyabharati (Parsvanatha Nandisutra and present edition of Prasnavyakarana, Vidyapitha, Varanasi, 1994). Presently, we have most of the Agamas were composed before c. 3rd A. only the following Niryuktis : D. but their final editing had been done only in the

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] c. 5th A. D. At the time of this final editing, interpola Among Bhasya, Visesavasyakabhasya is the tion of many later developed philosophical concepts most important. It is the first work of Svetambara traand informations regarding the Jaina order creaped dition, dealing with the problems of Jaina philosophy into these. The Nandisutra, the agamic work compo- with minute details. The concept of five-fold knowsed during this period, deals with the Jaina theory of ledge has been discussed elaborately with a critical five-fold knowledge as well as contains its later de- approach herein. Among various proofs given for the velopments which took place ine. 4th-5th A. D. Simi- existence of soul, one bears similarity to that of Rene larly, the drastic changes in the original subject- Descartes (c. 16th A. D. ), a Western philosopher, matter of Prasnavyakarana and partial changes in proving the existence of soul through doubt itself. In Antaknddasa and Anuttaraupapatikadasa also oc- Visesavasyakabhasya, various contrary views of curred during this period. Almost all the Prakta and Jaina acaryas are mentioned and reviewed alongwith some of the early Samskrta commentaries on the the views of some rebellious Jaina thinkers, i.e., Jaina Agamas were written in this period, in form of Nihnavas. It also deals with the differences of Niryuktis (c. 3rd-4th A. D. ),Bhasyas (c. 6th A.D.) Svetambara and Digambara traditions regarding the and Curnis (c. 7th A. D.). This period is of great successiveness and simultaneity of Kevalajnana and literary importance because majority of the Agamic Kevaladarsana as well as the problem of nacked-ness works were finally edited and some of them were of the monk with full details. Other Bhasyas mainly even composed also in this period. deal with the ethical code of conduct of ascetics with their exceptions and the conditions in which these Besides these Niryuktis, Oghaniryukti and exceptions could be followed alongwith their atonePindaniryukti are also available but Oghaniryukti is ments, The Bhasyas, dealing with the code of conduct considered as the part of Avasyakaniryukti and of monks are-Dasavaikalikabhasya, UttaradhyayanaPindaniryukti as the part of Dasavaikalikaniryukti, bhasya, Byhatkalpabhasya, Vyavaharabhasya, Nisithahence they are not independent works. Though, bhasya and Jitakalpabhasya. Some of the Bhasyas Niryuktis on Suryaprajnapti andKsibhasita are refer also contain some informations of historical imporred to in Avasyakaniryukti (Verse 85 ) but at present tance. As the authors of the Bhasya, we have only two these two are not available. The Nisithaniryukti, con names : Jinabhadragani and Sanghadasagasi. Jinasidered to be the part of Acaranganiryukti is mixed bhadragani is the author of Visesavasyakabhasya with its Bhasya. All these Niryuktis are written in while Sanghadasagani is the author of Brhatkalpa, Prakrta verses and deal very precisely with the con Vyavahara and Nisithabhasya. Of these two Sanghatents of the respective Agamas. dasagani is supposed to be senior to Jinabhadra, beAfter Niryukti, Bhasyas onagamic texts were cause Jinabhadra, in his work Visesanavati has refercomposed in c. 5th-6th A. D. The Bhasyas are more red the Vasudevahindi, a work authored by Sanghaexhaustive and elaborate than those of Niryuktis. dasagani. The period of Jinabhadra, is undoubtedly, They were also composed in Praksta verses. Bhasyas the latter half of the c. 6th A. D. As Sanghadasagani are quite prolific in their contents referring to various was senior to Jinabhadragani, it leaves no room for concepts of Jaina philosophy and the code of the con- doubt that he must have flourished in second half of duct for monks and nuns with their exceptions and the c. 6th A.D. All these bhasyas are of considerable punishments. length, composed in Praksta verses and deal with

