Jain Journal 1999 10

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
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ISSN 0021-4043 A QUARTERLY
ON JAINOLOGY
VOL XXXIV
No. 2 OCTOBER
1999
OUT ME

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a quarterly on Jainology

JAIN
JOURNAL
॥ जैन भवन ॥
JAIN BHAWAN
CALCUTTA

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Vol. XXXIV
No.2 October
1999
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Editor : Satya Ranjan Banerjee

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Contents
73
Theory of knowledge
Rajjan Kumar
84
Message of Lord Mahāvīra
Duli Chand Jain
89
Aporopos of Kondakunda-Anvaya
Hampa Nagarajaiah
91
A Study on the Jaina-Purānas
Sankar Prasad Bandyopadhyay
102
Dawn of the 21st Century and Return to Religion
Kalyan Mal Lodha
107
Germs of Modern Physics in Jaina Philosophy
Chandana Roy Chowdhury and R.L. Brahmachary

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Vol. XXXIV
JAIN JOURNAL
No. 2 October
THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE RAJJAN KUMAR

Knowledge is the essence of soul. Through the development of philosophical speculation, knowledge, the essence of soul, becomes a matter of discussion as a thought or a concept or an idea or a principle. The nature of this concept has been everchanging during the gradual development of mankind. No doubt, the history of the concept of knowledge is quite vague, but it keeps its sacred view-point always alive in every stage. The consideration of Jaina thinkers about the concept of 'Knowledge' is quite historical and have great importance in the field of 'Epistemology'. The concept has been taken as utilitarian manner and is accounted as a means to something higher which is nothing but emancipation.
1999
Indian system of consideration of knowledge
Knowledge is the basic thoughts of philosophy and it is known as "Darsana" by Indians. Like philosophy, Darsana in India does not begin as a science of ascertaining facts, but as the quest for values. Fundamentally, it has taken as mokṣasāstra, the science or education of salvation. From the oldest literature, the Vedas upto the recent and most updated writings of 'Knowledge', this fact has been seen in different manner. Liberation or Mokṣa or Niravāṇa or Upavarga is the supreme goal of mankind. In Indian system knowledge has been accounted as a path of liberation.
Needless to say that the Vedas are the most precious treatise of India. The Upanisadas, ally of the Vedas, have the same values as the Vedas. The testimony of the Upanisadas are unanimous. They not only define the character of knowledge by Indian thinkers, but also establish the standard of valuation of knowledge. That standard of valuation have accepted more or less by all other Indian thinkers in their own ways.
Knowledge and Reality are two inseparable concepts. According to

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXIV. No. 2 October 1999
the Upanisadas, there is only one Reality and that is Brahman and the knowledge is an exercise to know this Reality and it itself is that Reality. The Mundaka, the famous among the Upanisadas, claims that the highest knowledge is nothing but a knowledge of supreme Reality, the Brahman.1 Iśāvāsyopaniṣad has supported the view of Mundaka saying that knowledge of Brahmana leads liberation.2 The discussion between Narada and Sanatkumar on parāvidya and aparāvidya reveals that Brahman is the only Reality, and knowledge of Brahaman alone can be claimed as Knowledge of Reality.3 That very reference of the Upanisadas has explained the objective of Knowledge.
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Besides the great values of the Upanisadas, India has several other fabulous treatises of thoughts in the form of different Schools. They all originated either in the same time-period or after opposing the others. It is also believed that some schools are originated by product of alike thoughts. Whether they oppose or support this is not important, the most significant features of that association is that they all become the quality of Indian system of thoughts and make a ground for enriching the cultural heritage of India. The different Schools of thoughts of India are named as-Samkhya-Yoga, Nyaya-Vaiseṣika, Uttaramīmāmsā-Purvamīmāmsā, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
We have some other names also, and their importances are the same. But, we do not include them for the consideration of Knowledge. All those schools who are deeply concerned to define the concept of knowledge possess their own view-points for the scaling of standard of valuation. Sometimes they all look quite opposite and in several occasions they seem as if they are lending their hands. Now, we are going to cast the ideology of different schools about the concept of knowledge in short.
The Samkhya system promises the complete cessation of all sorrows as its chief goal.4 The counterpart of Samkhya or the Yoga School is entirely devoted to the attainment of kaivalya and it is explained as total stoppage of all Vrttis (afflications).5 Naiyayikās of India are famous
1. sa Brahmavidyapratisthamaṛtharavaya jyeṣṭhaputrāya praha 1/1/11 Mundaka Upanisatsamgraha, Ed. Pt. Jagadish Shastri, Motilal Banarasidas, Ist edn. 1970.
2. avidya mṛtyum tirtva Vidyayamṛtamasnute 11 Isavāsya.
3. Yadbrahmavido Vadanti Para caivapara ca 1/1/4/1 Mund.
4. Dukhatryabhighataj 1 Saṁkhyakārikā (Samkhyatattavakaumudi). Edt. Venkatesh Lele Shastri, News Printing Press, Bombay 1929, p. 8.
5. Yogascittavrittinirodhaḥ 1/2 Patanjala Yogadarsana, Edt. Haridas Goyanka Gita Press Gorakhapur (IX th Edn) Samvat 2028.

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KUMAR: THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
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6
for their logical predications, even then they do believe for the attainment of Upavarga. Vaiseṣika stresses on the consideration of material particles, but is famous for ally of Nyaya and thus have the same ideology as the Naiyāyikās. Mimāmṣā, the strict and powerful devotee to the Vedas proclaims that 'dharma' is the injunction of the Vedas. Needless to highlights the ideology of Uttaramimāmsākas or Vedantins as they are famous for that,
Buddhism and Jainism are the representative of the Śramanika tradition, the opposite trend of Vedic tradition of Indian culture. Buddhists believe in the concept of Nirvāņa, and they claim that it should be attained by all as their supreme goal. They presented the idea for this attainment by the removal of passions, the chains that keep the soul in bondage.9 The second representative of Śramanika tradition, Jainism too believes in liberation, and they claim that it can be achieved by complete destruction of karmic matter, veiling the inherited power of soul, that is infinite in nature. 10
The above considerations define the ideology of different schools of India. It is true, that all schools of thoughts provide several methodologies and ways for this attainment. Contrary to this, it is a well accepted fact that they all consider 'Knowledge' as the essential factor for that.
Jñāna, Ajñāna and Knowledge
Jñana and Ajñāna are two different, but opposite conception, represented in English as 'knowledge' and 'Ignorance' respectively. That translation of these two words is not the exact meaning as undertaken by Indian thinkers. As they believe that consciousness, the inseparable entity of soul, and Jñāna-ajñāna are the manifestation of that consciousness.11 Furthermore, they define that applications,
6. Apurvara.....Sadhvah 9 Nyayamanjari, Ed. Nagin J Shah, L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, Series 40, 1975.
7. Athāto dharma vyakhyasyamaḥ 1/1/1 Vaiseṣikasūtram Ed. Muni Jambuvijya, Oriental Institute Baroda series No. 136, 1961.
8. Athāto dharmajijñasä 1/1/1 Mimansadarsanam. Ed. Dr G.S. Musalgaonkar Bhartiya Vidya Publication Series No. 1, 1979.
9. Abhidharmakoṣa IV, 127 Kasividyapith. Varanasi.
10. Khavetta Puvvakammaim .... Mahesino trivemi 28/36 Utträdhyayana, Edt. Sadhvi Candana, Virayatan Publication, Agra 1972.
11. Kartikeyanuprekshä, 180 Ed. A.N. Upadhyaye, Raicandra Ashram Agas Ist Edn. V.S. 2486.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXIV. No. 2 October 1999 attentions, co-ordinations to the subject and object are accounted as the manifestation of that consciousness. 12
Application, attention, and coordination are different forms of cognition; and it is of two types-a) Nirākāra (Inarticulate) and b) Sākāra (Articulate). Nirākāra precedes the sense perception as well as the supersensous perception or intuition. It has also taken as an attitude or dṛṣṭi. The sākāra gets the designation of jñāna and ajñāna according to the faith of the knower. But during the time passes and the development of thoughts the term jñāna has also applied to a general sense. In Indian system of thoughts jñāna may be true or false or both.
The English word knowledge has several meanings, viz. understanding, acquaintance, familarity, learning, information, intelligence, intellect, mental apprehension, sign, mark, etc. 13 As we know that knowledge is being applied as an English translation of Jñana too, and in view of Indian thinkers jñāna implies an idea of truth within itself. This sort of thoughts had kept honoured for a very long time, but the concept of that value of knowledge has changed and the credit has gone to the logical discoursing period. It is supposed that now the meaning of knowledge and jñāna are not identical.
Knowledge in its general sense ever recognised as a righteous cognition, whereas jñāna includes right and wrong both types of apprehensions. 14 Ajñāna, nodoubt a wrong cognition, but it is also taken as a kind of jñāna. Ajñāna may be applied in four senses as follows:
1. Ajñāna means wrong knowledge: The cognition which does not correspond to the object.
2. Ajñāna means perverted knowledge: Wrong attitude towards the object so that perversion does not mean wrong apprehension.
3. Ajñāna means avidyā: Knowledge of false projection due to obscurance of power of real perception.
4. Ajñāna means absence of knowledge: The absence of knowledge happens due to (a) absence of power of knowing and (b) absence of application of cognition.
12. Tattavarthbhāsyaṭikā (Siddhesena Ganin) II, 8.
13. C.T. Onions: The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. I, Oxford University Press, 3rd Edn. 1973 p. 1102.
14. Dr. Indracandra Shastri Jain Epistemology, P.V. Research Institute, Varanas 1990, pp. 56. 461.

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KUMAR THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Subject, Object and Knowledge
In the epistemological discussion the relationship among subject, object and knowledge are quite considerable. Indian epistemologists have rather different views about that. The conception of their views may be pointed out in short as follows 15:
•
·
·
•
The Advaita Vedantins hold that external objects do not exist independently from its subject. They are illusory projections subsisting in the latter. The subject has a real existence while the object has phenomenal existence.
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The Yogacara maintains that the object does not exist at all, the subject itself appears in two forms as subject and object. On the other hand, the Madhyamika holds that the subject and the object are phenomenal.
The Realistic systems, on the other hand, hold independent and a real existence of both the subject and the object. At the same time, they also hold a divergent view regarding their actual nature. For example, in view of Buddhist scholars the object is absolutely particular without any mixture of generality which is purely subjective. It is general and this is in accordance with Samkhya. Contrary to that view, others supposed that it is a combination of both.
The Jainas hold that object exists independent of the subject and possesses the characteristic of generality as well as particularity relatively. They hold that the aspects of generality and particularity are real and objective. Both exist in each and every object.
Illumination and perception of subject are meant for knowledge of that subject. They are defined by different modes of processing viz. Sannikarṣa (physical grasping or contact perception of the sense organs with their objects); antaḥakaraṇa sambandhana (intercourse between the self and its qualities and the manasa (mind), the internal sense organ; Tādātmyikaranṇa or identification or co-essentiality and it is operated samyoga (conjuction); Samyuktabhinnatātādātmya (acquired perception-presentative and representative processes mixed up together
etc). 16
We have different theories for understanding the process of
15. Ibid., pp. 171-72.
16. Jadunath Sinha: Indian Psychology. Vol. I, Motilal Banarasidas, 2nd Edn.. 1986, pp. 73-74, 83, 86-87.

