Jain Journal 1988 10

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520092/1

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VOL. XXIII
OCTOBER 1988
ISSN 0021-4043
Jain E
A QUARTERLY
JAINOLOGY
ON
No. 2
JaIn Journal
॥ जैन भवन ॥
JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATION

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a quarterly on Jainology
Jain Journal
जैन भवन
JAIN BHAWAN
CALCUTTA

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VOL. XXIII
OCTOBER 1988
No. 2
Rupees Five
the
Copyright of articles, stories, poems, etc. published in
Jain Journal is reserved.
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Published by Moti Chand Bhura on behalf of Jain Bhawan from P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-7 and printed by him at The
Technical & General Press, 17 Crooked Lane, Calcutta-69.
Editor : Ganesh Lalwani

onal Use Only

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Contents

Another Rare Icon of the Digambara Padmavati 39 Lalit Kumar
Campumandana 44 Satyavrat
Salient Common Features between Jainism and Buddhism 49
B. H. Kapadia
Indian Atomism 60 J. C. Sikdar
Gleanings 74
Book Review 75
Vardhaman Jivan-Kos: Srichand Choraria
Jyoti Prasad Jain
Plate
The Yaksi Padmavati 39

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WWW
The Yaksi Padmavati Bronze, Karnataka, c 17th Century A.D. Courtesy : Hamburgisches Museum Fur Volkerkunde,
Hamburg
Education International

www.jainel

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ernational

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Another Rare Icon of the Digambara Padmavati
The twenty-four armed form of the yakşi Padmavati is a Digambara conception of the goddess. There are two texts only in which her iconography is known to have been dealt in detail. These are the Pratiṣṭhāsārasangraha of Vasunandi (c. 12th century)1 and the Padmavati Stotra, a text of unknown authorship and uncertain date. No image of this form of Padmavati was known until the present author published one which is based on the description as mentioned in the Pratiṣṭhāsārasangraha. Here is another rare icon of the twenty-four armed Padmavati which has apparently followed the iconographic description provided in the second text, the Padmavati Stotra.
LALIT KUMAR
According to the Pratiṣṭhāsārasangraha, the yakṣi Padmavati should have either four, six or twenty-four arms.3 She has red complexion and sits on a lotus. In her twenty-four arms she holds a conch, sword, cakra, crescent, blue lotus, bow, spear, noose, ankuśa,5 bell, arrow, pestle,
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1 It is an unedited text of which two manuscripts are known. The one popularly known as Ara ms. mentioned by B. C. Bhattacharya in his The Jaina Iconography, and the second ms. is in the collection of L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad.
2 Lalit Kumar, "A Rare Icon of Padmavati dated 1636 A.D.", Marg, vol. XXX, pp. 73-74.
3 devi padmavati namna raktavarna caturbhuja
padmasanam kusam dhatte aksasutram ca pankajam athava sadbhuja devi caturvimsati sadbhuja pasasikuntavalendugadamusalasanyutam bhujastakam samakhyatam caturvimsatirucyate sankhasicakravalendu padmotpalasarasanam sakti pasankusam ghanta bana musalakhetakam
trisulamparasum kuntam vajram bhindamalam phalam gadam patramcapallavam dhatte varada dharmavatsala
-Pratisthasarasangrahams.
Dr. U. P. Shah read it as upala i.e. stone. (Jaina Rupamandana, New Delhi, 1987, p. 276.)
B. C. Bhattacharya read it as kusa i.e. kusa-grass on the basis of the Ara ms. It seems to be a scribal error. (The Jaina Iconography, Revised edition, Delhi, 1974, p. 105.)

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shield, trident, axe, kunta, vajra, bhindamala, fruit, club, leaf, stalk, and varada.
In the Padmavati Stotra also her countenance is red but she has been provided here with a hamsa as her vahana. Here she has been given a different set of weapons. Thus, the yakṣi Padmavati holds a vajra, goad, lotus, cakra, chatra, damaru, kapāla, sword, bow, arrow, pestle, plough, sakti, fire, bhindamala, cluster of stars, trident, axe, cobra, danda, noose, stone and tree.7
JAIN JOURNAL
At another place the same text also enumerates her various attributes but in eleven pairs. Thus, the first pair of weapons include a vajra in the right hand and a goad in the left hand. The next pair shows a lotus in the right and a cakra in the left hand. Similarly other pair of weapons include a chatra in the right and a damaru in the left, a bowl in the right and a sword in the left, a bow in the right and a pestle in the left, a plough in the right and a fire in the left, a bhindamāla in the right and a tārāmaṇdala in the left, a trident in the right and an axe in the left, a cobra in the right and a club in the left, a staff in the right and a noose in the left, and a stone in the right and a big tree in the left. The following verses enumerates the twenty four attributes of the yakşi again. These are sword, bow, arrow, pestle, plough, cobra, fire, nārāca, disc, spear, salya, trident, khappara, damaru, noose, staff, stone, club, axe, lotus, ankusa, chatra, vajra and tree.9
6 Dr. U. P. Shah has considered it as rosary (op. cit., p. 276) whereas Dr. M. N. P. Tiwari has splitted it into bhinda and mala. (Jaina Pratimavijnana (in Hindi), Varanasi, 1981, p. 236)
caturavimsatibahuvirajam tesamayudhavividhasuprajam daksinakara vajrayudhasohe vama bhaga ankusa mana mohe kamalacakrachhatrankitasaram damarukasobha vamakartaram camrakapalakhangadhanuskansam banamusalahalarisiratrasam saktivanhijvalagaganadharanam bhindamalavarasatrukasaranam taramandalagaganavisalam daksinakarasobhitatrisulam
pharasanagamudagarapracandam savyahastaghrtavartanadandam nagapasapasanavisalam anhipasanakalpadrumajalam
-Padmavati Stotra
(Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa, Ahmedabad, 1937, appendix V, pp. 35-36)
Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa, op. cit., appendix V, pp. 32-35.
9 khanga kodandakandau musalahalaphanivanhinaracacakram saktya salyata trisulam khaparadamarukam nagapasam ca dandam pasanam mudgara ca pharasakamalasuankusam camrachhatram vajram vrksam cayudham duritaduriharam pujanam svestasiddhyai -Padmavati Stotra
(Sri Bhairava Padmavti Kalpa, Appendix V, p. 35)
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An inscribed brass image of Padmavati from Ahmedabad(?) dated 1636 A.D. in L. D. Museum, Ahmedabad, is the first known example of the twenty-four armed yakṣi as described in the Pratiṣṭhāsārasangraha. The yakși is seated on an engraved lotus seat under a three-hooded snake canopy above which is an image of Parsvanatha protected by sevenhooded snake canopy. A cobra with his hood raised is undulating in front of the yakṣi. The four main arms in front and the remaining which form an aureole around the image are holding the following attributes: a sword, disc, crescent, gadā, blue lotus, bow, svastika(?), noose, stalk, conch, rosary, in varada, lotus, shield, trident, axe, damaru, 10 pestle, leaf, bowl, vajra,11 spear, arrow, fruit and goad. A babe is seen in her left lap.
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Following the iconographic description of the yakşi Padmavati as mentioned in the Padmavati Stotra it is an important bronze image of the yakşi, the first of its kind known till now in the collection of Hamburgisches Museum Fur Volkerkunde, Hamburg. It has been erroneously identified as Karttikeya in the catalogue.12 It is certainly an image of the yakşi Padmavati as she has twenty-four arms, three-hooded snake canopy surmounted with an effigy of Parsvanatha and rides a hamsa. Her proper right hand show varada whereas the left hand hold an indistinct object. From her two main arms emanate twenty two other arms, eleven on either side. Hands on her proper right show from the top a sword, lotus, chatra, munda, bow, an unidentified object, gadā, sickle, trident, an indistinct object and snake. Remaining hands on her left show from the top a goad, disc, ḍamaru, vajra, spear, danda, fire, rosary, axe, bell, and noose. The goddess is decked with a karanda type of crown and various other ornaments. The provenance and date of the bronze is not mentioned in the catalogue, however, it seems to hail from Karnataka and can be ascribed to the seventeenth century A.D.
The early Jaina literature is apparently silent about the yakṣi Padmavati whereas it speaks about Vairotya, a snake goddess who had been popular till the tenth century A.D.13 But epigraphic sources from Karnataka afford perhaps the earliest evidence of a temple of Padmavati belonging to early fifth century A.D.14 Curiously enough the yakşi
10 It has been earlier identified as vajra. (Cf. Lalit Kumar, op. cit., p. 73)
11 Earlier identified as kusa-grass on the basis of B. C. Bhattacharya's reading as pointed out above. In fact dumbbell shaped object should be vajra. (Cf. Ibid.)
12 Katalog der Sammlung Heller Hamburgisches Museum fur Volkerkunde, n.d., p. 100, fig. 45.
13 U. P. Shah, op. cit., p. 277.
14 S. Settar, "The Classical Kannada Literature and the Digambara Jaina Iconography", Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1976, p. 40.

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JAIN JOURNAL
Padmavati never appeared with Parsvanatha prior to the eighth-ninth century A.D.15 In western India her images date back to the 11th-12th century.16 Therefore, it is difficult to ascertain as to when she appeared in the Jaina pantheon. Moreover the available literature on her belong to much later date when she had already become popular.
There are two important aspects of the yakşi Padmavati in regard to her origin and development of her iconography. First, her association with lotus as is apparent from her name and various other epithets with which she is known in the Jaina literature, such as Padma, Padmahasta, Padmasanastha, Padmakatini, Padmavadana and Kamalavati.1. Secondly, she is the goddess who cures snake bites. This aspect of the goddess is dealt in detail in the tenth chapter of the Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa. In this regard Janguli is the Buddhist counterpart who has also been referred to in the early Jaina literature. 18 Janguli is a form of Tara.
In regard to her association with lotus the yakşi Padmavati can be compared with Buddhist Tara and Brahmanical Durga and Gauri. Padmavati has been referred to by these names in the Jaina literature. The Adbhuta Padmăvati Kalpa refers to her as Candi, Tara, Taravatara and Durga.19 Some texts eulogises her as Gauri of the Saivite, Tara of the Buddhist, Prakrti of the Sankhya, Gayatri of the Bhattamargis and Vajra of the Kaulikas. She has been said to be found in all religion and every cult and she has been all pervading in the whole universe 20 In the Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa she has been referred to as Totala and Tripura, the two forms of Gauri. In this way Padmavati has a close association with Tara, Durga, Gauri, Candi, Prakrti, Gayatri, Vajra and many others.
It has been rightly pointed out by U. P. Shah that Padmavati is a mixture of two ancient cults Srima Devata and the Naga cult of ancient Magadha where Jainism had its origin. Padma-Sri or Padmini Vidya is the source of these three goddesses i.e. Tara, Padmavati and Gauri.21 Here it is worthwhile to mention the fact that the conception of MahaLaksmi who has played an important role in the origin and development
15 U. P. Shah, op. cit., p. 278. 16 Ibid. 1. Ibid., p. 278. 18 Ibid., p. 279. 19 Sri Bhairava Padmavati Kalpa, op. cit, Appendix I, p. 9. 20 Ibid., p. 8. 21 U. P. Shah, op. cit., p. 279.