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI their subjects exhaustively. We find a rich cultural vittikara. Santisuri has written a commentary on data and some informations about the cultural history Uttaradhyayanasutra. Both of these later Samskrta of India in the Bhasyas. commentators flourished, during c. 10th-11th A. D. Next, the Curnis, unlike the Niryuktis and This trend of commentary-writing is still current in Bhasyas are written in prose. Niryuktis and Bhasyas Svetambara tradition. are written in Praksta only, while the Curnis in In Digambara tradition, Kasayapahudasutta Prakta mixed with Samskrta. Among Curnis -- and Satkhandagama are considered as equivalent to Avasyaka, Dasavaikalika, Uttaradhyayana, Sutra- agamas. These works are written in c. 4th-5th A. D. krtanga, Anuyogadvara, Nandi and Nisitha, are the On Kasayapahudasutta first commentary was written most important. by Yativrsabha in the form ofCurni-sutras inc. 6th A. All these Curnis were written by Jinadasa- D. After that inc. 9th A. D. Virasena wrote two comgani Mahattara. In Nandicurni it is clearly mentioned mentaries Jayadhavala and Dhavala on Kasayathat this work was completed in Saka Samvat 598 pahuda and Satkhandagama, respectively. Mahacorresponding to 676 A. D. It is, therefore, concluded dhavala is a commentary on the one part of that most of the important Curnis were written in c. Satkhandagama, written by his disciple Jinasena. 7th A. D. Some Curnis viz., Dasavaikalika of These commentaries mainly deal with Jaina philosoAgastyasimha and Curnisutras on Kasayapahuda- phy in general and Karma theory in particular. sutta are the earlier among the Curni literature. 2. Important Philosophical Works of this period Among whole of the commentary literature Among the Jaina philosophical works comCurmis hold an important place because first, they posed between c. 3rd-10th A.D., the Tattvarthasutra, deal with the various subjects and are directly concer- with its auto-commentary by Umasvati, is the pioneer ned with social and cultural heritage of Jainism. Sec one and may be considered as the first systematic ondly, they supply so many informations about the work on Jaina philosophy. Composed in c. 3rd A. D., Jaina History pertaining c. 1st-6th A. D. it also has the credit of being the first Samskrta work Curnis were succeeded by Samskrta com- of Jaina literature, written in the style of other mentaries, written on different Agamic texts, known Sutragranthas of Indian philosophy. The especiality as Vittis or Vivaranas. Among Samskrta commenta- of this work is that it is equally respected as well as tors Haribhadrasuri is the earliest, flourished in the accepted by both the sects of Jainism -- Svetambara middle of the c. 8th A. D. He wrote commentaries on and Digambara. It encompasses ten chapters dealing Avasyaka, Dasavaikalika, Jivabhigama, Prajnapana, with Jaina metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Its Nandi, Anuyogadvara and Pindaniryukti. Silanka- first chapter deals mainly with Jaina theory of knowlcarya, flourished in the c. 9th A. D. believed to have edge, Naya and Niksepa, second with Jiva ( living written several commentaries on Agamas but unfor- substance ), third and fourth with hells and heavens, tunately at present only two commentaries on fifth with Jaina metaphysics, sixth to ninth chapters Acaranga and Satrakrtanga, are available. After with Jaina doctrine of Karma and Jaina sadhana or Silanka, Abhayadevasuri and Santisuri are the promi- ethical code of conduct of house-holders and monks, nent names among commentators. Abhayadevasuri respectively. Finally, the tenth one deals with the has commented on nine of eleven Angas except concept of liberation (moksa). Notably, the concept Acaranga and Sutrakrtanga, hence called Navangi- of Gunasthana and Saptabhanginaya ( Seven-fold

