How Jains Know What They Know A Lay Jain Curriculum

Author(s): John E Cort
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How Jains Know What They Know : A Lay Jain Curriculum John E. Cort In a fieldwork entry dating from 1985, the late Kendall W. Folkert gave a list of what he called "lay readings' according to Muniji." At the time Folkert was researching the Svetambara Jain scriptural canon with an eye to understanding it from a performative perspective. He sought to understand the Svetambara canon as it is shaped or vectored by actual ritual performance (in this case pratikramana), rather than by any abstract theoretical framework'. Folkert had obviously asked Muni Jambuvijayji, with whom he was studying as part of this research, what Muniji thought would make up a lay Svetambara Murtipujaka Jain canon. The lay canon listed by Muni Jambuvijayji is not shaped exclusively by ritual performance, but rather is a reading list that would tell a lay Jain what he or she needs to know, both to perform a number of key Jain rituals and to understand the cosmological, theological, and philosophical assumptions that underlie those rituals. What is immediately noticeable about this list is that it does not include many of the texts one might expect, texts found in most introductory accounts of the Jains, such as the 11 Svetambara angas. The texts on this list are not the "original canon" of early Jainism, but rather medieval textbooks designed for the systematic study of Jain doctrines and practices in their developed and mature forms. Most of the texts on this list are missing from almost all overviews of Jainism in any language, even the excellent recent English ones of Jaini (1979) and Dundas (1992). The list is as follows: I. Panca Pratikramana (= vernacular for avasyaka) II. Nine Smaranas (poems used as mantras)

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400 John E. Cort Jainbu-jyoti III. Four Prakaranas 1. Jivavicara of Santisuri 2. Navatattva 3. Dandaka (24 kinds of jivas) 4. Sangrahani (slokas by Haribhadra on geography and astronomy) IV. Tribhasyas by Devendrasuri 1. Caityavandana 2. Guruvandana 3. Paccakkhana (fasting, vows, not sallekhana) V. Six Karmagranthas VI. Two Brhadsangrahanis 1. Maladhari Candrasuri (most read) 2. Jinabhadra VII. Two Brhadsetrasamasas (different authors) VIII. Tattvarthadhigamasutra There is no evidence that Folkert followed up on this list, except for his unfinished research on pratikramana. In this essay I will fill in that gap, by surveying why it is that a respected Jain monk-intellectual might present this as a curriculum for lay Jain study. This list forms what in another context I have termed a "Canon-near", in contrast to the usual sets of texts studied by scholars of Jainism, which in some ways form "Canons-far." As I defined these two concepts, "In a Canon-near text, primacy and authority are defined by praxis and the resultant contextualized understanding, whereas in a Canon-far text primacy and authority are located in some intrinsic ontological value of the texts themselves" (Cort 1992 : 175). While I doubt if any but a very small number of Jain laity actually study these texts, for the list is really much closer to what one would expect of a curriculum for either mendicants or lay pandits, it nonetheless provides us with a textualentree into Jainism that is an alternative to the usual ones of the 45 Svetarbara Agamas or other such lists.

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How Jains Know What They Know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 401 Panca Pratikramana In its narrowest form, pratikramana refers to a specific ritual in which the individual dissociates him or herself from any intention behind all karmacreating actions, and thereby seeks to minimize the karmic bondage resulting from actions. It is performed as a requirement by all mendicants twice daily, and laity are expected to perform it at least once annually, on the occasion of Paryusana (Folkert 1993 : 189-211). There are five slightly varied liturgies, for use daily in the morning and evening, every fortnight, every four months, and every year. But the term also has a wider meaning, covering what is otherwise denoted by the six avasyakas or six daily rituals obligatory for all mendicants (Williams 1963 : 184-215, Balbir 1993). In terms of lay Jainism, this wider meaning is quite nicely summarized by Folkert (1993: 92): The Pratikramana Sutras is essentially a manual for Jain daily religious ritual, and consists of excerpts from canonical texts, rearranged into patterns for ritual recitation, plus devotional poetry and chants. This material is usually in Prakrit, the Jain classical language, but it is commonly translitered into Gujarati script [in Gujarati) so that laypeople can read and pronounce the older material. This literature is accompanied by Gujarati (or other vernacular) explanations and detailed instructions for the ritual actions that are to be performed as the Prakrit passages are read or sung. The Pratikramana material forms the major part of all the religious literature, or scripture, that the Jain layperson knows. This form of transmission is the dominant mode, and has been for the last 500 years, of 'scriptural" use by Jains. Printed texts of the pratikramana are readily available, and found in the houses of most Jains, as well as in large numbers in the collections of local congregations. There are both shorter editions containing the two daily pratikramana liturgies (devasia and raia), and longer editions containing all five liturgies. In addition to the pratikramana liturgies, these manuals contain the liturgies for paccakhana (Sanskrit pratyakhyana), in which one resolves to perform certain austerities in order to wear away accumulated karma and to avoid karmic influx; guruvandana, in which laity venerate mendicants; caityavandana, in which the person venerates a Jina image; samayika, a vow of meditative equanimity for a restricted

