Jaina Literature From Eearliest Time To C 10th AD

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Z_Jaina_Literature_and_Philosophy_a_Critical_Approach_001936_HR.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269736/1

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. J
Jaina Literature of Early Period
Ancient Indian Literature was composed mainly in three languages, i.e., Samskṛta, Pāli and Prakṛta. Out of these three Pali is nothing but a shade of Prakṛta language. As a literary language, Prakṛta, being a group of various local dialects as Mägadhi, Pali, Paisaci. Sauraseni, Mahārāştri, was never developed as a single language but as a group of languages. Various types of Apabhramśa were also developed from Prākṛta. Its various shades developed according to their different places and time. If we consider these three main languages from religious point of view, all the Vedic religious literature is found in Samskṛta while the Jaina canonical and Buddhist literature is in Prakṛta and Pali, respectively. So far as the Jaina religious literature of early period is concerned, it was mainly written in Präkṛta known as Prākṛta canons. Jainas started writing from c. 3rd-4th A. D. in Samskṛta but notably these Samskṛta works are based on Prakṛta works whether as an independent or in the form of commentaries.
the canonical literature belongs to this period, though their final editing and writing on palm-leaves belong to c. 5th A. D. Among Śvetämbara canons, except the Nandisūtra and the later edition of Praśnavyākaraṇa, most works were composed before the c. 3rd A. D. No doubt, some interpolations and changes did take place therein at the time of Valabhi Council yet they are clearly traceable. It would be a great mistake if on account of these interpolations and changes the whole of the Agamas are regarded as posterior. Although most of the works of this period contain the religious preachings with some popular parables and stories as well as religious code of conduct, certain works deal with Jaina cosmology, metaphysics, Karma philosophy and theory of knowledge also. The list of canonical literature is, for the first time, found in Nandisūtra (c. 5th A. D. ). If we accept Nandisutra as a work of c. 5th A. D., all the works referred to ir Nandisutra belong to a date prior to it. But they all were not composed in a single spur of moment. All the canonical works, it seems are composed in during c. 5th B. C. to c. 4th-5th A. D., i.e., within one thousand years. The works mentioned in the Nandisutra are the following:
So far as the Jaina literature (of early period) prior to c. 3rd A. D. is concerned, barring few of the early philosophical and literary treatises, it is mainly confined to the canonical literature only. Majority of

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2
Angapravista
1. Acărănga
2.
3.
Sūtrakṛtänga
Sthānanga
4.
Samavāyānga
5. Vyakhyāprajñapti
6. Jñātādharmakatha
7. Upāsakadaśānga
8. Antakṛddaśānga
9.
Anuttaraupapatikadaśānga
10. Praśnavyakaraṇa 11. Vipäkasūtra 12. Dṛṣṭivada
Agama

Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
Avasyaka
1. Sāmāyika
2. Caturvimśatistava
3. Vandana
4. Pratikramana
5. Kayotsarga
6. Pratyakhyāna
Angabahya
Kalika
Uttaradhyayana
Daśāśrutaskandha
Kalpa
Vyavahāra
Niśitha
Mahāniśitha
Rṣibhāṣita
Other than Avasyaka
Jambudvipaprajñapti Dvipasagaraprajapti
Candraprajñapti
Kṣullikavimānapravibhakti
Mohallika Vimänapravibhakti
Angaculika
Vaggaculika
Vivāhaculikā
Aruṇopapāta
Varunopapata
Garuṇopapāta
Dharaṇopapāta
Vaiśramaṇopapāta
Velandharopapäta
Devendropapāta
Utthanaśruta
Samutthānaśruta
Nāgaparijñāpanikā
Narakāvalikā
Kalpikā
Kalpavatāmsikā
Puspita
Puspacülika Vṛṣṇidaśā

Utkalika
Daśavaikālika
Kalpikakalpika
Cullakalpaśruta
Mahakalpaśruta
Aupapatika
Rajapraśniya
Jivabhigama
Prajñāpanā
Mahāprajñāpanā
Pramādāpramāda
Nandisūtra
Anuyogadvāra
Devendrastava
Tandulavaicārika
Candravedhyaka
Suryaprajñapti
Pauruşimandala
Mandalapravesa
Vidyacarana Viniścaya
Gaṇividya
Dhyanavibhakti
Maranavibhakti
Atmaviśodhi
Vitarăgadruta
Samlekhanāśruta
Viharakalpa
Caraṇavidhi Aturpratyākhyāna Mahāpratyäkhyāna

