Jain Journal 1991 04

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520102/1

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SILVER JUBILEE YEAR
VOL. XXV
APRIL 1991

ISSN 0021-4043
A QUARTERLY
JAINOLOGY
ON
JaIn Journal

Mo. 4
॥ जैन भवन ॥
JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATION

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Contents
Observations on Gommata, Gommataraya and Gommatadeva
147 B. K. Khadabadi
152
The Creators Ashutosh Jindal
153
Views of Jainism in Sikh Scriptures
Sushil Jain
Power and Tranquility-A Profile of Jaina
Martial Class of Karnataka : 178
Vasantha Kumari
Identification of Some Rsis as Depicted
in Sutra Krtanga Arun Pratap Singh
185
Report on the First National Prakrit
Conference, Bangalore
M. A. Jayachandra
193
Plate
First National Prakrit Conference
147

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Observations on Gommata, Gommataraya and Gommatadeva*
B. K. Khadabadi
A few decades ago a good number of scholars like M. G. Pai, S. C. Ghoshal, N. R. Premi etc. thought that Gommata was another name of Bahubali, the son of Lord Rṣabha, and, hence, his colossus at Sravanabelagola got this name and the term (gommata) was applied to several persons and things associated with it. Some scholars proposed interesting vocables like manmatha (cupid), go (speech) etc. from which the word gommata was said to have been derived.1 Later Dr. A. N. Upadhye put forth a theory that gom(m)ața is not derived from any Sanskrit or Prakrit vocable, but is a local word found in slightly varied forms in Kannada, Telugu, Konkani and Marathi languages and used in the sense of good, handsome, benefactor etc.3 He opined that Gommața must have been a pet name of Camuṇḍaraya, which in course of time came to be applied to several things, including Bahubali's image, associated with him. This theory, though not propounded on any contemporary evidence, but being most plausible was accepted by the majority of scholars in the field.
*Revised version of the Paper presented at the Symposium on Gommatesvara, held at the University of Mysore, in January, 1981.
Recently, in the Seminar on Lord Gommatesvara, held at Sravanabelagola in December, 1980, Dr. R. Hiremath suggested the following derivation: Brahma (great)> Bomma> Gomma> Gommata, the change b> g being on the analogy of bombe> gombe in Kannada.
2 Anekanta, Vol, IV, 3-4.
3 (i) In Marathi language gomata is still a living word. The Maharastra Sabdakosa, Vol. III (Pune 1934). notes its meaning as follows: gomata-tem-sweet, beautiful, good, charming, of fair complexion.
(ii) Curiously enough, Kittel does not note it in his Kannada Dictionary. However he notes gumma, meaning devil.
4 1t is interesting to note in this context that a small merchantile community named Kommatigas, found even today in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, are said to have been formerly devout followers of Lord Gommatesvara,

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Dr. J. P. Jain in his recent paper, Lord Gommateśvara of Sravanabelagola,5 not only accepts Dr. A. N. Upadhye's above noted theory but also strengthens its plausibility and acceptibility by discussing at length all the points - historical, inscriptional, literary etc., concerning the name and the date of the world-famous monolithic image of Lord Gommatesvara.
But Dr. M. A. Dbakey in his paper, The Belgolian Bāhubali and Western Indian Notices, 8 observes as follows: "Some say that the colossal monolitbiç image on the Vindhyagiri (or Gommațagiri) was named 'Gommateśvara' because Gommata was the other name of Câmundaraya, the Prime Minister of Ganga Rācamalla IV, who caused it to be carved. This suggestion does not seem to hold good since an inscription in Karnataka predating Cảmundarāya, mentions 'Gommaţadeva' as a sthāvara-tirtha."9 He also adds a foot-note : No. 5 : Annual Report of the Archaeological Department, Mysore, 1914, p. 38. The inscription dates from the time of Ganga Ereya and hence early tenth century.10
I, who have a firm conviction of Dr. Upadhye's theory, after going through these two papers, had to have a pretty long search for the concerned Report and the Inscription, with a view to casting a first hand look into them. As these records are not easily available, I feel it proper to reproduce them here.
Following is the concerned Report
Ereyappa :
63. An inscription on a beam of the Gadde Basava temple at Chikka Hanasoge, Yedatore taluk, which is a Jaina epitaph (plate XI.2), refers incidentally to the reign of Ereya, who is evidently the Ganga king Ereyappa. It opens with a verse in praise of a Jaina teacher, named Blacărya and tells us that he subsisted on water for one month
5 Gommat es vara Comme noration Volume, Sravanabelagola, 6 Ibid., pp. 40-41. 1 Ibid., pp. 41-44. 8 Ibid,, pp. 96-98. 9 Ibid., p. 96. 10 Ibid., p. 98.

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and expired by samadhi and that aṣṭopavasa(da) (one who fasts for eight days) Kalneledevar set up the nisidhige or tomb-stone for his Guru Elācārya. Then follow two verses in praise of Kalneledevar stating that when Ereya was ruling the sea-girt earth, receiving homage from the great māṇḍalikas, Kalneledevar received homage from all the world, and that of two kinds of tirthas, namely, stationary and moving, Gommatadeva was the stationary tirtha and Kalneledevar the moving tirtha. The writer of the epitaph was Beldeva and the engraver Mallăcări. The date of the epitaph may be about 910. From EC IV, Yd.28 at the same village, we learn that, Eläcarya was the disciple of Sridharadeva and belonged to Desiga-gana and Pustaka-gaccha. A Kalnele Ramacandradeva is mentioned in a later inscription, namely, EC V, Ag.96 of 1095; but he was of the Surastha-gana.11
Following is the transcribed text of the concerned inscription in Kannada found at Chikka Hanasoge, Yeḍatore taluk, Mysore District:
Eastern Face
On a beam of the Gadde Basava temple to the south of the village Chikka Hanseoge:
No. 84
balo kaluri mon viyudvaśakarum kandarpparūpa-probha jäläṁkṛtaräge yunnati-vidūraṁ bhişmaram saddayǎ
bhülokodara-dani yuddhata dhanum non nekulam neṭṭanita elācāryya-munindraradar adariṁ dāścarya merum jagam
Western Face
149
ondu tingal panamaṁ bhāvisi samādhi-maraṇadinda maydu nontu sadgatige sandar astopavasade kalneleyadevar damma gurugal elacaryya-devargge parokṣa-vinaya nisidhigeyam nirisidar
ereyasamudra-veșțita-dhara-talamam pratipalisuttum
itta eṛega-mahari-maṇḍalikarim besakeyye vilāsayolgeim

11 Archaeological Survey of Mysore, Annual Report for 1914, (1914/92), Ed. R. Narasimhachar.

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mereva karūranenisalālipori stita sandhyar indu vand erega samantu kalneleya-devara pada-payoruhaṁgalol sthāvara-jangama-tirtham bhāvisi peldägal orade gommaţadovar sthāvara-tirthaṁ kalneledevar bhūvalayadolage jangama-tirtham beldevam baredan ilvede mallacāri,12
I had also, in the meanwhile, written to Dr, J. P. Jain (Lucknow) seeking some clarifications on this problem. He, in his letter (dated 30.4.1981), kindly drew my attention to the last passage on p.42 of his paper13 and reiterated his views expressed in it. The following lines in the passage deserve special attention : "...There is nothing in the record to identify the first two or to fix its date. Yet presuming the ruler to be identical with Ereya, the Ganga king (C.907-913 A, D.), the date of thc erection of the Gommaţa image has been fixed as 907 A. D. Apart from the fact that this date is impossible for historical reasons, as discussed earlier, a ruler named Ereya, the father of Vişnuvardhana Hoysala, and a Guru named Kalneledeva of Surastha-gana are known to have belonged to about the end of the 11th century A.D. Hence in all probability the inscription in question belongs to that period and not to the beginning of the 10th century..."
After carefully taking into consideration the relevant parts of these two papers of the two learned scholars and scrutinzing the concerned Report and the Inscription, I have to present the following observations :
A pet name is generally given in child-hood and this could be true of Cåmundarāya. Ācārya Nemicandra even recorded his former friend's and later pupils name as Gommața and, Gommațarāya14 etc. Then things associated with Gommața or Gommațarāya were also called after his name : Gommața-Jina, Gommața-śilā, Gommața-sutta or Gom
atasära and also Gommateśa or Gommaţadeva. On the other hand Bahubali, the aseetic Lord, could not have been called 'Gommața' first
12 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. XIV, Mysore, 1943. 13 Loc. Cit. 14 Vide Gommat asaru, Karma-kanda, Part II, V, 972, Lucknow, 1937,

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and straightway, but Gommateśa, Gommaṭadeva or Gommaṭasvami with his image in view as installed by Camuṇḍaraya. Then if we presume that the concerned inscription belongs to 910 A.D., we will have to say that it is referring to some other image of Bahubali as Gommațadeva'-the sthāvara-tirtha. But why should an inscription in Chikka Hanasoge near Mysore ever refer, in that context, to an image of Bahubali at Bādāmi, Aihole or Ellora,15 if at all it was then called Gommaţadeva ? Moreover M.M.R. Narasimhachar in the concerned Report has rather inferred the date (910 A.D.) by distinguishing, on the strength of the 'gana' the Kelneledeva of this inscription (as of Desiga-gana to which his Guru Elăcărya belonged) from the Kalneledeva of a later (Ag. 96 of 1095 A.D.) inscription (of Surastha-gaṇa). In fact, neither Elācārya nor Kalneledeva is a proper name, but a designatory or descriptive one and, hence, is an uncertain means for identifying persons. So the Elacarya of Yd. 84 (EC XIV) could be different from the Elacarya of Yd, 28 (EC IV). Hence the date of the concerned inscription mentioning 'Gommaţadeva' cannot be said to be 910 A,D. and predating Camuṇḍarāya.
151
15 All these images of Bahubali were carved prior to 981 A.D. i.e., between 7th and 9th centuries A.D.

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The Creators
Ashutosh Jindal
Marble, sandalwood, brass, Onyx, ivory, cutglass, Sapphire, silver, gold —
We chiselled it, We crafted it, We polished it,
We annointed it, We adorned it, We adored it,
We bought it, We sold it, We re-sold it,
We gave the faceless - a face ; We gave the formless-a form; We gave the nameless - a namo: And we called it -GOD.
We made him our conscience-keeper ; We made him our confessional booth ; We made him the shoulder to weep on.
Aren't we great, Aren't we the Creators supreme.
Since we have done so much for Him, Can't we ask for a few favours in return !

