Jain Iconography a brief Survey

Author(s): Umakant P Shah
Publisher: Z_Jinvijay_Muni_Abhinandan_Granth_012033.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250135/1

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JAINA ICONOGRAPHY-A brief survey
Introductory :
Prehistoric sites in India have not yielded as yet any definite clue to the existence of Jainism. A few seals from Mohen-Jo-Daro showing human figures standing in a posture analogous to the free-standing meditative pose (kavotsarga mudra) of the Tirthařkaras 1 or the seal generally acknowledged as representing S'iva as Yogi (in the meditative attitude) cannot in the present state of uncertainty of the meaning of the pictoscript symobols, be definitely used to attest to the antiquity of Jaina art or ritual.
Jaina traditions ascribe the first twenty-two Tirthankaras 2 of this age to a period covering millions of years before Christ, but modern criticism accepts only the last two-Pāras 'vanatha (250 years before Mahavira's Nirvaņa) and Varddhamana (Māhavira died about 527 B. C. according to traditions and about 467 B. C. according to some modern scholars)-as real historical personages.
The mutilated red-stone statuette from Harappa, though surprisingly analogous n style to the Mauryan-Polished-stone-torso of a Jina, obtained from Lohanipur, near Patna in Bihar, has, in addition, two circular depressions on shoulder-fronts, unlike any other Jina-icon known hitherto and could better be regarded as representing an ancient Yaksa, 3 The Harappan statuette being a surface find it is difficult to assign a date to it.
The Origin of Image Worship in Jainism, may, on the basis of available archaeological evidence, be assigned to at least the Mauryan age, c. 3rd century B. C.,
1. Marshall, Sir John, Mohen-Jo-Daro and the Indus Valley Civilisation, Vol. III, pl. xii, 13,
14, 16, 18, 19, 22. Jain, Kamta Prasad, in Modern Review, August 1932, pp. 152 regards some of these seals as representing Jinas (Tirthankaras). The Jainas believe that 24 Tirthankaras lived in this Avasarpini era, an equal number lived in the preceeding era (ara) called Utsarpini, and the same number will be born in the forthcoming Utsarpini ara. For the Jaina conception of these Evolutionary and Involutionary eras, see Jaina, J. C., Outlines of Jainism. Also Nahar, Epitome of Jainism Marshall, op. cit., Vol. I pl. x. a-d. For the Lohanipur torso see, Jayaswal K. P,. Journal of the Bihar & Orissa Research Society, vol. XXIII part 1, pl. i-iy and Banerji-Shastri, in ibid., vol. XXVI. 2.120 8 ff.
3.

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the age of Samprati, the grandson of Asoka, who is reputed in Jaina tradition to have been converted to Jainism and who is said to have given much royal support to the monks of this faith. The evidence of Lohanipur statue does support it,
So far as literary evidence is concerned, we have to weigh it with great caution since the available texts of the Jaina Canonical works are said to have been following the text of the second council at Valabhi which met in the latter half of the fifth century A. D. There are a few references to worship of images and relics and shrines of the Arhats (Tirthankaras) by gods and men, and these may be at least as old as the Mathura council (which met in the beginning of the fourth century A.D.) and even older.
But there are reasons to believe that attempts were made to worship an image (verily a portrait statue) of Mahåvira, even during his life-time. This portrait statue of sandalwood was supposed to have been prepared, when Mahavira was meditating in his own palace, about a year prior to the final renunciation. So this statue showed a crown, some ornaments and a lower garment on the person of Mahavira. Being a life-time portrait statue, it was known as Jivantasvämi-pratim, that is the "Imagie fashioned during the life-lime of the Lord." All later images of this iconographic type then can be known as Jivantasvami-pratima.
The original portrait statue was worshipped by the queen of Uddayana, king of Vitabhaya-pattana, (in Sindhu-Saurvira land) and later by Pradyota of Ujjain. The image used to be taken out in Chariot on a certain day at Vidisa and during this ratha-yatra, Samprati the grandson of Asoka, was converted to Jain faith by Arya Suhasti. References to this image and the ratha--yatra are found in texts like the Vasudevahindi, the À vasyaka-curñi etc. The old bronzes of Jivantasvāmi, one inscribed and datable to c. 550 A. D., and the other partly mutilated with pedestal (and possibly the inscription on it ) lost, but somewhat earlier in age, were discovered in the Akota hoard. The tradition of Jivantasvámî images is, therefore, fairly old and it is not impossible that one or more portraits of Mahävira were made during his life-time. But regular worship of images and shrines of Tirthařkaras may be some what later, though not later than the age of the Lohanipur torso. 1
Nowhere it is said that Mahavira visited a Jain shrine or worshipped images of (earlier) Tirthankaras, like Pársvanatha or Rsabhanatha. Mahavira is always reported to have stayed in Yaksa-ayatanas, Yaksa-Caityas Pūrnabhadra Caitya and so on. 2
1. For further details and discussion on Jivantaswami Images, see. Shah. U. P.. A Unique
Image of Jivantaswamii, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Paroda, Vol. 1, no.1 pp. 72 ff and plates and Shah, U.P., life-time Sandalwood Image of Mahavira, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. 1 no. 4, pp. 358 ff., Shah U. P.,Some More Jivantaswami Images, Journal of Indian Museums. For further discussion on Caitya, Stupa etc. worship in Jainism, see, Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, (Banaras, 1955), pp. 43-121.

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The Jain Image, as suggested elsewhere by us, 1 has for its model or prototype, the ancient Yaksa statues. It was also suggested that the mode of worship of the ancient Yaksa-Naga cult has largely influenced the worship in Jainism. The close similarity of the Jain (Tîrthankara) and the Buddha image, and fact that both Jainism and Buddhism are heterodox cults, which protested against the Vedic Brahmanical priestly cult, shows that Buddhism could easily have been influenced by the worship of the Yaksa and the Tirthañkara images.
That the earliest known Buddha-image hails from Gandhára is a mere accident as suggested by Kramrisch 2 and does not preclude the possiblity of another earlier image being discovered in the land of Buddha's birth, as a product of the Native Indian School of Art. Jayaswal's discovery of a Mauryan torso of a standing Jina figure from Lohanipur proves, on the one hand, the authenticity of Jaina traditions, on the image worship, and, on the other hand, the existence in Magadha of an earlier model for the Jina and Buddha images of early Christian centuries. 3 The Jina-image definitely preceded the Buddha-image as a cult-object.
Lohanipur is a continuation of the Mauryan sites at Kumrahar and Bulandibag near Patna. Along with this highly polished torso were revealed, from the foundations of a square temple (8 ft. 10 in. X 8 ft. 10 in), a large quantity of Mauryan bricks, a worn silver punch-marked coin and another but unpolished and later torso of a Jina in the Kayotsarga pose.
Evidence of Jipa sculptures from the Kankàli Tilà 4 (Mathura) and adjoining sites, shows prevalence of the Stùpa-worship in Jainisin, from at least the second century B. C. The Jinā stūpa, which once existed on the site of Kankali Tila, is regarded as a stūpa of Spar'svanātha, the seventh Tirthankara, but as I have shown elsewhere, it was very probably the stūpa of Pårs'vanátha who flourished 250 years before Mahavira's Nirvana in 527, according to Jaina traditions. The antiquities from the site, discovered so far, date from about first century B. C. and suggest that the stūpa was enlarged, repaired and adorned with sculptures in the early centuries of the Christian era. 5
1. Shah, U. P., Yaksa Worship in Early Jaina Literature, Journal of the Oriental Institue, Baroda,
Vol. SII (1953) No. 1 pp. 55-71, especially, p. 66. 2. Kramrisch, Stella, Indian Sculpture, p. 40. Also sec, remarks of U. P. Shah in Journal of the
Oriental Inst., Vol. No. 4 pp. 358-368. 3. Also see, Shah, U. P., Origin of the Buddha Image, Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol.
XIV, nos, 3-4. 4. Smith Vincent, Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities from Mathura (referred to as JS.) 5. Studies in Jaina Art (Banaras, 1955), pp. 11-12 and ft, notes.

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Antiquities from the site attest to the existence amongst he Jainas, of the worship of the stúpa, the Caitya-tree, the Dharma-cakra, the Ayaga patas (Tablets of Homage), the auspicious symbols like the Svastika, the Wheel of Law, the Nandyavarta diagram, the Powder box (Varddhamanaka), the S'rivatsa-mark, Pair of Fishes (Minā-yugala), the full-blown lotus (Padma) the Mirror (Darpana) and so on. 1 Since Images of Tirthankaras of the Kusana age from Mathura, represented both in the standing and the sitting attitude show no trace of drapery, they clearly suggest that even though, the Digambara and S'vetambara schism had come into being in the first or second century A. D., the final crisis, in the differentiation of Tirthankara icons had not yet taken place. Hence the evidence of art from Mathura refers to Jain worship common to both the sects in the first three centuries of the Christian era. 2 The earliest known Jina image with a lower garment hails from Akota. It is a bronze image of Risabhanatha in the Kayetsarga-standing pose can be assigned to c. 450-500 A, D. 3A. It must be remembered that in the Digambara tradition no drapery is shown on the person of Tirthankara.
Tirthankaras:
Images of the twenty-four Tirthankaras had no recognizing symbols (cognizance. Lanchhanas), upto the end of the Kushana period, A Jina was identified only with the help of his name given in the votive inscription on the pedestal. During the Kusapa period at Mathura, we find evidence of the worship of only a few Tirthańkaras, namely, Rishabnatha, Neminatha, Pars'vanatha and Mahavira. 4 The famous image of Arhat Nandyavarta is dated in the year 49 or 79. 5 This inscription, recently correctly read by K. D. Bajpai shows that it refers to the worship of Munisuvrata (the twentieth Jina) rather than Aranatha as thought of earlier. Thus the list of (24) Tirthankaras was possibly already evolved or was being enlarged in the age of this sculpture, in the second or third century A. D.8
It is interesting to note that in the Jain Kalpasūtra lives of only four JinasRishabhanatha, Neminātha, Pars'vanātha and Mahavira are described in detail and
1. Smith, Op.cit., different plates. 2. For a detailed discussion on the subjects of differentiation of icons in the two sects, see,
Shah, U. P., Age of Differentiation of the S'vetambara and Digambara Images, etc.,
published in the Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Vol. I. no. I. with plates. 3 A. Shah, U. P. Akota Bronzes, p. 26, figs. 8a, 8b. 4. See Luders List of Early Brahmi Inscriptions in Northern India published as appendix to the
different nos. of the Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X. 5. Epigraphia Indica Vol. II Jaina Incriptions from Mathura, Inscr no. 20. 6. Bajpai, K. D. Tirthankara Muni-Suvrata in an Inscribed Mathura Sculpture in Lucknow Museum,
Journal of the U. P. Historical Society, Vol. xxiv-xxv (1951-52), pp. 219-220,