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Jaina Literature
From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
anim tvorio o
Unfortunately, all the above mentioned intact. We find that earlier subject-matter of works are not available, today. Some of them are lost. Praśnavyakarana has been completely changed. Out of twelve Anga Āgamas, the 7th chapter of Similarly, partial changes as well as some additions Ācāranga (Mahāparijña ) and the major portion of are also noted in the subject matter of natadharmaDrstivāda are said to be extinct. So far as the subject- kathā, Antakyddaśārga, Anuttraupapatika and Vipakamatter of 7th chapter of Acăränga is concerned, in sūtra. Among the secondary canons (Anga-bahya my opinion, it was mainly related to the Jinakalpa orāgamas ) following works, known as Kalika and strict code of conduct of naked monks. When the Utkālika, respectively were also lost in due course of followers of this strict code of conduct disappeared time. The details of such canons are as under: gradually, no serious efforts were made to restore it
Kalikasūtra not available presently — and finally it got lost. Likewise, the twelfth Anga
1. Ksullikāvimānapravibhakti Drstivāda, said to be containing five parts ( i ) Pari
Mahallikavimănapravibhakti karma, (ii) Sutra, (iii) Pūrvagata, (iv) Anuyoga
Angacūlikā and (v) Calika, seems to have dealt mainly with the
4. Vaggaculikā philosophical doctrines of other schools of thought
5. Vivāhaculikā including the Pārsva tradition. Purvagata, the third
Aruņotapāda part of Drstivāda, exclusively, dealt with the doctrines
Varuņotapada of Pārsva tradition, later on accepted as the doctrines
Garuņotapāda of Mahavira. All these works were preserved only
9. Dharanotapada through oral tradition, because, Jaina monks and nuns
10. Vaiśramanotapada were strictly prohobited to write on palm-leaves,
11. Velandarotapada those days. That study and preservation of the Jaina
12. Devendrotapāda literature, written on palm-leaves were prohibited due
13. Utthānaśruta to the strict observance of non-violence. They were of
14. Samutthānaśruta the opinion that in the process of writing, studying
15. Nāgaprajñaptipanikā. and preserving the palm-leaf works, the injury to the Jivas was inevitable. That is why, they made no
Utkalikasūtra not available presently efforts to restore them in written form. This was the
1. Kalpikākalpika reason behind the loss of Drstivāda as well as some
2. Culakalpika other agamas. In my opinion, Drstivāda, in particular,
3. Mahāprajñāpanā became extinct, because of following factors
4. Pramādāpramada firstly, its contents were not fully in accordance with
5. Paurușimandala Mahavira's tradition and were mostly related with
6. Mandala Pravesa philosophical discussions of other traditions and
7. Vidyācaraņa Viniscaya schools, hence unable to arouse interest in Jaina
8. Dhyānavibhakti monks. Secondly, the concepts, accepted by 9. Vitarăga Śruta Mahavira's tradition, were included in other Āgamic
10. Vihārakalpa texts also, hence Jaina monks did not make any effort
11. Cāranavidhi. to preserve the Purva literature. Thirdly, due to the
About the subject matter of these Kalika and oral tradition, other Anga agamas could not remain Utkālikasūtras, not extant today, it is very difficult to

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
comment upon. Their subject-matter can be inferred order of the Jaina canonical literature is Isibhāsiyāim on the basis of their titles only. One Angasūtra, i. e., (Rşibhāṣitam ). All the scholars of Präkrta and JainoDrstivāda, 15 Kalikasūtra and 11 Utkālikasūtras, logy : Western and Indian, consider it of c. 4th-3rd B. thus, the number of extinct or not available texts, C. It marks the catholicity of early Jaina thinkers. It comes to be 27, in total. Except these 27, all the 51 contains the ethical preachings as well as philosophitexts are available. At present six Āvaśyakas being cal views of forty-five thinkers. Out of these Nārada, counted as one, the number finally becomes 46. It is Asitadevala, Angirasa, Pārāśara, Aruņs, Nārāyana, not possible here to deliberate on the corresponding Yājñavalkya, Uddālaka, Vidura etc. definitely belong authorship, date and subject-matter of each and every to Upanisadic tradition. Similarly, Sāriputta, Vajjitext of this list in this article, so I shall discuss, in putta, Mahākāśyapa etc. belong to Buddhist tradition short, only few important works in their chronologi- while Pārsva and Vardhamana belong to the Jaina cal order.
tradition. A few others are of other independent Primary Canons ( Angas )
Sramanic tradition, not extant today. This work Acārānga is considered as the oldest of all the
shows that in the early period the Upanișadic and works of the early period. According to the scholars,
other Sramanic traditions were tolerant as well as the first part of Ācārānga belongs to the c. Sth-4th B.
respectful to each other. C. This part contains the original preachings of Lord
Uttarādhyayana and Daśavaikälika are other Mahāvira. It deals with the spiritual preachings important works of this early phase. Uttarādhyayana alongwith the basic principles of non-violence and contains thirty-six chapters, mainly dealing with the ethical code of conduct, prescribed for Jania monks religious preachings as well as some metaphysical and nuns. Its last chapter depicts a real picture of the doctrines of Jainism. Some chapters of this text are ascetic life of Lord Mahavira. The 7th chapter of the regarded as the later additions by the scholars but in first part is supposed to be lost after the composition no way they are later than the c. 2nd or 1st B. C. The of its Niryukti, i.e., c. 2nd-3rd A. D. The second part next work Daśavaikālika, composed by Arya of Acārānga is known as Ayāracula - an appendix. Sayyambhava (c. 5th-4th B. C.) mainly deals with It mainly deals with the detailed rules and regulations the ethical code of conduct of Jania monks and nuns or the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns alongwith the spiritual discourses and preachings. alongwith some of the events of the life of Mahāvira. However, we can not deny the possibility of the Modern scholars opine that the second part of interpolations to the some extent in its final editing. Ācārānga was composed during the c. 2nd-1st B. C.
The other works dealing with the ethical code Another improtant canonical work of this era is of conduct are Niśitha, Daśāśrutaskandha (AyāraSūtrakrtānga dating c. 4th-3rd B. C. This work is also daśā ), Vyavahāra and Kalpa, all composed by Arya full of spiritual and moral preachings but its Bhadrabāhu inc. 3rd B. C. These works, not only deal peculiarity lies in the presentaion of different philoso- with the code of conduct but with transgressions and phical views prevalent in that particular era. Like atonements also. Ācārānga, it also comprises two parts ( Śruta
Against general belief, that all the Angas are skandhas). Scholars are of the opinion that the second composed by the Ganadharas, direct disciples of Lord part of Satrakrtänga is some what posterior to the first. Mahāvira, some opine that except Ācārānga and
The third important work in chronological Sūtrakrtānga, all the Argas are composed later on. In

