Jain Literature

Author(s): Paul Marett
Publisher: ZZZ Unknown
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/249043/1

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JAIN LITERATURE
From very early times right up to generations, being handed on councils were held, at Mathura the present century the by word of mouth in the Jain and at Valabhi (in modern scholarly language of India has community. There came a time Saurashtra), before the final been Sanskrit. As the language when there was danger that the council, also at Valabhi, took on of serious communication it has holy scriptures would be the task of producing a long occupied a position similar forgotten. Accordingly a large definitive written collection of to that of Latin in Western council of monks was held at the old texts, and it is believed Europe, indeed there was a Pataliputra (Modern Patna, in that this collection was the same serious proposal that Sanskrit Bihar) to collect all the as the Svetambara canon as it should become the official scriptures and preserve the exists today. language of the Republic of authentic text. The date of the The recension of the canon in India, updated, doubtless, with council at Pateliputra cannot be the fifth century AD marked the modern technical and other determined with historical end of the use of Ardhamagadhi vocabulary. Closely related to accuracy: if it was indeed, as as a language of literary Sanskrit were the ancient tradition holds, some 160 years composition and Jain writers languages spoken by the after Mahavira's nirvana, that thereafter turned to writing in general populace of northern would place it in the early fourth Sanskrit or in the languages India: these are known as Prakrit century BC. Modern critics which were current by then. languages. The early Buddist however, are fairly confident Much of the earlier nonwritings are in one such Prakrit, that at least parts of the ancient canonical literature of the Jains called Pali. The early Jain texts are of later date. At any is in the regional Prakrits: the scriptures are in the Prakrit rate, tradition holds that the 12 relationship of these to which Mahavira is presumed to texts known as the Anga texts Ardhamagadhi and to the later have spoken, Ardhamagadhi. In were set in order at this council. languages is too complicated for pious lain belief Ardhamagadhi The Digambaras do not consideration here. Suffice it to was the original language from accept this tradition: they mention Maharastri, a western which all others descended, and believe that the original 12 Anga form of Prakrit, which is used was understood by all the texts have long been lost and widely by the Svetambara creatures to whom Mahavira they revere a different writers in the version known by preached.
collection of sacred scriptures. scholars as Jain Maharastri, and The earliest religious texts of Leaving these problems aside, Jain Sauraseni, a dialect from the Jainism, those which make up there is no doubt that the texts central regions, used by the accepted canon of the as they exist today are of very Digambara writers. Svetambaras, were originally ancient origin. Although oral From around the seventh transmitted orally and were not transmission long remained the centure AD a literary form of written down until many norm, it is probable that some Prakrit developed. Apabhramsa, centuries after their texts at least were written down and Jain writers wrote compilation. The Svetambara by the first century AD. Setting extensively in this language. tradition is that the canonical in order, and preserving the Apabhramsa came to connote works were preserved in the canon was not by any means a the literary form of the speech of memory of the monks for many short simple process: two more the provincial cultured classes.

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By the twelfth century AD it had contents of the Angas. Needless become crystallised as a to say, this is only a very sketchy classical literary language rather summary. Extensive than a spoken varnacular as the commentaries have been various modern northern Indian written by later writers on these languages, Hindi, Gujarati and texts, described as curni, others, developed out of nijlutti, bhasa, as well as various Apabhramsa and began other explanatory writings. One gradually to assume their difficulty is that the names of modern forms. Once again, lain these scriptures take various writers are found writing in different forms, as the title may these languages, and, of course, be given in Sanskrit or Prakrit. the output of lain writings in Problems of Romanisation of Hindi, Gujarati and other Indian languages add to the modern Indian languages is complications. Modern critical considerable at the present day. scholarship, Jain and non-lain However, we must not get the including the work of European impression that Jain literature scholars), has done much to was composed solely in the less elucidate the process of learned Prakrits and vernacular compilation of these texts. tongues. The literary language, without detracting from their the language of scholarship par religious importance, and has excellence in India, was shown that they are generally Sanskrit, and Jain scholars wrote made up of various sections extensively in this language. brought into order and put Sanskrit writings by lain authors together in many cases a are of great importance and by considerable time after they the eighth century AD Jain were originally produced. Here, Sanskrit works were being then, are the eleven surviving written in both the north and angas. They are, of course, in south of India.
the Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, and Collectively the canonical they were transmitted for many works recognised as such by the centuries in manuscripts written Svetambaras are known as on palm Ical strips often held Agama. The number of these together by cords. When paper texts is not quite fixed but is came into use the same oblong taken by most as 45 (though the shape was retained, and this, Sthanakvasi, the non-image indeed, continued in modern worshipping sect, recognises printed editions. Many of these only 32). The oldest texts are the have been translated into Angas, believed to have been European languages, especially originally 12, but only 11 survive. German and English, though the The word anga means a limb. translated versions are not that is a part of the canon. The always easy to come by. remaining 34 texts are called 1. ACARANGA This is certainly Angbahya, they are regarded as one of the oldest texts, subsidiary to the Anga though it was not all collection. There are 12 Upanga composed at the same time. texts which parallel the 12 The contents are varied, Angas. Then there are 10 dealing with, amongst other Prakirnas, six Chedasutras four matters, ahimsa, the life of Mula sutras, and two Mahavira, and rules for the Chulikasutras.
conduct of monks. Much Let us now look at the incidental detail of life in
carly India may be found in
the text. 2. SUTRAKRTANGA This anga
contains much detail on non-Jain philosophical systems. Like other texts it contains a variety of material: the different forms of life are described in one section, the hells and their
tortures in another. 3. STHANANGA is concerned
not with the teachings of Mahavira but with a miscellaneous collection of matters arranged in
categories. 4. SAMAVAYANGA(probably
one of the latest) is similar 5. VYAKHYAPRAJNAPTI The
most important anga, this gives a wide-ranging survey of the teachings of Mahavira, largely in the form of answers to questions given by Mahavira to his close disciple Gautama Indrabhuti. There is a great deal of incidental information on society and political history near the time of Mahavira. The life of Gosala, leader of the Ajivikas, is given. (The Ajivikas were a rival religious group arising around the time of Mahavira and the Buddha, and Surviving at least to the
twelfth century AD.) 6. NAYADHAMMAKAHAO is
more readable than many lain scriptures as it contains a lot of improving stories. For example, Mahavira expounds the virtue of patience by telling how, as un elephant in a previous incarnation, he patiently protected a hare beneath his uplifted foot. 7. UPASAKADASA Ten (dasa)
accounts of pious layman in Mahavira's time.

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8. ANTAKRDDASA Various
narratives, grouped partly in tens, and referring in many cases to the time of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Aristanemi, said to have been the contemporary of
Krsna. 9. ANUTTAROPAPATIKADASA
Also in ten parts: two only are of real interest and originality, these concern persons reborn in the
highest heavens. 10. PRASNAVYAKARANA The
titles of the two parts of this work are Asvara (inflow of karma and Samvara (cessation of inflow). The five great sins and the five great renunciations appear, together with much information on social life of ancient times, crime and punishment and other
topics. 11. VIPAKASRUTA Two groups
of ten quite readable stories illustrating the consequences of karma,
respectively evil and good. (12 the twelfth anga has been lost.)
Anga-Magadha. Various 8. NIRAYAVALIKA forms, with other topics are dealt with in the four following Upangas, the second part of the text, a single work in five parts. mainly in the form of replies These contain various by Mahavira to questions by accounts, sometimes his disciple Gautama on repetitive, of the lives and subiects such as reincarnations of various
reincarnation and Moksha. people. The hells and 2. RAJAPRASNIYA Much of this heavens of lain belief are
work consists of a dialogue mentioned, and there are between a monk, Kesi, who . references to historical is a follower of the twenty- events. The four remaining third Tirthankara, Parsva, parts of this composite work, and a king, Paesi by name. the last four Upangas, are as and it includes a discussion follows:
on the nature of the soul. 9. KALPAVATAMSIKA 3. JIVAJIVABHIGAMA gives a 10. PUSPIKA
detailed classification, in the IL PUSPACULIKA manner beloved of lain 12. VRSNIDASA scholars, of the different The number 01 the categories of animate predominantly metrical, beings, that is beings having compositions comprising the a soul, jiva..
