Jain Journal 2001 07

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520143/1

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ISSN 0021-4043 A QUARTERLY ON JAINOLOGY VOL XXXVI No. 1 JULY 2001 Jain Journal Ha Ha JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATION

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a quarterly on Ja inology JAIN JOURNAL 11 HG HOG || JAIN BHAWAN CALCUTTA ernational www.jainel

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Vol. XXXVI No. 1 July Rupees Fifteen Copyright of articles, stories, poems, etc. published in the Jain Journal is reserved. All contributions, which must be type-written, and correspondence regarding contributions, and book-reviews should be addressed to the Editor, Jain Journal, P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-700 007 For advertisement and subscription please write to the Secretary, Jain Bhawan, P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-700 007. Subscription: for one year : Rs. 60.00, US $20.00: for three years: Rs. 180.00, US $ 60.00, Life membership: India: Rs 2000.00, Foreign: US $160.00, Cheques must be drawn in favour of only Jain Bhawan Phone No: 238 2655 2001 Published by Satya Ranjan Banerjee on behalf of Jain Bhawan from P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-700 007 and printed by him at Arunima Printing Works, 81 Simla Street, Calcutta-700 006 Editor: Satya Ranjan Banerjee

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Contents SOME REFLECTIONS ABOUT ANEKANTAVADA MARIA LUISA TORNOTTI JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA PROF. N. M. KANSARA MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU DR. A. EKAMBARANATHAN INFLUENCE OF BHAGAVAN MAHAVIRA'S TEACHINGS ON TAMILS PROF. S. THANYA KUMAR RELEVANCE OF JAIN PRINCIPLES OF MAHAVIRA IN MODERN CONTEXT DR. BINOD KUMAR TIWARY THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA IN THE MODERN AGE DULI CHAND JAIN HARIBHADRA'S VIEWS ON SVABHAVAVADA AND THE LOKAYATA RAMKRISHNA BHATTACHARYA ernational www.jainel

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JAIN JOURNAL Vol. XXXVI No. 1 July 2001 SOME REFLECTIONS ABOUT ANEKANTAVADA MARIA LUISA TORNOTTI The doctrine of anekantavada is an important and original contribution of Jainism not only to India, but also to human culture in general. It has in itself that characteristic of complexity connoting all Jainism, that has tried during its history to clarify and define with sharpness the different problems which invest all the ambits of existence, also the thinest aspects of life, bringing forward doubts and questions that can arise. What is of particular importance about anekantavada, is not to put in light the limits of the different religious philosophies that declare reality's limited views, but rather its value on the plane of human knowledge and of the development of awareness. So the positive and constructive aspects that this doctrine has in itself and that motivate it. Anekantavada in fact is a cultural development of the cognitive approach in relation to reality, that, as enlightened masters have taught, doesn't by no means limit itself to what appears to our ordinary perceptions organs. Since man's last goal is moksa, anekantavada contributes to demolish obstacles, which divide him from that goal. It starts from the assumption that what we ordinarily perceive, as I was saying, doesn't exhaust at all reality and therefore it is necessary to open our inner doors for being available to a wider and deeper knowledge. Jainism explains that it's the accumulated karman which obscures and overshadows our world's perception and then it is necessary to stop the karmic inflow and purify oneself from the accumulated karman. Right conduct, right knowledge and right view together pave the spiritual course. Right view is, as Umasvati asserts, the bent to the faith that has truth as aim and faith consists therefore in the pursuing of truth, of the real nature of things. That involves the constant

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 attention not to remain prisoners of ideas which we form about reality. not to stop to a mental knowledge, not to be conditioned by our perceptions and by lived experiences, but to be inwardly open towards the truth, that by faith one knows to exist. According to Tvs. 1.33, a person, who delimits the purposes of his existence in solely worldly ambits, doesn't know how to distinguish truth from falsehood and therefore has a distorted knowledge. Instead another one, who is centred on his inner Self and pursues a right view of things in relation to it, purifying himself from attachments, has a proper cognitive approach and realises the limitations of his perception of reality. When he try to explain his view to other people, anekantavada helps him. In the case of people who are still working on themselves to find their inner Self, and are wavering between attachment and detachment, anekantavada helps them. The truths proclaimed by Jainism, tattvas, basically could be synthesized in few essential concepts that concern the existence of conscious (jiva) and then of unconscious (ajiva), that of the karmic bondage and then of emancipation from this bondage. These inescapable truths are, seen from the outside, the heart of a deep spirituality. Out of tattvas, the other remarks about reality are subject to the doctrine of nayas, exactly to avoid the risk of universalizing a partial, relative view of things. Anekantavada and its corollaries constitute the most correct possible modality of cognitive approach, which is more important than any model of reality, because it is the presupposition of it and stimulates to look for compatibility among the different knowledges, to harmonize them also in their acute contradictions. Reality cannot exhaustively be represented in a logically consistent conceptual picture, because it goes beyond the logic of mind, surpasses it completely. To assert with certainty that reality is in a certain way rather than in another one is ekantavada, means to confine oneself to a partial view of things and to close oneself to their complexity. It's better to replace the Indicative mood with the Conditional, "it could be so" and then we are open to the possibility of revising our ideas. Anekantavada well expresses the consciousness of the boundaries of mental knowledge, that is fundamentally binary, based on the dualistic principle, and the search of a right middle way wellrepresented by syaduada, "it could be", "from a certain point of view it is in this way." Reality in its complexity is better portrayed by a complex system that considers manifold aspects and different points of view, also the contradictory ones. Contradiction is in our mind, is a pattern of its; it

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TORNOTTI: SOME REFLECTIONS ABOUT ANEKANTAVADA is necessary to learn not to be victim of this general pattern, but to disidentify oneself from that and think consciously and with detachment. Anekantavada places itself further the patterns of mind, intends to show which is the best condition of mind, more suitable for being near the true reality of things, to can perceive it better, welcome it. It founds itself on the ascertainment that there are different forms of knowledge fundamentally ascribable to two types: one indirect and one direct. 3 The way of wisdom is the way of the direct knowledge that derives directly from the Self, that is intuitive. But in daily life people normally use forms of indirect knowledge and it is to these in particular that anekantavada with its corollaries give a fit criterion for all possible situations. It is there to remind us that any view we have of the reality of things is partial, temporary, and defective. We get better near to reality by putting the different points of view (nayas) together, which in their totality also shall not be anyway but a representation (imperfect as such) of the real. The parable of the elephant into the cave suggests us the comment that if also those, who found themselves in that cave had then put together their different points of view, an imperfect collage concerning reality would be come out; only a sudden light and then the vision could have manifested the truth. In the other version of the parable, that of the blind men and the elephant, the symbols slightly change but the meaning is the same and tells us the blindness as a man's typical condition and the personal view as an uncertain groping in the dark, from which only the restitution of sight can free us. This parable is therefore the representation of the ordinary individual knowledge and implicitly of the direct one. Since we can't normally get use of the second one, anekantavada comes to our assistance to remind us that things could be in this way-as our mind, our senses and our acquired knowledge show us-but the contrary of this could be as much true. Let us take the example of jiva. The variety of existing beings, with different levels of consciousness and complexity, is such from a practical point of view, from another one they are similar each other because they aren't but various manifestations of jivas that, even if experimenting different stages of consciousness, also in the most limited being's form, like that unisensorial, contemporaneously they continue to exist as perfect consciousness. Regarding the matter of manifoldness or unicity of Jiva, that is often been resolved by non-Jaina observers in univocal sense, in favour

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 of multiplicity, the doctrine of nayas shows as from a certain point of view, the practical one or that of the different individual characteristics, jivas are countless, but from the point of view of their substance, of the conscience, jivas are one, as perfectly identical and identifiable. The doctrine of nayas shows the compatibility among contradictory assertions. The archetype of this compatibility can be located in Umasvati's famous statement asserting that reality is characterised by rising, perishing and lasting (Tvs. 5.29) Anekantavada and syadvada make acceptable the coexistence of contradiction and can be considered as a successful attempt of outlining a scientific model of reality as perceived by mystics, model that anticipates by far all the others. And the difficulty must have been big, especially for the inadequacy of language, the same difficulty that in times close to us physicists have met. Werner Heinsenberg, for instance, states : "Every word or concept, as clear it can seem, has only a limited field of applicability". Also modern physicists found themselves in front of the limits of rational knowledge, as an abstract system of concepts and symbols, characterised by a coherent and sequential structure. Modern physics reconfirms the value of the Jaina model. Apparently contradictory and incompatible concepts show themselves nothing but different aspects of the same thing, as for example the concepts of particle and wave which are opposite characteristics of the atom. The fact that atomic phenomena can be described only in terms of probability and that atomic particle manifests a type of physical reality between existence and non-existence confirms the validity of syadvada and its sevenfold application. It shows the greatness and precision of the enormous endeavours made by Jaina masters and reconfirms the value of anekantavada. This doctrine moreover warns against to make oneself ideas and convictions, which could be limited and also limiting in relation to spiritual progress, because on inner plane a prejudice constitutes an obstacle to the direct knowledge, that could always happen and that faith in the truth, combined with a right conduct, can make come to light. An instant of direct perception is enough to make appear spiritual reality, the being that is beyond the becoming, and to strengthen saith. False beliefs therefore constitute obstacles to spiritual progress. In pedagogical field, anekantavada can be the foundation of an open educational system, even if firm in the pursuing of moral and spiritual values. Learning to consider things from many points of view and pondering the largest number of characteristics, develop

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TORNOTTI: SOME REFLECTIONS ABOUT ANEKANTAVADA humanism, open mind and heart to the comprehension of others and problems, produce a bent to the sense of conciliation rather than to that of separatism, train the mind to an olystic view and then generate the ability of resolving conflicts, of finding a common sense in the discussions and controversies. It is a way to the effective and realistic building of harmony, that doesn't mean levelling and homologation but respect for differences in the identification and exploitation of what unites and in mutual enrichment. From the individual's point of view, anekantavada is the right attitude of mind that corresponds on the planes of heart and behaviour that means on the more complete and olystic plane-to samatva value, equanimity, which is certainly more difficult to pursue but keeps up on the same course of inner search, of self's improvement. 5 Moreover it is definitely supplementary to ahimsa dharma. Because ahimsa is not only, like we know, limited to the outside, to external behaviour, but also it is an internal habit, of non-attachment. Aparigraha to be practised also towards our own ideas and opinions. Attachment to them leads to fanaticism and intolerance, which in their turn are forms and causes of violence. Jainas feel attachment as a form of violence towards oneself, towards the pure nature of one's own Self. The way of inner purification passes also through this. Besides, the doctrine of manypointedness embodies, on the plane of philosophical approach, a high form of expression of ahimsa in relation to reality itself, that can't be possessed by man's conceptions and opinions, which always represent, in themselves, partial definitions of some aspects of the true nature of things and then are a kind of conceited appropriation of truth, that instead never will be able to be owned, for its infinite superiority on man and on other beings. It reflects a non-anthropocentric conception of the world, where the human being is an element, who is determinant in the management of environment that surrounds him, but not as owner. This conception is the only one that can save the world from the decline towards which it is set going. Anekantavada favours tolerance, respect and understanding of different points of view from one's own, even if unilateral. It is a doctrine that can make reflect very much and could constitute, in its full and positive acceptation, an ambit, a place of ideal meeting for the different religions and cultures. It is a great support for building peace, for founding dialogue with the other religions, the other cultures and keeping the dialogue inside of one's own religion.

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JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA Pror. N. M. KANSARA Jainism is a very ancient religion, and its commencement has been traced at least to the age of the First Arhat or Tirthankara Rsabhadeva, who is recorded in the traditional mythological accounts to have been a son of King Nabhi and his queen Marudevi. Since then the tradition continued and in the course of time twenty-three other Arhats followed during different periods, and the last among them was Mahavira, who was known to have lived, reformed and preached it during the fifth century before Christ. In the period preceding the First Arhat, the Brahmanical tradition of the Vedic religion was prevalent. On the contrary, the Buddhist religion is traced to Gautama Buddha who lived and preached in the fifth century BC, and was almost a contemporary of the last Arhat, Mahavira, of the Jainism. Jainism is the Science of Salvation, propounded and practiced by Rsabhanatha, first (Adinatha) of the twenty-four Master Pathfinders, known as Tirthankaras, through thousands of years. It was preserved by Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, and was systematized by Mahavira, the last Tirthankara. The Jaina teaching was imparted at one time only orally. Mahavira's chief direct disciples known as Ganadharas later on allegorized the teaching of the Science of Salvation as taught by the Tirthankaras. They tried their best to preserve the oral teaching of the Tirthankaras in their memory and passed it on to the generations. It was a liselong laborious pastime, which proved very fascinating; all communities and nations copied the early Jaina allegorists. The oldest compilation of allegories constitutes the Vedas as the sacred literature of the Hindus. The Jewish and the Christian sacred literature are also composed in allegorical style. At first allegory proved very attractive, but the masses insisted on misinterpreting the mythological conceptions, taking them to be real gods and goddesses. The misinformed masses managed to set up a theory of their own concerning their various religions; but they comprise mostly only perversions of the real doctrines of the Science of Salvation.! 1. C.R. Jain, Jainism, Christianity and Science, The Indian Press, Ltd., Allahabad, 1930, pp. 3-4.