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] judgement ) are totally absent in it. This shows that these concepts came into existence later duringc. 5th- 6th A.D. After Tattvarthasutra, Acarya Siddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka is the next critical and important work, composed in c. 4th A. D. in Prakrta verses. It explains critically the concept of dravya (substance ), guna (properties ), paryaya (modes) and their mutual relationship on the basis of the Jaina theory of Naya, Niksepa and Anekantavada (nonabsolutism ). It is the first work in which one-sided views of other philosophers are critically examined to establish Jaina theory of Anekantavada. Some of the Dvatrimsaka-dvatrimsikas, of the same author, also, critically examine the philosophical views of other Indian schools under the pretext of praising the Jina. Even if the refutation of the philosophical views of other schools of Indian philosophy is found in the canonical works also, they are neither critical nor systematic in their approach. Siddhasena for the first time. critically examined the views of other Indian philosophies, showing their logical inconsistencies. So far as the works on Jaina epistemology are concer- ned, Nyayavatara of Siddhasena may be considered the first work on Jaina logic. This work provides the gic. This work provides the base to understand the later gradual developments in Jaina logic, particularly the contribution of Akalanka and Vidyanandi in this regard. Anekantavada. Aptamimamsa is an important work which establishes the concepts of Jainism after a critical evaluation of those of the other schools of Indian philosophy. Another important work of this age is Dvadasaranayacakra, authored by Mallavadi inc. 5th A. D., aiming to establish Jaina theory of Anekantavada by pointing out inconsistencies in the thoughts of other schools of Indian philosophy. The style of this work is somewhat different from that of Sanmatitarka and Aptamimamsa, as these two later works are composed in verses and deal with their subiect-matter in a precise manner. Nayacakra is composed in prose and deals with its subject-matter exhaustively. The distinguishing feature of Dvadasaranayacakra is that it critically examines the views of one philosophical school through the arguments of its opponent. In this way it makes a circle (cakra ) in which the last school of thought is refuted or critically examined by the first one. On the basis of these three important works, this age is known as "The Age of Critical Presentation of Anekantavada". Besides 'Anekantajayapataka' and 'Anekantavadapravesa' of Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D. ) also deal with the same subject matter, but in a different manner. Visesavasyakabhasya, of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana, is one of the important work of this age. In Svetambara tradition it is the first work which deals with various problems of Jaina philosophy in detail and with minute observation. In Digambara Tradition also the Tattvarthasutra is considered as the first systematic work on Jaina philosophy. The oldest available commentary on Tattvarthasutra in Digambara tradition is Pajyapada Deva-nandi's Sarvarthasiddhi which is next to Svopajna-bhasya ( autocommentary of Umasvati). It is composed in the first half of c. 6th A. D. During c. 8th A. D. two more commentaries were produced namely Akalanka's Tattvartha varttika Among the writers of the Digambara sect, who wrote independent philosophical treatises, Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D.) occupies an important place. His Aptamimamsa is a noted scholarly presentation. It immitates Sanmatitarka of Siddhasena, in style but differs in language. Sanmatitarka is in Prakrta verses, while Aptamimamsa is in Samsksta verses. It also critically evaluates the one-sided views of other philosophies. These two works namely, Sanmatitarka and Aptamimamsa, may be considered as the prime works for the exposition of Jaina theory of