Prakirnas is not exactly settled, 1. PRAINAPANA The longest of but is generally taken as ten. the upangas, written by, or
The name signifie's 'scattered at least based on the work pieces' or 'miscellancous' and of, one Arya Syama. It is a
these works give the impression methodical collection. in
of hasty compilation. The question and answer form.
subject matter is very varied. of definitions or categories
Apart from ritual hymns, much of relating to a wide variety of this collection is devoted to the subjects, eg. living and non- preparation for holy death and living things, speech, to various aspects of monastic passions, karma,and many
life and discipline others.
I. CATUH SARANA is 5. SURYAPRAJNAPTI starts in
concerned with seeking questions and answer form
protection with the (but does not continue in
enlightened ones, the this style). Once again,
liberated souls. the Gautama and Mahavira are
mendicants and the the speakers. It is a treatise
religious doctrine Idharma). on astronomy, dealing with
four refuges in all. the sun, moon, and stars.
2. ATURAPRATYAKHYANA 01. JAMBUDVIPAPRAINAPTI A
Renunciation of evil by the description of the
sick in preparation of death geography of lambudvipa.
3. BHAKTAPARIJNA Ritual on the inhabited central part of
giving up food the universe.
1 SAMSTARA Regarding the 7. CANDRAPRAJNAPTI This
rituals and preparation for Upanga repeats (with minor
the death bed variants) the latter part of 5. TANDULAVAITALIKA A the Suryaprajnapti (above).
collection of varied material dealing with the moon and in prose and metre stars.
concerning, for example, the
The next section of the Svetambara canon comprises the texts know as Upangas. Although these, like the Angas are 12 in number, there is no correspondence between the two sets of texts. As with the Angas, numerous commentaries on the Upangas have been written by lain scholars through the centuries. 1. AUPAPATIKA This is
probably the most important work in this group. There is a description of the visit of Mahavira to the vicinity of the town of Campa where he delivered a sermon before the king Kunika Ajatasatru, ruler of

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duration of life, a discussion stories, making it more Mulasutras. Actually only three on physiology between readable.
survive today though Mahavira and Gautama. 3. VYAVAHARA This also sometimes another text is measures of capacity and contains rules for monks and brought in to make up the time.
nuns and it is similar to the number to lour. 6. CANDRAVEDHYAKA Brihatkalpa (below). It is
Various questions relating to ascribed to Badrabahu. I. UTTARADHYANA This is monastic discipline and 4. DASASRUTASKANDHA (or traditionally described as
education, and to dying. ACARADASAH) contains lists the last sermon of Mahavira 7. DEVENDRASTAVA concerns of monastic transgressions before he achieved moksa.
heavenly kings and praise of as well as the required However in its present form Mahavira.
qualities of a monastic modern scholars believe it 8. GANITAVIDYA Propitious leader and other matters of to be a composite work
dates and omens for monastic life. The Kalpa containing subject matter of monastic life.
Sutra forms part of this various dates. Nevertheless 9. MAHAPRATYAKHYANA The Chedasutra.
it is a very important and great renunciation at the BRIHATKALPA Another work well-known text. The time of death.
detailing rules for monks and contents are concerned with 10. VIRASATVA Praise of nuns. One interesting point is various topics Matters Mahavira
that the geographical limits discussed include
beyond which monks should not temptations, chastity, daily The six surviving Chedasutras travel are mentioned: these duties, austerities, and (one other has been lost) are exclude the further western and nature of karma, and other concerned with monastic life southern parts of India. subjects. and rules. The Buddhists have a suggesting that the work was 2. DASAVAIKALIKA The rather similar collection dealing, composed at a time before meaning of the title is 'Ten like the Jain collection, with the Jainism had spread that far (lectures going) beyond minutiae of the life of a monk, beyond its original homelands. (prescribed study hours)'. and making it must be
The chapters deal admitted, rather difficult (PANCAKALPA This work does alternately with monastic reading. However, included in not survive in its original form life in detail, and monastic one of the Chedasutras are the and the present text under this life in general, the former rules for a monk's conduct in the name is apparently a much being the odd-numbered rainy season. This section has younger work. Details of the lectures, and the latter the been combined with a set of original Pancakalpa may be even-numbered. biographies of the Tirthankaras. deduced from references in 3 AVASYAKA Another very and lists of religious leaders, to other works.)
