Jain Journal 1988 07

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520091/1

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ISSN 0021-4043 A QUARTERLY
ON JAINOLOGY
VOL. XXIII
JULY 1988
No. 1
Jain JOurnal
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Jain Education and rational BHAW

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तदपा साहित्य पुष्ट पाट |
Sri Kanhaiyalal Sethia, eminent poet of Hindi and Rajasthani, is receiving the Murtidevi Literary Award from Sri Balaram Jakhar, Speaker, Lok Sabha in New Delhi on May 11, 1988. In the centre is Sri Asoke Kumar Jain, Managing Director, Bharatiya Jnanpith.

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a quarterly on Jainology

Jall Journal
JAIN
जैन भवन
BHAWAN
CALCUTTA

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VOL. XXIII

JULY 1988
Rupees Five
Copyright of articles, stories, poems, etc. published in the Jain Journal is reserved.
All contributions, which must be type-written, and correspondence regarding contributions and book-reviews should be addressed to the Editor, Jain Journal, P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-7.
For advertisement and subscription please write to the Secretary, Jain Bhawan, P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-7. Subscription for one year: Rs. 15.00: for three years: Rs. 40.00. Foreign: Rs. 70.00 for one year.
Published by Moti Chand Bhura on behalf of Jain Bhawan from P-25 Kalakar Street, Calcutta-7 and printed by him at The Technical & General Press, 17 Crooked Lane, Calcutta-69.
Editor: Ganesh Lalwani

No. 1

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Contents

Spiritual Disciplines and Practices in Jainism 1 Bhagchandra Jain
In Stone That Cannot Crumble 17 Leona Smith Kremser
The Jaina Concept of Perception 19 Lalita Chakraborty
Indian Atomism 23 J. C. Sikdar
Jainism A Popular Cult among the House-holders during the Time of Tirthankara Mahavira 34 Binod Kumar Tiwary
Plate
Sri Kanhaiyalal Sethia receiving the Murtidevi Literary Award 1

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Spiritual Disciplines and Practices
in Jainism
BHAGCHANDRA JAIN
Spirituality is the science of spirit or self or ultimate reality in being which comprises its right knowledge and right conduct in its relation with the universe. It is beyond the physical or material world and therefore is immanent. It is called adhyātma (pertaining to self) in Sanskrit. Spiritual knowledge of the self requires its realization that one has capacity and aspiration to attain the highest and ultimate truth. Spirituality needs spirit in its purity which can be achieved only by and in inwardness, intuition and mysticism. Ultimate reality is related to world until one reaches ultimate spiritual destiny. Therefore there is significant relationship between human and pure spiritual and natural and super-natural.
An empirical man is expected to follow the auspicious qualities or values and ethics and morality which are intimately related to the ultimate. Ethics is man's intellectual search for conceptual knowledge about the good and morality is essentially merely a mode of personal and social conduct. Both these together help a man to reach ultimate reality.
Spirituality, religion and philosophy are intimately connected with each other. The word 'religion' is derived from the Latin Verb ‘religare' i.e. to bind which means religion is to impose duties that bind and require observances on the part of its adherents. It has a wide sphere for the spiritual upliftment of the self and society. Its fundamental subject is to search ultimate truth with intuition but simultaneously it can also be a social, dynamic and a subject for intellectualistic enterprise involving metaphysical and philosophical presuppositions. It is first subjective and then objective. When religion is considered for the sake of spiritual realization it becomes a basic instrument for the welfare of mankind and its society. Philosophy is essentially an intellectual pursuit which provides a man with a new sphere to ponder over religious and social problems with certain moral values and spiritual qualities. Religion is for self-valuation and philosophy stipulates the logical speculation. Specially in Indian philosophy knowledge is an

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instrument and spiritual salvation is the supreme goal. Philosophy is the base of religion. Philosophy is pervading and religion is pervaded. Religion stresses practical aspects of life while philosophy gives it the metaphysical and intellectual expression. Therefore both religion and philosophy are profoundly co-related with each other. They uphold the supremacy and ultimacy of liberation from conditioned existence.
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Spiritual disciplines and practices are representative wings of religion and philosophy. Spirituality is immanent in human nature, religion is a moral force and philosophy is an intellectual instrument for achieving the spiritual and religious goals. Under this perspective Jainism originally preaches ideals for attaining spirituality. Its religious aspects enjoin discipline for social upliftment and philosophy justifies them for exemplary behaviours.
Spirituality relates to having belief in an independent existence of soul, its nature of innate purity, and the removal of ignorance through right means. To attain this spiritual goal a certain amount of disciplines and practices are to be prescribed by all the systems. Therefore there is no controversy over the spiritual goal but the controversy lies in framing the disciplines and practices leading to the goal. Here we shall have a bird's eye view of the concept of Jainism in this regard.
Spiritual Tradition in Jainism:
Jainism is one of the most ancient living religions and philosophies of the world. It belongs to the Sramana tradition of India which has been propagated by spiritual victors from time immemorial. In the light of various literary accounts and historical and archaeological evidences, it appears, Jainism, the religion of humanistic approach was started with the beginning of human civilization in the Indian subcontinent by Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of the Jainas in the third era of the present cycle. It is neither originated in and developed within the Vedic tradition nor is it an offshoot of Buddhism. But it is, as a matter of fact, pre-Vedic in origin belonging to the non-Aryan culture of India and therefore Jainas may be indigenous to India. This fact can be ascertained from the Vedic literature and the archaeological excavation of Mohenjodaro and Harappa sites where the ascetic sculptures depict the cultural aspects of Sramana Munis, Arhats, Vratyas and Vatarasanas of Pre-Aryan religion, viz. Jainism. It is also an established fact that the Upanisadic philosophical speculations have deep impact of Jaina dogmas and ascetic practices.

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Among the successors of Rsabhadeva, the twenty second Tirthankara Neminatha is related to Lord Krsna and the twenty third Tirthankara Parsvanatha and twenty fourth Tirthankara Mahavira are wellknown to the Pali literature of early Buddhism. Remaining spiritual leaders are not much known to the history of today.
These Tirthankaras are not the founders of Jainism. They are propagators of the supreme truth and spirituality. They had attained it through right conduct and penance. They were individual human souls, and not the divine personalities, who revealed the path of pusification and liberation from all passions and desires through right vision. They threw off the yoke of bloody sacrifices and other Brahmanic rituals, and rejected the conception of the incarnation of God. They refuted the idea that God is the creator and destroyer of the universe and put aside the authority of the Vedas and derecognised the caste system of the Brahmanic society. Pluralistic system of their thought paved the way of salvation for the realization of self by each and every being. Another important feature of Jainism is to observe non-violence in all spheres of speculation, social conditions and political and religious disciplines and practices. It implies a pessimistic and ascetic outlook towards mundane life. Complete detachment from samsāra and observation of nudity indicating non-possession as its symbol is its prerequisite stage for the attainment of emancipation from karmas.
Jainism is more known to us through Tirthankara Mahavira, the contemporary of Tathagata Buddha. His prominent spiritual followers have written a vast literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Our analysis of spirituality and other religious practices is based on their monumental works.
Conception of Spirit and other Categories :
The main aim and object of spiritual disciplines and practices is to enable a man to realize spiritual happiness and perennial peace. To obtain this motto of life, one is expected to believe first in the existence of spirit or soul which is said to possess qualities of consciousness, rememberence, desire for knowledge, desire for movement, doubt etc. The other substance is non-soul which is not endowed with consciousness. Matter, motion, rest, space, and time come under this category of non-soul (ajiva). Of these the soul and matter are the most important as their interaction results in the origin of the universe.

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Soul, according to Jainism, is the central point of spiritual disciplines and practices. Its distinctive characteristic is consciousness, the power of cognition (upayoga) which distinguishes it from body or physical entity. It is infinite in number and is without beginning. It exists within the corporal shape whatsoever it may be. Soul is formless, agent, enjoyer of the fruits of karmas, and exists in the world. Its cognitive operation is generally divided into two types, viz. determinate (sākāra) and indeterminate (anākāra). Soul apprehends the object concerned first in specific form and then in a generic form. When one attains the state of complete development, he becomes capable of knowing and perceiving all at once. This is the highest spiritual point where one finds transcendence in extraordinary experience.
JAIN JOURNAL
Soul is of two types-one is worldly and the other is emancipated. The worldly soul attracts influx of karmic matter and gets mixed together with false notions, negligence and passions. As a result, soul becomes obscured. The state of mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas is the process of bondage which causes birth and rebirth. This transmigratory cycle remains with the soul until it is destroyed by anti-karmic forces. The true nature of soul is thus hidden behind the veil of evil karmas. The veil has to be removed and this is done by spiritual disciplines and practices. This is the core point wherefrom the practical form of Jaina metaphysics commences. By means of observing code of conduct as laid down by Jaina scriptures, the spiritual aspirant gradually effects the cessation of the inflow and the disruption of the karmic matter. Then the soul attains at last the state of complete annihilation of all karmic matter which is called spiritual salvation, the state of permanent happiness.
The living beings may be divided into two groups. The first group belongs to those who consider happiness in worldly enjoyments through external means confined to materialistic approach with lesser development. On the other hand, the second group comprises those who believe in disentanglement from worldliness and attainment of meritorious spiritual qualifications and real happiness with right means alone. The first strives for economic possession and the second one leads the religious conduct for realization of the ultimate truth.
For spiritual realization according to Jaina tradition, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct constitute all three together the path of spiritual salvation termed as triple jewel (ratnatraya). This path provides true knowledge of substances diminishing pseudo

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cognition through spiritual calmness, spiritual agitation, spiritual detachment, compassion and religiosity.
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Anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed are the passions which lead to endless worldly existences. Consequent on the fruition of karmas the soul wanders into different conditions of existence, creates passions, disbelieve in reality, non-cognition of substances, arising from ignorance, non-restraint and non-attainment of perfections. From destructioncum-subsidence soul attains mixed type of right and wrong belief, knowledge, perception, attainment, conduct and mixed disposition of restraint and non-restraint. When the karmas are completely destroyed, the perfect knowledge, perfect perception, fearlessness and infinite enjoyment are attained by the purified soul.
Spiritual Disciplines and Practices in Jainism:
With this introduction let us have a view of spiritual disciplines and practices as laid down in Jainism. With the sole intention to achieve the purified state of soul Jainism prescribes some fundamental disciplines and practices. They can be observed partially and totally. Partial observation is prescribed for a householder as he is unable to desist from all sins completely whereas an ascetic is expected to observe the code of conduct totally as he practically does not stay at home. An ascetic is he who observes vows completely and is free from sting, the main root of pain and emotional excitement arising from karmas. Sting is of three kinds, viz. (i) deceit termed as māyā, (ii) desire for enjoyment termed as nidāna, and (iii) perverse attitude termed as mithyādartana. The practice of these vows with vigilance dispels sufferings just as an excellent specific herb removes disease.
Spiritual Disciplines and Practices for a Householder:
Jaina thinkers have written a vast literature over the code of conduct for a householder and spiritual aspirant. A householder, as a matter of fact, has to observe more responsibilities. First he prepares himself gradually and steadily to renounce the world with right faith by observing the rules prescribed and then fulfils the responsibilities for welfare of the family, ascetics, society, nation and mankind. Some of the important attributes of a householder may be mentioned as follows: observation of non-violence, legitimate earning, hospitality, refraining from unnecessary criticising the Government, keeping good company, paying respects to parents, service to people, following religious preachings, gratefulness, generosity, being afraid of sins, honesty,