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402 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti period; posadha, a vow of temporary mendicancy; and other ascetic rites. Some manuals also contain the texts of the Nine Smaranas (discussed below), and other hymns in Sanskrit, Prakrit and vernacular languages. Thus, like a book of common prayer or missal in orthodox Christian contexts, these manuals provide a pious Jain with all the hymns and liturgies needed for an orthoprax religious life. The Nine Smaranas The nine "remembrances" are a set of Prakrit and Sanskrit hymns in which the individual eulogizes the Jinas and the cardinal teachings of Jainism. The first of these is the Navakara Mantara (Namokkara Mangala), the nine-line universal Jain mantra in which the individual pays homage to the spiritual hierarchy of the Jinas, other liberated souls, mendicant leaders, mendicant teachers, and all other mendicants. The other eight texts are longer hymns, several with a distinctly Tantric flavor, in which the individual pays homage to a specific Jina, and thereby actualizes the salvific and world-enhancing virtues symbolized by that Jina. The five-verse Prakrit Uvasaggaharam Stotra is attributed to Bhadrabahu (5th-4th c. B. C. E.)*, who composed it to remove (hara) the obstacle (uvasagga) of plague from the Jain congregation of Ujjain by praising Parsvanatha. The 14-verse Prakrit Santikaram Stotra was composed by the Tapa Gaccha Acarya Somasundarasuri (1380-1447) to remove plague from a local congregation in Mewar by praising Santinatha. The 14-verse Prakrit Tijayapahutta Stotra is attributed to Manadevasuri (c. 4th c.), who composed it to prevent hostile vyantara gods from causing problems for the Jain congregation in Takshashila; in it he invokes the 16 Tantric vidyadevis (see Cort 1987 : 237-40). The 24-verse Prakrit Namiuna Stotra, also known as the Bhayahara Stotra, is attributed to Manatungasuri (c. 4th c.)*; the recitation of this hymn to Parsvanatha is said to cure many kinds of disease. The 40-verse Prakrit Ajitasanti Stotra alternates verses to Ajitanatha and Santinatha; it is attributed to Nandisena Acarya, who is * C. B. C. 325-297 - Editors. + Either by Manadeva I (c. 9th cent. A. D.) or by Manadeva II (c. latter half of the 11th cent. A. D.) -- Editors. xc. 6th-7th cent. A. D. - Editors.