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of various Śaktis emanated from the Brahmanical pantheon. The Candi, a supplimentary text of the Devimahatmya of the Markandeya Purāṇa, refers to Sarasvati, Laksmi, Mahakali, Gauri, Uma, Candi and various others are the manifestations of the one supreme devi, Maha-Laksmi.22 The Candi also refers to an eighteen armed form of Maha-Laksmi who wields a rosary, axe, club, arrow, vajra, lotus, bow, kunḍika, staff, spear, sword, shield, lotus, bell, wine cup, sula, pāśa, and cakra in her hands.23 It appears from this description of the goddess that the conception and iconography of the twenty-four armed form of Padmavati is influenced by Maha-Laksmi, and her various emanatory forms. From this point of view it would not be difficult to explain her association with hamsa, which is also the vehicle of Sarasvati who emanated from the sättvika guna of Maha-Laksmi. The kapala and the munda, the two attributes of the yakşi Padmavati as seen in the images discussed above show her association with Candi, or Camunda or Kali, who are also the manifestations of Maha-Laksmi.
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13 T.A. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography, Vol. I, pt. II, 1914, pp. 334-337. 23 Ibid., Appendix Pratimalaksani, p. 136.

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CAMPUMANDANA
-a little known Jaina Campu
The admixture of prose and poetry, alternating at measured intervals, is first encountered in ancient texts like the Brahmanas, Nirukta, Arthaśāstra and Pañcatantra. The prose therein is intended to serve as a vehicle for the narrative, while the verse sums up the quintessence to facilitate its retention. However the device took pretty long to establish itself as a genre of poetry, popularly known as campu, sometime before Dandin (7th Century), who is the earliest of the poeticians to notice and define it in a manner, which, minor variations apart, continued to hold ground, down the years.1
SATYAVRAT
Notwithstanding the tour de force represented by the Yasastilaka Campu (959 A.D.), to its credit, the Jaina literature suffers from a curious paucity of campus. Coupled with stray recent attempts, Jivandharacampũ and Purudevacampu, besides Somadevas magnum opus, is all that it has to offer by way of this gadyapadyamayi form. It is surprising that despite its undoubted merits, the Campumaṇḍana2 of Mandana, the famed Prime Minister of Mandu, has so far escaped notice.3 It commands attention not only because of its author, who represents probably the last link in the chain of literators who weilded pen and sword with equal effect; but also because of the elevating story of Nemi and Rajimati that it seeks to give, with poetic trappings.
With the ennobling message of the ultimate victory of detachment over attachment, the story has captured the popular imagination, over the years. The peripheral divergences in details notwithstanding, all the sources concur on the essential frame-work of the story that, in essence,
2
1 gadyapadyamayi kaciccampurityapi vidyate, Dandin, Kavyadarsa, I, 31. gadyapadyamayi sanka socchvasa campuh, Hemacandra, Kavyanusasana, 8.9. gadyapadyamayam kavyam campurityabhidhiyate, Sahityadarpana, VI 336. Mandanagranthasamgraha (1), Patan, 1918 A.D.
Kapur Chand Jain, who gives details of all the Jaina campus in his study of Purudevacampu, is not even remotely aware of its existence. Purudevacampu ka Alocanatmak Parisilan, Parimal Publications, Delhi 1985 A.D., Chapter II, pp. 44-76.

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boils down to Nemi's forsaking his so-called marriage, right in the midst of its execution, due to the revulsion caused by the proposed slaughter of the herd of cattle for the table ; and Rajimati's unflinching devotion to her 'Lord' that ultimately leads them to supreme bliss. 4
The seven chapters (patalas) that Campümandana is made of, are evidently disproportionate to the minimal quantum of details set forth therein. Besides preliminaries, the first chapter opens with the description, in kävya style, of Samudra vijaya's metropolis, Vijayavardhana, followed by the details of his equipment as a powerful ruler and the beauties of his noble wife, Sivadevi. Chapter two adds up to a glaring digression in as much as it is infested with a mass of traditional descriptions and as such, has no nexus with the theme. The couples watersports in chapter three serve as a prelude to the emergence in dream of a Brahmin who offers three jewels, the peers of Kaustubha, to Siva, who readily apprises her husband of the amazing dream. A preceptor (Acarya), in the fourth chapter, assures Samudravijaya that the sight of jewels heralds the attainment of a jewel-like son.5 The child is named Nemi because of his inherent potentialities to shoulder the weight of the wheel of dharma and artha. He embodied the munificence of Kalpataru, depth of ocean, charms of Cupid and compassion of a sage. Chapter five sees Nemi in Dvarika, the metropolitan seat of his cousin Krsna. With the concurrence of his parents Nemi's marriage is fixed, in the sixth chapter, with Rajimati, the comely daughter of Ugrasena, the ruler of Mathura. Ugrasena gears the town to the extravagance of the royal marriage. At the opportune moment reaches Nemi at the head of the marriage party. Chapter seven represents both the climax and anti-climax of the theme. Overwhelmed with revulsion at the intended butchering of the innocent cattle, Nemi scraps the marriage, before it could be consumated and flees to Raivataka to escape the mundane frivolities. That leaves Rajimati aghast. However, she follows her lord to his resort on the hill and attains supreme bliss, even before him.
Mandana has been rigorous in shearing the details so that the theme in CM is reduced to a bare frame to sustain the rather heavy portraiture that the poem turns out to be. At times, the thread of the story tends to snap under the weight of digressions. Mandana has been brusque in
1 Satyavrat (ed.), Neminatha Mahakavya, Bikaner, 1975, Introduction, pp. 33-38. 5 ratnasya sandarsanastu ratnalabhah param te bhavita nrpala. Campumandana, verse
1, p. 13.

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dealing with the story. He practically rushes through it. And in making Rajimati follow Nemi right up to the Raviataka, not unlike an haunted person, he seems to depart from the known sources.
Though lean in numbers, the campu had caught the fancy of the Jaina authors, from quite early times. While Haricandra conceived it as a damsel, stationed at the junction of adolescence and youth ;7 to Mandana, it provided pleasure like a youthful lady with tenderness, rasa and alamkara. Doubtless, by its very nature the campu opens up wider vistas for the muse of the author to unfold itself in both prose and poetry. Though a mix of both, prose in campu steals thunder over poetry, with the result the campu adds up more as the source of ornate prose, couched with the gimmicks prescribed by the poeticians.
Mandana embarked upon his campu with the decided objective to project himself as a prose-writer of some order. He had deeply imbibed the kavya tradition including the campu form, handed down to him by earlier stalwarts. While his equipment as a poet is evidenced by his poetic works, especially the Kavyamaṇḍana, the campū is intended to establish him as a prose author. That alone seem to be the rationale for over-abundance of prose therein, with poetry playing the proverbial second fiddle to it. But Mandana had a clear vission of the type of prose, he wanted to foster. It is to his credit that he did not mean to overawe the reader with sesquipedalian prose, tarnished by inverted construction, with compounds heaped upon compounds and replete with subtle sastric allusions, in order to emerge as a rival to Bana. He aimed to spin the narrative in simple and lucid phraseology, marked with such literary devices as had established themselves as inseparable ingredients of literary prose.
JAIN JOURNAL
It hardly brooks repetition that the CM is a mass of prose-pieces, spun out to draw sketches that form the warp and wrop of the poem. With his keen observation, equipment in literary devices and facile pen, Manadana is at home in drawing the side spectrum of descriptions. Be it Samudravijaya's metropolis or Nemi's sports, sunrise or moonshine, the Acarya or summer, Siva's pregnancy or Dwarika's grandeur, all his
⚫ agamadanu ca nemim samaranti ca citte/dyutiriva nalinisam prasthitam pascimayam, verse 6, p. 32.
balyatarunyavativa kanta, Jivandhara Campu, I, 9.
8 komala padavinyasarasalamkarasalini karoti kasya nahladam campusca pramada sada, CM, verse 2, p. 2.
For the Critique on Kavyamandana see my book, Jaina Sanskrit Mahakavya (under print), pp. 47-74.
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descriptions are inverted with pleasing precision and naturalness. While Mandana can afford to be pedantic, it is ease and lucidity that constitute the hallmark of his prose. His skill in mastering appropriate upamānas lends added charm to it.
The chief characteristic of Mandana's prose is to focus on the totality of the object under description. This he achieves through his penetrating observation, innate appreciation and apt phraseology, which, even if sprinkled with long compounds, is never divorced from clarity and effect. Even pithy sentences are used to the intended effect. A reference to some of the sketches would drive home the point.
The depiction of moonshine that turns everything white and thereby serves to create confusion of sorts, is attractive. While it turned the sky into a white canopy, Parvati and Laksmi had difficulty in spotting their spouses, and the abhisărikās could be detected by the sound of their anklets only. (p. 8) So thorough was the spread of moonlight that the rivers scoffed in whiteness at the milky ocean and the cuckoos put the swans to shame. The pen-sketch of the Acraya invited to interpret Siva's Dream, though brief, embodies his equipments in the science. With striking upamānas, the poet has been able to spotlight his various traits, especially the faculty of separating grain from the chaff (nīrakşiraprthakakarana). The description of Dvarika and its pleasure garden breathes life. It is poetic, detailed but lucid. Poetry lends additional charm to the description. (pp. 22-24)
However, the typical description in the CM is based on the timeworn devices of śleșa and parisamkhyā. Here Mandana seems to follow into the foot-steps of stalwarts like Bana and Haricandra. This is how he seeks to depict the various facets of the metropolis Vijayavardhana.
yatra pakşiņo vicārajña haṁsāh sumatayo janāśca...... yatra vāpikāh sakamalāh sarvajanāśca...... yatra kridāmayūrāh sakalāpāh paurāśca.... yatra trutirgandhikahat?esu na tu janapritisu......yatra hşdayabhedomuktā phaleșu na tu nägareşu......yatra bhango vilasinibhrūvallarișu na tu süresu ......yatra vinitah puravasinah krpalukrşivalakšetre kalamādayasca...... yatra jīvanadah sadā lokā payodāśca...... yatra urmivatyo nadyah na tu janatah...... yatra trāso ratneçu ratnavedivireva dršyate na ca kasyāpi vairinah. (pp. 2-3)
Mandana is adept in handling the metre. The verses in CM are couched in a variety of metres but upajāti and mâlinī carry the palm. Mandana is equally at home with anuştup and sārdūlavikridita.

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JAIN JOURNAL
The CM bears testimony to Mandana's through grounding in poetics. His Alamkāramandana also testifies to it in ample measure. 10 While an under-current of alliteration runs throughout his prose and poetry, other figures of speech serve to lend strength to his expression. Upamā, svabhāvokti, sahokti, samāsokti, 11 vyatireka, bhrāntināna, vibhāvanā sleșa and parisamkhyā are some of the alamākras, he has employed with a measure of predilection.
With his sober view of poetry, strong equipment and sound judgement Mandana has thus given us a campū that is readable by all accounts. The Campūmandana has an assured place in the galaxy of Jaina campūs.
10 For the Critique on Alamkaramandana refer to my article "Alamkara Mandana :
Mandana's Tract on Poetics", Tulasiprajna, Ladnun, XII. 3, pp. 55-60. 11 kumudodaramandirato yena labdho 'rkato' pi santapah/so'pi nipatito bhrngastungatvisi
gahanaje dahane, CM, Verse 2. p. 31.