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appreciating conduct, life and activities of spiritually advanced people, avoiding expenditure exceeding income and so on. Such rules make life pleasant.
JAIN JOURNAL
A. Spiritual Stages of a Householder :
A Jaina householder's disciplines have been discussed in various ways in Jaina scriptures. Out of them two types may be specially mentioned. In the first type he has to undergo eleven stages called Srāvakapratimas whereas the laymen make spiritual progress through gradual restrictions upon worldly activities. The second classification is divided into three, viz. (i) Pākṣika Sravaka, (ii) Naiṣṭhika Sravaka, and (iii) Sadhaka Srāvaka.
(i) Pākṣika Srävaka
This is the first spiritual status of a Jaina laity in which he first takes a vow with right faith not to eat meat, not to drink alcohol or wine, not to relish honey or any of the five kinds of figs containing souls. Then he desists from injury, falsehood, stealing, unchastity and attachment to wealth. These are the eight basic restraints (mulagunas) which are to be followed by even an ordinary Jaina layman. He also takes a vow not to indulge in seven types of obnoxious habits (vyasanas) which make the life disasterous. They are, (a) gambling and racing, (b) meateating, (c) alcoholic drinks, (d) prostitution, (e) hunting, (f) stealing, and (g) sexual intercourse with other's wife or husband. He ponders over the consequences of man's indulgence in these vices. They are the cause of sin or demerit and those who are engaged in sinful activities are punished here by administrators and society members and are subjected to suffering in the next world. He also leads the life of a strict vegetarian. His profession should not be violent. One point is remarkable here that restraint from injury etc. refers to restraint from injuring himself. This extremity leads him to a pious life. Along with the observation of the aṣṭamulaguṇas a Jaina householder must practise the six more activities for spiritual progress. They are called avaśyakas:
(a) Worship of the Tirthankaras: This attribute has given rise to the construction of huge Jaina images and temples all over India. It has developed an independent branch of art and architecture, painting etc. There is no priest system working as an intermediary in Jainism. The worship of the Tirthankaras sometimes assumes an unusual proportion with their pañcakalyāṇakas, vidhānas, visits to holy places and other religious ceremonies. (b) Service to spiritual teacher with obedience,

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reverence, food etc. The teacher preaches to the laymen and laymen pay respects and services to teachers. They also keep themselves on guard against the conduct of each other. Therefore the relation between these two religious groups has never been lop-sided and fearful. (c) Studying scriptural texts every day (svādhyāya). Scriptural texts contain the sermons which show the people right path. (d) Practising some form of self restraint every day. (e) Doing some form of penance and austerity every day both external and internal, and (f) doing some kind of charitable act.
This is an introduction to spiritual disciplines and practices of an ordinary householder. These observations create communal harmony and maintain peace in society and in the country.
(ii) Naişthika Srävaka :
One who fulfils his religious duties with constant vigilance is an loyal householder (Naişthika Srāvaka). In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life the householder goes further to observe the eleven spiritual stages (pratimās). They are as follows:
(a) Darśana Pratima :
After observing introductory rules, layman enters into first spiritual stage (darśana pratima) in which it is required true and unshakable faith in Jainism with firm conviction in the reality of seven fundamental principles saptatattva of Jainism and devotion to pañcaparameşthinas (arhat, siddha, acārya, upādhyāya and sadhu). After a long practice he becomes samyagdrsti (possessing right vision and right knowledge). As a result there should be eight attributes in him at this stage, viz. (1) freedom from care of body, (2) freedom from doubt in the teachings of the Jina with right knowledge, (3) freedom from desire for worldly enjoyment, (4) following of right path, (5) reinstatement of right belief, (6) attaining to right conviction, (7) love and affection for good people, and (8) respect for religious teachings. He should also not be proud of caste, family, power, personality, penance, accomplishments, learning and worship. A true follower of Jainism will ponder daily over twelve points of meditation to realize self or deep-reflection (dvādaśāņupreksā) as follows : transitoriness, helplessness, transmigration, loneliness, distinctness, impurity of body, influx of karmic matter, stoppage of influx of karmic matter, dissociation of karmas, the structure of the universe, rarity of enlightenment and the truth proclaimed by religion. These reflections help the spiritual aspirants to practise moral virtues

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such as supreme forbearance, modesty, straightforwardness, purity, truthfulness, self-restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment and celibacy. The realization of self through these attributes generates tranquility, disenchantment with materialistic world, prosperity, supreme perfection and final beatitude. Householders and mendicants can achieve these attributes through spiritual disciplines and practices gradually.
(b) Vrata Pratimā :
In order to prepare himself for the ascetic life the householder goes ahead to observe the twelve vows (five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four sikşāvratas) for obtaining inner purity of the self. Firm conviction with right understanding in the reality of fundamental principles of Jainism generates benevolence towards all living beings, joy at the sight of virtuous, compassion and sympathy for the afflicted and tolerance towards the insolent and ill-behaved. He who conducts himself in this manner is able to practise non-violence, truth, non-stealing, refraining from all illicit sexual activities and non-possession to perfection.
Non-violence is the fundamental principle of Jainism. It rebuffs all complaints and humiliations made by small and big, if followed seriously. Its instinct percolates into the heart of a right ascetic and leads him to humanity by leaps and bounds. Here violence means severance of vitalities out of passion. Negligence is the main cause of violence. Even violence in thought in Jainism is a cause of injury. Datavaikälika says that one who walks, stands, sits, sleeps, eats and speaks with vigilance, no sin accrues to him. Jaina thinkers discussed violence and non-violence at a great length. In their opinion avoidance of external violence is as necessary as the avoidance of feelings of attachment. Violence is mainly of three types, i.e. (1) committed by himself, (2) got committed by others, and (3) giving consent to violence done. Violence should be avoided by either of the three agencies of mind, speech and body. Thus a layman starts his steps towards equality and equanimity. Other vows are intended in safeguarding the vow of nonviolence.
Some remarkable disciplines are to be mentioned here which can be said are instruments for social and economic justice. The true householder should be kind to animals. He should not bind, beat, and mutilate their limbs. He should not overload them and withhold food and drink. He is also expected to refrain from perverted teaching, divulging what is done in secret, forgery, misappropriation

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and proclaiming others' thoughts. Likewise to refrain from prompting others to steal, receiving stolen goods, buying goods other than those allowed by lawful and just means, using false weights and measures in order to obtain more from others and deceiving others with artificial or imitation goods like gold, synthetic diamonds and so on are some of the important small vows prescribed for Jaina householders. These observations should be in practice to make justice for self and the justice for the sake of society to implement social justice and create congenial atmosphere and relationship between fundamental rights and directive principles of state policy. Ordering someone to bring something illegally from outside the country is also prohibited for householders.
Anger, pride, deceitfulness and greed are the four passions which are main causes for the influx of the karmic matter into soul through the channel or medium of activity. This influx is differentiated on the basis of intensity or feebleness of thought-activity, intentional or unintentional nature of action, the substratum and its peculiar potency. With the intention of collective interest it is also an imperative task that one should not censure others by concealing their good qualities and praising oneself proclaiming noble qualities absent in oneself.
Rendering help to one another is the basic formula of Jaina discipline (parasparopagraho jīvānām). Some more supplementary vows are prescribed for householders which pave the way for their spiritual elevation with a view to having socio-economic justice. For instance, to curb the mentality of master minding operations aimed at enlarging their wealth or concentrating their economic power to achieve greater exploitative capacity, Jainism directs the householder to fix boundaries for business, not to pursue such activities which cause injury to living beings, to limit consumable and non-consumable things, not to use honey, meat and wine, to extend hospitality by offering food, implements, medicine and shelter, and to bestow one's possessions on another for mutual benefit. He should also observe compassion towards living beings in general and towards the devout in particular. He should practise charity, contemplation, equanimity and freedom from greed. A true follower of Jainism is also expected not to give weapons of violence, take interest in other's dispute, supply poisons, fire, rope, whips or other such objects as may lead to violence.
Remaining Pratimās:
The householder, besides observing the twelve vratas, follows the remaining spiritual stages gradually. In the third stage he has to

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observe (c) concentration on self (sānia yika) thrice a day. Other stages are (d) observing weekly fast (poşadha), (e) avoiding the use of animate articles (sacittatyāga), (f) abstaining from eating at night (rātribhuktityāga), (g) observing complete celibacy (brahmacarya), (h) renouncing all worldly occupations and engagements (ārambhatyāga), (i) renouncing all worldly concerns (parigrahatyāga), (j) renouncing approval of activities connected with household (anumatityāga) and (k) renouncing specially prepared food or lodging (uddistatyāga). The spiritual aspirant who reaches the eleventh stage is called Ksullaka (junior) having three long pieces of clothes and a loin cover (langotā) and Elaka having only a water pot and a broom and also a loin cover in Digambara tradition while in Svetambara tradition he is called Sramanabhūta possessing a begging bowl and whisk broom. Thus he prepares to observe the total ascetic practices.
(iii) Sadhaka Srāvaka :
This is the third stage of a householder where the subjugation of senses is conducive to the removal of passions. In case his senses cease to work and cooperate, the aspirant thinks to die voluntarily. In Jaina tradition this type of death is called Panditamaraņa. This is an important and interesting feature of the Jaina householder and spiritual aspirant's vows. It is a passionless voluntary death which he embraces at the end of this life. It is very controversial and is debated even on the international level today. It is argued that it is a sort of suicide. But, as a matter of fact, this is not so as there is no passion in it. A person who kills himself by means of weapon etc. is swayed by attachment/aversion or infatuation. It is suicide. But he who courts death is free from desire, anger and delusion. Hence it is not suicide. This is called sallekhanā in Jaina terminology which means to make the body and the passion thin.
In modern terminology it is called 'Euthanasia' or one's 'Right to die'. This has come into limelight all the world over and became a subject of debate because of the revolutionary changes in medical knowledge and life-supporting systems which could prolong human life even after the brain stops functioning. The practice has been accepted in countries like the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia. Even the Vatican has accepted it in one case. The Karnataka AdvocateGeneral Santosh Hegde from India has supported the view by referring to all these instances and said Acarya Vinoba Bhave had reportedly been allowed to refuse food and medicines during the last few days of his life so that he could die a quick death. Hegde is of the opinion that there was nothing immoral or unethical for a person to prefer euthanasia

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if he is found to be suffering from an incurable disease and if he is in a sane state of mind, fully aware of the consequences of his decision. Suicide, as a matter of fact, should not be mixed up with the exercise of an individual's right to die as the former is not a sane decision (Patrika, Jaipur, January 30, 1985). Jain Acarya Santisagar's death in August 1955 can also be cited as the holy death fasting upto last moment.
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Fourteen Spiritual Stages (Gunasthānas):
This is the third type of division of spiritual stages called gunasthāna in the Jaina scriptures. It is fourteen in number stating the nature of the self in possession of the ratnatraya (right vision, right knowledge, and right conduct) on the path of purification. The first stage is the lowest one which involved gross ignorance (mithyadṛṣṭi). Here the self accepts wrong belief as right therefore the person cannot make a distinction between reality and unreality. The second stage is sāsādana in which the soul, though in transitory stage, has a taste of right knowledge. The third säsādana samyagdṛṣṭi indicates the mixture state of right and wrong belief. The fourth is asamyata samyagdṛṣṭi where the soul achieves right vision but cannot perform the conduct. The fifth deśasamyata shows the trends of the soul for adopting partial vows prescribed for a layman. The sixth pramattasamyata onward relates to the ascetic order. Here the soul observes the ascetic conduct but mild passions make him impure. The seventh stage apramattasamyata makes the ascetic free from negligence and breach of vows. It is said that the ascetic cannot go beyond this stage in the present era as he does not possess that purity. The eighth stage apurvakarana indicates highly purified mind of the self who does not go down. The practice of śukladhyāna starts from this stage. Pride is also altogether destroyed in this stage. In the next anivṛttikarana stage deceit totally disappears and the soul advances further to sukṣmasamparāya stage where all passions are annihilated except slight greed which is destroyed in the eleventh stage upasantamoha. From here the aspirant may fall back to the lowest stage. In the kṣinakasaya the soul becomes free from delusion and attains kaivalya (omniscience). The soul upto this stage is called chadmastha. The next stage (sayogakevali) enjoys the omniscience in its embodied state. And the last fourteenth stage ayogakevali is the most pure stage where all the passions and karmas are annihilated by the third and fourth stages of sukladhyāna.
This is a brief picture of the spiritual development in fourteen steps which can be comprehended by the three main divisions, viz. the external

