Jain Journal 1984 01

Author(s): Jain Bhawan Publication
Publisher: Jain Bhawan Publication
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/520073/1

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A QUARTERLY
ON JAINOLOGY
VOL. XVIII
JANUARY 1984
No. 3
Jain JOUrnal
JAIN BHAWAN PUBLICATION
Jain Education Intematonal
For Privale & Personal Use Only

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Contents
Late Professor K. C. Lalwani 75
Bhagavan Mahavira: His life and Doctrines K. C. Lalwani
Notion of Declination Implied in the Concept of Mandala (Diurnal Circle) in Jaina School of Astronomy 83 Sajjan Singh Lishk
References to Jaina Pontiffs in the Bijolia Inscription of V. S. 1226 103 Krishan Gopal Sharma
Acarya Aryabhata V. G. Nair
106
More Sculptures from Bhagalpur 112 Ajoy Kumar Sinha

76
A Note on the Antiquity of the Adinatha Temple at Pulal A. Ekambaranathan
Plates Jaina Sculptures from Bhagalpur 115

118

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Bhagavan Mahavira : His Life and
Doctrines
K. C. Lalwani
In the sixth century B.C., when human society has reached its 'adolescence' and men's minds were astir 'from Athens to the Pacific', a large number of religious reformers and spiritual leaders appeared in different parts of the world. Bhagavan Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of the Jainas, was one of them.
It will be wrong to suggest that Mahavira was the founder of Jainism, since according to tradition, there were 23 more Tirthankaras before him, each appearing with a time gap of a few centuries from his predecessor, and of these, the 23rd, Arhat Parsva, has been identified by historians as a prince from Varanasi, and the 22nd, Arhat Aristanemi, happened to be the cousin of Bhagavan Krsna. The first Tirthankara, Rsabha, a prince from Ayodhya, had been noticed in the early Vedas (Rig Veda X. 166). He gave the religion of the Jinas with its root deep in antiquity.
Bihar is the cradle of Jainism, though its founder, Rsabha, was born at Ayodhya, 22 out of 24 Tirthankaras, including Bhagavan Mahavira were born in Bihar and achieved nirvāṇa in that State, 20 of them passing away on the Parsvanath Hills in Bihar, traditionally called Sammeta Sikhara. Strictly speaking, this region was outside the pale of Aryan expansion, the traditional 'Middle Country and was ruled by the Vratya Ksatriyas, who were the believers of the Vratas or Vows. It is no wonder then that all the early rulers of Rajagrha, and later at Pataliputra, till the appearance of the Guptas, belonged to one or other form of Sramana religion, which in the post-Mahavira period acquired the name of Jainism. Even Buddhism was a form of Sramana religion.
History
It has been the fancy of Indo-Aryan writers of Indian history to present both Mahavira and the Buddha as the two most successful and illustrious leaders of the reaction against the rituals and sacrifices of the Brahmanical religion. It is far from true and it is necessary to recognise that the Sramana and Brahmana currents of religion were independent and mutually exclusive of, and had nothing to do with, each other. Had they been leaders of 'reaction' their antagonism to the religion of the Vedas

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JANUARY, 1984
would have found vent in some form or other and would have been recorded in their literatures. But nowhere in the Jaina Agamas or the Buddhist Tripitakas does one come across any mention of the Vedic religion, still less any rancorous or malicious expression against it. This should establish that neither Jainism nor Buddhism was a ‘reaction', but both emerged and existed in their own rights. Once this fact is recognised, the entire outlook of Indian history gains a new perspective.
Mahavira and Buddha
Western scholars identified Jainism from Buddhist sources in which Mahavira has been called Nigantha Nataputta (Nirgrantha Jnataputra) and his followers Niganthas. Some have gone to the extent of calling Mahavira and the Buddha the same persons, and Jainism as an offshoot of Buddhism. “From all credible testimony... it is impossible to avoid the inference that the Jainas are a sect of a comparatively recent institution who came into power and patronage about the 8th and 9th centuries, they probably existed before that as a division of the Bauddhas." (Works of Wilson, 1861, Vol I, p. 334). Thanks to the researches of two German scholars Hermann Jacobi and George Buehler, Jainism is no longer considered to be a mere offshoot of Buddhism, but an independent and earlier system. Jacobi wrote : ".... As it is inconsistent with our assumption of a contemporaneous origin of both the creeds, we are driven to the conclusion that the Nirgranthas were not a newly founded sect of the Buddha's time. This seems to have been the opinion of the Pitakas, too."
In the sixth century B.C. there were 363 rival schools of Sramana religion in Bihar centering round nine fundamentals (nava tatva) which differed from one another in matters of minor details. More important of these were Kriyāvāda, Ajñānavāda, Vinayavāda, and Căturyāma religion of Parsva. It is a part of the spiritual mission of a Tirthankara to counteract all rival schools within the fold of his religion and effect a unification of the church, which Mahavira did. Of these 363 schools the one that proved the most formidable was the Ajivaka sect headed by one Gosalaka who was fatalist and believed in human life to be a thing determined rather than itself being the determinant of things.
The Jaina texts have noticed the rivalry of this man at several places. As to the absorption of the remnants of the order of Parsva into that of Mahavira, there are on record many occasions when the monks of the earlier order met those of Mahavira's order, discussed their differences, and being convinced that Mahavira was the leading light for the new age,

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joined his order. A new light was indeed emerging at the same time from Gautama Buddha who was a junior contemporary of Mahavira, and even though the Buddhists were immensely 'interested' in the followers of Nigantha Nataputta, the reverse was not the case. To quote, "I have not yet come across a distinct mention of the Bauddhas in any of the old Jain Sūtras." (Jacobi). The most significant fact is that even though Mahavira and the Buddha were contemporaries for many years and lived and moved in the same part of India at times residing in the same city, the two never met.
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Vaisali Confedaracy
The line to which Mahavira belonged was identified by Western scholars from the Buddhist texts in which he has been called 'Nataputta'. As Buehler wrote, "The discovery of the real name of the founder of the Jainas belongs to Prof. Jacobi and myself. The form 'Jnataputra' occurs in Jaina and north Indian Buddhist books, in Pali it is 'Nataputta' and in Jaina Prakrit 'Nayaputta'." (Indian Antiquary, Vol VII, p. 143) This establishes beyond doubt that Mahavira was born in the Jnatr clan of the Vajjis who were the rulers at vaisali and was well connected from his parents side. According to Rhys Davids and Cunningham the Vajjis to whom the Jnatrs belonged were a large confedaracy which had within its fold at least eight clans (aṭṭhakulas), of which the Videhans, Licchavis, the Jnatrs and the Vajjis proper were the foremost. The Videhans had their capital in Mithila, but a section of them might have settled in Vaisali, and Mahavira's mother, sister of king Cetaka of the Haihaya dynasty, and the head of the Confederacy, probably belonged to this section. The Jnatrs had their seat at Kundapura or Kundagrama and Kollaga, both suburbs of Vaisali which has been identified with Besarh (to the east of Gandak) in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar. This city was also the seat of the entire confederacy. People were called 'inner Vesalian' or 'outer Vesalian' according to their residence in the city proper or in the suburbs, and by this criterion, Mahavira was an outer Vesalian.
Kalpa Sutra by Bhadrabahu which is the traditional source on the life of Mahavira, who is supposed to have been born in 599 B.C. and initially named Vardhamana is an event-free record of his life in which his birth is narrated at some length, followed by his exit being not a response to any challenge, as it happened in the case of Guatama Buddha, but in fulfilment of a mission, his attainment of the supreme knowledge at 42 and ultimately his nirvāņa at 72. The only important event noticed in the Kalpa Sutra is that immediately after Mahavira's nirvāṇa, 18 princes who were present there declared: "The light of intellect is gone; let us

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79
light earthen lamps.” The hardships undergone by Mahavira as a monk, his differences with other schools of Sramana religion and unification of the remnants of the church of Parsva with that of Mahavira have been described at length in some of the older canonical texts. The myth about his life on which contemporary biographies of Mahavira are based must have developed long after his nirvāņa by people who had never seen and known him personally. The Digambara sources on Mahavira's life, Adipurāņa and Uttarapurāņa, were produced in the medieval period and were to a large extent based on myth.
Although we do not have details about the first 30 years of his life at the palace, it is certain that for the greater part of it he lived like a prince. This did not prevent his final exit. As a boy, he wed with a strong and graceful body, was fearless, courageous and intelligent and was by nature serious and grave. He desired to quit the palace at 28 but deferred it by a couple of years at the request of his elder brother. Thereafter he started his career as a monk with the motto 'all sinful acts become unworthy of my indulgence', and this part of his life lasted 12 years during which he visited different parts of the country, including 'non-Aryan' Radha and Singhabhumi and Vajjabhumi in West Bengal and underwent severe hardships. In the 13th year enlightenment came to him. This made him Mahavira or the Great Hero. As an omniscient personality, he lived for 30 years fulfilling his spiritual mission and inspiring and setting people on the road to liberation. If we are to believe in the account of the Kalpa Sutra, the Church of Mahavira included within its fold several thousand persons outstanding in one field or the other. At the age of 72, Mahavira passed away in perfect health and while delivering his last sermon, at Madhyama Pava, which it is widely believed to be near Nalanda
Metaphysics
Metaphysics for which another name is ontology, is devoted to the consideration of real or reals. It has been the unanimous finding of all religions that God is the only real, God transcendental more than God immanent so that everything else is unreal, a mere illusion or falsehood, or a mere manifestation of the will of the real. The Jainas have not viewed reality in this manner. To them, whatever exists is real or reality in existence. This makes the universe as well as life real, because they are eternal, ever-existent and never to end, though they assume and pass through innumerable modes and categories. This subtle doctrine has been expressed by Mahavira in three words : utpāda-dhrauvya-vyaya or genesis-permanence-destruction. This is as much true of the universe of animate