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Salient Common Features between Jainism and Buddhism
B. H. KAPADIA
Jainism and Buddhism are two great religions which are considered as heterodox religions of ancient India. In the initial days of the study of Jainism and Buddhism it was generally believed by Western scholars that Jainism is an offshoot of Buddhism, that it is a branch of Buddhism. Some Indian scholars followed the foot-steps of the Western scholars, but as a result of patient research and a proper study of these two religions which was solely based on the study of original literature of these religions this myth has been now thoroughly exploded and it is thrown to the wind.
These two powerful religions considered as heterodox by the school of Indian philosophy do not believe in the authority of the Vedas i.e. they consider the Vedas as composed by human beings like the works of Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Shakespeare, Milton, Shelly, Goete, Schiller, etc. They also do not believe in a god who is responsible for the creation of the universe though they believe in gods. The promulgators of these two religions, Mahavira1 and Buddha were Ksatriyas, both hailed from a royal family, both preached in the language of the people with a view to appeal to their heart, both lived the worldly life for a definite period of time and on suitable opportunity both renounced the world full of misery with the intention to find the highest and the ultimate truth. Both lived and enjoyed the married life (there are two traditions in the case of Mahavira), both were fathers, both were full of detachment towards the worldly life which goaded them to renounce it. Mahavira preached in Magadhi or Ardhamagadhi and Buddha in Pali. Both these are the dialects of the same province, viz, east and west Magadha. Both were contemporaries. Buddha lived a life of 80 years and Mahavira lived upto 72 years. Eastern India, to begin with, was the main seat of their religious activities. Now it has come to light that both belonged to the Sramana Sampradaya. Buddha was the eminent leader of the Bauddha Sampradaya and Jnatrputra Mahavira was the Tirthankara of the Nirgantha Sampradaya. Not only were
1 Mahavira was born in 598 B.C. and died in 526 B.C.

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they contemporaries but they lived in the same region, the same province, their region of activity was not only one territory but one and the same town, may even one locality. The followers of each met one another, discussed knotty problems of religion and philosophy, and disputed over doctrines and customs of their religions. Many followers were such that some of them even though were followers of Buddha became the followers of Mahavira and vice versa. The followers of the two organisers were like neighbours or like a closely knit family and inspite of this were holding opposite views. (Cf. Upāśaka Daśānga, Adh. 8, etc.)
Western scholars like Rhys Davids, Mrs Rhys Davids, Pischel, Koppen, Hermann Jacobi, Oldenberg, Burnouf, de la Vallee, Poussin, Grunwedel, etc. and among Indian scholars to name a few are Dr. B. C. Law, Rahula Sankrtyayan, Prof. Bhagavat, etc.. zealously studied Buddhism and scholars like Rhys Davids, established in London in 1881 'The Pali Text Society'. In 1899 'The Mahabodhi Society' was established in Colombo, and 'Buddha Sasana Samagama' in Rangoon in 1903. Similarly scholars like Hermann Jacobi, Leumann, Schrader, Hultzsch, Petrold, Charpentier, Winternitz, Buhler, Kielhorn, Luders, Wackernagel, Walther Schubring, Otto Stein, Alsdorf, Glasenapp, Guerionot, de la Vallee, Poussin, Stevenson, Weber, etc. studied Jainism; and among Indian scholars we can count Muni Sri Punyavijayji, Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghavi, Dalsukh Malavania, Prof. H. R. Kapadia, B. C. Law, Kamta Prasad Jain, Dr. P. L. Vaidya, Dr. A. N. Upadhye, etc. 'Prakrit Text Society' was established for the furtherence of Jainism. Foreigners like Miss Krause have embraced Jainism. The study of Jainism was first undertaken by Western scholars as early as 1807. A host of Jaina Munis has contributed their earnest mite in the propaganda of Jainism. We can thus safely surmise that both the Western and the Eastern scholars have given themselves to the study of Jainism and Buddhism.
JAIN JOURNAL
As the last organisers of Jainism and Buddhism Mahavira belonged to the Jnatr sect and Buddha to the Sakya clan. Before their birth their mothers saw auspicious dreams. The mother of Mahavira saw fourteen dreams. Both were brought up and lived quite royally before they became monks. Both went to teachers for study but both knew more than what their teachers could teach, both married Ksatriya girls. Buddha married earlier than Mahavira. Buddha had a son known as Rahula while Mahavira had a daughter named Priyadarsana (according to
According to the Digambaras 16 dreams.

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one tradition) whose husband became a monk under him but later became antagonistic to him while Rahula was accepted by Buddha himself, much against the wish of his father, as a disciple. Thus both relinquished the world after the birth of an issue. Mahavira evinced a desire to become the monk at the end of 28 years that is after the death of his father but waited for two more years in honour of the request of his elder brother Nandivardhana. Buddha turned a reclause and went out for his mahābhiniṣkramaṇa after seeing the face of his newly born son. The father of Buddha was against his son becoming a monk while Mahavira turned a recluse only after the death of his father. Buddha with a view to get the full enlightenment met various teachers of different schools but they did not satisfy him while Mahavira found out his path for salvation on his own. Both led a wandering life and carried to completion the ideal life of a Sramana and a Bhiksu. Buddha did not reform any previous existing religion like Mahavira who reformed the religion of his predecessor Parsvanatha but Buddha innovated a new religion in terms of his own findings and discoveries. Therefore he was required to quote and fight against old doctrines while Mahavira had not to do so. Before Mahavira there was already in existence the cāturyāma religion of Parsvanatha. Only in view of the new and changed conditions he remodeled the vrata of aparigraha, and gave birth to a new vrata known as brahmacarya (which was implicit in the earlier). Mahavira laid down five mahāvratas for the monks and the nuns, five aṇuvratas for the laymen and lay-women whereas Buddha prescribed pañcasīlas of which the fifth one is little different as it included madyapāna, etc. In the Jaina religion women had free entry and so nuns were there in the Mahavira's Samgha while Buddha had to ultimately yield as his step-mother Mahaprajapati was not able to endure the death of her husband. Buddha thrice rejected the request of his mother but on the intervention and the plea of Ananda he had ultimately to give way and allow the entry of women in the Sangha. But both the religions consider a nun inferior to the monk. Even a nun of hundred years standing has to obey, respect and not to enter into verbal discussion with a monk of a day's initiation.
51
The circumstances which made Buddha turn a monk were quite different from those of Mahavira. At the birth of Buddha it was predicted that he would become a recluse and so his father took every possible precaution to make his life as comfortable as possible. But through the intervention of divine agency he saw ugly sights which
This is referred in the 2nd sutra of Samannaphalasutra of Dighnikaya and in Jaina Sutras.

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52
He
made him renounce the world while Mahavira became a monk at the ripe time. Buddha was out to search a teacher who could satisfy his longing for truth. For six long years he wandered from place to place but found no one who could satisfy his longing. observed the rules of life as laid down by other religions such as fasts, rigorous austerity, etc. but all that did not satisfy him. Ultimately he realised truth under the Bodhi tree. He had not followed any system of religion or he had no ancient religion before him in view. For he said his findings were his own e.g. the four noble truths, the three saranas, the eight-limbed path, etc. Mahavira on the other hand was no innovator or a discoverer of truth. He had only organised a religion which was already in existence. The followers of Parsva came in his contact and he instructed them properly. Buddha was way-laid by Mara, the Satan, and his followers but not so Mahavira. No doubt Lord Mahavira had to undergo hardships during his wandering routine. Just as Ananda, Maudgalyayana, Kasyapa, etc. were the chief disciples of Buddha, Mahavira had eleven Ganadharas as his chief disciples. Both got support from kings and rich laity.
As a member of the Jnatr clan Mahavira belonged to the Kasyapa gotra. From the clan name, he was known as Jnatrputra (Viv, 323). Because of his Kasyapa gotra he was known as Kasava (Utt. 2, Datav, 4), after the Capital of Vaisali, his maternal home, he was known as Vesaliya (Su. 1, 2, 3, Utt. 6), after the country he was known as Videhadinna (Ayar. 2. 15, 17, Jinac, 110), as a result of all round prosperity in the kingdom cropping up after his birth he was called Vardhamana and as a result of severe asceticism and endurance he was called Mahavira. He was called Jina because of his command over the five senses. As he had established the church he was known as Tirthagara or Tirthankara. So also Buddha was known as Buddha, Sambuddha, Tathagata, etc.
JAIN JOURNAL
Just as the Tirthankara appears in a definite period of cycles known as the Avasarpini and the Utsarpini so also Buddha appears only in empty Kalpas i.e. only in Buddhakalpa. The highest number of Buddhas who can appear is only five, whereas in the time of Lord Ajitanatha, the second Tirthankara of the Jainas 170 Tirthankaras appeared in the land. Just as there are infinite Kalpas so there are infinite Buddhas. Like the 24 Tirthanakaras there are twenty-four Buddhas. Both the Tirthankara and the Buddha have each a number of monks, nuns,
At the age of 30.

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1
laymen, lay-women and the tree of knowledge under which they get the glimpse of the highest truth. Just as a Tirthankara is born after the aradhana of 20 sthanakas, so a Buddha is born after propitiating 10 pāramitās. Jaina Tirthankaras have a lañchana by means of which one can identify the image of a Tirthanakara from a host of other Tirthankaras. It is said that in the spread of Buddhism the personality of Buddha had played an important role, so we can observe that every Jaina Tirthankara is endowed with certain number of atisayas.

53
The sermons of the founders of Buddhism and Jainism were listened to with rapt attention by their immediate followers and were later on codified for the good of the large mass of people. The original canons of both the systems were written in Prakrits, i.e. Pali and Ardhamagadhi respectively, but later on Sanskrit was adopted with a view to compete with the language in which the Hindus wrote their scriptures. But, it is to be noted that both Buddha and Mahavira appealed to the large mass of their followers only by preaching in a language which was known to them and which appealed to their heart the most. Naturally it was to be the language of the masses, i.e. the Prakrits. The sacred scriptures of the Bauddhas are known as the Tripitakas, those of the Jainas are known as the Ganipitaka or Agamas which are 45 in number. To explain these texts tikās, cürnis, tabbās, avacüris, bhāṣya, balavabodha etc. were composed. The immediate disciples of the Tirthankaras known as the Ganadharas were each responsible for the composition of the Dvādaśāngas. With the help of Upali and Ananda Kasyapa settled the Vinayapitaka and the Dhammapiṭaka. According to later tradition Kasyapa himself composed the Abhidharmapitaka but this is not historical and is even contradicted by the contents of Abhidharma itself. To settle and codify the sermons of both the teachers various councils were held at different times. The Buddhists had four councils or Sangitis and the Jainas had three councils. These were convened at different times under the presidentship of strong and powerful personalities in order to give a form to the canonical literature. In the case of Lord Buddha there were decensions right during his life period. After his death there were two main splits known as the Mahayana and the Hinayana. Likewise Jainism too had two main divisions known as the Svetambaras and the Digambaras. The first Buddhist council was convened at Rajagrha under the patronage of king Ajatasatru and Kasyapa was the guiding personality. The second council was convened after 100 years in Vaisali. The third council was called in 245 B. C. in the 18th year of the reign of king Asoka Priyadarsin. Maudgaliputra was at the helm of affairs, and the council was held at Pataliputra. Maudgaliputra composed a work known as Kathāvatthu