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self (bahirātman), internal self (antarātman) and the transcendental self (paramātman).
B. Spiritual Disciplines and Practices for a Jaina Mendicant
Jaina scripture prescribes some code of conduct for a spiritual aspirant. It is called sammācāro (right conduct) which is formulated in consonance with the spiritual vigilance for a mendicant. He stays in temples or woods with total renunciation and proper conduct. He must observe fully all the twelve Vows prescribed to the householder. After observing the eleventh pratimā he accepts initiation from the teacher and becomes mendicant pulling out the hair from his own hands. He is now required to arrest the karmic matter by controlling passions, careful movement, observing vitrues, engaging himself in contemplation and conquering the sufferings by endurance and conduct. He follows in toto the twelve vows prescribed for layman. For curbing the threefold activity of body, speech and mind an ascetic takes every care in walking, speaking, eating, lifting and lying down and depositing waste products for avoiding injury to organisms. Besides, he observes in toto the ten virtues and meditates over the anuprekşās as already discussed in the context of disciplines for householders. He has also to endure twenty two types of afflictions (parişahas), viz. hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insectbites, nakedness, absence of pleasures, women, pain arising from roaming, discomfort of postures, uncomfortable couch, scolding, injury, begging, lack of gain, illness, pain inflicted by blades of grass, dirt reverence and honour (good as well as bad reception), conceit of learning, despair or uneasiness arising from ignorance and lack of faith. These afflictions are to be endured so as not to swerve from the path of stoppage of karmas and for the sake of dissociation from karmas.
Thus the ascetic observes the conduct by fulfilling five causes of stoppage, namely control, regulation, moral virtues, reflections and conquest of afflictions. The conduct is of five types viz. (a) contemplation over self and equanimity, (b) reinitiation after committing any violation of rules, (c) purity of conduct or refraining from injury, (d) conduct with slight passion, and (e) perfect conduct. This may be said as the five gradual stages of spiritual development in realizing and achieving the nature of the self. Self control over physical, mental and vocal activities and vigilance in conduct like moving, speaking, taking and keeping food and depositing excreta are the essentials for a Jaina monk. These essentials protect him from sin. He is also expected to he free from impure thoughts. impure talking and impure and violent

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actions. Constant vigilance in behaviour cultivates in him ten cardinal qualities like forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, contentment, truth, restraint, penance, renunciation, detachment and celibacy. Jaina monk also follows the six āvas yakas, viz. equanimity in mind (sāmāyika), paying respect to the preceptor and superiors (vandanā), self criticism and confession of the moral transgressions before the teacher (pratikramana), determination to avoid sinful activities (pratyākhyāna), and devotion to auspicious meditation (kāyotsarga).
In this respect we should also understand the two types of austerities, viz., external and internal. External austerities consist of fasting, reduced diet, special restrictions for begging food, giving up stimulating and delicious dishes, lonely habitation and mortification of the body. The main object behind the external austerity is to cultivate patient endurance of bodily pain and suffering in order to remove attachment to pleasure and to proclaim the glory of the teaching of the Jinas.
The internal austerities are expiation over negligence of duties, reverence to the holy personages, services to the saints in difficulty, study of the scriptures with giving up idleness, renunciation of ego, i.e., of 'I and Mine', and meditation for checking the ramblings of the mind. These austerities are described in detail in the Jaina scriptures.
We now come to the meditation, the last point of internal austerity. Concentration of thought on one particular object is meditation. The mind must be abstracted from all worldly desires and passions and these causes can be detected through introspection which prepares the mind to overcome them. This attitude of mind having right path of purification is called spirituality. For realization of this spirituality, Jainism has prescribed some spiritual disciplines and practices for meditation which require considerable purification of the self.
The auspicious meditation for attainment of spiritual goal is of two types, viz. virtuous or righteous meditation and pure meditation. After removal of sorrowful concentrations, the Sādhaka in the third stage (dharmadhyāna) contemplates on the objects of revelation, misfortune or calamity, fruitation of karmas and the structure of the universe. According to Digambara tradition dharmadhyāna is possible only in the four gunasthānas from the 4th to 7th. On the other hand, Svetambara tradition is of view that it can be in the six gunasthānas from 7th to 12th. During two types of śukladhyāna an aspirant attains various types of transcendental powers (rddhis). In the third sukladhyāna an

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aspirant attains kevalajñāna where the subtle activity of body remains and all other activities cease. It can be attained in the 13th gunasthāna. The last or fourth type of sukladhyāna is attained by the aspirant when all the karmas are annihilated. This is the fourteenth stage of guṇasthāna the most pure stage of soul.
Evaluation :
This is the brief survey of the spiritual disciplines and practices as laid down in Jainism for day to day life. Jainism is a religion of religions and a philosophy of philosophies. It believes that proper religious observances prepare a man to possess a non-sectarian attitude towards religious disciplines and practices culminating in spiritual enlightenment or achieving consciousness of ultimate reality. It is also of the opinion that a noble social conduct as prescribed in Jainism means a social conduct of self restraint and highmindedness, benevolence and compassion, sympathy and tolerance which is a moral instrument for building a just society. There is no difficulty at all to develop gradually the religious disciplines in everyday life, though the ultimate reality is immanent.
As a matter of fact, spirituality cannot and should not be limited to the absolute or direct spiritual experience of mystics. It considers in its ambit the humanism and humanitarianism also with metaphysical, religious, philosophical and moral consciousness. Moral values may not be a constitutive part of the religious life but at best it may be certainly instrumental in securing the realization of ultimate truth.
Ours is an age of intellectual dwarfs and selfish giants. We are so elated at our achievements, small or big, that we attribute to ourselves all the good qualities of head and heart. We regard ourselves as extraordinary. We are so sure of our righteousness that anybody who differs from us is promptly labelled as imbecile. Honest divergence of opinion has become a rare commodity. Our egoistic tendency and mean mentality cause us to disregard other conceptions and motions. Further on account of our materialistic and atheistic tendencies we are unable to overcome the social problems that are staring us in the face.
The clashes and conflicts that obtain in the world are due mainly to the absence of economic equality, sound ecclesiastic outlook, tolerance and humility. The real threat to the world peace comes from superstitious or ideological gulf which exists between one nation and another,

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between one people and another. War is a great evil. The ever grim tragedy of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, where the atom bombs were dropped on these islands, may be repeated after a few decades, when the interest of two super powers will clash. We all are acquainted with the past and present instances in this regard. Now the star-wars, the new missile defence system has been started. It is obviously a highly dangerous step for world peace. The entire global atmosphere is surcharged with tremendous tension and a perpetual threat of a nuclear holocaust.
15
It is the doctrine of ahimsā, aparigraha, anekāntavāda and syādvāda that alone can bring about an end of this ideological conflict. Syādvāda is a strange non-violent weapon in the armoury of Jainism. It can uproot our differences no matter how deep-set they are. Syādvāda believes in bridging the gulf between the conflicting ideologies. It strives to establish a liberal attitude in our feelings and dealings. Difference of opinion is bound to exist between one person and another. But one must not be obdurate in his opinions. He must make room for admitting opinions other than his own. Others opinion should be studied logically and impartially from a humanitarian outlook.
The traditional values are being questioned in all the nations of the globe in this age of science, technology and nuclear development. But today spiritual disciplines and practices are badly needed when everyone is sceptical about his own existence. There is unrest and suffering everywhere. To overcome this unusual situation, the spiritual disciplines can play a pivotal part in having human approach to all the national and inter-national problems. Spirit of co-existence and brother-hood based on non-violence is badly needed. I do hope, Jaina spiritual disciplines, if correctly followed, may purify the political, social, national and international atmosphere. The problem of economic inequality can be solved by following the ideal of non-possession and non-hoarding and peaceful co-existence among different warring nations can be established by the notion of non-violence.
Gigantic task of building up a democratic and egalitarian society can be achieved by Jaina dogmas. It guarantees freedom of thought, speech and action to all alike and asks us to shun violence in the name of religion. All human beings have a right to equal respect and consideration. Not only human beings but also animals and other small creatures should get proper protection. Even at the deepest level the interest of animals and other smaller creatures should be taken into account. Rationality, autonomy and freedom may vary for one

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individual to another in his ability to achieve his purposes but since everyone has a right to live, one should let others live and not disturb their interests by arguing utilitarianism. Everything goes according to its nature and the nature should not be interrupted. Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct will save the world from cruelty and establish a state of happiness and brotherhood.
Reference books
1 Jain, B. C., Jainism
Nagpur, 1972.
in
Buddhist Literature, Alok
Prakashan,
2
Jain, B. C., Jain Darśan evam Sanskrti kā Itihās, Nagpur University, Nagpur, 1977.
3
Jain, S. A., Reality (Translation of Sarvārthasiddhi), Vira Sasana Sangha, Calcutta, 1960.
4
Jaini, P. S., The Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarasidass, Varanasi, 1979.

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In Stone That Cannot Crumble
LEONA SMITH KREMSER
In a curve of temple stone, Anciently, sit the twenty-four images, Jinas of the non-violent Jaina religion. First is Rsabha from the dawning Bronze Age, Giver of the gentle art of tillage to Bharata. In spiritual lineage come His worthy successors, Names esteemed and states of purity Venerated. At the last is Mahavira, an elder to the Buddha, Sculptor of the Four Laws into the Five Jewels, Harmlessness, truth, honesty, chastity, charity - Living Jewels, living in daily Jaina conduct.
Severe mid splendour was the conduct Of the prince to be the twenty-second Jina. Thunder-drums, His wedding procession, Yet His ear caught a wailing of feast-animals. Ancestral jewels to the dust, He took renunciation. Barefoot penance, then, bore Him to enlightenment. Thereafter, His holy word became a personal vow :
“Ye food-animals, prisoners without crimes, Soft-eared victims of mankind's double-dealing, Behold, behold ye are vessels for His gratitude, For ye called this half-learned prince Into intimacy with the dweller Within His body, so likewise That your souls comfort ye, Here He speaks, and speaks Hereafter in echo...

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On this brief page, let be His echoing word.
"Simples, ye at His feet in trust of Him, Now hear the root of His trustworthiness. 'Twas your forebears' wails that drilled His ear With the selfhood of the martyrs to His feast. ...Pool of blood, Himself sinking Of His damnable greed, what solace a bride ?... Thus was this prince recast into truth-seeker. So rises His debt to ye heirs of wailers, bygone Beyond reach in the grasslands of heaven --Yea, a simple fodder for a simple grasp Of an aspect of truth to ease ye."
"Every living thing has its own soul. Ye have your own soul. A time ago, your soul was pure joy. To pure joy, your soul may return. And when may return ye to pure joy ? -When ye lose body-attachment, For then ye gain soul-insight. And pure, equal soul is pure, equal joy. 'Tis so, 'tis so for every living thing."
"O joy joy O! His pledge To ye at His feet : Your first after-death eye Shall bring to sight your own eternal soul. And to ye animals on the horizons of tomorrow, Be hopeful. Mid sky-fires upon even themselves Come gentle persons in service to bloodless diet, And to Harmlessness, the Highest Religion."
... And now blooms a lotus of silence, As to another needful space drifts His echo. Yet behold, His holy echo taking form In foods of the few, the truly merciful few. ... Whilst round this bloody-minded world, Deathy eye of the food-animals rolls up To the Jina Aristanemi, and to His pledge In stone that cannot crumble... IN JAINA TRUTH, YE ARE EVERLIVING.