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10 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI and Vidyanandi's slokavarttika which are of great systems of Indian philosophy. In Sastravartaimportance. Both of these works not only propound samuccaya, he has paid more respect and veneration the Jaina philosophy but also critically evaluate and to the other schools of thought. It was Haribhadra estimate the other philosophical systems. Like other who for the first time started the cult of commentary works, these commentaries also discuss the points of writing in Samskrta which was developed by Silanka dispute between svetambara and Digambara sects, (c. 9th A. D. ) and Abhayadevasuri ( latter part ofc. such as the concept of women's liberation (stri- 11th A. D. ). These commentaries not only explain mukti ), the taking of food by omniscients (kevali- the facts about the different agamic topics but also bhukti ) etc. At the same time in Svetambara tradition critically examine the philosophical concepts. too, two commentaries on Tattvarthasutra, namely During this period a number of spiritualistic Tattvarthadhigamasutra and Tattvarthasutravarttika treatises appeared. Kundakunda added distinct idea to by Siddhasenagani (c. 7th ) and Haribhadra (c. 8th ) Jaina spirituality through his voluminous literature. respectively, were brought out. According to Digambaras, his period is supposed to The composition of independent works on be c. 1 st A. D., mainly based on the evidence of Jaina doctrine of Karma starts with c. 4th A. D. In Markara Abhilekha which has already been proved as Digambara tradition the independent works on Jaina fake inscription. According to new researches his pedoctrine of Karma composed during c. 4th-10th A. D. riod has been established as c. 6th A. D. (See - Asare Mahakarma-prakrti-prabhrta (Satakhandasastra ) pects of Jainology, Vol. III, ed. by Prof. M. A. Dhaky by Puspadanta Bhutabali (c. 4th A. D.), Kasayapra- & Prof. S. M. Jain, P. V., 1991, p. 8). He has contribbhrta by Gunadhara (c. 4th A. D.), Kasayaprabhrta uted a lot to the field of Jaina philosophy, by writing Curni by Yativisabha (c. 6th A. D.), Dhavala Tika his distinguished works as Samayasara, Pravacanaand Jayadhavala Tika by Virasena (c. 9th A. D.) and sara, Niyamasara etc. Gommatasara by Nemicandra Siddhantacakravarti 3. Works on Religious Practices and Ethics (c. 10th A. D. ). Similarly, in Svetambara tradition The literature related to Jaina religious pracKarmaprakrti by Sivasarmasuri (c. 5th A. D. ), tices may be divided into following five categories: Pracina-Satkarmagrantha, Sataka and Saptatika by (i) Hymns composed in the praise of Sivasarmasuri and Pancasangraha are the noted trea- Tirtharkaras. tises composed during this age. All these works (ii) Works related to the modes of worship, present detailed description of Jaina Philosophy in rituals and religious ceremonies general and Jaina doctrine of Karma in particular. (iii) Works concerned with religious preachHaribhadrasuri composed more than eighty ings. works on different aspects of Jaina philosophy and (iv) Works-composed on Jaina Sadhana and religion. He developed a Jaina system of Yoga on the Yoga. basis of Patanjali's Yoga and established some new (v) Works related to the Code of Conduct of concepts of Jaina Yoga. Haribhadra was a prolific Monks and Nuns as well as house-holders. writer who has written on every aspect of Jaina phi Under the first category Dvatrimsikas of losophy and religion. His Saddarsanasamuccaya and Siddhasena Divakara (c. 4th A. D.) hold an important Sastravartasamuccaya are two important works place. He has written 32 Dvatrimsikas out of which which describe comparatively the thoughts of other seven -- first five, 11th and 21st are composed in the

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D.) praise of different Tirtharkaras. Many of these Dva- works of this category. trimsikas, apart from praising the Tirthankaras, The third category of religious literature incritically examine the theories of other philosophical cludes the works such as Kundakunda's Astasystems. The next important work of this eulogical pahuda, Pajyapada Devanandi's Istopadesa and literature is Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra. It Dharmadasagani's Upadesamala composed in consists of 143 slokas written in praise of twenty-four Prakrta, Samskrta and Prakrta, respectively. However, Tirtharkaras. Kundukunda's Dasabhakti is also an the authorship of Upadesamala is a matter of dispute. important work dealing with ten-fold laksanas of Above mentioned both the works lucidly record the dharma. Another most popular and well-received preachings of religious doctrines. Haribhadra has