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it is very likely that only these four lives formed the subject matter of the original text. A glance at the stylised summary treatment of the remaining Tirthankaras lends doubt to their antiquity and would suggest later additions, especially because the view seems to obtain support from the absence of images of twenty (out of the twenty-four Tirthan karas) at the Kankali Tila, Mathura. It would seem that details regarding the other Tirthankaras were added towards the close of the Kusana period or before the Mathuri vacana (council at Mathura) took place under the chairmanship of Arya Skandila (c. 300-320 A. D.) 1 It may incidentally be noted that while the nineteenth Jina Mallinatha was a female according to the S've. sect, he was a male according to the Dig. belief.
The Kalpasūtra mentions no cognizance for any of the Trtihankaras. The Āvaysaka-Niryukati at one place only incidentally refers to the cognizance of Rsha - natha ( the first Jina ), in a context which explains the names of the twenty-four Tirthankaras. 2
Cognizances are not mentioned in the ancient lists of atis'ayas or supernatural attributes of a Jina. 3 Of the thirty-four atis'ayas, eight are regarded as the MahaPrátiharyas (chief attendant attributes) which are figured on sculptures and in paintings of a Türthankara. These eight are-the As'oka-tree, scattering of flowers by gods, heavenly music, fly-whisks, lion-seat, prabha-mandala (halo ), heavenly drumbeating, and divine umbrella. 1 A critical study of all the texts, giving lists of atis'ayas and a comparison with all available early sculptures suggest that the list of the eight Mahapratibaryas took its final shape probably towards the close of the Gupta age.
1. For the age etc, of the different councils, see Muni Kalyanavijaya's, Vira Nirvana Samvat,
aur Jaina Kalaganana, in Hindi. Belief in 24 Jinas is however known to Bhagavati Sutra, 16.5. See Avas'yaka Niryukti, vv. 1080 ff. For the various epithets and account etc. of Rsabha, see, Avas'yaka Curni, p. 131 ff, Vasudevahindi, pp. 157, 185. Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, S.B.E., Vol. XXII., pp. 217 ff. Trisastis'alakapurusa charitra, Vol. I, Padmacharitra of Ravisena,
4. pp. 566 ff and Adipurana of Jinasena. 3. See Samavayanga stra, sutra 34 pp. 59-60. Abhidhana-cintamani, 1. 57-64, Tiloyapannatti
of Yativrsabha, 4. verses 896 ff. 4. According to the Dig. verse
अशोकवृक्ष सुरपुष्पवृष्टिदिव्यध्वनिश्चामरमासनं च ।
भामण्डलं दुन्दुभिरातपत्रं सत्प्रातिहार्याणि जिनेश्वराणाम् ।। For a similar S'vetambar list see Pravacana-saroddhara, verse 440; Aupapatika sutra, su. 31, pp. 68-69, For a discussion an Astamangals, see, Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 109-112. For a List of Atisayas, acc. to Digambar tradition, see, Jaina, C. R., Outline of Jainism, pp. 129-130.

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Later sculptures or paintings of the Tirthankaras, show further elaboration in the details of the parikara or paraphernelia attendant upon a Jina, which seems to date from the early mediaeval period. 1
The lánchanas or cognizances of Jinas are not found in known Digambara or S'vetambara texts upto c. 7 th-8th centuries A. D. But in art their first appearance is known from a sculpture of Nemìnàtha on the Vaibharagiri, Rajgir, having an inscription in Gupta characters referring to Chandragupta (Chandragupta II according to R. P. Chanda ). Here a conch is placed on each side of the Cakra-purusa in the centre of the pedestal. 2
But the lists were not finalised in the Gupta age and a post-Gupta sculpture from the same site, representing Pars'vanátha or Supārs'vanatha, shows an elephant on each side of the dharmacakra in the centre of the pedestal, which is not the symbol of either of them and which is the symbol of Ajitanatha in both the sects. A comparison of the S'vetambara and Digambara lists of the lañchhanas shows a few differences and the origin of the lāñchhanas may therefore better ha placed in the age of the final crisis between the two sects (Digambara and S'vetambara) which as I have suggested elsewhere took place in the age of the last Valabhi-vacanã in 473 A, D.
Tirthankaras are said to be of different complexions, namely, white, golden, red, black or dark-blue. The complexions and the lañchhanas help us to identify the various Tirthankaras in Jaina images or paintings. Rsabhanatha is further identified on account of the hair-locks falling on his shoulders, for, while the other Jinas plucked out all the hair, the first Jina, at the special request of Indra, allowed the back-hair (falling on shoulders) to remain. as they looked very beautiful.
Iconography of Rsabhanatha is especially noteworthy. His names Adinatha or Rsabhanatha his lañchhana the bull, and his bull-faced attendant Yaksa Gomukha resembling the s'ajvite Nandikes'vara or Nandi (Bull) are closely analogous to the conception of S'iva with the bull as his váhana. Like S'iva, Rsabhanatha is sometimes represented with a big jatā overhead. (see figures 35, 36, 37 in Studies in Jaina Art.)
A table, showing the complexions and cognizances of the various Jinas according to both the traditions is attached herewith. 3
1. For a full description of the parikara, see, Acaradinakara, II, p. 205. Vastusara of
Thakkara Feru, pp. 93 ff. 2. Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report for 1925-1926, pl. LVI. G, pp. 125-26.
Studies in Jaina Art. fig. 18.
3. For S'vet, lists, see, Abhidhana Cintamani, 1. 49, p. 17. For Dig. lists see Pratisthasaro
ddhara, Tiloyapannatti, etc.

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Tirthankaras of this Age.
No.
Tirthankara
Complexion 1
Cognizance2
Rsabhanatha Ajitanatha Sambhavanatha Abhinandana Sumatinatha
Golden Golden Golden Golden Golden
Bull Elephant Horse Monkey Krauñca (S've.) Koka (Dig.) Lotus Svastika (S've.) 3 Nandyavarta (TP.)
Padmaprabha Supars'yanatha
Red Golden (S've) Harita or Greenish (Dig.) White White
Candraprabha Puspadanta (Suvidhinatha) S'italanatha
Crescent moon Crocodile
Golden
S’reyamsanatha
Golden
Vasupujya Vimalanatha Anantanatha
Red Golden Golden
S'rivatsa (S've.) Svastika (TP.) 4 Khadgi (S've.) Ganda (Dig.) Buffalo Boar S'yena or falcon (S've.) Sahi (? TP.) 5 or Bear Vajra Deer Goat Nandyavarta (S've.) Tagara-kusuma (TP) 8 Fish (Dig.) Water-jar,
Dharmanatha S'antinatha Kunthunatha Aranatha
Golden Golden Golden Golden
Mallinatha
Munisuvrata
Tortoise
Naminatha Neminatha
Dark-blue (Niia) S've. Black (S've.) (Nila) (Dig.) Golden Black (S've.) Nila (Dig.) Dark-Blue. (Nila) S've. Golden
Blue-lotus Conch
Pars'vanatha
Snake
Mahavira
Lion
1. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.49, p. 17, and Tiloyapannatti, 4.588-89. p. 217. 2. Abhidhana Cintamani, 1.47-48, p. 17; and Tiloyapannatti, 4.604-05, p. 209. 3. Svastika acc. to Pratischasirodhara; p. 9 v. 78. 4. S'ridruma acc. to Pratisthasaroddhara; p. 9 v. 78. 5. Sedhika acc, to ibid., p. 9 v, 78, 6. Tagarm, ibid, v. 79, p. 9.

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Panchaparamesthips and salákapurus as :
The Tîrthankaras are the supreme objects of veneration, classified as the Devádhidevas by Acarya Hemachandra in his Abhidhana Cintamani. Enjoying the same high reverence are the Pancha-Paramesthins, or the Five Supreme Ones-namely, the Arhat,, the Siddha, the Acarya, the Upadhyaya and the Sadhu.1 The first two are liberated souls, but the Arhats are placed first as they are embodied souls, some of whom even establish the Tirtha, constitued of the sadhu, sadhvi, s'ra vaka and s'ravika. The Siddhas are liberated souls who live in a disembodied state and reside on the Siddha-s'ilä on top of the whole universe. Representations in paintings of Jinas after attainment of Nirvana show them as seated on the Siddha-s'ila of crescent shape.2 Worship of the Pancha-Paramesthins is very old and a later elaboration of the concept is obtained in the popular worship of the Siddha-chakra (fi. 85 of studies in Jain Art) or the Nava-Devata (fi 77 of studies in Jaina Art) in the S'vetambara and Digambara rituals respectively. 3 Earlier texts refer to Pancha-Paramesthins only and the inclusion of the four more Padas or dignitaries in the above mentioned diagrams probably does not antedate c 9th century A. D. The earliest available reference to SiddhaChakra diagram, so far known, is from Hemachandra's own commentary (called Brihatnyása) on his famous grammar S'abda nus’asana.
The worship of the Five Supreme Ones is impersonal. It is the aggregate of qualities of these souls that is remembered and venerated rather than the individuals. By saluting the Paramesthins, a worshipper suggests to his mind the qualities of the Arhats, Siddha, Acarya, Upadhyaya or Sadhu which the mind gradually begins to follow and ultimately achieves the stage attained by the Siddhas.
But the Devadhidevas are not Creators of the Universe and the other Paramesthins are not their associates in the act of creation or dissolution, The Jaina DivinityThe perfect Being-The Siddha or the Arhat- as a type is an ideal to all the aspirants on the spiritual path. A pious Jajna is not expected to worship his deity in the hope of obtaining some worldly gains as gifts from the God. For the Tirthankara is
1. For Pancha-Parameshthins, see, Jaini, J. L., Outlines of Jainism Nahar, Epitome of Jainism. 2. For Kalpa-Sutra miniatures representing this and other scenes, see, Brown, W. Norman, Miniature
Paintings of the Kalpa-Sutra and Muni Punyavijaya, Pavitra Kalpa-Sutra. The Paintings chiefly refer to the Pancha-Kalyanakas (Five Auspicious Events) in the life of a Jina. The conception of such events obtains parallel in the Buddhist representations of chief auspicious events in the life of Buddha.
3. For a discussion on the Siddha-Chakra and the Nava-Devata, see, Shah, U. P., Siddha-Chakra,
Bulletin of the Baroda Museum, Vol. 3 pp. 25th. Also see, Shah, U. P., Varddhamana-Vidya-Pata, Vol. IX (194), fig. 2 on pl. facing p. 44. Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art. 97-103 for a fuller discussion on Siddha-Chakra and Nava-Devata.

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unattached, freed from all the bondages of karma, whether good or bad. The worshipper simply meditates on the virtues of the Divinity so that they may manifest in the worshipper himself. The Perfect souls and souls striving towards perfection, are Great souls, the S'alakapurusas as the Jainas call them.
This in essence is Hero worship or Apostle worship and as such, great souls, both ascetic and non-ascetic came to be especially revered. Lives of great souls became the favourite theme of Jaina Puranas. Such S'alkapurusas were the 24 Tirthankaras + 12 Cakravartins + 9 Baladevas + 9 Vasudevas = 54 Mahapurusas. Later texts speak of 63 S'alákápurusas by counting nine Prati-Vasudevas (enemies of Vasudevas) amongst the Great souls. 1
Four Classes of Gods, Kulakaras and other Deities :
The Sthananga sutra and other Jaina canons classify gods into four main groups, namely, the Bhavanavasis, the Vyantaras or the Vanamantaras, the Jyotiskas and the Vimanavāsis. These are again subdivided into several groups with Indras, Loka palas, Queens of these and so on.
The classification, acknowledged by both the sects though not without slight differences, is a very old tradition, but these are after all deities of a secondary nature in the Jaina Pantheon.1.
But there were other Great souls. The Jainas also evolved a conception of Kulakaras like the Manus of Hindu mythology. They were 14 according to the Digambaras and 7 according to the S'vetambaras.
Every sect draws its pantheon from the ancient deities worshipped by the masses and adopts them in a manner suitable to the new environment and doctrines. Such for example was the worship of the deities whose shrines existed in the days of Mahavira and whose images and festivals are referred to in the Jajna Agama literature. They include Indra, Rudra, Skanda, Mukunda, Vasudeva, Vais'ramana (or Kubera), Yaksa, Bhutas, Naga, Pis'aca, trees etc., Loka palas and so on.
1. For on account and paintings of these S'alakapurusas, see, Muni Punyavijaya and Suah, U, P.,
Some Painted Wooden Book Covers from W. India, Western Indian Art (Special issue of Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art (1965-66), pp. 34 ff, esp. pp.36-38, and plates XXIV-XXV, and p. 43, Table I for Tirthankaras, their Complexion and cognizances, and Table II, p. 44 for the different S'alakapurusas, acc, to S've, traditions. For Dig. tradition of S'alakapurusas see, Ramachandran, T. N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pp. 219 ff.
For details regarding these classes, see Kierfel, Kosmographic Der Inder section on Cosmographic Der Jaina Tiloypanpatti; Samgrahani Sutra; Bunler, The Indian Sect of the Jainas; Ramachandran, T. N., Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples, pp. 185 ff.