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knowledge either in cognitive percepective or perceptual purposes, but the general idea behind them is the sansarga (contact) of central sensory the mind with tactual organ that is sense organs. 17 It can be explained like that, the contact of object with sense organs results in cognition through mind. Soul, the conscious entity is united with the mind, the mind with the senses, and then the unification of senses with the object, and perception of that object is operated.18 Hence, one may opine that in the case or process of perception or attainment of knowledge of an object fourfold contactual operations are processed.
It is clear that knowledge is a manifestation of an object. That manifestation is meant as illumination of the subject or object or both and the concept underlying in that way varies. The Vedāntins believe that the object is related with the subject through the mode of antahakarana which goes out through the medium of sense and transform itself into the form of object. They called that process as anirvacanakhyāti. Bhatta Mimamsakās define that process under the heading of Viparitakhyāti and the Naiyaika-Vaiseșikas explain it as anyathākhyāti. Prabhakara Mimāmsaka anchors with akhyātivāda while the Buddhists are prejudiced with Ātmakhyātivada. Sāmkhya is adherent to Sadasatkhyāti. 19
Like Naiyaikas, the Jainas do accept that the external subjects should not apprehend as sūnyarūpa or jñānarüpa. It may be supposed that Jain scholars are trying to define the process of knowledge as anayathākhyāti, but has some peculiarities. They contend that knowledge can cover the whole universe and they believe in subjective and objective simultaneously. According to them, soul is the basic conscious element and has the ability to perceive all the objects. The soul does not come into direct contact with the objects; nor are they represented by via media, but illumined by the soul when the obscurances of karmans are vanished or destroyed.
Therefore, in view of Jainism, caused by knowledge means the removal of the obscurance the karmans which naturally results in the illumination of an object. Further, it is also explained by them that this illumination is not a quality generated in the object. The knowledge is a totally subjective phenomenon. Illumination is also a function of soul. For this, they use the term Upayoga which means attention 20 17. Vaiseșikasūtra, 4/1/13. 18. Vedantaparibhāsā, IV, Edt. G.S. Musalgaonkar. Chowakhambha
Publication. Varanas, 4th Edn. 1993, p. 62. 19. Parvato Vahnimana.....Pratyksatvam. Ibid., p. 62. 20. Upayogo laksanam, 2/8 Tattavärthsütra, Vivecaka : Pt. Sukhlal Sanghavi.
Parshvanath Vidyapith. Varanasi.

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KUMAR: THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Division of Knowledge
Knowledge is the essence of soul. Knowledge as a concept is fundamentally divided into two categories by the Jainas-a) parokṣa or Indirect b) a parokṣa or Pratyakṣa or direct. Aparoksa is dealt with the general perception, while the parokṣa is taken as supernatural perception. The basic difference between these two categories of knowledge is that the former is cognised with the help of senses, while the latter is cognised without any help of senses. It is directly percived by soul.
The above two types of knowledge by the Jainas are the result of an assimilation or a synthesis or an adoption of requisite thoughts scattered here and there. No doubt, the two types of knowledge have been established by passing through various phases. Sometimes it stresses on the Agamik conception and sometimes it faced the logical crisis of that very period. Needless to say, that the Jainas survive and sustain their view points about suffixing the concept of knowledge as original and moderate. In due course, there have been several types of changes. The Jainas have always anchored on their prime division of knowledge and it is based on the fivefold divisions of knowledge.
Historical Background of the Division of Knowledge
Fundamentally categorisation of knowledge by the Jaina logicians is based on stray idea of knowledge found in the Agamās. Of course, these ideas are pure and unalloyed, it becomes a huge tree with single unit having different branches. Before going to explain the contribution of the Jaina logicians for enriching the branch of Jaina Nyaya, I would like to add that the division of knowledge varies between its fivefold and twofold forms.
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The voluminous workers presented by different Jaina logicians have enormous repute to define the historical progress of Jaina logic and Nyāya. Umāsvāti (179-243 A.D.); Jinabhadra (6th-7th cent. A.D.); Akalanka (620-680 A.D. CC); Manikyanandin (663-679 A.D.); Vädidevasūri (1117-1169 A.D.); Sidhasena (V. 625) all are stalwarts and have historical importance for their classical works in the field of Jaina Nyaya.
For the first time we have seen a twofold systematic divisions of knowledge in the Niryuktis.21 It has been supposed for a very long
21. Brhatakalpaniryukti, 4. 3, 24-25.

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time that it is an external influence, even then that influence has kept domination of the spirit of the Agamas. That twofold divisions of knowledge have changed into fourfold forms reaching near to Agamic conception as fivefold.22 That division once again gets reverse strokes and twofold divisions come in prominence and finally accepted.23 And the credit has gone to Umaswati, who has not only kept the conception of Jaina logic according to the demand of that period, but also has sustained its originiality.
The Agamik division of knowledge is more or less subjective in nature.24 But it got a fundamental change at logical period, and it is deemed essential. Because at this stage clarity of apprehension was quite essential, provided that the Jaina categorisation of knowledge has instrumental instinct too, and this fact has stated in the Niryuktis and in the Tattvārthasūtra of Umāsvāti, in the form of Pratyaksa and Paroksa.25 In his subdivision of knowledge Umāsvāti takse all cares Tattvärtha and precautions for the elimination of the falacies so that he includes subject, object, instrument and clarity into account. Later on, the subject is dropped altogether and the clarity is also confined to the division of Pratyaksa and Parokṣa only.
In the Nandisūtra, 26 sense cognition has included into Pratyaksa, and it is rather different in the Tattvārthasūtra. Jinabhadra 27 and Akalanka 28 have designated it as samavyavahārika Pratyaksa perception according to the common usage just to avoid the contradictions, which has to be produced by different ideas inserted within Nandisutra and the Tattvārthasūtra. Māņikyanandin29 and Vādidevasūri 30 are famous for their contribution to the theory of knowledge. Sidhasena's31 contribution is quite considerable, because he divides Pramāna into three types instead of five types of knowledge.
22. Anuyogadwarasutra, p. 211. 23. Tattavärthsūtra, 1/9-12. 24. Bhagavati, 88. 2. 317. 25. Tattavārthsütra, 1/9-12; Parikṣāmukham, 2/3/4. 26. Nandisutra, 4. 27. Visesaväśyakabhäsija, 95. 28. Laghiyastrya, 3-4. 27. Viseşavāsyakabhāsya, 95. 28. Laghiyastrya, 3-4. 29. Pariksāmukha, 2/1. 30. Pramānayatattvaloka, 2/1. 31. Nyāyāvatāra, l.

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KUMAR: THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
This view of Sidhasena incorporates within itself only two factors instrument and object.32
Direct and Indirect Knowledge
The Jaina theory of knowledge is famous for its fivefold names33. 1. Matijñāna, 2. Śrutajñāna, 3. Avadhijñāna, 4. Manaḥparyayajñāna and 5. Kevalajñāna. Out of these five types the first two are known as indirect knowledge and the rest three are accounted as direct knowledge.34 Indirect means parokṣa and is acquired by self with the help of senses; mati and śruti are kept under this category. Direct knowledge is called Pratyakṣajñāna and it has no need for the help of senses for cognition or perception. It is directly perceived by soul with pure intuition. The following chart gives an outlook of the division of knowledge
Mati
Indirect-Parokṣa
Mati
Sruta
I Śruta

Jñana (Knowledge)
Avadhi
Manaḥparyaya
Pramana-Knowledge
Direct-Pratyakṣa
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Kevala
Avadhi Manaḥparyaya Kevala
1. Matijñāna-Sensuous cognition
Matijñāna is known as sensory comprehension and is generally divided into four types35-a) avagraha (Sensation), b) ihā (speculation) c) avaya (Perception) and d) dhāraṇā (Retention). They are practically not counted as types of matijñāna, but different stages of this knowledge. In all its stages sense organs and minds are the essential aid for cognition. It is said that the entire process originated from the cognition of senses and the object. All the varieties of profane knowledge, perceptual or conceptual, are included in it.
32. Parikṣamukha, 2/5-12: 3/2, 3, 5, 14: Nyāyāvatāra, 2.
33. Matisrutavadhimanahpryayakevalani Jnanam 1/9 Tattavārthasūtra. 34. Ibid.. 1/11, 12.
35. Nandisutra, 8; Tattavārthsutra, 1/25.

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Sensation, the first stage of mati, is also taken as the first step of comprehension of an object that follows in the wake of apprehension upon the contact of sense organ with the object. Speculation is the striving for a specific determination of the object cognised by sensation. Perception is the ascertainment of the specific features of the object cognised in the state of speculation. Retention is nothing but the absense of lapse of the perceptual judgement. It includes the formation of mental trace which serves as the cause of its recollection in future, that is, memory. 2. Śrutajñāna-Scriptural Knowledge
Śrutajñāna is meant as Scriptural knowledge as well as Verbal knowledge. It is apprehended with mati as its cause. 36 Scriptures or the preaching of trustworthy persons are only accounted as Śrutajñāna. Scriptures have all types of knowledge, so that it has the ability to know all the objects of the world. But this cognition is indirect and has the ability to know only to perceive them. Of course, the Scriptures have laid all types of knowledge, but they are not preceded by sensation or acquisition.
3. Avadhijñāna-Clairvoyance
Avadhijñāna is a direct knowledge of the objects having rūpa (form). Rüpa is the technics terminus and is meant for those things which have shape, colour, taste etc. It is the supernatural power of a self and varies in scope and durability with different persons owing to the difference of karmic strength. It is of two types37-i) Bhavapryatyaya and ii) Kșayopasamapratyaya or Guņapratyaya. The former is caused by birthright, but the latter is acquired by the destruction-cumsubsidence of the relevant karmic veil. Denizens of heaven and hell possess avadhijñāna as their birthright, at the same time human and subhuman beings get it only occasionally as a result of special merit.
4. Manah-paryāyajñāna--Telepathy
Manaḥ-paryāya means the modes of mind which are made by atoms and are defined as different forms of thought. Thoughts are everchanging instincts of mankind and manifest on the face and other parts of the body. On that basis manahparyāyajñāni directly cognises other's thoughts.38 36. Visesavyasyakabhāsya, 80: Tattavartharajvartika, 1/13. 37. Tattavarthasūtra, 1/3. 38. Manodwidham-dravyamano bhāvamanasceti, 2/11/170/3
Sarvārthasiddhi.