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Views of Jainism in Sikh Scriptures
Abstract:
Sushil Jain
This paper deals with the images of Jainism as noted in the writings of the first and last Gurus of the Sikhs, and in the biographical commentaries of the first Guru, popularly known as Janam-sakhis. Certain excerpts from the foreign writers of Sikhism are also included to emphasize the points made by the Gurus.
A description of Jaina religious philosophy and ethics, not common practices of the Jain monks, is also obtained from Sikh sources to emphasize how Jainism is currently understood by Sikh scholars.
Prologue :
There are perhaps no other two religions of India so diametrically different from each other, in their approaches to God, as are Jainism and Sikhism.
Jains, for example, do not believe in a Creator-Destroyer God, whereas the Sikhs believe in One All-Powerful God.
Whereas the Jains believe in and practise ahimsā (non-injury to all living beings), the Sikh Gurus did not attach such a great importance to the concept of non-violence. In fact, some Sikh Gurus carried arms and participated in armed conflicts.
Whereas Lord Mahavira, the Jain Tirthankara, renounced the world and gave up the householder's life, the Sikh Gurus specifically honoured the householder's life.
Whereas Jain Sadhus and Sadhvis (monks and nuns) pull all hair

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on their heads, devout Sikhs of the Khalsa are specifically enjoined not to cut or pull any hair from any part of their bodies.
JAIN JOURNAL
It is, therefore, interesting to find out what one group (the Sikhs) thought of the other (the Jains) during the times of the Gurus. One way to obtain this impression is by studying and culling passages from the Sikh scriptures and from other literature related to the Sikhs
To the best of our knowledge, this kind of synthesis has not yet been attempted. This is the first effort. We have quoted heavily from the Sikh scriptures and other sources by and about Sikhs that contain passages about the Jains in order to make a point.
幣
The late fifteenth century was a turbulent period in the history of north India as indeed had been the preceding four centuries. The Muslims, who had begun to invade India in the eleventh century, had by now become controllers of large regions of the sub-continent through invasion and conquest.
The Hindu populace of India was dispirited and disillusioned at this time. There appeared to be no organized force, or ruler, strong enough to stand up against the forces of a militant religion bent upon imposing its views, values and religious philosophy on the inhabitants of north India. The Muslim rulers converted many Hindus (of all castes) to the Muslim faith by force or persuasion. Those who opposed them were slaughtered and decapitated.
The people of India at this time were very ritualistic and practised idol (object) worshipping. Islam brought a completely new concept of God (One Formless God) to north India. This concept was totally at odds with the tradition then prevailing in India. The Muslim invaders considered the worshipping of idols and keeping of images of gods and goddesses an anathema. These conflicting philosophies caused discord and disharmony among the two groups of people, viz. the invading Moslems and the indigenous populations of India.
It was a tragic period for the inhabitants of Industan (now called Hindustan by the Muslim rulers). Life was harsh and cruel for most Hindus. However, there was one benefit of this intercourse with a foreign people. Indians began to look upon their own religious practices with critical eyes. On the other hand, some Muslims also

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began to look at their religion from a different angle. The two sides seemed to converge at one point. The Sufis, among the Moslems, and propagators of the bhakti movement, among the Hindus, tried to fuse the two contradicting philosophies, i.e., of monotheistic Islam with that of the polytheistic Hinduism Both of these groups tried to preach tolerance and love for God and humanity.
One of the major personalities of the time, Bābà Nanak, who was divinely possessed, was a follower of the bhakti school of thought. Nanak was born into a Hindu Kşatri family of the Punjab. He noticed the anachronistic nature of his society which, he felt, had lost its ancient cultural values. Nānak criticized the prevailing Hindu customs of caste, idolatry and rituals. While pointing out the weaknesses of the religion in which he was born, he also criticized the excesses of the rulers in the name of religion. He had harsh words for all those who, instead of believing in Sat Nam, True Name, One God (Ek Omkār), perpetrated ill-will among men (and women) based on religion.
The Mughal ruler of Delhi, Babur, was not very tolerant of Hindu religion or of Indians. He took Bābā Nānak captive. Băbă Nănak has observed the situation of those times as follows:
Now the armies of Bābur are spreading across the country. No one can eat in peace. How hard it is for the captives. The times of worship and prayer pass by unused. These Indian women have nowhere to sit and cook, to bathe or anoint themselves by putting the frontal mark on their foreheads. They never gave God a thought now they have no leisure in which to remember him. (Ādi Granth, p. 417, cited by McLeod 1978 : 139)
Then, he pleaded to his Lord :
Today Khurasan seems to be yours, Lord, why not India ? Why have you made that land yours and terrified this by the terrible threat of retribution ? Are you pitiless, Creator of all ? You have sent Yama (god of death] disguised as the Mughal. (Adi Granth, p. 360 cited by McLeod 1978 : 139)
Bäbā Nånak preached his message of love for One God far and wide. In the course of his travels he met all kinds of people and priests. The Udāsis (travels) inform us of his world-wide travels. He

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met the Shaikhs and the Ulama of Islam, decorous Pandits, the Vaisnava Bairagis, the Sannyasis, the Sant-Bhagats and Yogis etc. It was during his travels that he came across Jain Sãdhus (monks) and prevailed over them He was quick to point out their faux pas. With his knowledge of the sacred texts of many religions he was able to convince others of their useless rituals, at least the ways in which he saw them. As Banerjee (1984 : 198) says, “In his [Nānak's] talks with Brāhmins, Yogis, Pirs, Jain ascetics and others he is never the inquirer or learner; he is always the teacher who points out mistakes and indicates 'the true way'.” That Bābā Nāpak was familiar with many Hindu scriptures is evidenced from the references to such scriptures ir his writings. Grewal (1979 : 201-202) amplifies this point as follows :
Guru Nanak's compositions reveal his thorough familiarity with contemporary Hinduism and Islam. He refers quite frequently to the Vedas, the Smrtis, the Šāstras, the Purāņas and six schools of philosophy; he refers specifically to the Vedānta and alludes occasionally to the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana. He talks of Brahma, Vişņu and Mahesa and he refers to fārbati, to Śiva and Siva-Sakti, to gods of mythology and to incarnations of Vişņu ; he refers to Gorakh and Machhandar, and to the Siddhas and the Nathas. He mentions the four-fold .blessings' of life : dharma, artha, kāma and mokşa ; he refers to the three paths of salvation : jñāna, karma and bhakti. Not always explicit, but there are references to the Vaişpavas the Saivas and the Śaktas ; also to Sannyasis and Bairāgis ; to the Paņdits and the Yogi, to Krşņāyits and Rāmāyits, and to the Jain monks.
In this paper, we will restrict our discussion to one such group of people that Baba Năpak met. It was that of Sarāugis (Jain) monks. There are numerous rererences to Jain monks in the Janam-sākhis. (Janam-sākhis literally means "life stories" but, strictly speaking, they are not true biographies of Babā Nānak. They were written a long time after Baba Nanak's death So there are many exaggerations and hyperbolic statements, but they still give us some idea of his life and times).
Jainism is one of the oldest religions of India. According to the Jain tradition it is timeless. The last of the Jain Tirthankaras, Lord Mahāvira, was a contemporary of Buddha; however, Jaina tradition puts him in a much earlier era. Jainism has maintained its separate identity from the Hindus through its Sadhus and Sadhvis (monks

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and nuns, known as Yatis in Sikh scriptures ; in other accounts by the Sikhs. Yatis refer to the lay Jains), It is these monks that Baba Nanak seems to have met and conversed with,
It would be useful to give here a short description of Jainism, its religious ideals and values. To do this, we have chosen to provide a description of Jainism, Dr. Surinder Sing Kohli, a Sikh scholar of repute and a writer of many books on Sikhism, states in his Philosophy of Gura Nānak (Chandigarh : Punjab University, 1980, pp, 97-100) :
Mahāvira, the twenty-fourth Tirthankara, is considered as the founder of Jainism. He was a contemporary of Buddha, i.e., he was born about two thousand years before the advent of Guru Nānak. The Jains of the early sixteenth century attracted the notice of the great Guru. He found them divided into two main sects, i.e. Svetâmbaras and Digambaras, The former wore white clothes and the latter remained naked. The latter were very rigid in their practices. They used to rake up their night soil, breathe continuously, keep off from water, pluck their hair, drink impure water, and eat impure food obtained by begging. They always remained dirty and remorseful and did not attend congregations. They moved in a queue with cups hanging by their waist and dusters in their hands. They did all this because of jiva-mania. In order to save the minutest jīvas they passed very unhygienic lives. The Curu told them: "God kills jivas and gives them life. None else can save them." Therefore he advised the Jain monks to desist from unhealthy practices. The Digambaras maintaincd that women should not obtain liberation, but the Guru ridiculed this idea by saying that every human being attains unity with the Lord by following the path.
Jainism believes in the doctrines of anekāntavāda and syādvāda. The first is the doctrine of the manyness of reality and the second the doctrine of the relativity of knowledge. The doctrine of anekāntavāda manifests Jain metaphysics, according to which the two distinct realities of matter (pudgula) and spirit (jiva) are split into innumerable atoms and souls respectively. The doctrine of syā dvãda manifests Jain epistemology, according to which human knowledge and human judgments are all relative and limited. Syādvā da is also sometimes interpreted as the theory of probability.
Jainism believes in two categories i e., jiva and ajiva. Ajiva includes matter (pudgala), space (ākāsa), motion (dharma), rest (adharma) and time (kāla).

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In Jainism liberation means the extinction of karma. The soul is bound when it unites with the karmic matter. The flow of the karmic particles towards the soul is called asrava (flow). The soul is bound when these particles infiltrate into the soul. This state is called bandha (bondage). The karmic influx is stopped through right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. This state of stoppage is called samvara. After stoppage of the influx, the exis. ting karmas are exhausted. This state is known as nirjarā (wearing out). With the exhaustion of the last particle of karma, the final state of mokşa (liberation), is attained. The liberated soul becomes kevala-jnāni or omniscient. The above-mentioned five stages together with jiva, ajiva, virtue (punya) and vice (pāpa) constitute the nine categories of Jainism, The right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are called tri-ratna or the three Jewels of Jainism.
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Jaina brotherhood is constituted of monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. They all have a spiritual discipline, which is rigidly followed by monks and nuns. This discipline consists of five vows of ahimsā (non-injury through mind, speech and action), satya (truth), asteyā (not to steal), brahmacarya (abstention from selfindulgence) and aparigraha (renunciation). In the case of laymen, these vows are modified and liberalised.
A close study of the tenets of Jainism shows that it is an ethical religion. Its main aim is the liberation of the soul from the karmic matter, but the teachings of Guru Nanak take us to the spiritual domain, where we attain unity with Godhead. Jainism is a religion without God. This is the basic difference between Jainism and Sikhism. The religious practices of the Jains, as we have seen above, have been rejected by the Guru. For the Guru, liberation is merger in the Absolute, but in Jainism liberation is the extinction of karma.
Notes:
1. The words "Digambara" occurs in the verses of Guru Nanak.
2. siru khohae piahi malvani...sat catte sir chai. (Var Majh, śloka 149-50 ).
Another insight into the Sikh view of Jainism can be obtained from Sikhan de Raj di Vithiya which has been translated by Major