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KANSARA JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA Mahavira, the twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara of Jainism, was known to his contemporary Buddhists by the name Nigantha Nataputta. This name is composed of two separate epithets, Nigantha and Nataputta, the first of which is religious and the second one secular. He was nigantha (nirgrantha) in a literal as well as in a figurative sense : outwardly he was unclothed and inwardly he was free from all worldly bonds and ties. He was Nataputta because he was a scion of Naya, i.e. Nata (jnatr) clan of Ksatriyas, in the same manner as the Buddha was called Sakyaputta because he was a scion of the Sakya clan of the warrior class. In the thirteenth year of his age he was married and had a daughter. The same year he lost his parents, and afterwards with the permission of his elder brother and the authorities of the kingdom, he left his house and family to fulfil his mission off establishing a universal religion of love and amity. The ascetic life of this "Great Hero" (mahavira) is described in the Buddhist scriptures thus: "He wandered naked and homeless. In the winter he meditated in the shade, in the heat of summer he seated himself in the scorching sun. Often he drank no water for months. Sometimes he took only every sixth, eighth, tenth, or twelfth meal, and pursued his meditations without cravings."2 After twelve years of penance and meditation, he attained omniscience at the age of fortytwo, and lived thereafter for thirty years to preach his religion in Northern India.3 He was one of the great teachers of mankind, and through whom the problem of the perfection of man came to be recognized as the highest problem before progressive humanity. All the rules of religious life, which he enjoined, were intended to be a practical aid to the attainment of perfection of the Self. He himself first practiced what he later on preached. The wealth and pomp and power of the world could not buy the goal set before mankind was the blissfulness of the entire being. This happy state to be attained through patience, forbearance, self-denial, forgiveness, humanity, compassion, and consideration, in short, sufferings and sacrifice, love and kindness. If he died, he died to live as an eternal personality.4 Mahavira, like the Buddha, is included in the heterodox or Nastika 7 2. Hajime Nakamura. A Comparative History of Ideas, Motilal Banarsidass Publisheres Private Limited, Delhi, 1992, p. 173., fn. 5; Digha-nikaya, VIII, Vol. I, p. 166. Bimala Churn Law, Mahavira: His Life and Teachings, Luzac & Co., 46, Great Russell Street, London, W.C. 1, 1937, p. 21. Ibid., p. 54. 3. 4.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 group, as he also like the latter does not recognize the Vedas as sacred scriptures, denies the existence of God, maintains that divinity lies potentially in a man, and it is man who reaches the greatest heights of perfection, freedom, bliss through his own efforts. Both attach immense value to Ahimsa or non-violence in moral discipline in general and in conduct in particular, and include truth speaking and non-stealing in the rules of conduct. It is in the field of ethics that there striking similarities and also sharp differences in their preaching. Both accept asceticism in the sense of removal of all desire through strenuous will and effort. But there is an essential and significant difference between the two on the nature and extent of asceticism, the one prescribed by Mahavira being of the extreme nature to the extent of even selfmortification. The Buddha, however, advocates the middle path, and is emphatic that self-mortification is incapable of leading to liberation as self-indulgence and thus unworthy of pursuit.5 Jainism is a paradigm among the Indian philosophical schools, which prescribe strict and rigid austerities. At first, the ascetic should keep the five vows (urata): (1) not to injure any living being (a-himsa); (2) to be truthful (satya), i.e. not to lie; (3) not to steal (a-steya), i.e. not to take what is not given; (4) to lead a celibate life (brahma-carya), i.e. to preserve chastity; and (5) to renounce pleasure in all external things (a-parigraha). In the case of the laymen they are nearly the same, the last two being moderated. Of the various virtues to be cultivated by the Jains, non-injury (a-himsa) was regarded as the most essential one. Jainism carries the doctrine of non-injury of living creatures to an extreme not otherwise paralleled in Indian religions.6 To put in a nutshell, the teachings of Jainism are only this : man is not only a bundle matter in the form of flesh and blood, he is also a soul. In reality, the soul is the man himself; the body is only a prison in which the soul is embodied. All living beings are souls. Souls are immortal. They are composed of a simple substance, which is not matter; but which is found to exist in association with matter and this association is exceedingly harmful for the soul. Thereby it is deprived of its natural attributes in a greater or lesser degree. Its natural attributes include immortality, omniscience or unlimited knowledge, and bliss. If the soul were set free from the clutches of matter, it would enjoy all its natural perfection, and as this will only be attained after the destruction of the causes of the coming together of the soul 5. Nilima Chakravarty: 'Indian Philosophy, the Pathfinders and the System Builders (700 BC to 100 AD): Allied Publishers Limited, New Delhi, 1992. pp. 78-79. Nakamura, op.cit., p. 172. 6.

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KANSARA : JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA substance and matter, the latter will never be able to assail it again. Liberated souls are thus set free to enjoy their attributes and perfection forever.? The basic question in Jainism and Buddhism as well as in other traditions is the one pertaining to the condition of the man who has attained the ideal state, as to what will become of him. And this condition has been termed as 'Nirvana'. Often in explicating the term it becomes apparent that the explanations given in the past reflect the personalities of those who held them more faithfully than they represent the ideas of Jainism, Buddhism or other philosophy of life. When true knowledge dawns, a man attains equanimity (sammam) and compassion and friendliness to all. This is liberation (nirvana). It is the stupid who do cruel acts and keep tied to the cycle of births and deaths.8 Ahimsa both in its negative and positive aspects is instrumental in bringing about liberation. The unbound one lives in accordance with wisdom and restraint and walks free from desire and with conquered sensuality. As a snake casts off its old skin, so is the Brahmana freed from the bed of pain. When finally the jiva leaves the human body he becomes his own master and is liberated from misery. Without property, without egoism, free from passions and the asravas, he obtains absolute knowledge and reaches the eternal beatitude. 10 The enlightened person is called an Arhat, i.e. worthy, and on actual liberation he becomes a Siddha, i.e., the perfected soul. Free from the weight of karma matter he travels upwards and reaches Siddhasila, the abode of the perfected being. The state of liberation is freedom from desire and action and also absolute peace. It is freedom from rebirth. Nirvana cannot be described in words. All sounds recoil from there." Mahavira further says that the liberated soul has no shape, no colour, no smell, no taste, no weight, no touch, no rebirth, no attachment. It is neither male, nor female, nor otherwise. He perceives, he knows, but there is no analogy. 7. C.R. Jain, op.cit., p. 1. 8. Ayaranga-Suttam 1.145 (Ed. Muni Jambuvijaya, Shri Mahavir Jain Vidyalay Edition, Bombay, 1977, p. 44) : Se hu pannanamamte buddhe arambhovarae/Sammam etam pasaha/ Jena bamdham vaham ghoram paritavam ca darunam/ ibid., 2.801, p. 297 : Se hu parinasamayammi vattati nirasase uvaraya mehune care / Bhujamgame jumatayam jaha cae vimuccati se duhasejja mahane // 143// 10. Uttara. 35.2 : 11. Aca Su 1.176, p. 56: Savve sara niyattamti, takka jattha na vijjati mati tatha na gahiya, oe appatihanassa khettarne/

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10 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Its essence is without form (aruvi satta). There is no condition of the unconditioned. 12 Yet, according to Mahavira, Nirvana is the complete and full, the unobstructed, unimpeded, infinite and supreme, best knowledge and intuition. One who attains liberation is a Kevalin, omniscient and comprehending all objects, he knows all conditions of the world, of gods, men and demons; he sees and knows all conditions in the whole world of all living beings. 13 It is the state of freedom from all types of obscuring karman, it is omniscience and infinite bliss. A soul does not move in a straight line from undeveloped consciousness to a higher stage. Even though born as human being, it can lapse into a lower form of life. It is through continuous effort, practice of righteousness, moral discipline and philosophical enlightenment that one can ascend higher and attain to even godhead.14 Nirvana or liberation is the final and highest goal. It is the realisation of perfection and omniscience. It can be attained only through personal effort expressed in strict asceticism and rigorous moral discipline. Man cannot depend on anybody, even on God to help him through. Mahavira lays great stress on renunciation. All these indicate an individualistic approach. Yet one cannot ignore the humanistic aspect of Mahavir's teachings. The very concept of right conduct (samyakcaritra) emphasizes the social aspect of his moral teaching, since conduct has significance only in a man's relation with others, and the five vows (panca-mahavrata) refer to the correctness of man's dealings with the rest of the world. Mahavira explains Ahimsa as looking upon everybody as one's own self. It is not only a theory with Mahavira, he illustrates his humanism in his own life.15 It is in view of this highest human goal that in Jainism souls have been classed into two sorts : (1) those bound by the subtle body of deeds (karma) to the present world, sullied by contact with nonsentient matter, and (2) the perfected (siddha). who are at the summit of the universe, enjoying perfect happiness, incorporeal, invisible. Any soul achieving a blameless life becomes a Paramatman, or supreme soul, and avoids reincarnation for a while its reward equals its merit, however, it is born into the flesh again. Only the highest and most perfect spirits, freed from karma, could achieve complete release; these were the Arhats, or supreme lords, who lived like deities in some distant 12. ibid. 1.176, p. 57 : Parime, sane/Uvamana vijati/Aruvu satta/Apadassa padam natthi/ 13. ibid., 2.773, p. 277 : Se bhagavam Araha jine jane kevali savvannu savvabhavadarisi sadevamanuyasurassa pajjae janati..../ 14. Chakravariy : op.cit, p. 74. 15. ibid., pp. 77-78.

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KANSARA : JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA and shadowy realm, unable to affect the affairs of men, but happily removed from all chance of rebirth. 16 At any rate, the primary aim of Jainism is the perfection of the soul, disentangling it from karma. Jainism is largely ethical in intent rather than metaphysical. Asrava or the forging of the fetter of karma around the soul, and samvara or the prevention of that occurrence constitutes the core of Jain teaching, the rest being only an amplification of these principles. 17 On his enlightenment the Buddha announced I have gained coolness and have attained nirvana. To found the kingdom of Truth, I go to the city of Kasi; I will beat the drum of the immortal (amata) in the darkness of the world. 18 He speaks of it as coming of all conformations to an end, the loosening from everything earthly, the extinction of desire, the cessation of longing, and the end. Nirvana or the extinguishing, the ideal is perhaps the most controversial concept in the Buddha's thought. Literal meaning of the term 'nirvana' is extinction as of fire. 19 The Buddha says that everything, including the senses, the body, and the mind, is burning; they are all in flames, The fuel that burns these are passion, desire, hatred or anger and ignorance.20 Some of the prominent features of the Buddha's views on nirvana are as follows: It is the annihilation of passion, hatred, stupidity, the annihilation of manifold evil and wrong states of mind.21 At times he regards desire or thirst resulting in clinging as the cause of bondage, at other times ignorance (avidya) or taint (asrava), attachment and karma. So nirvana is the removal or destruction of these. 22 Ignorance which is often considered as the primary cause of suffering (dukkha) is removed through knowledge variously described as bodhi, sambodhi, vidya, prajna, jnana; it is looked upon as a direct realisation, an intuitive knowledge, and is compared to the dawn of light.23 Landa 16. S. Radhakrishnan, : 'Indian Philosophy (George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., London), vol. I, 1923, pp. 293; 331. 17. Hajime Nakamura, op.cit., pp. 151-152. 18. Vinaya pitaka or the Book of Discipline, Vo, IV, Mahavagga 68; Transl. by I.B. Horner, London, 1951. 19. Digha Nikaya, or Dialigues of the Buddha, Vols. I-III, Transl. By Rhys Davids, 2.15ff; Sutta Nipata 235. 20. 'Vinaya pitaka or the Book of Discipline, Vol. IV, Mahavagga 1.21; Transl. by I.B. Horner, London, 1951. 21. ibid., Vinaya Pitaka 6.31. 6-9. 22. The Digha Nikaya, the Sutta Nipata, and the Amguttara Nikaya mention bhavanirodha, ragakkhaya, asavanam parikkhaya, etc. 23. Chakravarty : op.cit. p. 111.

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12 . JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Nirvana as all the followers of the Buddha, who has, have accepted the summum bonum compared it to the expiring llame which has no more any hay or wood to burn. The mind released is like the extinction of a flame; it is the extinction of the fires of lust, hatred and ignorance; and Nirvana has been regarded as anidarsana and ananta 24 When one has attained enlightenment, he is free from all errors, free from desire and clinging, no new fetters of karma bind him, his mind is filled with wisdom, peace, calm and compassion.25 Such a man is called an arhant or arhat the holy one. This is nirvana attained in this life itself. Though the liberated lives in this world and leads a life of activity, the pains and pleasures of this world do not affect him. His lise is illumined all his remaining life with this experience, and he knows things as they are, is saved from fear and grief. This may be compared to the State of liberated while alive (jivarmukti) accepted by Vedanta, the Bhagavadgita, and by certain thinkers of other systems of thought.26 This nirvana is distinguished from the parinirvana, i.e. emancipation with the disintegration of the body, i.e., death of the arhat. Vedanta raises the question as to what maintains life in the delivered being after enlightenment, till the moment of death comes, since the will to live has ceased, but the momentum of antecedent karma or action suffices to carry on the individual life, as a potter's wheel continues to revolve for some time even after the potter has stopped moving it with the momentum received earlier. 27 Parinirvana is also called nirupadhisesa nibbanadhatu, i.e., extinction not only of desire and of the fires of passion, but also of the upadhi and of the fivefold aggregate. 28 It is the Buddha's silence over the nature of various concepts that is primarily responsible for diverse and sometimes opposing interpretations offered by his followers and later by eminent scholars of the east and the west.29 The Buddha himself usually speaks of the self or the perfect one or of nirvana in negative terms. Thus, he calls it 'an unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, uninformed 30 and further adds 'there would be no possible exit from the world of the born, originated, 24. Digha-Nikaya, 2.15; Majjhima Nikaya, 72. 25. Chakravarty : op.cit., p. 111. 26. Ibid. 27. Mahanidana Sutta, 36.32. 28. Chakravarty : op.cit, p. 111. 29. ibid. p. 111; 140, f.n. 137. 30. Oldenberg : Buddha (ref. from Udana).