important work, loosely form a separate work, probably 6. JITAKALPASUTRA This text, constructed around the six the best-known and loved compiled by Jinabhadra, is essential daily formulae of religious text of the Svetambara often regarded as a recitation, with a lengthy Jains, the Kalpa Sutra. A Chedasutra, making the introduction which appears separate article later in this number up to six lif the to have been intended to issue deals with this text in missing Pancakalpa is introduce a longer work of more detail
excluded). It deals with ten which the present text is the 1. NISITHA Deals with kinds of punishment.
earlier part. monastic transgressions and
(The fourth Mulasutra has been punishments. Contains The Angabahya texts (those lost. much incidental information outside the Angas are on the social and cultural life frequently arranged according There are two other texts, not of early India. The longest of to the decreasing number of always regarded as canonical. the Chedasutras.
texts in the various groups These are sometimes called the 2. MAHANISITHA Related to though this order is not Chulik asutra (meaning
the Nisitha: this text inflexible). Hence, after six 'Appendix'), but commonly they contains some interesting Chedasutras we pass on to four are listed separately without

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any collective title.
translated into several Indian liberation and moksa. I. NANDISUTRA In this text languages, and some of them The Samayasara is easy to
there is a study of cognition (including the Samayasara) into read, at least in the English and a survey of the other English. They have attracted translation, and the reasons for texts of the Svetambara many traditional commentators its success are clear. It describes canon, together with other of whom one very important was simply and basically the
miscellaneous material. Amrtacandra around 1000 AD. processes by which we are 2. ANUYOGAD VARA who wrote in Sanskrit. A bound by the effects of our
('Investigations'). Like the commentary in Kannada la actions and attitudes, and the Nandisutra this work major south Indian language) path of understanding and selfcontains summaries of the was written by Balacandra about control which can lead us to our other canonical works and the thirteenth century AD. full potentiality, unfettered by other matters of Jain belics. An edition of the Samayasara the things of the world.
Finally, before leaving the with English translation and with Svetambara canonical works, an English commentary largely (Reprinted from The Jain. July 1983) mention may be made of based on Amrtacandral and the 14 Purvas. These are introduction by the late THE LOST PURVA TEXTS now lost, though references Professor A. Chakravarti, of in other works give us an Madras, was published by The sacred scriptures of the idea of the contents which Bharatiya Jnanapith, Delhi Jains are of great antiquity. included much early Jain (second cdition 1971).
Inevitably, with writings of great belief on the nature of the Samaya means "self" and is age there is a lot of dispute universe and of the soul. used in the same sense as amongst scholars about their They are believed to have "atman" in Hindu philosophy. It age, their authorship and of formed the twelfth Anga can be very loosely rendered course their authenticity. With (now lost).
"soul". Professor Chakravarty in books which may have been THE SAMAYASARA
his lengthy introduction deals originally compiled over two OF KUNDA-KUNDA
with the concept of the Self in thousand years ago it can be
many Western and Indian very difficult to know whether The author of the SAMAYASARA, schools of thought.