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The Pramāņa Sāästra (or the epistemology) is the basis of Indian philosophical thinking. Without the pramānas (or valid knowledge) man could not have been able to understand the objects truely. Valid knowledge is essential for day-to-day life and due to it we are able to accept or reject any object. If there were no knowledge there would be no activity towards the objects. Moreover, valid knowledge only helps us to recognize the desirables.
The Jaina Concept of Perception
LALITA CHAKRABORTY
Though, there is no difference about the nature (svarupa) of the pramānas, still we find different views regarding its classification. The first and foremost i.e. perception has been accepted as the base of all other knowledges (pramāņas) i.e. inference, verbal testimony, etc., because their validity depend on the validity of perception only. But different opinions are found regarding the characteristics of perception. More-or-less, all philosophers accept the perception as sensory knowledge. But the Jainas explain perception from different standpoint. And that is why, the theory of perception is being discussed here.
According to the Jainas, the knowledge which arises from self is aparoksa and paroksa arises from the sense organs. It is remarkable to note that the basic difference among the Jainas and the other philosophers lies on the explanation of the derivative meaning of the term 'pratyaksa'. The word 'pratyakşa' is derived from the word 'akṣa'. According to the philosophers (other than the Jainas), the meaning of the word 'aksa' is the sense-organs, so the knowledge, which appears from the sense-organs is called as pratyakṣa.3 On the other hand, the Jainas hold that 'akṣa' means the jiva (or the self) which pervades or
1 cf;
2
pravrtti-samarthyad-arthavat
pramanam Vatsyayana-bhasyam (Nyaya-sutram) (ed. by Tarkavagisa, Phanibhusana, Calcutta, 1981) p. 1.
cf; aksnati vyapanoti janatiti aksa atma; tam-eva-prapta-ksayopsamam praksenavaranam va pratiniyatam pratyaksam/Sarvartha-siddhi (Pujyapadacarya, Second Edition, 1839) p. 59.
pramanato'rtho-pratipattau
3 cf; tatraksam aksam pratityotpadyata iti pratyaksam, aksanindriyani/Prasastapadabhasyam, (Sridharbhatta, ed. by Jha, Durgadhara, Varanasi, 1977) p. 442.

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knows itself and the objects,' knowledge produced by this ak sa or the self is known as pratyak$a (or perception). Hence they believe that pratyakşa arises directly without any functions of the sense-organs. Here we find the great difference between the Jainas and the other philosophers. The Jainas think that if the perception produced by the help of the sense-organs only, then the mental and non-sensuous (anindriyaja) perception could not be called as perception."
However, the later Jainas accept the theory that the knowledge which arises from the sense-organs is also called perception. So they classified the perception as sāṁvyāvahārika or the sensuous perception and the mukhya or the non-sensuous perception. Hemacandra, the latter Jaina logician, explains the meaning of the term 'akşa' also as self or as the sense-organs. According to him the perception is either the knowledge which arises from the self or which arises depending on the sense-organs.
According to the Jaina logicians all knowledge, whether it is perception or not is self-revealing, object revealing and conceptual. So the perception has these general characteristics of knowledge, at the same time, some special qualities also. This special quality is 'clarity'. All the Jaina philosophers define perception as 'clear knowledge'.8
There are different opinions about this 'clearness'. The opponents argue that whether it means direct apprehension or the apprehension of the true nature of the object? However, Akalanka, the Jaina logician, suggests that the knowledge which is not based on any other knowledge or which manifests its object without the mediation of any other knowledge is the 'clear knowledge'. What is not clear is not perception,
4 cf; asnute-asnoti va vyapnoti sakala dravya-ksetra-kalabhavan-iti aksa jiva/ Pramana
mimansa 1.1.10, (Hemacandra, Pune, Vir-samvat 2452) p. 13. cf , aksani-ndriyani tani pratigatam tatkarya-tvena tadasritam pratyaksam-iti vyutpattividhanad-iti cet; na ;. ... anindriya pratyaksa atindriya pratyaksa cabhavat tadubhaya pratyaksa sadbhavasya ca pratipadanat/Nyaya-viniscaya-vivarana (Vadiraja Suri, ed. by Jain, Mahendra Kumar, Benaras. 1949) p. 95. cf ; tat-dvi-prakaram sam-vyavaharikam, paramarthikam ca/Pramana-naya-tattvaloka
lankarah (Vadideva Suri, Benaras, Vir-samvat 2437) p. 51. ? cf; asnutevisayam-iti aksam-indriyam ca/Pramana-mimansa (Hemacandra, Pune,
Vir-samvat 2452) p. 13. 8 cf ; (i) visadam pratyaksam]Ibid, p. 16, (ii) spastam pratyaksam/Pramana-naya
tattvalokalamkarah (Vadideva Suri, Benaras, Vir-samvat 2437) p. 50.

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just an inference. This clarity of knowledge arises by the removal of all karma obstacles. Here lies the difference with the Mimamsakas. Mimamsakas opine that the clearness of knowledge is due to the senseorgans. Hemacandra says that perception is clear in this sense that it is not dependent on any other knowledge and it manifests its objects as a "this".10
The distinction of perception as sa-vikalpaka and nir-vikalpaka have not been accepted by the Jainas. According to them, the perception is only determinate (or sa-vikalpaka). Moreover, the Jainas regard all knowledges as 'nirākāra' still Akalanka includes the word 'sākāra' in the definition of perception.11 Apparently it is controversial, but here actually the word 'sākāra' is used in the sense of sa-vikalpaka (or conceptual knowledge).12 Perception always manifests its object with all its qualities. Therefore, it is conceptual.
21
The Jaina logicians admit the distinction of perception as sāmvyāvahārika pratyakṣa or sensuous perception1s and mukhya (pārmarthika) pratyakṣa or non-sensuous perception.14 Sāmvyāvahārika pratyaksa (or immediate knowledge) arises with the help of the senseorgans and mind. There are two separate kinds of this knowledge called mati and śruti possessed by an average person and the mukhya pratyakṣa arises directly by the self only. Moreover, it arises when all the viels of karmas are removed. In such knowledge the soul's consciousness becomes immediately related to objects and there are three different kinds of such knowledge, which are avadhi, manahparyaya and Kevala.15
9
cf; pratyaksam visada-jnanatmakam, pratyaksa-tvat,yad-visada-jnanatmakam na vabati, na tat pratyaksam, yatha anumanadi-jnanam/Nyaya-viniscaya-vivarana (Vadiraja Suri, ed. by Jain, Mahendrakumar, Benaras. 1949) p. 95.
10 cf; pramanantaran-apekse-dantaya prati bhaso va vaisadyam/Pramana-mimansa, 1.1.14 (Hemacandra, Pune. Vir-samvat 2452) p. 16.
11 cf; pratyaksa laksanam prahu spastam-anjasa/dravya paryaya samanya-visesarthaatma vedanam/ Nyaya-viniscaya (Akalankadeva; with the commentary Nyaya-viniscaya-Vivarana by Vadiraja Suri, ed. by Jain, Mahendra Kumar, Benaras, 1949) p. 95.
12 cf; pratyaksam sa-vikalpena jainasya yadaha sakaram iti sa-vikalpakam, ca namo yatyadivisayatvam/Nyaya-viniscaya-vivarana (Vadiraja Suri, ed. by Jaina, Mahendrakumar, Benaras, 1949) p. 86.
13 cf; indriyanindriya-nimittam-avagrahe havaya dharana bhedam samvyava harikam/ Pramana-paribhasa (Vijayadharma Suri, Benaras, Vir-samvat 2440), p. 46.
14 cf; atma-matra-peksam paramarthikam/Ibid. p. 27.
15 ef; mati-srutavadhi-manah-paryaya-kevalani-jnanam Tattvartha-sutram (Umasvami, ed. by Shastri, A. Santiraja, Mysore, 1944) p. 11.

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From the above discussion we can conclude that the Jaina theory of perception is absolutely different from the theist as well as the a-theist schools of philosopher. It is interesting to note that they emphasized on the importance of self rather than the sense-organs in origination of the perception. Here lies the originality and novelty of their conception about perception.
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Indian Atomism
J. C. SIKDAR
Part-I
Introduction
The thought of Indian atomism reflects a stage of the emergence and development of Indian philosophy of a period in the field of metaphysical knowledge, when the daring flight of imagination of speculative human mind with logical nicety went on to search out the basic principle of dissolution and creation of the material universe. In this speculation the Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Mimamsaka, Bauddha, Vedanta and Jaina systems of thought have attacked the problem from their respective angles of vision and made attempts at the explanation and interpretation of the root cause of atomism. The Carvakasl admitted four or five elements of matter (bhūtas) as the basis of creation, having a support for atomism.
The Samkhya-Yoga philosophy has conceived the idea of atom as produced from tanmātrā (infra-atomic potential) by advocating Prakrtivāda (Doctrine of Primordial Matter) as the fundamental cause of the material universe. The Nyaya-Vaisesika3 has propounded the atomic theory on the basis of avayava (constituent element) and avayavi (composite whole), so its atomism is based on Sthirat vavāda (Doctrine of Permanence) and Avayavavāda (Doctrine of Constituent Elements) while atomism of the Buddhist schools of thought like the Vaibhasikas
1 Tattvopaplavasimha by Jayarasi, ed. by Pandit Sukhlalji, published by Gaekwad
Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1940, pt. I. 2 Sankhya-pravacana-bhasya by Vijnanabhiksu, ch. I, sutra, 62; vide the Positive
Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, Dr. B. N. Seal, published by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi (reprinted), 1938, p. 29; Vyasa-bhasya on Yogasutra of Patanjali, ed. and published by Sri Jivananda Vidyasagara, B. H. Sanskrit College, Calcutta, second
edition, 1895, pada IV, sutra 14, p. 91. 3 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, Haridas Sanskrit Granthamala 3, published by
Chowkhamba Sanskrit Pustakalaya Office, Kasi, 1923, adhyaya IV, ahnika I, sutras 1-2 ; Nyaya-darsana by Gautama, published by Chowkhamba Sanskrit Pustakalaya Office, Kasi, 1920, adhyaya IV, ahnika II, sutra 15; adhyaya II, ahnika I, sutra 35 ; see Vatsyayana-bhasya on them.

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and the Sautrantikas' is supported on Kșanikavāda(Doctrine of Momentariness), as they are the advocates of this doctrine. The Mimamsakas like Kumarila and Prabhakara and the Vedantin Madhva accepted atomism on the basis of the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. The Vijñānvādi Buddhists? and the Brahmavādi Vedantists like Acarya Sankara, 8 Acarya Ramanuja' and others did not admit this atomism. The Buddhist work Vijñaptimātrasiddhilo rejected the atomic theory of the Nyaya-Vaisesika system on the ground of consitutent parts of atom (avayavas of paramāņu), while the Vedantin Acarya Sankara11 refuted atomism of the Vaisesika by following the foot-steps of the Vijñanavādi Buddhists, under the influence of the Samkhya doctrine of prakti, buddhi (intellect), tanmātrā (infra-atomic potential), etc. The Jaina philosophy has conceived the atomic theory on the basis of destruction and origination of the material world from the stand-point of transformation taking place in it due to external and internal causes and made a synthetic approach to the problem of the atomic theory from the aspects of substance, space (locus), time and condition by taking into consideration all the concepts of atom of other Indian systems of thought.
The seed of atomism of the Jainas is embodied in the Jaina Agamas.12 Umasvati had shown the metaphysical aspect of it in his work Tattvārthadhigama-sūtrals on the basis of the Agamic concept of
4 Sankara-bhasya on Brahma-sutra (Vedanta-darsana), published by Veda Mandir, ed.
by Sri Mahesh Chandra Pal, No. 141/3/1 Varanasi Ghosh Street, Calcutta, adhyaya II, pada II, sutra 12, pp. 484-87 ; Abhidharma-dipa by Vima. Sloka-vartika by Kumarila, ed. by S. K. Ramnath Shastri, published by Madras University, 1940, Madras University Sanskrit Series No. 13; Sunyavada, slokas 261, 262, p. 301 ; Prabhakara-mimamsa by Salikantha Misra, ed. by Mimamsaratna Pandit Subrahmanya Shastri, published by Benaras Hindu University, 1961, 4th prakasana, pp. 64-65 ; pp. 67-68. Purnaprajna-darsana, Madhva, pp. 67-68. Bodhicaryavatara by Santideva, ed. by Dr. P. L. Vaidya, published by Mithila
Sanskrit Institute, Darbhanga, 1959, navama pariccheda, pp. 235-36, 281. 8 Sankara-bhasya on Brahma-sutra (Vedanta-darsana), adhyaya JI, pada 11, sutras,
11-17, pp. 459-84. • Sri Bhasya of Ramanuja, adhyaya II, pada II, sutras 11-17. 10 Vijnaptimatrasiddhi by Vasubandhu, Karika Vimastika, vide Nyaya-darsana, fifth
part, p. 106, ed. by Ananta Kumar Bhattacarya, Calcutta Sanskrit College. 11 Sankara-bhasya on Brahma-sutra, adhyaya II, pada II, sutras 11-17, pp. 459-84. 12 Bhagavati-vyakhyaprajnapti, see its Tika, sataka 14, uddesaka 4, sutra 513 ; sataka
20, uddesaka 6, sutra 670, etc. 13 Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, Sheth Devchand Lalbhai
Jaina Pustakoddhara Fund Series No. 62, published by Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri, first edition 1926, ch. V, sutras 11, 14, 25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35.