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KANSARA: JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA 13 created, formed if there were not that unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, uninformed. His explanation of the Tathagata, i.e. the one that is of that nature, or the perfect one, implies that it is not an ordinary being, its nature, is such that no predication can give full exhaustive description of its nature. Surely this does not mean non-being; it implies something positive. But as in the case of self (atta), the Buddha speaks about nirvana also mostly in negative terms or keeps silent. This has led the thinkers particularly in the west call him an agnostic on these issues. Nirvana is in fact conceived as so different from the material world, 'without beginning, without end'; a domain over which the law of causality has no power that it is called Nothing. What appears to be reasonable is that since nirvana is conceived as a goal, an ideal or the summum bonum by the Buddha, he must have understood by it something positive, something worth attaining, though he must have also grasped the difficulty of man giving an exhaustive and adequate expression to it with his finitude and limitations.31 The Non-self (anatta) theory in early Buddhism does not mean that the Buddha completely denied the significance of the self. On the contrary, he always admitted the significance of the self in a practical and moral sense as the subject of actions. The practical postulate in early Buddhism makes it clear that "one who knows the self" was highly esteemed therein.32 The virtue of relying upon oneself was also stressed considerably. In his own case he declared : "I have taken refuge to myself."33 The Buddha taught Ananda, his disciple, in his last sermon : "Be you lamps to yourselves. Be you a refuge to yourself. Betake yourself to no external refuge. Holu fast to the Truth as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the Truth. Don't look for refuge to any one besides yourself."34 According to the Buddha, bad actions hurt oneself.35 The evil done by oneself, self-begotten, self-bread, crushes the foolish, as a diamond breaks a precious stone. 36 The foolish man bears fruit to his own 31. Chakravarty : op.cit., pp. 111-112. 32. Anguttara Nikaya, 4, p. 113; Digha Nikaya, 3. 252. 33. Digha Nikaya, 2. p. 120 gatha: katama me saranam attano. 34. Mahaparinibbana-suttam: Edited, with Hindi Translation, by Bhiksu Kittima of Barmi Bauddha Vihara, published by 0. Cozan, Akyab (Burma), 1941, 77, p. 51 : Tasmat ih', Anandal atta-dipa viharatha atta sarana ananna-sarana/Dhamma-dipa dhamma-sarana ananna-sarana/ 35. Dhammapada, 163: ....asadhuni attano ahitani ca/ 36. ibid., 161 : Attana'va katam papam attajam anasambhavam/ Abhimanthati dummedham vajiram 'va'smamayam manim//

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 destruction,37 because he whose wickedness is very great brings himself down to that state where his enemy wishes him to be, as a creeper does with a tree which it surrounds.38 In Buddhism a man who is devoted to religious practice is extolled as living his lise void of cravings, perfected, cool, in blissful enjoyment, his whole self ennobled.39 While deliberating on the nature of nirvana, we must not ignore the fact that in early Buddhism two kinds of self were admitted. The one is the self of ordinary daily life; a practical distinction man is led to make by the inherited concepts of language. This ordinary self has to be subdued, for man has a tendency to attach linguistic entities to feelings, which can result in such feelings, now having been given a name, being thought to be a self; and this may well be ignorance which must be overcome. The other is a latent self was called "the lord of self."40 This clarifications should make it possible to see through the apparent contradiction in Buddhism brought about by multiple usages of the term 'atta' or sell, and in addition facilitate explanation of Nirvana as "taking refuge to the truth of Self of one's own." Thus, one must understand that the Buddhist concepts of anatta, or nonself, and the atta, or the "true self' are not at odds with each other. On the contrary, the former is one of the Buddha's aids to understanding the latter. Through following the Buddha's path and thoroughly understanding the phenomenal nature of existence and awareness that they are altogether empty of permanent self, one finds that his true self is an expression by the Buddha of his confidence that the unobstructed events have the moral character of universal norms (dharma) and coincide perfectly with man's duty.41 The Buddhist life of the Perfect One is difficult for ordinary people to fathom. The ideal situation is not something concrete, or something sizable. It lies only in proceeding towards the aim of the ideal. Proceed a mile, the ideal lies further on. Go on two miles, it lies further none the less, like a shadow projected on the way forward. The ideal situation always lies in the direction of putting forth effort to the goal, and the goal should be always elevated; since effort towards the goal falls under 37. ibid., 164 : Yo sasanam arahatam arianam dhammajuvitam/ Parikosati dummedho ditthim nissaya papikam/ Phalani katthakasseva attahannaya phullati// 38. ibid., 162 : Yassaccantadussilam maluva salamivotatam/ Karoti so tathattanam yo'tam icchati diso// 39. Digha-Nikaya, 3, pp. 232-233. 40. Dhammapada, 160. 41. Hajime Nakamura, op.cit., pp. 271-272. www.jainel

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KANSARA : JAINISM, MAHAVIRA, BUDDHA AND NIRVANA the doctrine of karma the force of which persists for more than one existence. The man who has attained deliverance may continue his actions in this world, for actions do not defile him. He naturally works for the welfare of others. And, that is why he is esteemed as an Arhat or Buddha superior in the hierarchy to all other Perfect Ones, and other senior ones like an Ayariya, Uvajjhaya, and even an ordinary Sahu, all of whom serve as but milestones on the path of deliverance. Buddha's negative answers to many philosophical issues is not essentially different from Yajnavalkya's 'neti', 'neti'. Both accept that the state of release, whether it is called moksa or nirvana, is incomprehensible. However, in spite of this admission, the Upanisadic thinkers call the ultimate reality Brahman or Atman and describe it as unity, as sat-cid-ananda. The Buddha seems to have maintained a logically more consistent position in this regard as he does not concentrate on such issues. Does not formulate any metaphysical or epistemological theories of one reality or many, of realism, idealism, etc.42 Since the Buddha maintained silence on queries relating to the origin of the world, or the true nature or essence of man, or on the issues of freedom, immortality, the unconditioned, etc., he has been regarded as agnostic by some, nihilist by others. Even though it is admitted that the unconditioned is beyond human comprehension, desire to know it and unravel the mysteries of nature is perhaps an inevitable aspect of man's intellectual curiosity and wonder. And yet one cannot underestimate the Buddha's ideas. Besides things that Indian thinkers usually regard as causes of bondage, the Buddha is the first one to consider holding a particular view as also the source of bondage and suffering. The Buddha's position in relation to diverse systems of thought that are referred to as the Buddhist schools of thought is comparable to the relation of the Upanisadic thought currents with the divergent schools of thought like the Nyaya-Vaisesika. Samkhya-Yoga, and the Vedanta.43 42. Chakravarty : op.cit., p. 132. 43. ibid., p. 134.

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MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU DR. A. EKAMBARANATHAN Jaina art in Tamilnadu is noted for its simplicity and stark reality. Images of the Tirthankaras and their attendent deities came to be commissioned on the over-hanging boulders of Jaina caverns and conscerated in structural temples since early medieval times. Generally, they are represented alone or in groups. Among them, Vardhamana Mahavira, the twenty fourth Tirthankara, occupies an important place and possesses certain distinct iconographical features. The popularity of the worship of Mahavira is attested to by a large number of temples dedicated to him, besides the numerous rock cut and independent sculptures. The present study brings to light as to how Mahavira has been portrayed in the sculptural art of Tamilnadu from an early period down to the modern times. Absence of early Sculptures of Mahavira Although Mahavira was considered as an object of veneration long before the advent of Christian era, his sculptures are absent in Tamilnadu till the end of the 6th century A.D. The Sangam classics of the early centuries of the Christian era do not contain any reference to Mahavira at all, even though Jaina principles are interwoven in many of their verses. Among the twin epics, the Silappadikaram glorifies the characteristics of the Jina in general, but does not specifically refer to Mahavira.' In all probability, iconic worship of Mahavira received very little importance among the early adherents of Jainism and hence, the early literary compositions are silent about him. The absence of sculptural representations prior to the 7th century also corroborates the above view. Besides, archaeological space work carried out in different parts of Tamilnadu till date have also not brought to light any icon of Tirthankaras. Thus, literary, archaeological and sculptural evidence for iconic worship of Mahavira are conspicuously absent in Tamilnadu till about the end of the 6th century A.D. Neo-Jainism and Iconic Development Jainism received a temporary setback in the beginning of the 7th century A.D., consequent to the rapid growth of brahmanism fostered 1. Silappadikaram, 10 : 176-191. www.jaineli

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EKAMBARANATHAN: MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU through the bhakti-movement spear-headed by the Saiva Nayanmars and Vaisnava Alvars on the one hand and the large scale brahmanical temple building activities of the Pallava and early Pandya Kings on the other. However, soon Jainism recovered from adversities and began to possess a fresh lease of life by adjusting itself to the changing circumstances and accommodating certain elements from brahmanism. In this process of assimilation and adjustments, neoJainism gave importance to iconic and ritualistic worship of the Tirthankaras and their attendent deities in order to make their religion colourful and, at the same time, to counter balance the growth of brahmanism. As a sequel to this, images of Mahavira also came to be carved on the over hanging boulders of the already existing Jaina caves. Simultaneously, structural temples dedicated to him were also built in villages, the earliest of which existed at Tirupparuttikunram near Kanchipuram and at Valuvur near Vandavasi, the former enshrined a stucco image and the latter a stone figure of Mahavira. These early images are rather simple and archaic, as iconographic standardisation had not taken place by then. The Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikunram owes its origin even to the 6th century A.D. and the Pallava king Simhavisnu (556 A.D.) made some land donations infavour of the Munisangha attached to the temple.2 Stone Sculptures of Mahavira Mahavira is portrayed in sculptural art either all alone or along with other Tirthankaras. In the second category, his figures are sculpted in a group of two, three, four and rarely five. Such group sculptures are carved on boulders or on the facade of caves. Single sculptures, on the other hand, may be either rock-cut or loose images. The earliest known sculpture of Mahavira, dated to 7th century A.D., recovered from Valuvur, is now under worship in the Jaina temple at Venkurnram near Vandavasi. It is a low relief shown seated in dhyana posture, having a slender body, flexible arms, loosely placed legs and surmounted by a trichatra resembling three discs kept one over the other. Its eyes are oblique, nose flat and lips protuberant. Chauri-bearers and creeper designs are conspicuous by their absence in this archaic specimen. Being the earliest image, anatomical perfection had not been achieved in modelling it. This icon has been worshipped by local Jainas as an image of Mahavira for well over a century. Next in point of time, that is to say, 8th century sculptures of Mahavira are found at Panchapandavamalai, Karuppankunru and ARE, A-10/1958-59. 2. 17

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Thiyagadurgam. The Panchapanndavamalai rock-cut temple which came under Jaina occupation in the 8th century A.D., was provided with a miniature depiction of Mahavira above its ledge.3 It is also in seated meditative posture, but some improvement could be observed in its modelling of physical features. Like the previous specimen, it also has trichatra as the only accessory motif. 18 A medium-sized low relief of Mahavira is carved on a boulder adjacent to the Jaina cavern at Karuppankunru near Madurantakam. Seated in ardhaparynkasana with a slender and flat body, the image is accompanied by camaradaris and adorned with a halo and triple umbrella, thinly executed above the head. With the above group of two rock-cut images, may be added a loose sculpture carved on a conical shaped slab, now housed inside a Jaina cave at Thiyagadurgam near Kallakurichi. It is also depicted in ardhaparyankasana with a flat body and flexible limbs. Although some refinement could be seen on its facial features, the arms are flexible, fingers of the toe are spread out and the trichatra is discular. Apart from these, flanking chauris, flame-issuing prabhavati and front-facing lions on the pedestal are additionally met with in this sculpture. Stylistically, it may be slightly later in point of time than the above specimen and be dated to the latter half of the 8th century A.D. All the aforesaid 8th century icons of Mahavira have the head tonsured, body flat, limbs flexible and trichatra preponderantly discular. In the absence of lion emblem, their identity with Mahavira depends upon their proximity with that of Adinatha sculptures and the prevailing local belief. The two rock-cut images are sculpted not far away from Adinatha, while the loose sculptures are worshipped as Mahavira by the local Jainas. Under the patronage of the early Pandyas as well as Cholas, a large number of rock-cut images of Mahavira came to be commissioned in the 9th century A.D. at Jaina centres like Eruvadi, Kalugumalai, Chitaral, Melapparaipatti, Muttupatti, Kilavalavu, Anaimalai, Chettipodavu, Pechchipallam, Uttamapalayam, Sittannavasal, Ammachartram, Tirakkol, Tirunatharkunru, Chittamur, Cholapandipuram and Vallimalai. Single representations, among them, 3. 4. A. Ekambaranathan, Jaina Temples of Tondainadu, (Tamil), p. 44. At Karuppankunru, Adinatha sculpture is carved at a distance of 12 feet from that of Mahavira. At Panchapandavamalai, Adinatha is carved above the natural cave while Mahavira is seen above the near by rock cut temple.

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EKAMBARANATHAN : MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU 19 of Mahavira adorn the ascetic abodes at Chettipodavu, Chitaral, Tenimalai, Alagarmalai, Cholapandipuram and Vallimalai. The Chettipodavu specimen, (near Madurai) is a bold relief shown in ardhaparyankasana with a well-built body, having broad shoulders. It smiling countenance, flaming aureola around the head, charming chauri bearers and Vidyadharas in great adoration and triple umbrella with a finial atop are aesthetically of a high order exhibiting the best traditions of the 9th century Pandya art. The bold and sturdy conception of its physique and horizontality of shoulders are true reflections of Mahavira's great strength. It is these qualities that sometimes help in identifying sculptures of Mahavira from that of others from 9th century onwards. The cavern in the Andimalai hillock at Cholapandipuram has a seated figure of Mahavira carved on the over-hanging boulder. Its stout body and horizontal shoulders reveal its identity. It was known as "Pindikadavul", i.e., one who pursued austerities underneath the Asoka tree. In 952 A.D., Siddhavadavan, a Chedi chieftain, granted the village Panaippadi for the conduct of worship to this Mahavira figure.6 A defaced figure of Mahavira seated on a throne with a trichatra above the head finds place on the eastern face of the Vallimalai cave. Its identity is resolved by the presence of a two armed yaksi, believed to be Siddhayika, on the right side of the cave. These images exhibit the Western Ganga style of the 9th century A.D. The finest single depiction of Mahavira adorns the facade of a huge cave on the southern slope of Vallimalai hillock. It is a life-size masterpiece, shown majestically seated in meditative pose and surmounted by a triple umbrella set within a conically cut niche. Its button-studded arrangement of the hair style, smiling countenance, massive body with smooth flowing contour of muscles, half closed eyes suggesting contemplative calmness etc., are splendid and spectacular and illustrate the immaculate workmanship of a mastercraftsman. Sculptures of Mahavira commissioned along with Adinatha are found in places like Eruvadi, Muttupatti, Melapparaipatti, 5. 6. P.B. Desai, Jainism in South India and some Jaina Epigraphs. p. 49. ARE, 252/1936-37. I.K. Sharma, Western Ganga Temples of Karnataka, pp. 187-188 (I.K. Sharma's identification of the Yaksi with Siddhayika is not certain). K.R. Srinivasan in Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. II, p. 227. 8.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Uttamapalayam and Vallimalai. In this group, both are seated side by side with some difference in their physical composition. Eruvadi in Tirunelveli district has a rectangular panel containing miniature depictions of Adinatha and Mahavira seated side by side in dhyana posture. Iconographically, both are more or less similar except for the stout physique of Mahavira. Land grants were made for conducting worship to these images consecrated by the renowned recluse Ajjanandi in the 9th century A.D.9 The low hillock at Melapparaipatti near Koilpatti has also similar icons of Adinatha and Mahavira, but are badly damaged owing to weathering of rock. 20 The twin rock-cut sculptures from Muttuppatti and Uttamapalayam in Madurai district are, no doubt, masterpieces of the 9th century Pandya art. At Muttuppatti, the two Jinas are sculpted side by side in deeply cut niches, the former being rectangular while the latter with a curvelinear top. Mahavira, in this group, is shown seated in meditative posture with a massive body and horizontal shoulders. Chamaradaris, flaming prabha, and creeper design are similar in both sculptures. The difference between them lies in the sturdy nature of Mahavira's physique, horizontality of his shoulders, projecting triple umbrella above his head and even the shape of the niche. A definite attempt is. thus, made to differentiate Mahavira from that of Adinatha in sculptural art, consequent to non-adoption of respective cognizances of the Tirthankaras. The above images were commissioned by Maganandi Bhattaraka for the merit of the inhabitants of Kuyilkudi village. 10 The lower cave at Vallimalai has more or less identical bold reliefs of the two Tirthankaras, exhibiting the Western Ganga style of art. Contrary to the usual pattern, these images do not possess prabhavali, trichatra and creeper design. A pair of miniature camaradaris, however, flank them at shoulder level. Besides, the whole group is flanked by Matanga yaksa and Ambika yaksi. In this composition also Mahavira's physique is sturdier than that of Adinatha. Lithic records attribute these figures to the reign of the Western Ganga king Rajamalla II (877907 A.D.11) Rock-cut sculptures of Mahavira in a group of three Tirthankaras find place at Sittannavasal, Chitaral and Kalugumalai. The celebrated Sittannavasal rock-cut temple contains in its sanctum three seated figures of Tirthankaras, surmounted by triple umbrellas. Although all ARE, 603-605/1915. 9. 10. Ibid., 62/1910. 11. Ibid., 91/1889.