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KUMAR THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
Jainism proposes two types of mind39-a) Dravyamana (Physical mind) and b) Bhāvamana (Psychical mind). Psychical mind is a mode of soul in the state of deliberation. It is immaterial and so beyond the reach of imperfect knowledge. The physical mind is the material composition made by molecules of manovargaṇā. The physical mind changes and takes various forms according to thought-impressions, passive as well as active.
5. Kevalajñāna-Omniscience
Kevalajñāna is the highest type of knowledge. It arises on the complete removal of obscuring karmic veil. After that, one becomes omniscient and is able to know all the objects in their entiriety with its all qualities and modes.40 It is the pure and perfect manifestation of the innate nature of the spiritual substance. At this stage nothing remains unknown.
The above considerations give an idea about the concept of knowledge by the Jainas. On that basis, one is able to make an opinion that the development of the Jaina theory of knowledge extends over a very long period. The idea of knowledge and its various types can be traced from the early history of Jainism. And it always bears a clear mark from its very beginning upto the present time.
39. Sarvadrvyaprāyāyesu Kevalasya, 1/30 Tattavarthsutra.

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MESSAGE OF LORD MAHĀVĪRA
DULI CHAND JAIN
Jaina tradition
Jainism is one of the oldest religious traditions of the world. A great generation of Tīrthankaras, Acāryas, saints and scholars belonged to this tradition. Lord Mahāvīra was the twentyforth Tirthankara of the present era. He was not the founder of Jainism, but was a propounder of this great religion. He realised his true self and attained omniscience by practicing rigorous austerities and penances. A glimpse into his life shows that he was an embodiment of non-violence and compassion. Although Mahāvīra (599 B.C. to 527 B.C.) preached 2500 years ago, his preachings are relevant even today and bear special significance for the spiritual advancement of mankind. His message is full of pragmatic optimism, self-reliance, self-discipline and selfpurification to develop inherent and infinite potentialities of human self.
Contribution of Jaina Faith to Indian thought
The contribution of Jaina faith to Indian thought and life has been very significant. Actually, vegetarianism, as a habit prevailing throughout the Indian continent, practised by a large majority, is an evidence of Jaina influence. Indian art, literature, architecture, painting and sculpture as also every other aspect of life have been greatly influenced by Jaina thoughts. Jains are noted for the catholicity of their outlook and broad-mindedness. The other significant contribution of Jainism is its harmonious and peaceful approach to life. The central themes of the teachings of Lord Mahāvīra are non-violence, nonabsolutism and non-possession.
Non-violence
Non-violence is equality of all living creatures. If you feel that every soul is independent and autonomous, you will never trample on its right to live. This leads you to compassion and kindness towards all living beings and results in harmony and peace in the world. The principle of non-violence in Jainism embraces not only human beings but also animals, birds, plants, vegetables and creatures in earth, air and water. It is the holy law of compassion extended to body, mind and speech of a living being. Lord Mahāvīra says, “All living beings.

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desire to live. They detest sorrow and death and desire a long and happy Life. Hence one should not inflict pain on any creature, nor have any feeling of antipathy or enmity. One should be friendly towards all creatures" (Acāranga sutra, 1.2.3.4).
Nature of Violence
According to the theory of causation (Karma), violence leads to bondage and defilement of soul, thus delaying its liberation. The injurer soul suffers from the passions accompanying the act of causing injury and the injured one forms a sense of enmity and hatred towards the injurer. This perpetuates the cycle of birth and death by defilement of both the souls.
The rationale behind the principle of non-violence is the equality of all living beings. Lord Mahāvīra says, "Not to kill any living being is the quintessence of all wisdom. Certainly, one has to understand that non-violence and equality of all living beings are essentials of Dharma" (Sūtra-kstanga-sūtra, 1.11.10).
Integral view of life
Jainism takes an integral view of life. Either faith or only knowledge by itself cannot take us to the path of salvation. We should have a combination of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct to tread the path of salvation. These constitute the three jewels of Jainism. Without right faith, there is no right knowledge and without right knowledge there is no virtuous conduct. Lord Mahavira says, “By knowledge one understands the nature of substances, by faith one believes in them, by conduct one puts an end to the flow of karmas and by austerity one attains purity (Uttaradhyayana-sūtra).
Concept of Karma
The significant achievement of Tīrthankara Mahāvīra's revolution in spiritual field was the upholding of the concept of Karma in place of the creator God. He said that man is the architect of his own destiny and he can rise only by his own efforts and not by the grace of any external agency. God is devoid of attachment, hence there is no need for him to create this universe, which is beginningless and endless.
Every inexplicable event in the life of an individual is due to the karmas accumulated in his previous birth. Karma is conceived as something essentially material which gets interlined with immaterial soul. As particles of dust get attached to the body smeared with oil, so does karma with the soul. Lord Mahāvīra says, "Attachment and

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aversion are the root causes of karma and karma originates from infatuation; karma is the root cause of birth and death and these (birth and death) are said to be the source of misery. He further adds, "None can escape the effect of their own past karmas' (Uttaradhyayanasutra, 32.7).
Futility of Material Comforts
Lord Mahavira says that all material comforts and pleasures can never satiate any body and give him true happiness. He preached the doctrine of non-possession to limit the desires for worldly pursuits. He says, “It is owing to attachment that a person commits violence, utters lies, commits theft, indulges in sex and develops a yearning for unlimited hoarding" (Bhakta-parijñā 132). Possessiveness and greed are the main causes which create tension in the life of an individual and also in the society at large. Hence, an aspirant should limit his possessions and desires to the minimum extent.
Equality
Mahāvīra laid great stress on the equality of all human beings. Stressing action and not birth a determining factor of superiority was a radical step in the teachings of Mahāvira. He proclaimed, “A person does not become a monk by merely tonsuring, nor a brāhmaṇa by reciting the Omkar Mantra, nor a Muni by living in the forest, nor a hermit by wearing clothes woven out of Kusa grass. One becomes a monk by equanimity, a brāhmana by celibacy, a Muni by his knowledge and a hermit by his austerities” (Uttaradhyayana-sūtra, 25, 31-32). He boldly condemned the caste system based on birth alone for the defects that had crept in it at that time.
Lord Mahāvīra had great regard for women. He said that both men and women were eligible to attain emancipation after destroying the passions and karmas. He declared, "There are many virtuous women who are famous for their purity and chastity. They are like the goddesses before whom even the celestial bow" (Bhakta-Parijña 995).
Catholicity of Approach
There has been catholicity and absence of dogmatic approach in Jaina belief. Lord Mahāvīra said that Dharma is of prime importance to every one in life. In the Daśavaikālika-sūtra, he says that righteousness (Dharma) is supremely auspicious. Its constituents are non-violence, self-restraint and austerity. Even the celestials revere him who is rooted in Dharma (Ibid. 1.1). Any person, irrespective of

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caste, creed and colour can follow this path and will be considered as a Jian.
Non-Absolutism (Anekāntavāda)
The theory of many angles of truth or Anekāntavāda is a comprehensive Jaina view, postulating that through truth one thing can be viewed from manifold aspects. Each point of view yields a different conclusion. Thus, non-absolutism (Anekantavada) strengthens the autonomy of thought of every individual. According to Jainism, a certain thing exists only with reference to its particular substance (dravya), space, (sketra), time (kāla) and mode (bhāva). Those who believe in absolute point of view, laying emphasis only on a single aspect of an object, are compared with those blind persons, who in order to obtain the knowledge of the shape of an elephant, feels its ear, trunk, feet and other parts of the body separately, and believe that they have the complete view of the shape of the elephant. Thus the doctrine of Non-Absolutism tries to find out the unity out of diverse points of view and admits that there is an element of truth in all religions which are but different approaches to the problems of humanity from different points of view.
Non-Possession (Aparigraha)
Parigraha is clinging to possessions, that is, harbouring such false notion as "this is mine" and imagining that one can hold on forever to what he now “possesses". The term also includes the four passions. The essence of non-possession is to avoid activities which generate these passions. But such renunciation is not possible unless a person has detached himself from the external possessions like land, houses, jewellery and miscellaneous goods. For a lay man, non-possession is expressed by setting of limits upon what he may own. Thus, by undertaking the vow of non-possession, a Jaina layman systematically reduces his tendencies to fall into possessiveness; thus he protects his soul from increased karmic entanglement and lays the groundwork for complete non-attachment, the path of the mendicant.
Ethical Code of Conduct
Jaina scriptures describe the conduct elaborately, expected from a monk as well as from a householder. The monks and nuns observe the five great vows (Mahāuratas) and the laity five primary vows (Anuuratas). The five Mahāuratas are total abstinence from violence, falsehood, stealing, sexual indulgence and possessions. This five-fold congregation known as Dharama Tirtha (Centre of Workship) is still

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observed and proves that Jainism is a living religion. There are numerous monks and nuns and nearly ten million householders continuing the tradition, following virtually the same path as prescribed by Jinas. Jaina monks and nuns move about in all parts of the country bare-footed, keeping minimum equipment required for their spiritual practice. There are some Digambara monks too who remain unclad. The Jaina laity still practise complete vegetarianism and mostly lead a life free of vices and intoxication. At the same time, the Jaina community is richly endowed with education and material comforts. They lead in the field of industry and business and have established a large number of charitable institutions for the cause of education, medical benefits and service to the downtrodden.
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APOROPOS OF KONDAKUNDA-ANVAYA
HAMPA NAGARAJAIAH
An inscription of C.E. 950 from Kurkyäla, a village in Andhra Pradesh has the following details :
On the holy-rock (siddha sile) to the north of Vṛṣabhagiri, an age old natural Jaina seat of pilgrimage, anādi samsiddhatirtha, Jinavallabha, younger brother of Pampa (C.E. 941), a poet-laureate, caused many images of his family deities, a basadi called Tribhuvana tilaka, a tank called kavita gunarnava and a garden called madana vilāsa. Jinavallabha, proficient in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu languages, a lay votary of Jayanandi siddhanta bhaṭāra, a friar of Pandarangavalli, who belonged to Desiga gana and Potthagebali of Kondakunde. Potthagebali is another alias of Sarsvati gaccha olim Pustaka (Postaka) gaccha or Śāradā gaccha.
It is significant to note that the usual Kondakunda anvaya is referred here as Kondakundeya. Kondakunde is only a place name and not a personal name. The inscription says that Desiga gana of Kondakunde is a place. There are other epigraphical references to this hallowed place. It is at this Kondakundeya tirtha that Nälikabbe, a lady votary, caused a Caṭṭa Jinalaya for the merit of her husband; Joyimarasa, a mahāmaṇḍaleśvara under Vikramadityadeva VI (10761126), the Kalyāṇa Calukya emperor, endowed the temple with certain gifts (specified) [SII, IX-i. No. 150 C.E. 1081, konakondla. p. 132].
In the light of the above two illustrations, the meaning of the phrase Kondakundanvaya needs reconsideration. So far, the usual and established explanation offered to Kondakundānvaya is that it is the lineage tradition of monks who belong to Kondakunda school of philosophy. The etymology of the noun form Kondakunda has been discussed by early scholars. Accordingly, it is a Dravidian compound word (konda+kunda), both the words denoting the same meaning of 'a habitat near the hill', a place where the great acarya Padmanandi was born. In course of time, Kondakundacārya (an ācārya from of Kondakunda) had become one of the aliases of the same ascetic Padmanandi. Even after due consideration to this etymology, primary meaning of the word Kondakunda(e) remains to be a place name.
Kondakundanvaya may mean either the anvaya of the place called Kondakunde, or the anvaya of the Kondakunda acarya. But, the