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How Jains Know What They Know: A Lay Jain Curriculum said to have been contemporaneous with Mahavira3. The 44-verse Sanskrit Bhaktamara Stotra devoted to Adinatha is attributed to Manatungasuri, who composed it in the royal court at Banaras to win a contest of the powers of mantra-poetry to free the poet from oppression. The 44-verse Sanskrit Kalyanamandira Stotra dedicated to Parsvanatha is attributed to Siddhasena Divakara, who is said to have composed it in the first century B. C. E. in Ujjain; by reciting it he caused an image of Parsvanatha to burst forth from a siva linga, by which means he converted King Vikramaditya to Jainism*. The ninth Smarana is the Sanskrit (with some Prakrit) mixed prose and verse Brhacchanti Stotra attributed by Vadivetala Santisuri (d. 1039); it is chiefly addressed to Santinatha, and invokes peace upon all beings in the cosmos. 403 Some collections add other similar hymns to this group. These include the Atmaraksa Navakara Mantra, an 8-verse Tantric version of the Navakara Mantra in which the reciter extends it onto his own body for protection; the 19-verse Sanskrit Laghu Santi Stava, attributed to Manadevasuri, who composed this hymn to Santinatha to remove a cholera epidemic; and the 102-verse Sanskrit Rsimandala Stotra, attributed to Mahavira's first disciple Gautama Svami, which describes a complex Tantric mandala for invoking a large array of Jain deities in order to protect the worshipper*. Many of these hymns are recited daily by Jains, both lay and mendicant. Some of them, such as the Bhaktamara Stotra, have been among the most popular of all Jain texts for centuries. Several also find a place in the pratikramana and other liturgies. Neither bhakti nor tantra have been adequately studied in their Jain contexts; we see here that both play important roles in everyday Jain practice". In most of these hymns the two The hymn in question was composed by the Digambara poet and dialectician Kumudacandra in c. A. D. 1100-1125 Editors. (However, see clarification on the issue of 'dates' by Cort in this paper under his annotation 2.) + It is a medieval composition --- Editors. N. B. What John Cort described are the Navasmaranas as incorporated in the tradition of the Tapa-gaccha. Those of the Kharatara-gaccha is the Saptasmarana or seven hymnal compositions which include those by their own medieval hymnists, namely Jinavallabha suri (c. A. D. 1060-1119) and his successor Jinadatta suri.-Editors

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404 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti are intertwined: the author's and singer's devotion to the Jina, based on samyagdarsana or correct faith in the basics of the Jain worldview, is what makes these hymns efficacious; and the Tantric power of the words themselves in these hymns, each of which is understood to be in its entirety a mantra, is what generates the worldly results. We also see in these hymns a concern not for liberation (moksa) from the rounds of rebirth, but rather a concern for improving one's wellbeing within rebirths. Four Prakaranas The four medieval Prakrit textbooks give the basic Jain teachings on metaphysics, ontology, and cosmology. They have served as the introductory texts for studying these subjects for hundreds of years. Only the more ambitious Jain intellectuals move on from these textbooks to tackle the more difficult earlier texts, both those in the Svetambara "canon" and the systematic treatments of the early Jain philosophers. The commonlyavailable editions of them are sarth or "including explanation": in addition to the Prakrit root text, they provide word-by-word Prakrit-to-vernacular glosses, Sanskrit trots, and extensive vernacular explanations, for ease of comprehension. These scholarly aids are the modern reflections of the copious medieval commentaries on many of these texts. The 51-verse Jivavicara is attributed to the same 11th century Vadivetala Santisuri mentioned above, but there is not a scholarly consensus in support of this attribution (Mehta and Kapadiya 1968: 166). It provides an extensive catalogue of Jaina ontology, in particular the various forms in which unenlightened souls can embody: from single-sensed through five-sensed bodies, and in the four realms of possible rebirth of humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings, and plants and animals. Neither the author nor the date of the 30-verse Navatattva are known. This text provides a basic overview of the nine verities (tattva) that are the building blocks of Jain metaphysics: (1) sentient soul (jiva); (2) insentient nonsoul or matter (ajiva); (3) influx of karma into contact with the soul (asrava); (4) bondage of the soul by karma (bandha); (5) meritorious forms of karma (punya); (6) demeritorious forms of karma (papa); (7) blockage of this karmic influx (samvara); (8) dissociation of the soul from karma (nirjara); and (9) liberation (moksa, nirvana). There are hundreds of copies of the Navatattva in Jain manuscript libraries, and

