Jain Journal 1991 01

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520101/1

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VOL. XXV
JANUARY 1991
ISSN 0021-4043
A QUARTERLY
JAINOLOGY
ON
No. 3
JAIN Journal
॥ जैन भवन ॥
JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATION

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Contents
Jaina Influence in the Formation of Dvaita Vedanta
Robert J. Zydenbns
Jaina Concept of Person -A textual Study of Samayasara of Acarya Kundakunda
B. Vincent Sekhar
The Story of Carudatta
-The story of Carudatta with special reference
to Jaina Literature Hampa Nagarajaiah
His Name, Jina Leona Smith Kremser
A Search for the Possibility of Non-Violence and Peace Sagarmal Jain

-
Ancient Jaina Centres on the Banks of Kansai
Sudhin De
Books Received
Plates
Jain Finds of Dhanyantarir Danga and neighbouring villages
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Books Received
BETAI, R. S. & SHASTRI, Y. S. (ed), Sambodhi, vol. 14, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1990, Pages 4+152+129+52 +37.
Contains research papers in English, Gujrati and Hindi,
BETAI, R. S. & SHASTRI, Y. S. (ed), Sambodhi, vol. 15, Ācārya Hemacandra Navama Satabdi Mahotsava-1988), L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1989. Pages 23+68+63 +19 + 39. Price Rs. 50.00
Contains the proceedings of Acarya Hemacandra Navam Śatabdi Mahotsava, 1988.
JAIN FAUZDAR, RISHABHCHANDRA (ed), Jaina Siddhanta Bhawan Granthavali, Vol. 2, Sri Devkumar Jain Oriental Library, Arrah, 1987. Pages xvi +173+309. Price Rs. 135.00.
Contains the list of Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa and Hindi Manuscripts of Devkumar Jain Oriental Library, Arrah with basic informations such as accession number, title of the work, name of the author, scripts, language, size, date, etc. The Appendix gives the opening and closing slokas, colophon, etc. of each manuscript.
KHADABADI, B. K. (ed), Ācārya Nemicandra Siddhänta-cakravarti Viracita Gommatesa-thudi, Sri Kundakunda Bharati, New Delhi. 1990, Pages xxxiv +68. Price Rs, 20.00.
Critically edited with Introduction, Transliteration and transla
tion.
KUMAR, S. A. BHUVANENDRA (ed), Jinmaūjari, Vol. 1 No. 1 (Oct. 1990), Half Yearly Journal on Jainology, Bramhi Society, U. S. A. & Canada.
Contains contemporary refelections on Jain Religion,

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LALWANI, GANESH & BEGANI, RAJKUMARI, Tri sastiçalākāpurusa
caritra (in Hindi), Parva 1, Prakrit Bharati Academy, Jaipur 1989. Pages vii +327. Price Rs. 100.00.
Contains Hindi translation of Parva 1, viz., Ādinātha Caritra.
MUNI KANTISAGAR, Satruñjaya Baibhav, Kushal Sansthan, Jaipur,
1990. Pages viii +383. Price : Board 125.00, Paper Rs. 100.00.
Contains inscriptions of the metal images of Satruñjaya with the life and history of the founding Acāryas.
SANGAVE, VILAS A., Aspects of Jaina Religion, Bharatiya Jnanpith,
New Delhi, 1990. Pages xiv + 145. Price Rs. 45.00.
It delineates the basic principles and elements, and elucidates the significant doctrines of Jainism.
SANGHVI, LAKSHMI CHAND (ed), Preraņā, Author, Bombay, 1990.
Pages 136. Price Rs. 20.00.
A collection of mantras, songs, poems, etc. from all faiths for inspiration and integrity.
SURANA, SRICHAND 'Saras' (ed), Ācārya Sri Mānaturga Viracita
Sacitra Bhaktāmara Stotra, Diwakar Prakashan, Agra, 1990. Pages 12 +98. Price Rs, 325,00.
Text with Hindi and English translation. Full page coloured illustration for each śloka.

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Jaina Influence in the Formation of
Dvaita Vedanta
Robert J. Zydenbos
Jainism is still a relatively neglected subject in Western Indology, and perhaps the fact that Hindu and Buddhist literature as a rule mentions the Jainas only disparagingly and satirically has strengthened the impression with foreign researchers that the role of the Jainas in Indian cultural history was probably of little importance. The cultural and socio-political autonomy of the Jainas, who had no use for the Vedas as authoritative scriptures and hence also not for the Brahmins as a privileged social group, was no doubt in part the reason for this. However, the late Prof. Ludwig Alsdorf and Prof. Louis Dumont have established that the position of ahimsă in Indian thought as a whole and also the vegetarianism of the higher Hindu castes is mainly a Jaina achievement. In modern times the influence of Jainism in the thought of Mahatma Gandhi is very clear.
To illustrate more of the extent of Jaina influence in the development of Hindu thought, I wish to call your attention to the youngest of the three major schools of Vedanta, viz. the Dvaita-Vedanta of Madhva, Dvaita too has received little attention from modern scholars, which is hardly commensurate with its philosophical and theological sophistication and its importance in Indian intellectual history and contemporary Hinduism. In spite of excellent studies of Dvaita written by Von Glasenapp1 and Siauve, hardly any modern scholars have touched the subject; this may be due to socio-political reasons in Indian academic life, which discouraged the study of Dvaita, and to the fact that there are hardly any good translations of major Dvaiti texts in European languages. This makes a good knowledge of Sanskrit still more indispensible here than it is for the study of those schools of Indian thought that have been more 'popular' in the West, such as Advaita.
2
1 H. von Glasenapp, Madhvas Philosophie des Visnu-Glaubens, Bonn /Leipzig, 1923.
2 S. Siauve, La doctrine de Madhva, Pondichery: Institut francais d'indologie, 1968.

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Dvaita is the one school of Hindu realistic thought ('realistic' in contradistinction to 'illusionistic') that has remained vigorously alive up to the present. Throughout the history of their school, Dvaiti authors have tried to demonstrate the fallaciousness of particularly the māyāvāda of Advaita, by employing a powerful logic to bring forward arguments which till today have never been successfully met by the Advaitis, The school originated in south-western India in the 13th century, in the south-western part of what is now the state of Karnataka, where Madhva was born in a village only a few miles from the capital of a missionarily inclined Jaina king. From there, Dvaita spread all over India, with followers concentrated in Karnataka and also in north-eastern India, where Madhva is recognized as one of the gurus in the paramparā of Gaudiya Vaişņavism. In south-western India, “Vaişņavism' is popularly considered synonymous with the teachings of Madhya.
The Dvaitis themselves, as we could expect, claim that their teachings stem from Brahminical tradition. (Here we may note that the first author to point out the Buddhist influence in Sankara argumentatively was Madhva,; and the well-known term 'pracchanna-bauddha' to designate the Advaitis seems to have originated in Dvaiti circles ) A comparative study of early Dvaiti writings and Jaina texts from the same period and region shows, however, that there was a fundamental Jaina philosophical influence in the formation of Dvaita, and I will give a few examples, drawn from the writings of Madhva, his main commentator Jayatirtha, and the Jaina author Bhāvasena.
Although Dvaita shows some similarities with earlier schools of Hindu realistic thought and elements of Sankhya, Nyāya-Vaišeşika and Pūrva-Mimāmsā can be found in it, it cannot be said to be a direct continuation of any of these older schools. Dvaita differs from Sãokhya in accepting that the soul is a real agent and not a mere passive experiencer ; it differs from Nyāya in declaring that consciousness is a permanent and essential characteristic of the soul and that truth has svataḥ-prāmāṇya, i.e, it is self-evident. This particular combination of epistemological ideas is unique in Hindu philosophy; but Jainism accepted this at least eight centuries before Madhva, as is clear from the Tattvārthasūtra. Also, Dvaita accepted the concept of tāratamya or the hierarchy of souls, meaning that souls are inherently different from each other not only numerically but also qualitatively and that mokşa or ultimate liberation does not mean the same for all souls and is
3 According to B. N. K. Sharma, Madhva did so in his work Tattyoddyota. Cf.
B. N. K. Sharma, A History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its Literature, 2 vols., Bombay, 1960; vol. I, p. 190.

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experienced differently by them. Here again, we see similarity with the Jaina notion of bhavyabhavyatva of souls.
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In epistemological discussions, the Jainas were apparently the only older school of Indian philosophy willing to acknowledge that memoryexperience constituted a pramā or valid piece of knowledge, The reason probably lies in the Jaina conception of the pramāṇa-s or means of knowledge. Bhavasena distinguishes between karanapramāņa and bhāvapramāṇa, which we may translate provisionally as 'pramāņa as instrument' and 'pramāņa as realization'. About the latter he states: "Correct knowledge is a means of knowledge, for by the qualification 'bhava' correct knowledge itself is a pramāṇa. By the qualification 'karaṇa' pramāņa signifies the instrument for attaining correct knowledge, by which the truth of a thing is concluded or determined [...]".5 If there is no absolute distinction between prama and pramāṇa, and if knowledge which is offered by memory is a prama then there should be no reason why memory should not be considered a valid pramāņa. Though these ideas are already found in the Tattvärthasutra, Bhāvasena's work proves that these ideas were known in southwestern Karnataka in Madhva's time." The same distinction between pramāņa as instrument and pramāņa as knowledge itself is found in Madhva's short work on pramāṇa-s, the Pramanalakṣaṇa, where he distinguishes between kevala and aṇupramana. Here kevala is defined as yathārthajñāna," "knowledge that is true to its object", and aṇupramana is the means by which this is attained (tatsādhanam aṇupramāṇam).8 In his commentary, Jayatirtha explicitly adds that kevala is to be equated with pramā, valid knowledge. In other words, kevala, which was first defined as one of the two categories of pramāṇa, turns out to be prama as well, as has traditionally been the case in Jainism.
an obvious
Dvaita classifies the pramäṇa-s in a more customary Hindu manner, but here too the deviations from the Hindu model are striking. Since
4 B. K. Matilal, Logic, Language & Reality, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1985, p. 262.
5 V. Johrapurkar (ed.), Sribhavasenaviracita Pramaprameya, Sholapur Jaina Samskriti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1966, pp. 1-2. (Hereafter: Pramaprameya'.) 6 Ibid., editor's Hindi introduction, p. 1.