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which was recorded in the Abhidharmapitaka. The fourth council was convened during the time of the king Kaniska in the 1st Cent. B.C. It was held at Jalandhara in Kashmir under the leadership of Parsvika and Vasumitra. The Jainas had their councils as follows: The first council was held at Pataliputra ; the second council was convened at Mathura under the headship of Skandila and the third at Valabhi in Kathiawar 980 years after Mahavira.
In both the religions there is great deal of similarity as regards the ācāra or the conduct of the clergy as well as of the laity. The code of conduct for the Buddhists is laid down in the Vinayapițaka, that of the Jainas in the Acărāngasūtra, one of the eleven Angas. Both the systems were open-hearted and large-minded. Both do not believe and advocate the caste system as is understood by the Hindus. Both the religions are open to all irrespective of caste, colour and creed. They have no Sudras and Harijanas ; so the large followers of the both religions were drawn from the lower strata. Courtesans, slaves, slave girls,' had an entry into the church. Both the religions were thus equally tolerant, as seen from early works. He who has an urge for a spiritual life can tread the path of salvation. Both the systems lay great stress on Yogic methods. Bauddhas used it as a means to concentration, while the Jainas used it for eliminating the kasāyas. Both lay stress on certain cardinal virtues. Both enforce and use ahimsā but the ahimsā of the Jainas is more detailed and minute in its compass and the scope of workings. It is on account of the influence of pontiffs like Hemacandra, etc. on kings like Kumarapala, etc., that ahimsā has come to stay in dominant position in which it is to day in Gujarat. In the entire province of Gujarat flesh-eating and the eating of the fish is as it were a taboo. Flesh or fish is never ordained for a Jaina monk, nun, or the laity under any circumstances. Mahavira, the staunch advocate of ahimsā, could never dream of eating flesh and fish. He, who endured so much, could never think of taking meat. Some people point out to Kapota and Marjara occuring in the 15th śataka of Bhagavati. But it can be pointed out that these are the names of certain medicinal plants known to the science of Ayurveda. Buddha had no such scruples. It is reported that Buddha just before his death, say before a period of three months, while on his way to Kusinagara, the capital of the Mallas came, to a town named Pava where he received an invitation of Cunda who gave him flesh of a swine. It is said that taking of the flesh was the cause of
* Cf. Amrapali or Ambapali, Vimata etc. 6 Cf. Campa. 7 Purna, Angulimala, Svapaka or Sopaka, Svati and Handa etc.

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his death. After eating it he feil sick and died. When he was alive Devadatta tried to prohibit the eating of flesh and fish but his stricter rules of conduct were not encouraged by the Buddha ; and it is said that this was the cause of the first split in the Buddhist church. Both the religions believe in confessions. The Buddhists have their upavasatha days, and the Jainas have their pratikramana and the paryusana days. Out of the seven tattvas of the Jainas the four viz. bandha, äsrva, samvara and mokşa correspond to Buddhist dukkha, dukkhahetu, dukkhanirodha and the dukkhanirodhagāminīmagga, more commonly known as the four ārya satyas. Both believe in tişņā and ajñāna as the cause of metempsychosis. Both have condemned in severest possible terms the himsā of the Vedic Hindus. Both are also harsh on the Hindu caste system. In the Sūtrakrtānga the views of the Buddhas are criticised and in the Majjhimanikāya there is the criticism of Jaina ahimsā. Even in the Niryuktis and the Abhidharmakośa, etc. the old criticism appears in new light, in a new garb. Inspite of this both condemn in severe terms the Vedic himsā. It is as a result of these two religions that animal sacrifices have gone to the state of oblivion. We can add that their mutual criticism of each other is as a result of want of proper mutual understanding which can be shown from Upālisutta of Majjhimanikāya and Sūtrakstānga (I.1. 2, 24-32, 2.6. 16-28).
Both the religions believe in the mantras and both have a rich mantraśāstra, of their own. Buddhism later on turned to tantraśāstra and carried this to its extremity. The Jainas also believe in tantra. The oft-repeated and the highly celebrated mantra of the Buddhists is aum mani padme hum which is engraved on every possible thing and object. Like this with the Jainas the sacred mantra is the namaskāra mahamantra. These mantras are repeated by the respective devotees with great faith and earnestness. The mantra of the Jainas is said to be the essence of the 14 pürvas. By certain repetition of this mahämantra one can get the punya of Tirthankara nāma and gotra.
It is said that the personality of Buddha contributed to a large extent in the spread of Buddhism which was a missionary religion. Not so of Jainism. Through the missionary activities Buddhism spread not only throughout India but also outside, while Jainism remained confined to India where it still survives while Buddhism disappeared since long. 10 Buddhism gained footing in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan,
8 It is repeated for 10,00,000 times.
aum, hrim, etc. are mantras in both religions. 10 Now attempts are made to revive it in India.

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Mangolia, China, Japan, Korea, Indian Archepelego, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Ceylon etc. At the end of the third Buddhist council missionaries were sent to Kashmir, Kabulistan, Bactria, countries at the foot of the Himalayas and lower India and Ceylon.
Gaya or the Bodhgaya is considered by the Buddhists as a sacred place in virtue of the fact that it was under the Bodhivykşa that Buddha got full enlightenment. For the Jainas Pavapuri is considered as the holy place because here Lord Mahavira attained mokşa. Thousands of pilgrims of both the religions pay a visit to these sacred places. For the Jainas Mount Abu, Sametsikhara, Kesariyaji, Girnar, Satrunjaya, Sravana Belgola, Palitana, Ranakpur, etc. are sacred places of pilgrimage. A branch of the Mahabodhi tree was transplanted in Ceylon by Mahendra, the son of Asoka ; and therefore it is considered as a holy place. The Buddhist stūpas found in India, Burma, China, Japan, etc. are equally well-known as places of pilgrimage. In the case of Buddhism the Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien and Hiuen-Tsang who had embraced Buddhism visited these places and wrote chronicles about Buddhism.
Various religions have their own peculiar festivals. This holds good in the case of Jainism and Buddhism too. The common festival though celebrated in a different manner is the festival of lights (Dipävali). This festival is celebrated by the Jainas in honour of the achievement of mokşa by Mahavira. Material lamps are lighted in place of spiritual lamps. In Buddhism this is celebrated by illumination. The number of Buddhist religious festivals later on went on increasing like those of the Jainas ; and they are celebrated in different places in diverse manners. Three festivals of the Buddhists are common to all. They are : The festival of the lamps, the festival at the commencement of the spring and the festival of the birth day of Lord Buddha.
Buddhism was a state religion and thus it got support from kings of ancient India. The most prominent among them are Devanampriya king Asoka, Ajatasatru, etc. The Jainas too got support from kings like Srenika Bimbisara, Kunika, Kharavela, kings of the Northern and Southern dynasties of the middle ages, Siddharaja, Kumarapala of Gujarat, etc. The credit of winning over the favour of certain kings like Akbar and Kumarapala goes to the credit of Hiravijayaji and Kalikalasarvajna Hemacandra.
The organisers so to say of both the religions wandered on foot over the vast tract of land with a view to preach their religion. Buddha

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during the course of his wanderings moved over cities like Rajagrha, Kausambi, Pataliputra, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Sravasti, Vaisali (which was too much loved by Buddha).11 Similarly Lord Mahavira wandered over cities mentioned below for the same purpose. They were: Magadha, Anga, Kasi, Vaisali, Kosala, Rajagrha, Sravasti, Apapa, Videha, Vatsa, Saketa, etc. It may be observed that out of 42 caturmāsas Mahavira spent 12 caturmāsas in Vaisali. Thus this ancient city was highly liked by the two contemporary organisers of religions. It appears that both the teachers mostly wandered over the same tracts of lands at different periods. This reminds us of our modern election campaigns. But there was no bitterness. People were absolutely free to follow what they liked and preferred. There was freedom of thought in the highest degree.
Out of the three Pitakas the Abhidharmapiṭaka deals with metaphysics, the Vinayapiṭaka deals with the code of behaviour for the monks and the nuns and the Suttapiṭaka deals with the doctrines. In the case of the Jaina scriptures the Acarängasūtra deals with the code of behaviour for the monks and the nuns, the Uttaradhyayana and the Tattvarthasutra deal with metaphysics and philosophy and a few of the other Jaina canonical works deal with doctrines. In general the code of behaviour for the monks and the nuns in both the religions is (in general principles) agreeing with one another. The Buddhist monks put on a yellow garment while the Svetambara Jainas put on a white garment and hence the name-those who clad in white garments. The Buddhist monks lived in vihāras, the Jaina monks lived in upaśrayas. Formerly both had to stay in forests or in a place outside the city so that they might be away from the worldly life. The nuns too lived in both the religions separately with special rules of conduct meant for them. The Buddhists had a peculiar bowl so also the Jainas. Both the religions enjoined upon the ascetics to carry a big staff12 so that with this they can caution a small animal or protect themselves in case of any impending danger. (Here traditions differ in different Jaina schools). Both had to obey and observe the vrata of aparigraha. Both passed the rainy season by staying for four months in a particular place either in a vihara or in an upäśraya. Both used water after filtration. The Jaina monks and nuns specially use boiled water. Their necessary equipment is broadly the same. The Jaina monks eat twice (there are different practices), the Buddhists had to eat the mid-day meal only. The evening meal
11 See Mahaparinivvanasutta: nagapalokitam vesaliyam apalokitva.
12 The Jaina Sramanas carry this even to this day.
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of the Jainas was to be finished before the setting of the Sun. Both have to lop off the hair of the head and the beard etc, at stipulated period. The Jainas never touch fish and flesh while with the Buddhists it was not a taboo. Both never touch liquor. Celibacy is strictly observed by the both. Sages like Sthulabhadra, Bhadrabahu, Hira vijaya, Hemacandra adorn the history of Jaina monachism, so Ananda, Kasyapa, Maudagalyayana, etc. adorn the Church of Buddhism. Both the religions have a host of nuns13 who have illumined the history of their religions. Both can enter the order after dikşă (initiation). Both observe ascetic life very scrupulously and rigorously. Life of a Jaina monk is much more severe and stricter than that of a Buddhist monk or a nun. The duty of both the types of ascetics is very grave as they are expected to properly enlighten the laity. Though the general customs of both the monks and nuns in both the religions agree still if one were to go into minute details there are important differences owing to different type of religions they profess. Still, rules regarding their behaviour with nuns are similar and strict. Initiation ceremony has points of agreements. In the Jaina Tirtha, even prior to Mahavira, nuns were a constutient element in the Church in a very large number. It is quite probable that Jainism might have exercised influence on Buddhism and thus allowed the nuns to enter the order, for Buddha himself was much against the entry of nuns in the order.
Just as, in Buddhism, dhamma, sangha and buddha are considered as three jewels so also in Jainism Jnāna, darsana and caritra are considered as three jewels. Both consider trsnā as the root of all evils. In both the religions bhūtānukampā (love of every creature) is highly praised. The outstanding two qualities of Jainism are ahimsā and anekantavāda. Buddhism is also equally tolerant and respects the views of others.
From the brief kaleidoscopic review of both these important religions of ancient India we can surmise with reason that they have gone a long way in contributing to the development of Indian religions and philosophical thought. Both have done their utmost in the preservation of ancient valuable books in their vihāras and bhändāras. The Jainas have preserved every possible book or manuscript pertaining to any religion in their bhandāras. A flood of light can be thrown on ancient Indian culture and civilization from the study of these manuscripts. Both these religions which are ni vrttiparāyana silently contributed their mite in
19 Srimati, Ambapali with the Buddhists and Kosa, Candanabala, 16 Satis etc. with
the Jainas are an instance in point.