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Henry Court as History of the Sikhs (1888). This is an interesting book since it contains "narratives of the ten Gurus, history of the Sikhs from the rise of Mahārājā Ranjit Singh to the occupation of the Punjab by the English, a short resume of the customs, rites, songs, and proverbs of the Sikhs, and twenty discourses regarding the events in the life of Guru Nanak, taken from the Janam sakhi, or Life of Nanak."
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The following selection comes from the chapter "Rites and Customs" of the various castes in Punjab, as seen by the author of the original work (date unknown). We offer this excerpt here as a comparison of the description of Jains as seen by the Sikhs and as portrayed in the Sikh texts or scriptures.
Both of these descriptions give an orthodox, stereotypical picture of the Jain sects; the picture being described is not of the Jain laity but of the mendicants who live a very severe life. The Jains are commonly called Saraugis. The text in Court's book is all in one paragraph, but we have divided it into shorter paragraphs for the sake of easy reading and understanding. The reference superscripts are the ones given by Court. They have been left intact in the quoted text:
Now, in this country, there are people called Saraugis; their account is as follows: they are called Jainis, that is to say, they follow the religion of the most holy man called Jin. These people pull out all the hair of their head every six months, and always fasten a strip of white cloth over their mouths 104 They carry with them a broom of white wool, which they, in their language, call rajoharana; and whenever they wish to sit down, they first clean the spot with the broom, so that no insect may come under them, and be killed. These people do not possess much goods, clothes, vessels, or money; but are very great hermits and ascetics.
They keep very severe fasts, for often they do not bring food to their mouths for a month at a time; when these people go to beg, then, taking into consideration matters which are very difficult to understand,105 they take food; and, although other people do not indulge in the custom of giving them bread and water (food), still the tradespeople, who are their disciples, and know all their customs, do service to them with great affection.
These people regard the slaying of an insect as a very serious crime,

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and, from fear of killing an insect, they will not drink uncooked water, but if, by begging, they can anywhere get water that had been heated, or the water left over in vessels, in which people have cooked their food, they clear it and drink it, and satisfy themsel and they will not drink it, if they have to draw it themselves from a well or river.
From fear of killing an insect, they do not wear shoes on their feet or any cloth on their head; and, as they have found out that animals die in water, for this reason they bathe very little, rather, on account of having to use water, they always keep their clothes soiled and their bodies dirty. What a wonderful thing is this, that, although these people perform such severe acts and hardships, still they do not believe in God !
Their belief is this, that all this world, from time everlasting, has gone on making and destroying itself, and there was no creator of it ; and what a wonderful thing is this also, that they regard no creator of this world or any giver of happiness and pain. Still according to their religion, they do service to, and worship, the twenty-four incarnations; and among these twenty-four, one who is called Parasnāth and his worship they regard as very profitable. These people, in their dialect, call these twenty-four incarnations, the Tirthankaras, and worship them in their homes, and some regard the worshipping of images as wrong.
There are two kinds of these Sarāugis ; one, those who wear a strip of cloth over their mouths, and pull out all the hair of their heads, and these are called Dhundiyās, and the other are those who do not wear the strip of cloth, and do not pull out the hair of their head; and they are called Yatis.
Those, who are called Dhundiyâs, they do not possess any houses or goods or money; but the Yatis possess thousands of rupees and property and land, besides many other things. Although there is much difference between the conduct and habits and customs of the two, still their faith is one.
These people do not believe in the Vedas or Purāņas, nor do they reverence the places of pilgrimage or fasts, laid down in any of the Šāstras . the religious work of these people also are not written in

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Sanskrit, but in Prakrit, which is a very old language. Although the language is Prakrit, still the letters are not so, but they write all their religious books in the letters used in the Sāstras.
They do not marry, but their customs at death, in burning the dead body, are like those of other Hindus; and if any married disciple becomes the follower of these people, he is called a Sarăugi.
Although Brāhmaṇs and Kşatris, from associating with them, have begun somewhat to believe in the Sarãugi religion, still Bhabràs and Baniyas106 chiefly follow this persuasion. Those Bhabrás and Baniyās, who belong to this denomination, although they wear the tuft of hair on their heads, at the same time do not wear the Brahminical thread round their throat. These people do not hold funeral or marriage feasts, and do not perform any funeral obsequies, according to the rites of the Vedas or the Purāņas.
This is the custom of these Sarãugis, that they may not undertake any business or traffic, in which there can be loss of life to any animal, hence, when they undertake any traffic or sale, they only sell such precious, or dry, things in which no insect nor any animal can come ; accordingly, some of them are cloth merchants, and bankers, and some are pedlars, and many become braziers, and get their living in this way; and they none of them sell any wet, greasy, or sweet things.
There is also another caste of Sarãugis, who are known by the name of Oswāls, but none of them are to be met with in the Punjab : they principally live in the land of Marwar, that is to say in the neighbourhood of Bikaner, Jaipur, and Jodhpur. Although all the written codes of the Sarūugis, regarding religion, mercy, patience, and continence are very good, still, as they do not regard God as the Creator, for this reason, people regard them as infidels. and unbelievers. (pp. 111-113.)
Notes :
104. This is done to prevent their killing any animal or insect with their breath even, as they hold it, as the greatest sin, to kill any living thing. 105. That is to say, they ask if a person's family has already eaten, and if the reply is that they have, the Jainis will partake of their

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food : if not, they will not, lest one loaf should run short, and another cooking be therefore necessary, in which water, etc., would have to be used, and the lives of some insects be sacrificed, the sin of which, they consider, would attach to them.
106. The Bhabrás are of a Jain caste, chiefly engaged in traffic and the Baniyās are a Hindu caste, generally merchants.
The Sarāugi Baniyās do not regard the Vedas and Šāstras, or gods or goddesses, and forms and ordinances, set forth in them; and the funeral obsequies which ought to be performed at the time of death, these they do not perform at all. For this reason, Vaişņo Baniyās used not to intermarry with them, but in the present day, for sometime back, some have even begun to intermarry with them. (p. 104).
Macauliffe (1909, vol. 1, p. 150) tells us the story of Guru Nanak when he met a Jain priest named Narbhi who told him that he could hardly be pardoned because he [Nānak) had destroyed life and violated all rules of Nature. To which the Guru replied :
When the true Guru is merciful, faith's perfected. When the true Guru is merciful, man shall never grieve.
The question we need to ask and explore here is : What was the state of Jain Dharma in the fifteenth century in Punjab that Bābā Nanak seems to have noticed ?
What comes to us from the Sikh literature of those times, and through the words of Bābā Nanak, is a description of the lifestyle and habits of the Jain Sadhus and not of the laity. But there is every reason to believe that there were many lay followers of Jain Dharma in the Punjab during the times of Baba Nanak. These lay people did not live the austere life of Jain monks. Jain monks were present during the times of Akbar as well, who is said to have been cured of his illness by a Jain monk. Latif (1891 : 51) is of the opinion that most of the Jains belonged to the Vaisya, or mercantile class, and were generally educated. Banarsi Das Jain (1954) tells us that a group of Jain pilgrims visited Kangra in the early fifteenth century. Grewal (1979 : 104-105) also reports the presence of a small Jain community during these times in these words :

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It is very likely that the itinerant Jain monks had some following among the trading communities of the Punjab, But the total number of Jains in the Punjab was probably quite negligible. Nevertheless the wandering Yatis attracted attention because of their outward appearance and peculiar practices. In the seventeenth century Sujan Rai noticed their conspicuous presence as well as their unpopularity among the Hindus. The chief characteristics of the Jain monks noted by Sujan Rai were their ascetical practices, their atheistic system of beliefs and their meticulousness about not injuring any living being. 3
Notes:
2. According to H. A. Rose, nearly 99% of the Jains in the Punjab belonged to the trading classes : A Glossary of Tribes and Castes, p. 105. See also Punjab : Notes & Queries, I, No. 9, 121. Some Jaina monks established themselves in Lahore during the times of Akbar : Jain, Banarsi Das, "Jainism in the Punjab”. But there is no reason to suppose that the Jain monks had no lay following in the Punjab before the sixteenth century.
3. Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh, 23.
A long way away from north India, the Jains were also quite influential in south India for considerable periods of time. Their influence was, however, checked by many Hindu forces, notably the Alvārs, who flourished in the seventh and twelveth centuries. Banerjee (1984 : 34-35) points out that the Alvārs "tried to evolve a form of Vaisnava faith which could offer a powerful challenge to Buddhism, Jainism and Saivism .. The Alvars played a crucial role, negatively in weakening Buddhism and Jainism, and positively in putting religious life in south India in a new mould."
In addition to the Alvārs, whose hymns were "compiled and arranged by Nathmuni in the tenth century, [and] were collectively known as Nalavira Prabandham, which came to be considered as sacred as the Vedas", (Ibid.) there were other forces in Hinduism, like that of Ramanuja of the Sankara's doctrine. According to Banerjee, "in giving decadent Hinduism a new and more attractive shape, they (Rāmānuja and others were defending it against all rivals-Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity and Islam.” (Ibid., p. 40)

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The Jains were quite numerous in the South during the reigns of the Hoysala kings, especially in the state of Mysore until the times of Vițala Deva, who seems to have repudiated his religion in favour of Vaiṣṇavism. Macauliffe describes this situation as follows in his section on the "Bhagats of the Granth Sahib-Rämänand":
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Rāmānuj himself, in order to escape from the fury of Krimi Kantha, took shelter in the court of Bitta or Vitala Deva, the Jain monarch of Dwarsamudra in the Maisur state, who reigned from A.D. 1104 to 1141.1 After a controversy with Ramanuj the king changed his faith and sought the protection of God and his teachings. Filled with new zeal he changed his name also to Vişņu Vardhana and set to work to convert his numerous subjects, who are stated to have been all of the Jain religion. Most of them were converted, but some fled, and the rest the monarch piously put to the sword. In A.D. 1117 the king erected the Belur temple in commemoration of his conversion to Vaiṣṇavism by Ramanuj.
Note:
1. Bitta Deva was king of the Hoysalas who lived on the west of the present Maisur state. Bitta Deva's dynasty ruled Maisur from the eleventh to the fourteenth century. Their capital was Dwarsamudra, now called Halebid, in the Belur district. The Colas and their king lived to the east of the Hoysalas. The Hoysala kings were Jains up to the time of Biṭṭa Deva. Mysore. (Quoted by Macauliffe, Vol. 1 p. 97)
Rice's
It is interesting to note here that while Buddhism, which was a considerable force and a state religion in various jurisdictions, disappeared from the Indian soil with the passage of time, Jainism kept its roots intact in many parts of India. As Thaper (1967: 159) notes, "unlike Jainism, Buddhism had failed to maintain a distinct identity in the Punjab by the time of Guru Nanak. Hiuen Tsang had noticed several Buddhist monasteries in the Punjab. Buddhism, however, was very much on the decline and in actual practice compromised with the Brahmanical religion to such an extent that it could almost have been regarded as a sect of the latter". (cf. Grewal 1969 : 105)
Goswamy (1968: 11) points out that though pockets of Tantric Buddhism could be found in the Punjab hills in the fifteenth century, in the plains it had suffered by then a dilution which was little short of disappearance. (Cited by Grewal 1969: 105)