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Indra, the great Vedic deity was assigned the role of a principal attendant of the Jina or the Buddha by the Jainas and the Buddhists. Most of the other deities of the list were deities worshipped by the common man, the masses, and were not necessarily derived from Vedic priestly cult.
Skanda, the Commander of Gods in Hindu mythology is the commander of the infantry of the Jaina Indra. But the goatfaced Naigames'in who was associated in ancient times with procreation of children as Nejamesa was also worshipped by Jainas (cf. Gajasukumara adhyayana of Antagadadasao).1
Sarasvati or Srutadevata-the Goddess of Learning:
Amongst other ancient Jaina deities may be mentioned Srutadevata or Sarasvati, the Goddess of Learning and S'ri-Laksmi, the Goddess of Abundance and Beauty. An early image of the former is obtained from the Kankali Tila, Mathura and shows her seated with upright legs and carrying the lotus and the book. The peculiar posture of the goddess is not without any significance. For, according to the Acaranga sutra, Mahavira himself obtained knowledge while he was sitting with knees held up (ukkurudiae Janu) in the godohika asana, i. e. the posture adopted while milking a cow. Sarasvati in this image, is therefore, seated in an asana associated with the attainment of Kevala jñana by Mahavira,"
193
Later images of Sarasvati show her as having two, four & eight and even twenty-four arms. The four-armed variety is the most common and the goddess generally carries, the vina, and the book in two hands and showing the amiṛtaghata (purna-kalas'a, and the lotus or the varada mudra in two others. The swan is generally shown as her vahana. 3
Bahubali, the elder son of the first Tirthankara Rsabhanatha is very popular amongst the Digambaras and colossal statues of Bahubali (also known as Gommates'vara) are found at S'ravana Belgola, Karkal and Venur in the South, in the Mysore State. The conception of the rigorous penances practised by Bahubali is comparable with the penances of Valmiki, around both of them, plants grew and creatures crawled on their bodies. Images of Bahubali show him nude, standing in the Kayotsarga posture, and engrossed in meditation, with creepers and reptiles entwining his legs.
1. For an exhaustive account of this deity, see, Shah, U. p., Harinegames in, JISOA, vol. XJX (1952-53) pp. 19-40 and plates.
2
Dated in the year 54, the image was the gift of a smith Gova, See Smith Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities from Mathura, pl. XCIX , pp. 56 ff. Also see, Acharanga sutra, 2. 15. 24-25, SBE.
Acharanga Sutra, (transl.) p. 201.
3. Shah U. P., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati, Journal of the University of Bombay X (1941).

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Images of Bahubali are hardly found in Svetambara temples. They are however found in the Jaina Caves at Ellora and Aihole, in several sites in the South at Kalugumalai etc. and in Digambara shrines.
Rituals of both the sects include invocation and worship of the Parents of the Jinas. Sculptural representations of them are very rare, though relief slabs showing Mothers alone of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, each holding a child on ber lap, are known. A ceiling in one of the shrines at Kumbharia however contains representations of the 24 Parents along with labels inscribed below them. A type of sculptures, showing princely figures of a male and a female standing or sititting by the side of each other and holding a child each, with a few more playing children shown on the pedestal, deserves special consideration. Some of these sculptures are also accompanied by a yaksha and a yaksini figure on the sides of the pedestal. In such cases the main figures cannot be regarded as Yaksa and Yaksini. Every sculpture of this type has an image of a Jina on top of the tree under which the pair is sitting or standing. I have therefore tentatively suggested that these sculptures might have represented Parents of the different Jinas. Such sculptures have been mainly found from various sites in Central and Eastern India, especially sites like Khajuraho and the Devagadh fort.2
Images of Jaina monks are also found in temples of both sects. Usually they have inscriptions of pedestals giving the name of the monk represented. Figures of monks of the Digambara sect are nude while those of the S've, sect show a lower and an upper garment. Often there is figure of Sthapanacarya 2 in front of these monks who carry a book in one hand and show the vyakhyana mudra with the other. A disciple monk is sometimes shown in front of the acarya.
Ganadharas are Jaina monks, being direct disciples of Tirthankaras, and hold the highest position of respect among Jaina monks and nuns. Sculptures of Ganadharas like Pundarika and Gautama, the chief direct disciples of the first and the last Tirthankaras respectively, are sometimes installed in special cells in Jaina shrines.
Sarasvati or S'ruta-Devata - The Goddess of learning.
Two goddesses enjoyed unquestionable popularity in the past, one is Laksmi, Padma or S'ri, the goddess of wealth, beauty and abundance, the other is Sarasvati, the goddess of learning. Wealth and learning the two primary needs of humanity, valued
1. For a fuller account of Bahubali see, Shah, U. P., Bahubali, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum
no. 4, pp. 32-39, with plates. 2. For a detailed discussion with photographs, see, Shah, U, P., Parents of the Jinas, Bulletin of the
Prince of Wales Museum, no. 5, pp. 24-32 with plates, 3. For sthapanacarya, see, Shah, U. P., Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 113-115

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as such from remote past in India, were idealised in the forms of deities and widely worshipped.
The Mother-goddess conception is cf hoary antiquity, both in India and outside. Amongst deified patural phenomena and objects, we find, in Vedic age, a group which includes, Sarasvati, Ap-devatas, rivers, and Sindhu. Amongst deified abstract qualities and objects connected with sacrifice, we find Sarasvati or Vak group which includes Vak or Sarasvati, Gauri, Sasaparni, Ila (as speech) and Bharati. Rivers are youthful goddesses, amongst whom Sarasvati and Sindhu are the most famous in Vedic age. Sarasvati who receives the warmest homage in Vedic literature, amongst goddesses and amongst mothers, is so mighty and great that even gods are said to approach her on bent knees (RV. VII. 95. 4). As a river she is called seven-sistered and is invoked to preserve sacrifice. Residence on her banks is desired by the Aryan people.
She is the instructress of men and creatrix of good speech (RV. I. 3. 10-12) and is addressed as Sunta devi (RV. I. 40.3). As a sacrificial goddess she is closely associated with Ila, Mahi and Bharati (RV. V 5. 8; IX. 5. 8; X. 74. 8; X. 110. 8), all the three being explained by Sayana as different forms of speech. Gauri is identified with Vak or speech (RV. I, 164. 41). Sarasvati is the creatrix of truthful speech, instructress of gods and men, and inspirer of knowledge (RV. I. 3. 11-12).
Once the sanctity of the Vedic river Sarasvati was established, she soon took the foremost place amongst rivers. From Vedic times, whiteness and purity came to be associated with the river and it is not improbable that the whiteness of the goddess of learning came by transference from the river itself. 1
Gradually Sarasvati came to be identified with the speech-the speech or mantras chanted on her banks, with the speech of the Madhyadesa. She came to be equated with Divine Wisdom-the Prajnaparamita of the Buddhists. The river association, so obtrusive in the Vedic Samhitas, and sometimes in the Brahmanas, gradually recedes into background and the concept of the deity comes to the forefront. Sarasvati soon becomes the Mother of the Vedas, the dispenser of all wisdom, the foremost of the Mothers, the best of the rivers and the greatest of all goddesses. Very soon she became the presiding deity of fine arts, especially music, dance and song.
Not only was Sarasvati herself approached for prosperity (Aitareya Brahmana, II. 1. 4; Vaj Sam 31. 37) but she and Laksmi were often invoked together.
Seal no. 18 found at Bhita2 contajos a figure of a vase (bhadraghata) on pedestal. Below it is written in characters of the Gupta period, the name Sarasvati. J. N. Banerji
1. Bhattacharya, Haridas, Sarasvati, The Goddess of learning, K.B. Pathak Commemoration Volume p.36 2. A.S.T.A.R. 1911-12, p. 50, pl. XVII

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has also referred to a round seal from Rajghat, with pot and foliage motif and Gupta legend 'Sri Sarasvata'i
Coomaraswamy suggested the relation of the full-jar (purna-ghata), signifying abundance, with that of fertility, of which the lotus was another symbol. Sarasvati bestows vitality and offspring (RV. II. 41. 17) and is associated with deities who assist procreation (RV. X. 184. 2.).
It is interesting to note that the lotus and the water-pot, along with the book signifying knowledge and sacred lore, are the earliest symbols known of Sarasvati in Indian Iconography. The earliest available image of Sarasvati, dating from the Kusana period and hailing from Mathura, belongs to the Jaina faith. It shows the goddess with her right hand raised up from the elbow and carrying something (now mutilated and lost but) whose end seems to suggest that it was a lotus with a stalk, and holding the book with her left hand. On two sides are attendants one of whom is holding a water-pot. the purna-ghata. 2
That Sarasvati held a lotus in her right hand in this image, is further inferred by a beautiful bronze from Vasantagadh hoard, where the symbol is well preserved and where again we find two purna-ghatas placed on the pedestal on two sides of the god dess. The image dates from c. seventh century.3 This early iconographic form of Sarasvati was popular amongst the Jajnas as can be seen from the fact that two more bronze of Sarasvati with the lotus and the book in her hands are also found from the Akota Hoard. 4
In Jainism, the goddess of learning is named variously as Sarasvati, S'rutde vata, S'arada, Bharati, Bhasa, Vak-devata, Vagisvari, Vani and Brahmi5 She is regar ded as the superintending deity of knowledge and learning. As S'ruta devata, she presides over the Sruta or the preaching of the Tirthankaras and the Kevalins. The twelve principal canonical texts-the dvadasangas are regarded as the different limbs of the S'rut edevata.
The antiquity of her worship in Jainism is established from literary references found in the Bhagavati sutra, the Mahapisitha sutra, the Dvadasaranayacakra, the Pancasaka (of Haribhadra suri), etc., and the famous Mathura image of the Kusana age
1. Banerji, J.N., Development of Hindu Iconographs, pp. 197-198. 2. Shah, UP., Iconography of the Jaina Goddess Sarasvati, Journal of the Univerity of Bombay, Sept., 1941
198 f; fig. 1. Smith, VA., The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities from Mathura, pp. 55-57, pl. XCIX. 3. Shah, U.P., Bronze Hoard from Vasantagadh, Lalitkala, no. 1, pp. 55 ff., fig. 15 4. Sah, U.P., Akota Bronzes, figs. 18, 33, 37. 5. Abhidhana-Cintamani, 2. 155 and comm. of Hemacandra on the same. .