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as of that of inanimate beings. At any moment these souls are in bondage, with matter, and to regain their pristine purity, right religious endeavour is necessary. This is the sole object of Jaina metaphysics, or, in other words their analysis of soul and matter is intended to restore liberation of the soul.
In modern terminology a developed personality like Mahavira desired to find a way out for himself, not as an escapist, but as an active performer from the artificialities and complexities of human life and to uphold the same for mankind. It is this that is nirvana in Jaina terminology. Mahavira's exit from his father's palace is therefore symbolic; in doing so, he lost himself beyond himself, and by dint of severe spiritual excercises over 12 years, he became the heart and centre of his own transcendence, a virtual God-head.
Five Words
The ethics that Mahavira gave to purify human life is expressed in five words-non-violence, non-falsehood, non-sex, non-theft and nonaccumulation. In rigorous form, they are a must for the monks but in a slightly less rigorous form, to make them consistent with worldly duties and responsibilities, they are must for lay followers too, implying thereby that a Jaina is one not because he is born in a Jaina family, but because by faith and practice, he fulfils the prescribed ethics. As an active performer himself, Mahavira prescribed a conscious effort on the part of the human soul to liberate itself from bondage. For this purpose a human being has the necessary equipment, consciousness, intellect, perception, etc. Besides, he has facilities, texts, discussions and discourses so that instead of remaining a tool in the hands of destiny, man may liberate himself totally from it. In other words, the Jainas firmly believe in the English maxim ‘man is the architect of his own future'. This not only makes Jaina ethics an ethics of personal as well as social responsibility, but also provides a definite system to the religion.
In doing so, the Jainas have called ashimsā as paramo dharmah, or the highest religion. When the soul indulges in himsā, it deviates, from its right postures and trespasses into triviality. Ahimsa in the Jaina view is not compassion, pity or sympathy to one who is lower or inferior in status, position or capacity, but a right to live unmolested. Ahimsā thus becomes the great instrument of self-determination to be used and applied, as Gandhiji said, by one who has perfect control over self.

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Bibliography of Books written by Prof. K. C. Lalwani
Economics
Niyog Visayak Arthasastrer Vislesan (in Bengali) 1948 Paura Vijnan (in Bengali) 1947, (jointly with Khagen Sen) 1950 Arthasastrer Ruprekha (in Bengali) 1948
Marxiya Arthasastra (in Bengali) 1948
Svadhin Bharat O Tahar Arthanaitik Sangathan (in Bengali jointly with Dhiresh Bhattacharyya) 1948
Niyog, Sud O Taka Visayak Vyapak Siddhanta (in Bengali) 1982 Arthanaitik Sabdakosh (published in Arthik Prasanga in Bengali) Bharatki Arthik Samasyaye (in Hindi) 1950
Towards Marxian Destination
Indian Business Vol I 1948
Indian Business Vol II 1949
Industrial Efficiency in India 1949
Money 1947, 1950, 1958
Agricultural Economics 1951, 1954/Rural Economics & Cooperation 1963 Banking 1951, 1960
Industrial Economics 1952, 1957/Industrial Development 1963
Labour Economics 1953, 1961/Economics of Industrial Labour 1965, 1969 Economic Planning 1955, 1957
Indian Economics 1958
Indian Capital Market 1959 Indian Planning 1959
India's Third Plan 1961
81
Third Five Year Plan 1962
From Gold Rush to the Battle for Francs (jointly with Gita Lalwani) 1969 Monographs on Indian Economic Problems-about 1948
Indian Struggle and Indian Constitution 1950
Innumerable articles and reviews
History & Social Philosophy
Burden of the Past (Indian History-Hindu Period) 1974 Medieval Muddle (Indian History-Muslim Period) 1978 Sun Set in India (Indian History-British Period)-not published Articles on Contemporary America (published in Radical Humanist)

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Religion
Srimadbhagvatgita (in Bengali verse)
Jainism
Bhagavati Sutra Vol I 1973 Bhagavati Sutra Vol II 1974
Bhagavati Sutra Vol III 1980
Bhagavati Sutra Vol IV-not published
Dasavaikalika Sutra 1973
Uttaradhyana Sutra 1977
Kalpa Sutra 1979
Aupapatika Sutra-not published
Sraman Bhagavan Mahavira (Life) 1975
Jain Stories of Muni Mahendra Kumar Pratham : English rendering Vol I-III 1973, 1974, 1980
Agam aur Tripitak Vol I of Muni Nagraj : English rendering-not
published
JAIN JOURNAL
A Pitcherful from Mighty Ocean (Pen-sketch of Muni Nagraj) Tirthankara Mahavira and His Sarvodaya Tirtha of Hukum Chand Bharilla English rendering 1981 Besides many articles, reviews and tracts

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Notion of Declination Implied in the Concept of Mandala (Diurnal Circle) in Jaina School of Astronomy
SAJJAN SINGH LISHK
3
4
Jainas had a strange theory of two Suns and two Moons moving in circles round the mount Meru1 placed at the centre of Jambudvipa, the central island of flat earth2 made up of concentric rings of land masses alternatively surrounded by ocean rings. According to Jaina canonical literature, one solar or one lunar mandala (diurnal circle) was described by two Suns or two Moons respectively, each Sun or Moon describing one half. However, for all practical purposes of calculations only one Sun or one Moon suffices. Here an attempt has been made to probe into the concept of mandala and it is revealed that the Jainian concept of mandala alludes to the notion of declination.
1 The mount Meru possesses certain polar characteristics According to Tilak, Meru is the terrestrial north pole of the Hindus. (See Tilak, B. G., The Arctic Home in the Vedas, 1971, pp. 55-60.)
According to our exposition, the mount Meru as described in Jaina canonical works, represents Jaina tentative astronomical model. (See our paper 'Notion of Obliquity of Ecliptic implied in the Concept of Mount Meru in Jambudvipa Prajnapti', paper presented at 7th session of Jain Vidya Parishad, JVB, Ladnun and published in Jain Journal Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 79-92.) However for more details, see S. S. Lishk's Ph. D. thesis 'Mathematical Analysis of Post-Vedanga Pre-Siddhantic Data in Jaina Astronomy', Panjabi University, Patiala (1977).
• For more details, see our paper 'Notion of Circular Flat Earth in Jaina Cosmography', The Jain Antiquary, Vol. 28, Nos. 1-2, pp. 1-5 (Arrah).
* Bose, D. M., Sen, S. N and Subarayappa, B. V. (1971), A Concise History of Science in India, p. 80, INSA, New Delhi.
Jaina canonical literature comprises of sacred texts of the Jaina sect in India. Its present recension is generally ascribed to the council of Valabhi under the presidency of Devardhi Ganin which met in 5th or 6th century A.D. The principal sources of Jaina astronomical texts are Surya Prajnapti (=SP), Candra Prajnapti, Jambudvipa Prajnapti (=JP) and also Sthananga Sutra, Anuyogadvara Sutra etc. Some later works like Tiloya Pannatti and Trilokasara etc. are also of much interest. However, for more details, see our paper 'Sources of Jaina Astronomy', The Jain Antiquary, Vol. 29, Nos. 1-2, pp. 19-32 (Arrah). In this paper, quotations (English version only) of JP and SP texts refer to the respective works; (Hindi commentary with original Prakrit text) by Amolak Rishi, Mahavir era 2445 (Sikandrabad). 5 See also Jain, L. C (1975), 'Kinematics of the Sun and the Moon in Tiloya Pannatti', Tulsi Prajna, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 60-67 (Ladnun).

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1. Solar Mandalas (Sun's Diurnal Circles):
(i) Number of Solar Mandalas:
As regards the number of solar mandalas, Jambudvipa prajñapti (=JP) 7.2 states as :
"There are 65 solar mandalas stretched over 180 Yojanas of Jambudvipa (isle of Jambu tree) and 119 solar mandalas stretched over 330 Yojanas of the Lavanasamudra (salt ocean). In all there are 184 solar mandalas in both Jambudvipa and Lavanasamudra."
Evidently the entire stretch of 184 solar mandalas, measured in Yojanas, is computed as the sum of their respective stretches over Jambudvipa and Lavanasamudra.
Total stretch of the solar mandalas
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(ii) Linkage of Solar Mandalas (Sun's Diurnal Circles) with Sun's Annual Course :
=
The mode of linking solar mandalas with Sun's annual course is depicted in Surya Prajñapti (=SP). SP.1.1.4-5 states as:
=
"When the Sun treading upon mandala to mandala, moves from the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) upto the outermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Winter solstice day) and from the outermost mandala to the innermost mandala, how much time in days and nights is required?
-

• Yojana is a linear measure of length. Its magnitude had been changing from time to time and place to place. For example, according to Anuyogadvara Sutra (ADS) different types of yojanas are related as; 1 pramana yojana
=
500 Atma yojana 1000 Utsedha yojana
500
180+330 510 Yojanas.
we have denoted ‘atma yojana' (ADS units) by 'y' (yojana) and 'Y' (Yojana) denotes the measure of length as implied in Tiloya Pannatti (TP). We have exposed that
1 Y(TP unit)
8
-y (ADS unit)
-6.37 miles (British road distances)
For more details, see our paper "The Evolution of Measures in Jaina Astronomy', Tirthankar, Vol. 1, No. 7-12, pp. 83-92 (Indore). See also our paper 'Length Units in Jaina Astronomy', Jain Journal, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 143-154.

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85
“(The required period) is 366 days and nights.
“How many mandalas does Sun tread upon during this period—twice upon how many mandalas and once upon how many mandalas ?
“(During this period, the Sun) treads upon 184 mandalas-twice upon 182 mandalas i.e. while (once) going outward (towards the outermost mandala) and (then) coming inward (towards the innermost mandala) (and) once upon two mandalas i.e. the innermost mandala (and) the outermost mandala."
Evidently, the exact number of solar mandalas
=2 x 182+2=366...........
.................(1)
Thus in 366 days and nights the sun treads upon 366 solar mandalas.
Velocity of Sun across the solar mandala
=1 solar mandala/day (day and night)...
.........................(2)
(iii) Distances of Solar Mandalas (Sun's Diurnal Circles) from Meru :
As regards the north-south distances of solar mandalas from Meru, JP.7.4-5 states as :
“The innermost solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) is 44820 yojanas distant (from Meru). Second to the inner most mandala is 44822 yojanas distant (from Meru). Third to the
innermost mandala is 44
yojanas (distant from Meru). By increa
sing the distance by yojanas per mandala, the Sun (finally) reaches the outermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Winter solstice day). The outermost mandala is 45330 yojanas distant from Meru."
Here it is worthy of note that as per our exposition? of Jaina tentative astronomical model of Meru, true axis of earth passes along the hypotenuse of the approximate cone (made up of frustrum of cones) of Meru and thus the axis of Meru passes through the earth at a distance of 5000 yojanas (radius of base of Meru on flat earth) from the true axis of earth. In the light of this discussion, it seems plausible that the earth distance
? See ref. No. 1.