also work, respected equally by both the sects -- contributed some works such as Upadesapada, Svetambara and Digambara, is Manatunga's Dharmabinduprakarana, Upadesaprakarana and Bhaktamarastotra (c. 6th A.D. ) composed in the Sambodhaprakarana to this theme. praise of first Tirtharkara Rsabhadeva. The fourth category related to Jaina sadhana The second category encompasses the work and Yoga, abounds in its literature. Prasamaratirelated to Jaina modes of worship and rituals. The prakarana by Umasvati (c. 3rd 4th A. D. ) may be first work of this category was Pujaprakarana by regarded as the first work of this category. Pujyapada Umasvati but unfortunately it is not available. Simi- Devanandi's Samadhitantra (c. 6th A. D. ) also belarly, in Digambara tradition some more treatises longs to the same category. On Jaina Yoga Harirelated to this theme viz. Arhatpratistha and Jina- bhadra contributed a lot by writing several books on bhiseka, both authored by Pujyapada Devanandi (c. Jaina yoga. Yogavimsika, Yogasataka, Yogabindu, 6th A. D. ), are also not available today. A few works Yogadrstisamuccaya and Dhyanasataka are some of on Jaina modes of worship were also composed but his important works on Jaina yoga. presently except some of Pancasakas and other works The fifth category comprises the works comby Haribhadra, none of these are available. Among posed on Jaina ethics and code of conduct for Jaina ninteen Pancasakas only following are related to this monks and nuns. It is the category to which several theme : works have been contributed by the Acaryas of both (i) Diksavidhi the sects - Svetambara and Digambara. In Svetambara (ii) Caityavandanavidhi tradition, apart from commentaries (Bhasyas and (iii) Pajavidhi Carnis ) written on Jaina Agamas on this very theme, (iv)Jinabhavana-nirmana-vidhi some independent works were also composed, parti(v) Pratistha-vidhi and cularly dealing with the ethical code of conduct of (vi) Jinayatra-vidhi. Jaina ascetics and lay-followers. Among these works, Haribhadra has discussed the subjects in his Umasvati's 'Sravakaprajnapti' may be regarded as the Sodasakas also. Some Sodasakas such as Pratistha - first, but unfortunately it is also not available. In vidhi, Pujaphala and Diksadhikara may be regarded Digambara tradition, Malacara and Bhagavatias related to this theme. Pancasakas are composed in Aradhana, are the important works elaborately dealPrakrta, while Sodasakas in Sanskrta. Haribhadra's ing with the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. Caityavandana alongwith its auto-commentary Caitya In my opinion, Mulacara and Bhagavativandana-bhasya and Pratisthakalpa are the noted Aradhana basically belong to Yapaniya tradition and

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12 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI not to Digambara. I have proved this on the basis of between c. 12th-14th A. D. multiple internal as well as external evidences in my In the first category Caupannamahapurusabook Jaina Dharma ka Yapaniya Sampradaya. In cariam of silankacarya (c. 9th A. D. ) depicts the life Digambara tradition Ratnakarandasravakacara of of 54 out of 63 Salakapurusas, leaving out 9 PratiSamantabhadra (c. 6th A. D.) is regarded as the first vasudevas, in Pruksta. Containing 10,800 verses, it work composed on the ethical code of conduct for deals with 19 characters out of 54, exhaustively, Jaina house-holders, however, its authorship is also a while the remaining characters have been described matter of dispute. In Svetambara tradition after only in few pages. It belongs to Svetambara tradition. 'Uvasagadasao', the seventh anga of Jaina canons, In Digambara tradition. Jinasena and his pupil Guna'Savayapannatti' by Haribhadra is the first available bhadra (c. 9th A. D.) also composed Mahapurana or work, dealing with the code of conduct for Jaina lay Trisasticaritra in Samskrta. It is divided in two parts - devotees. Some independent works dealing with the Adipurina and Uttarapurana, describing the life of 63 atonement (Prayascitta ) were also written in this great personalities of Jainism. On the same theme period among which Jinabhadra's Titakalpa' stands as Puspadanta also composed one of the greatest work the most important work. Later on, on the basis of of Apabhramsa language, namely TrisastimahapurusaJitakalpa, Indranandi's Chedapindasastra and Cheda gunalankaru (laterc. 