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The dhyanas of this goddess mostly describe a two-armed, a four-armed or a multi-armed form. In art, however, we also find six-armed and eight-armed varieties of Sarasvati images. She is white in complexion and rests on a lotus seat. When twoarmed, she carries the lotus and the book.
The Vajra-Sarada of the Buddhists holds the same symbols; the Sita-Prajnaparamita of the Buddhists does the same. Prajnaparamita, the embodiment of Mahayana Scripture of the same name, symbolised knowledge,
Munisundar suri (15th century A.D.) describes Sarasvati as holding the vina and the book in her two hands and riding the swan. A sculpture on a pillar in the famous big Jaisa temple at Ranakpur shows Sarasvati standing and playing on the vina with both the hands. The swan vehicle is shown near her right foot.
The Buddhist Vajravina-Sarasvati also holds the vina with both the hands. In Hindu Iconography, Sarasvati and Laksmi are shown accompanying Visnu as his consorts. In such cases, Sarasvati carries the vina with both hands. Even when she is replaced by Pusti, Pusti also carries the vina with two hands.
According to the Digambara writer S'uvhacandra, Sarasvati has the peacockvahana and holds the rosary and the book in her two hands.
In the Sarasvati-kalpa ascribed to the S've writer Bappabhatti suri (c. 8th century A. D.), Sarasvati is invoked as white in complexion and four-armed, carrying the vina, the book, the rosary of pearls, and the white lotus. In this variety, she has the swan as her vahana.
Bappabhatti gives one more form of Vagdevi showing the varada, the abhaya, the book and the lotus.
According to the Digambara writer Ekasamdhi, Vani is white, sits on the lotus, and shows the joana mudra, the rosary, the abhaya and the book in her four hands. Mallisena and Arhaddasa (both Digambara) describe the same form and add that she has the peacock as her vahana. Pandit Asadhara (Digambara) refers to her peacock vehicle but does not describe her symbols.
Two sculptures of six-armed variety of Sarasvati are known from Luna Vasahi, Abu, one with almost all symbols mutilated and another showing the lotus in two upper hands, the Jnana mudra with two middle ones, and holding the rosary and thc kamandalu in the two lower hands. The swan is shown as her vahana.
An eight-armed form of a dancing Sarasvati is identified on the west wall of the S've. Jaina temple of Ajitanatha at Taranga (North Gujarat). Here the goddess shows the book, the rosary and the varada mudra in three right hands, and the lotus and the varada in three left ones Symbols of the remaining two hands are mutilated.
A large variety of Sarasvati is known from literature and art. This shows the great popularity of this apcient goddess amongst the Jainas.

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S're-Laksmi The Goddess of Beauty and Abundance.
Long ago, in Eastern Arı Vol. I (pp. 175 ff). Coomaraswamy discussed the Early Indian Iconography of S'ri-Laksmi which was later followed by an excellent long paper, by Dr. Moti Chandra, on “Our Lady of Beauty and Abundance, Padma-S'ri," in Shri Jawaharlal Nehru Abhinandana Grantha. The cult of S'ri-Laksmi, as shown by Moti Chandra, was closely connected with the ancient Mother-goddess cult represented in old terracotta figurines and stone-rings. Moti Chandra has also shown her association with sky-going horse, makara, and cupid (Kamadeva, whose ensign is makara). In tne Rgvedic times, she indicated importance, splendour and adornment, something pleasing to the eye. The word Laksmi is used in the sense of auspicir us or pleasant quality. In the Sri-sukta, S'ri and Laksmi are denomination of the same goddess who is said to be sitting or standing on the lotus (Padma-sthita). According to this sukta, Sri is awakened by the roar of elephants, bathed by the elephants with golden pitchers. Mother S'ri is lotus-faced, lotus-born, and darling of Visnu.
Síri-Laksmi in the Epics is a concrete goddess with full iconographic significance. She bears on her hand a makara as an auspicious mark, and is the mother of Kamadeva. Shi is padmalaya and padmahasta.
S'ri-Laksmi retains her auspicious character in Jainism. The lustration or abhiseka of S'ri has been reckoned amongst the fourteeni auspicious dreams seen by a would-be Tirthankara's mother. The Pritidana referred to in Jaina canonical texts included images of the goddesses S'ri, Hri, Dhrti, Laksmi, Kirti, and Buddhi. In Jaina texts on cosmography S'ri and Laksmi are said to live on totuses of extraordinary magnitude in the lakes Padma-draha and Pundarika-draha respectively, thus emphasing S’riLaksmi's association with the waters and the lotus.
When accompanied by elephants pouring water on her, S'ri-Laksmi is generally called Gaja-Laksmi; and two-armed as well as four-armed forms of this goddess are available in Jaina temples. She usually carries the lotus in two hands, and the rosary and the pot in the padmasana. She is popular amongst both the Jaina sects.
Yaksas and Yaksinis2 :
The Yakasa cult is very ancient in India. References to Ceiyas like the Guna. sila-Ceiya; Purnabhadra-Ce; Bahuputrika-Ce; etc. in the Jaina Canonical texts are significant. The commentators rightly interpret them as shrines of yaksas (yaksa-ayatana)
1. Fourteen amongst the S'vetambaras, Sixteen amongst the Digambaras 2. Yaksa workship in Ancient India has been discussed by Dr. Coomarswamy in his Yaksas
I and II, Yaksa worship in Early Jaina Literature has been discussed by Umakant Shah in Journal of the Oriental Institute, Vol. M. no. 1. Dr. Miotichandra's recent contribution on Yaksa worship, published in Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, no 3. throws some more light on the problem,

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and the word Jakhayayana is not unknown to the canonsl. Purnabhadra and Manibhadra are well known as ancient yaksas.
Mahavira stayed in such shrines. The Aupa patika sutra gives a detailed description of the Purnabhadra Caitya, calling it ancient (porana) and visited by many persons. Mahavira, obviously selected for his stay shrines of cults which were not following the vedic rituals and were, therefore non-vedic, or heterodox and possibly not-Aryan in origin. The description of the Purnabhadra Caitya refers to a Prthivi-s'ila-patta, soft to touch and shining like mirror, which I regard as referring to a highly polished N. B. P. terracotta plaque. Excavations at Kosam and Vaisali have demonstrated the existence of the N.B.P. ware in the sixth century B.C. Thus the description of the Purnabhadra shrine visited by Mahavira is authentic and preserves genuine old tradition, 2
We should, therefore, have no hesitation in regarding these Prthvi-silapatas (of the Purnabhadra-Chaitya description) as precursors of the Jain ayagapatas from Mathura dating from C. 1st cent. B.C.-1st Cent. A.D.
It is but natural that when the pantheon began growing the Jainas thought of introduction a yaksa and a yaksi, as attendants S'asana Devatas, who protect the samgha of a particular Jina. The attendants obtained a place on the pedestal of a Jina-Ima ye itself.
Firstly a pair common to all the twenty four Tirthankars was introduced. The yaksa carried a citron and a money-bag and resembled Kubera or Jambhala. The Yaksi two-armed, carrying a mango-bunch and a child, and having the lion as her yahana (mount) had as her protypes Nonaja Nana (of the Kushana coins), Durga and Hariti.
In Jaina iconography, before the Gupta age, or more correctly before the end of the fifth century A. D., we do not find any attendant Yaksi accompanying any Tirthankara ; nor do we find separate sculptures of any Sasanadevata which can with confidence be assigned to a period before c. 500 A. D.
Tirthankara sculptures which can be definitely assigned to the Gupta age are very few. A headless statue of Mahavira in the Lucknow Museum, inscribed and dated in the Gupta year 113, is perhaps the only known Jaina sculpture of the Gupta age, bearing a date, discoverd hitherto. It does not show the Sasandadevatas on the pedestal. Some finer specimens like J. 104 and C. 181, in the same Museum, or B. 6 & B. 33 in Mathura Museum, though not inscribed, can be assigned to the Gupta age or late Gupta age on the evidence of style.
A seated figure of Neminatha on the Vaibhara hill, Rajgir, published by R, P. Chanda, A. S. I. Ann. Rep. for 1925-26, pp. 125 ff.pl.lvi.d, bears a fragmentary inscription, in Gupta characters, referring to Chandra Gupta (the second). This is the earliest
1. 2.
Shah, U, P. Studies in Jaina Art pp. For a detailed discussion, see, Studies in Jaina Art,

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specimen assignable to a fairly accurate date, showing the introduction of the cognizance of a Jina, but has no figures of Sasanadevatas.
None of the Tirthankara sculptures of the Kusāna period show on their pedestals either the recognizing symbols of Jinas or the Yaksa pair, even though Yaksa Kubera or a two-armed Yaksi, a prototype of Ambika, were probably known and worshipped separately as Yaksa-deva or Yaksi-devi but not as an attendant (Yaksa) or a Sasana-devata.
The Agama texts are silent about attendant Yaksa pairs. Even the Kalpasutra which could have referred to them is completely silent about Sasandevatas and the lanchanas of Jinas. Negative evidence is generally inconclusive, but since both literature and archaeology have hitherto not produced any evidence to the contrary, one can safely assume that the Sasandevatas were not evolved before c. 500 A.D.
An interesting beautiful bronze of standing Rsabhanatha, discovered from Akota, is perhaps the earliest known Jaina image which shows Sasanadevatas accompanying a Tirthankara.
The inscription on the back of the images reads, “Om devadharmh=yam niv (r) ti kule Jinabhadra Vachanacharyyasya,” and is written in the Brahmi script of c. 550 A.D. Since on the evidence of Kabavali, Vachanacharya, Divakara, Ksamasramana Vadi etc., are ekarthavaci terms, Jinabhadra Vacanacarya of the inscription can be identified with Jinabhadra Gani Ksamasramana.
Now, in this bronze we find a Kubera-like Yaksa and a two-armed Ambika shown as attendant Yaksa and Yaksi of Rsabhanatha. I have shown elsewhere that at Ellora, and other places we find only this Yaksa pair. In sculptures and bronzes, at least upto about the end of the ninth oentury A. D., we find only this pair. I have also shown that the pair accompanies several Tirthankaras like Rsabhanatha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, even though in later literature and art, the Kubera-like Yaksa and Ambika are Sasanadevatas of Neminatha only. It is quite clear that before eirca ninth century A. D,, the differeni pairs of Sasanadevatas were not evolved or at least they were not popular.
The period of transition from the Gupta age to the middle ages, i. e. from the end of the sixth century A. D. to c. 11th century A. D. is a period of new impetus to Tantrism in all the three main Indian sects, namely, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. This brought into existence worship of new deities and additions to the existing number of iconographic varieties of old ones. The new activity continued even up to at least the thirteenth century A. D. which period (6th-7th to 13th century A. D.) has witnessed temple-building activity on a large scale all over India. The earlier simplicity of forms in architecture and sculpture was replaced by complex forms overloaded with ornamental details. Gods and Goddesses who had two or four arms multiplied so much so that we have conceptions of deties like the thousand-arm Avalokitēsvara !