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How Jains Know What They Know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 405 TL more than half-a-dozen commentaries written between the 14th and 17th centuries (Mehta and Kapadiya 1968 : 182). The Dandaka Prakarana, also known as the Vicarachattisiyasutta and the Laghusangrahani, is a 44-verse Prakrit text authored in the 16th century by Gajasara Muni (Mehta and Kapadiya 1968:173-74), that partly overlaps in subject material with the Jivavicara. In it the author details the physical and mental qualities and abilities of living beings in the 24 possible life forms (dandaka): (1) hellish beings, (2-11) ten forms of heavenly beings, (12-16) five forms of single-sensed beings (with bodies of earth, water, fire, wind, and plant), (17-19) two, three-, and four-sensed beings, (20) wombborn animals, (21) womb-born humans, and (22-24) vyantara, jyotisi and vaimanika deities. The fourth Prakarana is the 29-verse Jambudvipa Sangrahani, also known as the Laghu Sangrahani, attributed to Haribhadrasuri, although quite likely this is not the same as the one (or two) famous Haribhadras who lived in the formative years of Svetambara philosophy. It provides an introduction to Jain geography, discussing the features and dimensions of the various lands, mountains, rivers, and other features in the middle, human-inhabited section universe. These four texts together provide the reader with a detailed portrait of the physical universe as understood according to the Jain worldview. Much of the subject matter here is rather abstruse, consisting of long lists of categories and sub-categories that can make for tiresome reading. But without a firm grasp of these aspects of the Jain physical universe, the Jain moral universe and its expression in Jain praxis cannot be adequately understood. Tribhasyas The subject of Jain praxis is the next one treated in this reading list. The Tribhasyas, also known as the Bhasyatraya, are Prakrit commentaries by Devendrasuri on three of the avasyakas, the daily rituals obligatory for all mendicants and recommended by many Jain intellectuals for the laity as well. Devendrasuri (d. 1271) was the disciple of Jagaccandrasuri, the founder of the Tapa Gaccha. It was Devendrasuri who established the intellectual foundations of the gaccha, and his texts remain central to

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406 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti the Tapa Gaccha intellectual tradition today. In the 63-verse Caityavandanabhasya, he explains the rite of veneration of the Jinas; in the 41-verse Guruvandanabhasya, he explains the rite of veneration of the mendicant gurus; and in the 48-verse Pratyakhtanabhasya, he explains the rite of stating one's intention to perform austerities, as well as many of the details of Jain ascetic and dietary practice. Six Karmagranthas These textbooks on Jain Karma theory are also largely the work of Devendrasuri. In a total of 304 Prakrit verses, he wrote revised versions of five of the six classical Karmagranthas. His set was therefore known also as the Navya Karmagranthas. The tities of these five, which were the same as the titles of the classical texts, are Karmavipaka, Karmastava, Bandhasvamitva, sadasiti, and Sataka. While Devendrasuri himself wrote Sanskrit commentaries on these five texts, most modern popular editions are accompanied instead by a vernacular commentary. Most editions are also completed by the 91-verse Prakrit Saptati, the sixth of the classical Karmagranthas, attributed by Candrarsi Mahattara. Together these texts provide a thorough, albeit often dense, treatment of the Jain karma doctrine. Two Brhadsangrahanis These are two more texts on Jain cosmology. One is a 318-verse' Prakrit text by the 12th century Candrasuri, disciple of the great commentator Hemacandrasuri Maladhari (not to be confused with his contemporary namesake Acarya Hemacandra (1089-1172], known as Kalikalasarvajna or "the omniscient one of the dark age"). The other is a 367-verse Prakrit text by Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana (c. 6th c.). Folkert's notes indicate that, according to Muni Jambuvijayji, the former is more widely read. It is certainly more widely available, as several popular editions of it have been published, whereas the latter exists only in out-of-print editions from early in the century Two Brhadksetrasamasas These are still further cosmological texts. One is in 637 or 655 verses, and composed by the same Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana mentioned above (Mehta and Kapadiya 1968: 168-69). Folkert's notes do not indicate who the author of the second of these texts might be; Mehta and Kapadiya