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If this is the case, that Buddhism was not much of a force in the Punjab during the times of Babă Nanak, did Buddhism have any influence on Baba Nāaak? There are certainly some references to Buddha in the Japji and it is known that Baba Nanak visited Bodh Gaya, where Lord Buddha had achieved nirvāņa. It has been suggested by some Sikh scholars (Surinder Singh Kohli, A Critical Study of the Adi Granth, 1961 : 248) that the Buddha is regarded in the Adi Granth as an incarnation of Vişņu. (also cf. Banerjee 1984 : 89)
There does not seem to be any criticism of Buddha's way in the Sikh scriptures, perhaps because it was not much of a force in the Punjab at that time. Hindus had absorbed Buddhism by claiming Buddha as one of the incarnations (avatārs) of Vişnu,
But Jainism did not suffer the same fate as Buddhism in Sikh literature. Banerjee (1984 : 89-90) tells us :
"It (Jainism) was a living faith in Rajputana and Gujarat, and from Guru Nanak's sharp criticism of Jain monks (probably of the Digambara sect) in Var Majh (Macauliffe, I, 150-152) it would appear that they were not unfamiliar figures in the Punjab. He condemns their unclean habits :
They have their hair plucked out, they drink dirty water, they beg and eat others' leavings ;
They spread out their ordure, they inhale its smell, they are shy to look at water;
They are ever filthy day and night ; they have no sacrificial marks on their foreheads.
God hath ruined them : they go about despised; their words are like curses.
The Guru condemns the Jain practice of ahimsa ; he does not recognize man's responsibility for killing animals, for the role of destroyer belongs to God alone.

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God killeth and restoreth animals to life ; none else may preserve them,
Although the Jains do not believe in God, they conform in many ways to Hindu customs. But there are inconsistencies in this conformity, as the Guru points out :
They give not their deceased relations lamps or perform their last rites, or place anywhere barley rolls and leaves for them. The sixty-eight places of pilgrimage grant them no access ; the Brāhmaṇs will not eat their food.
There is no reference to the philosophical basis of Buddhism and Jainism in Guru Nanak's compositions, But he refers to the six systems of Hindu philosophy :
Six the systems, six their teachers, And six their different teachings ; The Lord of them all is the One Lord However various his aspects are.
(Selections from the Sacred Writings of the Sikhs 1960 : 61)
The question that arises now, in one's mind, is : If Jains were not a formidable force in the Punjab of Bābà Nanak's times, why did the Guru show a great disdain towards is monks ?
The most plausible answer is that the Guru equated Jainism with the life-style of its monks. But the common followers of Jainism did not live like that then or now. We are told by Macauliffe (1909, vol. 1 : 151) that Jains did not conform to many Hindu customs and the Guru criticized them for not being "consistent". But, comments Indubhusan Banerjee (1939 : 127), "this is more or less true of all sects that have arisen from within Hinduism including the followers of Guru should particularly select the Jains and censure them for non-observance of certain customs which he himself regarded of little or no consequcnce."
An American scholar, John Archer (1946), gives the following details of Baba Nanak's meeting with Jain monks. It is possible to

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find out from the following excerpts why Bābā Nānak said what he said about the Jains in his hymns:
167
On one of his longer journeys he (Nanak) had occasion to consider items of the Buddhist reformation, even though Buddhism was mostly a faint memory in the circumscribed locality of India in Nanak's day. Anyone brought up intelligently in the Hindu tradition, as Nanak was, somewhat loosely speaking, anyone who had any knowledge at all of the ancient Buddhist way, would think of it as nästik, or "atheistic", in contrast with various āstik, or "theistic", theories among the Hindus. Perhaps the still more tangible reminder to Nanak of the older atheisms of his country were the Jains who flourished in goodly numbers, representing the Indian speculative tendency- or the tendency of Indian speculation -toward an atomistic, materialistic view of nature, in that older day. Every now and then attempts were made to revive and popularize one or another form of nastik theory. Nanak may have encountered in upper India one of these which emphasized man's own self reliance..." (The Sikhs, 1946: 88)
Nanak found himself at variance also with Jains whom he met occasionally. They were the extreme ascetics of his time, although -or should we say because ? they held a very realistic view of earth and life. Matter and mind, body and spirit were with them, also, co-eternal, somewhat as in philosophic Yoga. On this dual basis they were practical ascetics, prompted by a thoroughgoing animistic theory to exercise great care with respect to "life" in everything. No notion of "illusion" (māyā) minimized life's realities. In theory and in practice they emphasized ahimsā, shedding no blood and doing no injury wilfully to any living thing. Jains were not then very numerous, although their gospel had currency for two thousand years-there may have been a million of them, only a small percentage of who might be found on pilgrimage at any given time. Their temples stood widely distributed from Gujarat on the west of India to Bengal on the east, and in the Deccan; the most prominent were at Girnar and Śatrunjaya in Kathiawar, Abu in Rajputana and Parasnath in Bihar. When Nanak passed judgment on the Jains, he charged them. for example, with being inconsistent: they would not inflict injury upon a living thing, but they could be stolidly indifferent to its pain and suffering! They unsympathetically strained the quality of mercy. He accused them of having more concern for life than God himself had who "both killeth and restoreth" (but Jains, of course, had no

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concern for God). He chided them for "plucking out their hair", lest it harbor insects and threaten them with injury, and for "carrying brooms along to sweep their way," lest they tread some life to death. And, said he, they "drink their water dirty", fearing that to strain it might injure whatever life was in it, yet oblivious of the life they actually destroyed by drinking it. He deemed them an unprogressive sect, neither “Jogis, Jangams, Qzăis nor Mullas", whose food Brāhmaṇs would not touch, whom Hindus generally would not recognize--for want of any tilak on their foreheads, possibly - and who were virtually denied access to "the sixty-eight" sites of Hindu pilgrimage. But now and then a Jain yielded to Napak's arguments and even sought to join his company, as he went about, including these Jain centers in his itinerary'.
(Archer, John Clark (1946), The Sikhs, pp. 97-98).
It is interesting and useful to compare Archer's description with that of another western scholar, Macauliffe (1909), who states :
The Guru arrived at a Sarāuagi or Jain temple, which was much frequented, Narbhi, the Jain priest, went with his disciple to visit him. The Jains attach an exaggerated value to life in every form. The Jain priest heard that the Guru had not the same tender scruples on the subject, and began to catechize him. “Eatest thou old or new corn ? (that is, dost thou eat corn with worms in it or not ?)' Drinkest thou cold water ; shakest thou the trees of the forest to eat their fruit ? Who is thy guru, and what power hath he to pardon thee since thou violatest all rules and destroyest life ?'
The Guru in reply uttered the following pauri : When the True Guru is merciful, faith is perfected. When the True Guru is merciful, man shall never grieve. When the True Guru is merciful, man shall know no sorrow. When the True Guru is merciful, man shall enjoy divine pleasure. When the True Guru is merciful, what fear hath man of Death ? When the True Guru is merciful, he ever bestoweth the nine
treasures.
When the Guru is merciful, man is absorbed in the True One.

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Notes:
2. Nau nidhi. This expression is used in the sacred writings of the Sikhs to denote unlimited wealth and prosperity. In the sacred books of the Hindus the expression has a more definite numerical signification.
3. Majh ki War.
After this the Guru launched out into a satire on the Jains :
They have their hair plucked out, they drink dirty water, they beg and eat others' leavings; They spread out their ordure, they inhale its smell, they are shy to look at water; They have their heads plucked like sheep ; the pluckers' hands are smeared with ashes -- They spoil the occupations of their parents; their families weep and wail for them. They give not their deceased relations lamps or perform their last rites, or place anywhere barley rolls and leaves for them. The sixty-eight places of pilgrimage grant them no access ; the Brāhmaṇs will not eat their food. They are ever filthy day and night ; they have no sacrificial marks on their foreheads. They ever sit close as if they were at a wake, and they enter no assembly. They hold cups in their hands; they have brooms by their sides ; they walk in single file. They are not Jogis or Jangams, or Qázis, or Mullās. God hath ruined them ; they go about despised ; their words are like curses, God killeth and restoreth animals to life ; none else may preserve them, The Jains make not gifts or perform ablutions ; dust lighteth on their plucked heads.

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From water gems arose when Meru was made the churning staff.3 The gods appointed the sixty-eight places of pilgrimages, and holy days were fixed accordingly by their orders.
Notes:
1. The Jains conform in many ways to Hindu customs. The Guru here censures them for not being altogether consistent.
2. To brush away insects and thus avoid treading on them.
3. According to the Hindus, Vişņu in his Kūrmāvatar assumed the shape of a tortoise which supported the mountain Mandara-in the Sikh writings called Meru - the Olympus of the Hindus, with which the gods churned the ocean. From the ocean were produced the fourteen gems or jewels here referred to. They are Laksmi (sic), wife of Vişņu, the moon, a white horse with seven heads, a holy physician, a prodigious elephant, the tree of plenty, the allyielding cow, etc.
The Guru continued:
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After ablution the Muhammadans pray; after ablution the Hindus worship; the wise ever bathe.
The dead and the living are purified when water is poured on their heads.
Nanak, they who pluck their heads are devils: these things1 please them not.
When it raineth there is happiness; animals then perform their functions.
When it raineth, there is corn, sugar-cane, and cotton, the clothing of all.
When it raineth, kine ever graze, and women churn their milk.
By the use of the clarified butter thus obtained burnt offerings and sacred feasts are celebrated, and worship is ever adorned.
All the Sikhs are rivers; the Guru is the ocean, by bathing in which greatness is obtained.
If the Pluckheads bathe not, then a hundred handfuls of dust be on their skulls, a

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Notes :
1. That is, water and bathing.
2. Majh ki War.
Macauliffe further states, "the Jain priest asked the Guru why he travelled in the rainy season, when insects are abroad and there is danger of killing them under foot" to which the Guru replied as follows:
Nának, if it rain in Săwan, four species of animals have pleasure - Serpents, deer, fish, and sepsualists who have women in their homes. Nanak, if it rain in Sảwan, there are four species of animals who feel discomfort --
Cow's calves, the poor, travellers, and servants.
After hearing Baba Nanak's reply, we are told by Macauliffe (1909 : 150-152) "the Jain priest went and fell at his feet and became a convert to his faith. On that occasion the Guru contemplated his hymn in the Majh ki War, and Saido and Ghebo wrote them down from his dictation."
There are other references to the practices of Jain monks, but not to their religion or philosophy, in the hymns of Guru Nanak. They nave been translated by Macauliffe as follows:
Were I to dwell in the cavern of a golden mountain or in a pit of water; Were I to stand on my head, on earth or in the heavens ; Were I to cover all my body with clothes, and did I nothing but bathe; Were I to shout aloud the white, the red, the yellow, and the black Vedas ; Were I to remain dirty and filthy, all this would be foolish and sinful. Nanak, since I have pondered on the word, I am not, I was not, and shall not be.