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The different sects vied with one another in the race for multiplication of their respective pantheons and mystifying their rituals with complex details, Jainism, which has shown greater conservatism than other sects in preserving their ācāra-vidhi, was also obliged to introduce new deities (though, of course, subordinate to the Tirthankaras), or to compose Tantric works like the Jvālini -kalpa or the Bhairava-Padmā vatiKalpa. The Achāra-Dinakara of Vardhamana Suri is a product of this spirit, and was composed in 1468 V. S. (1411 A. D.) Th Nirvāṇakalikā composed by another Pā dalipta in C. 1000-1025 A. D., in the mediaeval period but ascribed to the earlier Padalipta-suri, and the Pratisthasarudhara of Asādhara were also composed under this influence.
It was in the beginning of this transitional age that the first. Yaksa-pair Kuberalike Yaksa whom I propose to address tentatively as Sarvānubhuti invoked in the PancaPrati-kramana, and two-armed Ambika made their first appearance as the attendant Yaksa pair par-excellence, common to all the Tirthaikaras. Early specimens of Ambika, hitherto known, came from the Meguti temple, Aihole, in the Dharwar district, 2 Mahudi on the Sabarmati, North Gujarat, 3 Dhānk in Saurashtra, 4 or on sculptures numbered B. 78 and B. 75 in the Mathura Museum,5 But these belonged to an age not earlier than the seventh century A. D. The discovery of the Akota hoard pushed back the introduction of Ambika Yaksi in Jainism to at least the sixth century A. D. as evidenced by a bronze of Ambika with an inscription assignable to C 550-600 A. D., and by the bronze of Rsabhanatha installed by Jinabhadra, 6 discussed above, both the bronzes belonging to the Akota hoard. The earliest descriptions of the twoarmed Ambika known hitherto, came from the Caturvimsatikā of Bappabhatti Suri? (c. 800-895 V. S.) and the Harivamsha8 of Jinasena (783 A. D.). Jinasena also refers to Apraticakra in the same verse in which Ambika is referred to. But since Apraticakrā is known as a Vidyadevi in ancient Jaina texts, it is not certain that in the age of
1. See sa** 17 with galeta F1, Vol. III P. 170 Also cf. U.P. Shah, 'A female Chaurie-Bearer
From Akota, Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, no. 1. 2. Cousens, H., Chalukyan Architecture, PLIV. The sculpture is assignable to the seventh century
A. D. 3. Annual Report, Department of Archaeology, Baroda State 1939, pp. 6 ff, and plates. 4. H. D. Sankalia, Earliest Jain Sculpture in Kathtawar' Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London,
July 1939, pp. 426 ff. In an article in the Jain Satya Prakasa (Gujarat, Ahemedabad), Vol. IV. nos. 1-2, Dr. Sankalia tries to give them an early age, but the reliefs are certainly not eariler then
c. 7th century A. D. 5. Vogel's Catalogue of Sculptures in the Mathura Museum, A seventh century relief is also found at
Chitral in the old Travancore State (now Kerala), see, Buddha and Jaina Vestiges in the Travancore
Stute, Travancore Arehaeologicol Series. II. part 9, pp. 115 ff., pl. V. fig. 2. 5. Journal of Indian Museums, Vol. VIII. pp. 50 ff., fig. 6a. See U.P. Shah, Akota Bronzes, fig. 1). 7. Caturvimsatika, ed. by H.R. Kapadia, pl. 143, 162. 8. Harivamsa, (M.D. Granthamala, Bonibay) Vol. II, Sarga 66, v 44.

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Harivamsa, Cakresvari was already introduced as the Sāsana-Yaksi of Rsabhanatha. There is no sculpture of this age showing Cakresvari as the attendant Yaksî of Rsabhadeva. Earlier references to Ambika come from the Lalitavistarātikā of Haribhadra Suri. An Amba-Kusmandi Vidya has been referred to by the same writer in his tika on the Avasyakaniryukti, V, 931, (p. 411). In both these cases, however, neither the vahana nor the symbols are described.
But a still earlier reference is from a Ms. of Visesavasyaka-Mahabhasya with Ksamasramana-Mahattariya- tika recently discovered by Agamaprabhakara Muni Shri Punyavijayaji which seems to settle the age of the introduction of Ambika Yaksi. This Ksamasramana-Mahattariya-tika gives the following reference on folio 226:
यस्मिन्मन्त्रदेवता स्त्री सा विद्या अम्बाकूष्माण्डयादिः । Here Amba-Kusmandi is referred to as a Vidya. But since we do not find Amba or Kusmandi in the list of the sixteen chief Vidyas, it is very likely that this refers to the Vidya-Sadhana of the same goddess Ambika which accompanied the different Tirthankaras and which later came to be worshipped as the Sasanadevata of Neminatha.
Thus we obtain both literary and archaeologieal evidence for Ambika, assignable to the sixth century A. D. No earlier evidence is known hitherto. It is also interesting to note that both these evidences are associated with Jinabhadra Gani Ksamasramana We might therefore, safely say that Ambika Yaksi was introduced in Jaina worship sometimes in the sixth century A. D. or at the earliest in c 500 A. D. It is not possible to push back this upper limit of the introduction of Ambika in the present stage of our knowledge, since all Tirthankara sculptures assignable to an age prior to c. 500 A. D. do not show any attendent Yaksa pair nor do we find any loose sculptures of Ambika which can be placed before c. 500 A. D.
But when were the 24 Yaksas and Yaksinis introduced ? The earliest list of these sasa nadevatas is obtained from the Abhidhana-Cintamani of Hemacandra and their iconographic forms are given in the Trisastisaakapuruscaritra of the same writer. The Nirvanakalika of Padalipta, ascribed to the famous Padaliptacharya of c. 2nd century A. D., also gives such lists. As the Pravacanasarodhara-tika (V. S. 1248 ) refers to it, the lower limit for Nirvanakalika is 1191 A. D. The work however seems to have been been composed in the eleventh or twelth century A. D. The colophon shows that the author belonged to the Vidyadhara-kula and the work was composed by Padalipta, grandpupil of Sangamasimha, A Sangamasidhamuni died by fasting on Mt. Satrunjaya and his pupil installed an image of Pundarika Ganadhara in his (eacher's memory in V, S. 1064. A Sangamasimha composed a hymn which referred to the Vimala Vasahi . ANTECATINI Tatar TTTHIERİ UCIET 671031-gatai gifrarni Lalitavistara, p, 60,

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at Abu, erected in V. S. 1088. The teacher of the author of Nirvanakalika was possibly one of these two Sangamasimhas. The treatment of the different sections of Nirvanakalika, e. g., the Ekasiripadavastu. shows that the work belongs to an age of Brahmanical influence in the Jina Tantra. The work is assignable to c. 10001025 A. D.
The Prākřit text kahävali is supposed to be a work of one Bhadresvara Suri who lived in the 12th century A. D. But the language of this work betrays peculiarities of the language of the churnis. I have shown in a separate article in Jaina Satya Prakā sa, Vol. XVII. no 4 (January, 1959), pp. 90-91, that the work is earlier than the 12th century A. D. In this work, in the Sthavirávali portion, we find :
जो उरण मल्लवाई व पूधगयावगाही खमापहाणो समणो सो खमासमरणो नाम जहा पासी सपयं देवलोय गयो जिहि (ह) गणि खमासमणो त्ति रयियाई च तेण विसेसावस्सय-विसेसरगवईसत्यारिण जेसु केधलनाणदं सरण वियारावसरे पयडियांभिप्पासो सिद्धसेन दिवायरो।।
Thus the author of Kahā vali cannot be far removed in from Jinabhadra Gaņi amasramaņa by about six centuries, if he talks of Jinabhadra as one who was lately (recently or better 'now') dead. Jinabhadra being very famous, at the most an author writing about a couple of centuries later can use the word sampratam (now') for him. This would mean that Kahā vali was originally composed in a period not later than the eighth century A. D.
This work refers to the Sasaradevalas in the portions dealing with the lives of the different Tirthan karas. This would show that in c. 8th century A. D., the twenty four different Śā sanade vatās were already introduced in Jaina worship. Archaeological evidence known hitlerto does not support the conclusion. No sculpture from any part of India assignable to this age shows the different Yaksis, or Yaksinis. The only early sets of the different Yaksis, known hitherto, come from the Navamuni cave, Orissa, and the Temple No. 12, Devagadh fort Madhya Pradesh. The Navamudi cave is assigned to the ninth century A. D. and the reliefs probably belong to the same age or are slightly later. The Devagadh set bears inscribed labels, the characters of which are roughly assigned to c. 9th-10th century A. D. We might, therefore, say that the earliest known archaeological evidence for the 24 different Yaksis does not date prior to the ninth century A. D.
If the passages of the Kahāvali, referring to different Sāsanadevatas are genuine, then either we accept that the Sāsanadevatās were introduced in c. 8th century A. D. or that the Kaha vali dated from the 9th rather than the 8th century A. D., we might arrive at a tentative compromise by assigning Kahāvali to c. 800 A, D.
It must however be acknowledged that the different Yaksis did not become popular in temple worship before c. 1000 A, D. and even later. This is proved by the fact that on a number of pedestals of Tirthar kara sculptures in the different cells at Delvada, Mt. Abu, and in the Jaina shriness at Kumbharia, we find Ambika (2 or 4

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Jaina Iconography-A brief Survey
armed) and 2 or 4 armed Yaksa, either like Kubera, (Sarvānubhutt) or evolved from the form of Kubera. This is in fact a stage in the evolution of the worship of twenty four different Sasanadevatās. The practice lingered on even after Hemacandra (who refers to quite different forms) as proved by the archaaeological evidence of Abu and Kumbharia noted above.
At Devagadh the following stages are marked : One replaced the old Yaksi (Ambika) for Tirtharkaras other than Neminātha and inserted a two-armed Yaksi showing abhaya (or varada) mudra and a pot or a citron ; the other was the evolution of all the twentyfour different Yaksis with a different iconography and new names as in Temple no. 12. In this set some forms are of better workmanship than others. Each Yaksī is represented as standing on a separate slab, and above her is a figure of a Jina whose Sāsanadevatā she is supposed to be. Names of the Jina as well as his Yaksî are of the same age as the sculptures since it is difficult to assign a roughly accurate date either to the sculptures or to the Devanagari characters of the labels, the characters being in a stage of evolution which still awaits scientific palaeographical study. But they may tentatively be regarded as of the same age, c. 950 A D. or a little earlier.
The Tiloyapannatti gives a list of twentyfour Yaksis, the names being different from the lists of the Devagadh set or of the Pratist hasarodhara. The age of this portion of the Tiloyapannatti is uncertain and the list is probably later than the time of the original Tiloya pannatti. The reference to Balacandra Saiddhantika in Tiloyapannatti, also suggests the same thing.
The following comparative tables showing names of the twenty four Yaks.is according Devagadh Temple 12 set (DT). Tilo yapannatti (TP), Pratisthasaroddhara (PS), and Hemacandra 's Trisastisalakapurusacaritra (HT) may be useful :Jaina DT ТР PS
HT 1. Rsabhanatha Cakresvari Cakresvari Cakresvari
Cakresvari 2. Ajitanatha
Rohini Rohini
Ajita 3. Sambhava. Prajnapti Prajnapti
Duritari
or Namra 4. Abhinandana Sarasvati Vajrasrn
Vajrasın
Kaliga khala
khala or
Duritari 5. Sumati.
Vairankusi Khadgavara Mahakali
or Mohini 6. Padmaprabha Sulocana Apraticakra
Syama 7. Suparsva.
Purusadatta Kall or
Santa
Manavi 8. Candra. Sumalini Manovega Jvalini
Bhrukuti prabha 9. Puspadanta Bahurupi Kali
Mahakali
Sutaraka Bhrukuti

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205
Sr. No.
Jaina . DT
TP PS
HT Sitala Sriyadevi Jvālämalini Māhavi or Asokā
Cāmunda Sreyāmsa. Vahni-Devi Mahäkäli Gauri or Mānayi
Gomedhaki Vāsupujya Abhogarohini Gauri Gandhāri or Canda
Vinyurhinālini Vimala. Sulaksana Gandhāri Vairoti Viditä
Vidyadevi Ananta Anantavirya Vairotyä Anantamāli Arkuša
Kumbhini Dharma, Surakṣita Anantamati Mānasi- Kundarpā
Phrabhartā Šanti. Sriyadevi or Mānasi Mnhämänasi. Niryān i Anantaviryā
Kandarpa Kunthu. Arakarabhi(?) Mahämänasi Jayā Balā
Gandharini Tarādevi Jayā
Tārāxati- Dharini
Kāli Malli Bhimadevi Vijaya Aparājitā. Vairotyä
(Dharpna
-priyā) Munisuvrata
Aparajitā Bahurūpint- Naradattd
Sugandhini Nami,
Bahurūpini Camuda Gandhari
Kusumamolini Nemi. Ambāyikā Kuşmāndini Āmra-Kus- Ambikā
mändini Pärśva Padmāvati Padmā Padmāvati Padmāvati Mahāvira Aparājitä Siddhāyini Siddhāyini Siddhāyikā.
Ara.
It may be noted that in the above table Hemachandra represents the Savetmbara tradition, the rest represent Digambara traditions.
At Pithaura, Nagod State, is a shrine of Pattani-devi, where the godeess Ambika is accompanied by small figures of the other 23 Yaksinis on the three sides, The names of these Yaksinis are 1 :- Bahurupini, Cāmundā, Sarasvati, Padmavati, Vijayā, Aparājltā. Mahamanasi, Anantamati, Gandhāri. Mānasi, Jvālāmālini, Bhausi ? Vajrasrnkhala, Bhānuja (?), Bahini (?). Obviously, the small inscribed labels
1. Annual Report, Western Circle, Arch. Survey of India, for the year ending 1920,