7 yatharthajnanam kevalam, P. P. Lakshminarayanopadhyaya (ed.), Srimadanandatirthabhagavat padavir acit ani-dasa-prakaranani...prathamo bhagah, Bangalore: Srimanmadhvaraddhanta Samvardhaka Sabha, 1969, p. 11. This includes the commentary (tika) by Jayatirtha. (Hereafter: 'PL'.).
8 Ibid., p. 16.
9 Ibid.

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the composition of the Tattvārıhasūtra (probably 5th century CE)10 the Jainas had accepted five varieties of knowledge : mati, śruta, avadhi, manaḥparyāya and kevala, of which the first two were considered parokşa or 'indirect' and the latter three prat yakṣa or direct'.11 By the time of Bhāvasena, however, we see that a different view had arisen, more in agreement with other Indian schools of thought, and sense perception (previously matijñāna) has been included in the category pratyak sa as indriyapratyakşa,12 Yet this must have been an innovation at that time, or at least it was a point of controversy, since we find that at the same time and in a nearby region Bhāṣkaranandi writes his commentary Sukhabodha on the Tattvārthasūtra and unquestioningly accepts the categorization which we find in the sūtra 13 In Madhva's Pramāņalakşaņa we find that kevala (-pramāņa) has been subdivided into four categories, which are distinguished from each other by a qualitative gradation in clarity, 14 which we also find among the varieties of pratyakșa in the Tatīvārthasūtra. The use of the word kevala in Dvaita and Jainism deserves closer attention. What distinguishes kevala from aņupramāņa in Dvaita is that kevala is knowledge, a manifestation of the soul, which is independent of any further sādhana or instrument. The three kinds of knowledge which in Jainism were called pratyakșa (of which kevala is one) are characterized by exactly that same independence. Thus we see that what is called pratyakṣa in older Jaina texts corresponds to what is called kevala in Dvaita, while the Dvaiti use of the term pratyakșa is more similar to its use in other Hindu schools of philosophy.
All this suggests that Madhva was familiar with Jaina texts, with Jaina epistemology and with the manner in which the terms kevala and pratyakşa were used. Madhva distinguishes seven kinds of pratyakşa (i.e. sense perception).15 But when his main commentator Jayatirtha comments on this passage in the Pramāṇalakşaņa, he suddenly contradicts Madhva and declares that prat) akşa is of four kinds : exactly the
10 I have discussed the dating of the Tatt varthasutra in my Moksa in Jainism,
according to Umas vati, Wiesbaden : Fr. Steiner, 1983 (Beitrage zur Sudasien
Forschung, Sudasien-Institut, Heidelberg, Bd. 83), sec. 3. 2, p. 12. 11 Tatt varthasutra, 1, 11-12. 12 Pramaprameya 4, pp. 2-3. 13 A. Shantiraja Shastri (ed.), The Tattvartha Sutra of Sri Umas vami with the
Sukhabodha of Sri Bhaskaranandi, Mysore : University of Mysore Oriental Library Publications (Sanskrit Series No. 84), 1944. The editor adduces evidence that Bhaskaranandi lived in CE 1250 (editor's Sanskrit introduction, pp. xlvii
xlviii). 14 PL, pp. 19-27. 15 prat yaksam saptavidham, PL, p. 123.

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same fourfold division which Madhva has given for kevala, 16 and from what he tells us, there seems to be no difference between kevala and pratyakşa. Later commentators have not commented on Jayatirtha's contradiction ; but it becomes understandable if we realize that Dvaiti kevala corresponds to Jaina pratyakşa. Jayatirtha must have been aware of this and at this point failed to keep Jaina and Dvaiti terminology apart.
There are more indications of Jayatirtha's familiarity with Jaina thought, e g. when he defines mokṣa twice, once in his view (bhagavatprasādād aśeșanişțānivșttivišişğānandādisvarūpāvīrbhāvalakşaņā muktirbhāvatiti)17 and once as the Jainas view it (svābhāvikātmasvarūpavirbhāvah), 18 i e. using remarkably similar wordings ; and when he discusses the various kinds of souls as accepted by Jaina thinkers, it seems that another contamination of Dvaiti and Jaina thought takes place. For details, I would like to refer to my article on the subject, which is to appear soon in the Journal of Indian Philosophy. 19
Ever since Śankara set the example in his Brahmasūtra-bhāşya, all Vedānti commentators on the Brahmasūtra criticized Jainism in a similar fashion in their commentaries in the naikasminnadhikarana of the Samayapadā in the 2nd chapter of the sutra. The criticism is aimed at two ideas : firstly, the Jaina notion of the size of the soul (considered to be as large as the body which it occupies ; but this is actually an oversimplification of the actual Jaina view), and secondly, and more importantly, the Jaina doctrine of anekārtavāda as expressed in svadvādo, one of the Jaina ideas which has been most misunderstood, distorted and satirized throughout Indian philosophical history. Sankara conveniently overlooked that the Jainas did not say that opposing predications may be made about the same object from the same point of view in the selfsame temporal and spatial circumstances, and his criticism does not go far beyond saying that the Jainas contradict themselves. All later Vedāntis have followed this model refutation of Jainism, and so we find the same recur with Madhva and Jayatirtha. But syādvāda is the natural outcome of the realistic ontology of Jainism,
16 Ibid. 17 R. S. Panchamukhi (ed.), Pramanapaddhati by Sri Sri Jayatirtha, Dharwad : Sri
Raghavendra Pratishthana, 1982, 13, p. 165. 18 Srimattikakrt padaviracita Sriman-nyayasudha, 3 vols. Mulabagalu : Srimat
prasannaraghavendra Matha, 1985-6, p. 1225. 19 Robert J. Zydenbos, “On the Jaina Background of Dvaitavedanta", in the
Journal of Indian Philosophy (forthcoming).

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which recognizes the unsublatable existence of the external material world and at the same time refuses to reduce mental and spiritual phenomena to the level of the material. Thus in the case of, e.g., universals, the Jainas accept the existence of many qualities simultaneously in a given object, which are different from the object in question and at the same time identical with it.
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In Dvaita, the problem of the universals was solved by means of the concept of viseșa or 'distinction'. This concept first appears in a theological discussion concerning the viśvarupa of Viṣņu, viz. whether he is identical with the viśvarupa or different from it.20 Madhva quotes an earlier text, ascribed to Vyasa, which says that through viseṣa Viṣņu can have one and many forms at the same time. Višeșa is described as vastusvarupa, the essence of a thing, and is self-supporting. In his commentary, Jayatirtha points out how the Nyaya solution leads to infinite regress, 21 as the Jainas have said earlier. There is nothing without viseșa and it is only due to višesa that any thing can exist at all. There is no fallacy involved here, says the text, "because we experience oneness and also experience viseṣa": we know it through our direct experience of the oneness of the distinction and what is distinguished by it. Jayatirtha calls viseșa the padartha-sakti,22 the 'power of the object' which acts as the representative or substitute of difference. In this arguing in favour of the notion of the one which is at the same time many, of the substance which is one with its qualities and yet different, of differences which exist only in a certain, qualified sense, we see something which is basically the same as stadvāda, although the Dvaitis have further elaborated the doctrime with additional terminology.
As I have mentioned earlier, Dvaita accepts the svataḥ-prāmāṇya of knowledge, meaning that any piece of knowledge is to be considered truthful until and unless proven untrue. Truthfulness is known through the säkşin or witness, the ultimate pramāṇa. This is an aspect of the soul, is therefore also called the svarupendriya and is described as jñānarūpa, pramatṛsvarūpa and ātmasvarūpa or 'of the nature of the self', 23 This last description is most interesting, since here again we
20 D. Prahladachar (ed.), Srimadanandatirthabhagavat padaviracitah Gitatat paryanirnayah, Bangalore: Purnaprajna Vidyapitha, 1987, p. 208.
21 Jayatirtha's Nyayadipika on the Gitatatparyanirnaya, p. 210.
22 P. Nagaraja Rao (ed., tr.), Vadavali by Jayatirtha, Adyar : The Adyar Library, 1943, 471, p. 134.
23 PL, p. 123.

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see how a Dvaiti concept corresponds to a concept which the Jainas have held for many centuries prior to Madhva : the soul is knowledge and is the knower. The Dvaiti concept of the sāksin thus appears to be one aspect of the Jaina theory of the soul, which has been made more explicit through the use of a new term. For further details on this subject I would like to refer again to my forthcoming article.
From what I have told until now I believe it is evident that Madhva's philosophy was influenced by Jainism in its epistemology, ontology, logic and theory of the soul from the beginning. In what we may call a typically Vedāntic manner, this has never been admitted by any author in the tradition. This may seem odd to students of the western philosophical tradition, where, e.g., Thomas Aquinas, the official philosopher of the Roman Catholic Church, openly admits his admiration for and indebtedness to the heathen Aristotle. This lack of fairness on the part of the Hindus towards the non-Hindus is probably due to socio-political reasons.
If we consider that Dvaita spread across India and became the philosophical base of popular religious movements in various parts of the country (one of which also spread abroad spectacularly), then it is clear that the impact of Jainism on Hinduism has been far from superficial. Therefore, it is also clear that we must reassess the view commonly held in academic circles that Jainism played a rather marginal role in Indian cultural history.
Jainism and Dvaita Vedānta are the two schools of realistic philosophy of Indian origin which have remained living traditions in India till today, and from the evidence which I have given earlier we see that the basic framework of this joint living realistic tradition has been provided by Jaina thinkers. Jaina and Dvaiti thought are both worth studying in their own right, but also as a necessary corrective to the popular false view that Indian thought is generally illusionistic and that Advaita represents the acme of Indian philosophy. Both of these schools of Indian realism are yet to receive proper recognition from modern scholarship.