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Notes :
1. This is done by a sect called the Kapriās, who cover even their faces. 2. As the Brāhmaṇs do. 3. The reference is to the Jains. 4. That is, I am totally absorbed in God. (p. 280)
There is no impurity in corn, there is no impurity in ablution ;1 There is no impurity in rain which falleth everywhere ; There is no impurity in earth, there is no impurity in water ; There is no impurity contained in air.
Notes:
1. As supposed by the Jains, who avoid water. (p. 372)
The above is supposed to have been addressed to a holy man called Thakur Das at Priyag.
Guru Gobind Singh and the Jains
The Jains did not fare that well either in the eyes of the last Guru who was, of course, not a pacifist as was the first Guru. So, Guru Govind Singh's dislike of the Jains may be related to their deep respect for life, even the smallest living creature. Guru Govind Singh took arms and fought many wars, whereas Jains would do no such thing. He compares the vegetarians to a cow and an ox, and the celibate monks to eunuchs in his kavitās (verses 71-90) of Dasam Granth. As a matter of fact it is not only the Jains, but also various other sects of both Hindus and Muslims that are denounced for their rituals and the codes of conduct practised by them. For example, Guru Gobind Singh said :
Thou wanderest in the woods ? So do the deer. Thou livest in silence ? So do the trees. Thou art a celibate ? So are the eunuchs. Thou wanderest barefooted ? So do the monkeys. (1) p. 47

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Thou livest on milk? So do the children in the world,
Thou livest on air ?
So doth a serpent.
Thou livest on grass, vegetables, and desirest no wealth ?
So doth the cow, the ox . (2) p. 47 Don't the peacocks dance, and the frogs croak, and the clouds thunder ? Don't the trees stand ever on one foot ? Don't the Jains sweep the ground before putting their feet upon it ? (11) p. 50.
Moreover, as Jains are considered atheists, because the concept of Jain God (Bhagavān) is not understood by many God loving people of other religions, Guru Govind Singh did not see the Jains kindly. There is a reference to the Jains in the 'ten swaiyyās' of the Dasam Granth, which is translated as follows in Thus Spake the Tenth Master :
I've wandered through the world of the puritan Jains, and numberless Siddhas, Yogis and the celibates; And the brave demons, and the angels feasting on pure nectar, and the holy ones of various creeds : I've seen the whole world of man but seen not a man of God, the life of all life. Without a touch of His Loving-kindness and Grace, man is worth only but a trite !
(Swaiyyä Number 1, p. 41)
Macauliffe (1909 : 314) points out that some of these sawai yyās "are also read in Abchalangar and other places while the Sikh baptismal water is being prepared, Several orthodox Sikhs say that these are the sawaiyās which ought always to be read at the baptism, and of this indeed there is internal evidence.” Guru Gobind Singh has said :
He who repeateth night and day the name of Him whose enduring light is unquenchable, who bestoweth not a thought on any but the one God;

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Who hath full love and confidence in God, who putteth not faith even by mistake in fasting, or worshipping cemeteries, places of cremation, or Yogis' places of sepulture;
Who only recognizeth the one God and not pilgrimages, alms, the non-destruction of life,1 Hindu penances, or austerities;
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And in whose heart the light of the perfect One shineth, he is recognized as a pure member of the Khalsa.
Notes:
1. As practised by the Jains. (p. 314)
In his code for the Sikhs, called Rahit Namā, the last Guru made specific recommendations to his followers, the Khälsās, as follows:
Never to mix with the following five sects, namely, Dhirmalliyas, Ramraias, Minas, Masands, and Sirgunms, and never to consort with these five.
The Sirgunms are those, who are called atheists, Saraugis and Jains. (Court 1888: 42).
Griffin (1892 60) also confirms that many sects were particularly accursed by the Khalsa for their beliefs and religious practices. He says:
The Muhammadans were especially held accursed, and the prohibition against Sikhs wearing a cap was to disassociate them from the Muhammadans even in dress. War with these enemies of the faith was enjoined and no quarter was to be given to them. Unorthodox Sikhs, Jains and Yogis, were also declared accursed.
These instructions, which are sincerely believed in by the Sikhs of the Khalsa sect, may not develop a proper understanding of presentday Jainism or other sects and religions criticized or commented upon by the Gurus. In fact, it is possible that some misunderstanding or hatred towards such minorities may develop in the minds of those who are not well-versed in comparative religious studies.
Criticism of or cynicism about other religions based on past per

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ceptions seems to be inappropriate in present times when much of the world is becoming multicultural. In a multicultural society such as ours we are supposed to develop respect and understanding of other religions, races, creeds and beliefs. Instead of repeating hatred towards others we must make efforts to develop love and understanding towards our fellow brothers and sisters Things that might have been true four hundred years ago are not certainly true today. But if we are going to continue to repeat verses that are suggestive of past practices as true today, we may be guilty of discrimination and hatred towards other religions unwontingly.
Though the Sikh scriptures do not mention Jain Dharma directly, references are made in Sikh scriptures and other literature to a certain sect of Jain monks. It is their way of life and living that is ridiculed by Baba Nanak, but unfortunately we do not get a good picture of the philosophical or ethical nature of Jain Dharma from these verses. So people who read the Sikh scriptures are being informed of an ancient and formidable religion in a very stereotypical fashion. Therefore, it is useful to read with interest and understanding the description of Jain Dharma (Jainism) as given by modern Sikh scholars, e,g., Surinder Singh Kohli, to gain insight into the background of this great religion. This can be found in an earlier section of this paper on pages 7-10 of this article.
Epilogue:
175
Many religions of the modern world are protest religions or reformations of formerly existing religions. In the context of India, giver of the world's many well-known religions (Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism) and not so well-known religionn (Jainism), we see many protest or reform religions or sects of the original Hinduism.
Two of the earliest reform religions that expressed themselves against the Hindu Brahmanic emphasis on caste, ritualism and human or animal sacrificial rites in the name of religion, are Buddhism and Jainism (though Jains consider theirs to be an eternal and universal religion).
The founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, and the last (twentyfourth) Tirthankara of Jains, Lord Mahavira, are considered to be contemporaries by meny historical accounts. While Buddhism flourished

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for a certain time in Indla, and even become a state religion in certain locales for short durations, it was eventually absorbed into Hinduism in due time, and finally "driven out" of India.
On the other hand, Jainism, which never gained a wide-spread following, has nevertheless retained its original, ancient character even to this day. There are today some 6-8 million Jains in India, scattered all over the country, including the Punjab.
A religion of the Punjab, Sikhism, which took its roots in the late fifteenth century, is also one of those religions that began as a protest and as a reformist movement, against the then existing religious forces. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that Sikh religious texts and accompanying literature should contain some criticism, even to the extent of ridicule, of various existing practices of other religions, viz., Hinduism, Islam and Jainism,
References
1 The Adi Granth, tr. by Ernest Trumpp. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Reprinted 1970.
2
3
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6
4 Banerjee, Anil Chandra (1984). Guru Nanak and His Times. Patiala: Panjabi University.
8
Archer, J. C. (1946). The Sikhs in relation to Hindus, Moslems, Christians and Ahmadiyyas. Princeton.
5 Banerjee, Indubhushan (1939). The Evolution of the Khalsa. Vol. I. Calcutta.
Bashir Ahmad (1953). The Religious Policy of Akbar. Ph. D. thesis, University of London.
7 Blochmann, H. (tr.) (1873). Ain-i-Akbari. Calcutta.
Briggs, G. W. (1829). History of the Rise of the Mohammedan Power in India till the year A. D. 1612. (Eng. tr. of Farishta), London.
9
Ashraf, K. M. (1935), "Life and Conditions of the People of Hindusthan (12001500 A. D.)", Journal of the Royal Society of Bengal. I(1), 103-359.
Chopra. P. N. (1963). Some Aspects of Society and Culture during the Mughal Age (1526-1707). 2nd ed. Agra.

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10
11
Court, Henry (1888).
History of the Sikhs; or, translation of the Sikhan de raj di vithiya. Reprinted 1970. Patiala: Languages Department, Punjab.
12 Grewal, J. S. (1969). Guru Nanak in History. Chandigarh : Punjab University.
13 Ibbetson, Denzil (1916), Punjab Castes. Lahore.
Jain, Banarsi Das (1954). "Jainism in the Punjab", Sarupa-Bharati (Reprint). Hoshiarpur. pp. 6-7.
14
15
Kohli, Surinder Singh (1961). A Critical Study of the Adi Granth. New Delhi.
Kohli, Surinder Singh (1980), Philosophy of Guru Nanak. Chandigarh: Punjab University, First published 1969.
Latif, M. (1891). History of the Punjab. Calcutta.
Macauliffe, M. A. (1909). The Sikh Religion (Its Gurus, sacred wrinting and authors) Vols. I-VI. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reprinied in India.
19 Malcolm, John (1812). Sketch of the Sikh Religion. London.
20 McLeod, W. H. (1968). Gurn Nanak and the Sikh Religion, Oxford.
Rose H. A., ed. (1911-19). A Glossary of Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province. Vol. I. Lahore.
16
17
18
21
22
Cole, W. Owen and Piara Singh Sambhi (1978). The Sikhs: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
177
Selectians from the Sacred Writings of the Sikhs, tr. by Trilochan Singh and others. (1960). London: Allen & Unwin for Unesco.
23 Sing, Ganda (1938). Contemporary Sources of Sikh History (1469-1708). Amritsar.
26
24 Singh, Khushwant (1963). A History of the Sikhs. Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press.
25 Singh, Trilochan (1968). Guru Nanak's Religion: A Comparative Study of Religions. Delhi.
Sujan Rai (1918), Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh, edited by Zafar Kasan. Delhi.
27 Thapar, Romila (1967). A Hisrory of India. Penguin.