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EKAMBARANATHAN: MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU the three are identical, the last in the group represents Mahavira, as he is generally assigned the last place in group sculptures. At Chitaral, Mahavira is sculpted between Parsvanatha and Ambika yaksi. Here, the tradition of placing Mahavira next to Parsva, as of the hierarchy of Tirthankaras, is followed. His figure is portrayed majestically in dhyana posture with a conical shaped trichatra above the head. Lion carvings found on its pedestal have been mistaken for the lanchana of Mahavira by some scholars. 12 Among the "three-in-one" panels, the splendid specimen comes from Kalugamalai, where Mahavira is accommodated within a huge niche. He is elegantly portrayed in meditative pose on a simhasana and flanked by gracefully standing chauri bearers and flying Vidyadharas. Its tonsured head, receding forehead, descending earlobes, half-closed eyes, smiling countenance and smooth flowing muscles of the body mirror the rich heritage of early Pandya art. 21 Mahavira in a group of five sculptures are found and Chettipodavu, Tirakkol and Chittamur. Chettipodavu has low reliefs of three Tirthankaras flanked by two yaksis, equal in size. Among the Jinas, Mahavira, occupying the last place, is sculpted with a muscular body than the others. Accessory features like prabha, trichatra and camaradaris are thinly executed in this panel. The oblong panel in the Malainatha temple at Chittamur contains sculptures of Gommata, Parsvanatha, Adinatha, Mahavira and Ambika yaksi. Here also Mahavira occupies the place next to Adinatha. Besides, Mahavira possesses a sturdy physique and horizontal shoulders, which reveal his identity. This sculptured group was consecrated during the reign of Aditya Chola I.13 Some endowment made for lighting a lamp before these images, when fell into disuse was revived in 888 A.D., by Adity's Queen. 14 In the case of Tirakkol near Vandavasi, all the images are of the Tirthankaras carved around a boulder near the Jaina Cave. In this group, Mahavira is sculpted at last, facing south and with the usual iconographical features. Provisions were made to light perpetual lamps before these images during the Chola period. 15 Apart from the aforesaid 8th and 9th centuries sculptures of Mahavira, isolated images of a single Tirthankara, datable between 12. H. Sarkar in Jaina Art and Architecture, Vol. II, pp. 231-232. 13. ARE, 201/1902 14. Ibid., 203/1902. 15. Ibid., 278/1916.

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22 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 10th and 13th centuries, found through out Tamilnadu, are generally believed to be depictions of Mahavira. This popular belief cannot be summarily rejected as most of them have sturdy physique and horizontal contour of shoulders. Invaraiably, these are in ardhaparyankasana and contain the usual paraphernalia. Among such examples, those from Puliyuran, Chettipatti, Tirunarungondai and Tiirumalai deserve special mention. The specimen from Puliyuran, now on display in the Madurai Museum, represents Mahavira seated in ardhaparyankasana and flanked by camaradaris on either side. His head is surrounded by a makara torana-like prabhavali and topped by a triple umbrella. Lovely creeper designs fill up the space above. Its muscular body, broad shoulders, squarish face etc., reflect the 10th century style of the Cholas. The Chetupatti sculpture, also of the same age, is simple and devoid of all accessory motifs. Besides, it bears a smiling countenance in contrast to the calm appearance of the Puliyuran image. At Tirumalai, Mahavira is shown seated in penance under the shade of a pipal tree with a flaming arch around his head and a trichatra above. Ornamental decorations on the triple umbrella and on the person of chauri bearers are minute and elaborate. This icon of Mahavira carries the best art tradition of the 13th century A.D. The growing popularity of the worship of Mahavira is also echoed in literary compositions like Jivakacintamani. Jivaka, the hero of the work, is said to have offered worship to an image of Vardhamana installed in a temple. 16 Besides, the renowned ascetic Ajjanandi is stated to have attained nirvana by meditating upon the lotus feet of Lord Mahavira. 17 Iconographic details of the Jina are also given in many poems of this devotional literature. 18 Fresh impetus was given to the worship of Mahavira from about the 15th century A.D., the beginning of which is also mirrored in Sripuranam, a Tamil rendering of the Sanskrit Mahapurana. It vividly picturises Mahavira's birth to Siddhartha and Priyakarani, his janmabhiseka performed by Indra, his encounters with god Sanghama and Sulapani and finally his attainment of parinirvana at Pavapuri (pawaya). 19 In order to gain popular appeal to the story of Mahavira, an interesting episode is highlighted in some poems. Accordingly, when his janmabhiseka was done by Indra on the summits of mount Meru, a few drops of water entered into the baby's nostrils, causing him 16. Jivaka-cintamani, verses, 3007-3011, 3552-3555. 17. Ibid., verse, 409. 18. Ibid., verse, 3010-3011. 19. Sripuranam, pp. 619-622. www.jainelik

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EKAMBARANATHAN : MAHAVIRA IN SCULPTURAL ART-TAMIL NADU 23 sneeze violently. As a result, the devas who assembled on the mountain were thrown out in different directions. Realising the strength of the baby, the devas paid their obeisance to him and endowed him the name "Virasvami.20 Apart from this, the upasargas undergone by Mahavira during the course of his penance are also elaborately dealt with in the work. Coinciding with the establishment of the Jinakanchi Mutt at Chittamur in the 15th or 16th century A.D., there was also a spurt in building temples dedicated to Mahavira. Consequently, Jaina centres like Tirumalai, Tachchambadi, Tayanur, Tellaru, Tondur, Peravur, Mullippattu, Valaipandal, Vilankadupakkam, Veliyanallur, Venpakkam, Esakulattur, Kattumalaiyanur, Kilvilivanam, Koilampundi etc., came to possess Mahavira temples, which are under worship even at present. In all these temples, the main deity is a bold relief of Mahavira with the usual iconographical features. Besides, bronze images of Mahavira are also commonly met with in these temples, which are taken out in procession during festivals. These icons become very stiff and have angular profiles of the body and limbs. Their eyes are bulging, nose is sharp and lips are deep cut, Decorations on camaradaris, prabhavali and triple umbrella are more pronounced in them. Even the earlier stucco figures of Mahavira as at Tirupparuttikunram, Karantai and Tirumalai, after their renovations in the 15th century and thereafter, exhibit these rigid physical features. A majority of the stone and metal icons of Mahavira since the 17th or 18th century, contains the lion emblem carved on their pedestals, the practice of which is continued till date. The events connected with the life story of Mahavira attracted the attention of painters also. As a result, the ceiling of the Sangitamandapa of the Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikunram was executed with two layers of paintings, one in the 14th century and the other in the 17th century. The earlier paintings, now extant only on the eastern part of the ceiling, depict the birth of Vardhamana to Priyakarani, his janmabhiseka performed by Saudharmendra, god Sanghama as a snake entwining a tree. Vardhamana subducing it and finally a beautiful illustration of his samavasarana21 In the second layer of painting, the life story of Mahavira is picturised in twenty seven panels and each one contains a label mentioning the event. In the first panel, the dream of Priyakarani, its 20. Ibid., pp. 619-620. 21. T.N. Ramachandran, Tirupparuttikkunram and its Temples, pp. 161-163.

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JAIN JOURNAL : Voi-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 interpretation by a Purohita, birth of Vardhamana and his janmabhiseka are painted. These are followed by Sanghama as a serpent entwining a tree, frightening Vardhamana and his playmates, its subjugation and Sanghama worshipping the brave prince. The next group represents Vardhamana renouncing his princely lise, undergoing diksa, pursueing austerities, receiving food from the king of Kulagrama and getting enlightenment. In the concluding part, the samavasarana of Mahavira is elegantly painted, around which are seen bhavyas, celestials, and dancing nymphs.22 These paintings are more or less in confirmity with the textual descriptions found in Kriyakalabham of the 17th century, which narrate events connected with the life of Mahavira from his birth to nirvana in twenty five slokas. 23 22. lbid., pp. 117-132. 23. Kriyakalabham, slokas, 259-277. www.jaineli

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INFLUENCE OF BHAGAVAN MAHAVIRA'S TEACHINGS ON TAMILS PROF. S. THANYA KUMAR Jainism, the religion of Ahimsa, flourished in Tamilnadu as early as 3rd B.C. The antiquity of Jainism is established with literary and epigraphical evidences. But the Jains believe that their religion in this part is much older than the available evidences show. There is a reference to the highest religious ideal of Jainism in the earliest Tamil work THOLKAPPIAM. It speaks about the annihilation of Karmas and attainment of omniscience, "Lord is one who liberates his soul from the shackles of karma and becomes the omniscient self." This is the religious ideal of the religion of Ahimsa. The migration of Jainism under the leadership of Acarya Bhadrabahu gave an additional vigour to the non-violence cult which was the prominent and the dominent faith with the people in the south. The Jaina Preachers enriched the Tamil language and culture. The tolerant Tamil society entertained all faiths. The Bhakti movement which gained upperhand had led to the prosecution of the Jains. Jainism which was once the predominant faith in Tamil country by 9th cent became restricted to a few pockets in the districts of North Arcot, South Arcot, Chinglepet, and Tanjore. There are monuments and inscriptions in the southern and western districts of Tamilnadu. It is generally claimed that Saint Jnanasambanadar sang away Jainism out of Tamilnadu. It is not his songs but prosecution with the help of members of Royal family that led to disappearance of Jaina saints and conversion of sravakas into the Saiva fold. This is further aggravated by the anti-Jaina propagation of Alwars-the champions of Vaisnavism. Influence of Mahavira's Teachings The meticulous and militant efforts of Champions of Bhakti movement had not eradicated the principles of Ahimsa championed by the Bhagavan Mahavira and his disciples. The principles of Ahimsa and the correlated ethical conduct have percolated the Tamil society. Even now one can easily find them among the Tamils which indicate the influence of Bhagavan Mahavira.

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26 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1.July 2001 Vegetarianism One of the foremost Jaina principles that has rooted deeply in Tamil Society is vegetarianiam. Meat eating was uniformly condemned by all. The sobriety of the mind is influenced by the purity of the food. One of the famous Tamil poets of the 19th century Thiru. V. Ka. has pointed out "The highest stage of not eating meat is Jainism." The vegetarian food, which is presently called "Saiva food" in olden days referred to as "Aarugatha food" - the food of the Jains. Even now in Ceylon it is called by this old name. The Tamils who acquired meat eating as a secondary habit, avoid it on the important religious festival days. Generally the original customs and practices of a society are reflected in the festivals. Most of the customs and practices not observed by the people in their day to day life are observed at least on festival days. This points out the fact that the Tamils influenced by the religion of Ahimsa were all vegetarians. Animal Sacrifice In ancient Tamilnadu even the hunters offered only millets and honey to their deities. But later on due to misquidance animals were sacrificed to appease minor deities. This cruel act of Tamils was condemned by the Jains from the beginning. Ancient Tamil literature contains Kavyas that are composed on this subject (Nilakesi, Yasodharakavyam, Jivasambothanai). Jainism condemned it from pre-historic days. This fact is further supported by the fact that in Tamilnadu the "South Indian Humanitarian League" a society formed by the Jains and others spearheaded the move to bring in legislation banning animal sacrifices in temples. Late C.S. Mallinatha Jain and Late T.S. Sreepal, both Tamil Jains, carried out wide publicity condemning the animal sacrifice. Late T.S. Sreepal was called "Jivabandhu" for his services. All fairminded Tamils irrespective of their religious affiliations helped for this just cause and to-day animal sacrifice is legally banned in Tamilnadu temples. Thus in Tamilnadu Jain influence bid-good bye to this barbaric practice. Social Customs There are a number of social customs peculiar to the Jains that find their place among Tamils irrespective of their religious belief. Jainism preaches to avoid hot discussions and hilarious conversation and rivelry on the dinning table. This is to avoid physiological effects that follow. Conversation and discussions while eating affects one's digesting capacity and there is every possibility for suffocation.

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KUMAR: INFLUENCE OF BHAGAVAN MAHAVIRA'S TEACHINGS ON TAMILS 27 Avoiding taking food after sunset is yet another influence of the Jains of Tamils. Even now some saivaites in Tirunelveli district do not take food at night. Festivals like Dipavali, Sivaratri and Sarasvati puja are introduced by the Jains among Tamils. Karma One of the important principles of Jainism is the Karma theory. In ancient Tamil literature there are references to Karma theory of the Jains. In PURANANOORU, a Sanga Tamil work, there is a poem that reflects the Jaina Karma theory : "As the raft moves along the current of the river So the Soul along the fate" "Evil and good are not given by others" (results from our own activities) When Tamils were exposed to faith that approved of atonements, the ethics and self confidence of Tamils deterioted. Tamils were duped by a group of people that they can cast away the effects of their bad deeds by the offerings to the deities. Religious Tolerance The Syadvada or Anekantavada also had a profound influence on Tamils. The religious tolerance widely prevalent in Tamil Society is the echo of the Syadvada. The Jaina theory that every statement or view is neither fully correct nor wrong taught the Tamils to develop tolerance and respect others' views even if they are enemies. The Jaina author review only the views of other faiths and never touch personalities associated with the faiths. This had its effects and Tamils developed religious tolerance. Parimita Parigraha Parimita Parigraha is yet another virtue endowed upon Tamils by the Jains. Though Jainism does not restrict one's earnings beyond one's need, it condemns its accumulation in one hand. While enthusiastically working in his own field of occupation whatever accures to him beyond his self imposed limit must be set apart for the benefit of the whole society. For this Jainism advocated 'Caturvidha Dana'. These danas are not restricted to any particular community. To give alms without caste distinction by Tamils is a legacy of Jaina thinking. This principle is being dealt in detail by the arcient Tamil works, of which Thirukural is the foremost.