10th A. D.). Puspadanta carries sastra by unknown writer were composed in Yapaniya to perfection the possibility of Apabhramsa as a tradition. Especiality of these two works lies in the vehicle of poetry. fact that they not only prescribe the laws of the atone Second type includes many Kathas, akhyanas ment for Jaina monks and nuns but for the male and and Caritas in Samskrta, Prakrta and Apabhramsa. It female lay-devotees also. deals mainly with the biographies of individual 4. Jaina Narrative Literature Tirthankaras and other celebrated personalities of Jaina narrative literature of this period is gene- their times. The first and foremost work of the correrally divided into five categories, viz. (i) biographies sponding period is certainly Paumacariya, of Vimalaof the 63 illustrious personalities (Salakapurusas ) suri (c. 2nd-Sth A.D.) of Naila or Nagila Kula, described together in one book, (ii) life-stories of which deals with the life-stories of Laksmana and these religious great personalities described indepen- Ravana. It is a pioneer work of Jainas on Ramakatha. dently in a work, (iii) religious tales in romantic It has considerable impact on one work of Ravisena's form, (iv) semi-historical prabandhas and (v) com- Padmacarita (c. 7th A. D.) in Samskrta and Svayapilation of stories in the form of kathakosas. mbhu's Paumacariu ( c. 8th A. D.) in However, main objective of the narratives Apabhramsa. There is also another version of Jaina was religious exhortation meant for the masses. It Ramakatha represented by Gunabhadra ( 898 A. D.) may be noted that most of the literature of this form, in Uttarapurana and followed by some other excluding canonical texts belong to this period, i.e.,c. Digambara writers of (c. 10th A. D. ). Some other 3rd-10th A. D. Though some prominent works of the works of this category are Parsvabhyudaya by Jinanarrative literature such as Trisastisalakapurusa of sena (c. 9th A. D.), Harivamsapurana by other Hemacandra, semi-historical prabandhas -- Jinasena (c. 9th A.D.). Vardhamanacarita by Asaga, Prabhavakacarita, Prabandha-cintamani, akhyanaka- Neminirvanamahakavya by Vagbhatta, Candramanikosa, Prabandhakusa, etc., have been composed prabhacarita by Virasena and some Kannada works

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ] such as Adipurana by Pumpa and Santipurana by Ponna (c. 10th A. D. ) may also be included in this category. It is also to be noted that stories of Rama and Krsna are well recognised in Jaina tradition and Jaina writers composed so many independent works on the life of these two great personalities, accordingly. The third typs marks an interesting phase in Indian literature, in which religious tales are presented in a romantic form. The Tarangalola of Padaliptasuri in Prakrta is lost but its epitome in Samskrta Tarangavati indicates that it might have possessed engrossing literary qualities. Then there is the Vasudevahindi of Sanghadasagani (c. 6th A. D.). Vasudevahindi is probably the Maharastri version of Gunadhya's famous Brhatkatha, written in Satavahana period. Vasudeva, the father of the Krsna, the romantic hero of this novel, evidently remind us of Naravahanadatta, the Hero of Gunadhya. Next there is Samaraiccakaha of Haribhadra in Prakrta described by author as religious story, i. e., Dharmakatha. The fortune of the hero Samaraditya is traced through his 9 previous births. The underlying principle of these narratives is the doctrine of Karma. Haribhadra's Dhurtakhyana in Prakrta is also one of the important works of Jaina literature. It shows through this imaginary tale how skilfully the incredible legends of Hindu Mythology could be ridiculed. Next, Kuvalayamala (Maharastri Prakrta) by Svetambara acarya Udyotanasuri, composed in 799 A. D. shows author's thorough acquaintance with works of previous writers by referring to them. He has beautifully described the corrupt city life. Upamitibhavaprapancakatha is composed in Samskrta in 906 