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atomism. Siddhasena Gani,14 Acarya Pujyapada, 15 Akalanka, 16 Vidyananda, 17 Haribhadra Suri, 18 Vinayavijaya,19 and other later Jainacaryas gradually developed it on a more scientific basis. They organized the entire system of disputes on Arambhavāda (Doctrine of Intransitive Causation) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Kşanika-paramānuvāda(Doctrine of Momentary Atom) of the Buddhists and those of other Indian schools of thought in their respective works.
The Jaina thinkers have retained the Buddhist tradition of skandha (molecule), while discarding the Nyaya-Vaisesika view of Avayavaavayavivāda (Doctrine of Constituent part and Composite whole) in formulating their concept of paramāņu (ultimate atom). It appears to have originated from the most primitive ideas about matter (pudgala). In Jaina philosophy pudgala (matter) is conceived as an eternal substance undetermined from the point of view of transformation of its quantity and quality. Material particles may combine into one substance and one material substance may disintegrate into many. There is atom-tradition side by side with ātmā-tradition, i.e., a sort of dualism of matter and spirit is advocated in Jaina metaphysics. Every material entity of the cosmic universe (loka) is constituted of atoms.
The Indian philosophical schools which have invented, developed and adopted the atomic theory by their speculations may thus be placed mainly in three groups. The first group is represented by Jaina philosophy, the second one by the Vaisesika and Nyaya systems of thought and the bhāşya (commentary) on the latter by Vatsyayana, and the Vaibhasikas and Sautrantikas of the Buddhist school and the last group of Indian atomism is represented by Prasastapada's bhāsya which is the oldest systematic exposition of the Vaisesika philosophy
14 Ibid. (Bhasya-tika). 15 Sarvartha-siddhi by Acarya Pujyapada, published by Bharatiya Jnanapith, Kasbi,
1955, ed. by Pandit Phulchand, avrtti, 1, ch. V. sutras 11, 14, 25, 27, 30, 33, 35, 36, 37. 16 Tattvartha-rajavartika by Akalankadeva, Jnanapith, Kashi, first edition, May,
1957, ed. by Pandit Mahendrakumar Jain; Bhag. II, ch. V, sutras, 11, 14, 25, 26,
27, 30, 33, 36, 37. 17 Tattvartha-sloka-vartika by Vidyananda, published by Agamodaya Samiti Series
No. 5, ed. by Pandit Manoharlal, Gandhinatharang Jaina Granthamala, Bombay,
1918, ch. V. sutras, 11, 14, 24, 25, 27, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37. 18 Haribhadriya-yrtti on Tattvarthadhigama-sutra of Umasvati, ch. V, sutras, 11, 24,
25, 26, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. Lokaprakasa by Vinayavijaya Gani, ed. by Pandit Motichand Odhavji Shah, published by Jivanchand Sakerchand Javeri, 1929, first edition, part I, sarga 1, sloka 21, p. 5.

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and generally adopted by the combined Vaisesika-Nyaya philosophy. As pointed out before, the Mimamsakas?" and the Vedantin Madhva?! accepted the atomic theory on the basis of the Vaisesika conception of it, while the Samkhya-Yoga conceived the idea of atom as generated from tanmatrā (infra-atomic potential).
It appears that the speculation on Indian atomism marks a stage of emergence and development of subtle thought in the field of Indian philosophy in different ages. It has developed from simple concepts by gradual modifications of scientific thoughts accumulated in successive ages. Thus it has undergone gradual changes with the passage of time.
Conception of Indian Atomism
The Nyaya-Vaisesika holds the view that paramāņu is the ultimate cause of the material world (tadantyam karanam),22 but not the effect (karya); it is the root-cause of the elements of matter. Jaina philosophy maintains that paramānu is both cause(kārana) and effect(karya)23 of the material world from the standpoint of transformation which takes place in the elements of matter due to external and internal causes. The Jaina conception of paramānu as cause (kāraṇa) and effect (kārya) is parallel to the conception of energy and consequence of energy of the physical sciences.24 In the Samkhya-Yoga philosophy, the material existance of paramānu is accepted but not as the unit of matter and the ultimate cause of the material universe as it is conceived in the NyayaVaisesika and Jaina systems of thought. It is a produced entity (janyapadārtha) but not an eternal entity. It is evolved out of the tanmātrā (infra-atomic potential).25 A paramāņu represents the smallest homogeneous part of any substance. As it is not partless, so it is divisible. 26 This is the radical difference between the atomicity of matter of the
20 See note no. S. 21 Purnaprajna-darsana, Madhva, pp. 67-68. 22 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutras, 1-2 ; Nyaya-vartika by
Uddyotakara, published by Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1916,
adhyaya IV, ahnika I, sutra 21. 23 Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. V, sutras 26-27 ; see
Bhasya and Tika, commentary on Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 14, uddesaka
4, sutra 510 ; Rajavartika of Akalanka, pp. 491-492. 21 Harnwell and Stephens, Atomic Physics, p. 4. 25 Sankhya-pravacana-bhasya by Vijnanabhiksu, ch. 1, sutra 62. Vyasa-bhasya on
Yogasutra of Patanjali, pada IV, sutra 14, pp. 191-3. 26 Yogasutra of Patanjali, pada III, sutra 52: see Vyasa-bhasya on it, p. 174 ; Tattvavai
saradi-kaumudi of Vacaspati Misra on it, p. 174.

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Samkhya-Yoga and the atomicity of matter of the Nyaya-Vaisesika and Jaina philosophies as embodied in their respective works.
According to the Jainas, paramānu is ekānta (discrete) and beginningless, 27 while a skandha (molecule) is not a single unit and beginningless. A paramānu is in samyoga (combination) and it is always undergoing change from the points of view of substance, locus, time and condition.28 Paramāņus are infinite in number with regard to substance, a paramāņu is the finest particle of matter from the point of view of locus, it is momentary from that of time and its capacity or quality is changing from the standpoint of condition.29
The Nyaya-Vaisesika conceives the indivisibility of paramāņu,30 while the Buddhists 31-the Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikas maintain the divisibility of paramānu (i.e., samghāta-paramāņu) which consists of, at least, eight parts of elements (așțadravyaka)32 of rupa (matter). Jaina philosophy holds the view that sükşma paramānu is indivisible but vyavahāra paramāņu33 and the four qualities of paramānu, viz, colour, taste, smell and touch have infinite divisions or gradations.34 This Jaina conception suggests divisibility of paramāņu without limit like the atom of the physical sciences. Really speaking, günas (qualities) of
27 See Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnopti, sataka 1, uddesaka 4, sutra 21 ; sataka 5, uddesaka
7, sutras 214-15; Anuyogadvara-sutra with Tika of Maladhari Hemacandra, published by Agamodaya Samiti, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1924, sutra 91, p. 69 ; Uttaradhyayana-sutra, part IV, published by Vijayadharma Laksmi Jnanamandir, Belan
ganj, Agra, 1933, adhyayana 36, sutras 11, 12, 13, (See Tika on them). 28 See Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670; sataka 25, udde
saka 4, sufra 740; saraka 12, uddesaka 10, sutra 469. 29 See Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, published by Agamodaya Samiti, Nirnayasagara
Press, Bombay, 1918-21, sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740; sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670 ; Acaranga-curni, Jinadasa Gani, published by Sri Rsabhadeva Kesarimal Svetambara Samstha (Ratlam), 1941, p. 165 ; Uttaradhyayana-sutra with Tika of Kamalasamyama, published by Laksmichandra Jain Library, Belanganj, Agra,
1923, p. 99. 30 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya, IV. ahnika 1, sutra 1 ; adhyaya 11, ahnika 1,
sutra 12. 31 Abhidharma-kosa by Vasubandhu, kosa 1, sloka 43, Tibetan Text, p. 83; vide the
Central Conception of Buddhism by Stcherbatsky, p. 12, published by Sushil Gupta,
Calcutta, 1961. 32 Abhidharma-kosa by Vasubandhu, kosa II, sloka 22 published by Kasi Vidyapith,
1983, p. 29. 33 Anuyogadvara-sutra, sutra 133, p. 160; Jambudvipa-prajnapti (purvabhaga), published
by Sresthi Devachandra Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara Fund, 1920, II, sutra 19, P
92 ; Lokaprakasa by Vinayavijaya Gani, Part 1, sarga 1, slokas 21, 28, p. 5. 34 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnupti, sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 740.

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the Nyaya-Vaisesika, viz. rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparśa (touch) are paramānus (atoms) of the Buddhists, 35 i.e., the atoms of quality. Drayyaparamāņu (material atom) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika corresponds to samghāta-paramānu36 of the Buddhists, which is divisible by intellect. It can be compared with pañcikarana (combination) of the three gunas (qualities) of the prakti of the Samkhya philosophy.37 Samghāta-paramāņu of the Buddhists is avinirbhāgin or abhāga (indistinguishable) from the point of view of vyavahāra (or phenomenal standpoint), while paramānu of the Jainas is anantabhāga (infiniteth part) of paramāņu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika.39 The doctrine of permanence had to be refuted by the Buddhists, so their concept of paramānu is that it is divisible by intellect. The Jaina atomic theory comes nearer to the Buddhist concept of atom 40 from the modal point of view, for, according to Jaina metaphysics, paramānu is non-eternal from the mode point of view. It is of one class41 like the energy of matter of the physical sciences. By convention it may be compared with the anu of the Buddhists which is conventionally called atom (anu) or paramānu as there are stated to be earth-atom, water-atom, air-atom, etc. But they are the forces in the Buddhist convention. Rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), gandha (smell) and sparsa (touch) of pudgala (matter) of the Jainas compare well with the Buddhists' 'gunas-dharmas' (qualitieselements) like rūpa (colour), rasa (taste), etc., i.e., atom of colour, atom of taste, etc.
Paramānu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika 42 is the pūrvaparyāya (previous state or mode) of its own category and also the vijatiya-sahakārinimitta-kārana (assisting instrumental cause of different kind). Paramāņu
35 Abhidharma-kosa by Vasubandhu, kosa I, sutra 10A, 250 C.D. 65 A.D. 36 Ibid., kosa II, sloka 22, p. 29; kosa 1, sloka 12C; kosa 1, sloka 10A. paramanu
(nu) samghata (7) ityartha taevastau caksurvijnanadhatvadaye (hitva sesa dasa)
samcita 1-Abhidharma-dipa, p. 25. 37 Samkhya-tattva-kaumudi by Vacaspati Misra, ed. by Ramesh Chandra Tarkatirtha,
Calcutta Sanskrit Series, published by Metropolitan Printing and Publishing House Ltd., Calcutta, 1935, Karika 16, p. 62; Samkhya-karika by Isvarakrsna, published by Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series office, Varanasi, Haridas Granthamala 120, p. 17; see also Samkhya-pravacana-bhasya of Vijnanabhiksu, ch. III, sutras 11, 12 ; ch.
III, sutra 19; vide The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 53. 38 Abhidharma-kosa by Vasubandhu, kosa II, sloka 22, p. 29. 39 Nyaya-vartika of Uddyotakara, p. 647. 4 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 14, uddesaka 4, sutra 511. 41 Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, p. 324. 42 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika, 1, sutra 3 ; Nyaya-kandali by
Sridhara, published together with Prasastapada-bhasyam by Gangadhara Jha Granthamala Samiti, ed. by Sri Durgadhara Jha, Varanasi, 1885 (Saka), pp. 78-80.