the text which we have today is attributed to one Kunda-kunda, After a sentence of homage to a faithful copy of the ancient is an obscure figure. This work is the Siddhas, the liberated souls, version. Even if we have a very one of a number of texts written the Samayasara commences by early manuscript, say a in a Prakrit language known as pointing the difference between thousand years old, that is still Jain Sauraseni and said to be that jiva for individual soul) many centuries after the written by the same author. (The which rests on the three jewels" compilation of the original work. Prakrits were based on the of Right Conduct. Faith and in that time all sorts of changes popular speech of their time are knowledge, which pure soul is could have been made, pieces contrased with the more formal the real Self, in contrast to that added or taken out, mistakes Sanskrit. However it is which is contaminated by the made in copying and so on. nowadays accepted that they material of karma. (Jains see Indeed these difficulties have cannot all be by the same writer. karma as a sort of cloud of dust lcd some Jain scholars to be Even the date of Kundakunda is which clouds over the blisstul very cautious about the a matter for dispute by scholars: all-knowing qualities of the pure authenticity of writings which there are some biographical soul). This is the basic message are accepted by others: by and details available but they are so of the Samayasara and in the large the Digambara are not late as to be unreliable. subsequent chapters it is fully happy about the scriptures of Probably he lived and wrote in developed. The true Self is the Svetambara as they exist south India around the first pure. However emotional states today. century BC or the first century such as attachment to things. Some people are afraid to AD. His works, and perhaps lead to the bondage of karma, apply scholarly rescarch and particularly the Samayasara, The realisation of one's true criticism to their sacred writings: have been widely read and nature leads to repentance and it is quite natural to be upset at studied. They have been renunciation and eventually to the possibility that scholars will
Jain Ediycation International

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come to conclusions which are but they too died without study of the ancient Jain different from the traditional passing on the texts to their literature is a very valuable views. This is true of other successors. A few parts only work, difficult it is true, but religions as well as Jainism. seems to have been preserved ultimately very rewarding. When scholarly research began in the memory of some monks to be applied to the Christian and were passed on in the Reprinted from THE JAIN, December 1982.) Bible large numbers of more Digambara tradition until they conservative Christians were were finally put in the written THE TATTVARTHA SUTRA upset by the results. But in fact, form around 200 AD. Of course now that the fuss has died down quite a lot of material in the DATE, AUTHORSHIP AND and the conclusions of the Purvas has probably been IMPORTANCE experts have been shown to be incoporated in other writings. Like so many carly lain tests, the generally right the fact that the twelfth work in the group or Tattvartha Sutra is difficult to Christians know the way in which Jain writings known as the date, The author, Umasvati, or their sacred writings were ANGAS is believed to have Umasvami, is a shadowy figure compiled, which parts were included much of the Purvas, and scholars have suggested added later, which are but unfortunately the twelfth various dates for his life, Some interdependent on each other Anga have been largely lost lain sources place him as early or come from a common source, (though the other eleven have as the first century of the which can be regarded as survived). the matter is quite Vikrama Samvat* (in European genuine history and which are complicated and doubtless terms around the beginning of only edifying stories (but not scholars of the future will have a the Christian era): Guerinot necessarily less valuable for difficult but fascinating job (1926, poll suggests 44-85 AD. that), after this the value of the unravelling it. From other P.S. Jaini (1979, p81) dates him Bible has been strengthened references, however, it is without comment to the second not weakened. We must believe possible to get some idea of century AD in agreement with that there is no conflict between what the Purvas contained many Digambara sources, On modern scientific research There seems to have been some the other hand, the fourth or methods and true religion. This material about the nature of the fifth century AD is accepted as is a fact which should be universe as understood by jain probable by von particularly evident to Jains, thinkers in antiquity and with Glasenappi 1925, p106). whose religion is particularly this, of course, astronomy (and Not only his date but other well able to fit in with modern its sister science-less information about Umasvati's scientific world.
acceptable nowadays- life is uncertain. Digambara One of the fascinating astrology). The nature of karma tradition would put him as a problems of Jain writing relates seems to have been discussed student, or at least in the line of to the collection known as the as well as the practice of yoga. Succession of the famous south PURVAS (also spelled Indeed it seems possible that Indian scholar Kundakunda PUVVAS). These were fourteen the Purvas were related to the whose dates and life are works which were believed to go wider body of very early Indian equally uncertain) whilst back to the time of Parsva 250 religious literature. It has been Svetambara and the Digambara years before Mahavira. They argued that the Purvas claim Umasvati, or Umasvami, as were passed down by word of preserved an important body of their own: there are naturally mouth (none of the Jain ancient ascetic literature which some differences between the 'writings' was actually written is referred to in many other Svetambara and Digambara down until very many centuries Indian writings.