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of any solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle) from periphery of Meru's cross-section on flat earth denotes its angular distance from north pole. Probably this is why distance of any solar mandala is given here from periphery of base of Meru on flat earth and not from axis of Meru and this distance may therefore conveniently be called as equivalent to north polar distance (NPD) of the particular solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle) or NPD of the Sun while occupying that particular mandala.
d
Thus evidently we have d (NPD) = 2
Yojanas/solar mandala
dt
Or with the application of eq. No. (2) it may be written as
(NPD) = 2 Yojana/day (day and night).
d
48
Integrating both sides, we have
48
NPD
=
27 dt Yojanas +c...
.......(3)
wherec
n
= Constant = Number of solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles)
already embraced by Sun in its southern course or yet to be embraced in its northern course.
Applying initial conditions i.e., when the Sun occupies the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day),
and
n=0,
NPD = 44820 y, from eq. No. (3), we have
C = 44820 y,
be written as
NPD
dt Yojanas +44820 y.......
Thus NPD of any solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle projected on earth's surface) can be tout de suits reckoned from this equation. For example, when the Sun occupies the outermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Winter solstice day)

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8
183
1
lo
n=183 solar mandalas. NPD of the outermost mandala = 2-3 n Y ojanas +44820 y
= 510 Y+44820 y =Numerically 45330 y......
..................(5) (as given)
The mystery of intermingling Y (Yojana, TP unit) and y (ätma yojana, ADS unit) in the computation of NPD of solar mandala as depicted in eq. No. (5) will be resolved in due time as we come to this point later. The proof of pudding lies in eating.
Now it is tout a fait in the vicinity of thought that Jaina concept of mandala (diurnal circle) implies a notion of NPD of solar mandala or of Sun occupying that particular mandala. Thus notice of declination (complement of NPD) is also implied therein, though irrespective of the position of the equator.
Total variation of declination = Total variation of NPD
= 510 Y........ ...............(6) One may ponder over the non-algebraic character of this concept of declination i.e. the declination does not increase on both sides of the equator. This is de facto attributable to the development of Jaina peculiar notion of flat earth by virtue of which exponents of Jaina School of astronomy remained aloof from developing any notion like that of equator. Their theory of ever increasing (or decreasing) NPD of the solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles) in Sun's southern course (or northern course) might have probably led them develop their tentative model of flat earth but in due time Jainas became so convinced of the use of their notion of flat earth in explaining their cosmic view points that they failed to take up the problem of variation of NPD de novo. Thus the notion of equator might have escaped their attention.
Now let us probe into the rationale of distribution of solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles) between Jambudvipa and the Lavanasamudra.
Let
N, = Number of solar mandalas in Jambudvipa
= 65 = 119
N, = Number of solar mandalas in Lavanasamudra
Di = North-south stretch of solar mandalas in
Jambudvipa
= 180 Y

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D1 = North-south stretch of solar mandalas in
Lavanasamudra
Now because,
N1
Nj
and
D1
Dj
Since
119
65
N1
Nj
330
180
Di
D1
x Dj
www
1 +
=
==
Therefore we may fairly presume by inspection that
N1
Nj
=
1 +
1
1
1+ 4+
119
65

D1
1
1+
Using eq. No. (6), we have
510 Y
Dj
28 max 180 Y 23°.5-6°.9
13
5
Obliquity of ecliptic = 23°.5
Sun's maximum declination & max=23°.5
The following relation fairly holds good, i.e.
N1 N1 D1 : Dj
:
This leads us to the view that the north-south stretch 330Y of solar mandalas in the Lavanasamudra might have been theoretically generated through a simple linear zigzag manner probably as shown above. This view is further evidenced by its inherent dependence upon the factual determination of the relation between number of solar mandalas N、 and their north-south stretch D, in Jambudvipa. This is elucidated as follows:
1
6+
X 180=329.54 or 330 Y approx.
-
1/4
2
=
47°
16°.6
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330 Y

It suggests that north-south stretch D1 of mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles) in Jambudvipa is extended southward from Sun's extreme north position 23°.5 upto 6°.9 in the northern hemisphere as we understand
.(8)

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it these days. This also implies that north-south stretch D1 of solar mandalas in Lavanasamudra starts from 6°.9 North, the southern limit of D1, verisimilarly coinciding with the southern limit of ancient India including modern 'Sri Lanka'. Besides, it may be confirmed from Nautical Almanac that declination of Sun decreases from its maximum value on Summer solstice day to about 7° North in a span of about 75 days and to about 8°.5 North (southern limit of modern India)8 in a span of about 70 days. Thus it seems convincing that verisimilarly the southward journey of Sun was measured in Yojanas starting from a station on earth where the noon-shadow-length of gnomon was zero on the Summer solstice day i.e. starting from a station situated in the neighbourhood of terrestrial latitude of 23°.5 North (which is incidently very close to the latitude of Ujjain, a renowned seat of ancient Indian culture) upto the station situated at about the extreme southern limit of ancient India where again the noon-shadow-length was observed to be zero after 65 days since Summer solstice day. This also testifies their technique of measuring celestial angular distances in terms of corresponding distances projected over the surface of the earth.10
89
However, it is worthy of note that a small discrepency in reckoning the number of solar mandalas in Jambudvipa to be 65 instead of 70 or 75 as ought to have been as shown above, was due to obstacles in measuring the moon-shadow-length. Several errable factors like the ending of shadow in penumbra, slow velocity of shadow length near the meridian transit of Sun and slight inclination of gnomon etc. are pertaining thereto.11 Besides it cannot be claimed with certainty as to which place on the sea coast might have been mistaken for the southern extremity of their land which was supposed to be a circular land mass surrounded by the ocean ring (Lavana samudra). (Incidently, in 65 days since Summer solstice day, Sun's declination becomes about 10° North. This might refer to some place in modern Kerala state.) Keeping in view these very factors, it is contemplable that Jainas had actually measured in Yojanas, total change in Sun's declination (or variation in NPD as Jainas understood) in 65 solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles) in Sun's southern journey starting from the innermost mandala
• See Bartholomew, J. (1960), The Graphic Atlas, 11th Ed., p. 53.
• See Lahiri, N. C. (1975), Indian Ephemeris, pp. 18-24. See also Indian Nautical Alumanac.
10 See our paper 'Role of Pre-Aryabhata Jaina School of Astronomy in the Development of Siddhantic Astronomy', paper presented at Celebration of the 1500th birth anniversary of Aryabhata I (Nov. 2-4, 1976). INSA, New Delhi. IJHS, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 106-113.
11 Smith, D.E. (1958), History of Mathematics, Vol. 2, p. 671 (New York).

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JAIN JOURNAL
(diurnal circle on Summer solstice day). Having known the length of Sun's annual course (366 days) and following the notion that each of the extreme solar mandalas is traversed over only once during Sun's annual course, total number of solar mandalas was taken to be * +1 i.e. 184. N (=184-Nj) was easily calculated to be 119. Then D, might have been theoretically computed through relation (7). Further they employed a simple linear zigzag function to distribute the total north-south stretch 510 Yojanas between extreme solar mandalas uniformly among all the
48 solar mandalas. Thus NFD increases by 2-** - Yojanas per solar mandala from innermost solar mandala upto outermost solar mandala and vice versa. This exhibits their inefficiency to grasp the real variation in Sun's declination or NPD of solar mandalas as they understood it in their terms.
61
Now let us make a further probe into the relationale of computation of NPD of solar mandalas. It may be recalled that
= Radius of Jambudvipa
50000 y Radius of the mount Meru's base on flat earth = 5000 y
It may be recollected here that as per our exposition of Jaina tentative astronomical model of Meru, true axis of earth passes along the hypotenuse of the approximate cone (made up of frustrum of cones) of Meru and thus the tentative axis of Meru passes through the earth at a distance of 5000 y (radius of base of Meru on flat earth) from the true axis of earth. And on the other hand, the innermost solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) is situated 180 Y inside Jambudvipa.
NPD of the innermost solar mandala or its shortest distance from periphery of Meru's base on flat earth
=(Radius of Jambuvdipa--radius of Meru's base on flat earth)
- distance of innermost solar mandala from periphery of Jambudvipa. =(50000—5000)y—180 Y =Numerically 44820 y.....
..............(9)
It may also be recalled that the tentative axis of Meru lies on the circumference of samatala bhūmi (earth having plane surface denoting circular area with centre at the projection of pole of ecliptic)12 On
12 Sharma, S. D. and Lishk, S.S. (1975), 'Latitude of the Moon as determined in Jaina
Astronomy', Sraman, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 28-35 (Varanasi).

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JANUARY, 1984
summer solstice day, height (celestial co-latitudinal distance projected along surface of earth) of Sun above samatala bhūmi (earth having plane surface denoting circular area with centre at the projection of pole of ecliptic) is 800 Y. Radius of Jambudvipa with axis of Meru passing through its centre is 50000 y. As we have expounded13 that periphery of Jambudvipa coincides with the parallel of maximum declination of the Sun, so height of Sun occupying innermost mandala above samtala bhūmi (distance of Sun occupying innermost mandala from axis of Meru) is equivalent to radius of Jambudvipa i.e. 800 Y = 50000 y............(10)
500
1 Y = By
80 Y
= 5000 y....
.....(1
Substracting eq. No. (11) from eq. No. (10), we have 720 Y = 45000 y = 50000 y-5000 y
= Radius of Jambudvipa-radius of Meru's base on flat
earth = Shortest distance of earth's axis from periphery of Jam
budvipa. = 90°-23°.5 (periphery of Jambudvipa coincides with
maximum declination 8 max of Sun).
= 66o.5. This result is tout a fait consistent with eq. No. (8) i.e. 510 Y = 2 8 max = 47°
In the light of these discussions, it may be contemplated that the variation of Sun's declination was deliberately measured in 510 Y in a manner as discussed earlier. Jainas were probably afraid of the insecurity of reckoning the variation of Sun's declination from zero (corresponding to Sun's position on Summer solstice day) to 510 Y (corresponding to Sun's postion on winter solstice day). Thus to avoid the act of defining the place of zero declination, they might have been tempted to befit these data in their pre-conceived cosmographic frame-work of mind. Consequently the concept of NPD of the solar mandala as implied in Jaina canonical texts came into existence thereby. The two Units, Y and y, were intermingled. Primarily, Dj was confused with while calculating the NPD of the innermost solar mandala (see eq. No. 9). This happened probably because according to their original findings, circumference of Jambudvipa was considered to be
18 See Ref. No. 1.