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Jaina Concept of Person
-A Textual Study of 'Samayasara' of Acarya Kundaknnda -
B. Vincent Sekhar
System - A Pluri Form of Experience :
Every system of thought starts with a concrete world of experience. But in the course of intense investigation each has its point of departure. Yet all systems accept certain principles in common, like for instance, the recognition of distinction between organic and inorganic beings. There is something called the 'Life-Principle that animates the organic structure.
A General Assessment of the Jaina Concept of Person :
Like many other systems, the Jainas believe in two fundamental principles called jiva and ajīva, living and non-living entities. Jiva is a general term for all living beings, both liberated as well as bound. Human beings or persons form only one category of the souls that are bound. This conception implies that persons have in themselves the inherent capacity to realize their immense potentiality, of abundant knowledge, intuition, power and bliss. It also suggests that persons are sparks of the Divine, not in an external sense of the term as 'out somewhere' but having almost an invisible residence in oneself. The truth is that every living organism is equal in its true intrinsic but each is bound to enjoy only its limited portions of power and glory due to the different degrees of sense perception. Persons are capable of going beyond their sense experience to intuit directly, what may be called 'clairvoyance' 'telepathy' and even the capacity of 'all-knowing'.
Among the number of sources wherein we read and understand the nature of jiva and the formation of karma on the basis of the bondage between jiva and ajiva, Kundakunda's Samayasāra is an acceptable treatise among the different Jaina sects. He is an unquestioned authority on Jaina dogmas.

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The term 'samaya' may refer to religion or the Self but there is no doubt that the essence of religion deals with the Self - its meaning, nature, relation, purpose and the goal. A caution, here, is necessary. The Ācārya's treatment of jiva applies to any living organism. From a practical point of view it would refer to any living creature like plant, animal or a human being. Hence our study of the Person' should be constantly guided by the clear distinction made by the Ācārya himself in the text from real and practical points of view.
(i) Person from Two Points of View :
The self or the soul is understood in two ways --really and phenomenally. In the real sense the person or the self although embodied in the gross world rests on right conduct, faith and knowledge (ratnatraya) and when he is bound by empirical experience due to karmic materials he is other than the real self. The ego - in itself or the sva-samaya, as the Acārya puts, is characterized by the ratnatraya as a whole. The karmic materials form an upādhi or adventitious condition and they limit the unbound personality of the self. The 'fall' is due to the karmic shackles, the result of which is the empirical existence. The great pilgrimage to the spiritual goal is indicated by the great passage from the empirical, embodied status to metempirical siddha-hood or the mukta-stage enjoying permanency, immutability and incomparability. In the practical sense the person is characterised' by conduct, belief and knowledge. The relation is explained by means of identity-in-difference, a metaphysical method to relate the substance and its qualities. The characteristics of the person cannot be considered as entirely distinct from the person himself and at the same time they are not identical to the person. Hence from the real stand point the person or the pure self is devoid of any material characterization or conditioning. Man's highest status, viz, the siddha-hood is indescribable in other words.
It is this real or pure point of view that will reveal the real personhood and anyone who sees this is said to have the right vision.4
Kundakunda recognises three kinds of self--the bahirātmā, the āntarātmā and the paramātmā —the outer self, the inner self, and the
1 Samavasara, 2 2 Ibid., 1 3 Ibid., 7 4 Ibid., 11

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transcendental self respectively. The first kind of self on account of ignorance identifies himself with the body and other external objects. The second type recognizes that his true nature is quite different from material objects. This provokes him further in the investigation of the self (ātmavidyā). In the course of such a search the person remains either bound or becomes liberated. The third is the case of paramātmasvarupa which refers to the perfect being, the realization of which comes through tapas. This transcendental self is beyond all relational aspects representing the highest nature of reality and the goal of life.
The goal of life of a person can only be attained by adopting the real point of view.5 Kundakunda does not prescribe this method in a haphazard way. A commoner has to first realize his own person-hood in a practical, concrete life-situation (the embodied empirical life) and only then can he, by powers of discrimination, raise himself to a higher realm of differentiating himself from whatever he is not. Ultimately Jina Śasana is the 'discriminatory knowledge of the Self' or the person-hood.
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(ii) Immateriality of the Person :
From the pure point of view the self is immaterial. Kundakunda is definite from the start that so long as the false identity of the immaterial self with the material karma remains he is said to be aprati-buddha (the unenlightened) a person lacking in discriminative knowledge."
(iii) The Empirico spiritual Reality of the Person :
The empirical state of a being is characterised by its associates namely, colour etc. It is only by association which must not be mistaken as identity. The classification and naming of the different kinds of jiva is due to nama-karma,8 the physical conditions which determine the building up of the body. Since the causal conditions are physical in nature, their products must also be physical. Hence they cannot be really identified with the nature of the self. Hence the empirical jiva, whatever may be its kind-ekendriya, dvindriya etc. owing to the bodily differences, is interpreted from the practical point of view.
5 Samayasara, 272
6 Ibid., 19, 20-25, 314
7 Ibid., 61
8 Ibid., 65-66

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On the contrary, the spiritual nature of the person is that which is 'unattached'. The paramātman or the highest spiritual entity is one who is beyond comprehension or descriptive levels, one who has crossed the cycle of births and deaths because he is a unity intrinsically 'unassociated'10 with anything else. Hence he is called the 'sva-samaya' -Self-in-itself'.
(iv) The Right and the Wrong Believer :
A person is described severally on the capacity of possessing knowledge, faith and conduct. So long as faith, knowledge and conduct are true they constitute the path to mokṣa.
Kundakunda declares that mithyat va or perversion is adverse to right belief; nescience is adverse to right knowledge; and kaṣāya is adverse to right conduct. When these begin to operate in a person, he becomes a wrong believer, ignorant and vicious,11 just as a crystal which is colourless, puts on the colour of the associated object.
The constituent elements of right belief are ; 12
fear,
i) nişśanka or doubtless-the doubtless is free from fear relating to life, fear relating to future life, fear of being without protection, fear of the disclosure of what is kept in secret, fear of pain, fear of accident and fear of death.
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ii) nişkānkṣa or desireless - he is free from desire for pleasures resulting from karmas; he is free from desire for all qualities of things.
iii) nirvicikitsa or without abhorrence- he does not exhibit any disgust towards unpleasant situations in life and environment. iv) amūḍhadṛṣṭitva or quality of non-delusion - he is free from delusion as to the nature of things.
v) upaguhana or the charitable concealment of defects he forbears all kinds of defects in others, specially the defects of
9 Samayasara, 150
10 Ibid., 3
11 Ibid., 161-163
12 Ibid., 228-236

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helpless persons such as children and invalids due to their ignorance and incapacity. This quality has been highly praised by Jaina Ācāryas because it gives ātmaśakti. (Tat Sutra, Ch. VI, 24).
vi) sthitikaraṇa or firmness in faith- there is no wavering in the
believer since he is endowed with steadfastness.
vii) vātsalya or attitude of love and devotion - these attitudes
sustain the person in the right path to mokşa.
viii) prabhāvanā or proclaiming the truth - this emphasises the
social aspect of religious faith. A person who is equipped with knowledge of reality should place the benefit of his achievement of self-realization at the disposal of society.
There are other qualities of a right believer among which the most important one is that he is not attracted towards sense-objects.18 A person is always placed in the midst of an environment abounding in sense-stimuli of various kinds. When he is attentive, the corresponding psychic reaction, pleasantness or unpleasantness, takes place in him, It is directed by his own interest and attitude,
Thus the deluded or the unenlightened person is the one who does not have the thoughts of the omniscient but says that he lives because of himself; he makes others live, again because of himself. In the same way he is happy and makes others happy due to his own self. Similarly he is miserable and makes others miserable, all because of him. But the truth is that life, happiness, misery, death etc. are due to their respective karmas,14 and not due to the person himself. To identify oneself with these is a false notion, an erroneous belief and an illusion.
(v) The Person with Discriminative Knowledge :
The essential attributes of the self, namely knowledge and perception are technically known as upayoga. These are based upon the real nature of the self whereas all other attributes or impure emotional
13 Samayasara, 370, 373-382 14 Ibid., 250-261

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states are not intrinsic to the nature of the self and hence they are accidental to it. The power that makes it possible is the discriminative knowledge.
A person possessing this discriminative knowledge which is free from error, is not burnt by the karmas however much they are associated with him just like gold, even when heated, does not lose its intrinsic purity.15 Knowledge of the self requires a great amount of self restraint, immersed as it is in activities, good and bad 16 This selfcontrol enables one to leave all attractions and concentrate on one's own unity which ultimately leads the person to the attainment of liberation.
(vi) The Virtuous and the Vicious :
Virtue and vice are closely connected with good and bad acts but both are said to bring about karma, auspicious and inauspicious and as long as the person is indulging in acts, yoga of mind, speech and body-he would be the owner of karmas. Any owner of karma is sure to be engaged in samsāra. The ultimate ideal transcends both good and evil and hence is beyond samsāra. Saints are those who keep off from thought activities to ensure uncontamination by karmas, good and bad.17
Hence, however much one restrains, observes vows, rules of conduct and practice of austerities if he is devoid of right knowledge (ajñāni) they will not bring about the desired goal or ideal, rather they will certainly lead him to karmic bondage.18 Similarly with the various types of bodily mark one cannot attain the supreme ideal. The saintly persons discard bodily marks by disowning the body and devoting their attention only to right belief, knowledge and conduct.
(vii) The Path-finder :
Mere awareness of the nature, the intensity and the duration of bondage is not enough. It does not in any way help him break the
15 Samayasara, 184 16 Ibid., 187-189 17 Ibid., 270 18 Ibid., 408-412