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Power and Tranquility-a Profile of
Jaina Martial Class of Karnataka
Vasantha Kumari
The hillock of Katavapra region, which became a renowned Jaina Centre, is most popularly known to the Jaina Community as Sravaņabelagolā. It was the nucleus of Jaina ascetic activities as early as 3rd Century B. C. The highly moderate climate and the favourable physical feature of South India, and particularly of Karnataka was indeed found suitable for the ascetic activities, to lead the most useful life of their austerities. An atmosphere of harmony which prevailed in this part of India, encouraged them to undertake Jainising Campaign mo actively. The local population living on varied tribal cults, were influenced in considerable numbers, under more progressive and humanistic frame-work of ahimsā cult. These events caused more significant political effects, and consequently two kingdoms emerged under Jaina auspices ; one was the Gangas of Talakad and the second, the Hoysālas of Dwarasamudra. Together, their rule lasted for nearly one thousand years from 3rd Century A.D. to 14th Century A.D. More strikingly it was during this period that the military concept received great encouragement and was effectively put to action by the Jaina rulers without any inhibition. As such many excelled in their abilities as great military commanders, generals and warriors.
These two kingdoms which emerged in the southern region of Karnataka, were the master creations of the efforts and shrewd acts of eminent Jaina Ācāryas of the period. Simhanandi Ācārya while placing the crown of Gangavadi-96,000 on Didiga and Mahādeva, also introduced sine-qua-non changes as to add more vigour and strength to the newly established kingdom. This kingdom emerged, having victory as their motto in the battlefield, Jinendra as their god, and Jina Matha as their faith.
Simhanandi Ācārya having successfully played the role of kingmaker, issued 'the moral-ethical code' and 'the charter of patriotism

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and prowess', and told his proteges - If you flee from the battlefield, then your race will go to ruin." This neo-military concept with all its spiritual sanction, provided moral strength to the followers of ahimsā cult to establish their high reputation as professional warriors in great numbers. Apparently, rulers with all their imperialistic policies still followed Jainism as their personal faith. The most important aspect of the history of this period lies in the fact that the followers of ahimsā cult established their organised leadership in the political, economic and cultural life in the southern region of Karnataka for nearly one thousand years.
'The charter of patriotism and prowess' - the significance of this lies in the fact that it was only a change introduced with regard to ahimsā in practice and not in theory. Without this change, Jainism would have remained merely as an impuissant or as an act of myth like a king without 'might' or a religion without 'many followers'. The political sovereignty of the Jaina rulers was thus made possible and military services and warrior profession received spiritual sanction. These changes helped the Jaina rulers to raise themselves to the trend of the period.
The Ācāryas also were successful in diverting the spiritual motivation of the people to Jaina faith in great numbers through royal support. When the rulers set an example by embracing Jainism as their personal faith, the wider application was undertaken without much efforts. The officials of the royal court and the subjects expressed their dedication to the crown in great numbers by voluntarily embracing Jainism as their personal faith.
In the early period of monarchical system, the law of righteousness was strictly adhered both by the rulers and the ruled. The military services of the people were supported by the imperialistic policies of their rulers. Thus the spiritual concept of ahimsā, the military concept of imperialism were amalgamated and the impossible was possibly achieved, which in fact led to the political and cultural matrix of Jainism in Karnataka.
Hundreds of lithical records, found in Karnataka, reveal how the Jaina rulers, and their generals pursued their military obligation in an excellent manner. The state religion during the period of the Gangas of Talakad was Jainism. Karnataka, is an exception, for Jainism enjoyed the reputed status of official religion for hundreds of years,

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The list of genealogy of the Gangas of Talakad contains the name of twentyfive rulers, among them many professed Jainism as their personal faith, a few non-Jaipa rulers too became patrons of Jainism. Avanita (466-495 A,D.), Durvinita (495-535 A.D.), Muskara (535-585 AD.), Sivamara (679-725 A.D.), Nitimārga (853-869 A.D.), Racamalla (870-907 A.D.), Nitimārga II (907-919 A.D.), Narasimhadeva (919-925 A.D.), Racamalla III (925-935 A.D.), Bhutuga II (935-960 A.D.), Marasimha III (963-974 A.D.), Racamallă IV (974-985 AD,), Rakkasa Ganga (9851025 A.D.) etc., were some of the renowned rulers who were known for their excellent military activities. They are glorified with the epitome of prowessness as Raņa Ranga, Ganga Simha, Ganga Vajra, Nolambantaka etc. The Kuge, Brahmadeva pillar, set in memory of Marasimha II contains the details of his military achievements. Cămundarāya, the Minister, and Commander-in-chief, under three successive rulers Marasimha III, Racamalla IV and Rakkasa Ganga was also bestowed with many military laurels like Samara-Dhurandbara, Raņa-Ranga-Simha, Vairikula-Käladaņda, Bhoja-Vikrama Cola Danda, Samara-Paraśurāma, etc. These titles happened to be the tributes attributed for having fought many victorious battles incessantly to protect the Ganga supremacy against the opponent aggressions.
For a ruler to exercise his political authority, the military abilities and the imperialistic policies were no doubt the qualifications of necessity in practical life. But their real motto was to seek peace and tranquility in the existing and also the above base life. Hence the rulers and the generals, and the elites alike were more actively involved in the religions activities as promoters of the faith. They adhered in thought, word and deed to the right faith, the right knowledge, the right conduct, i.e., the realisation of purity of soul, perfect understanding of the Agamas and perfect equanimity in conduct. As a matter of fact, most of the Jaina rulers, with all their military achievements, were tributed with religious appellations, Dharma Mabărājādhirāja, Satyavākya. Ganga Cudamani, etc, implying their belief in the doctrines of Mahāvira. The ruler Nitimārg opted for the most pious death. He invited death and died of sallekhanā. Marasimha is described in the lithic as 'one who was a very jewelled pitcher, where with to perpetually besprinkle Jinendra'. He died of sallekhanā in 974 A.D. at the feet of his preceptor Ajitasenācārya.
The most capable general of the period, Cămundarāya also attained his immortal fame, due to his meritorious religious activities. He was bestowed with the highest Jaina epithets like Samyaktva Ratnakara, Satya Yudhisthira, Sacca Bhavana etc., qualifying his virtue, liberalism

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and truthfulness. His greatest legacy is the erection of statue of Gommațeśvara, which is a unique masterpiece of sculpture. It is indeed a monumental evidence to the contemporary Jaina world that the religion of ahimsā had successfully, claimed the good-will of the people. The vibration of Câmundaraya's benevolent ideals have spread far and wide.
With the decline of the Ganga regime by the end of 10th Century A.D., the power of the Jaina rulers was rejuvenated and it was undertaken by Acarya Sudatta. Sudattăcārya who had established his reputation in the Malnad region of south Mysore forests around Chikamagalore area helped the local energetic youth leader, Sāla, to organise the military strength and to establish his political leadership. The most popular traditional story tells that, the ruling family established by Sala with the help of Sudattācārya was called Hoysāla ; the name signifies the event of Sāla killing the tiger at the instruction of Sudattåcårya. This particular event became the crest of this ruling power.
Many forest tribes of this area seems to have been brought under the religious structure of Jainism earlier to Sudattācārya. A lithical record of 10th Century AD, reveals that one Vimalacandra Paņditadeva, disciple of Mouni Bhattāraka and the preceptor of Iriva Bedenga (Calukyan ruler) died of sallekhanā rites, and attained mukti in the area of Soseuru, the home place of Sala, the founder of the Hoysala kingdom. Many records reveal in a fascinating style their political policy of 'duştanigraha, śişğa paripälanam' and the deadly military actions undertaken to enforce the same in practice. They immortalised themselves by effective military actions. The utter defeat and humility suffered by Cola king Rajendra at the hands of Vişnuvardhana has been portrayed in the following way : (1108-1142 A.D.)
“The water of the river Cauvery became so polluted by the dead bodies of the Cola soldiers, that Rajendra Cola could not use the water." The significant feature of this period is that, many families of Jaina elites produced hereditary soldiers and statesmen. Gangarāja, the general of Vişnuvardhana, belonged to a family of hereditary soldiers and statesmen. His father Eca, was patronised by Nirupama Hoysala. Gangarāja's noble character and unrivalled skill in war was devoted to the services of Vişnuvardhana, and this brought him great fame. By the strength of his arms he shook the prowess of many contemporary powers such as Cola, Calukyas and he was "a milestone to traitors of his lord.” Indeed he was a general of outstanding abilities,

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Gangaraja was the most prominent among the nine Jaina generals of Viṣṇuvardhana. The others were Boppa, Punisa, Baladeva, Mariyam, Bharata, Eca, Vişņu, and Hulla. Marching rapidly, taunting and making the enemies to lose courage, a last deluge to hostile enemies, bold in war, they attained peace and tranquility by punishing the wicked and by encouraging the good. Series of brilliant campaigns, no doubt, placed Karnataka army as the premier power of south India. They were the raiser up of the kingdom of Visnuvardhana (1108-1155 A.D.).
JAIN JOURNAL
Under Narasimha, Jaina general Devaraja, Hulla and Santiyanna, Isvara, Camapati excelled as eminent commanders of the Hoysala force. The most prominent Hulla was a general and the chief
treasurer.
Under Ballala-II (1173-1220 A.D.) the military prestige of the Hoysalas rested to a very great extent on the prowess of the Jaina generals and ministers, Racimayya, Nagadeva, Amrita, Ecana and Buciraja. Under Ballala-III (1291-1343 A.D.) Keteya Daṇḍanayaka was the prominent Jaina.
Thus, the most practical aspect of Jainism lies in the fact that, the apostles of ahimsa have been the rulers of vast territories, have fought battles, have vanquished armies and have founded empires. They have resisted invasions in which many have been killed, many have been wounded and destroyed.
But, at the same time they have cherished their feelings of deep faith for religion, and this gave them the feelings of real happiness. Thus the loyal soldiers were devout Jainas. They set the standard of morality. The standard of morality set by Gangaraja is explained in this way:

To be false in speech,
To show fear in battle,
To be addicted to others' wives, To give up refugees,
To leave suppliants unsatisfied, Foresake those to whom he is bound Live in treachery to his lord.

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These are the seven hells according to Gangarāja. He was the crest jewel of perfect faith in Jainism. Many Jaina temples were renovated, new ones were built, unbounded gifts were made. Enclosure was built around Gommața statue at Śravanabelagola.
Hulla, was another general who gained distinction of having served three successive Hoysāla rulers, Vişnuvardhana, Narasimha and Ballala-II. He took delight in restoring Jaina temples, holding assemblies for Jaina worship, making gifts and listening to the reading of the sacred purāņas. He was bestowed with the title SamyaktvaCūdamaņi.
Similar religious policies were followed by the other generals. However it should be noted that, more than the rulers, the generals and the elite class of the Jaina society in Karnataka during this period were more actively involved in the religious movements and they proved themselves to be the true believers and followers of Jaina faith.
Throughout the history of religious thought, in India and so much so in Karnataka, Jaina school has always upheld the doctrines of ahimsā predominantly. It is Jainism that had upheld unbounded compassion for the struggling humanity as a means to attain peace and tranquility.
The Jaina monuments in Karnataka which have survived the ravages of time are very few in number. But still, the monolithic statue of Gommațeśvara, group of temples at Śravaņabelagola, and other places, abundant literature and inpumerable epigraphs are the proud records to cherish the great memory of Jaina heritage in Karnataka. It was in this part of India that "Pichadvaja' enjoyed the highest reputation of political honour for many centuries. No wonder Karnataka is rightly considered the second-birth place of Jainism.
References
1 Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I and II. 2 Sharma, Jainism and Karnataka Culture. 3 R. R. Diwakar, Karnataka through the Ages