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92
situated 180 Y (stretch of 65 solar mandalas in Jambudvipa as per Jaina canonical texts) inside the sea coast of the inhabited land. Consequently the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) whose projection on earth coincides with circumference of Jambudvipa (as per our exposition) was considered to be situated 180 Y inside the coast of Lavanasamudra. But due to later interpolations it became customary to consider as if the innermost solar mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) were situated 180 Y inside Jambudvipa. Consequently the error was introduced due to subtraction of 180 Y from 45000 y (radius of Jambudvipa minus radius of Meru's base on flat earth) while calculating distance of innermost solar mandala from periphery of Meru's base on flat earth (NPD of innermost solar mandala) (see eq. No. 9). It is our speculation based on the dictum : exitus acta probat (result proves the act). Secondarily, a further error crept in while the rate of variation of Sun's declination from zero to 510 Y was equated with the rate of variation of NPD without making any allowance from compatibility between the two diverse scales of measurement of length. Such an intermingling of units Y (Yojana, TP unit) and y(ätmayojana, ADS unit) has hitherto remained as a crux of immense confusion for research into this field.
(iv) Dimensions of Solar Mandalas:
As regards the dimensions of solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal paths), it is explicitly stated in SP.1.8 as:
48 "All the (solar) mandalas are Yojanas thick each. The distance 61 between any two (consecutive) mandalas is 2 Yojanas. The distance of 510 Yojanas is to be treaded upon (by Sun) in 183 days.
"What is the distance between the inner limit of the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day) and the outer limit of the outermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Winter solstice day) ?
"(The answer is) 510
=
48
61
This shows that the average velocity of Sun in the north-south direction across the solar mandala
48 11 Y 61
JAIN JOURNAL
Yojanas."
510 Y 183 days
days.

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JANUARY, 1984
The north-south stretch of a solar mandala =
M1
M2
Mn
Now distance between two consecutive mandalas
48
Thickness of a solar mandala
61
This alludes to the notion that a solar mandala inherently implies a notion of the strap of diurnal path described by the solar disc. Thus the north-south breadth (as per Jaina canon being called as 'Thickness' 48 heretofore) of the strap of a solar mandala is Y. However the distance 61
between the inner limit of the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal path on Summer solstice day) and the outer limit of the outermost mandala 48 (Sun's diurnal path on Winter solstice day) is 510 Yojanas. 61
—
=
-
Let Mn denote nth solar mandala (Sun's diurnal path) beginning from innermost solar mandala where n is a natural number such that 1 n
184.
Thus
Innermost solar mandala
Second to innermost solar mandala.
nth solar mandala.
M184
= Outermost solar mandala.
The whole pattern of solar mandalas is shown below :
5000 y
(= 80Y)

180Y
Y.
44820 y
F(Celestial North Pole projected/ on earth)
48
261
Mistaken for 180y inside of Jambudvipa
M65
=
-Periphery of Meru's base (with centre 1) on flat earth.
r most salar Minnern Mandala
Y
2 Y
Equator
Mn. (nth Solar Mandal

93
M184 (Outermost solar Mandala
Fig.no. 1(a)
Fig.no.
Fig. No. 1 North-south angular stretches of solar mandalas (diurnal circles), their distances from periphery of Meru's base on flat earth measured in linear measures along the surface of flat earth. (N. B. However actual determinations fit the actual geometry of earth as per Jaina canonical texts.)
48/61
2Y
-1(b)

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JAIN JOURNAL
Besides, diameters and circumferences of all the solar mandalas are also stated in SP 1.8 as ;
i.e., “When the Sun treads upon the innermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Summer solstice day), the mandala has Yojanas thickness (north-south breadth of the strap of diurnal path described by the solar disc), 99640 yojanas diameter and a slight more than 315089 yojanas circumference.
48 “..... Second to the innermost mandala, . .... ** Yojanas thickness,
99645 yojanas diameter and a slightly less than 315107 yojanas circumference.
“Likewise, treading upon mandala to mandala, when the Sun moves on the outermost mandala (Sun's diurnal circle on Winter solstice day),
the mandala has Yojanas thickness, 100660 yojanas diameter and 318315 yojanas circumference.”
The dimensions of solar mandalas can easily be computed as follows:
Diameter
Radius =
RMA = PM
... (11)
2
Where Rm. = Radius of the M, (nth solar mandala) or
Dan = Diameter of Ma Now for the innermost solar mandala M, we have RM, = 9040 = 49829 y
= 44820 y +5000 y = NPD of My+Radius of Meru's base on flat earth.
Analogically, we have
RM = NPD of Mn+Radius of Meru's base on flat earth.

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JANUARY, 1984
Differentiating both sides w.r.t time t, we have
d(RMB) = d
(Radius of Meru's base on flat earth remains constant.)
Thus the rate of variation of radii of the solar mandalas is in toto the same as the rate of variation of their north polar distances (NPD) from periphery of the mount Meru's base on flat earth.
So using Eq. No. (3), we have from Eq. No. (12) that
48
Y/day (day and night)
(RMB)
Mn
61
Using Eq. No. (11), we have
&(DM2)
Mn
C
or
Mn
(13)
i.e. diameters of the solar mandalas vary as 535 yojanas per day (day
61
and night).
=
(NPD of Mn)+0........
= 2
The circumference of any solar mandala has verily been computed in an alike manner as R.C. Gupta1 has shown in his paper 'Circumference of Jambudvipa in Jaina Comography' that circumference of Jambudvipa had been computed from its diameter by using only approximate values of π. They had commonly employed the following formula
CM2
=
= 5
535Y/days
61
√ 10 D2

95
Mn
= √10 D1
where CM=Circumference of Mn (nth solar mandala).
But they did not use the correct value of the square root of ten but instead, for finding out the square root of a non-square positive number N, the following bionominal approximation was frequently used during the ancient and medieval times;
..(12)
Mn

14 Gupta, R. C. (1974), 'Circumference of Jambudvipa in Jaina Cosmography', IJHS, Vol 10, No. 1, pp. 38-46.
(14)

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JAIN JOURNAL
N
=
V(a2 + x) = a +
...................(15)
Where a and x are positive integers and the remainder x is less than the divisior' 2a ; otherwise or alternatively, we may use
N
= V(62__y) = b
................(16)
The approximation (15) was known to the Greek Heron of Alexandria (between c.50-C.200 A.D.),15 and even to the ancient Babylonians. 16 The Chinese Sun Tau (between 280 and 473 A.D)17 while extracting the square root of 234567 by a elaborate method, finally said : 18
"Thus we get 484 for the square root in the above and 968 for the hsia-fa, the remsiner being 311.”
311 Thus we have the answer : 484+050- which is equivalent to what we get by using the Eq. No. (15).
The Jaina Gem Dictionary19 gives the same rule as represented by Eq. No. (15). The TP 1.117 (Vol. 1)20 implies that the circumference of a circle of diameter one yojana was found out to be yojanas, which is in agreement with the use of the eq. No. (15) as we have
19
V10
= V(32+1)=3+4)
Likewise, using Eq. No. (15) or alternatively Eq. No. (16), the given circumferences of the solar mandalas can easily be generated. Exempli gratia, we may see that
CM,
= V10 D’m. = V10 (99640) 2
= V(315090)2 — 412100
(using eq. No. 16)
18 Cf. Smith, D.E., op. cit., p. 254. 16 Cf. Boyer, C. B. (1968), A History of Mathematics, p. 31. 17 See ISIS, Vol. 61, Part I (1970), p. 92. 18 Cf. Mikami, Y. (1961), The Development of Mathematics in China and Japan,
(Chalsea reprint, New York). 18 The Jaina "Gem Dictionary, pp. 154-155. Quoted by Gupta, R.C., Op, Cit. 20 Cf. TP 1.117 (Vol. I), edited by Upadhye, A. N. and Jain H. L. (1936), p, 14.

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JANUARY, 1984
= 315090
412100 630180
= Slightly more than 315089 y (given)
Now a passing reference may be made about the distance between two Suns always remaining diametrically opposite on both sides of Meru. In this context, SP.1.4 states as :
i.e. “When the two Suns tread upon the innermost (solar) mandala, they move 99640 yojanas apart from each other."
Here it is given that distance between two Suns moving on My=99640 y
= DM,
= Diameter of innermost solar mandala. A similar treatment holds good in case of any other solar mandala also. However this reveals the fact that the celestial angular distance between two Suns was measured in yojanas in terms of its corresponding distance projected along the surface of earth.
2. Lunar Mandala (Moon's Diurnal Circles):
It is fascinating to note that the theory of solar mandalas (Sun's diurnal circles) excercised a staunch impact upon the emergence of the parallel theory of lunar mandalas (lunar diurnal circles). Such an exordial note to the conclusiveness of the theory of lunar mandalas renders it more undeplorable and easily graspable. Besides, some short-out methods have been put in practice in order to avoid unnecessary repitition of mathematical logic for exposing the rationale of some aspects of theory of lunar mandalas parallel to those of theory of solar mandalas. Due emphasis has been laid upon the newness of lunar mandala theory in particular.
(i) Number of Lunar Mandalas (Lunar Diurnal Circles) :
There are 15 lunar mandalas. In this context, JP.7.17 states as :
“There are 5 lunar mandalas (diurnal circles) stretched over 180 yojanas in Jambudvipa. There are 10 lunar mandalas stretched over
11 See Shastri, N. C., 'The Jaina Pancanga', Jain Siddhant Bhaskar, Vol. 8, No. 2.
See also Das, S. R., 'The Jaina Calendar', The Jain Antiquary, Vol. 3, No. 2.