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this sphere. Both the religions had the same aim. Social conditions were also the same for the both. Like the Buddhistic stūpas the Jainas too had their stupas, as for example the stupa of Mathura. Both have beautiful art of murtividhāna. Both contributed much to the ancient art and architecture. Thus, the two sister religions had much that was common between the two. Both vehemently attacked the Vedic religion and their revolutionary attitudes brought about a healthy change in the outlook of the Vedic Hindu religion.
Both developed and oriented fine arts like music, painting, sculpture, architecture, temple-building, etc. Jaina authors wrote in Sanskrit, Ardhamagadhi, Apabhramsa, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Kannada, etc. while Buddhist authors wrote in Sanskrit, Pali, Apabhramsa,14 etc. In Mahayana there was murtipuja, the conception of Devas and Devis, tantra and mantra, so too in Jainism. Both contributed to Tarkasastra, metempsychosis, rebirth and the doctrine of karma. The outstanding contribution of Jainism is the five mahāvratas and that of Buddhism the pancasilas. Ahimsa, love towards all living creatures, doing good to others, tolerance, universal brotherhood, humanitarian attitude to all, morality of high order, karma etc. are contributions of these two religions. In developing and moulding Indian culture both have played an important role. These salient common features were to an extent responsible in creating an illusion that Jainism was a branch of Buddhism, a myth that is now long since exploded.
14 Cf. The Dohakosas of Saraha and Kanha.
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Indian Atomism
J. C. SIKDAR
Analysis of Indian Atomism as conceived in the Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina Schools of Thought
Part-II
The conception of paramānus has been associated with the theory of the four elements of matter, viz., earth, water, fire and air. According to this conception, four distinct kinds of atoms correspond to these four elements and their distinctive qualities are inherent in several atoms. This view of the atomic theory has accordingly been accepted by the Brahmanical and Buddhist atomists like the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas on the basis of the atomic growth of elements of matter although their opinions differ in detail.
69
The atomic theory is the cardinal tenet of the Vaisesika philosophy.68 According to its doctrine, 'things that exist and are not produced from a cause are eternal'; they may be inferred from the fact that all known things are products (i.e., effects). Besides, every thing perceived is noneternal, this idea of non-eternality presupposes eternality. 69 The uncaused causes of things constitute ignorance (avidya) on account of which they are eternal, or as one cannot conceive any other cause of the decay of an object than the disjunction or destruction of its causes, so it is taken for granted that the last causes must be eternal. Therefore, these eternal things, the causes of the non-eternal ones, are atoms, but they are intangible to the senses, for only the mahat (great thing) is perceptible in case it possesses many constituent parts and presupposes colour."1 Atom is indivisible, as it is not composed of material parts.72
68 Brahmasutra, II, 2, ff and Sankarabhasya on them.
'sadakaranavannityam', Vaisesika Sutra, IV, 1.1;
'tasya karyam lingam', Ibid., IV, 1.2; 'karanabhavat karyabhava', Ibid., IV.1.3; 'anitya iti vaisesatah pratisedhabhavah', Ibid., IV, 1.4. Avidya', Ibid., IV, 1.4.

70
71 'mahatyanekadravyavattat rupaccopalabdhih', Ibid., IV, 1.6.
72
Nyayavartika, p. 233.

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An object is mahat (great) if it is constituted of many constituent parts or if the parts themselves are great, or if they are adjusted in a particular way.73 The opposite to mahat (great thing) is aņu (small thing),74 which is not composed of constituent parts, i.e., atoms.
The statement 'great, small, long and short', as popularly used are relative terms, for the same Object is great with reference to one object and small in relation to another. These point to great objects because they are visible ; there they are applied in a secondary sense. But expressions 'great' and 'small' are not relative term in the primary sense, but they signify distinct kind or genera of dimension like red and blue colours, otherwise one would attribute qualities (great or small) to a quality ‘greatness' which goes against the principles that 'qualities are attributeless'. Greatness and smallness are non eternal in non-eternal entities ; they are eternal in eternal ones, i.e., absolute or infinite. The absolute small 'anu' is spherical in dimension.75
The qualities like colour, taste, smell, and touch in earthen and other material objects disappear on their destruction. But they are eternal in eternal objects like earth-atoms. Similarly, the inherent qualities are eternal in water-atom, fire-atom and air-atom. Some qualities are subject to chemical action (päkaja)76 under the influence of heat in earth and earth-atoms. Different atoms come into conjunction.77 In the beginning of creation atoms were set in motion by the unseen force called adışța.78 Mind is also atomic in nature,79 according to the Vaisesika philosophy.
78 'karanabahutvacca', Vaisesikasutra, VII, 1.9;
*atra mahattvadiraghatva-parimanayogabhyupagamet', Sankarabhasya on Brahmasutra, II. 2.11. ‘ato viparitamanu, Vaisesikasutra, VII, 1. 10; ‘etena dirghattvahrasvatve vyakhyate', Ibid., VII, 1.17. Ibid., VII. 1. 10-20. "ukta gunah', Ibid., VII, 1.1 ; 'prthivyadiruparasagandhasparsatdravyanit yatvadanit yasca', Ibid., VII, 1.2; 'etena nityesu nit yatvamuktam', Ibid., VII, 1.3; ‘apsu tejasi vayau ca nitya dravyanit yatvar', Ibid., VII, 1.4; 'anityesvanitya dravyanit yatvat', Ibid., VII, 1.5 ;
"karanagunapurvakah prthivyam pakajah', Ibid., VII, 1-6. 77 anusammyogastvapratisiddhah', Ibid., IV, ii. 4. 78 Wagnerurddhajvalam vayostiryaggamanamanunam manasascadyam karmiadrstaka
ritam', Ibid., V. 11. 13. 70 tadabhavadanu manah', Ibid., VII, 1. 23.

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It is to be noted that the word 'anu' denoting atom is used in the Vaiseşika and Nyaya Sutras, while the word 'paramāņu' is come across in the Nyāyavārtika and later works. Besides, the logic for the existence of anu (atom) based on the impossibility of limitless division of an object was not yet applied by Kanada.
In the Nyāya Sūtra and its Bhāṣya (commentary) written by Vatsyayana some aspects of the atomic theory are dealt with on the one hand, while it is defended against the objections raised by the opponents on the other hand. Like the Vaisesikas, Gautama conceives the physical properties of atoms as discussed above, for it is incidentally stated by him that the black colour (of earth-atom) is not permanent80 inspite of its existence from eternity. Hence it can be presumed that the properties of water, fire and air are considered non-permanent by him.
The metaphysical aspects relating to atoms are dealt with at the end of the analysis of avayavin (composite whole) and avavaya (constituent part). It is maintained by the Naiyayikas81 that avayavin (the composite whole) is something different (arthäntara), not separated from its avayavas constituent parts), but rather something in addition to them. Just as a tree as a whole is perceived, so a thing is perceived, though the atoms-the constituent parts of it are imperceptible. An object composed of parts is avayavin and so also the parts of a part, and so on ad infinitum. The idea of avayavin cannot be conceived without reaching avayavas (the last constituent parts), hence the plea of avayavin would lead to nothing. But the limit of division of a material object ends in the indivisible atom.82 This conception of atom compares well with the early Greek idea of atomicity which means indivisibility. If the division of parts is
80
81
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82
'anusyamatanityatvabaddha', Nyayasutra, IV, 1. 67 and its Bhasya.
*savisayanatikramenendriyasya patumandabhavadvisayagrahanasya tathabhavo navigaye pravrttih', Ibid., IV, 11. 14;
'avayavavayaviprasangaiscaivamapralayat', Ibid., IV, 11. 15;
'na pralayo anusadbhavat', Ibid., IV, 11. 16;
'param va truteh', Ibid., IV, 11. 17.
'sarvagrahanamavayavyasiddheh', Ibid., II, 1.35;
'paramanusamavasthanam tavad darsanavisayo na bhavatyatindriyatvadanunam', Ibid., (Bhasya), II, 1. 36;
*avayavyarthantarabhuta iti', Ibid., (Bhasya), II, 1.36; *senavanavaditi grahanamiti cennatindriyatvadanunam', Ibid., II, 1.37.

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without limit, the mote would not differ in size from the highest moun
tain, for both of them would possess the same number of parts in
that case.83
The further development of Atomism of the Naiyayakas is found in the Nyayavārtika of Uddyotakara in this manner that a mote in the rays of the sun entering a window is an atom, while some philosophers maintain the view that atoms do not exist singly (asamhata), but always in combination.84 This view is apparently of the Buddhists-Vaibhasikas and Sautrantikas who advocate the idea that atoms are non-permanent, for they are possessed of motion. Like the Vaisesikas the Naiyayikas also maintain that atoms are set in motion by the unseen force (adrsta), but they bring in God for directing the action of atoms.85
The third stage of the development of the atomic theory is found in the conception of dyad, triad, etc. It was propounded by Uddyotakara, subsequently it became the tenet of the joint Nyaya-Vaisesika works. The union of these two schools of thought began early and become complete at the time of the Nyāyavārtika.
The Buddhist Conception of Atomism
The atomic theory appears to have been embodied in the Buddhist philosophy by the Sarvastivadins under the influence of their association with the Vaisesikas. A frequent mention of atoms is made in the Mahavibhāṣā "in its interpretation of other works and seemingly with no sense of incongruity" 86
It seems that the atomic theory was prevalent in the early part of the second century A.D., the probable date of the Mahavibhāṣā, as evidenced by the fact that the whole theory in its developed form is contained in
83
84
63
85
86
'krtsnaikadesavrttitvadavayavanamavayavyabhavah', Ibid., IV, 2.7;
*tesu cavrtteravayavyabhavah', Ibid., IV, 2.8; 'prthakacavayavebhyo avrtteh', Ibid., IV, 2.9;
'na cavayavyavavah', Ibid., IV, 2. 10;
*ekasmin bhedabhavabhedasabdaprayoganupatteraprasnah', Ibid., IV, 2. 11; 'avayavantarabhave apyavrtterahetuh', Ibid., IV, 2.12;
*kesasamuhe taimirikopalabdhivattadupalabdhihi', Ibid., IV, 2.11.
Nyayavartika of Uddyotakara, p. 234. Prasastapada's Bhasya, p. 21.
A Mannual of Buddhist Philosophy by Mc Govern, p. 126.