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28 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 "The wealth that is acquired by the householder by toil and effort must set apart for helping those that are fit to be recipients." (212) "Share your meal with the needy. Protect every living being. This is the chief of all the moral precepts formulated by those well-versed in scriptures." (322) Thirukural is a scale of Jaina influence on Tamils. It is the social expression of Bhagavan Mahavira's teaching. Equality When Tamils were suppressed on the basis of cast and creed Jainism advocated equality. Ancient Jaina Tamil works reflect this. Some of them go to the extent of condemning Varnasrama Dharma based on caste system. Jainism infused self-confidence and self-respect in Tamils who were isolated from the main stream of life. Jainism points out that it is the conduct and character of an individual that are important." One's birth in a particular caste or community has no relevance. When Tarnils were suppressed on the basis of caste, Jaina thinking created confidence in them. Arugalacheppu, a Tamil work, says. "Even a low casteman, if possesses right faith, is divine." In another Tamil work it is stated that "All are equal in birth and disser in their excellence by their profession" These Jaina works and Lord Mahavira's preaching instilled in Tamils self-confidence and forced those who preached caste differences special status based on birth to a particular caste, to recognize them and accept the social equality. Education The response to education by Tamils without any caste difference is yet another influence of the Jains. The Jains taught all people without caste or sex difference. Jaina ascetics taught children all aspects of education. The centres of learning are called Pallis. The term palli refers to the abodes of Jain Munis. Even today the school in Tamilnadu are known as Pallis. From this one can judge the influence in the field of education. The children before they start their lessons pay homage to the Siddhas. Every child would say "Namostu Siddham". This was followed even in Karnataka where the children say "Siddham Namah".

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KUMAR: INFLUENCE OF BHAGAVAN MAHAVIRA'S TEACHINGS ON TAMILS This obeisance to the Siddhas was a secular prayer in those days which, later on, lost significance. But the term Palli still remains. The Jains and Jaina ascetics were responsible for the enrichment of Tamil literature. They popularised palmscript writing and literary activities. "Jains had been great students and copyists of books"1 "It was through the fostering care of the Jains that the South seems to have been inspired with new ideals and literature enriched with new forms and expressions.' "12 29 The contribution of the Jains to Tamil literature is inestimable. They have enriched the Tamil language in an organised manner. There are Jaina works on grammar, Kavyas, linguistics, lexicography, ethics, maths, music and philosophy. Most of these are contributed by ascetics who never mentioned their names. In many of the Puranas and Kavyas some of the modern scientific principles are explained in clear terms. ('Nilakesi-a Tamil Kavya speaks how Rainbow is formed, plants are living beings-evolution-clinical tests of faces and urine etc.) "That what is known as Augustanage of Tamil literature was also the age of the predominance of the Jains." "3 Equality of women to education is first established by the Jains. There are many inscriptional evidences that support this. The Jaina women were well-versed in scriptures and other fields. They spread their knowledge to other women irrespective of caste and creed. Jain nuns conducted schools and colleges exclusively for women. When the women are forbidden from the field of education, it is the Jaina influence that created many women stalwarts among Tamils. AVVAI, KURATHI, KAUNTI etc. are the terms that refer to the learned women of Tamilnadu. There are many Tamil works that are addressed to women. This also shows the concern of the Jains towards the education of Tamil women which is an influence of Bhagavan Mahavira's teachings. Equality of women for religious study spread among Tamils due to Jaina influence. Arts and Architecture The influence of the Jains in the fields of Arts and Architecture is 1. Burnell; South Indian Palaeography. 2. Literary History of India. 3. M.S. Ramasamy Iyengar: "Studies in South Indian Jainism".

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 remarkable. The Jains were the pioneers in the field of Temple architecture. The Jaina conception of divinity and prayer paved the way for temples for Arhats. The earlier forms of place of workship are cave temples, bas-reliefs and monolithic granite idols. Later massive temples with distinct gopurams and mandapas were constructed. The earliest extant temples of grandeur are the Jain temples. Temple worship paved the way for iconography, wall-paintings and sculpturing. The cave paintings at Sithannavasal in Pudukottai district and at Tirumalai in North Arcot district show the Jains interest in paintings. The Jains standardised the temple architecture. This has inspired and influenced the Tamils of other religious faiths also to construct massive temples. 30 In the Jaina temple architecture, a sthamba, called Manasthambha, is a unique feature. This is installed in the front of the muhamandapa and generally taller than the Vimana above the Garbhagriha. Patronage of fine arts by the Jains influenced and encouraged Tamils to develop these arts. There are many Jaina Tamil works that speak about them. The Jains, the followers of Lord Mahavira and his teaching's, by their presence in Tamil country, influenced Tamils to a larger extent in diverse fields like culture, language, literature and social ethics.

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RELEVANCE OF JAIN PRINCIPLES OF MAHAVIRA IN MODERN CONTEXT DR. BINOD KUMAR TIWARY During the 6th century B.C., India witnessed a very important socio-religious movement and in that very background, it got the honour of producing two great progressive spiritual leaders-Tirthankara Mahavira and Gautama the Buddha. They left their palaces at a very young age, performed severe tapas, got supreme knowledge and devoted their whole lives in the service and welfare of mankind. They travelled and spread their religio-ethical and moral preachings throughout the country and succeeded in giving a new and rational light to the society. Their teachings were taken as the guidelines by the then people and those are even no less important for the present society and culture. Tirthankara Mahavira was not the founder or originator of the faith of Jainism, but only a crusader of the existing one held by a series of twentyfour Tirthankaras. Nevertheless, it was undoubtedly he, who put the teachings of Jainism on a solid footings and systematised and crystalised them as an independent school of thought. He added much to it and gave sociological, philosophic and scientific justifications for the rules of conduct propounded by his predecessors. Before and during the time of his advent, the whole of society was plunged in corruption, selfishness, economic unequality, exploitation, immorality and casteism. While in one hand, a particular class of society was considered as untouchable, on the other, the women were taken to be a thing of exploitation and entertainment and thus, all traditions of humanity and compassion had been forgotten. The society was deteriorating very fast and no ethical or religious force could become so strong to have a control on it. In such a crucial time, we find the advent of Tirthankara Mahavira, the last Jina teacher of the series, who took the great task and did what could be possible not only to make the society an ideal one, but to purify the soul of each and every member of it internally as well. He introduced such changes in the existing Jain religion in order to meet the needs of the time. He organised religious conferences called samavasarana and delivered his sermons in the prevalent language of the common men of his time, which has been termed as Ardhamagadhi or Magadhi. He was such an ideal personality that he did not preach to others what he

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32 JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 had not practised himself. He showed the path of patience, forbearance, self denial, pity, forgiveness, humanitarianism and consideration. In other words, he asked the people to follow the message of love, kindness and sacrifice. In Jainism, nirvana was the ultimate object of life and according to Mahavira, it consists in the attainment of peace and infinite bliss. The harmonious combination of three jewels (tri-ratna) - right faith, right knowledge and right conduct -- were the essential points, which lead to perfection by the destruction of karma. Moksa or salvation is a function neither only of faith nor only of knowledge, nor again of morality alone. It is a joint product of all the three. Again, the three are interconnected. Without right faith, there is no knowledge; without right knowledge, there is no virtuous conduct; without virtues, there is no deliverance and without deliverance, there is no perfection. For the realisation of absolute happiness, Mahavira taught five Vows (pancamahavrata), which were ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non stealing or honesty), aparigraha (non possession) and brahmacarya (celibacy). Among the five, he gave much importance to his first vrata, non-violence or ahimsa and that is why, he has been called in the Jain world 'the apostle of non-violence'. His teaching of ahimsa was no doubt a revolutionary step with regard to the socio-economic condition of that period, when the violent practices were very much in use in all the socio-religious sacraments and functions in the forms of various yajnas. The non-violence of Mahavira was not only preached against killing of animals in religious sacrifices, but it was preached in its minute form and was much more extensive in scope. Keeping ill will against someone in thought or speaking harsh words to anyone is as good as an example of himsa as inflicting any bodily injury to anybody. In other words, Mahavira believed in nonviolence not merely in action, but also in word and thought. So, mere avoidance of killing somebody is not ahimsa, rather it is much more than this. It was a terrific challenge to social unequalities and was a . protest against mutual jealousies, hatred, conflict and pride, resulting from wealth and the feeling of high and low. The non-violence of Jainism has been considered as the greatest rule of conduct of this cult to the world and great personalities as well as champions of peace, from Asoka to Akbar to Mahatma Gandhi, who accepted it as the sole way of their lives. The meaning of truth (satya) does not specify that one should abstain from falsehood only, but its concept is to see the world in its real and natural form. Truth, if it is harmful to others, should be

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TIWARY: RELEVANCE OF JAIN PRINCIPLES OF MAHAVIRA IN MODERN CONTEXT 33 avoided. Exaggeration of facts, finding faults with others, delivering indecent speech are all examples of falsehood or untruth. Speaking in a noble, beneficient and balanced manner and with a peaceful mind upholds truth and hence it must be practised. The absense of artificiality is the observance of truth. According to Mahavira, truthfulness lies in the heart of non-violence. Those, who speak untruth, hurt all, which is a pure act of violence. Several characteristics like confidence, gravity, bravery and selflessness can be found only in a truthful person (satya purusa). Likewise, Mahavira advocated restraint and penance and for this, renunciation and non-possession are essential. The literal meaning of asteya (non-stealing) is abstention from taking a thing of someone else which is not given. But, in Jainism, it is much more comprehensive and includes within it, the avoidance of all sorts of dishonesty and conceit. This vrata leads to the path of social equality. Jainism wishes that one should get only his due and everybody has got the right to get his own part in the society. It very clearly advises its followers to voluntarily sacrifice as many things as possible. Jainism regards stealing as a severe kind of violence. The principle of non-possession (aparigraha) is one of the ethical conceits of Tirthankara Mahavira. According to him, craving brings greed and this greed gives birth to our desires. Craving, as the Jain texts say, never ends, rather it turns into lust and attachment, which is the main cause for possession. Mahavira not only preached the principles of non-possession, but denounced possession in his hardest words and asked the people to accept the vow of aparigraha if they wished harmony and peace in their social organisations. Aparigraha does not merely mean discarding household things, but it refers to non-accumulation of wealth and simplicity of life. From the sramanic perspective, wealth cannot give what is necessary to a man. An aversion to possession to keep down one's requirements is a primary condition of the non-violent way of life. Jain teachers were free from fear and want. According to Mahavira, the root of all the sufferings was attachment towards the objects of worldly enjoyment. He advised that wisemen should not develop attachments with the worldly things, not even with his/her own body. He has preached that it is only when attachment is vanished that the human mind becomes free from mental tensions and emotional disorders. Possession is just against the idea of purification and both cannot go together side by side. Non-possession is the foundation for spiritual and humanistic contemplation. The lust for possession instigates several social sins, like injustice, fued, hatred, bitterness and socio-economic inequality. Against all such things,

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Jainism preaches that is the habit of possession is dropped, there would everywhere prevail peace and prosperity, in which the poor and helpless downtrodden would certainly get a chance to come in the mainstream of the society. According to Mahavira, the vow of strict and complete non-possession was to be obeyed by the ascetics, but for the householders, it is defined in a very liberal tone as 'accepting the most essential thing in the smallest proportion needed.' The fifth vow Brahmacarya (celibacy) was almost included within the aparigraha vrata. But Mahavira separated the two to define the meaning of celibacy in a clearer way than what was needed of the time, as people had become the slave of the sensual pleasures and they had indulged in several unsocial activities. He gave ten conditions for the realisation of Brahmacarya. In general terms, celibacy means abstinence from excessive desire for any sort of sense enjoyment or even thinking about such objects. The observance of this doctrine protected the people from committing many crimes and evils. It created healthy atmosphere in the society and made the people virtuous. According to Tirthankara Mahavira, Brahmacarya was the prime element for character making. Luxurious life makes the members of the nation lazy, weak, corrupt and diseased and in such an atmosphere, nobody would think for the welfare of the society, about uplifting the position of women and check on mental and physical sensual desires. Celibacy is the self developed idea of co-ordination or equality of men and women. It is regarded as the highest point of purification, where the sexual distinction vanishes and passions die. It symbolises sacrifice of all kinds of lust and attachment. As celibacy and nudity are closely related from the point of view of controlling the senses and the nonattachment to bodily pleasure and external needs. Another point apart from the five, which Mahavira added in his religion, was making confession compulsory instead of optional for the monks and his followers. For the people, who obeyed him, Tirthankara Mahavira prescribed certain rules of conduct also. He tried to bring changes in the existing social order and preached that it was the karma and not varna, which made a man a member of the then sour classes of the society. According to him, none was born as a Brahman or Sudra. He opened the door of his religious order for all irrespective of one's caste or creed or status. He allowed women also to enter into the samgha, who were called as sadhuis. We have textual evidence to show that the bhiksuni samgha consisted of 36000 women followers, whose head was also a bhiksuni named Arya Candana. Out of the four orders of Jain community, the

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TIWARY RELEVANCE OF JAIN PRINCIPLES OF MAHAVIRA IN MODERN CONTEXT 35 last one consisted of devout laywomen or sravikas, who were three hundred and fiftyeight thousand in number. In this way, the women for the first time were considered equal to their male counterparts in the prevailing society and religion. Mahavira's philosophical teachings include Syadvada, Anekanta, Asrava, Ajiva, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjara and Moksa and all these are related somehow or other with morality, patience, satisfaction, equality, purity, brotherhood and socialism. The teachings of Mahavira had a direct and blissful effects on the Indian social structure and it helped in its upliftment. He did his utmost for the welfare and salvation of the entire humanity, without any distinction of sex, class, caste, colour and nationality. If we examine and define his ideas and teachings, particularly his five vows, we very much feel that the rational and logical teachings of Mahavira are still relevant in the present circumstances in so many respects. His teachings showed the path of economic equality through nonpossession and tried to eradicate corruption through the law of celibacy. According to him, the human beings should try to elivate themselves by keeping restraints on their senses. Man is his own biggest friend and biggest enemy. Those, who do not keep their sensual desires in control, are bound to suffer. He brought a socio-religious revolution, in which welfare of mankind and respect for each other's rights were his main goal. With such objectives, he exorted people to eschew slavery. During his wanderings, he propagated a religion in which there would be no exploitation and feeling of high and low and in which every individual would get sufficient opportunities for progress. In that background, when we analyse the contents of the pancavrata and moral principles propagated by Mahavira, we find that these were not concerned merely with the Jain religion as well as culture of a particular period and place, but were more related to the social, national and human feelings and needs of every time to come. While there are moral and spiritual sentiments and emotions in the background of the teachings of Mahavira, the same may be helpful in bringing peace, unity and brotherhood in our present world. The simple life style and the generous attitude promoted by him is a sole step to meet the challenges of the contemporary world of consumerism and hoarding mentality. In the present global environment, violence, corruption, adultery and bitterness are growing very rapidly. The materialistic attitude is destroying not only the religious and spiritual sentiments, but even the humanity and our whole culture as well. Every part of the world is suffering from the bad effects of massacres, exploitations and selfishness on the name of peace, friendship and social justice, while morality has gone to its lowest ebb. We are not able to be acquainted with our neighbouring surroundings, resulting that our