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98
330 yojanas of the Lavanasamudra. Thus in both Jambudvipa and the Lavanasamudra there are 15 lunar mandalas (lunar diurnal circles) in
all."
JAIN JOURNAL
The total north-south stretch across the lunar mandalas=180+ 330-510 Y.
(ii) Linkage of Lunar Mandala with Moon's Sidereal Course among the Stars:
Like the theory of two Suns, two Moons were considered to rise alternatively in southern quarter of Jambudvipa. As regards their motion in different lunar mandalas SP. 81 (Gaṇitānuyoga, pp. 284-286) states as:
"There are seven half-mandalas viz. 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th and 14th in which Moon moves at the time of entering into the southern part (of Jambudvipa).
13
13 "There are 6 half-mandalas viz. 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th and 67 67 the part of 15th (lunar mandala) in which Moon moves at the time of
entering into the northern part (of Jambudvipa)."
In this way, the first, candrayana (Moon's southern course among the stars) is over.
13
31
Thus the same Moon moves on 7 plus 667 i.e. 1367 half-mandalas in one candrayana (half the sidereal revolution of Moon). According to Jaina theory of two Suns and two Moons etc., the counter Moon also 13
moves on 13367 half-mandalas at the same time.
The total number of lunar mandalas in one candrayana (half the 13 sidereal revolution of moon)=137
We know that a quinquennial yuga (cycle) contains 67 naksatra months (lunar sidereal revolutions) or 134 candrāyanas.
Total number of lunar mandalas in a five-year cycle.

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JANUARY, 1984
99
= 135
134=1768
= The number of lunar sāvana days (moon-rises to moon-rises)
in a five-year cycle.
This indicates that the total number of lunar mandalas (lunar diurnal circles) in a five-year cycle has a one-one correspondence with the total number of sāvana days (a sāvana day means the period from moon-rise to moon-rise) in the same period (5-year cycle). Thus a lunar mandala (lunar diurnal circle) is traversed in a lunar sāvana day (moon-rise to moon-rise).
Velocity of Moon=1 lunar mandala/lunar sāvaņa day............(17)
Besides, it seems plausible that analogus to th part of the 15th lunar mandala (outermost lunar mandala), there must exist only the
th part of the first lunar mandala (innermost lunar mandala) upon which the Moon traverses its path in the northern part of Jambudvipa at about the ending moments of second-cāndrāyana (Moon's sidereal northern course) such that it again starts its southern journey while entering into the southern part of Jambudvipa as before. It is intended to impress upon here that there are 15 straps of lunar mandalas (lunar diurnal circles) and 14 spaces enclosed therebetween. Thus the Moon during its sidereal revolution moves twice upon 13 lunar mandalas and only once upon áth part of each of the extreme lunar mandalas viz. the 1st and the 15th.
(iii) Dimensions of Lunar mandalas :
As regards the dimensions of lunar mandalas, JP 7.21 states as :
“What are the diameter and the circumference of the innermost (lunar) mandala (lunar diurnal circle corresponding to Moon's extreme northern position) ?
"(The answer is) 99640 yojanas diameter and slightly more than 315089 yojanas circumference.
“What about second to the innermost mandala ?

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100
51
«997121+(×) yojanas diameter and slightly more than 315319
yojanas circumference.
JAIN JOURNAL
"What about third to the innermost mandala ?
41
"99785+×) yojanas diameter and slightly more than
61 315549 yojanas circumference.
"So likewise when the Moon goes on advancing, the diameter goes on 51 increasing by 72+) yojanas per mandala and the circumference increases by 230 yojanas per mandala.
"What about the outermost (lunar) mandala (lunar diurnal circle corresponding to Moon's extreme southern position) ?
"1006600 yojanas diameter and 318315 yojanas circumference."
One may find at first sight that dimensions (diameter and circumference only) of the extreme lunar mandalas (innermost lunar mandala and outermost lunar mandala) are exactly the same as those of the corresponding extreme solar mandalas (innermost solar mandala and outermost solar mandala). Therefore distances of the extreme lunar mandalas from periphery of Meru's base on flat earth are also the same as those of the corresponding extreme solar mandalas. The dimensions (diameter, circumference, NPD from Meru) of lunar mandalas other than extreme ones are generated alike to the computation of those of the similar (other than extreme one) solar mandalas. However it is to be noted that we are given that
Rate of change of diameter of lunar mandalas
=725+) Yojanas/lunar savaṇa day (time taken by Moon to traverse one lunar mandala).
Rate of change of radius of lunar mandalas
=7281+(4) Yojanas/lunar sāvaṇa day..
..(18)
Since the radius increases 14 times (corresponding to 14 spaces between extreme lunar mandalas) till the Moon occupies 15th lunar mandala in its southern journey and vice versa, so total change (increase or decrease) of radii of lunar mandalas

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JANUARY, 1984
101
= 14x} 721+ (1x) Yojanas (using eq. No. 18) = 5095 | Yojanas.....
...............................(19)
Thus the distance between outer limit of innermost lunar mandala and outer limit of outermost lunar mandala 50959 Yojanas.
Besides, as regards the thickness of every lunar mandala, JP.7.19 states as :
i.e. “What are the diameter, circumference and thickness of a lunar mandala ?
“Every lunar mandala is of Yojanas diameter, a little more than three times it circumference and di Yojanas thickness.”
In fact, these dimensions of every lunar mandala appear to be dimensions of the lunar disc. Like the fact that north-south breadth of strap of diurnal path of Sun in any solar mandala was equivalent to the diameter of the solar disc, analogically we may take that diameter of the lunar disc i.e. Yojanas denoted the north-south breadth of strap of the lunar path. Therefore the distance between the outer limit of outermost lunar mandala and the inner limit of innermost lunar mandala is the sum of 5095 Yojanas and the breadh of strap of innermost lunar mandala ( i Yojanas) and it is equal to 51091 Yojanas. Thus the extremities of the extreme lunar mandalas (outer limit of the outermost lunar mandala and inner limit of the innermost lunar (mandala) are in toto coincident with the corresponding extremities of the corresponding extreme solar mandalas as shown below :

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JAIN JOURNAL
Periphery of the mount Meru's cross-section (with centre J) on that earth,
Moon
Inng limit of Innermost Solar or lunar mandala (cfutnal eircie) Sun 48%69 Y
Outer limit of the innermost solar mandala
56Y
Outer fimit of the imermost
lunar mandala 510Y (183 solar mandala s)
5095%64 510494
(14 lunar mandalas)
Fig. No. 2 North-south angular distances (projected over surface of earth) between
extreme solar and lunar mandalas (diurnal circles) respectively as implied in Jaina canonical texts. (N. B. This exposition related to a situation prior to the development of notion of celestial latitude of moon.)
In the light of this discussion, it may be contemplated that lunar mandala theory has been developed on the guidelines of solar mandala theory. The notion of declination is equally implied in the concept of lunar mandala (diurnal circle of Moon).
(This paper had been accepted for presentation at the 15th International Conference on History of Science, Edinburgh, Scotland]

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References to Jaina Pontiffs in the Bijolia
Inscriptions of V.S. 1226
KRISHAN GOPAL SHARMA
The proper object of the Bijolia inscription of V.S. 1226 is to record the erection of a temple to Parsvanatha by a pious Digambara Jain named Lolaka. Its importance lies in the long list it supplies of the princes of the Imperial Cauhan dynasty of Sambhar and Ajmer. The early part of the inscription contains elaborate descriptions of the achievements of some Jaina pontiffs. Historically they are of minimal value but they throw some light on Jaina mythology.
The inscription? opens with a salutation to Vitaraga in a small prose sentence and in its first verse adoration is paid to the divine light produced in the supreme soul which, it is said, has manifested itself in the form of the formula syāt.
The second verse of the inscription makes allegorical reference to the first Jaina Tirthankara, Rsabhadeva. It reads with letters broken at several places : nāstam gatah kugrahasangraho na no tivratejā.. (vah).....naiva suduşta dehopūrvvo ravi stātsamudevr$o vah.
The word 'vrşe' here indicates the name of Rsabhadeva who (by breaking the euphonic combination) is to be regarded as avrşa i.e. not having to ascend the second sign of the Zodiac, in contrast to the sun.
The third verse highlights the benevolent nature of Santinatha, the sixteenth pontiff. It reads : bhūyācchrāśāntih śubhavibhavabhangibhavabhrtām vibhoryasyābhāti sphuritanakharocih karayugam. vinamrāņāmeşāmakhilakytinām mangalmayim stharikarttum lakṣmimuparacitarajjuyrajamiya. There was the sage Santinatha whose both beautiful hands with brilliant nails stretch out to cherish and satisfy the accomplished
1 The reading and interpretation of the text given here is based on Akshayakeerty
Vyas' paper 'Bijholi Rock Inscription of Cahamana Somesvara : V. S. 1226' pub
lished in Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVI, pp. 84-102. som namo vitaragaya. • cidrupam sahajoditam niravadhim jnanaikanistharppitam nityonmilitamullasat
parakalam syatkaravispharitam (.) suvyaktam paramadbhutam sivasukhanandaspadam sasvatam naumi staumi japami yami saranam tajjyotiratom(tthi)-tam.