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chain. As one bound in shackles gets release only on breaking the shackles, so also the self attains emancipation only by breaking the bondage. First and foremost, the person develops (śraddhā) to the pure self. This can be done in two ways by meditation 19 or concentrated adoration and by the practice of various kinds of moral discipline. But for Kundakunda, the transcendental self is beyond the region of good and evil and hence discipline or non-discipline becomes meaningless. When the person is absorbed in his own pure nature by attaining the yogic samādhi, there is no necessity to practise the various kinds of discipline. In short it can be said that mere awareness of the bondage without any effort at eradicating karmas is not becoming of the person. Equally true, when he is engaged in various thought activities, even though good, without right understanding bears no fruit.
A Critical Enquiry into the Analysis :
i) Karmic Alienation and Active Indifference :
Kundakunda's references to man evoke a lot more insights into the surroundings of man. By karmic exploitation man becomes other than himself. 20 He is alienated. Karma basically is an act; metaphorically it refers to the consequence. Man's action in society affects not only himself but others as well The wickedness of man in injuries commi. tted on living beings by means of accumulation, exploitation etc, itself limits him in power and enjoyment of life. It is interesting to know that this limitedness in life is only an 'upadhic condition' or an adventitious state which can be removed. 'Circumstance maketh a man' is a common saying. If limiting circumstances are removed, then man has an opportunity to realize himself. The Perfect Soul is considered to be the one who has perfect knowledge, belief and conduct.21 If opportunities are not provided or if given partially, then there is no chance for man to realize his/her true potentialities. But unfortunately man's conduct has become such as to obscure himself and also become an abstacle to the growth of his fellow beings, mostly due to a materialistic tendency, supported to some extent by Science and Technology, Industrialization and Urbanisation. He is not aware that siddha-hood
19 12 Anupreksas 20 Samayasara, 2 21 Ibid., 2, 10

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is devoid of material conditioning, 22 and unattachment.23 It is not a ‘run-away' Spirituality but an attempt to balance between the extremes and nature in oneself a neutral attitude 24 of Active Indifference
ii) Transcendence and Awareness of Integral Salvation :
Though man is the combination of materiality and immateriality, he is meant for transcendence. The power of transcendence is intrinsic in him. Hence awareness is the first step to the diagnosis. Jaina dharma acknowledges that perversion is one of the root causes of bondage and evil.25 Today more than ever, the root cause for economic inequality, political dependance and slavery, blind faith and fundamentalism and all kinds of oppressive measures is traced to lack of critical consciousness and a blind refusal to discern and to judge the reality in truth.
iii) 'Self-emptying' as the Proclamation of Faith :
The constituent elements of righteousness or right belief 26 symbolize a healthy and wholesome man. He does not attach too much importance to objects of great temptations, 27 namely, money, power, status etc. He reaches out with the flag of compassion, concealing the defects of others;28 his love and devotiona' is all. embracing. Thus the enlightened person delights in what he has found through analysis, doubtless and firm in his findings or in other words, committed to his faith.31 Quite naturally, he cannot but be a witness to Life and Truth which is a spontaneous proclamation 32 of abiding value.
22 Samayasara, 38 23 Ibid., 150, 3 24 Ibid., 195-197 25 Ibid., 161-163 26 Ibid., 228-236 27 Ibid., 370, 373-382 28 Ibid., 233 29 Ibid., 235 30 Ibid., 229 31 Ibid., 234 32 Ibid., 236

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Conclusion :
So far the reality of the person has been analysed from various angles ---the person from real and practical points of view, from the aspects of his ir tellect and morality, activity and enjoyment. But all these focus on his central concern in terms of the goal to be achieved viz., the realization of the essential self. This discrimination is his ultimate goal of life which free him from alienations like false identity due to perversion of mind etc. The very analysis seeks to throw light on the nature and significance of man which itself facilitates the process of discrimination.
In the order of existence, man occupies the prime of place. Though growth, decay and death are common to all living beings, the conscious attempt to realize oneself, to cleanse oneself and thereby to liberate oneself lies with the category of human beings than with the vegetable or animal kingdom. The attempt may be purely personal yet all living beings have the possibility of rising in the ladder of transcendence. Here it is useful to point out that the unique contribution of Jaina theory of self lies in its recognition of equality and dignity of all living beings whether it is man or otherwise,

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The Story of Carudatta
[ The story of Cārudatta with special reference to Jain literature ]
Hampa Nagarajaiah
Students of ancient Indian narrative literature would find the story of Cărudatta (CD), a saga of stainless love, most enchanting and alluring. Unfortunately, neither its significance nor its magnitude has been properly assessed in the scholarly world. CD's story, which has occupied such a prominent place in the Indian story literature, has historical, social and religious merits. Origin and development of this story is so ancient that it stands unquestioned. As a matter of fact, this story attracted writers by the end of B.C.
Before proceeding with a detailed and critical analysis of this story, I would like to draw and focus the attention of scholars to the two Appendices of this paper wherein I have epitomised the quintessence of this story in non Jain tradition (Appendix A) and in the Jain tradition (Appendix B). This story does not appear either in Mahābhārata or Rāmāyana, the two great Epics of India. Bhāsa and Śūdraka are the early writers to record this story. Both of them might have borrowed the theme from Guņādhya's Brhatkathā (GBK), or from a different source, may be from an oral (folk) tradition, because it is possible that this story might have entered the classical literature from folk tradition, through GBK on one side and through Bhasa-Sūdraka on the other. According to the available data, this story appears first in GBK, a Prakrit work assigned to the 1st century A.D. GBK, which has not safely come down to us, has been reconstructed, on the basis of other later works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, for which GBK is supposed to be the source (see Appendix C). It is possible that GBK, the earliest of works giving this stroy, itself incorporated it from its contemporary folk-literature.
The love episode of CD and Vasantasena, their loyalty to each other, particularly an unique instance of a prostitute turning out to be

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a devoted wife, must have inspired the poet and the laymen alike. Obviously, because of this popularity, folk-songs and stories might have originated long before Guņādhya. Bhāsa and Sūdraka appeared on the literary scene, but we have no access to any one of these early narrations. As already suggested, this folk tradition must have entered the classical literature through two avenues-GBK and Bhasa-Südraka being mainly instrumental in projecting the story studded with throbbing incidents. Scholars of comparative literature may also note that one of the three dramas of Ašvaghoșa, almost resembles the story of CD, which could be compared with the story as is found in BhāsaSadraka. The names of Somadatta and Magadhāvati in Asvaghoşa's drama are identical with CD and Vasantasenā. But we have an access only to some fragments of Ašvaghoşa's play and as such it is rather difficult to assess the place of Asvaghoşa's drama in the development of this story. Ašvaghoşa and Guņādhya, it is believed, were contemporaries, both belonging to the 1st century A.D.
There are two clear-cut versions of CD's story, Jain and non-Jain. So much of the material is available on CD from both these sources that a comparative and comprehensive study will be worthwhile. Such a study will help scholars to reconstruct the proto form of this story. On the basis of two plays, of Bhāsa's Daridra Cārudatta and Śūdraka's Mrcchakațika, it is possible to assess the personality of CD, which is far from what is found in Jain literature.
According to Sanskrit dramas of Bhāsa and Sudraka, CD, apart from being a philanthropist, also appears to have favoured a political movement against the then prevailing king's rule. A group of rebels conspired to dethrone the king Palaka of Ujjaini. Ultimately, this conspiracy succeeds in killing the king. CD was a reliable friend of the leaders who championed the cause of the revolution. His association with persons of the opposite camp, both as a rich merchant and as a highly respectable person in the prevailing social hierarchy, must have indirectly added strength in boosting the morale of the people's movement. But these details are completely absent in the Jain version of the story, where there is totally no prominence to the historical aspect.
The earliest reference of CD's story in Jain canonical literature is found in Ācāranga-cūrņi (p. 50), Silanka's Sūtrak stānga-vrtti (p. 196) and in Sūtrākstānga-cūrņi (pp. 239-240). What is more curious and interesting to note is that Sivakoti Ācārya, who is said to have lived

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in the 1st century A.D., as is also said of Guṇāḍhya and Asvaghosa, has crystallised the sum and substance of CD's story in his Gāthā No. 1082 of Bhagavati Ārādhanā, also known as Mūlārādhanā, in just two lines (see Appendix D). Therefore, it is obvious and settled that the story of CD had not only entered Jain literature as early as the 1st century A.D. but also it had taken a permanent shape with a set pattern of plot, character and motiff.
After these references in the early canonical literature, another important recording of this story is in Sanghadasagaņi Vācaka's Vasudevahindi. This excellent prose-work in Prakrit is an extraordinary account of travelogue and romance, and is assigned to about 400 A.D. Later on, in the 8th century, it is Jinasena Acarya of Punnata Sangha, who in his immortal epic Harivamsa standardised the story of CD. Poet Jinasena has superbly handled this theme in all its poetic excellence. Thus, the story of CD, as narrated by Jinasena, served as a model for several centuries for all the writers who adopted this story. It should be said to the credit of Jinasena that his successors took too little liberty in altering the total format or the main motiff of this story.
Major differences and such other salient points to ponder over can be summed up as follows:
I Non-Jain Tradition
121
a) Only dramas depict the story of CD
b) There are no independent kāvyas delineating this story
c) CD's story is not so popular as is in Jain tradition
d) Place of action is Ujjaini
e) Historical element was also equally prominent
f) This story was not meant for propagating any religion or rituals
II. Jain Tradition
a) There are no plays which contain CD's story
b) There are a number of kavyas though not independent ones