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of Jaina philosophy is beginningless, eternal and non-eternal from the points of view of substance and mode respectively, while paramāņu of the Buddhists is non-permanent, as the Buddhist philosophy holds the view that every entity is evanescent according to its doctrine of momentariness. Paramāņu of the Samkhya-Yoga also is non-permanent (anitya), as it is janya-padartha (evolved entity), whereas paramāņu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika is beginningless (anādi) and permanent (nitya) 43 like paramāņu of Jaina metaphysics; but it is to be noted that paramāņu of the latter is also non-permanent (anitya) from the modal point of view.
29
According to Jaina philosophy, all sukṣma paramāņus are abhedya (impenetrable or impassable), acchedya (uncuttable), avibhājya (indivisible), adahya (incombustible) and agrahya (non-receivable) by soul,44 while paramāņu of the Buddhists appears to be bhedya or vibhājya (penetrable or passable, or divisible), for Buddhist philosophy advocates the theory of primary and secondary elements of matter.45 Paramanus of the secondary elements of matter mean varna (colour-atom), rasa (taste-atom), gandha (smell-atom), and sparta (touch-atom), i.e., the Buddhists conceived guna (quality) as paramāņu and made it distinct from citta (mind), because the entire Buddhist system of thought conceives rupa (matter) as having two divisions, viz., primary and secondary elements. That is to say, they represent dravya (substance) and guna (quality) of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. As pointed out, gunas of the Nyaya-Vaisesika are made to be paramāņus of the Buddhists, while gunas of the Jainas divide paramāņus. In the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy paramāņu is accepted as fine and indivisible, but it appears to be gross when compared with paramāņu of Jaina metaphysics. This school of thought conceives paramanus as finest and indivisible, i.e., sukṣma paramāņu is indivisible, but vyavahāra paramāņu16 (which can be equated with atom of the physical sciences), is divisible. This is the basic difference between these two atomic theories. The Jaina conception of the nature of paramānu is by all means different from that of the nature of paramāņu of Arambhavada (Doctrine of Intransitive Causation) of the Vaisesika
43 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 1.
44 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670.
45 Abhidharma-kosa by Vasubandhu, kosa 1, sloka 10A.
Anuyogadvara-sutra, sutra 133, p. 160; Jambudvipa-prajnapti (purvabhaga), published by Sresthi Devachandra Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara Fund, 1920 II, sutra 19, p. 92 (see their Tikas); Lokaprakasa by Vinayavijaya Gani, part I, sarga 1, sloka 21, 28, p. 5.

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philosophy. According to Jaina metaphysics, there are stated to be infinite paramánus but there does not exist any radical difference among them like prthvi-paramānu (earth-atom), ap-paramānu (water-atom) teja-paramāņu (fire-atom) and vāyu-paramāņu (air-atom) of the Vaisesika.47 A paramāņu of Jaina philosophy can assume any form in accordance with the causal condition. The paramānu (ultimate atom) which underwent change into the form of the earth can undergo transformation into the forms of water, fire, etc., on the alteration of the materials. That is to say, there is no class-distinction among paramānus conceived in Jaina metaphysics. 48 A paramānu is endowed with one colour, one taste, one smell and two touches and it is apprehended by the mark of its effect (käryalinga).49 If a paramānu is endowed with one colour, it may be black, or blue, or red, or yellow, or white, if it is possessed of one smell, it may have pleasant smell or unpleasant smell; if it is endowed with one taste it may have bitter taste, or sour taste, or astringent taste, or acidic taste, or sweet taste ; if it is possessed of two touches, it may be cold and cohesive, or cold and dry, or warm and cohesive, or warm and dry.50 The existence of paramāņu can be inferred on observation of their collective effect. Even its properties are inferred on observation of the basic properties of pudgala (matter). Hence it is inferable by its effect for the persons having common knowledge.57 In the same voice of Jaina metaphysics, the Nyaya-Vaisesika 52 and the physical sciences also accout for the existence of atoms in this manner. “Individual atomic events are not observed directly, though their consequences may be and hence greater reliance must be placed on logical inference and methodology than in most other branches of science."53 “Many of the experimental verifications of atomic properties depend on observations of the properties of matter on a large scale. Thus the study of the thermo-dynamics and the statistical behaviour of large numbers of atoms, which provides a connection between atomic attributes and the gross properties of matter, is very important.'' 54
47 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 3. 48 Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, p. 324. 49 Ibid., ch. V, sutra 25 (Bhasya), p. 365. 50 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 668. 51 Ibid., sataka 19, uddesaka 8, sutra 640. 58 Nyaya-vartika by Uddyotakara, p. 233 and its Tatparya-tika by Vacaspati Misra,
p. 271, line 7 from the bottom, etc. 63 Harnwell and Stephens, Atomic Physics, p. 4.
54 lbid.

www.jainel

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Jaina philosophy maintains that the capacities--colour, taste, smell and touch, exist as equal in each and every paramānu and can change into any form according to cause or various conditions. Even though they are equal in all paramāņu, the variousness of their transformation occurs because of the difference of conditioning materials. Similarly, according to Jaina view, skandha (molecule) formed by the combination of paramānus (atoms) is not any new material substance, as it is conceived in the Vaisesika philosophy. It is only one particular form out of the aggregation of paramāņus.
In the Vaisesika view paramānus are kūļastha-nitya (absolutely permanent)55 and this kūțastha-nityatā (absolute permanence) is proved by all means by maintaining the view that the produced and destroyed substances or quality and action (karma) are different from one another. But Jaina metaphysics admits parināmi-nityatā (permanence-in-change) of paramāņus like the Samkhya by rejecting kūtastha-nityatā of paramānus of the Vaisesika. It conceives all paramāņus as permanent in their respective individual nature and accounts for their parinami-nityatā by accepting skandha (molecule), guna (quality) and paryāya (mode), 56 i.e., karma (action), as being produced as a result of transformation of paramānus.57 Thus skandha is accepted as somehow non-different as well as different from them.
Jaina philosophy explains all gross and fine material creations (products) on the basis of the capacity of transformation of paramānus 58 and their combination and dissociation, just as the Samkhya 59 accounts for the production of the multiforms of the gross and fine material entities of the universe on the ground of differentiated combination of gunas (qualities)-sattva (essence), rajas (energy) and tamas (inertia or mass) from the Pļaksti one primordial Matter and its capacity of transformation.
55 Vaisesika-darsana by Kanada, adhyaya IV, ahnika 1, sutra 1 ; Nyaya-kandali by
Sridhara, pp. 78-80. 56 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 5, uddesaka 7, sutra 213 ; sataka 14, uddesaka 4,
sutras 510-11 ; Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, ch. V, sutras 26-27. Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 1, uddesaka 9, sutra 73 ; sataka 8, uddesaka 10, sutra 356; sataka 25, uddesaka 4, sutra 730 ; Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati,
prathama vibhaga, p. 324. 58 Tattvarthadhigama-sutra by Umasvati, prathama vibhaga, 324. 59 Samkhya-pravacana-bhasya by Vijnanabhiksu, ch. 1, sutra 62 ; vide The Positive
Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 29; Vyasa-bhasya on Yogasutra of Patanjali, pada IV sutra 14, p. 191.

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32
The Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy stops by conceiving paramāņu as the sixth part (or division) of rajakana (mote) perceived in the sun-ray entering windows, 60 whereas Jaina metaphysics conceives an aņu or paramāņu also as skandha (molecule) of infinite sukṣma-paramāņus (finest ultimate atoms). 61 It explains that infinite paramāņus and infinite skandhas also can exist in a subtle form in one point of space, in which one paramāņu exists, by virtue of its capacity of samkoca (contraction or capacity of becoming fine), 62 e.g., the combination of the atoms of mercury and gold in a ratio 1:100 karshas.63 On this ground paramāņu is infinite in number also. It should be noted that it is anardha (without half part), amadhya (without interior part) and apradeta (without having part), 64 i.e. devoid of void from the point of view of kṣetra (locus or field). It has no beginning, nor end, nor middle (nor interior). It is devoid of length, breadth and depth; because of this fineness it is itself beginning; it is itself middle, it is itself end.65 Its fineness compares well with the fineness of the Prakṛti of the Samkhya. The difference between the two conceptions lies in the fact that even though the Prakṛti is fine, it is one and all-pervading, whereas paramāņus of Jaina philosophy are infinite in number, but every paramāņu is finest and smallest, and lokākāśa or bhautika viśva (cosmic universe) is filled with infinite paramāņus (atoms).
JAIN JOURNAL
A study of the nature of paramāņu shows that the Jaina philosophy is the advocate of the atomic theory like the Nyaya-Vaisesika. Nevertheless, the nature of paramāņu conceived in this school of thought is not identical with that of paramaņu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika. But it compares well with the nature of the prakṛti of the Samkhya, for paramāņu of Jaina metaphysics is transformable like the prakṛti of the Samkhya. On this ground paramāņu of the Jainas changes into many forms like the earth, water, fire, etc., just as the prakṛti of the Samkhya is the material cause of many effects like the earth, water, fire, air etc. It is not admitted by Jaina philosophy that the material atoms like earth-atoms, water-atoms, etc., are always basically of different classes. It is to be observed that paramaņu of the Jainas is
60 Nyaya-vartika by Uddyotakara, p. 647.
61 Anuyogadvara-sutra, sutra 133, p. 160; Jambudvipa-prajnapti, II, sutra 19, p. 92; Lokaprakasa by Vinayavijaya Gani, part I, sarga 1, sloka 21, p. 5.
62 Paramanukhanda-sattrimsika by Ratnasimhasuri (Vrtti), p. 2.
63 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 13, uddesaka 4, Vrtti (S. 27) mudrita, p. 608; see. also Lokaprakasa, p. 88, vv, 47-48.
4 Bhagavati-vyakhya-prajnapti, sataka 5, uddesaka 7, sutra 215; sataka 20, uddesaka 5, sutra 670.
65 Tattvartha-rajavartika by Akalankadeva; Bhaga II, ch. IV, sutra 25; see the commentary No. 1, p. 491.

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finer than paramāņu of the Nyaya-Vaisesika, but it is unmanifest like the prakṛti of the Samkhya. Ananta-paramāṇuvāda (Doctrine of infinite ultimate atoms) of Jaina philosophy is not far from but nearer to the doctrine of infinite plurality of the prakṛtis of the early Samkhya,66 (with regard to the plurality of the purusa), i.e., "each being attached to a different puruşa (self)".67
33
This is a bird's eye view of Indian atomism as embodied in Indian works-Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina and conceived by different Indian schools of thought from their respective angles of visions on this problem of paramāņu (atom).
66 maulikasamkhya hi atmanamatmanam prati prthak pradhanam vadanti yuttare tu samkhya sarvatmasvapi ekam nityam pradhanamiti prannaha 1 vide Darsana and Cintana, Pandit Sukhlalji, pp. 129-130.
$7 pratipurusam anyat pradhanam sariradyartham karoti tesam ca mahatmyasarirapradhanam yada pravartate tadetaranya tannivrttau catesam api nivrttir-iti pauranikah samkhya-carye manyate, Yukti-dipika vide; Avidya by Dr. E. Solomon,