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JAIN JOURNAL
goddess (Laksmi) of happiness for the people of the world blessed with sons and prosperity, and for those fortunate (or learned) men bending low with humiliation like the decorated ground of Braja for Laksmi, the spouse of Visnu, to sport upon.
The fourth verse recounts the glorious achievements of Neminātha, the twenty-second apostle : nāsāśvāsena yena prabalabalabhrtā pūritah pāñcajanyah.... varadalamali (-ni pāda) padmāgradesaih. hastāngusthena śārngam dhanuratulabalam krstamāropya viş no rangulyādolitoyam hala bhrdavanatim tasya nemestanomi. Here it is said that he blew the Pancajanya conch of Lord Krsna by means of the breath of his nose, pulled his bow Sarnga with his thumb and shook Kalabhrta with his finger. “This", writes kaviraj Shyamal Das, “is an allusion to Neminatha's having gone to Dvaraka where Krsna lived, and blowing his conch and stringing and whirling his bow-each of which was unwieldy for anyone else but Visnu himself.”4
The fifth verse makes a vivid description of the lecture-ground of Parsvanatha which, it is said, is gazed upon by the curious spectators, the fore-part of the lofty rampart of which is closely crowded with the leading gods, and which is surrounded on all sides with streamers, brilliant with the sun-gem and rendered vocal with jingles of bells. : prānsuprākārakāntā tridaśaparivrdhavyūha (ru) ddhāvakāśām vācālam ketukoti(kva)-nadananumanīkinkinībhih samantāt. yasya vyākhyānabhūmimahaha kimidamityākulāh kautuken preksante prāṇabhājah (sa) (bhu) (vi) vijayatām tirthakrtapārsvanāthah.
The sixth verse bestows well-wishes on Vardhamana Mahavira : varddhatām varddhamānasya vardhamāna mahodayah. varddhatām varddhamānasya vardhamana (mah-) odayah. The author here makes a display of his poetical talent. He repeats the same line twice which admits of a double meaning.
In verse seventh is adored the goodess of speech under two of her appellations, Sarada and Bharati.?
4 Shyamal Das, 'The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the Epic called the
Prithviraj Raso as commonly ascribed to Cand Bardai', Appendix, Inscription
No. 1, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LV, Pt. 1, p. 28. 6 Cf. Varddhamana i e. Mahavira. . Cf. The town of Varddhamana with which is associated the birth of Mahavira. 7 Cf. saradam saradam staumi saradanavisaradam
bharatim bharatim bhaktabhuktimukti visaradam

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JANUARY, 1984
105
The verses eighth and ninth sum up the whole account in the following words :
nihpratyūhamupāsmahe jinapatinanyānapi svāminah śrinābheyapurassaran parakrpāpiyūşapāthonidhin. ye jyotihparabhāgabhājanatayā muktātmanāmā(śri) tāh śrimanmuktinitambinistanatehäraśriyambhibhrati.
bhavyānām hrdyābhirāmavasatih saddharma.. sthatih karmonmulanasangatih subhatarih nirbbädha-bodhodhstih jiyanāmaupakārakāranaratiḥ śreyah śriyām samsști deyānime bhavasambhștih siva (ma) tim jaine caturvviñśatih.
The whole description thus ends on an invocatory note : 'O twenty-four Tirthankaras....ye guide us aright into good action.'
ye

Page #33

Acarya Aryabhata
V. G. NAIR
There is substantial and trustworthy literary evidence to prove that Aryabhata, the celebrated mathematician and astronomer was a Jaina ascetic reputed for his vast studies in religious scriptures, acute intellect and spiritual wisdom. The Acarya was born in A.D. 499, near about the famous rock-cut natural Jaina cave temple called Kallil in Methala village, Ernakulam district, Kerala. But it is unfortunate that epigraphical and archaeological evidences are not available in support of the accepted traditional view that Aryabhata professed the Jaina faith and he was an ascetic famous in Kerala and other parts of India for his marvellous attainments in the untrodden fields of mathematics and astronomy unknown to the Western world and other Asian countries. Some scholars have disputed the claim that Aryabhata was not a Jaina Sadhu but he was a Hindu Vedic Scholar. These critics have failed to prove their claim on the basis of trustworthy evidences from current tradition, literature, epigraphy and archaeology.
Let me at the outset, unearth the available evidences from Jaina religious literature although they are inferential and indirect information to prove my claim that Aryabhata was a Jaina ascetic born in Kerala.

There were several Jaina Sadhus in the past centuries with an affix of Arya to their proper names. To illustrate a few among them they are Arya Vajra Svami, Arya Suhasti and Arya Malayagiri, who were reputed scholars and authors on Jaina philosophy and culture. Bhagavan Mahavira was known as Arya and Bhatesvara, besides, his other numerous names mentioned in the scriptures. The first name signifies purity of life, nobility, advanced learning and supreme spiritual wisdom; the second, as the chief Pontiff of all the Jaina Bhatas, temples and mutts and the most worshipful Lord of the Jainas. The Pontiffs of Jaina temples and mutts in Karnataka and Tamilnadu are called Bhatarakas even today. The fact that the name of Arya Bhata consisted of two separate words-Arya and Bhata would give credence to my claim that Acarya Arya Bhata was a Jaina ascetic. Arya and Bhata are traditional names of Jaina ascetics from Mahavira to the Sadhus down through the centuries.

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The names of several Bhatas are mentioned in our religious literature. These Bhatas were both Hindus and also Jainas. To illustrate a few, they are Kumarila Bhata of Bihar, the noted Vedic scholar and Mimansaka ritualist, who committed self-immolation by burning himself to death in fire, in the presence of Adi Sankaracarya and Akalanka Bhata, the noted Jaina logician of Karnataka, who defeated several Vedic and Buddhist scholars and monks in debates held at Kanchipuram in Tamilnadu. A Bhata may be a layman or an ascetic either Hindu or Jaina. There are Bhatas among the Buddhists from the days of the
dha. Bhatas are mostly Brahmins and they lived in many parts of India both in ancient and modern times. In Bengal, they are known as Bhattacarya, who are Brahmins. In Maharashtra they are called as Bhatas and in Kerala Bhatathiri, who are also Brahmins. Only the upper classes of people among the Hindus are entitled to hold the name or affix of Bhata, while the Sudras are prohibited to have this privilege under the laws of Smộtis, the Code of Laws of Vedic culture controlling the Varņa Dharma, the Caste System prevalent even today in modern India.
We have another Aryabhata born in A.D. 950. He is also the author of a number of literary works on mathematics and astronomy. It is believed that Aryabhata II was a successor of Acarya Aryabhata and also a native of Kallil in Kerala, and was a Jaina ascetic. But there is no authentic evidence in support of this view.
According to historians Jainism was the preponderating religious faith of Kerala people in the early centuries of the Christian era. On the basis of an old inscription, Prof. Nilkantha Sastri, the noted Indologist, has stated that there were forty thousand Jaina Sadhus in Kerala during the time of Ilamko Adigal in the 2nd century A.D. Ilamko, which meant the young prince, was the brother of Ceran Senkuttuvan, king of Kerala, who had his capital city at Vanchi, the modern Kodumkaloor. Ilamko was a Jaina ascetic and author of Silappadikaram, the Tamil classic depicting the life story of Kannaki, a Jaina lady endowed with spiritual wisdom and super-natural attainments or occult powers. Kannaki's husband Kovalan who was also a Jaina, was beheaded at Madurai on the order of the Pandyan king, charged with stealing the anklet of his queen, when Kovalan was found in the market place with an anklet offering it for sale. This anklet belonged to Kannaki. After husband's tragic death, she plucked out one of her breasts and threw it over Madurai town, which was partly burnt to ashes. The king and his queen died from remorse for sentencing an innocent man to death. After burning Madurai, Kannaki, retraced her steps from Madurai to Kerala, probably to have

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the darsan of Ilamko Adigal at Vanchi. On her way to Vanchi, she remained for a few days at Palghat and its suburbs. Today, the Hindus are offering her worship in temples in the name of Bhagavati. There are a number of such temples in the Palghat area. Kannaki reached Vanchi and passed away underneath a tree. King Sen-Kuttuvan raised a temple in her honour at Vanchi. Today, this Kannaki temple has also become a Bhagavathi temple famous in Kerala. Silappadikaram composed by Ilamko Adigal in classical Tamil is known as the 'Story of the Anklet' in the western countries. Mahakavi Ullur Paramesvara Iyer, the noted poet of Kerala in his History of Malayalam Literature has stated that Bhagavathi worship commenced in Kerala after the advent of Kannaki in Cera land. There were several Jaina temples at Vanchi erected by Ilamko Adigal and the last one near about Guruvayur Krsna temple of the present day was destroyed by the Portuguese in a battle with the Maharaja of Cochin about 500 years ago according to Sri K. V. Krishna Iyer, the noted historian and epigraphist of Kerala.
JAIN JOURNAL
Ilamko Adigal was the Sangha Nayaka of Kerala in his time, and there were more than 100 temples scattered in different parts of the land. The Kallil Rock-cut Jaina temple is believed to have been erected by Ilamko Adigal although there is no inscriptions to prove this view. But Kallil was a noted centre of Jaina studies and pilgrimage for several centuries.
Aryabhata, in the benedictory verse-Mangalācaraṇam of his work on Mathematics and Astronomy, the Ariyabhaṭiyam has invoked the blessings of Brahma and Parabrahma instead of the customary prayer to Mahavira or some other Tirthankara and it would prove that he was not a Jaina by faith, according to some of the critics but this view is erroneous. These critics are not aware of the fact that one of the cardinal doctrines of Jainism is anekantavāda or non-absolutism and not ekāntavāda or absolutism. Even Eienstein's Theory of Relativity is not the final discovery in natural science but it is also relative according to the philosophy of non-absolutism. The pivotal concept of this philosophy is consider, reconsider, conciliate, reconciliate, absorb and unite for avoiding all recriminations and misunderstandings, chaos and confusions, social disorders and global wars for the sustenance of peace. Accordingly, Jainism has absorbed several Hindu gods, goddesses and demi gods in its patheon. Jainas venerate and worship them as Sasanadevatas and Dikpalas. Yaksas and Yaksis are demi-gods of the Jainas. Mahalaksmi, Sarasvati or Padmavati, Visnu, the four-headed Brahma and Gomukha, Nandi of Siva, Ganesa, Kuvera and Cakresvari are equally

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venerated and worshipped by the Jainas. We could see the images of these Hindu deities in some of the Jaina temples in India. In the Konaraka Hindu temple, Orissa, the images of Tirthankaras are worshipped along with Hindu gods. Parabrahma is the impersonal Supreme Self, the Paramātmā of Hindu philosophy, the All-powerful and Selfilluminating and All-knowing God and the Jivātmā is the Eternal Soul of Jaina philosophy endowed with all the natural qualities of Parabrahma but encircled and entangled within the karmic atoms of human beings until it is emancipated from such karmic atoms and attains its original state of self-illumination, eternal bliss and peace, the supreme stage of nirvāna from the continued cycles of worldly life. The ultimate goal of Jainism and Hinduism is one and the same called nirvana or mokşa from the entanglements of worldly life and sufferings. Therefore, the benedictory verse of Aryabhațiyam has proved that Aryabhata was a non-absolutist Jaina philospher and that he was not an absolutist nonJaina philosopher.
The only literary evidence from Sanskrit about the birth place of Aryabhata although it is ambiguous or indirect is from one Kellalur Nilakanta Somayaji, who lived in A.D. 1500. There is also another person called Puthumana Somayaji, A.D. 1431, who are commentators of Aryabhatiyam. Both these commentators are mentioned in the History of Philosophy edited by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan. But the birthplace and religious faith of these two Somayajis are not given by the Editor. My investigations have proved that both these persons are Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. I even doubted whether both are identical persons. But it is not a correct view. A Somayaji is a Nambudiri Brahmin who performs somayajñas, yajñas and other rituals to propitiate the Vedic gods, who numbered thirtytwo, according to the Vedas. There are a number of Somayaji Nambudiri families in Kerala the hereditary descendants of the ancient Somayaji Nambudiri Brahmins. But no such yajñas with animal sacrifices are performed in these days. Today, the Nambudiris are highly educated and formed a progressive community of Kerala.
Kellalur Nilakanta Somayaji has stated asmaka janapadajāta aryabhatācārya which means that Aryabhata was born in the inhabited locality below a hill or rock called Kallil. In old Tamil and also in modern Malayalam Asmaka is Kallu or stone indicating a hill or rock and it is definite and trustworthy what Nilkanta indicated was the rockcut natural Jain cave temple at Kallil or on the hill. This view is supported by traditions current among the people.