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c) This story is more common and popular. CD is depicted as a romantic hero, Dhira-lalita Nayaka. Thus CD also finds place in the galaxy of such heroes like Vasudeva, Nāgakumāra and Dhanyakumāra
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d) Place of action was Campā
e) Historical element recedes to the background giving way to more sociological features
f) This story serves the religious purpose of focussing the evil of vyasanas and the importance of Jain Doctrines (see Appendix C)
Does this give any clue to the origin of this story? I do strongly feel that this does throw floodlight on favouring CD's source as having come from the Jain tradition. The reason for the absence of independent kavyas would be that CD did not play any important role as far as the propagation of religion is concerned. Besides, CD is neither in the list of 63 great persons nor is he one among the 24 Kamadevas. But the cultural impact and importance of CD should not be under-estimated.
It is a rare and worth-noticing factor that a merchant is made Dhira-lalita Nayaka, and it is known that merchants are the main characters in Jain classics. Jain writers have made use of this story in such a way that at the time of distress or calamity CD saved his life by his unaltered faith in Jainism, which evidently also advocated the eminence and prominence of Jainism. CD's achievements are elaborately described in a poetic fashion. Though this narration is pregnant with sycophancy and exaggeration, yet a comparative, chronological and critical evaluation could be undertaken by students of Sk and Pk literature.
It is possible to assess the significance of this story still better by tracing more authentic and useful supplementary information from various sources. I have made a moderate attempt of providing some sporadic material, mainly from Sk, Pk and Ka literature. I do reckon that a judicious handling and organised comparative study of these and other complementary references would definitely facilitate a systematic and comprehensive study of CD's story which will finally open a new vista for those who are engaged in this field of research in Jainology.

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Appendix A
Summary of the story of CD as found in non-Jain tradition, particulary
in Sanskrit dramas
Merchant CD of Ujjaini bad spent all his wealth to help the poor. His virtues were liked and respected by one and all. Vasantasenā, a famous courtesan, admired him. On one evening, while returning from the park, being chased by miscreants, she entered a house for shelter and to her pleasant surprise, it was the residence of CD. CD agreed to protect her box of jewels. Later, that jewel-box was stolen but the wife of CD voluntarily agree to part with her own precious necklace in order to protect the prestige of her husband. In the meanwhile, truth prevails and the stolen property was safely recovered under peculiar circumstances. At this stage of the story Bhāsa's play ends abruptly ; but the story continues in Śūdraka's play. Vasantasenā visits CD, consoles his little son, who prefers a golden chariot to a clay.cart, by giving away her ornaments. CD and Vasantasenā who are in love with each other, agree to meet in a park, where she gets into a wrong chariot of Sakāra. Sakāra, after a fierce verbal clash, presses her neck so hard that she is choked. Thinking her dead, Śakāra covers her in a heap of withered leaves. Thanks to the timely arrival of a monk, she recovers. Sakāra complains to the King (that CD has killed Vasantasenā) and the circumstances also favour him. The king Palaka orders that CD be hanged. At this juncture, Vasantasenă appears on the scene. Evidences go to prove that the real culprit is none other than Sakāra. In the meanwhile, due to the political chaos, King Palaka was murdered and a new ruler emerges. CD and Vasantasenă are happily married.
Appendix B
Summary of story of CD as found in Jain tradition
CD, son of a rich merchant in Campà, in the prime of youth, forced by circumstances, fell in love with Vasantasenā, the charming daughter of a prostitute. CD and Vasantasenā loved each other so

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much and so sincerely that both of them were deeply engrossed in their ecstacy of sexual enjoyment, forgot everything. CD did not even remember his old parents, his young wife, close friends and his abundant riches. Vasantasenā's mother was so greedy and selfish that she seized the opportunity to extract CD's wealth. Her desire to plunder the bounty of CD knew no bounds as she was merciless to the last pie, as a consequence of which only the inevitable happened. The moment CD became penniless, he was thrown out, much against the will and wish of Vasantasenā, who was so true, loyal and wedded to him. CD now realised the gravity of the hopeless situation, but the horses had left the stable. It was so late to realise and regain his lost properties that literally he was on the streets. His father was no more. His aged mother and young wife had no shelter. CD did not lose his heart and rose to the occasion. He was determined to face all the oddities bravely apd pledged to venture to earn more than what he had lost. With his maternal uncle, he wandered hither and thither for livelihood. He even travelled upto the most coveted, but most difficult, Suvarnabhūmi, a Golden valley. He had to travel on land and water, climb the steep hill. He could overcome all the hurdles as luck favoured him. Finally, as fortune smiled on him, he regained all the early glory and returned victorious to Campà to join his devoted wife and also his beloved Vasantasenā.
Appendix C
Chronological list of Works in some Indian languages containing
the story of CD.
1. GBK : Guņādhya's Brhatkatha in Paišāci dialect of Pk. Though this work is not found in its original language, it has been possible for the scholars to reconstruct it on the basis of existing texts in Sk and Pk of later period. Date assigned to GBK is 1st century A.D.
2. ASD : Ašvaghoşa's Sanskrit drama. Even though only some parts of this drama are found, it resembles BDC and SMK. About 1st century A.D.

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3. BDC : Bhāsa's Daridra Cārudatta is a Sk drama containing only four acts and it ends abruptly. Hence it is considered incomplete. c 300 A.D.
4. SMK : Sūdraka's Mrcchakațika, is a Sk drama of ten acts, perhaps based on BDC. Critics have considered the language, theme and presentation of SMK outstanding. c 400 A.D.
5. SVH : Sanghadāsagaņi Vācaka's Vasudevahindi is a Pk prose work, where CD's story is found in its full length for the Though this story differs and deviates from that of BDC and SMK, SVH continues to be a source of inspiration for later Jain poets including Jinasena of Harivaṁsa. SVH is supposed to be an authentic Jain version of GBK. C 400 A.D.
6. VPT : Vişņuśarma's Pañcatantra contains a bunch of stories which cater to the taste of one and all. The same story which appears in SMK is simply repeated in VPT. This is another proof of the overall popularity of CD's story. c 500 A.D.
7. JHP : Jinasena's Harivarśapurāņa in Sk is one of the earliest and important works on the life of Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthapkara. JHP gives the story of CD in detail. SVH and JHP agree on the whole, but the few variations here and there, clearly voice the variant versions already set in this story. 783 A.D.
8. GUP : Guņabhadra's Uttarapurāņa in Sk narrates in minute detail the fruitful voyage of Vasudeva which in itself is a literary piece of travelogue. But GUP only mentions CD's name just for his namesake. Thus, GUP stands at the zenith of another tradition of just mentioning CD's name without giving the story. 898 A.D.
9. BKK : Brhatkathākoşa of Harisena in Sk has in its treasure of stories this gem of CD's story. Here CD's story is concise and compact. 983 A,D.
10. PMP : Pușpadanta's Mahāpurāņa in Apabramsa language does not contain this story but mentions the name of CD (Sandhi, 88.13.10). Thus PMP stands in line with GUP and CRP. Puşpadanta restrains himself from elaborating the story which ofcourse does not fit in the

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main theme eventhough the episode as such has all the glory of an independent romantic tale. 966 A.D.
11. CRP : Cāmundarāyapurāņam, a prose-work in Ka, also known as Tri şaşțilakṣaṇa Mahā purāņa, simply follows GUP in mentioning the honourable name of CD. CRP is the earliest Ka version of Sk Māhapurā ņam and it is in this work that the name of CD appears for the first time in Ka literature. Actually, Ka Harivarśa of Guņavarmā I (GHV) of about 900 A.D. containing a detailed narration of CD for the first time in Ka is untraced except for some stray verses quoted by later writers in anthologies and in grammars. Another Ka epic Śūdraka by name of the same author Guņavarmā, is also missing. In the absence of GHV, though nothing can be said of the nature of CD's story in it, yet it can safely be guessed by the similarity of the title that GHV might have literally followed JHP. CRP has safely preserved some Sk verses of Kavi Parameşthi's Vāgārtha-saṁgraha. 978 A.D.
12. SKK: Muni Śricandra's Kahā-kosu (Kathā-koșa) contains a number of stories which are similar to the stories of BKK. Sandhi 35.9 gives the story of CD. Sricandra also quotes in the very beginning of the commencement of this story a Gāthā from Sivakoți Ācārya's Bhagavati Ārādhanã (Mulārādhanā), Gāthā No. 1082 of Bhagavati Ārādhanā has codified in a nutshell the gist of CD's story. c1076 A.D.
13. KNP : Poet Karņa pārya's Nemināthapurāņa is an excellent campu-kāvya in Ka containing CD's story in detail. I have explained elsewhere that KNP was influenced by SVH as far as the story of CD is concerned. 11th century A.D.
14. AMK : Ākhyānamaņikoșa of Devendragani (Nemicandra) contains the story of CD. AMK is a collection of short stories in Pk language. 11th century A.D.
15. PKK : Punyāsrava Kathākoșa of Ramacandra Mumuksu in Sk is an anthology of stories, very much similar to BKK. Accordingly, the story of CD finds place in PKK. 11th century A.D.
16. BHB : Bhavabhāvanā of Maladhari Hemacandra in Pk is very much similar to AMK, both in form and content. 1160 A,D.