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206
could not be read properly, but the list seems to be generally akin to the list af Tiloyapannatti which seems to present a stage between the Deogarh set and the Pratisthäsä roddhära. At Deograh, a four-armed loose sculpture of Yaksi Sarasvati and another of Sumalini are also obtained. Since both are dated in the year 1070 A.D., it may be presumed that the Deogarh Temple No. 12 set is earlier than 1070 A.D. The list of Yaksas and Yaksinis given by the TP cannot be assigned to the origninal TP as suggested by by the learned editor. The original text has definitedly. undergone certain additions and its evidence has to be treated with caution.
Literary traditions of both these sects, show that by c. 12th century A,D,, the lists of the varioes Yaksinis were finalised in both the Jaina sects.
It is noteworthy that in the Digambara lists of Asadhara and others, names of some of the Yaksinis seem to have been borrowed from the sixteen principal Vidyadevis since the lists of Vidyadevis are earlier in age, the above conclusion is inevitable.
The evolution of the iconography yakshi Padmavati a snake-goddess is equally interesting. Firstly, in all early representations of Pars'vanatha, before c. 900 A.D... she hardly figures as the yaksi of this Jina. Along with Dharanendra, she is known. as a snake-deity standing and adoring Pars, vanatha or holding an umbrella over the head of Pars'vanatha. Scenes of attack (upasarga) by Kamatha on Pars'vantha during the latter's meditation, are very popular in the Deccan in the Jaina caves at Elura, Dharas'iva, etc., and even further south at Chitharal, Vallimalai, Kalugumalai and so on. In all these representations, Dharanendra is shown as protecting Pars'vanatha with his snake-hoods and adoring him, along with his queen Padmavati It is indeed surprising to find that in the canonical lists of chief Queens of Dharanendra the name of Padmavati is not mentioned at all. It is, therefore, difficult to label this attendant queen of Dharanendra as Padmavati in the representations at Elura etc. (She may be Vairotya).
Vairotya the thirteenth Jaina Mahavidya is an earlier Jaina snakegoddess. Lists of Mahavidyas are definitely earlier than the hitherto known lists. of the 24 different Jain Yaksas and Yaksinis and the ancient Jaina monk Arya Nandila is associated with the worship of Vairotya in Jaina traditions. Very probably, the snake-goddess in the Elura relief was known as Vairotya.
Padmavati gradually replaced Vairotya in popular worship during the mediaeval period from c. 1000 A. D. Next to Ambika, she is the most popular yaksi and a snake-diety, but her role in the Jaina Tantra is greater than that of the Ambika. Tantric texts like the Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa, Adbhuta-Padmavati-kalpa etc, were composed. Four-armed, she usually carries, the lotus, the goad, the noose, etc. and rides on a composite mythical animal called Kukkuta-Sarpa.

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207
Cakres'vari, the yaksini of the first Ticthankara Rsabhanatha is also a later goddess, for in all earlier representations, atendating c. 900 A.D., it is Ambika who figures as the yaksini of Rsabhanatha and all other Tirthankaras (cf. the image installed by Jinabhadra Vacanacarya from the Akota Hoard. Her iconography shows close similarity with that of the Hindu Vaisnavi, Cakres’yari Yaksi invariably carries the Cakra and shows in the other arms, the conch, the varada mudra the disc, etc. Like Vaisnavi she rides on the eagle.
It is often difficult to differentiate between images of Cakres’vari the Yakshi and Cakres'vari or Apraticakrī the Vidyadevi, if the goddess is not accompained by the figure of a Jina (either on her crown or above the pedestal). Apraticakrā, the Vidyadevi is earlier in origin than the yaksi of the same type.
Siddhayika replaced Ambika as the Yaksi of Mahavira, during the process in which separate yaksas and yaksinis were evolved for each Jina. Though she is regarded as one of the four principal yaksinis, she could not become so popular as the other three yaksinīs, namely Cakresvari, Padmavati and Ambika. In the sve. traditions, Siddhayika usually shows the book, the Vina, the abhaya or varada and citron in her four hands and rides the lion. In the Digambara tradition she shows the book and the varada or abhaya when two-armed. The lion is her vahana:
Alist of the later yaksas of the 24 Tirthankaras, according to the Svetambara and Digambara traditions, is attached herewith Space does not permit us to refer the iconographic pecularities of each of these deitties. It may however be noted that names of some of these yaksas are interesting. Gomukha, the cow-faced yaksa of Rsabhanatha has his parallel in Nandi or Nandikesvara, the mount and attendant of the Hindu Siva. There are Jaina yaksas like the Şanmukha-yaksa, the Brahmayaksa, the Catur-mukha-yaksa, the Is'vara-yaksa and so on which obviously betray later attempts to placate Hindu gods in Jaina worship.
Tirthankar a : 1. Rsabhanatha 2. Ajitanatha 3. Sambhavanatna 4. Abhinandana 5, Sumatinatha 6. Padmaprabha 7. Suparsvanatha 8. Csndraprabha 9. Suvidhinatha 10. Sitalanatha
Yaksa (S've ) : Gomukha Mahayaksa Trimukha Yaksesvara or Isvara Tumburu Kusuma Matanga Vijaya Ajita Brahma or Brahma
Yaksa (Dig.) Gomukha Mahayaksa Trimukha Yaksesvara Tumburu Kusuma or Puspa Matanga or Varanandi Syama or Vijya Ajita Brahma or Brahmesvara

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Umakant P, Shah
11. S'reyamsanatha
Isvara
Isvara or Manuja or Yaksaraja Kumara Şaņmukha
12. Vasupujya 13. Vimalanatha
14. Anantanatha 15. Dharmanatha 16. Santinatha 17. Kunthunatha 18. Aranatha 19. Mallinatha 20. Muenisuvrata 21. Naminatha 22. Neminatha 23. Pars'vanatha 24. Tahavira
Patala Kinnara Garuda Gandharva Yaksendra Kubera Varuna Bhrukuti Gomedha Parsya or Manuja Matanga
Kumara Şanmukha or Caturmukha or Karttikeya Patala Kinnnara Garuda or Kimppurusa Gandharva Khendra or Jaya Kubera Varuna Bhrukti or Vidyatprabha Gomedha or Sarvanha Pars'va or Dharana Matanga
Gomukha, the yaksa of the first Tirthankara Rsabhanath, is cow-faced and reminds us of Nandi the vahana of Siva. Rsabhanatha himself is sometimes shown with a jata overhead of hair-locks falling on shoulders from the back and in such cases he obtains comparison with the Hindu Siva who is Nandi-vahana: In his two-armed variety Gomukha carries the cirton and the bag in the Digambara and the Svetambara traditions and rides the elephant. When four-arned, he shows symbols like the varada, the rosary, the cirton, and the goad. Sometimes the rosary and the citron are replaced by the goad and the money-bag. The vahana is generally the elephant but occassionally the bull also. In the Digambara tradition the symbols of the four-armed variety are generally the lotus, the cirton, the moneybag, and the abhaya or varada mudra, while bull is more common as his vahana.
Gomedha, the yaksa of Nemnatha, is generally six-armed and rides on the man according to Svetambara and Digambara texts, but the latter also refer to a four-armed variety with the elephant vehicle.
The Yaksa of Parsvanatha usually rides on the tortoise vehicle and shows the cirton and the money-bag when two armed, in both the traditions. When fourarmed, he shows symbols like, the snake, the citron, the nakula and the snake or the mace in the Svetambaro traditions, and shows symbols like the snake, the snake, the noose, and the varada or the goad, the noose, the abhaya and the citron in his four arms according to the Digambara traditions. He often has one or more snakehoods overhead. He is called Parsva in the Sve tradition and Dharana in the Dig. tradition.

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209
The yakṣa of Mahāvira rides the elephant and is generally two-armed in both the sects. He shows the citron and nakula or the staff according to the Svetāmbara tradition and the fruit or the pot and the varada or the abhaya in the Digambara tradition. He is sometimes represented four-armed or six-armed amongst the Digambaras, and shows the anajli-mudra or carries the dharma-cakra with two bands
Since Rsabhanatha, Neminätha, Pärsvanatha and Mahavīra are amongst the more popular Tirtharkaras in Jaina worship we have given here some details of the iconography of their yakşas and yaksinis.
It may be noted that over and above these yaksas, worshipped as attendants of the Tirchankaras, yaksa Vaisramaja or Kubera as one of the Lokapalas of Sakra, presiding over the northern quarter, also finds a place in the Jaina pantheon and worship.
Comparisions of the different Jaina yakşas and yaksinis with some deities of the Buddhist and Hindu pantheon would be highly interesting. It will be seen that the Jaina lists contain names which are distinctly Hindu, for example, Brahma-Yaksa. Nandi, Kumara. Sanmukha, Varuna Isvara, Chanda, Chänmunda, Kali, Mahakali and Gauri, The iconography, however, as described in the Jaina and Hindu texts, often differs, but the borrowings are unmistakable. Sometimes the Hindu name is retained, sometimes the Hindu iconographical traits with a different name are marked out. In the latter type of borrowing, sometimes both the Hindus and the Jainas might have borrowed or evolved a form from the earlier common heritage of gods and goddesses worshiped in India. Since the Jaina lists are comparatively later, the couclusion that in some of the above cases the Jainas have borrowed from the Hindus, is justified.
Of Buddhist influence we have a few cases only, in Taradevi, Vajrasrnkhala and Vajrankusa, etc.
Why was this borrowing done? To obtain a following, to attract the people into ts fold, a sect had to show the superiority of its deities over the deities of the other sects. Mahayana Buddhism did this by showing their gods trampling over or riding the Hindu gods; the Jainas were not so cruel or discourteous and they were satisfied with assigning a subordinate position to the Hindu deities by making them yaksas and attendant yaksas and yaksinis. It is impossible for a sect to gather strength without incorporating in one form or the other the beliefs and practices of the masses Sometimes this process is not deliberate but is the inevitable result of the human tendency to continue older beliefs and practices. The Jainas, as the march of history through the ages shows us, had to meet strong Saivite opposition which made it necessary for them to show the superiority over those of the Hindus. Sometimes