versions of the Tattvartha Sutra. later) until the middle of the One day perhaps researchers Modern scholars have been fourth century BC. It is gcncrally will have managed to unable to resolve this question: agreed by ancient writers that reconstruct the probable text of it may well be, as suggested by the great lain leader the Purvas. Perhaps in the great von Glasenapp (1925, p 106). Bhadrabahu was the last man to Jain libraries of India there are that the division between the know all fourteen of the Purvas. manuscripts which have not yet two sects had not yet hardened After his time there were some been fully studied but which will by Umasvati's time. According to people who knew parts of them help in this world. The scientific early commentators the

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Tattvartha Sutra was written at of three Sanskrit words tattva, determining the nature of Pataliputra, modern Patna in truc nature, artha, thing, and things' as Pandit Sukhlalji puts it Bihar in northern India. adhigama, knowledge. It may (1974, p5), or the holding of the Umasvati has been credited then be translated 'a manual for truth as true (das Fur-wahrwith the authorship of five the knowledge of the true halten der Wahrheiten) in hundred works: only a few of nature of things'.
Jacobi's wordsi 1906, p292) (1.21
The most ancient sacred This right faith originates either extant.
books of the Jains, those which spontaneously by nature or Despite the uncertainty about are recognised as the canon, at through instruction 11.3). The its origin one thing is certain, the least by the Svetambara, were seven fundamental truths are Tattvartha Sutra is one of the compiled in Ardha-Magadhi, a listed in verse 4: jiva, soul, and most important religious texts of Prakrit or popular spoken ajiva, non-soul, asvara, inflow of the Jains, respected and widely language as distinct from the karma to the soul bandha, read by Svetambara and Sanskrit of the scholarly stream binding to the soul. samvara, Digambara alike. Indeed it has among Jain thinkers (Succeeding cessation of inflow, nirjara, (with some exaggeration) been centuries were to see, of course, shedding of accumulated karma, compared with the Qur'an of the a vast output of Jain literature in and the goal of the preceding Muslims or the Christian Bible. It Sanskrit.) The Tattvartha Sutra is four, moksa or final liberation. is read and studied both short: it consists of 357 terse This list of seven tattva omits privately and in temple worship: aphorisms of a few words each, two which are added in many among the Digambara it the whole divided into ten other texts, punya and papa, occupies the same central place chapters of uneven lengh, Taken merit and demerit or good and in the religious observances together these chapters present bad results in karma: these may during Paryushan that the Kalpa an epitome of Jainism. The ideas be regarded as subsumed in Sutra does for the Svetembara are not new, they are to be asrava and bandha. It is probably the most found in the Agama canonical These first four verses, then, important work which is texts in scattered form, but here sum up the basic fundamentals accepted by both major they brought together for the of Jainism. The remaining thirtybranches of Jainism. Although it first time in a structured system. one verses of Chapter 1 discuss falls outside the collection of So short and pithy is the text in the process of cognition, the most ancient texts accepted as some places that it has more the different types of knowledge the sacred canon by the characteristics of an aide and their acquisition being Svetambara, yet it is regarded memoire easily committed to analysed and classified in some by them as a most authoritative memory than a full and detailed detail. In other words, the exposition of Jain belief. As a manual, to be filled out by the mechanism of right faith and short terse text it has needed commentators whether in knowledge is discussed (right further explanation and has writing or orally.
conduct being deferred to been supplemented by a very
Chapters VII and IX). After this large number of commentaries, FUNDAMENTALS OF JAINISM the subsequent chapters take the oldest of which has been AND THE NATURE OF up the seven fundamental ascribed in Svetambara circles COGNITION
truths in order: these are in (though improbablyl to the The first verse of the first effect the objects of right faith author of the main text himsell. chapter expresses the three and knowledge.