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
my opinion, it is very difficult to assign any particular date or authorship to these extant works because of containing different levels of the development of Jaina thought, occurred through different ages.
After Acārārga and Sutrakrtānga, next two Angas in successive order are Sthānānga and Samavāyānga. They may be considered as encyclopaedia of early Jaina thoughts and beliefs, mainly based on the numbers more or less similar to Anguttaranikaya of Buddhist tradition. Both these works provide more information about the Jaina order and development of Jaina thoughts of the later period, i.e., c. 3rd-4th A.D. The next in the list is Bhagavati (Vyakhyāprajñapti ) mainly dealing with different aspects of Jaina philosophy. According to a group of scholars, this voluminous work, was composed at different phases and not at one time. Evidently, it has references to the later works like Prajñāpanā, Anuyogadvāra, etc. be- longing to c. 1st-4th A. D. and side by side, depicts various earlier original concepts, witnessing change in the process of development of Jaina thoughts. The next work of early period is Jñatādharmakathā. Second part of this work is considerably later than the first. The first contains mainly stories preached by Lord Mahāvira to his disciples. Its 19 chapters, refer- red to in Avasyaka-sūtra, are undoubtedly, com- posed in the early period. The next among Anga canons is Upāsakadaśānga, considered as the first work related to the code of conduct of lay devotees (Śrāvakas ). It comprises life-sketches of ten promi- nent lay followers of Lord Mahāvira. Not having any trace of any later work, it belongs to the early period. Antakyddaśanga deals with the life-stories and ascetic life of the persons, attaining their salvation in the last span of their life. According to Sthānānga, it has only ten chapters dealing with life-stories of 10 persons. But present volume contains life-stories of 93 persons. It clearly shows that not at the time of Valabhi Vācană alone but even after that some additional matters
were incorporated in Sthānāriga. Same is the case with Anuttaropapātikadaśānga. Its early edition contained life-stories of only ten persons who attained Sarvārthasiddhi Vimāna and were supposed to attain liberation in their next births. Of Jaina canon Praśnavyākaranadaśā, unfortunately, the earlier contents are totally extinct. It seems that the present subject matter of this work was incorporated in aroundc. 7th A.D. Its extant edition deals with five asravas, viz., violence, untruthfulness, theft, unchastity and possessiveness alongwith five samvaras, viz., truthfulness, nonstealing, chastity and non-possession. Last available work of Anga canon is Vipākadaśā, dealing with fruits of merit and demerits. Secondary Canons (Upānga )
The first work of the secondary canons is Aupapātika, dealing with the episode of Suryabhadeva. It also depicts a beautiful picture of ancient art and architecture. On the basis of this depiction, scholars date this work not earlier thanc. 1st-2nd A.D. The next work of this category is Rājapraśniya which, so far its subject matter is concerned, is more similar to the Buddhist Pāli canon - Paseniyasutta. The third and the fourth, Jivabhigama and Prajnapanā, respectively, deal with the Jaina metaphysics in general and the concepts of jiva and ajiva in particular. The authorship of Prajñāpanā is attributed to Arya śyāma (c. 1st A.D.). Out of these twelve secondary canonical works only Prajñāpanā's authorship is known. About the authorship of other works, we are still in dark. The fifth one is Jambūdvipaprajñapti, mainly dealing with Jaina Geography in addition to the lifehistory of Rşabhadeva. The subject matter of next two works, Sūryaprajñapti and Candraprajñapti are related with Jaina cosmology in general and Jaina astronomy in particular. Scholars date thesec. 2nd-1st B.C. Other five works of this bunch are very short and rather of less important.
Besides Anga & Upānga canonical literature,

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
Candrakavedhyaka, Tandulavaicārika, Āturpratya
1. Āvaśyakaniryukti, khyāna, Mahāpratyākhyāna, Maranavibhakti, mainly
2. Daśavaikalikaniryukti, concerned with the Jaina Sādhanā, are known as
3. Uttarādhyayananiryukti, Prakirņakas, in general and Samadhimarana in
4. Ācārānganiryukti, particular. All these works are, undoubtedly earlier to
5. Sutrakītānganiryukti, the c. 4th-5th A.D.
6. Daśāśrutaskandhaniryukti, Among the non-canonical works of this
7. Kalpaniryukti and period, very few in number are extant, namely
8. Vyavahāraniryukti. Tattvārtha-sūtra and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd 4th
Apart from these, two more Niryuktis -Ogha A. D. ), Paumacariya of Vimalasuri (c. 2nd-5th and Pinda are also available, but considered to be the A. D.) and Digambar works composed in Sauraseni part ofĀvasyakaniryukti and Daśavaikalikaniryukti, Prakrta like Kasayapahuda of Gunadhara (c. 4th A. respectively, hence, not independent works. We also D. ) and Satkhandāgama of Puşpadanta Bhūtabali have a mention of two more Niryuktis on Sürya(about c. 5th A. D.). Apart from these, the works of prajñapti and Rşibhāṣita, but they are extinct now. Kundakunda, Samantabhadra and Siddhasena
To conclude, we can say that more than Divakara may also be considered as the works of
hundred works could be considered to belong to this early period. Scholars differ on the exact date of com
early period but about thirty of them are now extinct. position of these works, except that of Tattvārthasūtra. They date these in between c. 2nd-5th A. D.
Jaina Literature of this period
The evolution and changes occurred in Jaina Among non-canonical literature, the first
thought and practice duringc. 3rd-10th A. D. is traceNiryuktis, ten in number, are of great importance.
able through its literature. For literature is the mirror These ( Niryuktis ) mainly explain the meaning of
of the cultural development of any society. The prime Jaina technical terms from the various stand-points
period of the composition of literary works of Jainism alongwith the brief account of the subject matter of
corresponds to c. 3rd-10th A. D. Almost all the imthat particular Āgama. Scholars widely differ about
portant works of Jainism were finally composed and the time and authorship of Niryuktis except that of
edited in this period. The literature, which emerged in Govindaniryukti. Some are of the opinion that these
this period, may be divided into five categories : Niryuktis are composed by Bhadrabāhu-I (c. 3rd B.
1. Āgamas and their commentaries. C.) while others consider these to be composed by Bhadrabahu-II, the brother of Varahamihira (c. 6th
2. Philosophical works. A. D. ). But in my humble opinion, as external and
3. Works related to the Jaina religious pracinternal evidences show it was neither of Bhadra- the bāhu-I or of Bhadrabāhu-II. But, Aryabhadra of c.
4. Jaina epics and other narrative literature. 2nd-3rd A. D., in all probability, was the author of
5. Secular Literature of Jainas. these Niryuktis. I have given various reasons in 1. Agamas and their Commentaries support of this view in my independent article . As I have already mentioned that except published in Sagara Jaina Vidyābhārati (Pārsvanātha Nandisutra and present edition of Praśnavyākarana, Vidyāpitha, Varanasi, 1994). Presently, we have most of the Agamas were composed before c. 3rd A. only the following Niryuktis :
D. but their final editing had been done only in the