A. D. by Siddharsi. The work of Siddharsi is an elaborate and extensive allegory. It is a narrative consisting of series of birth stories, i. e., the hero of all the stories is the same person in different births. Acarya proposes to explain the mundane carrier of the soul (Jiva) under the name of samsari jiva from the lowest stage of 13 existence to the final liberation. The conversion of the cruel king Marudatta to Jainism is the theme of this work. No literature representing the fourth type, i. e., semi-historical prabandhas has been written in corresponding period. All these prabandhas are written after c. 12th A. D. The last type is represented by the compilation of stories or Kathakosas. The stories contained in these works have got a definite moral purpose to be propogated and as such teachers and preachers could use them independently without any specific context, throughout there discourses. Many of the Kathakosas are of anonymous composition. The well known work of this type is Dharmopadesamala of Jaisimhasuri ( 867 A. D.) composed in Prakrta. The work has auto-commentary and has 156 stories. Brhatkathakosa, composed in 931 A. D. by Harisena, is also one of the important works of Yapaniya tradition of Jainism. It is very informative Jaina text of early medieval period. 5. The Secular Literature of Jainas As defined, being a realistic system with a high spiritualistic bias, the basic texts of Jainism deal with the phenomena of the spiritual kingdom as well as physical universe. Jaina Acaryas introduced various learnings aiming at the developement of personalities and character, preservation of its cultural heritage, shoulder the responsibilities of the ascetic and house-holders in society and performance of religious duties. These aims are achieved by learning such subjects as could strike the balance between the spiritual as well as worldly life. The earlier Jaina canons mention different subjects dealing with worldly phenomena. Sutrakrtanga, Bhagavati, Samavayanga, Nandisutra, Prajnapana, Jambudvipaprajnapti, Candra and Suryaprajnapti describe various aspects of biology, grammar, chanda, nirukta, jyotisa, geography, astronomy

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14 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI etc., but in Agamas these different subjects are inter- Ksetravicara is not available today. Jivasamasa and mingled. Realising necessities of some independent Jivavicara as well as Tandulavaicarika are the works works regarding worldly phenomena, Jaina acaryas dealing with Jaina Biology. Pujyapada Devanandi (c. composed some secular literature dealing with the 6th A. D. ) had composed a treatise named Vaidyakaphysical phenomena. sastra dealing with Ayurvedic medicines, but this As the result, by the beginning of c. 3rd A. D. work is also not available. Jyotisakarandaka is a several independent works were composed on vari Prakirnaka which deals with Jaina Astrology. In the ous subjects such as - Astronomy, Astrology, field of grammar, Jainendra Vyakarana or EndravyaGeography, Mathematics, Biology, Arts and Archi- karana of Indranandi (c. 6th A. D. ), Sakatayana tecture, Linguistic and Medicinal discipline, i. e. Vyakarana alongwith its auto-commentary, AmoghaAyurveda, etc. It would be in the fitness of the things vitti of Palyakirti Sakatayana (c. 9th A. D. ) and to record some of the details about such works, viz. Svayambhu Vyakarana of Tribhuvana Svayambhu Lokavibhaga of Sarvanandi ( c. 6th A. D.) and (c. 8th A. D.) are regarded as important works of this Tiloyapannatti of Yati-vrsabha composed in Prakrta, category. are two important works on Astronomy and Geogra The literary evolution of Jainas, particularly phy. Some more works like Umasvati's Jambu- in Praksta, which took place during c. 5th B.C.-10th dvipasamasa and Ksetravicara (c. 3rd A. D. ) and A. D. shows that the Jaina acaryas were versatile geBshatksetrasamasa of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana nius. They composed various treatises on different (c. 7th A. D. ) also dealt with Geography and some subjects but mainly on philosophical and religious aspects of Jaina cosmology. Among these works, topics.