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expression Kondakundeya anvaya and Kondakundeya tirtha clearly clinches the issue: Kondakunde+a (the genitive case suffix)Kondakundeya; -y- is added to facilitate euphonic easy pronunciation. Therefore the genitive case suffix /-a/ denotes the place to which the anvaya belongs. Attention may be focussed on a supporting example from another. inscription which clearly mentions Kondakundamunipanvaya [Ec. 1x(R) Belur. 405 (V B1 133). A.D. 1280, p. 371]. If the anvaya is named after a particular ācārya, it will be mentioned so; for example, Vadirājānvaya (APGAS III. Mahaboobnagar. 61. No. 36 A.D. 1186] and Kirtyācāryanvanya. In Jaina monachism, some of the nomenclature of the gana, gaccha and anvaya are from place names: arungalānvaya (EC. VII. Hn. 174 (V Hn 119) A.D. 1173. Markuli, pp. -408- 11], Candra kavāṭānvaya [El. XVI. No. 9. A.D. 1053. Mulgund], citrakūṭānvaya [SII. XVIII. 71. 1066.], Hanasoge anvaya and Malläpänvaya [Dharvar Taluk śāsanas, No. 45. 12th Cent. A.D. Nuggikeri. p. 83] and Tālakolānvaya [EC. VII-i (BLR) SK. 136, 1068].
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Circumstantial evidences also substantiate this interpretation that Kondakundanvaya means the anvaya of the place Kondakunda(e). Pampa, the elder brother of Jinavallabha, the greatest of all Kannada poets, proudly recalls that he is a parrot in the excellent garden of Kondakundanvaya. If we examine the connotation of the expression, it is more plausible and also more meaningful to associate the garden to a place rather than a person. Therefore the phrase Kondakundanvayasuka, can be better interpreted as 'the parrot in the garden of the anvaya of the place of Kondakunda.
Therefore, Kondakundanvaya means the anvaya of the place called Kondakunda [K. 75. C.E. 881-82; K. 63. C.E. 977; K. I.C.E. 1032] Expressions referring to the anvaya after the adept would either take a genitive case suffix or would take the suffix of ācārya, like 'in the anvaya of Kondakundācārya' [K. 62. A.D. 1031]. If the word is just Kondakunda, without the suffix of acarya, it suggests the name of the place and not the name of the partriarch. Hence, explaining the word 'Kondakundanvaya' as 'the anvaya of Kondakundācārya' is not correct, it should be explained only as 'the anvaya of the place Kondakunda'.
This note, does not in any way, altar the accepted position of Kondakundācārya or the anvaya in his name, except that it focuses the importance of the place where the particular anvaya originated. It may also be noted that there are two Kondakunde places in the same vicinity, the smaller one and the bigger one.

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The Jaina-Purāņas occupy a position of high importance in the history of ancient Indian literature. These Purāņas were composed for the subjects of the religious rules and regulations, the moral conduct, the life-history of the Jaina Thirthankaras and the folk-tales of the Jainas. Simultaneously the contemporary political, social and religious conditions have also been efficiently portrayed here. Like the other branches of Indian literature the supernatural elements also have got place in the Jaina-Purāņas, but it could not occupy the position of supreme importance. The religious as well as the cultural backgrounds of the Purānas are very much important. Literature, Philosophy, Polity, the different aspects of the public life and conduct, pleasures and amusements, the picture of the rural life, the ethical principles-all these have got position in the Jaina-Purāņas. Though the Jaina-religion is not fully parallel to the nature of the Vedic religion, the Vedic customs and manners, rites and rituals-all these are described in the Jaina Purāņas with sufficient dignity and importance. Therefore the JainaPurāņṇas have been treated as sources of valuable information for the contemporary religious, political, social and cultural history of ancient
India.
A STUDY ON THE JAINA-PURĀŅAS
SANKAR PRASAD BANDYOPADHYAY
In ancient Indian history we can find a period when most of the kings of different regions followed Jainism and on account of royal patronage Jainism spread out all over the country.
The Jaina-Purāņas are divided into two :
1. The Purāṇas and
2. The Mahapurāņas.
Those poetical compositions which are composed with the story of one Salākā Puruşa (great personality) are called Purana and those which are composed with the story of more than one Salākā Puruṣa (great personalities) and with a maximum limit of 63 Salākā Puruṣas are called Mahāpurāṇa. The number of cantos (sarga) belonging to the Purānas and Mahāpurāṇas vary from 12 to 125 as we receive them. Again it is noticable that in the wide range of Jaina literature there are some Purānas and Mahāpurānas which have the same title, but the composers are different.

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The Jaina Puranas may be divided into three classes according to the subject matter they dealt with -
1. Relating to the Rāmāyaṇa Story
2. Relating to the Mahābhārata-Story 3. Relating to the Life-Story of one or more than one Salākā.
Puruşa (great personality).
Among the Jaina Purāņas there are some poetical works which are called Carita-kavya belonging to each of the three classes.
The Purāņas Relating to the Rāmāyaṇa
The oldest of all the Puranas relating to the Ramayana is the Paumacariya of Vimala Sūri. It is composed in Mahārāstrī Prākrit and contains many illustrations of archaic Prākrit. Prof. Jacobi thinks that it was composed in the 3rd century A.D. But the other scholars recommend 1st cent. A.D. as its date of composition.
This Purāna relates in melodious verses the life-story of Rāma. From the point of description this Purāna is closely related to the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki.
Following the Pauma-cariya of Vimala Sūri, Jainācārya Ravişena composed the Padma-purana in Sanskrit in 677 A.D.
Relating to the story of Rāma, the poet Svayambhū, the most famous among all the poets of the Jaina-Puranas, composed his famous poem Pauma-cariu in Apabhramsa. He is regarded to be the first poet Adikavi' to write Jaina Purāna in Apabhramsa. From the information contained in this Purana it appears that the birth-place of the poet was Karnataka. His father was Marutideva, the mother was Padmini and the son was Tribhubana. His time was 8th century A.D. Apart from Pauma-cariu, Svayambhū composed another Purāna in Apabhramsa. It is Ritthanemicariu.
The Paumacariu relates in 1200 verses the story of the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki. It contains 90 Sandhis-2 in Vidyadhara kānda, 22 in Ayodhyā kānda, 14 in Sundarā kānda, 21 in yuddha kanda, and 13 in uttara kända. Among these, 83 Sandhis were composed by the poet Svayambhū himself and the rest 7 Sandhis by his son Tribhuvana.
The Ritthanemicariu relates in 3 kändas and 112 Sandhis the story of the Mahābhārata taking Krsna and the Tirthankara Neminātha as

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93
the principal characters. The first 99 Sandhis were composed by the poet Svayambhu and the rest 13 Sandhis by his son Tribhuvana. The yadava-kanda of the book describes the birth, childhood, marriage etc. of the lord Kṛṣṇa. Kuru-kända describes the birth of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, their education, mutual conflict, dice-playing and exile. The yuddha-kāṇḍa describes the fighting in the Kurukṣetra. The poet himself says that the compostion of this poem took 6 years 3 months and 11 days.
The MS of this poem has been kept in the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute of Pune.
Jinasena and Gunabhadra, of the 9th century A.D. composed their poems in Sanskrit with the same title for their works as-Mahāpuraṇa.
Puspadanta, another Jaina-poet, composed his poem in Apabhramsa with the same name Mahāpurāṇa as the title of his work. He is a famous and highly talented poet of the 10th century A.D. He was a Brahmin belonging to the Kasyapa Gotra. His father was Kesavabhaṭṭa and the mother was Mugdhādevī. Puṣpadanta was originally a devotee to the lord Siva and later on he was converted to Jainism. The Mahāpurāṇa of Puspadanta contains the description of the condition of the poet's contemporary society, culture, religion, philosophy, art and architecture. In it the Hindu God Ramacandra has been worshipped together with Rṣavadeva. This Mahāpurāņa is divided into two independent parts-1) Adipurānṇa and 2) Uttarapurāṇa It describes the story of the 63 great personalities of Jaina religion. The first part contains the life-story of the first Tirthankara Ṛṣavadeva. The second part contains the story of the 23 Tirthankaras and their contemporary great personalities like the Nārāyaṇa, Pratinārāyaṇa, Balabhadra etc.
The Adipurāna possesses 80 Sandhis and the Uttarapurāṇa possesses 42 Sandhis. The total number of verses of both the parts combined together are twenty thousand. In the Uttarapurana the story of the Rāmāyana and that of the Harivamsa have been mixed to give a new shape.
The MSS. of this Mahāpurāṇa of Puṣpadanta has been kept in the L.D. Institute, Ahmedabad.
There are a considerable number of Jaina poets who composed their Purāṇa-works in the light of the story of Valmiki and have preferred the name 'Padma Purana' as the title of their works. For the purpose of composition and bringing novelty to the theme of their

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works, they made necessary changes in the body of the epic-story, in the names of the epic-characters, and so on.
For instance, Ravisena of the 7th century A.D. named his poetical work as Padma-purana in which Rāma has been called Padma, Lava and Kuša are Lavana and Amkusa, the monkey-regiment of Rāma is the Vidyadhara-regiment of Padma. Ravisena painted the horrible picture of envy throughout his whole poem and made his work complete with the triumphant outcry of non-violence at the end.
Similarly, the Mahāpurāna of Jinasena and Gunabhadra of the 9th century A.D. followed the Ramayana-story, but instead of describing the kings of the solar-dynesty they described the life-story of the 63 Salākā puruşas (great personalities).
A list of available Purānas narrating the Rāma-story is given below:
Name of the Works
Author
Date of Composition
Ravişena Kavi Raidhū Jinadāsa
7th Century A.D. 1400-1470 A.D. 16th Century A.D.
Padma purana Padma purāna Padma purāna (otherwise called Ramadeva Purana) Padma purana Padma purāna (otherwise called Rama Purana) Padma purāna Padma purāna
Somasena Dharmakārti
1655 A.D. 1669 A.D.
Bhattāraka Candrakirti 1700 A.D. Śricandra
Unknown
A list of the available Carita-kävyas-(biographical puranas) narrating the Rāma-Story is given below: Name of the Works Author
Date of Composition Yasodhara-carita Kanakasena Vadirāja 950 A.D. Sitā-caritra Sricandra
Unknown Padma-Mahākävya Subhavardhana Gani Unknown Rāma-caritra Padmanātha
Unknown Padma-purāna-Pañjikā Prabhadra
Unknown Sītā-caritra Sānti-Suri
Unknown

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BANDYOPADHYAY: A STUDY ON THE JAINA-PURĀŅAS
Sītā-caritra
Sita-caritra
Paramätma-Prakāśa
Nāya-kumara-cariu
Brahmanemidatta
Amaradāsa
Joindhu
Unknown
Unknown
6th century A.D.
9th century A.D.
Puspadanta
The Purāņas Relating to the Mahabharata
The first Jaina-Purāṇa which adopted the story of the Mahabhārata for its subject-matter is the Harivamsa purāṇa composed by the Jainapoet Jinasenācārya in Sanskrit. This Jinasenācārya is different from Jinasenācārya of the Adipurāṇa.
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Dhavala is another Jaina-poet of the 10th century A.D. He composed Harivaṛśa purāṇa in 122 Sandhis. It relates the life-story of Sri Krsna and the five Pandavas. From this work we come to know that Dhavala was Brahmin by caste, his father was Sura and the mother was Keśullā.
In the introduction Dhavala mentions the names of his predecessor poets among which Asaga is one who composed Viracaritain 988 A.D. But unfortunately the work is not available.
Raidhu, a Jaina-poet of the 15th century A.D., composed his Harivamsapurāṇa in Apabhramsa. His father was Harisimha, the mother was Vijayaśrī, the wife was Savitri and the only son was Udayarāja.