The Tattvartha Sutra is also jewels, ratna traya, of Jainisin: known as the Tattvarthadhigama samyag darsana inana SOUL. NON-SOUL AND THE Sutra (though it has been charitrani moksa margahili) NATURE OF THE UNIVERSI. argued (see Zydenbos 1983, right faith, knowledge and Three chapters, Il to IV. are 11) that this name referred conduct are the means to concerned with the soul, jiva, in originally to the oldest moksa'. 'Right faith is a rather all its manifestations. The main commentary on the Sutra). A simplistic translation of samyag characteristic which delines a sutra is a religious text, darsana, though it is commonly soul is upayoga (11.8). Jain generally a manual of short encountered. Right faith, in this thinkers refer to three qualities aphorisms. The title context. means rather the of the soul, consciousness, bliss 'Tattvarthadhigama' is made up inclination towards validly and energy. Umasvati here takes

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- you
TATTU
the application of results are mentioned in verse RELIGIOUS DECIPLINE IN THE consciousness, that is cognition, 22, whilst verse 38 states that TATTVARTHA SUTRA upayoga, as the defining certain authorities regard it as a While Chapters VI.and Vill deal characteristic. Souls fall into two substance'.
with the negative side of the major categories, those which
karmic processes, giving are still subject to the cycle of THE KARMIC PROCESS
detailed analysis at a fairly birth and death (samsara) and it will be seen that the first live abstract level. Chapter VII and those which have achieved final chapters of the Tattvartha Sutra IX are largely concerned with liberation (moksa) (11.10). Outline the nature of cognition the moral and disciplinary life of Chapter II then continues in and the Jain view of the the individual which can lead to detail with an analysis of the universe. The remaining five the halting and reversal of the different kinds of soul in chapters explain the karmic karmic inflow. There are five samsara, in other words of living process, wrong and right vrata, translated 'vows' or beings, their senses and types behaviour in their relation to 'restraints': when kept partially of body, transmigration and this process, and hence the path by the lay person) they are birth and so on.
to final liberation. In Chapters VI known as anuvrata, or when they Chapter Ill is a short chapter and Vill the inflow and binding involve total renunciation they of eighteen verses, describing of karma to the soul are are mahavrala. These are the very tersely the lower and discussed, Chapter IX takes up five main ethical principles of middle portions of the loka, or the reverse process, the Jainism. They are listed in the inhabited universe, and their stoppage of inflow and the first verse of Chapter VII, noninhabitants, according to Jain shedding of karma. Chapter VII violence, truthfulnes, nontradition. In the lower portion interposes a consideration of stealing, chastity and nonare the seven hells and the ethical behaviour, and the other acquisitiveness. They are briefly beings suffering there. The facet of the disciplined Jain life, defined in subsequent verses middle portion is the abode of austerity, links naturally with the and elaborated in verses 19 to humans and animals and subject matter in Chapter IX. 32. Verses 4 to 7 are a guide to consists of a series of concentric Inflow of karma to the soul is mental attitudes: one should continents and occans. Like called asrava. It is the activity or regard violence, stealing and so Chapter III. Chapter IV is rather vibration of body, speech and on as detestable and nothing cryptic without the aid of a senses which brings about this but misery.. One should commentary: it lists the four inflow. This activity or vibration, cultivate friendship to all species of gods or heavenly as it affects the soul is called beings, pleasure for those beings who reside in the upper yoga there given a specialised whose merits are superior to regions of the inhabited meaning). Chapter VI analyses one's own, compassion for those universe.
the various types of karma and who are suffering and neutral From a consideration of jiva or the several actions and feeling towards the dull and soul, the Tattvartha Sutra moves emotions which cause their unteachable. One should reflect on in Chapter V to discuss ajiva inflow into the soul. The analysis on the nature of the world and or non-soul. The categories of is interesting for it brings an the body and view them with non-soul, according to the lains. explanation of the complicated detachment. The householder, are matter (pudgala), space cflects which previous actions like the homeless monk, may lakasa). time (kala), and the have in the life of the individual. observe the five restraints, principles of motion and rest This discussion continues in albeit in a reduced fashion. Idharma and adharmal. The last Chapter VII where the causes of certain supplementary two are concepts apparently bandha, binding of karma to the restraints for a lixed time, fasting unique to Jain philosophy. soul are given. They are the on certain days, foregoing There is some dispute as to absence of right faith, the failure bodily adornment or sleep. whether time is to included in fubstain from vicious acts, Restraint on use of food, drink the 'substances described as carelessness as to right and and other articles of daily use, non-soul: the Tattvartha Sutra is wrong behaviour, passion, and and donation of food and the ambivalent on this point. In activity. This leads on to like to worthy recipients. Lastly verse 1 kala is omitted from the complicated listing of the sub- there is sallekhana or the last to list of ajiva substances but its types of karma.
death.