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17. TSP Trişaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita of Hemacandra is a famous Sk kavya which contains CD's story. 1170 A.D.
127
18. ANP Ardha Nemipurana of Nemicandra is a half completed cumpu-kāvya in Ka. ANP belongs to the group of GUP, PMP and CRP, by way of merely mentioning the name of CD. Only difference between CRP and ANP is that ANP has been generous to speak of "CD's highly respectable personality" in about four sentences. 1190 A.D.
19. HVB
Harivamsabhyudaya of Bandhuvarma, an excellent campu-kavya in Ka gives a compact story of CD in two chapters (chapters 4 and 5). 1200 A.D.
20. HMR
Harihara's Majuhanana Ragale has incorporated CD's story in toto. Harihara is one of the major poets in Ka. He has retained the frame of the story as it is but has changed the atmosphere from Jainism to (Vīra) Śaivism, as a result of this even the names of CD and Vasantasena were changed to Maluhana and Maluhaṇi respectively, who ultimately turn out to be ardent devotees of Lord Śiva. Place of action is also shifted to Kashmir. But with all these changes, the essence is not lost and some of the main motiffs remain constant. It should be noted that this is the only independent kavya, where the entire kavya from the beginning to the end is devoted to the narration of this story only. c 1210 A.D.
21. MNP Poet Mahabala's campu-kāvya Neminathapurāṇa in Ka also brilliantly records CD's story. 1254 A.D.
22. NPC Poet Nagaraja's campu kāvya Puṇyāsrava in Ka is an anthology of about 56 popular stories. Main source of NPC is PKK of Ramacandra Mumuksu. In other words, NPC can rightly be called as a Ka version of Sk. PKK. 1331 A.D.
23. SSB Salvabhārata of poet Salva containing 3437 şaṭpadi poems in Ka, narrates the life of 22nd Tirthankara and CD's story also finds a prominent place. I have edited this rare work with the help of a single palm leaf MS and the University of Bangalore has published it (1976). On the evidence of inscriptions I have fixed the date of this poet as 1495 A.D.

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24. NJS: Nemijinesa Sangati of poet Mangarasa (Mangarāja) is a Ka kävya in sängatya metre. This poet of a royal family is one of the prolific writers in Ka. NJS and SSB are both varṇaka kāvyas which are essentially narrative in nature. Accordingly, NJS has rightly incorporated and elaborated CD's story in all its details. My book 'Mangarasa' published by Mysore University (1966) gives a critical assessment of all the works of this poet. 1508 A D.
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25. VDA: Vijayaṇṇa's Dvādaśānuprekṣe in Ka is a sāngatya-kāvya which explains 12 anuprekṣās. There is only a casual reference to the story of CD. 1448 A.D.
26. NKC: Nagakumāracarite of poet Bahubali in Ka is written in sangatya metre. Here also there is just a casual reference to CD's story 'who lost his wealth to a prostitute'. 1593 A.D.
27. BNS Bommanņa's Nagakumāra Ṣatpadi in Ka also follows the above NKC. As a matter of fact BNS is a free rendering of NKC, from sangatya to sa padi. I have edited this kavya with the help of two palm leaf MS and the University of Bangalore has published it (1977). VDA, NKC and BNS form a group of kāvyas which merely mention the name of CD without elaborating it. The tone of these works speaks of forbidding the act of going to a prostitute which is one of the seven famous vyasanas. 1749 A.D.
Though there may be a few more works in Sk, Pk, Gujarati and other languages, this list can tentatively be considered as quite exhaustive. A variant version of the story of CD, with only a change in the name as Sanudasa, is found in Budhasvamin's Bṛhatkathākoṣa Sangraha (BKKS). Dr. J. C Jain in his excellent thesis Vasudevahindi, published by the L. D. Institute of Indology (1977), has made a comparative study of these two kavyas, BKKS and SVH.
Appendix D

A. Śivakoti Acarya: Bhagavati Ārādhanā, Gāthā No. 1082:
jādohu cărudatto gaṭṭhi dosena ta ha vinida vi ganlyāsatto mojjesatto kulayanāsao ya tahā

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B. Vasunandi: Śrāvakācāra: Saptadoṣavarnam, Gāthā Nos. 125-133. Gāthā No. 128 has reference to Carudatta :
savvaattha nivuṇabuddhi vesāsangeṇa cārudatto vi khalūna dhaṇam patto dukkham paradesa gamaṇam ca
AMK ANP :
Abbreviations
Akhyānamaņikoṣa of Devendragani in Pk Ardha Nemipuraņam of Nemicandra in Ka Asvaghosa's Sanskrit Drama
ASD
BDC :
BHB :
BKK
BKKS: Budasvamin's Bṛhat Katha Koşa BNS
CD :
Bhasa's Daridra Carudatta
Bhavabhavana of Maladhari Hemacandra Brhat Kathakoşa of Harisena
Bommanņa's Nāgakumāraṣaṭpadi in Ka Carudatta
CRP: Camuṇḍarāyapurāṇam in Ka Guṇāḍhya's Bṛhatkatha in Paiśāci
GBK
GHV Guṇvarma's Harivaṁśapurāṇam in Ka Guṇabhadra's Uttarapurāņam in Sk
GUP
HMR
HVB
Harihara's Maluhapana Ragale in Ka Harivaṁśābhyudaya of Bandhuvarma in Ka : Jinasena's Harivaṁśapuraṇam in Sk Ka : Kannada language
JHP
KNP : Karṇaparya's Neminathapuraṇam in Ka MNP : Mahabala's Neminathapuraṇa
NJS : Nemijino sa Sangati in Ka
NKC: Nāgakumaracarite in Ka
NPC Nagaraja's Puṇyāsrava Campu in Ka Pk : Prakrit
PKK: Punyāsrava Kathākośa in Sk
PMP Puspadanta's Mahāpuraṇam in Pk Sk : Sanskrit
SKK
Śricandra's Kaha Kosu
SMK
Śūdraka's Mrcchakatikam in Sk
SSB
: Salva's Salvabharata in Ka
SVH
Sanghadāsagaṇi Vacaka's Vasudevahindi in Pk TSP : Trişaṣṭiśalakāpuruşa Carita in Sk VDA: Vijayanṇa's Dvādaśānuprekşe in Ka : Viṣṇusarma's Pañcatantram in Sk
VPT

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His Name, Jina
Leona Smith Kremser
In bliss, beyond Whisper of incense And one-hundred eight He is, because He put His foot To a path of thorns That bled Him Alone, none other living thing. His path, ahimsā.
Celestial flowers, a praise For the Enlightened One And all three worlds at peace.
Like unto Him, ye Every hour may tread the path Whereon all living things bless Your harmless passage, leading To the top of the universe, ye there Beyond rebirth. for endless time Your soul dwelling in pure ahimsā, O bliss, like unto His soul. His name, Jina.

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A Search for the Possibility of Non-Violence and Peace
-A Jaina View-Point
Sagarmal Jain
Need of Our Age
The growth of scientific knowledge and outlook has destroyed our superstitions and false dogmas. But unfortunately and surprisingly it has shakened our faith in spiritual and human values. To-day we know more about the atom and atomic forces than the values needed for meaningful and peaceful life. Now-a-days, we, due to tremendous advancement of science and technology, have light legged means of transportation. Physical distances have no bars to meet the people of different nationalities, cultures and religions, and consequently we have come closer and become more interdependent to each other as we were never before. Our world is shrinking, but unluckily and disdainfully the distance of our hearts is increasing day by day. Instead of developing mutual love and co operation, we are spreading hatred and hostility and thus ignoring the values of co-existence and co-operation which are essential for our very existence. Rabindranath Tagore rightly observes "For man to come near to one another and yet to continue to ignore the claims of humanity is a sure process of suicide."1 The advancement of our knowledge could not sublimate our animal and selfish nature. Animal nature within us is still dominating our individual and social behaviour And due to this, our life is full of excitements, emotional disorders and mental tensions. Though we are outwardly pleading for peace, non-violence and coexistence, yet by heart we still have strong faith in the law of jungle, i.e. the dictum "might is right". The race of nuclear weapons of the powerful nations is a strong evidence of our belief in the above said dictum. This race of nuclear weapons is a sign that we are proceeding towards formidable funeral procession of mankind. Bertrand Russell,
1
The Voice of Humanity, edited by C. W. David, p. 1

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the eminent philosopher, suggests us “I appeal as a human being to human beings remember your humanity and forget the rest. If you can do so the way lies open to a new paradise. If you can not, nothing lies before you, but universal death." We must be aware of the fact that this growth of science, technology and commerce would loose its meaning if man is to eternally doubt the others and ignore the claims of humanity. Iqbal has also rightly said --
tumhāri tahajiba apane hāthon se khudakusi karegi jo śākhe nājuk pe aśiyānā banega na pāye dara hogā
O men ! your civilization will commit suicide by your own hands, the nest built on a very weak twig will be without foundation.
To-day the only way for the survival of mankind is to develop a firm belief in the principles of non-violence and mutual co-operation. It is the misfortune of the mankind that on the one hand it wants peace and prosperity but on the other hand it still has a belief in the dictum "might is right”, i.e., violence. The peace and the violence are contradictory, since through violence we cannot achieve peace. Peace achieved through violence and war is the peace of a cremation ground, and not a living peace. In Ācārānga, Mabāvira said-atthi sattham pareņa param, natthiasattham parena param.”3 There are weapons superior to each other, but nothing is superior than aśastra, i.e., non-violence. Peace can be established and prosperity can be secured on the earth through non-violence, mutual faith, co-operation and sacrifice of one's own interest for the sake of others.
The Meaning of Peace
The term peace has various connotations. It means freedom from, or cessation of mental or spiritual disturbances or conflicts arising from passion and sense of guilt, as well as it also means freedom from, or cessation of war or hostilities. Intrinsically peace means a state of tranquility of mind. It is inner peace or peace of mind. But extrinsically peace means cessation of war and hostilities. It is external peace or peace in the society. Peace means a soul emptied of passions and desires. In the words of Saint Aquinas peace implies two things :
2 3
Ibid., p. 53 Acaranga, 1/3/4