Raidhū was well-versed in Hindi, Apabhramsa and Sanskrit. Apart from Harivamsapurāņa Raidhū composed as many as 40 books in different languages among which Padmapurāṇa which narrates the Rama-story and Pārsva-Purāṇa which narrates the life-story of Pārsvanatha, the 23rd Thirthankara, are worthmentioning.
Pārsva-Purana is divided into seven Sandhis and is considered to be the best specimen of Apabhramsa poetry.
The other Puranas of Raidhū are available in MS in the Digambar Jaina Mandir of Delhi. These are- Mahavira-Purāṇa and BalabhadraPurāna.
Yasaḥkirti of the 15th century A.D. composed two Purāņas in Apabhramsa-Harivamsa-Purana and Pandava-Purāṇa.

The Harivamsa Purana contains 13 Sandhis and 271 Kaḍavaka. This Purana contains a detailed genealogical account of the family of

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Kṛṣṇa. The Manuscript of this Purana has been preserved in the Digambara Jaina Mandir of Jayapur and Udayapur of Rajasthan.
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The Pandava-Purāṇa, describes the characters of the five Pandavas and Śrikṛṣṇa in 34 Sandhis. Here the language is profound and the style is grave.
The poet Yasaḥkirti was a Jaina-monk and used to roam many places. While he was in Nagor and Udayapur of Rajasthan he composed these two works.
Śrutakirti of the 15th century A.D. composed Harivamsa-Purāṇa in Apabhramsa. In 44 Sandhis it describes the story of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The language is simple and lucid and the descriptions are mostly imitations of the Mahabharata.
A general tendency of the Jaina Purana-writers as evident from their works is that they have tried to follow the poetic imaginations, descriptions, style of language etc. of the Mahabharata, but failed to produce the poetic excellences of the great epic.
A list of the available Purāṇas narrating the Mahābhārata- Story is given below:
Name of the Works
Harivamsa-Purāṇa
Harivamsa-Purana
Harivamsa-Purāṇa
Harivamsa-Purana
Harivamsa-Purana
Harivamsa-Purāṇa
Harivamsa-Purana
Harivamsa-Purāṇa
Harivamsa-Purāņa
Pandava-Puraṇa
Pandava-Puraṇa
Pandava-Purāṇa
Pandava Puraṇa Santinatha-Purāṇa

Author
Jinaṣena
Jayānanda
Sakalakirti
Ramacandra
Śribhuṣaṇa
Dharmakirti
Jayasagara
Jayananda
Kavi Raidhū
Kavi Rāmacandra
Subhacandra
Vadicandra
Śrībhūṣaṇa
Śribhuṣaṇa

Date of Composition
8th century A.D.
Unknown
1520 A.D.
1560 A.D.
1675 A.D.
1671 A.D.
Unknown
Unknown
1400-1470 A.D.
1560 A.D.
1608 A.D.
1654 A.D.
1675 A.D.
1675 A.D.

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A list of the available Carita-kavyas - biographical Purānas narrating the Mahābhārata-Story is given below : Name of the Works Author
Date of Composition Pandava-Carita
Devabhadra Sūri 13th century A.D. Mrgāvati-Carita
Devabhadra Sūri 13th century A.D. Pandava-Carita Deva Vijaya Gani 1660 A.D. Sanat-kumara-Carita . Haribhadra
12th century A.D. Pandava-Carita
Devaprabha
12th century A.D.
The Purāņas Relating to the Life-story of the Sixtythree Great
Personalities (Tri-Şaşți-Salākā-Purusa-Caritam)
The Jaina-poets, besides taking the Rāmāyana, the Mahābhārata and the ancient mythologies as the principal subject of their compositions, adopted the life-story of the sixtythree great personalities famous as the Salākā Puruşas to compose poetical works with them. These sixtythree Salakāpurusas are the 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Chakravartins, 9 Vasudevas, 9 Valadevas and 9 Vişnu-dvesins (the enemy of Lord Visnu). Among the Thirthankaras - Mahāvīra or Vardhamāna (the 24th Tirthankara), śāntinātha (the 16th Tirthankara) Neminātha (the 21st Tirthankara) and Pārsvanātha (the 23rd Tirthankara) were the principal characters in most of the poetical works belonging to this class. The tendency of writing poetical works in this line was prevalent from the 10th to the 18th centuries, still it attained the highest glorious position in the 12th century, when the most talented poet Hemacandra composed his most famous poetical workTrişasti-Salākā-Puruşa Carita in 1088-1172 A.D.
Hemacandra was a minister at the royal court of the king Jayasimha Siddharāja and his successor Kumārapāla in Gujrat. By his influence Jainism became the state religion. Though a Jain, his reverence to Brāhmanism was not less. He wrote books on almost every branch of literature in Sanskrit and Prakrit. His Trisasti-Salaka-Purusa-Carita occupies a position of high dignity in Indian literature. His skill in characterisation, in arrangements and description of the incidents, in performing variety of sentiments, style and figures of speech etc. have been highly praised by the critics. In this poetical work Hemacandra proves that he possesses genius of great versatility.
Krishnacaitanya writes - 'Hemacandra was not only a Schoolman, but a great literary craftsman as well. There are significant

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modifications, especially in characterisation, in his version. Rāma is less of an incarnation and Ravana is less of a villian here. Kaikeyi, the mother of Bharata, is depicted more graciously. (A New History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 255).
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A list of the Purāņas narrating the story of the sixtythree Salākā Purusas is given below:
Author
Name of the Works Trisaṣṭi-salākā-purāna Muni Mallisena
Puspadanta
Śricandra
Triṣaṣṭi-salākā-puruṣa- Hemacandra
Mahāpurāṇa
Purāṇasāra
caritra
Purāṇa-sara-sangraha Damanandi
Bhaṭṭāraka Candrakirti
Sakalakirti
Candramuni
Ādipurāṇa
Purāṇasāra
Triṣaṣṭi-salākā
Mahāpurāṇa
Samkṣipta-Caritam Mahāpurusa Carita
Trisasti-smrti-sāstra
Laghu Triṣasti SalākāPurusa Carita
Rama-mallabhyudaya
A list of the available Caritakavyas-(biographical poems) narrating
the story of the sixty three Salākā Puruṣa:
Author
Name of the Works Caturvimsati
Laghu Triṣasti
Trisaṣṭi-salākā Pañcāsikā

Jinendra-Sūri
Date of Composition 969 A.D.
965-972 A.D.
1080 A.D.
1088-1172 A.D.
Merutunga
Āśādhara
11th-13th centuries A.D.
17th century A.D.
Unknown
Unknown
Date of Composition 1238 A.D.
Megha Vijaya Upadhyāya
Upadhyaya Padmasundara
Somaprabha
(Name not mentioned
disciple of Kalyāṇa Vijaya)

1306 A.D.
1692 A.D.
1800 A.D.
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown

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99:
BANDYOPADHYAY : A STUDY ON THE JAINA-PURĀŅAS
Purānas Narrating the Character of one Great
Personality (Eka Salākā Puruşa Carita):
Simultaneously with the Trisasti-Salākā-Puruşa-Caritra we find some Purānas relating to one great man, called Eka-Salākā-Purusa Caritra. Among the works of this class
Pārsvapurana of Padmakirti (10th century A.D.) was composed with the life-story of Pārsva-nātha, the 23rd Tirthankara. This work is divided into 18 Sandhis. The poet has mentioned the names of his preceptors-as Candrasena, Mādhavasena and Jinasena. The language and metre used in the verses are very lucid. It contains 310 Kadavaka and 3323 stanzas.
The Manuscript of this work has been kept in the Digambara Jaina Mandir of Jayapur of Rajasthan.
The Nemināthapurana of Nemidatta deserves to be mentioned here. The poem is composed in Apabhramsa language with 25 Sandhis and 6895 verses in a very lucid style. For this work the poet has gained a position of dignity in Jaina literature.
The poet took retirement from the family life and entered into the order of asceticism. Hence he got the surname of Muni, Gani, Sūri etc. He has mentioned the names of his preceptors as-Amitagati, Sāntisena, Amasena, Srisena, Candrakirti and Amarakirti.
In 1300 A.D. Bhavadeva Sūri composed the Pārsvanāthcaritra which is important for its secular elements. The 'Satrunjaya-māhātmya' of Dhaneśvara composed in the 11th century A.D. describes the Śatruñjaya mountain. The work is also important for its secular aspects.
It is noted in this connection that some Jaina-purānas while describing the noble deeds of the Tirthankaras in their previous births, clearly admit the transmigration of soul. Among some such purānas the Pārsvanāthacarita of Bhavadeva Sūri, Mahaviracarita of Hemacandra, Salibhadracarita of Dharmakumāra etc. can be mentioned, because they describe beautiful stories to establish the context of re-birth. Dharmakumāra narrates that Salibhadra in the previous birth was the son of a very poor widow. His name was Sangama and his occupation was pasturing of cows. Once in a day of festival his mother served him many tasteful foods. At that very moment a hungry beggar came and at once Sangama served the food to him and himself remained in starvation. For this noble deed in the later life he

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was born as the son of a very rich man. But it is due to want of attachment for the family life, he entered into the order of asceticism.
Kavi Raidhū, a Jaina-poet of the 15th century (1400-1470 A.D.), composed Puranas and other poems in Apabhramsa and Sanskrit. His father was Harisimha, mother Vijayasri, wife Savitri and son was Udayarāja. He was not a poet of a very high order.
His Padmapurāna deals with the story of Rāma. Harivamsapurana deals with the story of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. It has 14 Sandhis and 302 Kadavakas. The description of Rsavadeva, Vasudeva, Balabhadra, Neminatha etc. are praise-worthy. Parsvapurana in Apabhramsa deals with Parsvanātha, the 23rd Thirthankara. It is divided into 7 Sandhis. It is treated to be the best work of Raidhū,
There are other two works of Raidhū-1) Mahāvīrapurana and 2) Balabhadra Purana
Dr. Rajarama Jain has got 37 works of Raidhū the manuscripts of his works are kept in Digambar Jaina Mandir, Jayapur, Rajasthan. (Mahakavi Raidhū Ke Sahitya Ka Alocanätmaka Parisilana, p. 49).
A list of the Purāņas narrating the Story of one Salākā-Purusa is given below:
Name of the Works Vardhamana-purāņa Santinātha-purāna Mahāvira-purana Camunda-Purāņa Parsva-purāna Mallinātha-purana Pārsva-purāna Pārsvanātha-purana
Author Jinasena Asama kavi Asama kavi Cāmundārāya Padmakirti Sri Jannācārya Kavi Raidhū Bhattāraka Subhūşana Nemidatta Vadicandra Kesavasena Bhattāraka Subhacandra
Date of Composition 3rd century A.D. 10th century A.D. 10th century A.D. 980 A.D. 999 A.D. 1209 A.D. 1400-1470 A.D.
1500 A.D.
Neminātha-puräna Anantanātha-purāna Kamāmsta-purāna Padmanami-purana
1575 A.D. 1668 A.D. 1688 A.D. 1700 A.D.