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36 JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 relative doubts are not being removed. In such a condition, neither we can avert the miscries of a conflict, nor can prepare the real atmosphere of co-operation and co-existence. Everybody is so much fed up and tired of the present tense life that people are really in great need of such a society, in which there would be no exploitation, discrimination and malice. If we want to get rid of all prevailing evils, miseries and pains, we will have to abandon the materialistic attitudes and develop the spiritual ones, in which there would be no lust for getting only worldly comforts as the last goal of human achievement. To obtain the real truth of the life, we have no other option but to think of the solution in the very background of the principles of Jainism and Mahavira which could be effective in providing us peace, happiness and prosperity. ernational www.jainel

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THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA IN THE MODERN AGE DULI CHAND JAIN Problems encountering the modern world The present age is called the age of Science and Technology. There is a virtual explosion of Information Technology which has brought nations and people closer to each other. New scientific thoughts have influenced every person's life provides him more amenities and facilities. But the question arises whether science has made man's life happier and harmonious? The answer to this question is in the negative. Today man's life is full of tension, anxieties and disorders. In the race of progress and growth, man has forgotten the real purpose of his life. To-day man knows much more about the external world but very little about his own self. He is leading a life full of disharmony and conflicts. On the International level we find that man has conquered all the agencies of nature and made ordinary person's life more comfortable than it was earlier. But, on the other hand, we find alarming growth of Armament Industries and production of powerful Bombs and explosive materials. If unfortunately there is another nuclear war it will be most dangerous and will result in the destruction of the whole humanity. Another problem that mankind is facing today is that inequality is increasing amongst the nations and peoples. The world is divided into 'haves' and 'have-nots'. The U.S.A. which has just 6% of the world's population consumes 30% o! the world's resources, whereas the majority of the people of the Globe are suffering from scarcity, wants and impoverishment. Life in advanced countries is also not harmonious. Families are broken up and relationships snapped. Individual feels isolated and alienated with a sense of vacuum and boredom. The economic growth alone as the yard stick for measuring standard of life to the exclusion of all other values has verily led to the destruction of human personality. Last year, a report appeared in the "Economist" which presented a grim picture of the so-called advanced western society -- quite a large number of people were involved in the misuse of cirugs and guns resulting in violent crimes and unbecoming behaviour in public life. The caption of the report is "Broken family life."

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38 It states The importance of marriage has become irrelevant in the management of family and growing up of children. The rate of divorce has doubled between 1960 and 1996. * * * * * In 1960 the percentage of unmarried mothers was only 5%, it has gone up to 32% in 1996. JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 In 1972, 28% children were living with either father or mother (one of them) of their married parents, in 1998 52% of the children live with either mother or father (one of them) of their married parents. Even married couple do not want to beget children in America. In 1972, 45% parents did not have any child, their percentage has gone up to 62% in 1996. Mr. F.L. Lucas, an English critic, has given a graphic representation of our age as follows: "Many a times, after pondering, I am amazed that some day the human civilisation will come to an end, not by an atom bomb, or famines or any such means, but it would come to an end by man's own intellect and deterioration of self-control in the midst of the tension of the highly artificial civilisation." The question, therefore, arises whether religion and particularly Jain religion can meet the need of our times and solve the problems of present day humanity. Jaina thinkers have stated clearly that religion does not mean mere rituals and dogmas. It has eternal values which have validity for all times to come. Jainism is a living religion propounded by Lord Mahavira in the present era and it is practised by lakhs of people even to-day. The essence of religion First of all, let us understand what is the meaning of religion? According to Jainism, the real nature of any substance is religion-"dhammo vatthusahavo". If it is so, the question arises what is the real nature of a human being? Lord Mahavira says, "the real nature of every soul is equanimity". It is said in Mulacara that the oneness of the soul with right faith, right knowledge, self-restraint and austerity is Samaya. Know this as Samayika (equanimity).2 In Jainism, religion is not different from the practice for the realisation of our own essential nature of sva-svabhava. In this state the consciousness is completely Dvadasanupreksa, 478. 1. 2. Mulacara, 519.

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JAIN: THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA free from constant flickering, excitements, disharmony and disorders. In reality, the soul is different from the body and it should remain away from vibhavas or impure state of mind. The object of religion is to achieve equanimity of mind and therefore soul and get real peace and blissfulness. Integral view of life Jainism takes an integral view of life. Either faith or knowledge by itself cannot take us to the path of salvation. We should have a combination of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct to tread the path of salvation."3 These three-Samyag-darsana (right saith), Samyag-jnana (right knowledge) and Samyak-caritra (right conduct) are the three jewels of Jainism. "Without right faith, there is no right knowledge and without right knowledge there is no virtuous conduct."4 Detachment from the objects of worldly pleasures, a balanced state of mind and the feeling of equanimity are considered as right faith or attitude. "A person having right faith knows what is to be relinquished and what is to be accomplished.5 Through right knowledge a person understands the true nature of the soul and the non-living substances. It is said by Lord Mahavira, "He who knows the self to be wholly different from the impure body and comprehends it to be the knower of all substances, is said to be a master of all scriptures." According to the Mulacara right knowledge is that which helps one to understand the truth, controls the mind and purifies the soul.7 According to Jaina thinkers, equanimity of body, mind and soul should be a directive principal of religious life. The equanimity of mind is non-attachment (Aparigraha), equanimity of body is non-violence (Ahimsa) and the equanimity of thought is non-absolutism (Anekanta). These three are the pillars of Jainism and the observance of these results in peace and harmony in the life of the individual and the society. Reverence for All Life The cardinal principle of Jainism is non-violence. It means giving respect or reverence to all forms of life. All life formation including human beings, animals, plants, trees, insects etc. have the same life source of energy. This energy is available even in invisible creatures in air, water, wind and ether. Lord Mahavira says, "Not to kill any living Tattvartha-sutra, 1.1. Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 28.30. 3. 4. 5. Sutra-pahuda, 5. 6. 7. Kartikeyanupreksa, 465. Mulacara, 585. 39

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40 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 olves. being is the quintessence of all wisdom. Certainly, one has to understand that non-violence and equality of all living beings are essentials of Dharma." In Jainism non-violence is the pivot on which its whole ethics revolves. Non-violence is not a single virtue, but it is a combination of all virtues. Lord Mahavira says that non-violence is equated with sixty virtuous qualities like peace, harmony, welfare, trust, fearlessness etc.9 Jainism believes in the principle of "Live and Let live". LOTO alities Today when we see cruelties on animals on a large scale in mechanical slaughter-houses and the use of animals for leather products, in food industries, in producing medicines, in cosmetics and so on, we can understand how important it is to adhere to nonviolence so as to save the life on this planet. The extensive development of meat Industries has brought environmental degradation on a large scale and to-day environmentalists are worried about how to stop it to make life of people healthy and happy. Recognising that total adherence to the strictest form of nonviolence is impractical for a house holder, Jaina preachers have drawn a distinction between violent activities totally forbidden and those which may be tolerated within strict guidelines. From this stand point, violence has been classified into the following four categories : 1. Deliberate or aggressive violence i.e. intentional killing. 2. Protective violence resulting in opposing attack on one's lise, property or country. 3. Occupational violence resulting in Industrial or Agricultural activity of the individuals for earning their livelihood. 4. Unintentional but indirect injury to living beings from acts necessary for normal life like cooking or cleaning etc. The saints or nuns abjure all the four types, but the layman can renounce only the first type, while he has to indulge in the other three categories, but after observing proper vigilance. The positive side of non-violence is as important as the negative side, but this is sometimes not fully appreciated. The positive side implies kindness, forgiveness, charity and service. This has been beautifully explained in a verse by the renowned Acarya Amitagati of the lith century. A.D. as follows: "Friendship towards all beings, respect for the qualifies of virtuous people, utmost compassion for the 8. 9. Sutrakstanga-sutra, 1.11.10. Prasnavyakarana-sutra, 2.1.21.

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JAIN : THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA afflicted beings and equanimity towards those who are not welldisposed towards me-may my sould have these dispositions for ever."10 A non-violent person should be full of benevolence towards all living beings. Also he should avoid food, clothing and other requirements which involves the slaughter of animals. He should also not indulge in trades like brewing, fishing and butchering. Non-violence is the greatest need of the present day. Faced with the danger of ecological disaster and nuclear holocaust on the one hand and unrestrained materialistic pursuit on the other, humanity is groping in the dark for the ray of light which can save its very existence. Such light is provided by shunning violence at all levels by practicing non-violence. Equality Mahavira laid great stress on the equality of all human beings. Stressing action and not birth as a determining factor of superiority was a radical step in the teachings of Mahavira. He proclaimed, "A person does not become a monk by merely tonsuring, nor a Brahmana by reciting Onkara Mantra, nor a Muni by living in the forest, nor a hermit by wearing cloths woven out of Kuca grass. One becomes a monk by equanimity, Brahmana by celibacy, a Muni by his knowledge and a hermit by his austerities."11 Lord Mahavira had great regard for women. He said that both men and women were eligible to attain emancipation after destroying the passions and Karmas. He declared, "There are many virtuous women who are famous for their purity and chastity. They are like the goddesses before whom even the celestials bow."12 According to Jainism, all barriers of caste, creed and colour are artificial and must be removed. The principle of equality propounds that every one has a right to live. The directive principle of living is not "Living on others" or "living by killing" but "living with and for others" (parasparopagraho jivanam). 13 So, for as the welfare of human society is concerned it depends on mutual co-operation, sacrifice of our own interest for the sake of our fellow beings and regard for other's life. If above mentioned elements are essential for our social life, then non-violence is absolutely necessary for human life. Society exists not on violence but on non-violence, not on fulfilment of self-interest but on sacrifice of self-interest, not on 10. Samayika-patha, 1. 11. Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 25.31, 32. 12. Bhagavati Aradhana, 995. 13. Tattvartha-sutra, 5.21. www.jaineli

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 claiming for our own rights but accepting the rights of others too. Thus we can say that non-violence is an inevitable principle of existence of human society. Aparigraha : Limiting the desires and passions Aparigraha is the fifth vow of monks and nuns in the Jaina code of ethics (Mahavrata). For householders also it is the fifth vow in their code of ethics known as Anuvrata. This principle has great importance in the present world when we are going on increasing our requirements and desires to the maximum. Jaina preachers say that the source of happiness and peace lies within the human self and not in the external things. The cause for mental worries and tensions are due to our attachment towards worldly objects. Lord Mahavira says that desires are endless like the sky and they will never satisfy any person fully. In his words, "If there were numberless mountains of gold and silver as big as mount Kailasa they would not satisfy an avaricious man; for avarice is boundless like the sky."14 He further says, "The more you get, the more you want, desires increase with every gain."15 If mankind is to be freed from mental tensions, the possessions have to be limited. To-day we find over-exploitation of natural resources which are available in limited quantity only. Jainism believes that the lesser the attachment, the greater will be the mental peace. It is only when attachment vanishes, the human mind will be free from mental and emotional disorders. For this Jainism preaches the vow of complete non-possession for the ascetics and the vow to limit one's possessions for the householders. Types of Parigraha According to Jainism, Parigraha is of two types : internal and external. These include all external objects of attachment which hinder liberation and also all inner attitudes in different forms and stages such as false faith (mithyatva), vowlessness (avirati), passions (kasaya) etc. All human passions such as anger, pride, deceit and greed, attachment and aversion have their roots in external objects or possessions which create disturbance in the mind of the individual. The householder, according to Jainism, should limit his possessions consequently curbing his limitless desires to consume and possess things. According to Dr. Kainala Jain, "Aparigraha is not merely an abstract philosophy, it is a vision of life with the solution to a number of problems that society is facing-economic, social, political, familial 14. Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 9.48. 15. Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 8.17.