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first we should not be disturbed by external things and second that our desires should find rest in one. This inner peace can also be described from negative and positive view-points. Negatively it is the state of the cessation of all the passions and desires. It is freedom from the victors of attachment and aversion. Positively it is the state of bliss, and self-contentment. But these positive and negative aspects of inner peace are like the two sides of the same coin and they could not exist without each other. So far as the outer peace or peace in the society is concerned, it can be defined negatively as a cessation of war and hostilities and positively as a state of social harmony and co-existence. The real external peace is more than non-war. It is a vital peace. The real peace means progress of human race as a whole. But we must be aware of the fact that this external or environmental peace depends on the inner peace of the individuals. Since it is only an outcome of inner peace. These various phases o are not mutually exclusive, but inclusive. The peace of the society is disturbed when the mental peace of individuals is disturbed and viseversa. Hostilities and wars are the expressions and outcomes of aggressive and selfish mentality of the individuals. Though the social conditions and disorder may be responsible for the disturbance of mental peace, yet they can not disturb the persons who are spiritually strong. The inner peace of the soul is the cause and the peace of the society is the effect and so we must try first to retain inner peace or the peace of the soul.
According to Jaina view.point inner peace or the tranquility is an essential nature of self and it is also the ultimate goal of life. In a Jaina text of earlier period known as Ācārānga we have two definitions of religion, one as tranquility and other as non-violence. Lord Mahavira says “Worthy people preached the religion as samāi."5 The Prakrit term 'samāi' means tranquility or peace of mind. This tranquility or the peace of mind is considered as a core of religion, because it is the real nature of all the living beings including human beings also. In an another Jaipa text known as Bhagavati-sūtra there is a conversation between Lord Mabăvira and Gautama. Gautama asked Mahavira, "What is the nature of soul ?" Mahavira answered, "The nature of soul is tranquility/peace.” Gautama again asked,
4 Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IX, p. 700 5 Acaranga, 1/8/3

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"What is the ultimate end of soul?" And Mahavira replied, "The ultimate end of soul is also to attain tranquility/peace."
In Jainism, religion is nothing but a practice for the realisation of one's own essential nature or sva svabhava which is nothing but the state of tranquility or peace of mind. This enjoying of one's own essential nature means to remain constant in sākṣibhāva, i.e., to remain undisturbed by external factors. It is the state of pure subjectivity which is technically known in Jainism as sāmāyika. In this state the mind is completely free from constant flickerings, excitements and emotional disorders. To get freedom from mental tensions, which are the vibhāvas or impure states of mind is the precondition for enjoying spiritual happiness which is also a positive aspect of inner peace. Nobody wants to live in a state of mental tensions, every one would like no tension but relaxation, not anxiety but contentment, This shows that our real nature is working in us for tranquility or mental peace. Religion is nothing but a way of achieving this inner peace. According to Jainism the duty of a religious order is to explain the means by which man can achieve this peace inner as well as external. In Jainism this method of achieving mental and environmental peace is called as sāmāyika, which is the first and foremost duty among six essential duties of monk and householder. Now the question is how this peace can be attained. According to Jaina view-point it is through the practice of non-attachment or non-hoarding (aparigraha or asaṁgraha), non-violence (ahimsā) and non absolutism (anekanta or anagraha), we can establish peace and harmony in the world.
Attachment the Cause of Mental Tensions
JAIN JOURNAL
As I have already mentioned that most burning problem of our age is the problem of mental tensions. The nations, who claims more civilized and economically more advanced are much more in the grip of mental tensions. The main object of Jainism is to emancipate man from his sufferings and mental tensions. First of all, we must know the cause of these mental tensions. For Jainism the basic human sufferings are not physical, but mental. These mental sufferings or tensions are due to our attachment towards worldly objects. It is the attachment, which is fully responsible for them. The famous Jaina
6 Bhagavati-sutra, 1/9

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text Uttarādhyayana-sūtra mentions, “The root of all sufferings physical as well as mental, of every body including gods, is attachment towards the objects of worldly enjoyment."? It is the attachment, which is the root cause of mental tensions. Only a detached attitude towards the objects of worldly enjoyment can free mankind from mental tensions, According to Lord Mabăvira to remain attached to sensuous objects is to remain in the whirl. He says, "Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire ; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no greed, while greed is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment.''8 The efforts made to satisfy the human desires through material objects can be likened to the chopping off of the branches while watering the roots. Thus we can conclude that the lust for and the attachment towards the objects of worldly pleasure is the sole cause of human suffering.
If mankind is to be freed from mental tensions it is necessary to grow a detached outlook in life. Jainism believes that the lesser will be the attachment the greater will be the mental peace. It is only when attachment is vanished, the human mind will be free from mental tensions and emotional disorders.
Non-violence as a Means to Establish Peace
Tranquility is a personal or inner experience of peace. When it is applied in the social life or is practised outwardly, it becomes non-violence. Non-violence is a social or outer expression of this inner peace. In Ācārānga, Lord Mahavira remarks
“The worthy men of the past, present and the future all say thus, speak thus, declare thus, explain thus; all breathing existing, living and sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented. This is the pure, eternal and unchangeable law or the tenet of religion."9
In other words, non-violence is the eternal and pure form of religion. In Jainism non-violence is the pivot on which its whole
7 Uttaradhyayana-sutra, 32/19 8 Ibid., 32/7-8 9 Acaranga, 1/411

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ethics revolves. For Jainas violence represents all the vices and nonviolence represents all the virtues. Non-violence is not a single virtue but it is a group of virtues. In Praśnavyakaraṇa-sutra the term nonviolence is equated with sixty virtuous qualities, just as peace, harmony, welfare, trust fearlessness, etc. 10 Thus non-violence is a wider term, which comprehends all the good qualities and virtues.
JAIN JOURNAL
Non-violence is nothing but to treat all living beings as equal. The concept of equality is the core of the theory of non-violence. The observence of non-violence is to honour each and every form of life. Jainism does not discriminate the human beings on the basis of their caste, creed and colour. According to Jaina point of view, all the barriers of caste, creed and colour are artificial. All the human beings have equal right to lead a peaceful life. Though violence is unavoidable, yet it can not be the directive principle of our living, because it goes against the judgements of our faculty of reasoning and the concept of natural law. If I think that nobody has any right to take my life then on the same ground of reasoning I have also no right to take another's life. The principle, 'live on others' or 'living by killing' is self-contradictory. The principle of equality propounds that every one has the right to live. The directive principle of living is not 'Living on others' or 'Living by killing' but 'Living with others' or 'Live for others' (parasparopagrahojīvānām).11 Though in our worldly life complete non-violence is not possible, yet our motto should be 'Lesser killing is better Living'. It is not the struggle but co-operation is the law of life. I need other's co-operation for my very existence and so I should also co-operate in other's living.
Further, we must be aware of the fact that in Jainism non-violence is not merely a negative concept, i.e., not to kill; but it has positive side also as service to mankind. Once a question was raised to Mahñvira, "O Lord, one person is rendering his services to the needy persons while other is offering pūjā to you, among these two, who is the real follower of yours ?" Mahavira answered, "First one is the real follower of mine, because he is following my teachings."12
The concept of non-violence and the regard for life is accepted by almost all the religions of the world. But Jainism observes it minutely.
10 Prasnavyakarana-sutra, 2/1/21 Tattvartha-sutra, 5/21
11
12 Avasyaka-vrtti, pp. 661-662

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Jainism prohibits not only killing of human beings and animals but of the vegetable kingdom also. To hurt the plants is also an act of violence or himsā, Its basic principle is that the life, in whatever form it may be, should be respected. We have no right to take another's life, because every one wants to live as we do. The Daśavaikālika mentions, "Everyone wants to live and not to die, for this, Nigganțhas prohibit violence."'13 It can be said that the Jaina concept of non-violence is extremist and not practical, but we cannot challenge its relevance for human society. Though Jainism sets its goal as the ideal of total non-violence, external as well as internal, yet the realisation of this ideal in the practical life is by no means easy. Non-violence is a spiritual ideal, which is fully realisable only in the spiritual plane. The real life of an individual is a physio-spiritual complex ; at this level complete non-violence is not possible. According to Jaina thinkers the violence is of four kinds : (i) Deliberate (samkalpi) or aggressive violence, i.e., intentional killing, (ii) Protective violence, i.e., the violence which takes place in saving the life of one's own or his fellow being or in order to make peace and insure justice in the society, (iii) Occupational, i.e., violence which takes place in doing agriculture or in rupping the factories and industries, (iv) violence, which is involved in performing the daily routine work of a house-holder such as bathing, cooking, walking etc. A person can proceed towards the fulness of non-violent life to the extent as he rises above the physical level. The first form of violence, which is to be shunned by all, because it relates to our mental proclivities. So far as the thoughts are concerned, a man is bis own master, so it is obligatory for all to be non-violent in this sphere. External circumstances can influence our mind at this level, but they cannot govern us. From the behavioural point of view, deliberate violence is aggressive. It is neither necessary for self defence por for the living. So all can avoid it. The other forms of violence, i.e. protective and occupational are inevitable so far as man is living on a physical level. But this does not mean that the ideal of non-violence is not practicable and so it is not necessary for human race.
The second form of violence is defensive which takes place in the activity of defence. It becomes necessary for the security of one's own life and the life of his fellow beings and the protection of property. External circumstances may compel a person to resort to be violent or to counter-attack in defence of his own life or that
13 Dasavaikalika-sutra, 6/10