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BANDYOPADHYAY: A STUDY ON THE JAINA-PURĀŅAS
Ajitapurāņa
Aruna Gani
Kavi Bahuvali
Dharmanatha-purāṇa (Kannada language)
Dharmakarmābhyudya
Unknown
From a careful study of the Jaina-purāņas, it appears that a considerable number of the Jaina-Puraņas were composed in Apabramsa, Mähārāṣṭri and Sauraseni Prakrit, even though the puranas written in Sanskrit are not negligible in number.
Haricandra

1716 A.D.
Unknown
101
The importance of the Jaina Puranic literature lies in converting the epic-story into the language of the people of that time and by this way making the epic-story extensively popular and giving the uneducated a chance to have an enjoyment of the epic sentiment.

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DAWN OF THE 21ST CENTURY AND RETURN TO RELIGION
KALYAN MAL LODHA
Moments have come when our century is drawing to a close and another is about to dawn to splash its colours on mankind. We now stand between a collapsing past and an indeterminate future. The technology and the scientific culture have gone deep into our entrails. It is said that for every fifteen years our knowledge doubles whereas in the last century, it took fifty years to expand its horizons. The ever explosive population is likely to inflame our sustainable existence. With this unbridled growth, at one stage, the mass of mankind will be greater than the mass of earth causing complete collapse. We are caught in the death trap-total extinction. -the silent holocaust is there. We have explored the distant stars and outer space causing pollution there also by throwing enormous debries. The Cassine probe to saturn launched in Ocotober 1997 poses an unprecedented threat to humanity by dispersing plutonium all over the earth-contaminating two billion people by causing dreadful diseases. As Bruce Mazlish puts it-'there is a disparity between the greatness of these deeds and meanness of the results'. Return to earth is a way of expressing distrust in technological advancement. Let us look at this from another angle. 14000 children die of hunger everyday in Africa. One day's saving in military spending will enable it to survive for one year-More than two billion dollars drain out every minute. 40% of the worlds' minerals are utilised by 6% of the population. It is horrifying to note that thousands of children in the west trot their guns and indulge in violence, rape young girls, commit decoities and are becoming socio-paths with paranoid character. Thus, psychic crisis, cultural crisis, identity crisis, intellectual crisis and credibility crisis are there (reference: Oxford Survey). In India, suicides are done every 8 minutes. It is due to a sense of despair and desperateness. I am reminded of M.S. Well's 'Mind at the End of its Tether' in which he scoffed at the frolics by children rejoicing, dancing on the victory of the Allied Nations in the Second world War. H.G. Wells boldly asserted that human mind was at the end of its tether and until and unless, life's pattern is moulded in a new matrix, our existence will face disasters. The prophecy has come true.
On the other hand, biogenetic system is collapsing. In Florida, there are no birds and in Siberia no ants. Several species are already

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103
lost and will be externiated in near future. It is said that earth's carbon is decreasing. More cancer death are feared from thining ozone layer. It is feared that USA may require more asylums than hospitals. New York fully depends upon sea winds for oxygen. The calamity is octopus and as Sall Tung says, The Planet is already burning. An annual survey of more than 20000 children, aged 11 to 15, carried out by Exeter University shows that drug taking amongst this age group has doubled over the few years (Faire Hynes - The Times, London). Bernard Leven asks 'Have we dehumanised ourselves.' He gives numerous instances of mindless brutality against inoffensive persons in New York and London and deplores the callous deterioration of man and his environs. Look at the filth our cities have become? I will not stretch this sordid story any further. It suffices to point out the malady, mankind is suffering now. Here Dewey puts it 'We should now endeavour the Quest for certainty. Problem of restoring faith and conviction, integration and cooperation between man's beliefs about the world, and human ethos, values and purposes. To overcome alienation, time has come, when values must be identified with moral fulfilment, creative process, in which Law of Entropy is reversed and life develops new forms, manifests new capacities. Interest is to bread harmony and goodwill to unite the broken chord. Moral failure is a failure to exercise rational self. We must get rid of this dysnomia and thraldom. Man now imperatively needs a new technology for the inner growth.
It augurs well to realise that scientists have now realised that there is no conflict between science and religion, between mind and matter and between body and soul. A few quotes will testify to this. It is gratifying to note that man is not only a mere 'homo sapiens' but also a 'homo faber', that the universe is not a large computer and that microcome and macrocosm have the commonness (The Theory of Everything proves this). Einstein says that religion without science is blind and science without religion is lame. Arthur Hill observes that religion and science are not in conflict and are not opposite systems. Science has now reached the dead end of its journey. Scientific enquiries cannot justify the Summum Bonnum of life. A.S. Edington holds the view that beneath the matter a conscious energy is covertly there. Albert Einstein also holds the same view and believes in super power. James Jeans observes that modern science is getting closer to human consciousness. JBS Halden goes further and says that cosmic energy controls our pattern of behaviour. Dr. Gal believes in Karma theory and life hereinafter. To sum up, I refer to the book 'The Great Design'in which fourteen scientists have unanimously concluded that the universe is not a machine without consciousness. There is a cosmic

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force underlying the whole process and subsequently, this view was also adopted in a conference organised by California University, in which leading physicists opined to imbibe metaphysical concept in the scientific thought. Edington unequivocally draws the conclusion that human soul and the Absolute reality are interconnected. This opens a new vista and approach, evincing halecyon days between science & religion with full rapport. This takes us to a new perspective of the 21st century- The return to religion'. Scientists have discovered the Third Eye in man, which generates vision, intuition and pragmatic concepts and Eogence. Relevance of religion is now unquestionable as we stand on the threshold of a new era and century.
We now have globalisation, global village and their parameters. Verily, they are meant for economic and socio-political cooperation and coordination in the context of contemporary consumerism, yet there are thinkers and sociologists, who punctiliously think that religion or as the new term goes the science of spirituality is imperative and impelling, if mankind is to liberate itself from the web of a doomed civilisation. Prof. Lestercruz in his famous book 'Gods in the global village' has deeply delved into this, as a remedy to cure the scourge of present mayhem and the state of violent disorder. He maintains that all religions are basically uniform in their apophthegm. Love, fellowfeeling, non-violence, truth and compassion have been treated as basic tenets. Michael Tobayes in his India Twenty Four Hours' saw the religious milieu in India and became a Jain as it was the true religion that could be a panacea for the present ailments. Dr. Mackay also holds the same view and regards Jainism as the purest religion and a remedy of malignance and cacophony of the present times.
Few years ago, reciting the name of Confucius in China could put a man behind bars, but now he is regarded as the best exponent of Chinese Tradition and Culture, as he provides a moral touchstone and his philosophy is taken as a pillar to represent the Chinese pride of the nation. Man must make life meaningful, rewarding and purposeful. In ethical striving as in the sublime and the beautiful (not vertical reality and artificial imagination of the present media) an experience in expressable harmony between himself and all else. It makes universe delightful with resonating vibration and the Self becomes united with others. This is what religion does. Having failed to find, says Frau Schumer (The New York-1983) adequate answers in secular alternatives, in political activism, science and technology, Americans are being drawn nearer to religion. Church membership is increasing. Many more students are taking courses in religion and they seek moral answers to eternal questions. The same is true in Russia also. Churches there are exploding with activity. People throng

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LODHA : DAWN OF THE 21ST CENTURY AND RETURN TO RELIGION 105 in and out of the churches. Religion has staged a return with full vigour. There is a strong disenchantment towards the materialistic secular philosophy and people are growing leery with political systems. Behind this predicament, religion beacons, as it accords meaning to temporal existence. Mirza Asmer Beg observes that notwithstanding the drift toward hedonism and consumerism, where the mad race for survival and material success eats up an individual's time and leaves him totally exhausted, religion remains an important factor in life. It helps in the generation of values that produce integrated character and culture.
Scientists are now getting closer to theology and are convinced that body is not the be-all and the end-all of our existence. The clinical ecology is an example, which ascertains that environment, climatic conditions and changes, earthquakes and storms do affect human behaviour. Dr. Macdugul of America is doing research to establish that soul is certainly an entity. Dr. Gates also persues his experiments in the same direction. Neurons in human body are getting a close look by physiologists. Neitssche proclaimed the death of God and nihilism of all values, but they are now resucitated with full force. The mind and body connection once discarded and dismissed as New Age Polemics, is now a tenet of medical science. Mindfulness meditation eases pain, kabat zinn hypothesises, by enabling persons to concentrate and get relief from chronic headaches, depression, lack of conviction, feeling of nothingness, lonliness and schixophrenic tendencies. Jainism has emphasised on Sāmāyika, Svādhyāya, Preksā dhyāna. Pratiksamana, pratyākhyāna etc. as a definite cure to these maladies. It is necessary to mention Dr. Herbert Benson's Theory of the Relaxation Response. Dr. Benson asserts that invocation of prayers and mantras over and over can lower the rate of breathing and brain wave activity, sometimes healing that ails you and averting the need for an invasive surgery. He says that the mind could work like a drug, especially among people who have strong faith in God or a higher power. An 'OMMM' (Om) bears a healing touch. He further avoches that the supposed gulf between science and spirituality in healing does not always exist. With increasing frequency, mental techniques like meditation, imagination, relaxation, and biofeed are being used to treat physical ailments and mind is increasingly becoming a source for physical healing. This is another aspect in which religion or spiritual tones have found their way in our life. One well-known but little understood mechanism of mind/body medicine is 'placebo'. Similarly meditation has provided relief to thousand of patients suffering from diabetes, cancer, cardiac ailments (the Rotarian December 1996). This also points out to the declaration of the Delhi Six (1985) which