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JAIN: THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA 43 and personal. For social reconstruction, in fact, for the survival of the society, voluntary limitation of desires and personal possessions is the only solution. Environmental degeneration due to too much spread of consumeristic way of life can be checked only by the self-imposed discipline of limited desires and limited possessions. Amassing of wealth for the sake of accumulation will not help the individual nor the society, it is harmful for both, with increase in disparities leading to consequent evils of mental restlessness, jealousy, envy, corruption etc. The middle path of iccha-parimana (limiting of desires) would check both poverty and luxury with the motto that possessions are only a means and not the end in themselves."16 Anekant: Regard for other's Ideologies & Faiths Today it is due to the progress of science and technology, the world has practically become a single family. Hence, we should have broadness of our thoughts also. We cannot solve world problems with parochial outlook and sectarian thoughts. According to Dr. Ramji Singh, "Inter-existence is the positive option for mankind. Either there is organic growth of mankind or there is organic destruction of human civilisation. The growth of scientific knowledge and outlook has destroyed most of our false dogmas and superstitions, but it has failed to provide us knowledge that could sublimate our animal and selfish nature. Animality has been dominating our individual as well as social behaviour. Hence, our life has become full of tensions, turmoils and disorders. Therefore, although we are outwardly pleading for worldpeace and non-violence, we have been preparing for war. Humanity is tottering to-day upon the brink of the principle of self-annihilation due to the lack of proper understanding which includes understanding ourselves and understanding the views of others."17 Jaina preachers say that the knowledge which determines full meaning of an object through the employment of one-sided knowledge is partial knowledge. Reality has got innumerable characteristics. A valid knowledge is defined as that which gives us knowledge of things in their various aspects. All objects have innumerable characters, hence all things are multi-dimensional or Anekantik. Though every angle or view point can claim that it gives a true picture of reality, it gives only a partial and relative picture of reality. One who knows only partial truth must not discard the views of others as totally false. We must accept that the views of others have also validity from some other angles. Jaina theory of Anekantavada emphasies that all the 16. Aparigraha--the human solution, p. 92. 17. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, 215.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 approaches to understand the reality give partial but true picture of reality and it is due to their truth-value from certain angle, we should treat other ideologies and faiths with equal regard. 44 The virtue of understanding is very much needed in the present day society. Jainism maintains regard for other's thoughts and ideologies from time immemorial. Lord Mahavira says, "Those who praise their own ideologies and faiths and blame that of their opponents and thus distort the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death." Jaina saints tried to maintain the harmony in different religious thoughts thus avoiding religious conflicts. Anekanta can solve the problems of conflict in ideologies and faiths. Acarya Hemacandra says: "I bow to all those who have overcome attachment and aversion, which are causes of worldly bondage, be they Brahma, Visnu, Siva or Jina." Lastly I again quote Dr. Ramji Singh, who has nicely explained the importance of Anekanta in the modern context: "Jaina logic of Anekanta is based not on abstract intellectualism but on experience and realism leading to a non-absoluastic attitude of mind. Multiplicity and unity, definability and non-definability which apparently seem to be contradictory characteristics of reality are interpreted to co-exist in the same object from different points of view without any offence to logic. They seem to be contradictory characteristics of reality are interpreted to co-exist in the same object from different points of view without any offence to logic. They seem to be contradictory of each other, simply because one of them is mistaken to be the whole truth. In fact, integrity of truth consists in this very variety of its aspects. without the rational unity of an all comprehensive and ramifying principle. The charge of contradiction against the co-presence of being and non-being in the real is a figment of a priori logic."19 The Doctrine of Karma The significant achievement of Tirthankara Mahavira's revolution in the spiritual field was the upholding of the concept of Karma in place of the creator God. He says that main is the architect of his own destiny and he can rise only by his own efforts and not by the grace of any external agency. God is devoid of attachment, hence there is no need for him to create this universe, which is beginingless and endless. Every inexplicable event in the life of an individual occurs due to Karmas accumulated in his previous birth. Karma is conceived as something 18. Sutrakrtanga-sutra. 1.1.2.23. 19. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, 223.

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JAIN: THE RELEVANCE OF THE TEACHINGS OF LORD MAHAVIRA essentially material which gets interlinked with immaterial soul. As particles of dust get attached to the body smeared with oil, so does Karma with the soul. It is on account of Karma that the soul has to suffer and undergo various births and rebirths in the diverse spheres of life as gods, men or animals. Lord Mahavira says, "Attachment and aversion are the root causes of Karma and Karma originates from infatuation, Karma is the root cause of birth and death and these (birth and death) are said to be the source of misery." He further aids, "None can escape the effect of their own past Karmas. "20 Relevance of Jaina Ethics Dr. Radhakrishnan has rightly observed that the name Jainism indicates the predominantly ethical character of the system.21 Although Jainism is much more than a code of ethics, but it is true to say that ethics occupies here the most important place. Some thinkers say that metaphysics has divided Indian philosophers, but ethics has united them. Sometimes it is said that Jaina ethics is extremely ascetic in character but this is actually not true. The fact that there is clear-cut distinction between the code of the monks and the code of the householders and there is a marked relaxation of virtues and vows meant for commoners. The present generation lacks proper moral guidance. Hence the five vows of truth, non-violence, non-stealing, chastity and non-possession are really of great significance today. That is why, Mahatma Gandhi practised the ideals of truth and non-violence in social and national life. Thus these ethical values have great relevance in politics, economics and in International affairs. Nation can be peaceful and prosperous if it follows non-violence seriously and sincerely. The principle of non-violence can contribute a great deal in fostering relationship of peaceful co-existence among different warring nations. Similarly non-possession and other virtues practised by Jaina community are significant and relevant in the present era. The ideal of non-possession and non-hoarding can be really useful today as we are very much concerned with the problem of economic inequality. Mahavira delivered his message in the language of the common people. He established a simple code of conduct which is practised by millions of people even to-day. Hence we can say that Mahavira's contribution was most significant and sizable. This is relevant even to-day and following his message we can realise harmony and peace in our own life and in the society at large. 20. Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 32.7. 21. Indian Philosophy, Vol. I. 286. 45

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HARIBHADRA'S VIEWS ON SVABHAVAVADA AND THE LOKAYATA RAMKRISHNA BHATTACHARYA The relation between the doctrine of svabhava (inherent nature) and the Indian school of materialism called the Carvaka/Lokayata is not easy to determine. Quite a few writers beginning with the anonymous commentator of the Samkhyakarika (sixth century CE) have linked them.] Vidyaranya (fourteenth century CE) in his Vivaranaprameya-samgraha went to the extent of declaring that the Lokayatika-s considered the doctrine of svabhava to be the supreme reality (paramarthika).2 However, there are reasons to believe that such a connection proposed between the two is purely conjectural, having no real evidence to support it. Excepting a few verses of dubious origin, absolutely nothing is known about the doctrine of svabhava. As to the Carvaka/ Lokayata, we are not much better placed. In addition to some abhanaka-s and lokagatha-s (popular verses) we only have a number 1. Suvarnasaptati The Samkhyakarika. Studied in the light of the Chinese Version (of Paramarthal', rendered from the French translation into English by S.S. Suryanarayana Sastri, Bulletin of the Department of Indian Philosophy, University of Madras, 1933. In his commentary on the Samkhyakarika (SK), v. 27, the anonymous author writes (apropos of svabhava) : This verse is found in the work of the Lokayata-s : "What produces the white colour of the hamsas-s (swans or ducks), the green colour of the parrots and the variegated colour of the peacocks, it is from that I, too, am created." (p. 36). The same verse is also quoted by him ad v. 61 without, however, any reference to the Lokayatika-s (p. 74). It has been quoted partly by Gaudapada (ad sk, v.6l) and Mathara (ad sk, v.27). The commentary has been restored into Sanskrit by N. Aiyaswami Sastri as Suvamasaptatisastra (Tirupati, 1944) which, unfortunately, is not available to me. Vidyaranya, Vivarana-prameya-samgraha, ed. R. Tailanga, Benares: E.J. Lazarus and Co., 1893, p. 211. The first known verse containing an exposition of the doctrine of swabhava is found in Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita, 9. 59-62. A few more verses lie scattered in various works. A collection of these fragments has long been a desidaratum. I am presently engaged in this project.

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BHATTACHARYA : HARIBHADRA'S VIEWS ON SVABHAVAVADA AND THE LOKAYATA 47 of aphorisms and extracts from their commentaries. The fragmentary nature of our knowledge regarding both does not provide any clue to the connection between the two. However, we hope to show, following Haribhadra's lead, that from a purely philosophical point of view the doctrines of suabhavaand the Carvaka/Lokayata have nothing or little to do with each other. Right from the commentators of the Suetasvatara Upanisad (c. sixth century BCE), down to Gunaratna's Tarkarahasyadipika (fifteenth century CE) and beyond, we read of several conflicting interpretations of the term,5 svabhava. It is sometimes conceived as a mysterious agency outside nature, akin to kala (time), niyati (destiny), isvara (God), etc. Sometimes again it is projected as a special property of every object, animate or inanimate, and so there is nothing supernatural about it. The sharpness of the thorn is the oft-cited example of swabhava (see no. 3 below). This very example, however, is referred to as an instance of akasmikatva (randomness) by the Naiyayika-s. In the writings of the Buddhists, however, the same example is an instance of chance or accident, but is nevertheless called svabhava.? Lastly, on the ethical plane, the doctrine of suabhava in the Mahabharata is supposed to proniote inactivity (akriya) since human effort is bound to be fruitless in the face of the inevitable consequences 4. Such a collection was first made by Dakshinaranjan Shastri (1944) and more recently by Mamoru Namai (1976). For details see 'Svabhavavada vis-a-vis Materialism : A Review in the Light of some Mahabharata Passages', Anviksa. (Journal of the Department of Sanskrit, Jadavpur University. Calcutta) Vol. xviii, 1999, p. 94n 5. See Pseudo-Sankara's commentary on the Svetasvatara Upanisad (1.2) and Sankarananda's Dipika; Tarkarahasyadipika (commentary on Haribhadra's Saddarsana-samuccaya), ed. Luigi Suali, Calcutta : The Asiatic Society, 1905-14, pp. 10-16. For a detailed discussion see Phanibhusana Tarkavagisa's Bengali commentary on the Nyayasutra, 4, 1, 22-24. Nyayadarsana o Vatsyayana Bhasya, vol. 4 (1333 BS), Calcutta : Pascimavanga Rajya Pustaka Parsad, 1988. pp. 177-92. For a free and abridged translation of the Elucidation of Tarkavagisa's commentary see Nyaya Philosophy, Part IV by Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya, Calcutta : Indian Studies Past & Present, 1973, pp. 27-31. Dharmakirti, Pramanavarttikam, Varanasi : Bauddha Bharati, 1968, p. 64; Santaraksita, Tattvasangraha, ed. Dvarikadasa Shastri, Varanasi : Bauddha Bharati, Vol. I, 1968, Ch. 4. VV. 110-27. pp. 78-85; Aryasura, Jatakamala, ed. P.L. Vaidya, Darbhanga : Mithila Institute, 1959, 23.2429, pp. 154-55. 7.

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48 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 determined by svabhava (presumably considered to be a supernatural, omnipotent entity). On the contrary, in a Jain work, Yasastilakacampu (tenth century CE) a Carvaka is made to preach the superiority of endeavour to slavish submission to fate.9 Why are there so many divergent views on svabhava? The only possible answer is that, at least in the Christian era, nobody knew what exactly the doctrine of svabhava was. It had been already outmoded by the formation of the philosophical systems, both Orthodox (pro-Vedic) and heterdox (anti-Vedic). Although there were more than two dozens of claimants for the first cause (jagatkarana) only a few continued to be mentioned. 10 Thus among the Buddhists, both Nagarjuna (second century CE) and Santaraksita (eight century CE) found it necessary to contend with the doctrines of svabhava(meaning, however, accident) along with those of God, atom, etc. 1] Here Haribhadra (eighth century CE), the Jain philosopher comes to aid. He was a man of encyclopedic erudition and well-versed in all systems of philosophy prevalent in his times. To him we owe the first known compendium of six philosophical systems, called Saddarsanasamuccaya 12 He refers to many more doctrines in another work, Lokatattva-nirnaya. 13 And in his Sastravarta-samuccya he first expounds and then sets himself to refute the Lokayata, NyayaVaisesika, Samkhya, Advaita-Vedanta, Mimamsa and several schools and tenets of the Buddhists. 14 It is to be noted that he deals with four 8. For details see my article mentioned in n 4. Somadevasuri, Yasastilalaka, ed. M.M. Pandit Sivadatta and Vasudeva Laxman Sastri, Panasikar, Bombay : Nirnay Sagar Prakashan, 1916, 3.61, p. 382. 10. kala (time), svabhava inherent nature), niyati (destiny) and yadrccha (accident) found place in many such lists. There are other claiments like vijnana (consciousness) and Skandha-s (constituent elements of being) which are mentioned only by the Buddhists. The doctrine of adrsta/ karman found favour with the Naiyayikas-s; the Jains also considered it to be the cornerstone of their philosophy'. See V.M. Kulkarni, Svabhavavada (Naturalism): A Study in : Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Suvarna Mahotsava Grantha, ed. A.M. Upadhye et al, Bombay : Sri Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, 1968, pp. 10-20. Nagarjuna, Madhyamakasastra (or -karika or/ -sutra), ed. D.D. Shastri, Varanasi: Bauddha Bharati, 1983, Ch. 15 and Santaraksita (n 7), Ch. 4. 12. See n. 5. 13. Ahmedabad (Amedabad) : Sri Hamsavijayaji Jaina Free Library, Vikramasamvat 1978 (1922 CE). 14. Ed. K.K. Dixit, Ahmedabad : Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandir, 1969. 11.

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BHATTACHARYA:HARIBHADRA'S VIEWS ON SVABHAVAVADA AND THE LOKAYATA 49 other doctrines, viz. kala-, svabhava-, niyati- and karma-vada-s and devotes a whole section to them.15 However, he never associates bhutavada (materialism) with suabhavavada. Santaraksita, too, it should be remembered, dealt with the doctrines of svabhava and Lokayata in two distinct chapters, seperated by sixteen chapters between them (Tattvasangraha, Chs. 4 and 22 respectively). But Santaraksita, like all Buddhist philosophers, makes svabhava appear as identical with accident. Haribhadra does nothing of the kind, although there seems to be a rejection of free will.16 Let us look at Haribhadra's exposition of svabhava first : na svabhavatirekena garbha-balasubha-dikam/ yat kincijjayate loke tadasau karanam kila// 2. (?) 169 sarvabhavah svabhavena svasvabhave tatha tatha/ varttante'tha nivarttante kamacara-paranmukhah// 2.170 na vineha svabhavena mudgapaktira-pisyate/ tathakaladibhave'pi nasvamasasya sa yatah// 2.171 atatsvabhavat tadbhave' tiprasamgo'niva-ritahy tulye tatra mrdah kumbho na patadityayuktimat//17 2.172 Without inherent nature, there is no conception, boyhood and the understanding of) what is beneficial, etc. (i.e., manhood). It (sc. inherent nature) is the cause of whatever is born in this world. All entities exist in their own being and cease to exist due to their inherent nature, irrespective of (free) will. Without this inherent nature even mudga (a kind of bean) cannot be cooked, just as notwithstanding the presence of (all other necessary elements like) time, etc. asvamasa (?) is not (cooked). Acceptance of an effect even in the absence of inherent nature (as 15. See ibid., stavaka 2, v. 164-93, pp. 45-53. 16. See ibid., v. 170 cd. 17. Cf. Gunaratna (n5). p. 11 : Moreover, in ordinary life as well, even the cooking of mudga is not found to be possible without the action of) time, but only in course of time'. (Translated in Carvaka/Lokayata, ed. Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya and Mrinalkanti Gangopadhyaya, New Delhi : Indian Council of Philosophical Research, 1990, p. 294). Gunaraina also cites four verses from Sastravarta. 2.165, 167, 168 and 166 (in this order) after the passage referred to above (p. 11). Haribhadra polemicizes against the view of the kalavadin in 2.171 (cf. Gunaratna, pp. 13-17) which again is controverted in v. 175 by the niyativadin and in v. 179 by the karmavadin. The meanings of asvamasa and kankaduka-mudga (Gunaratna, p. 13, 15) are not clear. Dixit renders (in Hindi) mudga as mumga and asvamasa as mumga ka kuta They seem to refer to some kinds of bean, Phaseolus mungo (L), black gram and Phaseolus radiatus (L) respectively.