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Umakant P. Shah the Tirthankara was to be practically the same as the highest divinity of the other faith, for example, Rsabhanatha was hailed as Isana, Vamadeva, Tatpurusa or Aghora as has been done by the author of the Adipurana in the 8th century A. D. The Vedic Indra was assigned the function of celebrating the different Kalyanakus (Auspicious events of the Tirthanakaras.) But the idea of an Indra as a ruler of gods was extended and as many as sixty-four Indras grew up among whom Isanendra is noteworthy, Sakra or Saudhramendra is clearly the Vedic Sahasraksa Indra while the description of Isanendra shows that he is none else than Siva. At a later stage the Bhairavas and Yoginis and even Ganesa came to be included in Jaina worship. The Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas :
The sixteen Mahavidyas form a group of Tantric goddesses worshipped both by the Savetambara and Digambara Jaina sects. Jaina traditions speak of as many as 48,000 vidyas out of which sixteen are reported to be the chief ones, Texts providing the Sadhana-vidhi of each of these sixteen vidyas are not yet traced, though Sandhanavidhis for a few are known, but belief in Mahavidyas seems to be ancient.
Both the Buddhist and the Jaina sources demonstrate the popularity of spells, magic, mantras, vidyas, science of divination, supernatural powers etc. in the time of Buddha and Mahavira, Alms obtained through the supernatural powers of mantra and vidya are prohibited for monks, in the Jaina canoncial texts. These texts refer to vidyas like antad-Thani, utpatani, jangoli-vijja (against snake-bites and poisons), the matanga-vilya (for telling past hist:ty) and so on. Varddhamanavidya, still popular, is an ancient Vidya, of which Sudhana-vidhis are available.
The Nisitha-Bhasya refers to two vidyas namely, Gauri and Gandhari, which according to the Brhat-Kalpa-Bhäşya are Matanga Vidyas.
The earliest known Jaina accounts of the oringin and worship of Vidyadevis and Vidyadharas are available in the Vasundevabiņdi (c. 400 A.D.), and in the Paumacariyam of Vimalasüri, Elaborate accounts of Nami and Vinami founding two groups Vidyadhara cities on the slopes of Vaitadhya mountain are also available in the Āvasyaka-curņi and the Āvasyakatika of Haribhadra suri, in the Caupanna maha-purisa-cariyam (868 A.D.) of Silanka, the Trisastisalakapurasacaritra of Haincandra (c. 1100-1167 A.D.), in Digambara work Harivamsa of Jinasen (783— 4 A.D.) and so on. There were sixteen clans or groups of Vidyadharas named after the classes of vidyās they possessed. Hemacandra's list of sixteen classes of Vidyas practically agrees with the earlier list given by Sanghadasa gani in his Vasudevahindi. According to the Vasudevahindi, the vidyas originally belonged to the Gandharvas and the Pannagas and included vidyas like Maha-Rohini, Pannati
.
1, For a detailed discussion on this see, Shah, U.P., Iconography of the sixteen Jaina Maha
vidyas, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vel, XV, pp. 114-177

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Jaina Iconography-A Brief Survey
211 (Prajanapti), Gori (Gauri), Vijjumukhi (Vidyutmukhi), Mahajala (Mahajavala), Bahurupa, and so on.
In the Harivamsa it is stated that of the Vidyadharas, the following eight classes, namely, Manus. Mänavas, Kausikas, Gaurikas, Gandharvas, Bhumitundakas Mülaviryās and Sā kukas belonged to the Aryas, Adityas or Gandharvas while the other eight, namely, the Mätanga, the Panduka, the Kala, the Svapāka, the Parvata the Vamšā laya, the Pandumüla and the Viksamüla classes belonged to the Daityas, the Pannagas or the Mātaigas.1 This is important as it suggests a new line of investigation into the origin and development of certain Tantric practices and deities in India.
Besides the lists of the sixteen classes of Vidyadharas, the author of the Harivamśà gives a list of Mahā vidyās and states that the following vidyās. belonging to the above-mentioned sixteen classes, are assigned the chief position amongst all vidyās : Prajnapti, Robini, Angarini, Maha-Gauri, Gauri, Mahāśvetā, Māyuri, Arya-Kuşmanda-devi, Acyutā. Aryavati, Gandhari, Nirystih, Bhadra-Kali, MahaKali, Kali, Kalamukhi.
The list is iinportant in as much as, besides being one of the earliest known complete lists of the sixteen vidyàs available to us, it differs largely from the somewhat later lists supplied by writers of both the sects. According to these later traditions, the sixteen Mahā vidyās are: (1) Rohiņi, (2) Prajnapti, (3) Vajrasřnkhala, (4) Vajrā nkuśa, (5) Cakresvari, (S've.) or Jambunadā (Dig.), (6) Naradattā or Puruşadatta, (7) Kāli, (8) Maha-Käli (9) Gauri (10) Gandhāri, (11) Sarvastra. Mahājvālā (S've.) Jvālämukhi (Dig.) (12) Manavi, (13) Vairotyä (S've.) Vairoti (Dig.), (14) Acchupta (S'Ve.) Acyuta (Dig.), (15) Mänasi and (16) Maha-Mānasi. :3
As yet hardly any sculptures or paintings of Mahā-vidyas in the Digambara tradition have been brought to light but future explorations are likely to be rewarded with success. Amongst the S'vetämbaras, a very valuable set of sixteen Mahavidyäs is preserved in the dome of the beautiful Sabhämandapa of the Vimala Vasahi, Delvada, Mt. Abu. This Sabhamandapa was built by Pithvipala, a minister ot Kumärapäla, in c. V. S. 1204-c. 1147 A.D.4 The set of Vidyadevis in the Sabhā. mandapa of the Lunavasahi is incomplete and a few of the sculptures are modern crude copies of some old mutilated ones. A palm-leat ms of seven different texts bound in one volume, preserved in the Jaina Bhandara at Chhäni near Baroda.
3.
1. Harivamsa of Jinasena, 22. vv. 56-60. 2 Harivamsa, 22. vy. 61-66
Adhidhana-Cintamani, 2. 152-154; Pratisthäsäroddhära, p. 56, vy. 33-36. For some photographs of Vidyadevis in Vimala Vasahi, etc. see, Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, figs, and Iconography of the Sixteen Jaina Mahā vidräs, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Ari, Vol. XV, pl. XIII-XVI.

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Umakant P. Shali
contains miniature paintings of the sixteen Mahä-Vidyas, besides those of Sarasvati, Ambika, S'ri-Laksmi, Brahma-Santi-yaksa and Kaparddi-yakṣa. The manuscript is assigned to a date sometime after 1245 A. D. on account of a reference to Vijayasena suri on one of its folios. 1
212
It is difficult to go into detailed iconographic study of these Maha-vidyas in this short survey. But below are given the vahanas of each of these goddesses in both the sects, also are given wherever possible one or more chief distinguishing symbols which are almost invariably associated with each of these goddesses. Such symbols may help one to identify an image or a painting of the deity even though the number of arms and other symbols may vary. It may however be noted that they have been introduced here as chief distinguishing symbols on the basis of our own study of texts and images but there is no text specifically calling them chief distinguishing symbols.
Rohini in the S've. tradition is generally white in complexion, rides the cow, is four-armed and carries the bow and the arrow and the conch which seem to be her chief symbols. Her fourth hand shows the varada or the rosary.
In the Dig. tradition, Rohini has the lotus as her vähana, and carries the Kalasa, the conch, the lotus and the fruit or shows the spear, the lotus, the varada, mudra and the fruit in her four hands.
Six-armed, eight-armed or multi-armed (more than eight, i e., 12 or 16 arms and so on) varieties of forms of Rohini are also known. It may he noted that the S've text Nirvanakalika refers to multi-armed forms of all the sixteen vidyadevis. This may be remembered even though we do not repeat this in the case of all goddesses.
Prajñapti, red in complexion, in the S've. tradition is two-armed, fourarmed, six-armed, or multi-armed and has the peacock as her vähana. The Sakti seems to be her chief distinguishing symbol. Two-armed, she carries the lotus and the Sakti in S've. tradition. When four-armed, she shows the Sakti, the Rukkuta, the varada or the trident and the abhaya or the citron. In one case she shows the vajra the viara the varada and the fruit in the S've, tradition.
In the Dig. tradition, two-armed Prajnapti, dark-blue in complexion shows the sword and the disc and rides the horse. When four-armed, she shows the disc, the conch, the khadga and the varda and rides the horse.
Obviously, Prajñapti of the S've. tradition has close similarity with Kaumari,.
1. For illustrations of all these miniatures, see, S. M. Nawab, Jaina Citrakalpadruma, Vol. I., figures 16-36.

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the Sakti of Kumära or Skanda-Kārttikeya. Worship of Prajnapti is very old since it has been referred to in the Vasudevahindi (c. 400 A. D.), the Bțhat-kalpa-bhäșya, the Adipurāņa etc. and seems to have been associated with the power of change of form. Her name suggests that originally she was propitiated for obtaining supernatural cognition.
Vajraírnikhalā, the third Mahāvidyā, carries a chain of vajras, an adamantine chain, which is her chief recognition symbol. She sits on the lotus and is either two-armed, four-armed or multi-armed, She usually carries the chain with both hands, in both the traditions, In the Dig, tradition, her vāhana is the elephant and she sometimes shows the vairu in both the hands. In the S've, tradition she sometimes holds the chain and the club. When four-armed, she usually shows the chain in two hands and the lotus and the varada, or the rosary and the mace, or the varada and the citron in the remaining two hands in S've, tradition, and in the Dig. tradition her symbols are : the chain, the conch, the lotus and the citron.
In Vajrayā na Buddhism, Vjraśļi khalā is an emanation of Amoghasiddhi and carries the Vairaśrnkhala.
The fourth Mahāvidya, called Vajrankusi is so called because she carries the vajra (thunderbolt) and the ankuśa (goad), which are her chief recognition symbols in both the traditions. The elephant is her vāhana. She is either twoarmed, four-armed, six-armed or multi-armed. In all varieties of forms, the vajra and the ankuša are mostly common, the other two symbols being the lotus, or the varada and the citron or the kalasa.
Both Vajraísňkhalī and Vajrānkusi is seem to have been influenced by Buddhist goddesses of the same name. Vajra ikusi accompanies Vajratāra in Buddhism. She is also the gate-keeper of the Lokanatha-mandala. In Buddhist inconography, vairākuša usually signifies vajra surmounted by ankuša. The vajra and ankuša symbols of the Jaina Vajra ni kuśī also have a parallel in those of Rambhā, a form of Gauri according to the Rūpamandana, and of the Mātika Aindri, the female energy of Indra, as described in the Devipurāna.
The fifth Mahāvidyā is known as Cakreśvari or Apraticakra. in the S've, tradition, but in the Dig, sect, Jāmbūnādā holding altogether different symbols is the fifth Vidyadevi.
The chief distinguishing symbols of Apraticakra are the cakra (discus), and her eagle vehicle. In very rare cases she has the man vehicle. When two-armed she carries the cakra in each hand, when four-armed, she either shows the cakra in two hands and the varada or the rosary and the citron or the conch in the two other hands.

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Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish between Cakreśvari the Vidyadevi and Cakreśvari the Yakși of Ķsabhanatha, it the goddess is not shown as S'asanadevatā accompanying an image of the first Tirthaikara. The iconography of the Cakreśvari-Vidyā may be compared with that of the Brahmanical goddess Vaişņavi who also holds the cakra and has the eagle as her vähana.
Jāmbūnada (Dig.) holds the sword and the spear when two-armed, or the sword, the spear, the lotus and the citron wlien four-armed. The peacock is her vāhana,
The sixth Maha-Vidya is called Naradatta or Maha-Puruşadattā or Puruşadattā by both the sects. In the Digambara pantheon, the yakși of Sumatin ätha is known by the same name.
Two-armed, Purusadatta-Vidyā, holds the sword and the shield. Her fierce laughter and dazzling beauty of form are emphasised, She has the buffalo-vāhana.
In the Digambara tradition,, however, she holds the vajra and the lotus and rides a ruddy goose (cakraväka),
When four-armed, she shows, in the S've, tradition, the rarada or the abhaya, the sword, the citron and the shield. The sword and the shield seem to be her chiet distinguishing symbols. But in the Digambara tradition, she carries the vajra, the lotus, the conch and the fruit.
The Maha-Puruşadattā of S've. iconography, with four or more arms. seems to be an ancient goddess, said to be have been propitiated by Arya Khaputacārya (c. 2nd century A. D.) according to Haribhadra Suri. She offers comparison with the Brahmanical Durga-Mahisamarddini who is associated with the buffalo and carries the sword and the shield. Durga and Katyävani are two very ancient popular Indian goddesses who are also referred to in the Jaina Anu yogadvāra-sutra and its cürņi.
Kāli, the seventh Mahavidya of both the sects, sits on the lotus, carries the club and the rosary and is dark or blue in complexion according to the S've. tradition, but in the Digambara worship, she is gokien, holds the pestle and the sword and rides the deer. When four-armed, she also shows the abhaya and the vajra in the S've. tradition while in the Digambara tradition she shows the pestle, the sword, the lotus and the truit. Thus the mace and the pestle seem to be her recognition symbols in the S'vetambara and the Digambara traditions respectively.
Mahäkäli is invoked as the eighth Mahä-Vidyā. Tu the S've pantheon, 1. Anuyogadvāra-süfra, 20 f; and cūrni, on it. pp. 24-25, Anu yogadvära-sutra is said
to have been composed by Arya Rakşita, in c 600 years after Mahävitas Nirväll.