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unequivocally spelt out an undying faith in man's desire to live against the fear of mass destruction by nuclear weapons. It also reflected passionate desire of man that life must not perish. This conviction leads us to believe that man's ethos must enhance and enliven to face the calamity and this quest can only harness and consumate with religion.
Now to education, which is the main source of human altruism. I here recall the letter, which Abraham Lincoln wrote to the teacher, when he sent his son to school. He spells out certain virtues, which must be imbibed in the young mind, as virtues do weave and spin the moral fibre of life. Before I launch out into this subject. I do not feel chary to quote that the history of power politics is nothing but the history of international crimes and mass murder. This history is taught in schools and some of the greatest criminals are extolled as its heroes (Karl Popper in Open Society and its Enimies). As per UNESCO International Commission Report on Education for the 21th century. education has now to be looked upon a life long undertaking. It has to be a constant process of upgradation of skills and sharpening of consciousness. Consciousness necessarily connects itself to the development of ethical code, which brings into play by educational institutions as set the standards for altruism education. Education is the single effective way enabling people to achieve their inner potentiality. One favoured method of moral education that has been invogue now is called 'values clarification'. Moral education must have the moral betterment as its explicit aim. Character education should be the objective. Education in the new era will have to be morality based i.e. religious relatively. The education system needs changing but so does our attitudes towards it.
This write up is an exordium to the return to religion in the 21st century. Indian tradition in its noble aspects has always stressed on a religious life, on collective goodness and moral code of conduct. This is why the cult of non-violance is gaining spurs all over the world, Sometime American Senators presented a memorandum to the president that the statue of Mahavira sādhu must be installed in Washington DC-to Wispire non-violence amongst the citizens. Statues of several of war are no more needed. Martia Luther adored the picture of Mahatma Gandhi an apostle of true humanitarianism......... The baneful effects of the age of technology can be overcome by a strong religious conviction and adherence to moral virtues. We have to realise that might is not right, but right is might, and thus, the new dawn will redden in the wake of present dark nights. Technology has embraced religion --not dogmatic and individual, but universal and cosmopolitan in character, and mankind will be safe and secure is its lap.

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GERMS OF MODERN PHYSICS IN JAINA PHILOSOPHY CHANDANA ROY CHOWDHURY & R.L. BRAHMACHARY
It is known that relatively advanced concepts of science are sometimes evident in ancient Indian texts, but generally these did not develop any further. The atomic theory of Kanāda is such an example. In this paper we attempt to highlight certain aspects of Jaina philosophy revealing that the Jaina thinkers were concerned with such concepts.
The secret lying behind the evolution of matter attracted men since the early days of human civilization. They thought over it and tried to give explanation of the atomic nature of matter, and of the aggregation of the particles to form larger ones without doing any cumbersome experiment. Heisenberg,1 the founder of 'uncertainity principle' in modern physics, remarked that "some statements of ancient philosophy are rather near to those of modern science. This simply shows how far one can get by combining the ordinary experience of nature that we have, without performing experiments, with the untiring effort to get some logical order into this experience, based only on a purely theoretical exercise."
Atomic theory is one of the remarkable physical concepts of the Indian Philosophers. The atomic theory of the Jainas (rather similar to that of Kanāda) was first revealed in the writings of Kundakunda, one of the earlier Jaina philosophers of the Digambara Sect, who appeared during the first century A.D. and explained the theories of Tattva and Astikāya in his text entitled "the Pravacanasāra”. Umāsvati, a pupil of Kundakunda, wrote Tattvārthādhigama-sūtra in Sanskrit, in which he discussed the atomic theory and the theory of chemical combination in detail. This book was recognised by both the Digambaras and the Svetambaras, and was the most authoritative text for the atomic theory of the Jainas.2
In Jaina philosophy, the world is thought to be without beginning or end.2 In other words, this philosophy does not require a creatorgod and as such has an agnostic or atheistic learning. It is composed of two principal objects: jiva (living) and ajiva (non-living). The latter comprises dharma (positive force), adharma (negative force), ākāśa
1. W. Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, London, 1959, p. 65.
2.
H. Jacobi. Eine Jaina Dogmatik. Leipzig, 1906.

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(space), pudgala (matter) and kāla (time). The first four ajīvas are called astikāya. The fourth astikāya, the pudgala implies the concept of matter in Jaina philosophy. 'Pud' means 'to combine' and 'gala' means 'to dissociate'. Hence 'pudgala' means something which transforms by combination or dissociation. Pudgala is said to be identified by five kinds of colours (black, red, blue, yellow and white). eight types of touches (soft, hard, heavy, light, cold, hot, smooth and rough) and five tastes (bitter, pungent, acidic, sweet and astringent) and two different odours (fragrance and its opposite, i.e. malodour). It is worth mentioning that we now know that smell is due to molecules of odorous substances which are volatile, i.e. fly through the air and bind to the nasal (olfactory) system and generate the sense of smell. That smell has a physical basis, namely that it is based on tangible but minute particles of matter, is evident in the Jaina school of thought.
Pudgala can be seen in two forms: atoms (anuand paramānu) and aggregate (skandha). The anuis eternal and ultimate particle of matter. However no clear distinction has been made between anu and paramāņu. The other form of pudgala is skandha which is an aggregate of two or more atoms and the physical world is mahāskandha Skandha is not absolute and beginningless like the atom. Moreover, in addition to taste, colour, odour and touch, skandha possesses the following physical characteristics : dimension, sound, atomic linking, shape and configuration, divisibility, opacity, radiant heat and light. Skandhas may be made up of a countable number of atoms (Samhata-pradesika), of uncountable number of atoms (asamkhyāta-pradeśika) of anus of an infinitely large number of the first order (ananta), of anus of an infinitely large number of the second order (anantānu) and so on. The theory of chemical combination and atomic linking is the most significant feature of the Jaina atomism. According to the Jaina atomism, chemical combination of two atoms can only occur when their qualities are opposite (for example, dryness and moistness, roughness and smoothness). Atomic linking will be strong or weak depending on the strength of those quantities. Atoms with similar qualities combine only when the strength of those qualities varies widely. It is due to chemical combination and atomic linking, changes in the properties of atoms take place. It is noteworthy that the theory of chemical combination of the Jainas resembles the dualistic hypothesis of Berzelius in the early nineteenth century, in which two electrically unlike atoms (one +ve and one-ve i.e. opposite qualities) were said to attract each other and finally combine with neutralization of their charges. Such speculation of the Jainas (without going through any experiment) is really surprising.

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Moreover, the Jaina philosophy may be said to be the precursor of Newtonian Mechanics as well as the concept of a 4-dimensional continuum as discussed in this paper. In this aspect, our attempt is largely based on Jacobi's work.
A study of the Tattvārthādhigama-sūtra reveals that combination of several sūtras are equivalent to Newton's laws of motion formulated in the 4-dimensional space-time continuum as first enunciated by Minkowskii (which was further developed by Einstein). In order to appreciate this, let us first state Newton's first law of motion :
Every material body persists in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, if and only if, it is not compelled by an external force to change that state.
Again, Newton conceived of a 3-dimensional space and a separate time dimension. But Minkowskii in early twentieth century first enunciated a 4-dimensional space-time continuum.
Let us now deduce these from the Tattvārthādhigama-sūtras of Umāsvāti as stated by Jacobi :
The sūtras are the following: 1. ajivakāyā dharmādharmākāsapudgalāh (Sutra V, 1, Jacobi,
p. 40) i.e. the non-living things are excitatory force, inhibitory force, space and matter.
Explanatory comments: In western physics, matter, force and space (together with time) are the fundamental entities. Newtonian laws of mechanics are concerned with these entities. We note that in Jaina philosophy, too, these were recognized as fundamental; moreover two types of forces, namely dharma and adharma, were referred to. 2. asamkhyeyāh pradesā dharmādharmayoh (Sūtra V, 7, Jacobi,
p. 41) Jacobi interprets this sūtra as follows:
Regung und Hemmung haben unzählig viele Punkte. i.e., Forces (excitatory and inhibitory) are continuous, not discrete like matter. Explanatory comments :
In modern physics, we use the word 'force', instead of 'dharma' and 'adharma'. When a force stimulates a body to move, we can call it a positive force and a force checking the motion may be said to be negative. We do not use different terms to distinguish these two opposite

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type of forces. But in Jaina terminology, two separate words 'dharma' and 'adharma' signify stimulatory and inhibitory force, respectively. In this context, dharma and adharma do not signify religion and antireligion.
This sutra further shows that the Jaina philosophers recognized a fundamental difference between matter and force. Matter is discrete, i.e. consists of a finite number of atoms, while, in contrast, force, like space, has an infinite number of points. In modern terminology, these two are a discrete and continuous manifold, respectively.
3. anusreni-gatiḥ (Sūtra II, 27, Jacobi, p. 19)
i.e. every motion is rectilinear.
In this regard, Jacobi's comment is :
sie geht von einem Punkte Zu den benachbarten in einer Reihe liegenden
i.e., motion continues from one point to the neighbouring point in a series. (This also refers to the spiritual world, but here we are concerned only with physical aspect.)
Explantory comments:
According to Newton's first law of motion, a body continues in the state of rectilinear motion unless it is deviated by an externally applied force. In Jaina philosopy also, we find a similar concept, namely, motion is rectilinear (unless other forces are acting, as seen below).
4. gatisthityupagraho dharmādharmayor upakāraḥ (Sūtra V, 17, Jacobi, p. 41)
i.e. excitatory and inhibitory forces are defined as conditions of motion and rest.
Explanatory comments:
Newton's law of inertia implies that there are two types of inertia in the properties of matter: 'inertia of motion' and 'inertia of rest'. 'Inertia of motion' means that a moving body will always be in the state of motion unless it is inhibited by any other external force, while 'inertia of rest' means that a body at rest will be always at rest unless it is excited to move by any external force. This reveals that the above two kinds of force are responsible for the state of motion and rest of a body. In Jaina philosophy too, we find the above concept of force (dharma and adharma) being the conditions of motion and rest.