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50 JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 the cause) rnakes way for an undesired conclusion. Then it will not be reasonable to say that the pot is made of earth, (but) not the cloth. Haribhadra then does not consider svabhava to be a synonym of ahetu (absence of cause, i.e. randomness) on even nirnimittata (absence of any efficient cause, though the presence of material cause is not denied). 18 In the introductory part of his commentary on Saddarsanasamuccaya, Gunaratna expatiates on the distinction between suabhava and yadrccha in the following way: All entities are born due to the influence of svabhava which involves a fixed rule. There is no room for free will of man. Yadrccha, on the other hand, signifies the denial of any fixed causal relation in respect to objects. Old age and death are all accidental. Any attempt to find cause-effect relation involves the fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc (kakataliya-nyaya.). 19 Svabhavavada thus signifies rigid predetermination, but not accidentalism. At the same time, by attributing the cause of all transformation to the inherent nature of every object, Gunaratna also dispenses with the supernatural view of svabhava. Since right from the time of the Svetasvatara upanisad, svabhava and yadrccha have been treated as two distinct categories, we may safely infer that Haribhadra's interpretation is truer to the tradition than those of the Buddhists and Naiyayikas-s. They preferred to explain the sharpness of a thorn as an evidence of mere chance, obliterating thereby any difference between svabhava and yadrccha.20 Haribhadra, too, has presented the doctrine of Carvaka/Lokayata. In his Sastravarta-samuccaya he summarises it in the following way: prthivyadimahabhutakaryamatram idarn jagat/ na catmadrstasadbhavam manyante bhutavadinah / 1.30 acetanani bhutani na taddharmo na tatphalam/ cetana'sti ca yasyeyam sa evatmeti caparel/ 1.31 yadiyam bhutadharmah syat pratyekam tesu sarvada/ upalabhyeta sattvadikathinatvadayo yatha// 1.32 saktirupena sa tesu sada'to nopalabhyate/ na ca tenapi rupena satyasatyeva cenna tat/121 1.33 18. Nyayasutra, 4.1.22-24 (see also n 6 above). 19. Gunaratna (n5), p. 15.5-21. 20. See nn 6 and 7. Interestingly enough, Dahlana in his commentary on the Susrutasamhita, Sarirasthana, 1.11 explains yadrccha as some sort of causality. Phanibhusana Tarkavagisa (nb above) positively refers to accept this odd interpretation (p. 178.1). 21. Ibid., pp. 31-32. See Sastra (n14), pp. 9-10. The translation that follows is mine.

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BHATTACHARYA : HARIBHADRA'S VIEWS ON SVABHAVAVADA AND THE LOKAYATA 51 The materialists consider this world to be the effect of the great elements, earth and the rest (i.e. air, fire and water) and there is no existence of the self and adrsta (merit and demerit of action). Others (hold) that the elements are unconscious; consciousness is neither the property nor the outcome of the elements; the self is that which is endowed with consciousness (either as its property or as its outcome). (Objection to the view :) If consciousness is the property of the elements, then it should have always been found in every element, like the being, etc. (the general property) and hardness, etc. (the special property). (Reply :) Consciousness is there as the force of the elements which is why it is not found always; but in this form (i.e. as the force) it is there and cannot be said that it is not. Haribhadra then proceeds to assert the existence of the self, adrsta (merit and demerit of action) and consciousness independent of matter. He tries to prove the existence of the self even by dint of sense perception. After dealing with the Buddhist views on the self and karman, he returns to the refutation of bhutavada: lokayatamatam prajnairjneyam papaughaka ranam ittham tattvavilomam yat tanna jnana-vivardhanam// 1.110 indraprataranayedam cakre kila brhaspatih ado'pi yuktisunyam yannetthamindrah prataryate// 1.111 tasmad drstasyakaram klistasattvavicintitamy papasrutam sada dhiraivarjyam nastikadarsanam//22 1.112 This Lokayata doctrine is to be known by the wise as the root cause of a lot of sins. It does not augment knowledge; on the contrary, it goes against truth. 22. Ibid., pp. 31-32. It is interesting to note that a Jain, who is also called nastika by the brahminical law-givers because he does not believe in the supreme authority of the Vedas (see Manusnirti, 2.11 : nastiko vedanindakaly also calls the Carvaka philosophy 'nastikadarsanam' ! Apparently Haribhadra follows the tradition of the Sanskrit Grammarians (e.g. Bhattoji Diksita and Vamana-Jayaditta) who explain Astadhyayi, 4.4.60 (asti-nasti-distam matuy in this way. According to them, one who believes in the existence of the other-world is an astika and one who does not, is a nastika. The Buddhists, too, refer to the Carvaka-s by the same appellation, nastika. See Aryasura, Jatakamala (n7), 23.57, p. 151. J.S. Speyer translates the word, nastika as 'the materialist'. The Garland of Birthstories of Aryasura (1895), Delhi : MLBD, 1982, p. 215.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 [Some say that) this doctrine was manufactured by Bshaspati in order to deceive Indra. (Such a view) is bereft of reason because Indra was not deceived by it. So intelligent men should abandon this heterodox philosophy since it vitiates intellect and is conceived by unholy men; it is a sin to listen to it. It addition to what is said in Sastrqvarta-samuccaya, Haribhadra in his Saddarsana-samuccaya, refers to a few more characteristics of the Lokayata, viz., the Carvaka-s do not believe in gods, release (nirurti). religious and irreligious deeds and the consequences of virtue and vice; and finally they deny the validity of such inference as it not preceeded by perception.23 Nowhere does Haribhadra refer to suabhava in connection with the Lokayata. It will, therefore, be more appropriate to view svabhavavada and the Lokayata as originally unrelated to each other. The opinion of the author of Suvamasaptati and others24 appears to be mere figments of their imagination or a product of wishful thinking, based on mere hearsay. 23. Saddarsana (n 12), 6. 80-86, pp. 301-08. For an English translation of the verses, see Carvaka/Lokayata (n 17), pp. 67-76. 24. Besides the anonymous author of Suvarnasaptati (see nl). Silanka (ninth century CE), Utpalabhatta (tenth cent.), Jnana-sribhadra (eleventh cent.), Varadaraja (twelfth cent.), Anandagiri (thirteenth/ fourteenth cent.), Sayanamadhava (also called Vidyaranya, fourteenth cent.), Nssinhasrama (sixteenth cent.). Ramatirtha, Agnicit Purusottama Sarasvati and Nilakantha (all belonging to the seventeenth cent.) associate svabhavavada with the Carraka/Lokayata without, however, adducing any evidence or reason in support of their contention.

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JAIN BHAWAN: ITS AIMS AND OBJECTS JAIN BHAWAN: ITS AIMS AND OBJECTS The establishment of the Jain Bhawan in 1945 in the Burra Bazar area of Calcutta by eminent members of the Jain Community, the Jain Bhawan has kept the stream of Jain philosophy and religion flowing steadily in eastern India for the last over fifty years. The objectives of this institution are the following: 53 1. To establish the greatness of Jainism in the world rationally and to spread its glory in the light of new knowledge. 2. To develope intellectual, moral and literary pursuits in the society. 3. To impart lessons on Jainism among the people of the country. 4. To encourage research on Jain Religion and Philosophy. To achieve these goals, the Jain Bhawan runs the following programmes in various fields. 1. School: To spread the light of education the Bhawan runs a school, the Jain Shikshalaya, which imparts education in accordance with the syllabi prescribed by the West Bengal Board. Moral education forms a necessary part of the curricula followed by the school. It has on its roll about 550 students and 25 teachers. 2. Vocational and Physical Classes: Accepting the demands of the modern times and the need to equip the students to face the world suitably it conducts vocational and physical activity classes. Classes on traditional crafts like tailoring, stitching and embroidery and other fine arts along with Judo, Karate and Yoga are run throughout the year, not just for its own students, but for outsiders as well. They are very popular amongst the ladies of Burra Bazar of Calcutta. 3. Library: "Education and knowledge are at the core of all round development of an individual. Hence the pursuit of these should be the sole aim of life". Keeping this philosophy in mind a library was established on the premises of the Bhawan. With more than 10,000 books on Jainism, its literature and philosophy and about 3,000 rare manuscripts, the library is truly a treasure trove. A list of such books and manuscripts can be obtained from the library. 4. Periodicals and Journals: To keep the members abreast of contemporary thinking in the field of religion the library subscribes to about 100 (hundred) quarterly, monthly and weekly periodicals from different parts of the world. These can be issued to members interested in the study of Jainism. 5. Journals: Realising that there is a need for research on Jainism and that scholarly knowledge needs to be made public, the Bhawan in its role as a research institution brings out three periodicals: Jain Journal in English, 'Titthayara' in Hindi and 'Sramana' in Bengali. In 35 years of its publication, the Jain Journal has carved out a niche for itself in the field and has received universal acclaim. Sramana, the Bengali journal, which is celebrating its twentyseventh anniversary this year, has become a prominent channel for the spread of

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54 JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Jain philosophy in Bengal. Both the Journals are edited by a renowned scholar Professor Dr Satya Ranjan Banerjee of Calcutta University. The Jain Journal and Sramana for over twentyseven years have proved that these journals are in great demand for its quality and contents. The Jain Journal is highly acclaimed by foreign scholars. The same can be said about the Hindi journal "Titthayara" which is edited by Mrs Lata Bothra. In April this year it entered its 25th year of publication. Needless to say that these journals have played a key-role in propagating Jain literature and philosophy. Progressive in nature, these have crossed many milestones and are poised to cross many more. 6. Seminars and Symposia : The Bhawan organises seminars and symposia on Jain philosophy, literature and the Jain way of life, from time to time. Eminent scholars, laureates, professors etc. are invited to enlighten the audience with their discourse. Exchange of ideas, news and views are the integral parts of such programmes. 7. Scholarships to researchers : The Bhawan also grants scholarships to the researchers of Jain philosophy apart from the above mentioned academic and scholastic activities. 8. Publications : The Bhawan also publishes books and papers on Jainism and Jain philosophy. Some of its prestigious publications are : The Bhagavati Sutra (in English) Parts 1 to 4 Barsat ki Rat (A Rainy Night) (in Hindi), Panchadarshi (in Hindi) Bangal ka Adi Dharma (Pre-historic religion of Bengal) Prasnottare Jaina-dharma (in Bengali) (Jain religion in questions and answers). Weber's Sacred Literature of the Jains. 9. A Computer Centre: To achieve a self reliance in the field of education, a Computer training centre was opened at the Jain Bhawan in February 1998. This important and welcome step will enable us to establish links with the best educational and cultural organisations of the world. With the help of E-mail, internet and website, we can help propagate Jainism throughout the world. Communications with other similar organisations will enrich our own knowledge. Besides the knowledge of programming and graphics, this computer training will equip our students to shape their tomorrows. 10. Research : It is, in fact, a premiere institution for research in Prakrit and Jainism, and it satisfies the thirst of many researchers. To promote the study of Jainism in this country, the Jain Bhawan runs a research centre and encourages students to do research on any aspects of Jainism. In a society infested with contradictions and violence, the Jain Bhawan acts as a philosopher and guide and shows the right path. Friends, you are now aware of the functions of this prestigious institution and its noble intentions. We, therefore, request you to encourage us heartily in our creative and scholastic endeavours. We hope that you will continue to lend us your generous support as you have done in the past.

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JAIN BHWAN PUBLICATIONS 55 JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATIONS P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata - 700 007 English: 1. Bhagavati-sutra-Text edited with English translation by K.C. Lalwani in 4 volumes; Vol-1 (satakas 1-2) Price :Rs. 150.00 Vol-II (satakas 3-6) 150.00 Vol-111 (satakas 7-8) 150.00 Vol-IV (satakas 9-11) 150.00 2. James Burges - The Temples of Satrunjaya. Jain Bhawan, Calcutta, 1977, pp. x+82 with 45 plates Price :Rs. 100.00 (It is the glorification of the sacred mountain Satrunaya.) 3. P.C. Samsukha-Essence of Jainism translated by Ganesh Lalwani, Price :Rs. 10.00 4. Ganesh Lawani-Thus Sayeth Our Lord, Price :Rs. 10.00 Hindi 5. Ganesh Lalwani-Atimukta (2nd edn) translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani Price :Rs. 40.00 6. Ganesh Lalwani - Sraman Samskriti ki Kavita, translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani Price :Rs. 20.00 7. Ganesh Lalwani - Nilanjana translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani Price :Rs. 30.00 8. Ganesh Lalwani --Condana-Murti, translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani, Price :Rs. 50.00 9. Ganesh Lalwani - Vardhaman Mahavir Price :Rs. 60.00 10. Ganesh Lalwani-Barsat ki Ek Rat, Price :Rs. 45.00 11. Ganesh Lalwani - Pancadasi, Price :Rs. 100.00 12. Rajkumari Begani - Yado ke Aine me, Price :Rs. 30.00 Bengali: 13. Ganesh Lalwani - Atimukta, Price :Rs. 40.00 14. Ganesh Lalwani-Sraman Samskrti Kavita, Price :Rs. 20.00 15. Puran Chand Shyamsukha-Bhagavan Mahavir O Jaina Dharma, Price :Rs. 15.00 Three Journals : Jain Journal A Quarterly research Journal on Jainism yearly Rs. 60.00 Life Membership-Rs. 2000.00 Titthayara A Monthly research Journal on Jainism in Hindi Life Membership-Rs. 1000.00 Sramana A Monthly research Journal on Jainism in Bengali yearly-Rs. 30.. Life Membership-Rs. 500.00

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JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXVI, No. 1 July 2001 Statement of Ownership The following is a statement of ownership and other particulars about 1 Jain Journal as required under Rule 8 of the Registration of News Papers (Central) Rules 1956. Form IV 1. Place of Publication : Jain Bhawan P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata-700 007 2. Periodicity of its Publication 3. Printer's Name Nationality and Address : : Quarterly Satya Ranjan Banerjee Indian P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata-700 007 14. Publisher's Name, Nationality and Address : : Satya Ranjan Banerjee Indian P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata-700 007 5. Editor's Name, Nationality and Address Satya Ranjan Banerjee Indian P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata-700 007 6. Name and address of the owner : Jain Bhawan P-25 Kalakar Street, Kolkata-700 007 1, Satya Ranjan Banerjee, hereby declare that the particulars given above I are true to the best of my knowledge and belief. July 15, 2001 Satya Ranjan Banerjee Signature of Publisher

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