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of his companions or for the protection of his belongings. All those who are attached to the physical world and has a social obligation to protect others life and property are unable to despense with this defensive violence. A person living in family is unable to keep away completely from this type of violence because he is committed to the security of family members and their belongings. In the same way the persons, who are in government can not get rid of it for they are the custodians of human rights and national property.
JAIN JOURNAL
It is true that in our times Gandhi planned a non-violent method of opposition and applied it successfully. But it is not possible for all to oppose non-violently with success. Only a man, who is unattached to his body and material objects and his heart free from malice can protect his rights non-violently. In addition to this, such efforts can bear fruits only in a civilized and cultured human society. A nonviolent opposition only may be fruitful when ranged against an enemy who has a human heart. Its success becomes doubtful when it has to deal with an enemy who has no faith in human values and wants to serve his selfish motive through violent means.
As far as occupational violence and violence which takes place in routine-works of the life, one cannot shake them off. For so long as a person has to earn his livelihood and to seek fulfilment of his physical needs, del berate violence to vegetable kingdom is unavoidable. In Jainism, intentional violence to mobile animals by a householder has been forbidden even when it becomes necessary for the maintenance of life and occupation.
Though some or other form of violence is inevitable in our life, yet on this basis we should not conclude that the observence of nonviolence is of no use in the present. Just as violence is inevitable in the world for living, non-violence is also inevitable for the very existence of human race. So far the existence of human society is concerned it depends on mutual co-operation, sacrifice of ones interest in the interest of his fellow-beings and regard for other's life. If above mentioned elements are essential for our social life, how can we say that non-violence is not necessary for human life. Society does not stand on violence but on non-violence, not on fulfilment of self-interest but on sacrifice of self-interest, not on accepting our own rights but accepting the rights of others as our duty. Thus, we can say that non-violence is an inevitable principle of the existence for human society. At present we are living in an age of nuclear weapons and

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due to this the existence of human race is in danger. At present it is only the observance of non-violence, which can save the human race. It is mutual credibility and belief in the equality of human beings which can restore peace and harmony in human society.
Regard for Other's Ideologies
Jaina theory of anekāntavāda emphasises that all the approaches to understand the reality give partial but true picture of reality and due to their truth-value from certain angle, we should have a regard for other's ideologies and faiths. Thus anekāntavāda forbids us to be dogmatic and one-sided in our approach. It preaches us a broader outlook and openmindedness, which is more essential in solving the conflicts due to the differences in ideologies and faiths. Prof. T. G. Kalghatgi rightly observes "The spirit of anekanta is very much necessary in society, specially in the present day, when conflicting ideologies are trying to assert supremacy aggressively. Anekānta brings the spirit of intellectual and social tolerance."14
For present day society what is awfully needed is the virtue of tolerance. This virtue of tolerance, i.e., regard for other's ideologies and faiths is maintained in Jainism from its earlier time till these days. Mahavira mentions in Sutrakṛtänga, "Those, who praise their own faiths and ideologies and blame that of their opponents and thus distort the truth, will remain confined to the cycle of birth and death."'1 Jaina philosophers all the time maintain that all the view-points are true in respect of what they have themselves to say, but they are false in so far as they refute totally other's view-points.
139
Jaina saints also tried to maintain the harmony in different religious-faiths and to avoid religious-conflicts. That is why Jainism can survive through the ages.
The basic problems of present society are mental tensions, poverty, violence, and the conflicts of ideologies and faiths. Jainism tres to solve these problems of mankind through the three basic tenets of nonattachment (aparigraha), non-violence (ahimsă) and non absolutism (anekānta). If mankind collectively observes these three principles, peace and harmony can certainly be established in the world.
14 Vaisali Institute Research Bulletin, No. 4. p. 31
15 Sutrakrtanga, 1/1/2/23

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Ancient Jaina Centres On the
Banks of Kansai
Sudhin De
An exploratory survey was undertaken by a team of archaeologists headed by the writer, by boat along the course of Kansai, in Midnapur district, with a view to finding out sites alike Sijua and ancient Jaina centres, if any. Formerly it was known from the village source that numerous standing nude sculptures had been found from that region. The river Kansai ultimately ends its mid-stream peregrination in this district. So, it has taken meandering very often in this district and at some places it flows in a sharp curve or a gentle curve. The rate of land erosion during rainy season is very rapid, so the survival of the villages on its both sides depends on its frantic whims or is at stake, some are counting days and some have been devoured already. In return the river creates so many sandy shoals - big and small. On our journey by boat starting from mid-point Sijua on the eastern bank to the north upto Nepura-Urlidanga-Balarampur-Lacchipur on the western bank and to the south Daintikri on the eastern bank. The area including these villages within the periphery of 10 to 12 kms. may be envisaged for once being the flourishing centres of Jainism where at least three structures of Jaina temples exist. Amongst which two temples on the north-west banks of Kansai have been turned to ruins and one still survives with its superstructures upto its apex at the village Daintikri on south-eastern bank. The report from the village source reveals that there were several Jaina stone sculptures gathered from the different places of the north-western bank and some of them have been collected by a University teacher for the purpose unknown.
There is in the Lacchipur (87°E, 22°39'5" N)-Nepura (86°54'27''E, 22°39'6" N) region a desolated site locally known as Dhanyantarir Danga lying at a place, a few kilometres away from the surrounding villages. By the side of a morrum patched road, on an extended area higher than the surrounding cultivation land, a brick temple is traceable though it has been mostly covered by the encroaching shrubs and earth.

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Plate 1
The stone sculpture represents the 23rd Tirthankara Parsvanatha, now standing under the shadows of a huge tamarind tree at Dhanyantarir Danga 9th-10th century A.D.
M
ORE
ORROR
Plate 2
WWW
E
The stone replica of a Sikhara type temple representing four Tirthankaras on all four sides in kayotsarga posture being enshrined in shallow niche 11th century A.D.
STE
This has been recovered from the shifting river bed of Kansai, near Lacchipur
GS

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In the middle of this land, stands a big tamarind tree probably for centuries spreading its innumerable long branches, like the great mythical bird 'Rock' spreading its wings to conceal the treasure lying underneath the soil. Actually this tree had tried to swallow all the evidences regarding the flourishing state of Jainism but could not. Thats why we have witnessed an intact stone sculpture of twentythird Tirthankara Pārsvanātha standing inclined against the trunk of the huge tree. The stone sculpture of Jaina image measures about 1.74 m. x 0.90 m. (Plate 1) It was hewn out of black basalt. The image of the Tirthankara is in kāyotsarga mudrā being canopied by seven-hooded serpant. The stele is rectangular in shape with two flying Vidyadharas on the uppermost corners. The top of the stele is flat. There are other subsidiary deities like one pair of miniature Tirthankara figures in käyotsarga stance on each side and placed in the vertical margin. Below these, seated figures of eight grahas or planets, four on each side, one pair below the other, are placed in the same manner. This representation of eight grahas or planets dates itself as prior to the 10th century A.D. From 10th century and onwards the representation of navagrahas was introduced. On the right lowest part of the pedestal a donor couple with folded hands and on the left a conical shaped motif (may be replica of stūpa, were fashioned. The kāyotsarga posture of the Arhat has been expressed in a manner which shows a serene beauty. As a whole this sculpture appears to me as a rare specimen in our study of Jaina art and religion.
The neighbouring village people worships the image as Dhanyantari with the belief that in draught or flood, this deity will protect them. But the bare truth is, the sculpture itself is lying unprotected.
We have collected a replica of śikhara type stone temple showing the representation of four enshrined Tirthankaras in kāyotsarga mudrā facing on four sides. This is commonly known as Caumukha? or Pratima Sarvatobhadrikā which signifies auspicious from all sides, a very favourite of the Jaina images where within niche on all four sides of a temple or a replica, images of Tirthankaras mainly of Rşabhanātha or Adinātha, the first : śāntinátha, the sixteenth ; Pārsvanātha the twenty. third and Mahavira the twenty-fourth are placed. (Plate 2) All of these Tirthankaras have their usual chowri-bearers on both sides and
1 Sudhin De, Caumukha, Symbolic Jaina Art', Jain Journal, Vol. VI, July 1971,
No. 1.

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can be recognised by their respective cognizance or lānchana executed on the pedestal. Here, only we can identify the Tirthankara śāntinātha with his cognizance deer and Pārsvanātha for being canopied by serpenthood and the other two can be identified with much difficulty as their cognizance marks have been abraded. But the locks of hanging over the shoulder of Rsabhanātha while the bull is in much abraded condition. The last one may be Candraprabha, the eighth Ticthankara having faint trace of moon. This stone replica of temple or the Caumukha measures 0.51 m. in height and 0.15 m. x 0.14 m. in length and breadth. This is of sand stone. The curvilinear śikhara type replica has gradual recessing tiers, twelve in number meeting at benki above which a lotus with bloomed petals being surmounted by khapuri. At the base of the first tier is a projected bandh and it separates the vāranda from the towering roof and below it motifs of corner bracket are fashioned at four corners and are succeeded by twelve beaded motifs along two downward rows vertically ending at the pista.
To the south of Sijua, on the eastern bank of Kansai is situated the village Daintikri (87°1'18" E, 22°36'47" N) in Midnapur District, where a pañcaratha pidha temple made of laterite blocks is awaiting to be crumbled to the dust. The entrance is on the south-eastern side. The inside space or the sanctum is 1.25 m. (east-west) x 1.12 m. (northsouth). The roof was made by corbelling inside which gives pidha appearance in the outside. Just opposite to the entrance, the vedi or the pedestal of the deity was constructed 0.80 m. in height On the background a shallow niche with torana surmounted by a khapuri motif was arranged - now the empty space only indicates that there was once a deity. Though at present it is difficult to say anything firmly about to which deity this temple was dedicated but it may be surmised that this was a Jaina temple as there are report of innumerable Jaina sculptures lying scattered in the neighbouring areas and the nearby village Netai 2
2
Tarapada Santra, Medinipur Jelar Purakirti, Pratnatatva Adhikar, Tathya O Sanskriti Bibhag, 1987.

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Despite of all the archaeological treasures lying along the mid-stream of Kansai in the district of Midnapur no attempt has ever been made in the perspective of proper evaluation and survey.
The present , survey was done by Sarbasree Dilip Roy, Protul Chandra Sen, Debi Madhab Chakraborty, B. Samanta, Monojit Bhowmick and Ram Madan De of Directorate of Archaeology, West Bengal,
Photographs : pl. 1 by Dilip Ray and pl. 2 by Ranjit Sen

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