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she has a man as her vāhana, while the bell seems to be her chief recognition symbol. Four-armed and dark in complexion, she shows the vajra the fruit, the bell and the rosary.
In the Digambara tradition, she holds the bow, the fruit, the khadga and the arrow and rides the fabulous animal called Sarabha (or sometimes the astăpada).
The S've. Maha-Käli may be compared with Käli of the Brahmanical Pantheon who is black in colour and below whose feet is shown the body of S'iva. An image of Mahakali from a Jaina temple at Patan (N. Gujarat) actually represents her human vahana lying prostrate below her left leg.
The eighth Maha-Vidyā is called Gauri by both the sects. White or golden in complexion and of a voluminous form, she has the all gator as her vahana and carries the lotus which seems to be her chief symbol. She is either two-armed or four-armed or multi-armed. When four-armed, in the S've. tradition, she rides the godha (or sometimes the bull) and shows the pestle, the varada mudra, the rosary and the lotus. In the Digambara worship, she carries the lotus in one or more hands, whether two-armed or tour-armed.
The Jaina Gauri is similar to the Brahmanical Gauri in name as well as in form the lotus and the godhā vāhana seem to be chief distinguishing symbols of the Brahmanical Gauri and her different forms like Umā and Savitri as described in the Rüpamandana.
The Jainas were more generous than the Buddhists in their treatment o Hindu deitiessince the Brahmanical Gauri,Hari-Hara and other deities received scant courtsey in Buddhist worship. We find Gauri under the feet of the Buddhist god Trailokyavijaya, alonng with her consort S'iva.1
Gauri is one of the four ancient Mahävidyäs known in Jaina traditions recorded by Jinadāsa Mahattara and Haribhadra Süri. Gauri and Gandhāri are also referred to in the Brhat-Kalpa-Bhāşya. According to NiSitha Bhāsya, Gauri and Gāndhāri are Mātangavidyās. Matargi, Cändāli, Gauri and Gandhāri could have been originally borrowed from cults of non-Aryan Indian masses. The second Jaina canonical text known as the Sütrakstānga-sūtra includes Kalingi, Damili, Gauri, Gandhäri, S'vapäki, Vetäli and others amongst sinful sciences (päpaśruta). ***
The tenth Mahavidyā is known as Gandhäri and a commentarry on S'obhana-stuti says that Gandhärī is so called because she was born in Gandhara in a previous birth.
1. Bhattacharya, Benoytosh, Elements of Buddhist Iconography (first ed.) pp. 146 ff.

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In the S'vetāmbara tradition, Gändhāri, darkblue in complexion, sits on the lotus and holds the pestle and the vajra when two-armed. But in Dig. worship, she rides the tortoise, is dark-blue in complexion, and holds the disc and the sword in her hands. She holds the disc in all the hands. when four-armed, in one Digambara tradition. In S've worship, however, four-armed Gāndhäri, usually carries the pestle and the vajra in two hands while the other two hands show the varada, or the citron.
The eleventh Mahāvidyā is variously known as Jvālā, Mahājvāla, Jvalanāyudha, Sarvastra-Mahā-Jvālā, Jvālā-Mälai in bɔth sects. Henacandra says that she is called Sarva stra-Maha-Jvälä because large flames of fire issue from all her weapons. Both the sects however do not agree regarding the symbols, form and vāhana of this goddess, However her popularity and the common name in both traditions are noteworthy.
Indranandi, a Digambara monk, composed in S'aka 861=939 A. D., a Sanskrit Tantric work called Jvālini-Kalpa, which, according to him, was bassed on an earlier text of Helācārya. The worship of this goddess is however still earlier in Jainism, since Sanghadāsa gani (c. 400 A. D.) refers to a vidyā called Mahā-Jvälini or Jvälā-vati and describes her as Sarva. vidya-chedini (i.e. powerful enough to uproot all rival vidyās), This explains the terrific appearance and nature of the goddess. It may also be noted that Indranandi addresses her as the yakși. In Digambara worship Jvālini is also the name of the Yaksi of the Tirthařkara Candraprabha,
Jvälāmālini is worshipped as two-armed, four-armed, eight-armed or multiarmed. In the Digambara tradition we have reference to an eight-armed form only. Jvāla or the fire-flame seems to be her chief recognition mark.
Two-armed Jvala is white, rides the cat and carries the fire-brand in both the hands.
Four-armed Mahā-Jvālā rides the cat or the goose or the lion, while in the eight-armed Digambara form she rides the buffalo. When four-armed, she holds the serpent in each of the four hands, or the fire in two hands and the rosary (or varada mudra) and the citron in the other two. When eight-armed, she shows the bow, the shield, the sword, the disc and other symbols not specified in the text.
The Buddhist Ekajatā, an emanation of Aksobhya may be compared with this. Jain deity. Ekajatā of twenty-four arms is addressed as Vidyut-Jvāla-karā li and carries. fierce weapons. A goddess Jvālā-mā lini is included in the list of the sixteen Nityas in the Brahmanical Kaula-Tantras.
Mänavi, the twelth Vidya devi, has the tree as her chief recognition symbol in the S've. traditions, and rests on the lotus. Both the traditions have two-armed

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and four-armed forms. But in the Digambara tradition, two-armed Mānayi rides the hog and carries the fish and the trident.
Four-armed Mānavi is dark, sits on the lotus and shows the varada, the pāśa or the tree, the rosary and the tree, or the rosary, the lotus, the varada and the pot in the S've. tradition and the fish, the sword, and the trident and in the Digambara tradition where the hog is her vähana. The fish seems to be her chief symbol in the Digambara tradition.
Varirotyā, the thirteenth Vidyadevi according to both the sects, is a snakedeity, who was probably more popular in earlier times but whose populariry waned with the gradual rise in popularity of another snake-goddess Padmavati, the yakşiņi of Tirthankara Pärs'vänātha. A Varirotyā-stotra ascribed to an ancient monk Ārya Nandila (c. 2nd Century A.D.) is published.
When two-armed, she carries the snake and the sword, shines with snakeornaments and is dark in colour. She generally has one or three snake-hoods over head, and rides the cobra. The snake, the sword and the shield seem to be her chief symbols, when four-armed, in S've. worship. The fourth hand shows the varada or the rosary. In the Digambara tradition, she rides the lion and carries the snake in four hands.
The fourteenth Vidyadevi is called Acchuptā or Acyut ä by the S'vetāmbaras and Acyutā by the Digambaras. She rides the horse. When two-armed, she shows the sword and the bow, in the S've. tradition, and the sword in one hand in the Dig. tradition. When four-armed she shows the arrow, the bow and the sword and the shield (or varada and citron) usually in S've. tradition, and the vajra in four hands in Digambara tradition. The bow and the arrow seem to be her chief symbol with the S'vetämbaras.
Mänasi, the fifteenth Mahävidya in both the traditions, is golden, rides the swan, and carries the vajra in each of her two hands in S'vetāmbara worship. According to Bappabhatti Süri, she holds the burning heti in her hand (or hands). Another tradition refers to her as holding the trident and the rosary. According to the Digambaras, two-armed Mānasi is red, has the snake-vähana and shows both the hands folded in adoration and worship.
When four-armed, she shows the vajra, the vajra for vajra-ghanta) or the lotus and the varada and the rosary usually in S'vecāmbara traditions and the rosary and two folded hands in the Diganbara tradition.
The vajra seems to be her chief symbol in S’vetāmbara worship.
The last Mahavidyä is called Mahā-Mānasi by both sects. She is said to ride the lion and carry the sword, according to S'obhana Muni who possibly refers to a two-armed form of S'vetämbara tradition.
When four-armed, she rides the lion and generally shows the sword, the

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218 Umakant P. Shah shield, the kundika (gourd or water-pot) and the jewel or the varada mudra in her hands in S'vetambara tradition and the varada, the rosary, the gourd and the garland in Digambara tradition. Sometimes her two hands are shown folded in the Digambara tradition. The foregoing discussion shows the popularity of Vidyadevis in the Jaina Tantric worship. In most cases, names of Digambara yaksis are identical with those of the Vidyadevis, but the Maha-Vidyas, are known from earlier text traditions, and are, therefore, earlier than the different yaksinis. The Svetambara text Nirvanakalika describes a multi-armed form of each f the Maha-Vidyas and refers to a special Mudras for each of them. Names of these Mudras would seem to suggest to modern students, the chief recognition symbol of each of them. It may be noted here that the chief recognition symbols noted by us in the above discussion are not mentioned as such by Jaina writers but we have drawn these tentative conclusions from our study of Jaina texts and images.1 It is not proper to associate these Vidya-devis with the Goddess of (Learning (Sarasvati or S'rutadevata) because of the name Vidya-devata given to them. There is no textual support to this view of some modern scholars. Mediaeval Jaina ritual at least had incorporated worship of the eight Dikpalas, the nine Planets and the eight Matikas weil known to Brahamanical iconography. Figures of planets are often found on pedestals of Tirthankara images in Western India and on two sides of the Tirthankara in several sculptures from Eastern India. Figures of Ma takas are very rare though they find a place in Jaina rituals. These gods and goddesses had been popular amongst the masses of India and the different principal religious sects of India had to introduce them to please the laity. Ksetrapala, the Guardian of the ksetra (land or place) is another such Indian deity of long standing who also finds a place in Jaina worship.2 : "The Brahmasanti-Yaksa (S've.) or the Brahma Yaksa (Dig.) and the Kaparddi Yaksa (S've) deserve special notice as they seem to be Jaina versions of the Hindu Brahma (as S've, Brahmasanti) or $atsa (as Dig. Brahma Yaksa) and Siva-SalapaniKaparddi (as S've. Kaparddi Yaksa).3 Brahma-Santi usually wears a beard, a jatamukuta. a sacred-thread and sandals, and carries the rosary, the staff or the laddle, the Kundika and the Chatra (umbrella) in his four hands. The swan is generally shown as his vahana. Sometimes he has the bull vehicle. 1. For a more detailed study of these goddesses, see, Shah, U. P., fonography of the sixteen Maha-Vidyas, Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XV pp. 114-177, and Shah, U. P., A peep into History of Tantra in Early Jaina Litera ture, Bharata Kaumudi, Vol. 11. pp. 839 ff. 2. See. Shah, U.P., Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 47 3. For a detailed study. please refer to Shah U. P. Brahma-Santi and Kaparddi Yaksa, Journal of M. S. University of Baroda, Vol. VII. No. Matan the 1958), pp. 59-72, with plates.