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Jainism-A Popular Cult among the House-holders during the Time of Tirthankara Mahavira
BINOD KUMAR TIWARY
Mahavira, during his life time, not only organised a systematic religion and philosphy, but also a well-knit social order of the ascetics and lay followers, who earnestly followed, and practised what he and his immediate disciples preached. He is considered to be a great organiser and due to his impressive personality and thoughtful preachings, he attracted a large number of people, both men and women, to be his disciples. From them, therefore, grew the four orders of his community, viz. monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen,1 which greatly strengthened the structure of his organisation.
Though Jainism became popular in Northern Indian region in a short spell of time and got royal patronage right from the rulers of Sravasti to Magadha, it attracted and influenced the common masses most. Mahavira, first of all, wanted to bring within the fold of his cult those householders, who were to observe certain rules of conduct and he was successful in it. The lay disciples and supporters of Mahavira were noted for their piety and devotion. The ancient Jaina literature mentions a number of very rich householders, merchants, guild presidents and common people, who followed the Jaina code of conduct and were śramaṇopāsakas. Reference to some of them is necessary to show how the people took the new cult during the lifetime of Mahavira.
After getting the omniscience, Mahavira started visiting places of importance in Northern India, delivering his lectures. His first samavasarana was arranged in the garden of Mahasena at Madhyama Pava. In that gathering, eleven learned Brahmanas, who were well versed in the Vedas, had also come with hundreds of their disciples. They listened to Mahavira's discourses and heard the gently thoughtful answers he gave to all questions. Finally, being convinced of the truth of his views, they became his disciples and were appointed as Ganadharas (the chief disciples) by Mahavira himself. The eldest among them was Indrabhuti,2
1 'The Caturvidha-sangha or Catur-varna', I.A., Vol. XXX No. 19, p. 105. Visesavasyaka-bhasya, 1610-12.
2

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who was followed by Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Vyakta, Sudharma, Mandita, Mauryaputra, Akampita," Acalabhrata,10 Metarya11 and Prabhasa. 12 It is stated that the 4,400 disciples of these eleven Gaṇadhāras were also converted to Jainism by Mahavira.13 In course of time, the Gaṇadharas became well versed in the twelve Angas, the fourteen Purvas and the whole Ganipiṭaka.14 They were given permission also to teach the texts and their various meanings to others.
The Jaina sources inform that in the city of Vanijyagrama, there lived a rich householder, named Ananda.15 The name of his wife was Sivananda, who is said to be very beautiful. In the sixteen year of his ascetic life, when Mahavira went in that area, Ananda went to pay homage to him in the temple of Dutipalasaka. He asked Mahavira that he wanted to practise grhadharma.16 Mahavira acceded to his request and thus he became a lay disciple and thenceforth he observed the vows earnestly.17 His wife Sivananda also went to the Lord and took dikṣa for householder, suitable for a female.18
Visesavasyaka-bhasya, 1644.
Ibid., 1646.
5 Ibid., 1662-69.
The various sources refer that at the same Vanijyagrama, a Brahmin named Somila became the disciple of Mahavira with his five hundred followers when Mahavira had gone there in the 33rd year of his ascetic life. Here too, Gangeyamuni, a disciple of Parsvanatha, came to see Mahavira and was so much influenced by him that he took dikṣā from him and led an ascetic life. A wealthy Jaina merchant, Sudarsana, had also a dialogue with Mahavira on various problems and was convinced with his answers. He became a staunch follower of this faith and studied the fourteen Purvas of the Jaina Siddhāntas.
3
4
Ibid., 1785-1801.
7 Ibid., 1863.
8 Ibid., 1875-77.
9 Ibid., 1885-1900.
10 Ibid., 1911-1940.
11 Ibid., 1949-58.
12 Ibid., 2024.
35
5

13 Trisasthi-salaka-purusa-caritra (TSPC) X.5.
14 Avasyaka-niryukti, 658-60.
15 Uvasagadasao, vv. 3-13, 58, 79-89; TSPC, VII. 235-264.
16 The duties of a householder consisted of five minor vows and seven disciplinary practices.
17 TSPC. (ed. M. H. Johnson). p. 207.
18 Ibid., p. 208; Uvasagadasao, v. 58.

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From the life of Mahavira, we know that he spent at least fourteen rainy seasons in Rajagrha and in the suburbs of Nalanda and it shows that the place he loved best was Rajagrha and Nalanda. Naturally he has a good number of followers in this area of South Bihar. He used to stay at Gunasila caitya at Rajagrha, where people gathered to listen to the various discussions on the religious problems. During the 17th year of his ascetic life, when Mahavira arrived at Rajagrha, the town-people assembled there to hear the religious discourse and among them was a very rich merchant of the town, Gobhadra, and his wife Bhadra. He was staunch follower of Jainism and died according to the Jaina ritual after a prolonged fast. His son Salibhadra, who became the wealthiest merchant of Rajagrha, also went to listen to Mahavira and he was so much influenced by the teachings of Mahavira that he abandoned all his wealth and even his thirty-two wives and took dikṣā from Mahavira. Another merchant Dhanya Seth also with all his wives, accepted the twelve vows, and before accepting it, he celebrated a religious festival. He did a lot for the welfare of the followers of this religion. We have references of Mahasataka and his thirteen wives, who not only took the twelve vows from Mahavira,19 but his chief wife, Revati, meditated also without food and drink and attained mokṣa like a true Jaina. Another householder, Kalodayi, asked many questions from Mahavira regarding sins and he became convinced with his replies and ultimately came in the fold of Jainism.
JAIN JOURNAL
We have had evidences regarding Jambukumara, who was the only son of the famous merchant, Rsabhadatta of Rajagrha. He had led the army of Srenika and had won many battles for the king. After the death of Srenika he left his house and took dikṣä from Sudharma Svami with Prabhava and his five hundred followers. He later on became the head of the Jaina church and remained at this post for 38 years.20
The present areas of Vaisali and Mithila were very much under the influence of the teachings of Mahavira. The Buddhist text Vinayapiṭaka makes mentions of the Lichhavi general, Siha, or Simha, who was a follower of Mahavira, but was later on, converted to the Buddhist faith.21 Saccaka was also a Nigantha, who challenged Buddha in a discussion on philosophical tenets before the assembly of five hundred Lichhavis.22 Such instances in Buddhist works point out to the great influence of Mahavira on the life of the people in Vaisali during the life time of
1 Uvasagadasao, vv. 231-266.
20 J. P. Jain, Jain Purus aur Mahilayen, pp. 26-28.
21 Anguttara Nikaya, II. 190 ff; Samyutta Nikaya, vv. 389-90.
22 Majjhima Nikaya, vv. 227-37; Jain Antiquary, Vol. X No. 1, p. 17.

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JULY, 1988
37
Buddha. The life of Mahavira reveals that when Mahavira arrived at Videha and stayed in Bahusala garden, Rsabhadatta and Devananda came to see him. It is said that Mahavira had been in the womb of Devananda for eighty two days before being transferred to the womb of Trisala and thus the latter was his mother. Mahavira explained this fact here to the assembled persons.23 In his same visit, Jamali24 and his wife took dikşā from Mahavira with their five hundred and one thousand followers respectively.25 Jamali is said to have separated from Mahavira later on and have organised his own cult. Nami, King of Mithila, was a Pratyeka Buddha and embraced Sramana-hood by himself. 26
The Janapada of Campa had also Jaina followers and Mahavira stayed here during three rainy seasons in the course of his religious wanderings. The Uvāsagadasão27 refers to the story of Kamadeva, who received teachings of Mahavira and for that he was threatened by a certain false and lying god. But Kamadeva overcame the threats and lived peacefully. The Life of Mahavira also shows that people from general masses like Gogali and his parents took dikşā from the Tirthankara.28
Jainism was very much popular in modern region of Uttar Pradesh also. During the 19th year of his asectic life, when Mahavira reached Varanasi, a wealthy merchant, Cullanipita, and his wife, Sama, listened the highly instructive preachings of Mahavira and took the vows of a householder, forsaking everything and remained in perfect calmness in religious meditation.29
The Uvāsagadasão also narrates the story of Cullanipita and informs that both the husband and wife were threatened by some evil god for their being a Jaina. In the last, they won and kept themselves engaged in meditating as instructed by Mahavira.30
23 Sraman Bhagwan Mahavira, Vol. II, Pt. II, pp. 200-206. 24 Who, according to the Svetambaras, was married to the daughter of Mahavira
named Priyadarsana. 25 Sraman Bhagwan Mahavira, Vol. II, Pt. II, pp. 206-231. 26 Uttaradhyayana Sutra, IX, 61 ; XVIII, 45 (SBE, XLV, pp. 41-87); JBRS
Vol. XLV, p. 198. 27 vv. 91-125. 28 Sraman Bhagwan Mahavira, Vol. II, Pt. II, pp. 580-94. 29 Ibid., pp. 343-46. 30 Uvasagadasao, vv. 126-144.

www.jainel

Page #45

38
The same text mentions the name of Suradeva of Varanasi, who took on himself the laws of a householder and acted like Kamadeva and carried on the religious meditations with great delight.31
Sravasti was also an important place at the time of Mahavira. Mahavira spent one of his rainy seasons here and met Mankhaliputra Gosala32 at this place after his separation from the Jaina church.33 We have evidences of a large number of supporters of Jaina faith of whom the names of a rich banker, Mrgara, householder Nandinipiya, and his wife Asvini, and Salinipiya, and his wife Phalguni are important.34
It remains a fact that Jainism was a popular cult in the areas of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh during the time of Mahavira but it is also beyond doubt that it being a living religion was spreading fast in other parts of India as well. The Kalpa Sutra35 mentions the congregation of a vast number of the followers of Mahavira at the time of his death, though, sometimes, the number looks exaggerated in proportion to the population of the region it covered. However, it is at least symbolic of the fact that Mahavira converted a large number of people to his faith who remained the follower of Jainism throughout their life.
31 Uvasagadasao, vv. 145-154. 32 Head of the Ajivika Sect.
JAIN JOURNAL
33 Kalpa Sutra, 103 ff.
34 cf. B. C. Law, Mahavira: Life and Teachings, pp. 38. 35 Kalpa Sutra, vv. 134-145 (SBE, Vol. XXII, pp. 267-268.)

Page #46

Our Contributors
BHAGCHANDRA JAIN, Head of the Department of Pali and
Prakrit, University of Nagpur, Nagpur.
LEONA SMITH KREMSER, Waldport. U.S.A.
LALITA CHAKRABORTY, Research Scholar, Department of
Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, Visva Bharati, Santi Niketan.
J. C. SIKDAR, Research Scholar, L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad.
BINOD KUMAR TIWARY, Lecturer in History, U. R. College,
Rosera (Samastipur), Bihar.
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Manufacturers of Aluminium Properzi Rods D5 RAMNAGAR INDUSTRIAL AREA
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JUTEX AGENCIES
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3rd Floor
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone Office: 20-7526, 20-1024 Resi. 35-9892
CHHOGMALL RATANLALL
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SHAH ENTERPRISES
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CALCUTTA 19
VIMALADISH TRADING CORPORATION Exporters, Importers & Manufacturers' Representatives 3A POLLOCK STREET
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of Postage Stamps
Collecting
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Page #51

"Non-violence and kindness to living beings is kindness to oneself. For thereby one's own self is saved from various kinds of sins and resultant sufferings and is able to secure his own welfare."