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
c. 5th A. D. At the time of this final editing, interpola
Among Bhāșya, Viseşāvaśyakabhäşya is the tion of many later developed philosophical concepts most important. It is the first work of Svetāmbara traand informations regarding the Jaina order creaped dition, dealing with the problems of Jaina philosophy into these. The Nandisūtra, the āgamic work compo- with minute details. The concept of five-fold knowsed during this period, deals with the Jaina theory of ledge has been discussed elaborately with a critical five-fold knowledge as well as contains its later de- approach herein. Among various proofs given for the velopments which took place ine. 4th-5th A. D. Simi- existence of soul, one bears similarity to that of Rene larly, the drastic changes in the original subject- Descartes (c. 16th A. D. ), a Western philosopher, matter of Praśnavyākarana and partial changes in proving the existence of soul through doubt itself. In Antakņddaśa and Anuttaraupapātikadaśa also oc- Viseşāvasyakabhāşya, various contrary views of curred during this period. Almost all the Prākta and Jaina ācāryas are mentioned and reviewed alongwith some of the early Samskrta commentaries on the the views of some rebellious Jaina thinkers, i.e., Jaina Āgamas were written in this period, in form of Nihnavas. It also deals with the differences of Niryuktis (c. 3rd-4th A. D. ),Bhāsyas (c. 6th A.D.) Svetāmbara and Digambara traditions regarding the and Cūrņis (c. 7th A. D.). This period is of great successiveness and simultaneity of Kevalajñana and literary importance because majority of the Āgamic Kevaladarśana as well as the problem of nacked-ness works were finally edited and some of them were of the monk with full details. Other Bhāşyas mainly even composed also in this period.
deal with the ethical code of conduct of ascetics with
their exceptions and the conditions in which these Besides these Niryuktis, Oghaniryukti and
exceptions could be followed alongwith their atonePindaniryukti are also available but Oghaniryukti is
ments, The Bhāşyas, dealing with the code of conduct considered as the part of Āvaśyakaniryukti and
of monks are-Daśavaikālikabhāsya, UttaradhyayanaPindaniryukti as the part of Daśavaikālikaniryukti,
bhāsya, Byhatkalpabhāsya, Vyavahārabhāsya, Niśithahence they are not independent works. Though,
bhāsya and Jitakalpabhāsya. Some of the Bhaşyas Niryuktis on Suryaprajñapti andĶşibhāșita are refer
also contain some informations of historical imporred to in Āvaśyakaniryukti (Verse 85 ) but at present
tance. As the authors of the Bhāsya, we have only two these two are not available. The Niśíthaniryukti, con
names : Jinabhadragani and Sanghadasagasi. Jinasidered to be the part of Ācāranganiryukti is mixed
bhadragani is the author of Viseșāvaśyakabhășya with its Bhāsya. All these Niryuktis are written in
while Sanghadāsagani is the author of Brhatkalpa, Prakrta verses and deal very precisely with the con
Vyavahära and Niśithabhāsyā. Of these two Sanghatents of the respective Āgamas.
dāsagani is supposed to be senior to Jinabhadra, beAfter Niryukti, Bhāsyas onāgamic texts were cause Jinabhadra, in his work Viseșanavati has refercomposed in c. 5th-6th A. D. The Bhasyas are more red the Vasudevahindi, a work authored by Sanghaexhaustive and elaborate than those of Niryuktis. dāsagani. The period of Jinabhadra, is undoubtedly, They were also composed in Prāksta verses. Bhāsyas the latter half of the c. 6th A. D. As Sanghadāsagani are quite prolific in their contents referring to various was senior to Jinabhadragani, it leaves no room for concepts of Jaina philosophy and the code of the con- doubt that he must have flourished in second half of duct for monks and nuns with their exceptions and the c. 6th A.D. All these bhāsyas are of considerable punishments.
length, composed in Prāksta verses and deal with