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the Abhidharma Hydaya.87 It had an important place in the metaphysics of the Yogacarins in spite of their idealism, but it was refuted by the later Yogacarins, beginning with Dinnaga88 on the ground that it stood on the way of the doctrine of store-house of consciousness (alayavijñāna), i.e., all phenomena emerge from mind.
A detailed study of the atomic theory as conceived in the North does not seem to have been made by the Neo-Sthavira vadin school established by Buddhaghosa, but the use of Kalāpa theory (doctrine corresponding to the concept of saṁghāta-paramāņu of the Sarvastivadins) was made by Buddhaghosa in the Arthaśālini and was admitted as an integral part of the Sarvastivadin philosophy, the idea being mentioned and considerably developed in the Abhidhammattha Samgaha. The name 'paramānu' was attributed to the ultimate units of kalāpa of molecule ; thus the atomic theory is considered to be integral part of the Sarvastivadin.89
According to this school, there are stated to be fourteen kinds of atoms-five atoms of the five sense-organs, five atoms of the five senseobjects and four atoms of four mahābhūtas. In the Sankarabhāş yao also the atomic theory of the Sarvastivadins is described in this way: "These Buddhists acknowledge the four elements-earth, water, fire and wind with their properties and products, including the organs of sense, the four elements are atomic, the earth-atoms have the quality of hardness, the water-atoms that of viscidity, the fire-atoms that of heat and the airatoms that of motion, in combination of these atoms they form early things, etc.”91
*7 'It was translated into Chinese in the third Century A.D.', vide A Mannual of
Buddhist Philosophy, p. 126. Ibid., See alambanapratyaya. Ibid. Sankarabhasya on Brahmasutra II, 2. 18 (samudaya ubhayahetukehapi tadapraptih). 'tatra ye sarvastivadino bahyamantaranca vastvabhyupacchanti bhutani bhautikam cittam caitancatamstavat pratibrumah tatra bhutam prthividhatvadayah bhautikam rupadayascaksuradayacatustaye ca prthivyadi paramanavah kharasnehosneranasvabhavaste prthivyadibhavena samhanyanta iti manyante tatha rupavijnanavedanasamjnasamakarasaminakah pancaskandhah tehapyadhyatmah sanvavyavaharaspadabhavena samhanyanta iti manyate', Saryadarsanasamgraha, p. 24, pamti 14; Sankarabhasya, II, 2.18 ; see Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. II, pp. 521-22.

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It is admitted by the Vaibhasikas that an atom has six sides, but it is maintained by them that "they make but one or what comes to the same that the space within an atom cannot be divided".
Their view is refuted by the Naiyayikas in an old verse quoted in the Nyayavārtika.92 Their conception that atoms are amenable to senseknowledge, though they were not visible apart, "just as a dim sighted man sees a mass of hair, though he cannot see a single hair", 93 is also disputed by the Nayayikas, according to whom, atom is transcendental and intangible to the sense.
one
According to the Sautrantikas, the aggregate of seven atoms is the smallest compound (anu)94; the spherical atom does not touch another completely, but there was an intervening space between them. One thing emerges out of this discussion of Atomism that it is indivisible according to all Indian systems of thought, though it is admitted by some that it might be regarded as possessing parts, viz., eight sides (aşṭadravyakas). It is maintained by both the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas that atoms are impenetrable (or impassable).
The atoms of the Buddhist philosophy are non-permanent, they emerge from time to time and then they are destroyed "lapsing seemingly into nothingness".95 The ten kinds of atom, i.e., five atoms of five senseorgans and five atoms of sense-objects, are produced due to the four atoms of the four fundamental elements (mahābhūtas) and they would instantly be destroyed, if there were not the sustaining power of the four elemental atoms.96 Therefore, every derivative atom has an atom of each of the fundamental elements with it for its substance.97 The atoms of the four fundamental elements of matter are non-permanent, constantly undergoing change by the process of origination, etc. The phenomenalist atomic conception of the Buddhists is contrary to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, Jaina and other Indian systems of thought.
65
98
Nyayavartika of Uddyotakara, pp. 521-22.
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. II, p. 201.
'saptadravyavinirbhagi paramanurbahirgatah
kamesvekadhikah kaye dvyadhikascaksuradisu sarvasuksmah khalu', Abhidharma Dipa, p. 60; cf. Abhidharmakosa, II, 22.
95 A Mannual of Buddhist Philosophy by Mc. Govern, p. 127.
96
'dhrtyadikarmasamsiddhah kharasnehosnateranah', Abhidharmakosa, 1. 12. 97 Ibid., 4. 29.
93
94

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According to Jaina philosophy, paramāņu pudgalas is called only paramāņu99 or dravya-paramāņu100 (atom of material substance). This conception shows the atomic growth of matter as found in the physical sciences. Paramāņu is a substance possessing guna (quality) and paryāya (mode);101 it is existent in the universe (loka) and non-existent in the nonuniverse (aloka) and it cannot go there.102 Besides, it exists individually in one space-point as a discrete unit of matter it occupies one point of space, but it cannot occupy two or more space-points, it can exist together with other paramāņus in one space-point103 by its capacity of samkoca (capacity of becoming fine or of contraction). It is traikālika (existing in three points of time-past, present and future);104 it is endowed with the properties-colour, taste, smell, and touch,105 as these four qualities are called bhāvas (attributes or capacities) of paramāņus.1
106
The quantity of paramāņu will remain the same as it is for ever107 without loss or destruction, increase or decrease in number. No new paramāņu will be self-generated nor will be produced by anybody. In the past no new paramāņu was produced, no new one is produced at present and no new one will be produced in future. 108 Paramāņu pudgala (atom) observes the principle of 'utpadavyayadhravyayuktam sat' (existence is characterized by origination, destruction and permanence).109 It is existent from the point of view of asti (self-existence or existentiality).110
98
Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 14, uddesaka 4, sutra 513; sataka 20, uddesaka 6, sutra 670, see its Tika also.
Ibid., sataka 20, uddesaka 6, sutra 670; sataka 18, uddesaka 6, sutra 631.
100 Ibid., sataka 20, uddesaka 6, sutra 670.
101 Ibid., sataka 14, uddesaka 4, sutra 512; sataka 18, uddesaka 6, sutra 631. 102 Ibid., sataka 2, uddesaka 10, sutra 121.
103 Paramanukhandasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, Vrtti, p. 2;
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99
Sarvarthasiddhi by Acarya Pujyapada, see the commentary on ch. V. sutra 14. 104 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 14, uddesaka 4, sutra 510; see its Tika also. 105 Ibid., sataka 8, Uddesaka 6, sutra 631 ; sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 683.
106 Ibid., sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670.
107 Ibid., sataka 3, uddesaka 10, sutra 119; sataka 14, uddesaka 14, sutra 510. 108 Ibid., sataka 2, uddesaka 10, sutra 118;
Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. V. sutra 3; see its auto-commentary, p. 322.
109 Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. V, sutra 29, p. 374. 110 Ibid., p. 381.

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Paramāņu is transformable in regard to its guna (quality) from the standpoint of parināma (transformation).111 There takes place the transformation of four qualities in all paramāņus, viz., varṇapariṇāma (transformation of colour), rasapariṇāma (transformation of taste), gandhapariņāma (transformation of smell) and sparsapariṇāma (transformation of touch).112 The transformation of shape (samsthānapariṇāma) does not occur in the individual, independent state of paramaņu, for it is devoid of shape and it does not assume any shape in its discrete condition.113 In this state paramāņu undergoes transformation in the form of increase and decrease of its bhāvas (qualities) by combining with another paramāņu or paramāņus. There takes place the transformation in the parts of its bhava-gunas, i.e., only the natural transformation occurs in paramāņu existing in its own state. It is agurulaghu (neither heavy nor light) from the point of view of kāya (mass or body).114 It is devoid of lump and part; there is no smaller and lighter form of matter than paramāņu. It is aguru (not-larger or not-heavier) but laghu (lighter) than any material substance. It is agurulaghu in its own state or individual condition from the point of view of bhāva, i.e., there takes place the process of decrease and increase by six steps (sthānas) in its bhāva-guṇas (qualities). It undergoes transformation by six steps with regard to its own qualities, even when it exists in isolation in its discrete condition. As for example, a paramāņu is onefold black, it can be infinitefold black by its capacity of agurulaghuguna and again it can become onefold black, having attained the decrease in its gunas (qualities).115 The process of decrease and increase takes place at every samaya (moment or instant) by the process of natural transformation.
A paramāņu is not jiva (soul), but ajiva (non-soul). In its own state it is not receivable by soul. It is non-receivable (agrahya).116 That is to say, in its own condition, it does not come in the service of soul.117 It is non-living (acitta) in its own individual condition because it is nonreceivable by soul, i.e., soul cannot exist in a paramāņu, therefore, it cannot become living. But soul and atom can exist together in one space-point. 118
111 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 5, uddesaka 7, sutra 313; Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, p. 437.
112 Ibid., sataka 8, uddesaka 10, sutra 356;
Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, p. 324. 113 Ibid., sataka 8, uddesaka 10, sutra 356, 357.
114 Ibid., sataka 1, uddesaka 9, sutra 73. 115 Ibid., sataka 15, uddesaka 4, sutra 730. 116 Ibid., sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670. 117 Ibid., sataka 18, uddesaka 4, sutra 662. 118 Ibid., sataka 13, uddesaka 4, sutra 484.
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Paramāņu has its self-existence or individuality from the point of view of individual existence and property of matter. It is manifested in its own bhāvas (states or qualities). It can be said that a paramāņu possesses its independent nature which is different from another one, i.e., each and every paramāņu is different from every other paramāņu or paramāņus. Therefore, a paramāņu is endowed with one single individuality or discreteness.119 This nature of paramaņu of the Jainas is similar to that of paramāņu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy, because, according to the latter, each of the paramāņus possesses its own particularity (antyaviseṣa).120
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As to the property of colour of paramānu, it is stated that there exists in it any one of the following five colours, viz., black, blue, red, yellow and white. 121 There cannot be more than one colour in a paramāņu. This colour may be onefold up to infinitefold.122 The colour of a paramāņu can undergo transformation into the colour of another paramaņu by combination with other paramāņu or paramāņus and vice-versa, but its natural colour is not destroyed. On the breaking up of the combination a paramāņu transforms itself into its own natural colour by dissociating from skandha (molecule). There is no mixed colour in a paramāņu.123
In regard to smell there exists in a paramāņu any one of the two smells, viz., pleasant and unpleasant.124 There cannot be both of them or mixture of them in it. The capacity of smell can be onefold up to infinitefold in it.125 A paramāņu having pleasant smell can get transformed into a paramāņu having unpleasant smell as a result of its combination with another paramāņu or paramaņus and vice-versa. On account of division by the breaking up of the combination, a paramāņu transforms itself into its own natural smell. There does not take place the destruction of
119 Ibid., sataka 12, uddesaka 10, sutra 469.
130 Prasastapadabhasya on Vaisesikadarsana, Kasi Sanskrit Pustakamala 3, published by Chowkhamba Sanskrit Pustakalaya Office, printed at Vidyavilasa Press, 1923, p. 7.
121 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 13, uddesaka 6, sutra 631; sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 740.
122 Ibid., sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740.
123 Paramanukhandasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, p. 1;
Tattvartha Rajavartika by Akalankadeva, bhaga II, ch. V, sutra 25;
see its commentary Nos. 13-14, pp. 491-92.
124 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 18, uddesaka 6, sutra 631; sataka 20, uddesaka
5, sutra 668; sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740.
125 Ibid., sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740;
Pudgalasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, p. 24.