KAMAL SINGH RAMPURIA
-Lord Mahavira
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10 CLIVE ROW
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Phone :
25-7731 25-3154

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021 4454 (Minix)
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35-1502 57-4396
Godown Resi
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Page #54

Phone:

Office 20-8166, 20-8143, 20-9839 Resi. : 47-5011, 47-7391
K. C. DUGAR & SONS
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
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Phone Nos. 967 & 977
Gram SURANAS
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Authorised Dealers :
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Page #56

Gram : BRITEROSNI
M. CHANDRA & COMPANY
Manufacturers of Conduit Pipes and Furniture Pipes
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Factory : 5 STARK ROAD, LILOOAH
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Phone : 31-7391
Office & Show Room : 22 RABINDRA SARANI
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Page #57

N. K. JEWELLERS
GOLD JEWELLERY & SILVER WARE DEALERS
OPP. GANESH TALKIES
2 KALI KRISHNA TAGORE STREET
CALCUTTA 700 007
Astrological Depot from 10.30 A.M. to 6.30 P.M.
Phone:
39-7607 39-6262

Page #58

METROPOLITAN BOOK
COMPANY
93 PARK STREET
CALCUTTA 700 016
Phone : 29-2418

Page #59

SETHIA OIL INDUSTRIES
(Solvent Extraction Plant )
Manufacturers & Exporters of Rice Bran, Groundnut, Salseed, Mahuwa & Neem Extractions
Plant at : Lucknow Road, Sitapur (U. P.)
Phone : 2397 & 2505 Gram : Sethia, Sitapur Telex : 534-203 SOI IN
Executive Office : 2 India Exchange Place, Calcutta 700 001 Phones : 20-1001/9146/0248
Telex : 21-3127
Head Office : 143 Cotton Street, Calcutta 700 007
Phones : 38-8471/4329 Gram : Sethiameal, Calcutta
Use Neem Extraction For Increasing Nitrogen Efficiency

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DRINK SHAH-N-SHAH GREEN TEA FOR REFRESHING VIGOUR & HEALTH
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Telex : 21-7052 BDTA IN
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177 M. G. Road Calcutta 700 007
F-2

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The Bikaner Woollen Mills Manufacturer and Exporter of Superior Quality Woollen Yarn, Carpet Yarn and Superior
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Office and Sales Office : BIKANER WOOLLEN MILLS
Post Box No. 24 Bikaner, Rajasthan Phone : Off. 3204
Resi. 3356
Main Office : 4 Meer Bohar Ghat Street
Calcutta 700 007 Phone : 39-5969
Branch Office : Srinath Katra
Bhadhoi Phone : 378
TARUN TEXTILES (P) LTD.
203/1 MAHATMA GANDHI ROAD, CALCUTTA 700 007
Gram : 'TARUNKNITS', Phone : 38-8677, 39-6090
75 NARAYAN MARKET, SADAR BAZAR, DELHI 6
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403 NAVRATAN, 69 P. D'MELLO ROAD CARNAC BUNDAR, BOMBAY 400 009

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HANUMANMALL BENGANI
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone : Office : 20-9255
23-4798
Resi : 29-0470
29-0694
PRASAN CHAND GAMBHIR CHAND
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone : 20-2603

Page #63

To look at all as one with himself is ahimsa.
--Mahavira
NA HAR
FOR INTERIOR DECORATION 5/1 ACHARYA JAGADISH CHANDRA BOSE ROAD
CALCUTTA 700 020
Phone : 44-6874
DUGAR BROS. & CO.
5A N. C. Dutta Street
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone : 20-4078

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JAIPUR
EMPORIUM

JEWELLERS & EXPORTERS
Specialist in magnificent gems and oriental and western jewellery
Grand Collection of
Ivory, Sandalwood, Silver, Painting, Wood-carving, Brass Articles, Old Textiles, Curios
Room No. 137
1, 2, 3 Old Court House Street
Great Eastern Hotel
Calcutta 700 069
Phone Resi. 39-8015
For Indian Airlines Domestic Tickets or any International Tickets Plus all Related Services.
contact us
for a better and friendlier service
GLOBE TRAVELS
11 HO CHI MINH SARANI CALCUTTA 700 071
Phone :
44-0190, 44-3944, 44-3955, 44-6028, 43-3995

Page #65

PUSHRAJ PURANMULL
Jute Merchants & Commission Agents
65 COTTON STREET CALCUTTA 700 007
Phone
r Gaddi : 39-7343
39-4566 Resi : 44-1490
43-4566 43-4104 44-9580
CHITAVALSAH JUTE MILLS
(A Division of Willard India Ltd.)
Divisional Office
Telephone Telex Telegram Works at
MCLEOD HOUSE 3 NETAJI SUBHAS ROAD CALCUTTA 700 001 28-7476 (6 lines) PBX lines 021-2882 MGNA IN CALCUTTA (A/B) CHITAMILLS, CALCUTTA P. O. CHITTAVALSA Dist. VISAKHAPATNAM ANDHRA PRADESH 0494-247 CIM IN BOMBAY & RAIPUR
Works Telex Branches at
MANUFACTURERS OF QUALITY JUTE GOODS OF
ALL DESCRIPTIONS

Page #66

KESARIA & COMPANY
Exporters & Importers
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CALCUTTA 700 001
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Gram ABEEROAVRA
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ALL INDIA TRADING CO. (1959)
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Gram WYOMING
Phone:
Works :
72-A B. T. ROAD, KHARDAH Phone: 58-1368
RELIANCE PRODUCTS PRIVATE LTD.
15 CHITTARANJAN AVENUE CALCUTTA 700 013
Office:

Resi :
(27-4927
27-5311
[32-4538
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Reliance Produce Corporation (Manufacturers & Agencies) Gram RELPROCORP

Page #67

केशर
जिसे आप पानी में 'उबालें' या एसिड में 'जलावें' फिर भी उसकी पत्तियाँ शेष तक एक समान लाल रहे तब समझिये कि यह केशर है ।
इस प्रकार के विशुद्ध केशर तथा मैसूर को सुगन्धित चन्दन की लकड़ी तथा चाँदी के बरक, अष्टांग धूप आदि के लिए कृपया हमारे बिक्री केन्द्र में पधारें ।
तीर्थ दर्शन पुस्तिका, दोनों भाग भी हमारे यहाँ उपलब्ध है ।

श्री जैन श्वेताम्बर सेवा समिति
१३ नारायण प्रसाद बाबू लेन, कलकत्ता ७०० ००७ फोन : ३६-१४०८
ज्ञानी होने का सार यही है कि वह किसी भी प्राणी की हिंसा न करे
- भगवान महावीर
जैन भवन टुकानदार संघ
पी- २५ कलाकार स्ट्रीट ( जैन कटरा )
कलकत्ता 9

Page #68

B. DUGAR & SONS
JUTE BROKERS
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001
Phone : Office : 20-6154, 20-7234 Resi. 55-2219
MANSUKH & CO. (OVERSEAS
UNITED METAL INDUSTRIES
Manufacturers of : TENTS, TARPAULINS COMBAT DRESSES & OTHER
ALLIED TEXTILE FABRICATED ITEMS
Gram : 'MANSUKO'
14 NOORMAL LOHIA LANE
CALCUTTA 700 007
Phone : 38-5317
38-4066
F-3

Page #69

BOYD SMITHS PRIVATE LIMITED
B-3/5 Gillander House 8 Netaji Subhas Road
Calcutta 700 001
Gram : BOYDRIVET
Telex : BOYD-2597 Phone : Off. : 20-2139; Resi : 29-0629, 29-0319
A Pioneer Manufacturer of Steel Plants Equipments, Special Purpose Machines, Spares & Accessories & Various Import Substitute Ancillary Items. Also Leading Manufacturer of Tool Room Items Including Shear Blades, Rolls & Rollers, Cutting
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Telex: 021-2405
Phone : 38-5794
38-9235
BANTHIA TEXTILES CORPORATION
12 NOORMAL LOHIA LANE
CALCUTTA 700 007
Approved Wholesale Dealers of THE BOMBAY DYEING & MFG. CO. LTD., BOMBAY

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A. M. BHANDIA & CO.
JUTE BROKERS
23/24 RADHA BAZAR STREET
CALCUTTA 700 001
PHONE : 26-8054, 26-8368, 27-1042, 27-6466
Resi : 55-1015
BOYD & CO.
Jute Brokers 12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001 Phone : 20-5523, 20-9792
20-3917, 20-3927
OSATWAL & CO.
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CALCUTTA 700 001 Phone : Office : 20-3185
Resi : 24-0571 20-4873
44-4166 20-5897
J. KUTHARI & CO.
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001
PHONE : Office : 20-3142, 20-1059
Resi : 35-2173

Page #71

Phone : 35-2173
Antarctica Scanning Services
1/A Vidyasagar Street
Calcutta 700 009
Proprietor : RANJAN KUTHARI
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Office: 43-1619 Phone : Resi.: 39-9548
Telegram : RAHOKHUSH
Telephone : 39-6205, 39-9727
Jingle Sales Ltd.
P-8 KALAKAR STREET
CALCUTTA 700 070
DEEKAY COCONUT OIL INDUSTRIES
Manufacturers of DEVYANI & MILAN BRAND COCONUT OIL 23 Brabourne Road (6th Floor)
Calcutta 700 001 Phone : 26-6885, 38-0242, 38-6223

Education International

Page #72

MAGGI DEVI SETHIA CHARITABLE TRUST
23-24 RADHA BAZAR STREET
CALCUTTA 700001
Phone : 20-4755, 20-4942
MINERAL GRINDING INDUSTRIES
23-24 Radha Bazar Street, Calcutta 700 001
Telegram: WEDOIT • P.O. Box No. 2576 . Telex : 2365 MGI PHONE : Office : 26-2884/8667, 27-4431 • Works : 52-1392 • Resi : 55-5775
PARSAN BROTHERS Dealers of Marine Stores, Ship Chandlers and Bond Stores. Suppliers, Stockists and Dealers of P. V. C. Pipes and Fittings.
18B SUKEAS LANE (1st Floor ) CALCUTTA 700 001
:27-8621
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: 26-0958 Phone :
: 26-0104 Resi. : 36-1142
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Gram : Veervani, Calcutta
20-9683 Phone : e. 20-8977
Resi : 44-4301
SOBHAGMALL TIKAMCHAND
BOROJALINGAH TEA CO. BURNIE BRAES TEA CO. 12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
CALCUTTA 700 001

Page #73

KESHAVBHAI MEHTA
154 Tarak Pramanik Road
Calcutta 700 006
Phone : 31-1163
Cable : 'KILOWERE'
Telex : 3558 Arts IN
Sukhani Dugar Construction Pvt. Ltd.
4 Chandni Chowk Street, Calcutta 700 072
Phone: 27-8475/27-4742
Know other creatures' Love for life, for they are alike ye. Kill them not ; save their lives from fear and enmity.
--Lord Mahavira
A WELL-WISHER
Cable : TEKMEK
Phone : 26-8015, 26-3511
26-8214, 26-9794
THE TECHMECH (INDIA)
ELECTRICAL MECHANICAL & TEXTILE ENGINEERS 54 EZRA STREET, CALCUTTA 700 001
Ask for Electric Motors of all type, Underground Power Cables, Transformers, Switchgears HT & LT, Switch Boards, Generating Sets, Pumping Sets, Reduction Gear's, Switches & Change-overs, Power & Paper Capacitors, Voltage Stabilisers,
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Page #74

Gram PEARLMOON
CALTRONIX
12 INDIA EXCHANGE PLACE
3rd floor
CALCUTTA 700 001
Gram PENDENT

VSD CORPORATION
P-41 PRINCEP STREET ROOM NO. 508
CALCUTTA 700 072
Leading Stockists of
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Phone: 26-9226/27-8753
20-1958
Phone: 20-3323
20-4110
Resi 55-7686
Phone: 26-5187, 27-5380
Electro Plastic Products (P) Ltd.
22 RABINDRA SARANI CALCUTTA 700073
Factory 45-6504
49 EZRA STREET
CALCUTTA 700001
STANDARD ELECTRIC COMPANY
Phone :

27-4039 27-7423

Page #75

Phone: 52-1083, 52-4447
CALCUTTA RIBBON FACTORY
Manufacturers of WOVEN LABEL TAPE
111 COSSIPORE ROAD CALCUTTA 700 002
JOHARMAL AMOLAKCHAND

JUTE MERCHANTS
20 MULLICK STREET
CALCUTTA 700 007
39-1620 39-4363
Phone:
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the soap for you and for all INSIST ON CALSO PRODUCTS
BANGLA GOLA & CORAL
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CALSO PARK, CALCUTTA 700 039 Phone: 44-7832
SHANTILAL ABHAYKUMAR
4/5 NOORMAL LOHIA LANE
CALCUTTA 700 007
Phone: 39-2146

Wholesale Dealers in
BOWREAH COTTON MILLS CO. LTD., CALCUTTA

Page #76
Monsoon 1988 Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers for India under No. R. N. 12121/66. DADHA HEWLETT INDUSTRIES LIMITED 11 HANUMANTHA RAO STREET MADRAS 600 014 Phone : 84-2613 Branch 17/1C ALIPORE ROAD Flat No. 603 CALCUTTA 700 027 Phone : 45-2389 49-1485 Office : 20-3115 20-9765 720Pa noram www ameliofanyoTO