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
their subjects exhaustively. We find a rich cultural vittikära. Santisūri has written a commentary on data and some informations about the cultural history Uttarādhyayanasūtra. Both of these later Samskrta of India in the Bhāsyas.
commentators flourished, during c. 10th-11th A. D. Next, the Cūrnis, unlike the Niryuktis and This trend of commentary-writing is still current in Bhāşyas are written in prose. Niryuktis and Bhāşyas Svetāmbara tradition. are written in Prāksta only, while the Cūrnis in
In Digambara tradition, Kasāyapāhudasutta Prākta mixed with Samskrta. Among Cūrņis — and Satkhandāgama are considered as equivalent to Āvasyaka, Daśavaikālika, Uttarādhyayana, Sūtra- agamas. These works are written in c. 4th-5th A. D. krtānga, Anuyogadvāra, Nandi and Nisitha, are the On Kaşāyapāhudasutta first commentary was written most important.
by Yativrşabha in the form ofCūrni-sutras inc. 6th A. All these Cūrnis were written by Jinadāsa- D. After that inc. 9th A. D. Virasena wrote two comgani Mahattara. In Nandicūrni it is clearly mentioned mentaries Jayadhavala and Dhavala on Kaşāyathat this work was completed in Saka Samvat 598 pāhuda and Șatkhandāgama, respectively. Mahacorresponding to 676 A. D. It is, therefore, concluded dhavalā is a commentary on the one part of that most of the important Cūrnis were written in c. Satkhandāgama, written by his disciple Jinasena. 7th A. D. Some Cūrnis viz., Daśavaikālika of These commentaries mainly deal with Jaina philosoAgastyasimha and Cūrņisūtras on Kasāyapāhuda- phy in general and Karma theory in particular. sutta are the earlier among the Cūrņi literature.
2. Important Philosophical Works of this period Among whole of the commentary literature
Among the Jaina philosophical works comCürmis hold an important place because first, they posed between c. 3rd-10th A.D., the Tattvärthasūtra, deal with the various subjects and are directly concer- with its auto-commentary by Umāsvāti, is the pioneer ned with social and cultural heritage of Jainism. Sec
one and may be considered as the first systematic ondly, they supply so many informations about the work on Jaina philosophy. Composed in c. 3rd A. D., Jaina History pertaining c. 1st-6th A. D.
it also has the credit of being the first Samskrta work Cūrnis were succeeded by Samskrta com- of Jaina literature, written in the style of other mentaries, written on different Āgamic texts, known Sūtragranthas of Indian philosophy. The especiality as Vittis or Vivaranas. Among Samskrta commenta- of this work is that it is equally respected as well as tors Haribhadrasuri is the earliest, flourished in the accepted by both the sects of Jainism — Svetāmbara middle of the c. 8th A. D. He wrote commentaries on and Digambara. It encompasses ten chapters dealing Avaśyaka, Daśavaikalika, Jivabhigama, Prajñāpanā, with Jaina metaphysics, epistemology and ethics. Its Nandi, Anuyogadvāra and Pindaniryukti. Silanka- first chapter deals mainly with Jaina theory of knowlcārya, flourished in the c. 9th A. D. believed to have edge, Naya and Niksepa, second with Jiva ( living written several commentaries on Agamas but unfor- substance ), third and fourth with hells and heavens, tunately at present only two commentaries on fifth with Jaina metaphysics, sixth to ninth chapters Acāranga and Satrakrtānga, are available. After with Jaina doctrine of Karma and Jaina sādhanā or Silānka, Abhayadevasüri and Santisūri are the promi- ethical code of conduct of house-holders and monks, nent names among commentators. Abhayadevasűri respectively. Finally, the tenth one deals with the has commented on nine of eleven Angas except concept of liberation (mokşa). Notably, the concept Ācārānga and Sūtrakrtānga, hence called Navāngi- of Gunasthāna and Saptabhanginaya ( Seven-fold

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Jaina Literature (From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
judgement ) are totally absent in it. This shows that these concepts came into existence later duringc. 5th- 6th A.D.
After Tattvārthasūtra, Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara's Sanmatitarka is the next critical and important work, composed in c. 4th A. D. in Prakrta verses. It explains critically the concept of dravya (substance ), guna (properties ), paryāya (modes) and their mutual relationship on the basis of the Jaina theory of Naya, Niksepa and Anekāntavāda (nonabsolutism ). It is the first work in which one-sided views of other philosophers are critically examined to establish Jaina theory of Anekāntavāda. Some of the Dvātrimsaka-dvatrimsikäs, of the same author, also, critically examine the philosophical views of other Indian schools under the pretext of praising the Jina. Even if the refutation of the philosophical views of other schools of Indian philosophy is found in the canonical works also, they are neither critical nor systematic in their approach. Siddhasena for the first time. critically examined the views of other Indian philosophies, showing their logical inconsistencies. So far as the works on Jaina epistemology are concer- ned, Nyāyāvatāra of Siddhasena may be considered the first work on Jaina logic. This work provides the
gic. This work provides the base to understand the later gradual developments in Jaina logic, particularly the contribution of Akalanka and Vidyānandi in this regard.
Anekāntavāda. Aptamimāmsā is an important work which establishes the concepts of Jainism after a critical evaluation of those of the other schools of Indian philosophy.
Another important work of this age is Dvādaśāranayacakra, authored by Mallavādi inc. 5th A. D., aiming to establish Jaina theory of Anekantavāda by pointing out inconsistencies in the thoughts of other schools of Indian philosophy. The style of this work is somewhat different from that of Sanmatitarka and Aptamimāṁsā, as these two later works are composed in verses and deal with their subiect-matter in a precise manner. Nayacakra is composed in prose and deals with its subject-matter exhaustively. The distinguishing feature of Dvadaśāranayacakra is that it critically examines the views of one philosophical school through the arguments of its opponent. In this way it makes a circle (cakra ) in which the last school of thought is refuted or critically examined by the first one. On the basis of these three important works, this age is known as "The Age of Critical Presentation of Anekantavāda". Besides 'Anekantajayapatākā' and 'Anekantavādapraveśa' of Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D. ) also deal with the same subject matter, but in a different manner. Višeşavasyakabhāşya, of Jinabhadragani Kşamāśramana, is one of the important work of this age. In Svetāmbara tradition it is the first work which deals with various problems of Jaina philosophy in detail and with minute observation. In Digambara Tradition also the Tattvārthasūtra is considered as the first systematic work on Jaina philosophy. The oldest available commentary on Tattvārthasūtra in Digambara tradition is Pajyapāda Deva-nandi's Sarvārthasiddhi which is next to Svopajña-bhāsya ( autocommentary of Umāsvāti). It is composed in the first half of c. 6th A. D.
During c. 8th A. D. two more commentaries were produced namely Akalanka's Tattvārtha vārttika
Among the writers of the Digambara sect, who wrote independent philosophical treatises, Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D.) occupies an important place. His Aptamimāṁsā is a noted scholarly presentation. It immitates Sanmatitarka of Siddhasena, in style but differs in language. Sanmatitarka is in Prakrta verses, while Aptamimāṁsā is in Samsksta verses. It also critically evaluates the one-sided views of other philosophies. These two works namely, Sanmatitarka and Aptamimāṁsā, may be considered as the prime works for the exposition of Jaina theory of