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CHOWDHURY & BRAHMACHARY: GERMS OF MODERN PHYSICS
Regarding this sutra, Jacobi comments thus:
"Wie die Zeit eine Bedingung fuer die Entstehung etc. eines Dinges ist; denn dars ein Ding jetzt oder spaeter entsteht etc., ist durch die Zeit bedingt."
i.e. time is a condition for the existence of a thing (matter, body).
Whether an object originates now or at another time is conditioned by time or in other words, matter is not independent of time. Thus, it implies that matter is dependent on both time and space for its existence.
5. ākāśasyānantāḥ (Sūtra V, 9, Jacobi, p. 41)
Jacobi interpreted this sūtra as :
Der Raum hat unendlich viele (punkte)
i.e. space contains infinite number of points or space is
continuous.
Explanatory comments:
111
The aforesaid sutras put together reveal that (i) (unlike matter) space, time and force are continuous. (ii) Force is conditioned (defined) by the state of motion or rest of an object. (iii) An object exists in space and time. (iv) Matter is not independent of time. (v) A body continues in rectilinear motion in the 4-dimensional space-time continuum unless a force acts on it to deviate it from its motion.
It is interesting to note that in 1916/17 Einstein3 wrote a popular account of relativity theory. In this, while trying to explain a continuum of space he gave the example of a 2-dimentional space; namely the surface of a marble table. He wrote:
"Ich kann von irgendeinem Punkte desselben aus zu irgendeinem anderen gelangen, indem Ich eine grosse Anzahl von Malen immer zu einem "benachbarten" Punkte uebergebe...ohne Sprunge zu machen... die Oberflaeche sei ein Kontinuum"
i.c. I can move from one point to another point without making any (discontinuous) jump as I go from one point to the "neighbouring" point over a very large number of times..... i.e. the surface is a continuum. This may be compared with Jacobi's interpretation of sūtra No. 2. In this way, we can also conceive of a 3-dimensional space and then of a 4-dimensional space-time continuum.
The famous British litterateur and science-fiction writer H.G. Wells*
3. The collected works of Albert Einstein, Princeton University Press, 1996. 4. H.G. Wells, The Time Machine, New York, U.S.A.

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JAIN JOURNAL: Vol-XXXIV, No. 2 October 1999 revealed a remarkable flight of thought in his celebrated work, The Time Machine'. Here he formulated the essence of space-time continuum just before Einstein and Minkowskii thought over it.
112
We note that H.G. Wells here asked in "Time Machine", "Can an instantaneous cube exist" and further elucidated it as "Can a cube whose any side does not last for any time at all exist"?
He, i.e. Wells, answered in the negative and developed a concept of a 4-dimensional world in which the material objects exist. He talked of 3-dimensional sections in the 4-dimensional world. This is very similar to that of Minkowskii and Einstein. The Wellsian idea may be compared with Jacobi's comments on Sutra No. 6.
In spite of such important theoretical realization, the Indian philosophers could not proceed very far because of their dependence on religious ideas. Actually, there was hardly a philosopher completely free from religious tradition. The other reason for the decline of Indian science was the large gap between theory and experiments or practical application. It is relevant to mention here that in Greece, philosophers like Anaxogoras, Democritus, Epicurus, Lucretius etc. were purely materialistic. According to the words of Farrington:
"With the Science of Alexandria and of Rome we are in very truth on the threshold of the sixteenth century, it took up where the Greeks left off."
Unfortunately, Indian Science could not repeat or continue her earlier glory.

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CHOWDHURY & BRAHMACHARY: GERMS OF MODERN PHYSICS
113
SOME NOTEWORTHY EDITIONS OF THE
TATTVĀRTHA-SŪTRA
Hermann Jacobi, "Eine Jaina-Dogmatik; Umāsvāti's Tattvärthadhigama-sūtra", ZDMG, Vol-60, pp. 287ff, 512, Leipzig, 1906.
Tattvārthadhigama-sūtra of Umāsväti edited with Introduction in English and Sanskrit by Hiralal Rasiklal Kapadia, Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri in 2 Vols. with the commentary of Siddhasenagani Part I (Chapters 1-2) 1926; Part II (Chapters VI-X) 1930.
J.L. Jaini, Tattvārtha sūtram, Delhi, 1956.
S.A. Jain --Reality, translation of Sarvärthasiddhis of Pujyapāda, Vir Seva Mandir, Calcutta, 1960, reprinted by Jwalamalini Trust, Madras-600 053, 1992.
Tattvārtha-sūtra of Umāsvāti with the commentary of Pt. Sukhlal translated into English by K.K. Dixit, L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974.
Tattvārtha-sūtra ed. by Sukhlal Sanghavi, Parsanāth Vidyāśrama Sodha samsthāna, Varanasi, 1976, reprinted in 1985.
Tattvārthādhigama sūtra, ed by J.L. Jain, with Introduction, text and translation, notes and commentary in English, Sacred Books of the Jainas, Arrah. 1920. Reprinted by Today and Tomorrow Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, 1990.
That which is (Tattvārtha-sūtra) translated with an Introduction by Nathmal Tantia, Harber Collins Publishers, U.K. 1994.
Miscellaneous
Hiralal Rasiklal Kapadia - The Jaina Religion and Literature, Vol1, Part I, Motilal Banarsidass, Lahore, 1944.
Bimal Krishna Matilal - The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekāntavāda), L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1981.
N.J. Shah (ed) --Jaina Theory of Multiple Facets of Reality and Truth (Anekāntavāda), Motilal Banarsidass, 1999
Hampa Nagarajaih-Jaina Parśva Temples in Karnataka, Shimoga, 1999, pp. xx + 104.
Shanti Lal Nagar-Jaina Sculptures in Indian and World Museums. New Delhi, 2000, pp. xxi + 188 + 169 plates.
(Prepared by the Editor)

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114
JAIN JOURNAL : Vol-XXXIV, No. 2 October 1999 JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATIONS
P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta - 700 007 English: 1. Bhagavati-sutra-Text edited with English translation by K.C. Lalwani in 4 volumes; Vol-1 (satakas 1-2)
Price :Rs. 150.00 Vol-II (satakas 3-6)
150.00 Vol-III (satakas 7-8)
150.00 Vol-IV (satakas 9-11)
150.00 2. James Burges-The Temples of Satrunjaya,
Jain Bhawan, Calcutta, 1977. pp. x+82 with 45 plates
Price:Rs. 100.00 [It is the glorification of the sacred mountain
Satruñaya.) 3. P.C. Samsukha-Essence of Jainism translated by Ganesh Lalwani,
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Price :Rs. 15.00 5. Lalwani and S.R. Banerjee - Weber's Sacred Literature of the Jains
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translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani Price :Rs. 40.00 7. Ganesh Lalwani - Śraman Samskriti ki Kavitā.
translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani Price :Rs. 20.00 8. Ganesh Lalwani-Nilanjanā translated by Shrimati Rajkumari Begani
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Life Membership-Rs. 500.00

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JAIN BHAWAN: ITS AIMS AND OBJECTS
The establishment of the Jain Bhawan in 1945 in the Burra Bazar area of Calcutta by eminent members of the Jain Community, the Jain Bhawan has kept the stream of Jain philosophy and religion flowing steadily in eastern India for the last over fifty years. The objectives of this institution are the following:
1. To establish the greatness of Jainism in the world rationally and to spread its glory in the light of new knowledge.
2. To develope intellectual, moral and literary pursuits in the society. 3. To impart lessons on Jainism among the people of the country. 4. To encourage research on Jain Religion and Philosophy.
To achieve these goals, the Jain Bhawan runs the following programmes in various fields.
1. School:
To spread the light of education the Bhawan runs a school, the Jain Shikshalaya, which imparts education in accordance with the syllabi prescribed by the West Bengal Board. Moral education forms a necessary part of the curricula followed by the school. It has on its roll about 550 students and 25 teachers.
2. Vocational and Physical Classes:
Accepting the demands of the modern times and the need to equip the students to face the world suitably it conducts vocational and physical activity classes. Classes on traditional crafts like tailoring, stitching and embroidery and other fine arts along with Judo, Karate and Yoga are run throughout the year, not just for its own students, but for outsiders as well. They are very popular amongst the ladies of Burra Bazar of Calcutta.
3. Library:
"Education and knowledge are at the core of all round development of an individual. Hence the pursuit of these should be the sole aim of life". Keeping this philosophy in mind a library was established on the premises of the Bhawan. With more than 10.000 books on Jainism, its literature and philosophy and about 3,000 rare manuscripts, the library is truly a treasure trove. A list of such books and manuscripts can be obtained from the library. 4. Periodicals and Journals:
To keep the members abreast of contemporary thinking in the field of religion the library subscribes to about 100 (hundred) quarterly, monthly and weekly periodicals from different parts of the world. These can be issued to members interested in the study of Jainism.
5. Journals:
Realising that there is a need for research on Jainism and that scholarly knowledge needs to be made public, the Bhawan in its role as a research institution brings out three periodicals: Jain Journal in English, ‘Titthayara’ in Hindi and 'Śramana' in Bengali. In 34 years of its publication, the Jain Journal has carved out a niche for itself in the field and has received universal
acclaim. Śramana, the Bengali journal which is celebrating its twentyfifth anniversary this year, has become a prominent channel for the spread of

Page #49

Jain philosophy in Bengal. Both the Journals are edited by a renowned scholar Professor Dr Satya Ranjan Banerjee of Calcutta University. The Jain Journal and Śramana for over twentyfive years have proved that these journals are in great demand for its quality and contents. The Jain Journal is highly acclaimed by foreign scholars. The same can be said about the Hindi journal “Titthayara" which is edited by Mrs Lata Bothra. In April this year it entered its 24th year of publication. Needless to say that these journals have played a key-role in propagating Jain literature and philosophy. Progressive in nature, these have crossed many milestones and are poised to cross many more. 6. Seminars and Symposia : The Bhawan organises seminars and symposia on Jain philosophy, literature and the Jain way of life, from time to time. Eminent scholars, laureates, professors etc. are invited to enlighten the audience with their discourse. Exchange of ideas, news and views are the integral parts of such programmes. 7. Scholarships to researchers : The Bhawan also grants scholarships to the researchers of Jain philosophy apart from the above mentioned academic and scholastic activities. 8. Publications: The Bhawan also publishes books and papers on Jainism and Jain philosophy. Some of its prestigious publications are :
The Bhagavati Sūtra (in English) Parts 1 to 4 Barsat ki Rat (A Rainy Night) (in Hindi), Panchadarshi (in Hindi) Bangal ka Ādi Dharma (Pre-historic religion of Bengal) Praśnottare Jaina-dharma (in Bengali) (Jain religion in questions and answers).
Weber's Sacred Literature of the Jains. 9. A Computer Centre : To achieve a self reliance in the field of education, a Computer training centre was opened at the Jain Bhawan in February 1998. This important and welcome step will enable us to establish links with the best educational and cultural organisations of the world. With the help of E-mail, internet and website, we can help propagate Jainism throughout the world. Communications with other similar organisations will enrich our own knowledge. Besides the knowledge of programming and graphics, this computer training will equip our students to shape their tomorrows. 10. Research : It is, in fact, a premiere institution for research in Prakrit and Jainism, and it satisfies the thirst of many researchers. To promote the study of Jainism in this country, the Jain Bhawan runs a research centre and encourages students to do research on any aspects of Jainism. In a society infested with contradictions and violence, the Jain Bhawan acts as a philosopher and guide and shows the right path. Friends, you are now aware of the functions of this prestigious institution and its noble intentions. We, therefore request you to encourage us heartily in our creative and scholastic endeavours. We hope that you will continue to lend us your generous support as you have done in the past.
Bengali Son of Bensni in Hindi

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Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 25. 31-32.
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