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These are the seven hells according to Gangarāja. He was the crest jewel of perfect faith in Jainism. Many Jaina temples were renovated, new ones were built, unbounded gifts were made. Enclosure was built around Gommața statue at Śravanabelagola..
Hulla, was another general who gained distinction of having served three successive Hoysăla rulers, Vişnuvardhana, Narasimha and Ballala-II. He took delight in restoring Jaina temples, holding assemblies for Jaina worship, making gifts and listening to the reading of the sacred purānas. He was bestowed with the title SamyaktvaCūdamaņi.
Similar religious policies were followed by the other generals. However it should be noted that, more than the rulers, the generals and the elite class of the Jaina society in Karnataka during this period were more actively involved in the religious movements and they proved themselves to be the true believers and followers of Jaina faith.
Throughout the history of religious thought, in India and so much so in Karnataka, Jaina school has always upheld the doctrines of ahimsā predominantly. It is Jainism that had upheld unbounded compassion for the struggling humanity as a means to attain peace and tranquility.
The Jaina monuments in Karnataka which have survived the ravages of time are very few in number. But still, the monolithic statue of Gommateśvara, group of temples at Sravanabelagola, and other places, abundant literature and innumerable epigraphs are the proud records to cherish the great memory of Jaina heritage in Karnataka. It was in this part of India that Picbadvaja' enjoyed the highest reputation of political honour for many centuries. No wonder Karnataka is rightly considered the second-birth place of Jainism.
References
1 Mysore Gazetteer, Vol. I and II. 2 Sharma, Jainism and Karnataka Culture. 3 R. R. Diwakar, Karnataka through the Ages

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4 E. C., Vol. II.
5 E. C., Vol. IV.
6 E. C., Vol. V.
7 M. A. R., 1926.
8 B. Sheik Ali, The Hoysala Dynasty.
9 B. Sheik Ali, The Western Gangas.
10 Rice, Mysore and Coorg Inscriptions.
11 Purusartha Siddhyupaya, The Sacred Books of the Jainas, Vol. IV.
12 Gommatas ara, Introduction.
13 Dravya Sangraha, Introduction.
14 B. A. Saletore, Medieval Jainism.
15 Sravanabelagola (Marg Publication).
16 S. P. Patil, Camundar aya.
17 Venkatachala Shastry, Camundaraya. 18 S Sattal, Inviting Death.

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Identification of Some Rsis as Depicted in Sutrakrtanga
Arun Pratap Singh
The Sutrakṛtānga, the second Anga literature, is one of the earliest Jaina texts. Its first part (śrutaskandha) is supposed to be compiled around 3rd Cent. B.C. It mainly discusses the philosophical views of the Jaina as well as of other schools of thought. The main theme of Sūtrakṛtānga, as it seems, is to refute and condemn the opinions of heretical thoughts and then to confirm the doctrines of the Jinas. In the text we find the name of some Ṛșis who seem to have been prominent thinkers of their time. Sūtrakṛtānga mentions the name of Nami, the king of Videha, Ramaputta, Bahuka, Nārāyaṇa, Asita Devala, Dvaipayana and Parāsara. It is stated that these Ṛsis attained liberation in spite of drinking cold water and taking seeds and sprouts. These Ṛsis are mentioned as the non-Jaina thinkers, notwithstanding they are adorned with venerated words. Now, we have to see whether these thinkers are historical personages or merely legendary ones. In this article, I have endeavoured to identify them and to establish their historicity on the basis of the references given in Buddhist as well as in Vedic texts.
Nami of Vedha-Nami, as in Jaina texts, is known to the Buddhist and Vedic literatures as well. All sources introduce him as the ascetic king of Videha (Mithila). Jātaka literature of Buddhist tradition and the Uttaradhyayana, one of the earliest Jaina texts, proclaim him as a Pratyeka Buddha. Jātaka tells a story that a hawk was flying with a piece of flesh. A vulture attacked him. The piece of flesh fell down which was seized upon by another bird but that bird was also attacked
1 आहंसु महापुरिसा पुब्विं तततबोधणा उदएण सिद्धिभावन्ना तत्थ मंदो विसीयत अभुंजिया नमी विदेही, रामगुत्ते या भुंजिआ बाहुए उदगं भोज्जा तहा नारायणे रिसी ओसिते देविले चैव दीवायण महारिसी पारासरे दगं भोज्जा बीयाणि हरियाणि य एते पृब्वं महापुरिसा आहिता इह संमता भोज्जा after far fa-Sutrakrtanga, 1/3/4/1-4 (ed. Amar Muni, Atma Jnan Pith, Manasa)

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by another one. Perceiving this, the king felt that the holding of anything is painful. He abandoned everything and became a Pratyeka Buddha 2
In the Uttaradhyayana also he is said to have relinquished the kingdom (Mithila) with all his kith and kins. Nami, the Rājarși, as he is crowned with, is presented as a victor of all the bad intentions (kasāyas), like anger, pride, deceit and greed. The essence of his teaching is that a man should fight within himself and win all the kasayas and sense-organs. Such a man would feel the true happiness. One who wins himself wins all.4
JAIN JOURNAL
Mahabharata mentions Nami as Nimi and puts him in the line of those kings and Ṛşis who never tasted meat. Another Nimi who was the son of Ṛși Dattatreya and was a great saint, is also referred to in the Mahabharata,&
Rāmaputta-In some editions of the Sūtrakṛtānga, he is wrongly referred to as Ramagutta (Rämagupta), the emperor of Imperial Gupta Dynasty. If we accept it, we will be totally wrong. So far as we know about Emperor Rāmagupta he is presented nowhere as a liberated man. The error is most probably due to the scribe. Ramaputta who is mentioned in the Sutrakṛtānga was not an emperor but an Arhat-Rși about whom we have a lot of information from other sources. Not only Jaina texts but also the Buddhist texts mention him in detail. His teachings prove that he was a great thinker of his time. The Rṣibhāṣita a Jaina text of about 4th Century B.C. contains his preachings in its 23rd chapter. Besides the Sūtrakṛtānga
2 Pali Proper Names, Part I, p. 573
3 मिहिलं सपुरजणवयं बलमोरोहं च परियणं सव्वं ।
अभिक्खि तो एगन्तम हिट ठिओ भयवं ॥
-Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 9/4 (ed. Sadhvi Chandana, Virayatan Prakashan, Agra
1972)
4 पंचिन्दियाणि कोहं माणं मायं तहेव लोहं च । दुज्जयं चैव अयाणं सव्वं अप्पे जिए जियं ॥
-Ibid., 9/36
Mahabharata, Anusasana Parva, 115/65 (ed Gita Press, Gorakhpur) Ibid., 91/5
5
6
7 See in detail, Aspects of Jainology, Vol. II, p. 8 (P.V.R.J., Varanasi) Rsibhasita, Chapter 23 (Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur, 1988)
8

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and the Rsibhāsita, Ramaputta is mentioned in the Sthānăngao and in the Anuttaropapātika,10 The Anuttaropapātika refers him as a contemporary of Lord Mahāvira. In the Rșibhäșita, he is said to have preached about knowledge (jñana), perception (darśana) and conduct (cāritra).11 Ramaputta also emphasises the ascetic process of eliminating the micro-particles of karma.
The earliest Buddhist texts describe him in detail. The Pali Tripitaka give his full name as Uddaka Rāmaputta and inform us that he was older than the Buddha himself. When Gautama Buddha renounced the world in search of true knowledge, he became a disciple of Ramaputta and received the knowledge of meditational process from him. After getting Omniscience the Buddha wanted to preach to him but by then, Ramaputta was dead.12
Thus both the Jaina and the Buddhist traditions place him as a saint contemporary to Mahavira and the Buddha. He was a revered ascetic who was an expert in meditation,
Bahuka-- Bahuka seems to have been the preacher of an independent Šramana tradition. The Rsibhāşita contains his teachings. 13 Besides the Rsibhā sita and the Sūtrak rtānga he is mentioned in the Sūtrak stānga Cūrņi and in the commentary on Sūtrakrtānga written by Silankācārya. The essence of his teaching is detachment from everything i,e, from thirst (trsņā) and the world. According to Bahuka, one who is detached, alone can go on the path of liberation and contrary to this, attachment with any kind will lead to hell. Besides, he lays stress on pure thoughts which alone can be ethical. Bahuka has ealled himself to be free from attachment in the Rşibhāşita.14
Buddhist literature does not present him as Bahuka but as an Arhat named Bahiya Daruciriya.15 In the Anguttara Nikāya Babiya is said to be the foremost among those who instantly comprehend the truth.
9 Sthananga, 755 10 Anuttaropapatika, 3/6 11 णाणेणं जाणिय दंसणेण पासित्ता संजमेण संजमिय तवेण अट ठविह कम्मरयमलं विधुणित विसोहिय।
- Rsibhasita, Chapter 23 12 Pali Proper Names, Vol. I, pp. 382-83 13 Rsibhasita, Chapter 14 14 3779 TET-Ibid 15 Pali Proper Names, Vol. II, pp. 281-83

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This Babiya, according to Buddhist tradition is a disciple of Gautama, the Buddha, His teaching has a close resemblance with Buddhist teaching. The thirst, according to the Buddhist belief, is the root of all sorrows. And similarly, Bahuka's teaching, is also concerned with the elimination of thirst. We can not ignore this possibility that he might have been the disciple of the Buddha and if not he was much influenced by Buddhist philosophy. However, the Rşibhāşita contains the philosophy of Gautama, the Buddha and his many disciples.
Bahuka's name is not found in the Vedic texts, although a Rşi named Bahuyrakta is mentioned in the Vedic literature. He is said to have propounded some of the mantras of the Vedas.16 So we can not identify him with Rşi Bahuka. We find many Bahukas in the Mahābhārata. But they can hardly be linked with Rşi Bahuka of the Sūtrak rtānga. In the Vana Parva of the Mahābhārata Mābāraj Nala is described as Bahuka when he was living in disguise with Rtuparna, the king of Ayodhyā.17 A snake who was consigned to the flames in the yajña of Janmejaya, was also called Bahuka. 18
Nārāyaṇa -Like Nami, Ramaputta and Bahuka, Nārāyaṇa is also said to have drunk cold water and got liberation. Rşi Nārāyana is given a respectable place in the Rşibhā șita,19 The gist of his teaching is that a man should eradicate the root of anger. His similies are simple and truely reflect the nature of anger. He says that fire can be quenched but the fire of anger is difficult to be quenched. Fire destroys this life only but anger destroys many future lives. Fire burns a single person but anger burns the person himself as well as others. One should therefore try his best to control anger,
As regards the Vedic tradition, Nārāyaṇa is mentioned as God. 20 However, in the Vana Parva of the Mahābhārata there is a reference to Rşi Nārāyaṇa who is stated to have practised penance for one thousand years in Badarikaśrama.a1 A saint named as Nārāyaṇa who was indulged in conversation with Närada is also mentioned in the Sānti Parva, a 3 It
16 Vedic Kos, p. 334 17 Mahabharata, Vana Parva, 66/20 18 Ibid., Adi Parva, 157/13 19 Rsibhasita, Chapter 36 20 Mahabharata Namanukramanika, p. 175 21 Mahabharata, Vana Parva, 72/339 22 Ibid., Santi Parva, 33/13-15