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
and Vidyānandi's ślokavārttika which are of great systems of Indian philosophy. In Šāstravārtaimportance. Both of these works not only propound samuccaya, he has paid more respect and veneration the Jaina philosophy but also critically evaluate and to the other schools of thought. It was Haribhadra estimate the other philosophical systems. Like other who for the first time started the cult of commentary works, these commentaries also discuss the points of writing in Samskrta which was developed by Silānka dispute between śvetāmbara and Digambara sects, (c. 9th A. D. ) and Abhayadevasūri ( latter part ofc. such as the concept of women's liberation (stri- 11th A. D. ). These commentaries not only explain mukti ), the taking of food by omniscients (kevali- the facts about the different āgamic topics but also bhukti ) etc. At the same time in Svetāmbara tradition critically examine the philosophical concepts. too, two commentaries on Tattvārthasūtra, namely
During this period a number of spiritualistic Tattvārthadhigamasutra and Tattvārthasūtravārttika treatises appeared. Kundakunda added distinct idea to by Siddhasenagani (c. 7th ) and Haribhadra (c. 8th )
Jaina spirituality through his voluminous literature. respectively, were brought out.
According to Digambaras, his period is supposed to The composition of independent works on be c. 1 st A. D., mainly based on the evidence of Jaina doctrine of Karma starts with c. 4th A. D. In Markara Abhilekha which has already been proved as Digambara tradition the independent works on Jaina fake inscription. According to new researches his pedoctrine of Karma composed during c. 4th-10th A. D. riod has been established as c. 6th A. D. (See - Asare Mahākarma-prakrti-prabhrta (Satakhandaśāstra ) pects of Jainology, Vol. III, ed. by Prof. M. A. Dhaky by Puşpadanta Bhūtabali (c. 4th A. D.), Kaşāyaprā- & Prof. S. M. Jain, P. V., 1991, p. 8). He has contribbhrta by Gunadhara (c. 4th A. D.), Kaşāyaprābhrta uted a lot to the field of Jaina philosophy, by writing Curņi by Yativịşabha (c. 6th A. D.), Dhavala Țikā his distinguished works as Samayasāra, Pravacanaand Jayadhavala Țikā by Virasena (c. 9th A. D.) and sāra, Niyamasāra etc. Gommatasāra by Nemicandra Siddhāntacakravarti 3. Works on Religious Practices and Ethics (c. 10th A. D. ). Similarly, in Svetāmbara tradition
The literature related to Jaina religious pracKarmaprakrti by Sivaśarmasūri (c. 5th A. D. ), tices may be divided into following five categories: Prăcina-Satkarmagrantha, Sataka and Saptatika by
(i) Hymns composed in the praise of Śivaśarmasūri and Pancasangraha are the noted trea- Tirtharkaras. tises composed during this age. All these works
(ii) Works related to the modes of worship, present detailed description of Jaina Philosophy in rituals and religious ceremonies general and Jaina doctrine of Karma in particular.
(iii) Works concerned with religious preachHaribhadrasuri composed more than eighty ings. works on different aspects of Jaina philosophy and (iv) Works-composed on Jaina Sadhana and religion. He developed a Jaina system of Yoga on the Yoga. basis of Patañjali's Yoga and established some new
(v) Works related to the Code of Conduct of concepts of Jaina Yoga. Haribhadra was a prolific Monks and Nuns as well as house-holders. writer who has written on every aspect of Jaina phi
Under the first category Dvātrimsikās of losophy and religion. His Şaddarśanasamuccaya and Siddhasena Divākara (c. 4th A. D.) hold an important Sastravārtāsamuccaya are two important works place. He has written 32 Dvātrimsikās out of which which describe comparatively the thoughts of other seven — first five, 11th and 21st are composed in the