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I have seen the Jaina hill temples scattered in different parts of India. The Girnar and Mount Abu in Saurastra and Rajasthan, Palitana or Satrunjaya near Ahmedabad, Sikharji (Pareshnath) in Bihar and also the enchanting Ranakpur temple in Rajasthan. The localities below these temples are inhabited by persons engaged in petty trade and serving the temples. In the same way, Arya Bhata was born in the Janapada of the Kallil Jaina temple, inhabited by Jainas during his time.
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Prof. A. N. Singh, Head of the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Lucknow University in his learned thesis 'Scientific Thought in Ancient India' has stated that Aryabhata was born at Asmaka (but he has not defined the word nor given any information about Aryabhata's religion). The Acarya studied and carried out his researches at Pataliputra (modern Patna) the greatest centre of Jaina studies in the early centuries of the Christian era. At the age of twentythree he wrote the Aryabhatiyam a small work of 118 verses dealing with the main principles of mathematics and astronomy. The earliest work on Indian astronomy available to us is Aryabhatiyam. The astronomical works now available to us show that the Indians had attained a remarkable degree of perfection in astronomy and were ahead of all other nations in the world. The Aryabhatiyam which was written in A.D. 499 contains practically the whole of Arithmatic that we teach today in our High Schools."
Mr. A. L. Basham writes in Indian Heritage, Vol III: "The name of the mathematician who devised the simplified system of writing numerals is unknown but the earliest surviving mathematical texts-the anonymous Bakshali Manuscript which is a copy of the text of the 4th century A.D. and the terse Ariyabhaṭiyam of Aryabhata written in A.D. 449 presupposes it.
"Most of the great discoveries and inventions of which Europe is so proud would have been impossible without a developed system of mathematics. The unknown man who devised the new system was from the world's point of view, after the Buddha, the most important son of India."
This unknown man, was not Varaha Mihira, A.D. 587 and he must be Aryabhata, A.D. 449, although this fact has not been brought to light by scholars. Therefore, Aryabhata can be rightly acclaimed as the father of Mathematics and astronomy in the history of the world. The debt of the western World to Aryabhata and India cannot be overestimated. The fact that the Acarya wrote the Aryabhaṭiyam at the age of twentythree

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is not a new achievement in view of the fact that there were Jaina Sadhus in the ancient days, who had composed great literary works at their young ages. This is an additional evidence to support my view that Aryabhata was a Jaina Sadhu having joined the Monastic order at an early age, eight or nine, and pursued his studies for several years, which is a traditional religious custom prevalent among the Jainas even today.
I may cite here the verdict of the greatest scholar of Kerala, Mahakavi Kodumgallur Kunhukuttan Thampuram, (a prince of one of the royal families of Kerala) on the contributions of Jaina Pandits for the advancement of learning the higher arts among the people of Kerala. The Mahakavi has declared that “the culture of Kerala especially in Medicine (Ayurveda), Astology and Agriculture was developed by the Jaina and the Buddhist Sadhus from whom the Kerala Brahmins, the Nambudiris studied these arts in the early centuries of the Christian era. The Brahmins became Pandits in Ayurveda and Astrology because of these studies under Jaina scholars who were respected by them. Some Brahmins became Jainas for obtaining enlightenment and wisdom from their studies under Jaina Sadhus, who converted many Keralite non-vegetarians to the vegetarian way of life.” (Keralam, Chap 2).

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More Sculptures from Bhagalpur
AJOY KUMAR SINHA
Adimithuna Images
The Jaina arti in India has its own colour. While the gods and goddesses in the Hindu and Buddhist religion show supernatural things, the images of Jaina Tirthankaras are purely in the human form. They are neither polycephalic nor multihanded. But the sculptors of the Jaina images gave importance to the Jina's parents, a typical Indian feeling. A few images showing the figures of Jina's parents have come to light in the eastern and central India. The author of this paper has made a survey of such images and studied them in iconographical perspective.
Let us examine first the general features of such Adimithuna or Yugalia sculptures. The foremost feature is the presence of a couple, either in standing or sitting posture carrying children in their laps under a tree. They are surrounded by a number of children. Above the branches of tree, a lotus pedestal is placed, sometimes resting upon the lions back. On the lotus seat, Jina is shown seated in deep meditation in padmāsana mudrā. The trilinear umbrella over the Jina's head and a decorated halo behind are evidences of his godhood. His palms form the shape of a lotus-bud, an important yoga-mudrā. Except the Jina all the persons carved out in the image, are decked with all sorts of ornaments.
One such image is adorning the British Museum, London. It is from Bihar. Next from Rajghat (Varanasi) is displayed in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benaras. Two such sculptures have been kept in the Museum of Varendra Research Society, Rajshahi (Bangladesh). In the National Museum, New Delhi6 we have one such bronze icon from
1 Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi, 1955. 2 Bhattacharyya, B. C., The Jaina Iconography, New Delhi, 1974 (reprint), p. xix. 3 Sharma, B. N., Jain Pratimayen, New Delhi, 1979, p. 102. 4 Arch, No. 212. (Bharat Kala Bhavan, Benaras) 6 Sharma, B. N., op. cit., p. 95-96.
Arch. No. 75.196. (National Museum, New Delhi)

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Bengal and one stone sculpture from the Northern India." such icons have been reported from the Central India.
Recently, the author of this paper has noticed a masterpiece stone sculpture showing the Adimithuna along with Jina in the Sri Campapur Digambar Jain Siddhaksetra, Nathnagar (Bhagalpur ). It gives all iconographic details which we discussed earlier. (fig. 1) It is carved out in black basalt stone which is locally available in the Rajmahal and Kharagpur Hills. It measures 30.5 x 15.3 centimeters. It is quite in tact. It was discovered from a dried tank at Campanagar (a suburb of Bhagalpur town) in the year 1914 A.D.10 The couple looks like a royal pair because they are heavily decked with beautiful ornaments. They are seated in sukhāsana pose. The ornamanted vṛttabandhajaṭājūta of the couple is quite attractive. Even the babies in their laps and children seated beneath are also provided with ornaments. The Jina is seated in the yoga-mudrā upon a well-decorated and ornamented throne. The trilinear umbrella over his usniṣa styled hair is quite unusual from the iconographic point. The author thinks that it shows some influence of local art.
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At least two
According to some, such sculpture shows the Jina's parent11 while others try to identify them as Yaksa and Yaksi.12 The author of the present paper agrees with the first view. The seated Jina can be identified with Bhagavan Adinatha and the couple with his parents. We know Bhagavan Adinatha was born in the family of Kulakara Nabhi. He was the first king and the first Tirthankara.13
The Adimithuna, the parents of Bhagavan Adinatha has also been worshipped by the Jaina devotees because they gave birth to the founder of Jainism. The Bhagalpur Adimithuna image can be dated in c. 8th century A.D.
7 Arch. No. 74.3491. (National Museum, New Delhi) Arch. No. 75.3377. (National Museum, New Delhi)
• Roychoudhury, P. C., Bihar District Gazetteer, Bhagalpur, Patna, 1962.
10 Patil, D. R., The Antiquarian Remains in Bihar, Patna, 1963, p. 78.
11 Sharma, B.N., op. cit., p. 30.
12 Ibid., p. 53
13 Kalpasutra, p. 205 ff.

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Ancient Caubisi of Bhagavan Adinatha
The Caubisīl has a great religious importance in the Jaina pantheon. Generally, Bhagavan Adinatha or Rsabhanatha act as the mūlanāyaka (chief deity) in such iconic representations. The remaining twentythree Jinas encircle him either in the khadgāsana or in padmāsana mudrā. Rarely, a caubisi of Bhagavan Parsvanatha also met with. Actually the main purpose behind carving out such caubisī images lies in the fact to recognise Bhagavan Adinatha as cheif of the Jaina cult. It also simplifies the purpose of worshipping all the twentyfour Jinas at one place.
The town of Bhagalpur (ancient Campapur) is wellknown to the Jaina community. The caubisī of Bhagavan Adinatha under study is enshrined in the Sri Campapur Digambar Jain Siddhaksetra, Nathnagar.3 It was discovered alongwith several other ancient icons from a dried tank near Campanagar in the year 1914 A.D.4 It is carved out into black basalt. It measures 61 X 30.05 centemeters. It is quite in tact. (fig. 2) Bhagavan Adinatha is seated upon a double petalled lotus pedestal in padmāsana mudrā. He is in deep meditation. His curly hair and uşnişa over it are similar to the image of Lord Buddha. Two Vidyadharas holding long garlands in their hands are flying over the Jina's head. The trilinear (trichatra) umbrella emerging behind his head is attractive. His Sasandevi Cakresvari and Yaksa Gomukha (in human form) are seen near him. All the remaining twentythree Tirthankaras are seated in padmāsana mudrā around the mūlanāyaka Bhagavan Adinatha. Two worshippers are seen near him. His lāñchana, the bull is carved out below the lotus pedestal. An elephant, however, is carved out on the otherside of the bull. In between the bull and the elephant a female deity has been carved out in the place of usual cakra (wheel of law). She is holding a baby in her lap and seated in ardhaparyankāsana. Her vrttabandhajațājūța is attractive. She may be identified as goddess Ambika, the Sasanadevi of Bhagavan Neminatha, the 22nd Jaina Tirthankara.
The depiction of goddess Ambika with the image of Bhagavan Adinatha is rare from the iconographic point of view. We have only similar example at the Archaeological Museum, Raipur, M.P.5 Here the figure
1 Joshi, N.P., Pracin Bharatiya Murtivijnan, Patna, 1977, p. 214. 2 Roychoudhury, P. C., Bihar District Gazetteer, Bhaglpur, Patna, 1962 3 Sinha, Ajoy Kumar, Jaina Shrines in Bhagalpur, Bhagalpur, 1983. 4 Patil, D. R., The Antiquarian Remains in Bihar, Patna, 1963, p. 78. 6 Shrama, B. N, Jain Pratimayen, New Delhi, 1979, p. 78.