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the naturalsmell of a paramā nu in the state of its combination with another paramānu or paramānus. 126
With regard to tastes there exists in a paramāņu any one of the following five tastes, viz., bitter, sour, astringent, acidic and sweet.127 But there cannot exist in it more than one taste. The capacity of taste can be onefold up to infinitefold in it.128 A paramāņu can undergo transformation into the taste of another paramāņu or paramāņus by the process of combination. But its natural taste is not destroyed. On its dissociation from skandha (molecule) it again transforms itself into its natural taste. There is no mixed taste in it.129
As to the quality of touch there exists in a paramānu any two unopposing touches of the four touches, viz., cold-cohesive, cold-dry, warmcohesive and warm-dry. 130 Therefore, a paramānu may be either (1) coldcohesive or (2) cold-dry or (3) warm-cohesive or (4) warm-dry. There is neither heavy nor light touches in it because it is agurulaghu (neither heavy nor light) and therefore neither hardness nor softness in it, for these qualities are existent in gross molecule. Its capacity of coldness, warmth, cohesiveness and dryness is onefold up to infinitefold.131
Vibration and Motion of Paramāņu
Vibration (parispandana) is conceived by the Samkhya philosophy to describe every process and phenomenon of cosmic evolution. 132 Dr. B. N. Seal explains that “Parispandana sometimes stands for motion-molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtle motion of atoms or melocules.”133 The term parispandana signified "whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, e.g., vibration". All action, operation work (kriyā, vyapăra) is ultimately traced to this form of subtle motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff. 134
136 Paramanukhandasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, p.1. 127 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 18, uddesaka 6, sutra 631 ; sataka 20, uddesaka
5, sutra 668. 128 Ibid., sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740;
Pudgalasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, pp. 5-6. 128 Paramanukhandasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, pp. 1-4. 130 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 668;
Tattvartha Rajavartika by Akalankadeva, bhaga II, pp. 491-92. 131 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740;
Pudgalasattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri, pp. 5-6. 133 'vyaktam sakriyam parispandavat', Tattvakaumudi by Vacaspati Misra., 10. 133 The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, Dr. B. N. Seal, p. 121. 134 Ibid.

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According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, (parispandana) is found in all forms of matter except in ākāsa (space) which is conceived as non-atomic and inactive. All the four classes of atoms, viz., air-atoms, fire-atoms, water-atoms and earth-atoms are in continual motion. The universe at bottom is an infinitude of unceasingly vibratory particles.135 Atoms are set in motion by the unseen force (adrṣṭa), but the Nyaya-Vaisesikas bring in God for directing the action of atoms.136 Paramāņu of the Buddhists is always in a state of flux. 137
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According to the Nyaya-Vaisesika, there is supposed to be two kinds of motion of free atoms, viz., creative motion and non-creative motion. The creative motion produces conjunction of ultimate atoms, which leads to the formation of gross bodies and eventually of the material universe. This motion is generated in ultimate atoms only on the eve of a new cosmic creation after the period of cosmic rest. 138 The non-creative motion is not production of conjunction or disjunction of ultimate atoms. It simply separates ultimate atoms from the space-points occupied by them and joins (i.e., combines) them with the continuous points of space. It may occasionally cause a kind of placing of atoms side by side or loose grouping of atoms, but it never conjoins them to be actually integrated nor to be composite bodies.139
No impact upon the process of creation is made by this motion. It is possible for atoms only during the period of cosmic rest. It is supplanted by the creative motion of the emergence of the necessity for creation. The only object of non-creative motion is to determine the duration of cosmic rest in terms of kṣaṇa resolved by each unit of such motion.140
There is no spontaneous motion of free atoms in these two cases, for adṛṣṭa (unseen force) is supposed to be the cause of creative motion. It leads the destiny of souls in accordance with their karmas and demands of them to be furnished with properly equipped bodies and suitable material world for the experience of pleasure and pain. Under the operation
135 'anavarataparispandamanaparimitapavanadiparamanavah', Raghunatha; compare also 'paramanavah hi gatisilatvatvat patatravyapadesah patantiti', Nyayakusumanjali, Udayana, stavaka, V ; vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 122. 136 Prasastapadabhasya, p. 21.
137 'dhrtyadikarmasamsiddhah kharasnehosnateranah', Abhidharmakosa, 1, 12. 138 Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics by Dr. Sadananda Bhaduri, p. 146. 139 Ibid., p. 147; see Nyayakusumanjalibodhini of Varadaraja, p. 91. 140 Ibid.; see Nyayakusumanjali of Udayana, Pt. I. p. 333.

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of this force atoms begin to move in order to combine into countless varieties of objects. The non-creative motion is produced in this way when a body is dissolved by a violent shaking or impact, the effect of which sets the atoms of the dissolved body in motion. The motion generates in the atoms in turn the property of impulse (vega) which keeps them going, i.e., vibrating (spandana) continually during the whole period of cosmic rest.141
71
In Jaina philosophy motion of matter is defined as that action which causes the movement of ultimate atoms up to that of skandha (molecule) having anantapradeśas (infinite units of matter).142 Paramāņu is active and dynamic, but it is not always active or moving; sometimes it is active, sometimes it is non-active.143 Its activity is accidental.144 There are stated to be many kinds of movement of a paramāņu. It sometimes vibrates (revolves); sometimes it makes various vibrations till it undergoes transformation.145 Paramanus are always in a state of flux by their acts of vibration (revolving), motion and combination with one another to transform themselves into skandhas (molecules), hence it is explained that a paramāņu may or may not vibrate and transform itself into the state of vibration.146
A paramānu can make desantaragāmīkriyā (activity or movement of going to another place) from one space-point to another one. While making vibrating movement, it can make also deśāntantaragāmikriyā. Its motion can take place together with movements like vibration, etc.147 Hence the question arises how does a paramāņu existing in one space-point make vibration? In the usual sense the meaning of the word 'eyati' is vibration, but it is not desirable here, for in that case there takes place the movement of a paramāņu from one space-point beyond it. Therefore, a paramāņu existing in one point of space can make only revolving movement, but revolution should be without any axis, because there cannot be the conception of axis in paramānu. It is itself axis.
141 Nyayakusumanjalibodhini, p. 91; vide Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics, p. 147.
142 Prajnapanasutra, purvarddha; see its Tika of Malayagiri, published by Agamodayasamiti, Nirnayasgara Press, Bombay, 1918, pada 16, sutra 205, pp. 326-27. 143 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 5, uddesaka 7, sutra 213.
144 Ibid. It shows that the motion of paramanu is relative, it is sometimes stable and
sometimes unstable like the nuclei of atom of the physical sciences.
145 Ibid., sataka 5, Uddesaka 7, sutra 213.
146 Ibid.
147 Ibid., sataka 3, uddesaka 3, sutra 153; see the commentary of Sri Abhayadevasuri on this sutra.

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The movement of paramānu, such as, vibration, etc., can be niyamita (regular) and aniyamita (irregular) also, i.e., certain and uncertain. Here niyamitatā (regularity) or aniyamitatā (irregularity) of the movement of paramānu is conditional upon space-time.148
In a paramānu activity or motion can be natural (i.e. spontaneous or it can be due to the combination with other paramāņu or skandha (molecule). Activity and motion which take place in a piece of matter as a result of the combination of another piece of matter with it are called natural (vaisrașika). Activity and motion which occur in a piece of matter due to the mentality of jiva (being or soul) are called applied (prāyogika). But there cannot be any activity and motion in paramānu by the instrumentality of jīva (soul) because there is no capacity in it to bring about transformation in a piece of matter without receiving. Therefore, activity and motion which take place in paramānu are natural,149
Speed of motion of Paramānu : A paramāņu can go from the eastern last border of the universe to the western last border and vice-versa, from the northern last border to the southern last border and vice-versa in one samaya (instant) by its maximum speed of motion.150 Its minimum speed of motion is determined by its going from one space-point to another adjacent space-point by slow movement in one samaya (instant).151 The motion of paramănu takes place in a straight line. In one unit of time its motion, whether from one space-point to another or from one last border of the universe to another is to occur in a straight line.152 If it is curvilinear or complex motion, then it will take more time than one samaya. Vigrahagati (curvilinear or complex motion) occurs due to the action of others. 153
148 Ibid. 149 Ibid., sataka 3, uddesaka 2, sutra 147 ; sataka 5, uddesaka 8, sutra 221 ; sataka 6,
uddesaka 3, sutras 233-24 ; sataka 6, uddesaka 9, sutra 253 ; sataka 16, uddesaka 8, sutra 586. In aloka (non-universe) there is no existence of matter and media
of motion and rest, hence soul cannot make movement there. 150 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 16, uddesaka 8, sutra 564 ;
Prajnapanasutra, purvarddha, pada 16, sutra 205, pp. 326-27 and see its Tika also. 151 Pravacanasara by Kundakunda (Vrtti), part II, sloka 16.
Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapri, sataka 16, uddesaka 8, sutra 584 ;
Tattvarthadhigamasutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. II, sutra 27 (Bhasya). 153 Ibid.

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OCTOBER, 1988
Sprstagati of Paramānu (Motion of Atom) by touching Other Pieces of Matter
When a paramāņu makes movement by touching skandhas (molecules) having from two up to infinite units of matter, this motion is called sprsta or sprstagati.154 A paramāņu dissociates from a skandha by a terrible motion. Activity and motion of a paramānu are regular from some point of view and also irregular from other points of view. But they are mainly irregular, for this reason its motion is called aniyamitā (irregular) : paramāmurgati aniyamitā. 155
Paramāņus are vibrating (or moving) and non-vibrating (or nonmoving) from the point of view of time. 156 The duration of vibration of a paramānu is one samaya in the minimum and innumerableth part of an ävalikā in the maximum and the duration of its non-vibration (or nonmoving) is one samaya in the minimum and innumerable samayas in the maximum.157 A paramānu is sarvaija and nireja (wholly moving and nonmoving), while skandhas (molecules) having from two up to infinite units of matter may be desaija (partly moving), sarvaija (wholly moving) and nireja (non-moving).158 in regard to the intermediate time (antarakāla) of vibration of paramānu and skandha it is stated that they, being immersed in one space-point or innumerable points of space, exist vibrating for one samaya in the minumum and innumerableth part of an avalikā in the maximum in the case of vibration and innumerable samayas in that of non-vibration from the points of view of time, etc.159 In regard to the motion of paramāņu the basic difference between the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina concepts lies in the fact that in the former's view motion is caused by adrsta (unseen force) in the case of creative motion and it is produced by the effect of violent shaking of a body or impact in the case of non-creative motion,160 while according to the latter, motion in paramānu is an intrinsic capacity.
(To be continued]
154 Prajnapanasutra, purvarddha, pada 16, sutra 205 and see its Tika also. 156 Tattvartha Rajavartika by Akalankadeva, bhaga I, ch. II, sutra 26 ; vide Jaina
Padarthavijnana men Pudgala by Sri Mohanlal Banthia, p. 72, published by Jaina
Svetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha, Calcutta, 1960. 156 Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajnapti, sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 744. 157 Ibid., sataka 5, uddesaka 6, sutra 217. 158 Ibid., sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 744. 158 Ibid., sataka 5, uddesaka 6, sutra 217. 160 Studies in Nyaya-Vaisesika Metaphysics by Dr. Sadananda Bhaduri, published
by Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1947, pp. 146-147.