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Jaina Literature | From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D.)
praise of different Tirtharkaras. Many of these Dvā- works of this category. trimśikās, apart from praising the Tirthankaras,
The third category of religious literature incritically examine the theories of other philosophical cludes the works such as Kundakunda's Astasystems. The next important work of this eulogical pāhuda, Pajyapāda Devanandi's Istopadeśa and literature is Samantabhadra's Svayambhūstotra. It Dharmadāsagani's Upadeśamālā composed in consists of 143 ślokas written in praise of twenty-four Prākrta, Samskrta and Prakrta, respectively. However, Tirtharkaras. Kundukunda's Daśabhakti is also an the authorship of Upadeśamālā is a matter of dispute. important work dealing with ten-fold laksanas of Above mentioned both the works lucidly record the dharma. Another most popular and well-received preachings of religious doctrines. Haribhadra has also work, respected equally by both the sects — contributed some works such as Upadeśapada, Svetambara and Digambara, is Mānatunga's Dharmabinduprakarana, Upadeśaprakarana and Bhaktāmarastotra (c. 6th A.D. ) composed in the Sambodhaprakaraņa to this theme. praise of first Tirtharkara Rşabhadeva.
The fourth category related to Jaina sādhana The second category encompasses the work and Yoga, abounds in its literature. Praśamaratirelated to Jaina modes of worship and rituals. The prakarana by Umāsvāti (c. 3rd 4th A. D. ) may be first work of this category was Pujāprakarana by regarded as the first work of this category. Pujyapāda Umāsvāti but unfortunately it is not available. Simi- Devanandi's Samadhitantra (c. 6th A. D. ) also belarly, in Digambara tradition some more treatises longs to the same category. On Jaina Yoga Harirelated to this theme viz. Arhatpratistha and Jinā- bhadra contributed a lot by writing several books on bhiseka, both authored by Pujyapāda Devanandi (c. Jaina yoga. Yogavimsikā, Yogaśataka, Yogabindu, 6th A. D. ), are also not available today. A few works Yogadrstisamuccaya and Dhyanaśataka are some of on Jaina modes of worship were also composed but his important works on Jaina yoga. presently except some of Pañcāśakas and other works
The fifth category comprises the works comby Haribhadra, none of these are available. Among
posed on Jaina ethics and code of conduct for Jaina ninteen Pañcaśakas only following are related to this
monks and nuns. It is the category to which several theme :
works have been contributed by the Ācāryas of both (i) Dikṣāvidhi
the sects - Svetāmbara and Digambara. In Svetāmbara (ii) Caityavandanavidhi
tradition, apart from commentaries (Bhāşyas and (iii) Pājāvidhi
Carnis ) written on Jaina Āgamas on this very theme, (iv)Jinabhavana-nirmana-vidhi
some independent works were also composed, parti(v) Pratisthā-vidhi and
cularly dealing with the ethical code of conduct of (vi) Jinayātrā-vidhi.
Jaina ascetics and lay-followers. Among these works, Haribhadra has discussed the subjects in his Umāsvāti's 'Srăvakaprajñapti' may be regarded as the Sodaśakas also. Some Sodasakas such as Pratistha - first, but unfortunately it is also not available. In vidhi, Pūjāphala and Diksādhikāra may be regarded Digambara tradition, Malācāra and Bhagavatias related to this theme. Pancasakas are composed in Aradhana, are the important works elaborately dealPrākrta, while Sodasakas in Sanskrta. Haribhadra's ing with the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. Caityavandana alongwith its auto-commentary Caitya
In my opinion, Mulācāra and Bhagavativandana-bhāsya and Pratisthākalpa are the noted Aradhana basically belong to Yapaniya tradition and

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
not to Digambara. I have proved this on the basis of between c. 12th-14th A. D. multiple internal as well as external evidences in my
In the first category Caupannamahāpurusabook Jaina Dharma ka Yapaniya Sampradāya. In cariam of silankācārya (c. 9th A. D. ) depicts the life Digambara tradition Ratnakarandaśrāvakācāra of of 54 out of 63 Salakapurusas, leaving out 9 PratiSamantabhadra (c. 6th A. D.) is regarded as the first
vasudevas, in Prūksta. Containing 10,800 verses, it work composed on the ethical code of conduct for
deals with 19 characters out of 54, exhaustively, Jaina house-holders, however, its authorship is also a while the remaining characters have been described matter of dispute. In Svetāmbara tradition after only in few pages. It belongs to Svetämbara tradition. 'Uvasagadasão', the seventh anga of Jaina canons, In Digambara tradition. Jinasena and his pupil Guna'Savayapannatti' by Haribhadra is the first available bhadra (c. 9th A. D.) also composed Mahapurāna or work, dealing with the code of conduct for Jaina lay
Trişaşticaritra in Samskrta. It is divided in two parts - devotees. Some independent works dealing with the Adipurina and Uttarapurana, describing the life of 63 atonement (Prāyaścitta ) were also written in this
great personalities of Jainism. On the same theme period among which Jinabhadra's Titakalpa' stands as Puspadanta also composed one of the greatest work the most important work. Later on, on the basis of of Apabhramsa language, namely TrişastimahāpurușaJitakalpa, Indranandi's Chedapindaśāstra and Cheda
gunālankāru (laterc. 10th A. D.). Puspadanta carries śāstra by unknown writer were composed in Yapaniya to perfection the possibility of Apabhramśa as a tradition. Especiality of these two works lies in the vehicle of poetry. fact that they not only prescribe the laws of the atone
Second type includes many Kathās, ākhyānas ment for Jaina monks and nuns but for the male and
and Caritas in Saṁskṛta, Prakrta and Apabhraṁsa. It female lay-devotees also.
deals mainly with the biographies of individual 4. Jaina Narrative Literature
Tirthankaras and other celebrated personalities of Jaina narrative literature of this period is gene- their times. The first and foremost work of the correrally divided into five categories, viz. (i) biographies sponding period is certainly Paumacariya, of Vimalaof the 63 illustrious personalities (Salakāpuruṣas ) sūri (c. 2nd-Sth A.D.) of Naila or Nagila Kula, described together in one book, (ii) life-stories of which deals with the life-stories of Laksmana and these religious great personalities described indepen- Ravana. It is a pioneer work of Jainas on Ramakathā. dently in a work, (iii) religious tales in romantic It has considerable impact on one work of Ravişena's form, (iv) semi-historical prabandhas and (v) com- Padmacarita (c. 7th A. D.) in Samskrta and Svayapilation of stories in the form of kathākoșas.
mbhu's Paumacariu ( c. 8th A. D.) in However, main objective of the narratives Apabhramsa. There is also another version of Jaina was religious exhortation meant for the masses. It Rāmakathā represented by Gunabhadra ( 898 A. D.) may be noted that most of the literature of this form, in Uttarapurāna and followed by some other excluding canonical texts belong to this period, i.e.,c. Digambara writers of (c. 10th A. D. ). Some other 3rd-10th A. D. Though some prominent works of the works of this category are Pārsvābhyudaya by Jinanarrative literature such as Trişastiśalākāpuruṣa of sena (c. 9th A. D.), Harivamsapurāņa by other Hemacandra, semi-historical prabandhas — Jinasena (c. 9th A.D.). Vardhamănacarita by Asaga, Prabhāvakacarita, Prabandha-cintămaņi, ākhyānaka- Neminirvānamahākāvya by Vāgbhatta, Candramaņikośa, Prabandhakuśa, etc., have been composed prabhacarita by Virasena and some Kannada works