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Fig. 2
Fig. 1

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Fig. 3
Fig. 4

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of goddess Ambika has been carved out in place of goddess Cakresvari, probably due to her importance in the Jaina pantheon.
Besides, this caubisi of Bhagavan Adinatha is a sigular specimen of its type from the iconographic point of view, reported so far from the eastern part of Bihar. It can be dated in circa 8th century A.D.
A Rare Khadgasana Image of Bhagavan Adinatha
The stone image of Bhagavan Adinatha under study has been enshrined in Sri Campapur Digambar Jain Siddhaksetra, Nathnagar (a suburb of Bhagalpur Town). It is carved out in ashy black stone and measures 25.3 x 15.3 cms. (fig. 3) The black stone, however, has been referred to as best material to carve out the idols of Jaina Tirthankaras.1 The image shows Bhagavan Adinatha standing in kāyotsarga mudrā, a typical yogic form prescribed in the Jaina canons. Actually, Jainism believes in penance (tapasya).2 The Jina's hands are hanging upto his knees. He is nude and youthful in look. The srivatsa mark upon his chest is, however, not clear. All these features are according to the principles laid down in the silpa texts for carving out the idols of Jaina Tirthankaras during the early and medieval period. The Jina's face is calm and serene in appearance accordingly. He is standing upon a simple pedestal on which a cakra (wheel of law) in the form of simple dotted circle has been carved out just below the Jina's feet. The wheel is flanked by two bulls, the lañchana of the Jina. His elongated ears, half closed eyes, tied heirs and a very simple trilinear umbrella (trichatra) over his head are clear-cut example of early sculptural art of the eastern India. The oval shaped prabhāvalī behind his head also shows simple linear design. On both sides of the standing Jina, we find a number of seated deities, which adds more importance to it. To his left side near the shoulder, his Sasanadevi Cakresvari is seated in the padmāsana mudrā upon a lotus pedestal. She is holding a cakra (wheel) as her emblem. On the right side, near Jina's other shoulder, Gomukha, the Yaksa is shown seated upon a lotus pedestal in the padmasana attitude. The flying Vidyadhara emerging from Gomukha's back is attractive and important from iconographic point of view. One of his hand
1 Pratisthasarasamgraha, 3.77.
sramyamtiti sramanah tapasyamtityarthah, Dasavaikalika Sutra, 13.3.
3 ajanulambabahuh srivatsyankaprasantamurtisca
digvasastaruno rupavamsca kayor'hatam devah, Brhatsamhita, 58, 45. ⚫ santaprasannamadhyasthanasagrasthavikaradrk
sampurnabhavarudhanuvidvang laksananvitam, Pratisthasarodhhara, 1.62.
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is in boon-giving (varada) pose. Just below the Sasanadevi Cakresvari, the Gandharva Yaksa has been carved out. He is also seated upon a lotus flower in the ardha paryankāsana. He is holding a snake in his right hand. On the other side, below the Yaksa Gomukha, we find the figure of Yaksa Kuvera seated in the padmāsana upon a lotus seat. He is holding a club accordingly. His vittabandhajatājūta is typical to the pre-Pala sculptural art of the eastern Bihar. In the lower most row, below the figure of the Gandharva Yaksa, figures of Jina's parents have been beautifully carved out. They are seated in the sukhāsana mudra upon a lotus seat. They are giving boon to the devotees. Above all, we find the figure of Yaksa Bhrkuti on the other side of Jina's parent. Bhrkuti is associated with the bull and hence should be close to Bhagavan Adinatha. In the Jaina art of Bihar, this representation is rare from the iconographic point. A devotee, may be donor, has been carved out with the folded palms (añjali mudrā) upon a lotus seat in kneel down position.
The above mentioned description of the ancient khadgāsana Adinatha image proves its iconographic importance. It is singular example of its type inside the eastern part of Bihar. It definitely belonged to the circa 7th-8th century A.D. and hence of great archaeological importance too.
An Early Image of Bhagavan Adinatha
The earliest known Jaina stone sculpture of Bhagalpur is enshrined in the Sri Champapur Digambar Jain Siddhaksetra, Nathnagar, a suburb of Bhagalpur town. It represents Bhagavan Adinatha or Rsabhanatha, the first and founder Tirthankara. (fig. 4) The temple itself is an old one and said to be constructed in V. S. 1559.2 The statue of Bhagavan Adinatha is in khadgāsana pose. The sculptor followed the śilpa guidelines laid down by Vasunandi. Bhagavan Adinatha is standing with his feet at a distance of about two inches from each other and his hands resting naturally by the sides, definitely not touching his body. His vritabandhajatājūța (roundish hair style) reminds us of the iconographic tradition followed during the Gupta and late Gupta periods (c. 5th-7th century A.D.). Locks of hair, another pre-Pala feature,
5 Bhattacharya, B. C., The Jaina Iconography, New Delhi, 1974 (Reprint), p. 97. • Ibid., p. 93. 1 Matin, Mantgomary, The History, Antiquities, Topography and Statistics of
Eastern India, Vol. II (London, 1837), p. 29. 2 Patil, D. R., The Antiquarian Remains in Bihar, (Patna, 1963), p. 79.

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are hanging over Bhagavana's both shoulders. The śrivatsa mark is clear and his nudeness indicates that it belonged to the Digambara sect. The physical proportions of his body has beautifully been carved out in ashy granite stone which measures 96.5 x 48.3 centimetres. His elongated ears and a round mole mark over his forehead are also important iconographic features. The dharmacakra has been carved out just in the centre of the plain pedestal. His vāhana, the bull, is carved out by the side of the dharmacakra. It is curious to note that this idol of Bhagavan Adinatha has not been accompanied by any Yaksa or Yaksini. It belonged to the circa 5th-6th century A.D.

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A Note on the Antiquity of the Adinatha
Temple at Pulal
A. EKAMBARANATHAN
Pulal, a hamlet situated 9 miles north-west of Madras was a centre of Jainism and a temple was dedicated to Adinatha or Rsabhadeva, the first Tirthankara. The temple is completely renovated in recent times by the north-Indian Jaina pontiffs and hence the date of its origin cannot be easily ascertained from the present structure.
V. G. Nayar in his booklet on the Pulal temple, states that the antiquity of the temple can be traced back to the 1st century B.C., and he is also of the opinion that Tiruvalluvar, the author of Tirukkural offered worship to the presiding deity Adinatha. It is not clear on what grounds V. G. Nayar has dated the temple to the 1st century B.C., and associates Tiruvalluvar with the basti at Pulal. There is no epigraphic or other tangible evidence to show that the temple at Pulal was built during the 1st century of the pre-Christian era.
The Mackenzie Manuscripts, Vol III, edited by Dr. T. V. Mahalingam, (Manuscript No. 13, section 7, p. 96) makes mention of the Jaina temple at Pulal and associates it with the Kurumbars (a tribe). It is stated that "the Kurumbars of the Karnataka country spread over the Dravida country upto Tondaimandalam and set up their rule under the chieftainship of Kamanda, Kurumbaprabhu, Dravida-desatipati, Pulal-raja. They divided their country into twentyfour parts, built a fort in each and made Pulal their capital... Having been converted to Jainism by a monk, they built many Jaina bastis of which one bearing the name of the monk existed at Pulal, and the relics of others at Vikkinam Kalani and other places... They were anihilated by Adondaicola of Tanjore and Vellala people established in the country.”
Section 2 of the same edition (p. 91) of the manuscript adds further information to our knowledge that Adondaichakravarti who extirpated the Kurumbars, was an illlegal son of Kulottunga Cola. If the above said informations are reliable, we may have to place the
s in the 11th century A.D. (i.e. contemporary to Kulottunga.) Taking this into consideration, the same period may also be assigned to the Jaina temple at Pulal, built by the Kurumbars. (The historicity of the Mackenzie collection is subject to severe criticisms.)

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In the prakara of the temple, there is a beautiful image of Adinatha, which may be dated on stylistic grounds to the 10th or 11th century A.D. Adinatha is flanked by two cauri-bearers on either side, his head is adorned by a chatravalli with three tiers, and the area adjoining it is filled with a creeper design. The eyes of the figure are suggestive of meditation, the lips are deep-cut, the ears are elongated and the hands are kept in yoga-posture. The nose and the lower portion of the right arm are slightly damaged. It is possible to suggest that it should have been originally enshrined in the sanctum and after its mutilation, it should have been brought to the present place.
The garbhagsha enshrines an image of Adinatha, slightly bigger in proportion, which in all respects resembles the other figure found in the prakara. This sculpture is highly polished and decorated and hence its date can not be easily determined.
The seven inscriptions (13th, 14th and 15th centuries A.D.) from Pulal (No. 482-488 of ARE 1920) are found in the TirumulasthanamUdaiyar (Siva) temple and they record land grants and other endowments made to the same temple during the time of Sambuvaraya and Vijayanagar kings. These inscriptions do not make any mention of the Jaina basti at Pulal or its Pallicchandam lands in this area.
So it is only from the Adinatha sculpture found in the prakara, we may tentatively fix the date of this temple to the 10th or 11th century A.D.

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