Page #43

Gleanings
Jaina Manuscripts in Soviet Collection
...... There are more than 140 Jaina manuscripts among them, a series of very valuable works. Besides the manuscripts of the Acarangasutra, two manuscripts of the Kalpasūtra (one with a commentary on it-the Kalpalata) and the manuscript of the Sutrakṛtāngasūtra, there are many commentaries on the Sutras. Silanka's Acaratikā (a commentary to the Acarängasútra, Laksmivallabha's Kalpadrumakalika (a commentary to the Kalpasūtra), manuscripts of Haribhadra's work Daśavaikālikabṛhadvrtti, a manuscript of the collection of Sanskrit and Prakrit worship formulae of the Digambara sect-the Sāmāyika, the manuscript of Hemacandra's famous Parisiṣṭaparvana, the Pravacanasaroddhāra a famous Jaina collection of Prakrit gathas (of the 1609, the manuscript contains 1606) are all of undoubted interest. Mention must also be made of the manuscripts of several other important Jaina texts: Sivakoti's Arādhanā, on the dogma of Jainism in the spirit of the Digambara sect, Sahajakusala's Srutavicāra, a collection of sutras from the Jaina canons with commentaries, Munisundara's Traividyagoṣṭhi-instructions on conversing with educated Brahmins in order to convert them to Jainism, Ratnasekhara's Acarapradipa, a treatise on Jaina morals with tales of fantastic nature and Pujyapada's Upāsakācāra, a treatise on the duties of lay Jainas. Among the Jaina manuscripts are the wellknown didactic work Praśnottararatnamālā with commentaries by Devendra which was popular both among the Digambaras and the Svetambaras, the manuscript of Somasena's Padmapurāṇa, a kind of Jaina Ramayana, two manuscripts of the Samyak tvakaumudikatha, a famous collection of tales of the Digambaras. In addition there are manuscripts of various Jaina instructions on pūjā, hymns in honour of future Jinas, hymns to Mahavira, etc.
from 'Indian Manuscripts in Soviet Collection', The Image of India by G. Bongard-Levin & A. Vigasin.

Page #44

BOOK REVIEW
VARDHAMAN JIVAN-KOS Vol II, ed by Mohanlal Banthia and Srichand Choraria, Jain Darsan Samiti, Calcutta, 1984. Pages 45+343. Price Rs. 65.00.
This is an age of systematic enquiry and research. So, when a scholar undertakes the study of a particular topic, he does not rest satisfied with a single source or version handed down to him by traditions, literary, epigraphical or oral. Whereas a simple believer would not question the authority of the scriptures or traditions he puts his faith in the modern investigator would try to explore all the sources relating to the subject under study, and examine thoroughly all the aspects and relevant details connected with it. This unbounded spirit of enquiry and tendency to a comprehensive methodical approach have been greatly facilitated by the discovery, publication or availability and specialised studies of the diverse source material related to almost every subject or branch of learning which may arouse the interest of a scholar. There is thus now no dearth of source material of various kinds and categories on almost any topic which is sought to be investigated. This in itself, however, makes the task of the researcher much more arduous and time-consuming. And, herein lies the importance of different kinds of reference books which render his task comparatively easy and smooth. Topical dictionaries constitute a very valuable class of such reference books.
So far, as Jainological studies are concerned, encyclopaedias like the Abhidhāna Rājendra Kośa and the Jainendra Siddhānta Kośa, several bibliographies, collections of colophons, catalogues of manuscripts, glossaries of technical terms, dictionaries of historical persons and places, and collections of inscriptions and of other historical records like pontifical genealogies and Vijñapti-patras, etc. have already been published. These reference books are undoubtedly of immense help to the research scholar of Jainological studies. The conception of topical dictionaries like the present one is, however, a bit different from that of the works mentioned above.
The late Sri Mohanlal Banthia was, perhaps the first to initiate, develop and launch upon a scheme of compiling topical dictionaries of Jaina religion, philosophy and traditions. He was lucky in having a hardworking, dedicated and competent assistant in Pt Srichand Choraria.

Page #45

JAIN JOURNAL
The scheme covered about a thousand topics, but to begin with they compiled and published in 1966 the Leśyā-Kos, in 1969 the Kriya-Kos, in 1980 the Vardhaman Jivan-Koś Part I, and its Part II in 1984 in the form of the present publication.
The object in compiling and publishing this 'Cyclopaedia of Vardhanan', as they have called it, is to indicate with references the known sources, quoting the different texts with their Hindi translations, on almost all the details or data relating to Bhagavan Vardhamana Mahavira (599-527 B.C.), the 24th and last Thirthankara of the Jaina tradition. The sources utilised include the canonical texts, their commentaries and the non-canonical literature of the Svetambara tradition, alongwith the more important works of the Digambara tradition, a few of Buddhist and Brahamanical works relevant to the purpose, and some later encyclopaedias, dictionaries and reference volumes.
is, besides, th his eulogies: fourfold of
Part I of the Kos contained details of the life of the great Hero from his conception to nirvāna, whereas Part II, the present volume, deals with the 33 or so previous births of him as gleaned from the Svetambara and Digambara sources, incidentally facilitating a comparative study of the two traditional accounts, besides, the five kalyānakas or auspicious events of his life, his aliases or epithets, his eulogies, his samavasarana, divya-dhvani or Discourse Divine, his Sangha or the fourfold order, his disciples including the eleven Ganadharas headed by Indrabhuti Gautama with particulars about each, and many other minor or miscellaneous details.
On many points, the information collected in this part supplements that contained in the first part. The topics have been classified and arranged in the international decimal system as adapted by the editors of this Koś and used in their earlier topical dictionaries, mentioned above.
There is no doubt as to the value and usefulness of this unique topical dictionary of the Tirthankara Mahavira for scholars and research workers. We heartily congratulate the learned Pt Srichand Choraria for accomplishing this very painstaking and time-consuming task so satisfactorily. The Jain Darsan Samiti and its Office-bearers deserve thanks for publishing the Volume.
-Jyoti Prasad Jain

Page #46

Our Contributors
LALIT KUMAR, Asst. Curator, Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Museum,
Ahmedabad. SATYAVRAT, Deptt. of Sanskrit, Govt College, Sri Ganganagar,
Rajasthan.
J. C. SIKDAR, Research Scholar, L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad.
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METROPOLITAN BOOK
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The Bikaner Woollen Mills Manufacturer and Exporter of Superior Quality Woollen Yarn, Carpet Yarn and Superior Quality Handknotted Carpets
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Post Box No. 24 Bikaner, Rajasthan Phone Off. 3204 Resi. 3356
Main Office: 4 Meer Bohar Ghat Street
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Phone: Office: 20-9255 Resi: 29-0470 23-4798 29-0694
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Phone: 20-2603

Page #59

To look at all as one with himself is ahimsa.
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Phone 44-6874
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Grand Collection of Ivory, Sandalwood, Silver, Painting, Wood-carving,
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Phone : Resi, 39-8015
For Indian Airlines Domestic Tickets or any International
Tickets Plus all Related Services
contact us for a better and friendlier service
GLOBE TRAVELS
11 HO CHI MINH SARANI
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Phone : 44-0190, 44-3944, 44-3955, 44-6028, 43-3995

Page #61

PUSHRAJ PURANMULL
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65 COTTON STREET CALCUTTA 700 007
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Page #63

केशर
जिसे आप पानी में 'उबालें' या एसिड में 'जलावे' फिर भी उसकी पत्तियाँ शेष तक
एक समान लाल रहे तब समझिये कि यह केशर है।
इस प्रकार के विशुद्ध केशर तथा मैसूर की सुगन्धित चन्दन की लकड़ी तथा
चाँदी के बरक, अष्टांग धूप आदि के लिए कृपया हमारे बिक्री केन्द्र में पधारें।
तीर्थ-दर्शन पुस्तिका, दोनों भाग भी हमारे यहाँ उपलब्ध है।
श्री जैन श्वेताम्बर सेवा समिति
१३ नारायण प्रसाद बाबू लेन, कलकत्ता ७०० ००७
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ज्ञानी होने का सार यही है कि वह किसी भी प्राणी की हिंसा न करे
-भगवान महावीर
जैन भवन दुकानदार संघ
पी-२५ कलाकार स्ट्रीट (जैन कटरा)
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Know other creatures' Love for life, for they are alike ye. Kill them not; save their lives from fear and enmity.
-Lord Mahavira
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Gram : PEARLMOON
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Wholesale Dealers in BOWREAH COTTON MILLS CO. LTD., CALCUTTA

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JUTEX AGENCIES
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3rd Floor
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone Office: 20-7526, 20-1024 Resi. 35-9892
CHHOGMALL RATANLALL
Jute Merchants & Commission Agents
P-15 KALAKAR STREET
CALCUTTA 700 070
Phone: 39-3512, 39-7255
MANICKCHAND AJITKUMAR
Jute Merchants & Commission Agents
4 RAJA WOODMUNT STREET

Phone: Gaddi 25-6989, 25-1014, 25-0963 Resi : 66-3679
Gram MALDAKALIA
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone
Office: 25-2517
25-3237 25-5423
: 28-3411 43-3795

Resi
DAKALIA BROTHERS
Jute Merchants & Commission Agents 4 RAJA WOODMUNT STREET CALCUTTA 700001

Page #73

SHAH ENTERPRISES
64/1 RITCHI ROAD CALCUTTA-700 019
Phone : 47-3398
VIMALADISH TRADING CORPORATION Exporters, Importers & Manufacturers' Representatives
3A POLLOCK STREET
CALCUTTA 700 001 Phone : off. 26-3873, 26-4767 Resi. 27-7086 Cable : Vitraco--Calcutta Telex : 021-4401 CRYS IN
TEA * PACKET TEATEA BAGS
Gram : MEETALL
20-7430
20-1370 Dial :20 1919
20-1842 20-8719
AAREN EXPORTERS
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE JUTE HOUSE (3rd Floor)
CALCUTTA 700 001 Dealers in all types of Jute Goods, Jute Matting. School Matting,
Decorative Hessian Cloth
Gram : Creatarts
Telex : 021-3558 ARTS IN CREATIVE ARTS
MANUFACTURERS & EXPORTERS Jute House G. P. O. Box 2575 12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE CALCUTTA 700 001, INDIA Phone : 20-7234, 20-0819, 20-6154

ernational

www.jainel

Page #74

A pharmaceutical Advice'Hobby Keeps the Pressure Aright' and Stamps Collecting is the King of Hobbies

PHILATELIA
ONE MOTI SIL STREET
CALCUTTA 700 013
Phone: 28-8549
COMPUTER EXCHANGE
24 PARK STREET
CALCUTTA 700 016
Phone: 29-5047

Page #75

"Non-violence and kindness to living beings is kindness to oneself. For thereby one's own self is saved from various kinds of sins and resultant sufferings and is able to secure his own welfare."
-Lord Mahavira
BAHADURMULL JASKARAN PVT LIMITED
"RAMPURIA CHAMBERS"
10 CLIVE ROW
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone
25-7731 25-3154

ducation International

Page #76
Autumn 1988 Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers for India under No. R. N. 12121/66. DADHA HEWLETT INDUSTRIES LIMITED 11 HANUMANTHA RAO STREET MADRAS 600 014 Phone : 84-2613 Branch 17/1C ALIPORE ROAD Flat No. 603 CALCUTTA 700 027 Phone : 45-2389 49-1485 Office : 20-3115 20-9765