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Jaina Literature [ From Earliest Time to c. 10th A. D. ]
such as Adipurana by Pumpa and Santipurana by Ponna (c. 10th A. D. ) may also be included in this category. It is also to be noted that stories of Rama and Kṛṣṇa are well recognised in Jaina tradition and Jaina writers composed so many independent works on the life of these two great personalities, accordingly.
The third typs marks an interesting phase in Indian literature, in which religious tales are presented in a romantic form. The Tarangalola of Pādaliptasūri in Prākṛta is lost but its epitome in Samskṛta Tarangavati indicates that it might have possessed engrossing literary qualities. Then there is the Vasudevahindi of Sanghadasagani (c. 6th A. D.). Vasudevahindi is probably the Mahäräştri version of Guṇādhya's famous Bṛhatkathā, written in Satavahana period. Vasudeva, the father of the Kṛṣṇa, the romantic hero of this novel, evidently remind us of Naravahanadatta, the Hero of Guṇādhya. Next there is Samaraiccakaha of Haribhadra in Prakṛta described by author as religious story, i. e., Dharmakatha. The fortune of the hero Samaraditya is traced through his 9 previous births. The underlying principle of these narratives is the doctrine of Karma. Haribhadra's Dhürtākhyāna in Prākṛta is also one of the important works of Jaina literature. It shows through this imaginary tale how skilfully the incredible legends of Hindu Mythology could be ridiculed. Next, Kuvalayamala (Mahārāştri Präkṛta) by Śvetämbara ācārya Udyotanasūri, composed in 799 A. D. shows author's thorough acquaintance with works of previous writers by referring to them. He has beautifully described the corrupt city life. Upamitibhavaprapañcakatha is composed in Samskṛta in 906 A. D. by Siddharși. The work of Siddharși is an elaborate and extensive allegory. It is a narrative consisting of series of birth stories, i. e., the hero of all the stories is the same person in different births. Acarya proposes to explain the mundane carrier of the soul (Jiva) under the name of samsari jiva from the lowest stage of

13
existence to the final liberation. The conversion of the cruel king Marudatta to Jainism is the theme of this work. No literature representing the fourth type, i. e., semi-historical prabandhas has been written in corresponding period. All these prabandhas are written after c. 12th A. D.
The last type is represented by the compilation of stories or Kathakoṣas. The stories contained in these works have got a definite moral purpose to be propogated and as such teachers and preachers could use them independently without any specific context, throughout there discourses. Many of the Kathakoṣas are of anonymous composition.
The well known work of this type is Dharmopadeśamālā of Jaisimhasūri ( 867 A. D.) composed in Prakṛta. The work has auto-commentary and has 156 stories. Bṛhatkathakośa, composed in 931 A. D. by Harişena, is also one of the important works of Yapaniya tradition of Jainism. It is very informative Jaina text of early medieval period.
5. The Secular Literature of Jainas
As defined, being a realistic system with a high spiritualistic bias, the basic texts of Jainism deal with the phenomena of the spiritual kingdom as well as physical universe. Jaina Acaryas introduced various learnings aiming at the developement of personalities and character, preservation of its cultural heritage, shoulder the responsibilities of the ascetic and house-holders in society and performance of religious duties. These aims are achieved by learning such subjects as could strike the balance between the spiritual as well as worldly life.
The earlier Jaina canons mention different subjects dealing with worldly phenomena. Sūtrakṛtānga, Bhagavati, Samavāyānga, Nandisūtra, Prajñāpana, Jambudvipaprajñapti, Candra and Suryaprajñapti describe various aspects of biology, grammar, chanda, nirukta, jyotiṣa, geography, astronomy

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14 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI etc., but in Agamas these different subjects are inter- Ksetravicara is not available today. Jivasamasa and mingled. Realising necessities of some independent Jivavicara as well as Tandulavaicarika are the works works regarding worldly phenomena, Jaina acaryas dealing with Jaina Biology. Pujyapada Devanandi (c. composed some secular literature dealing with the 6th A. D. ) had composed a treatise named Vaidyakaphysical phenomena. sastra dealing with Ayurvedic medicines, but this As the result, by the beginning of c. 3rd A. D. work is also not available. Jyotisakarandaka is a several independent works were composed on vari Prakirnaka which deals with Jaina Astrology. In the ous subjects such as - Astronomy, Astrology, field of grammar, Jainendra Vyakarana or EndravyaGeography, Mathematics, Biology, Arts and Archi- karana of Indranandi (c. 6th A. D. ), Sakatayana tecture, Linguistic and Medicinal discipline, i. e. Vyakarana alongwith its auto-commentary, AmoghaAyurveda, etc. It would be in the fitness of the things vitti of Palyakirti Sakatayana (c. 9th A. D. ) and to record some of the details about such works, viz. Svayambhu Vyakarana of Tribhuvana Svayambhu Lokavibhaga of Sarvanandi ( c. 6th A. D.) and (c. 8th A. D.) are regarded as important works of this Tiloyapannatti of Yati-vrsabha composed in Prakrta, category. are two important works on Astronomy and Geogra The literary evolution of Jainas, particularly phy. Some more works like Umasvati's Jambu- in Praksta, which took place during c. 5th B.C.-10th dvipasamasa and Ksetravicara (c. 3rd A. D. ) and A. D. shows that the Jaina acaryas were versatile geBshatksetrasamasa of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana nius. They composed various treatises on different (c. 7th A. D. ) also dealt with Geography and some subjects but mainly on philosophical and religious aspects of Jaina cosmology. Among these works, topics.