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How Jains Know What They know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 407 (1968 : 167-70) list several other texts by the same name, none of which is very widely known. Tattvarthasutra (Tattvarthadhigamasutra) The 350-verse Sanskrit Tattvarthasutra by Umasvati (c. 4th century) is the most famous of the texts on this list, and the one that clearly would be included in anybody's reading list of essential Jain texts 10. This was the first systematic presentation of Jain doctrine (and in fact went a long way toward creating this systematization) for a pan-Indian audience in the pan-Indian scholarly language of Sanskrit and the pan-Indian genre of sastra, and so provides a suitable summary of the basics of that doctrine. Starting out with a definition of Jainism as the path to liberation (moksamarga) consisting of correct faith, knowledge, and conduct (samyagdarsana, samyagjnana, and samyakcaritra), Umasvati then proceeds to outline the Jain understandings of cosmology, ontology, karmic bondage, and liberation. The text itself consists of short, cryptic aphorisms, and so is nearly unintelligible without a commentatory. Dozens of them have been composed over the centuries, starting with one that the Svetambara tradition ascribes to Umasvati himself. Almost every edition of the text will contain one or more commentaries, some of them older, well-known commentaries in Sanskrit, others more recent vernacular commentaries. Each commentator has leaned heavily on the preceding commentaries, and so any given edition essentially comprises over one thousand years of accumulated tradition. Concluding Comments This curriculum provides the reader with everything he or she needs to be both an orthodox Jain, who has both samyagdarsana or correct faith in the verity of the Jain worldview, and samyagjnana or a correct intellectual understanding of the technical specifics of that worldview. It also provides everything needed to be an orthoprax Jain, who is engaged in samyakcaritra and so performs correct ritual conduct in response to that worldview By reading the Tattvarthasutra and the Navatattva, one will gain an understanding of Jain metaphysics. By reading the various Sangrahani and Ksetrasamasa texts, in addition to the Tattvarthasutra, one will learn the complex Jain theories of cosmology; this Jain vision of a vast universe of souls in bondage underlies the urgency with which Jain teachers urge

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408 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti the individual to seek liberation. This vision is further explained by reading the texts that explain Jain theories of ontology, the Jivavicara, Dandaka, Tattvarthasutra, and the Karmagranthas. These last two also provide one with an analysis of the causes and mechanisms of karmic bondage, in other words, the Jain explanation for the imperfect and unsatisfactory human condition. Finally, the other texts in this curriculum provide one with a practical way to respond to this growing understanding of human bondage and suffering. The Panca Pratikramana Sutras explain the avasyakas, those rituals encumbent upon mendicants as daily practice to advance along the path to liberation. The Tribhasyas also explain the daily practice, as oriented in three directions : devotion to the Jinas as the exemplars of the possibility of perfecting and liberating the soul, devotion to the gurus as those who are travelling the path of liberation, and the various forms of asceticism that coupled with devotion make up the Jain path. The Navasmarana hymns are not explanatory texts, but rather ritual actualizations of the powers inherent in the Jain path, the performance of which both advance one along the path and provide the mundane protection needed to sustain the Jain community. This curriculum is specifically a Svetambara Murtipujak one. A similar curriculum for a Digambara, Sthanakavasi, or Svetambara Terapanthi layperson would consist of different texts. The topics covered in such a curriculum would be broadly the same, although there would some difference in both specific doctrines and practices and in the overall tenor of the curriculum. This curriculum is in some ways even more specifically Tapa Gaccha, and so a curriculum for a layperson in the Kharatara, Ancala, Tristuti, Parsvacandra, or other gacchas would also include some different texts. This very specificity indicates that the careful study of the intellectual history of Jainisin needs to pay attention to issues of sectarian affiliation. The portrayal of Jainism as a single set of teachings that is the same regardless of time, place, or sect results in the portrayal of a reified entity that exists more in the scholar's study than it ever has on the ground in India. I noted at the outset of this essay that this curriculum provided at Folkert by Muni Jambuvijayji has a distinctively mendicant cast to it. While many of these are texts that most Murtipujaka mendicants study, it is only the most committed layperson who would have much familiarity with any