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is important to note here that the tenth section of Taittiriya Aranyaka is known as Nārāyanopanisad.49 This Nārāyaṇa Rşi of Vedic tradition may be compared with the Nārāyaṇa Rşi of the Rşibhā șita and the Sūtrak rtānga.
We could not trace however any Nārāyaṇa Rşi in the Buddhist literature.
Asita Devala– The information available in Jaipa, Buddhist and Vedic texts indicate that Asita Devala was a great ascetic and thinker of his time. His preachings and his conversation with other thinkers are discussed in these texts. While Sūtrak rtānga condemns him for his taking cold water, seeds and sprouts, he is placed in the list of those Rşis who had got perfection, and even the Rsibhāşita eulogises him as Arhat Rşi.
His teachings, as given in Rşibhāșita, are concerned with the abandonment of all desires, passions and attachment. A man who wants to be liberated should conquer anger and illusion. In nutshell, he preaches us to detach from passions, anger and deceit. To make his preachings understandable he uses similies. He says that ordinary fire can be extinguished but the fire of attachment is difficult to be extinguished.24
He is mentioned in the Buddhist tradition also. There is a whole chapter entitled Assalayana Sutta in Majjhima Nikāya, which illustrates his teachipgs. In this suita he copfutes the supremacy of the Brāhmanas and tries to sbatter their vanity.5 Asita Devala is also mentioned in Indriya Jātaka where he is named as Kāla Devala. According to this Jātaka, Devala had a younger brother named as Närada who was also a famous saint. Asita Devala is presented here to have preached to Nárada the lesson of detachment from worldly bondage 28
Asita Devala is well known to Vedic tradition. The Mahābhārata refers to him as a great ascetic who was a great expert in performing penance. Passions did not perturb him. He was free from anger and
23 Vedic Kos, p. 244 24 Rsibhasita, Chapter 3 25 Majjhima Nikaya, 2/5/3 (Mahabodhi Sabha, Saranath, Varanasi, 1964) 26 Pali Proper Names, Vol. I, p. 210

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happiness. Asita Devala, as Mahābhārata mentions him, is said to have held discussions on equanamity with old revered Rși Jaigisabhya. He says that a man should take insult as nectar, an honour as poison. As in Buddhist texts, he is associated with Rși Närada in Vedic texts also. Preaching to Närada he asks him to eliminate pāpa as well as punya. Only Jñana Yoga, according to him should be followed.27
As Mahābhārata says, Asita Devala seems to have been an old Rşi—not only in age but also in penance. As Jaina tradition refers to him as a Rşi who took seeds and sprouts and drank cold water, Mahābhārata also mentions him as a Risi who practised penance dwelling in house-hold life. Still he had been given the highest regard. He was a great ascetic and conqueror of passions. He had deep faith in religion and had equnimity with all.
The references prove him to be an historical person who was most probably prior to Mahāvira and the Buddha,
Dvaipāyana-Dvaipāyana is mentioned in many texts of Jaina tradition such as Rşibhāṣita, 28 Samavāyanga, 29 Aupapātika, 30 Antak rtddasā31 and Daśavaikālika Cūrni, 32 Besides Sūtrakrtānga the Rşibhā sita, in its 14th chapter describes his teachings in detail. He preaches to destory the desires because it is desire which leads a man to the path of sorrow. Desire, according to him, is the root cause of loss of everything. It is the cause of life and death. Without destroying desire one cannot conquer the passions. Lack of desire is the first step to the path of liberation,
He is known to Vedic tradition and has been mentioned in detail in Mahābhārata. He, the son of Maharşi Parāsara was the celebrated author of Epic Mahābhārata,33 His preaching on mokşa dharma is to be found in detail in Mahābhārata. He is said to have won sex, anger,
27 Mahabharata, Santi Parva, 229/5, 275,4-39 28 Rsibhasita, Chapter 40 29 Samavayanga Sutra, 159 (Prakirnaka) 30 Aupapatika Sutra, 38 31 Antakrtdasa, Part II 32 Dasavaikalika Curni, p. 41 33 Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 1/54, 55

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greed, infatuation, vanity and dreams. In the Mausala Parva of the Mahābhārata he is mentioned as the destroyer of city Dvärakā.34
He also enjoys a very significant place in the Buddhist tradition. A story of Jātaka is named on him as Kanha Dipă yana Jātaka. Although its story differs from that of Rşibhāșita and other Jaina works, as well as Vedic texts, but another Jātaka story may be compared with the description of Jaina and Vedic Texts. In this story he is mentioned as the destroyer of Dväraka.85 His association with the destruction of city Dvärakā is found in all sources which prove his historicity.
Parāsara-Parāsara is also said to have got emancipation inspite of taking cold water and seeds. He is known to Jaina texts as a nonJaina ascetic. Buddhist texts also mention a scholar of Vedic tradition named Parāsariya who used to emphasise the subordination of senses. It is deliberated in detail in Indi ya Bhāvanā Sutta of Majjhima Nikāya.36 We know another Parā sariya who was a Brahmaņa by birth and was the inhabitant of Rajagrba. He was an expert in the Vedas. He is said to have ordained in Buddhist Sangha at the time when Buddha visited Rajagrha and he became Arhat within a very short period.37
Vedic texts give us a lot of information about him. According to Mahābhārata he was the father of great ascetic Krşņa Dvaipayana, the legendary author of Mahābhārata 38 Parāsara, as Mahābhārata informs us was the grandson of Rși Vasiştha. He is said to have stayed in the womb of his mother till 12 years practising the Vedas. 39 He was as Mahābhārata mentions, the worshiper of Lord Siva, He tells his experiences about the devotion of Śiva to Yudhisthira, the eldest Pandava.60
We have tried to identify the Rșis mentioned in Sūtrakytānga. The references given in this text indicate that these thinkers belonged to non-Jaina tradition. Most of the Rșis are referred to in Ķșibhāṣita
34 Ibid., Mausala Parva, 1/19-21 35 Pali Proper Names, Vol. I, p. 501-502 36 Majjhima Nikaya, 3/5/10 37 Pali Proper Names, Vol. II, p. 190 38 Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 63/84 39 Ibid., Adi Parva, 17713 40 Ibid., Anusasana Parva, 18/40-45

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which is one of the earliest Jaina texts, next only to the first śrutskandha
Ācārānga. These Rşis are well described in Buddhist and Vedic texts also. These facts prove the historicity of these Rşis.
On the question of their historicity, we have only texts and tradition as the sources. For their historicity, it is essential/indispensable that their names must have been mentioned in contemporary Indian literature. If we examine we find that their names are mentioned not only in Jaina but also in the Buddhist and Vedic texts. The teachings of these seers are, more or less, in the same line in all the traditions. For examples, Nami of Jaina and Buddhist tradition and Nimi of Vedic tradition are the same person and in all traditions he is called the
etic king of Videha (Mithila). So is the case with Rşi Dvaipayana. Krsna Dvaipāyana of Mahābhārata resemble Dipayana of Jaina and Buddhist texts. All tradition depict him as the destroyer of Dvăraka city. These facts lead to the historicity of these Rşis. They might be said to have existed on this earth, most probably before or at the time of Lord Maha vira and the Buddha,
Certainly we have our own limitations. We have only textual sources. But when the text of one tradition coincides with the texts of other tradition, we, to some extent, are bound to accept the description as historical.

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Report on the First National Prakrit
Conference, Bangalore
Prakrit Conference :
The Prakrit Jnanabharthi Education Trust, Bangalore, has sponsored and organised the First National Prakrit Conference at Bangalore on 8th and 9th December, 1990. The Hon'ble Justice S. S. Venkataramaiah (Former Chief Justice of India) inaugurated the conference and said that Prakrit language and literature should be honoured and studied by the people of India for a proper knowledge of the culture and values of ancient time. Dr. A. M. Ghatge, eminent indologist, chaired the conference and explained the significance of Prakrit studies from the linguistic, literary and philosophical points of view. About 70 Prakrit writers, scholars, teachers, research-fellows and journalists assembled in this conference for the first time and papers were presented in Hindi, English and Kannada languages. Dr. Prem Suman Jain, Executive Director of the conference, explained the central idea and programme of the conference in his Prakrit speech. Swami Bhattaraka Charukeerthy, Shravanabelagola, Chairman of the Trust, released the souvenir Prakrit Bharati' of the conference and the Mapa. ging Trustee Dr. Hampa Nagarajaiah welcomed the participants and guests in his scholarly Kannada and English speech. Shri D. Surendra Kumar Hegde inaugurated the Prakrit Book Exhibition arranged for this occasion,
Prakrit Awards :
On the occasion of this conference the "Prakrit Jnanabharthi Award 1990" was presented by Shri D. Veerendra Hegde, Dharmadhikari of Dharmasthal, to the following 10 eminent Prakrit scholars : Dr. J. C. Jain, Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Pt. Phoolchand Sidhantashastri, Dr. Nathmal Tatia, Dr. Raja Ram Jain, Dr. K. R. Chandra, Dr. B. K. Khadabadi, Dr. M. D. Vasanthraj, Dr. J. C. Sikdar and Dr. H. C. Bhayani. Swasti Shri Charukeerthi Bhattaraka presided over the award giving function and announced that this award will be presented every year to eminent Prakrit scholars.

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Prakrit Monographs:
The following Prakrit monographs brought out by the Trust were released by eminent persons on this occasion-(1) Prakrit Sahity Kaipidi (by Shubhachandra in Kannada), (2) Prakrit Sahitya ki Bhumika (by Dr. P. S. Jain), (3) Prakrit Praveshika (in Kannada), (4) Kundakunda Prashasti (edited by Dr. M. A. Jayachandra in Kannada) and conference special issue of 'Prakrit Vidya' published by Prakrit Adhyayan Prasar Sansthan, Udaipur.
Valedictory speech was given by Shri M. Veeroppa Moily, Education Minister of Karnatak State, in which he assured that the required facilities would be given to Prakrit studies on par with other languages. Dr. R. P. Poddar, on behalf of the conference participants, presented the recommendations of the conference. The most important resolution of the conference was the recommendation to establish a National Prakrit Academy.
Our Contributors
ASHUTOSH JINDAL, Jaipur.
JAIN JOURNAL
B. K. KHADABADI, Ex-Head, Chair of Jainology, Karnatak University, Dharwad.
S. K. JAIN, Windsor, Ont., Canada.
-Dr. M. A. Jaychandra Conference Secretary

VASANTHA KUMARI, Reader in History, Maharani's Arts College for Women, Mysore.
ARUN PRATAP SINGH, Lecturer, Ancient History, S. B. Degree College, Dadarashram, Sikanderpur, Ballia (U. P.).

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