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S . The cessation of the inflow of Parisaha,discomforts to be universe.Sukla-dhyana is karma is called samvara: it is overcome, tapa, penances possible only for a person highly achieved through seven forms of deliberately undertaken, are spiritually advanced and versed religious discipline detailed in both instrumental in teaching in the sacred texts, indeed the Chapter IX, restraint, restraint of the passions. highest levels of sukla-dhyana watchfulness, rules of Twenty-two afflictions are listed can be approached only by a righteousness, deep reflection, which the monk has to learn to kevalin, a person who has endurance of afflictions; right endure, these are lesS achieved omniscience. conduct, and austerities. The applicable to the lay person. Ton stages of the process of process of shedding the However the twelve penances nirjara, shedding of karma, are accumulated karma is nirjara: or austerities, six external or listed in verse 47, from the austerities are also the means to bodily and six internal or finding of right faith to complete nirjara. Each of these disciplines mental, apply both to the monk enlightenment, whilst another is defined and subdivided. or nun and to the lay man or listing on different principles of Restraint (gupti) means woman. It is made clear (IX.31 five stages of spiritual progress restricting the activities (yoga) that austerities not only halt the is found in the next two verses. of body, speech and senses, further inflow of karma to the avoiding what is not necessary. soul but also are instrumental in THE FINAL GOAL Watchfulness (samiti) is its the actual shedding of already. All this leads up to the final goal complement, involving positive accumulated karma. of the spiritual path. moksa or caution in movement, speech, The Sanskrit word dhyana is complete liberation of the soul. procurement of necessaries, usually translated 'meditataion': This is the subject matter of the handling and disposing of 'mental concentration' is tenth and final chapter of the things, to avoid harm. another possible translation. Tattvartha Sutra. It is very short The rules (dharmal of Meditation is discussed and chapter, just seven verses, but it righteousness are ten in analysed in veses 27 to 46 of marks the culmination of the number: they involve the Chapter IX. It involves fixing the work. Indeed the Tattvartha qualities of forbearance, mind on one subject of thought Sutra. is sometimes called the humility, sincerity, absence of for a space of time up to one Moksasastra, the Moksa greed, truthfulnes, self-restraint, muhurta (one thirtieth of a day. Scripture. The true nature of the austerity, renunciation, absence forty-eight minutes). It is soul includes, it must be of feelings of ownership. possible only for someone with remembered, total knowledge Deep reflection (anupreksa) the right bodily power. but until the final elimination of on the true nature of things as a Meditation can take various all karma this total knowledge is means of stopping the karmic forms, some of which are obscured and dimmed. The last inflow involves reflection on the beneficial and lead to moksa and most powerful forms of transient nature of life, the whilst others are harmful. Thus, karma ultimately succumb to solitariness of the individual in concentration on acquisition of nirjara, shedding off, and kevala. the cycle of birth and death, the an agreeable thing or getting rid omniscience, appears. The nature of karmic inflow and of something unpleasant is complete destruction of all cessation...Caritra, translated as harmful, so is constant reflection karma is called moksa: the right conduct, in this context on violence, untruthfulness, liberated soul. by its natural describes the endeavour 10 thell. protection of possessions. Unhindered motion, now rises remain steady in a state of Persons in the lower stages of upwards to the uppermost part spiritual purity. Its main spiritual lite are susceptible to of the universe. With versc 6 the characteristic is Samayika or these. In the higher gunasthana Tattvartha Sutra reaches its equanimity, a term often used stages of spiritual development, culminating point. However the for a period of quiet reflection the valuable forms of author cannot resist adding a for the cultivation of equanimity medication are further note (verse 71 listing practised daily by the pious possible. Dharma-dhyana twelve ways in which the souls Jain. A monk's initiation, with the concentration on the sacred achieving liberation may be promise of continued spiritual teachings, the elimination of classified. purity, is a form of caritra as here defilements, the consequences defined. of karma and the nature of the Paul Marett