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How Jains Know What They know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 409 of these texts except for the Navasmaranas. Nonetheless, one will find copies of some of these texts in a large number of Jain households, and these are the texts to which a Jain interested in learning more about the intellectua foundations of his or her religious tradition would turn. With the exception of the Tattvarthasutra, this curriculum contains none of the scriptural canon of "original" Jain texts with which Jainologists usually begin their explications of Jainism. But, as Kendall Folkert (1993 : 35-94) so clearly demonstrated, the scholarly predilection to focus exclusively upon "original" texts when studying a religious tradition itself betrays one of the origins of the academic study of religion in Protestant Biblical Studies, a tendency inherited by many scholars who themselves are not Protestant Christians'l. But it is not these original texts to which Jains turn when they want to learn about their own tradition, and so it behooves scholars to pay attention more to what Jains might actually read if they want to understand how Jains know what they know. Annotations : This essay is dedicated to the memory of Kendall W. Folkert, through whom I was first introduced to Muni Jambuvijayji. 1. See Folkert 1993: 41-94, especially 91-94. 2. Information on the Smarana texts is derived from a variety of popular sources, in particular the introductions found in Navab and the unattributed 1972 Ahmedabad edition. Traditional dates and attributions of authorship for several of these hymns are clearly improbable. My discussion reflects a Jain self-understanding of the history of these texts and authors, what I have elsewhere (Cort 1995) called a "localized history", not the voice of text-critical historicist scholarship. 3. Another tradition says he was a contemporary of Neminatha. (His real date seems c. late 5th early 6th cent. A. D.)* 4. For introductions to these topics, see Cort forthcoming-a, Dundas 1998, and Jain 1997. 5. The dynamic tension and interplay between the ideology of the path to liberation (moksamarga) and the religious value of wellbeing is the subject of Cort forthcoming -b. * See Dhaky, "The Date of Ajita-santi-stava," in which

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410 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti 6. Mehta and Kapadiya 1968: 170-71. On the theory that there were two principal Haribhadras, in addition to later authors by the same name, see Williams 1965. (There are no two early Haribhadra-s as was envisaged by Williams. This point is now becoming increasingly clear. The problem is being discussed elsewhere - Editors.) 7. In addition to the Tribhasyas and the Karmagranthas discussed herein, Devendrasuri was the author of a commentary on the Pratikramana Sutras, the Vandaruvrtti; a manual of lay conduct, the Sraddhadinakrtya; as well as several books on various topics in Jain metaphysics, praxis, and mytho-history such as the Siddhapancasika, Siddhadandika, Danadikulaka, Dharmaratnatika, and Sudarsanacaritra (Mehta and Kapadiya 1968 : 129 and 185). A thorough study of this giant of medieval Svetambara intellectual history is needed. (He also had composed a few fine hymns in Sanskrit.) - Editors. 8. Some scholars are of the opinion that its author was Sivasarmasuri; see Meht, and Kapadiya 1968: 128. The length of the text also varies; the edition in the bibliography has 91 verses, Mehta and Kapadiya (112) say it has 75 verses, and von Glasenapp (1942 : xiii) mentions manuscripts containing 70, 75, 77, 89, and 93 verses. ("Sivasarma' could be Vacaka Sivanandi (c. Sth cent. A. D.] who had commented on the Jyotisakarandaka of Padalipta suri I of the mid Kusana period.)- Editors 9. Mehta and Kapadiya (1968: 172-3) refer to a 273-verse version, 10. There has been extensive scholarly discussion of the date of the author and whether the author was Svetambara or Digambara. See Dhaky 1995 and Johnson 1995 : 46-7, and the references therein. (In reality, Umasvati was never Svetambara or Digambara, nor Botika-Ksapanaka or Yapaniya. He belonged to the main Northern Indian Nirgranth stream in which mendicants maintained nudity but kept minimum possession a piece of cloth in hand, a single bowl, and the broom. As such, he recognized and respected the agamas, the doctrines, and the dogmas.) - Editors 11. See also Cort 1990.

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How Jains Know What They know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 411 SOURCES CITED SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT TEXTS I have given readily accessible modern Gujarati editions of the texts whenever possible, rather than more scholarly critical editions, since the former are what a lay reader is likely to encounter. Dates reflect the copies in my personal collection; most of these texts are regularly reprinted. Bhasyatraya of Devendrasuri. Mehsana : Srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1977 (4th printing). Brhatsangrahani of Maladhari Candrasuri. With Gujarati translation by Pandit Amrtlal Purusottamdas, Ahmedabad : Sri Jain Prakasan mandir n.d. Brhatsangrahani of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana. With Vivrti of Malayagiri, Bhavnagar, 1917. - With Vivrti of Malayagiri and Gujarati translation by Kunvarji Anandji. Jain Dharm Prasarak Sabha, 1935. Dandaka Prakarana of Gajasara Muni. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskst Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Manda!, 1981 (5th printing). Devasia-Raia Pratikramana Sutro. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1976 (10th printing). Jambudvipa Sangrahani (Laghusangrahani) of Haribhadrasuri. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1981 (5th printing). Jivavicara of Vadivetala santisuri. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1985 (10th printing). Karmagrantha of Devendrasuri. With Stubakarth of Muni Jinavijay. 3 volumes. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1977 (4th printing). Ksetrasamasa of Jinabhadragani Ksamasramana. Edited by Nityanandvijaygani. 2 volumes. Cambay : Sanghvi Ambalal Ratnacand Jain Dharmik Trust, 1978-79. Mahaprabhavika Navasmaranadi Stotra Sangraha. Ahmedabad : Jain Prakasan Mandir, n.d.

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412 John E. Cort Jambu-jyoti Mahaprabhavika Navasmarana. Edited by Sarabhai Manilal Navab. Ahmedabad : Sarabhai Manilal Navab, 1961. Shree Jain Prachina Sahityoddhar Granthavali Series 6. Navasmarana Mulapatha. Ahmedabad : Sri Rajendrasuri Sahitya Prakasan Mandir, 1972. Navatattva Prakarana. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathasala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1993 (15th printing). Panca Pratikramanadi Sutro : Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskrt Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1983 (15th printing). Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati. With Gujarati Vivecana by Muni Rajsekharvijay. Edited by Pandit Pukhraj Amicand Kothari. Mehsana : srimad Yasovijayji Jain Samskit Pathsala ane Sri Jain Sreyaskar Mandal, 1976. MODERN WORKS Nalini Balbir, 1993. Avasyaka-Studien : Introduction generale et Traductions. Stuttgart : Franz Steiner. Alt-und Neu-Indische Studien 45, 1. John E. Cort, 1987. "Medieval Jaina Goddess Traditions," Numen 34, 235-55. 1990. "Models of and for the Study of the Jains," Method and Theory in the Study of Religion 2:1, 42-71. 1992. "Svetambara Murtipujak Jain Scripture in a Performative Context," Jeffrey R. Timm (ed.), Texts in Context : Traditional Hermeneutics in South Asia, 171-94. Albany: State University of New York Press. 1995. "Genres of Jain History," Journal of Indian Philosophy 23, 469506. Forthcoming-a. "Bhakti in the Early Jain Tradition : Understanding Devotional Religion in South Asia," History of Religions. Forthcoming-b. Liberation and Wellbeing in Jainism : Ritual, Ideology, and Religious Values. New York: Oxford University Press. M. A. Dhaky, 1995. "Umasvati in Epigraphical and Literary Tradition," L. K. Srinivasan and S. Nagaraju (eds.), Sri Nagabhinandanam : Dr. M. S. Nagaraja Rao Festschrift, 505-22. Bangalore : Dr. M. S. Nagaraja Rao Felicitation Committee.

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How Jains Know What They Know : A Lay Jain Curriculum 413 Paul Dundas, 1992. The Jains. London : Routledge. 1998. "Becoming Gautama : Mantra and History in svetambara Jainism," John E. Cort (ed.), Open Boundaries : Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, 31-52. Albany : State University of New York Press. Kendall W. Folkert, 1993. Scripture and Community : Collected Essays on the Jains. Edited by John E. Cort. Atlanta : Scholars Press. Helmuth von. Glasenapp, 1942. The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy. Translated by G. Barry Gifford. Bombay : Bai Vijibai jivanlal Panalal Charity Fund. Sagarmal Jain, 1997. Jaindharm aur Tantrik Sadhana. Varanasi : Parsvanath Vidyapith. Padmanabh S. Jaini, 1979. The Jaina Path of Purification. Berkeley : University of California Press. W. J. Johnson, 1995. Harmless Souls : Karmic bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism with Special Reference to Umasvati and Kundakunda. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass. Mohanlal Mehta and Hiralal Ra. Kapadiya. 1968.Jain Sahitya ka Byhad Itihas, bhag 4 : Karma-Sahitya va Agamik Prakaran. Varanasi : Parsvanath Vidyasram Sodh Samsthan. R. Williams, 1963. Jaina Yoga. London : Oxford University Press. 1965. Haribhadra. Journal of the School of Oriental and African Studies 28, 101-11. D00