Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religious

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
(c. 3rd-10th A. D.) The Western scholars often remark that the tions, changes and developments took place in Jaina Indian philosophies and religions are not dynamic but thoughts and practices. Jainas were proud of the rigostatic. But this remark is not tenable when we study rous and austere life-styles of their monks. But in the any Indian Philosophy or religious tradition from post Nirvāna era of Mahāvira some relaxations and historical point of view. We notice a sequence of exception creeped into the code of conduct of Jaina changes and developments in their thoughts and monks. Not only the junior monks, i. e., Kșullakas, practices. This is true with regard to Jainism as well keeping three, two or one cloth alongwith a bowl but as other schools of Indian philosophy.
the senior monks, having accepted nudity also started Though the basic tenets such as non-violence,
keeping one woolen blanket to save themselves from self-control etc. of Jainism, in thought and practice,
the extreme cold of northern region and also a bowl remained the same throughout the ages yet their
for accepting the alms, particularly some liquids, explanations and their applications were modified in
necessary in the old age. Thus, the code of Jinakalpa conformity with time and circumstances by Jaina
and Sthavirakalpa along with sāmāyik-căritra Tirthankaras and Ācāryas. Even in the earlier times, (juni
(junior monk-hood ) and Chedopasthāpaniyacäritra every successive Tirthankara made reforms and
( senior monk-hood ) came into existence, which, changes in the religious practices and ethical code of
later on, after c. 2nd A. D. divided Jainism into conduct as per the need of his age. As regards the
Schism such as Digambara, Svetāmbara and Yapaniya, code of conduct of monks and nuns, 23rd chapter of
with their own Codes of Conduct. Uttarădhyayana, Āvaśyakaniryukti ( verses 1258- It was the first phase of major changes in the 1262 ) and some other commentaries on Jaina canons Jaina code of conduct, particularly the one for Jaina clearly maintain that the religious code of Mahāvira monks and nuns. The second phase is known as and his predecessor Lord Päráva and other Caityavāsa, i. e., the temple based living of monks. Tirthankaras were different. It was found that where. With the advent of idol worship and the acquisition of as Lord Aristanemi laid more stress to avoid the great wealth in the name of these temples and deities violence and cruelity towards animal kingdom in by the community, the ceremonial-ritualistic aspect social rituals such as marriage ceremonies etc. Lord of religion became dominating and the monks started Pārsva opposed the violence in the name of religious taking interest in external and pompous modes of austerities ( practices ). Lord Mahāvira discovered religious practices. There also developed a special the root cause of violence in the will for the accumu- group of administrator clergies. Thus, the Bhattarakas lation of wealth and lust for worldly enjoyment hence in the Digambara sect and the Yatis in Svetāmbara laid much stress on celebacy and non-possession and sect, started living under luxurious conditions, prescribed a new religious code of conduct. Not only became managers of the temples and temple associain the earlier period but in the above said period, i. e., ted properties and assumed control over the templecorresponding c. 3rd-10th A.D. also, several revolu- rituals as well as over certain part of community

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living in a certain province. In their time, the code of conduct of monks and nuns remained confined into the books only and did not appear in the practical life.
Against this situation a revolution was worked out, in Digambara tradition by Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D. ) and in svetāmbara tradition by Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D. ). But this revolution failed to reap any fruit and remained ineffective and the institution of Bhattārakas and Yatis thrived in the later centuries also. Its only credit was that the tradi- tion of the real ascetics, following the rigorous path of Mahāvira, could be saved for some centuries. Again in Svetāmbara tradition, a great revolution took place in the c. 10th A. D. under the leadership of Jineśvara- sūri against the temple based living of the monks, i.e., Caityavāsa and administrator clergies. Due to this revolution Kharataragaccha came into existence in the c. 10-11th A. D. This revolutionary and reforma- tive spirit continued in Jaina community in the later centuries also and owing to that sub-sects Tapā- gaccha (c. 12th A. D. ), Lorikāgaccha (c. 15th A.D.), Sthanakavāsi (c. 16th A. D.) and Terāpanthi (c. 18th A. D. ) came into existence in Svetāmbara tradition. Similarly, in Digambara tradition also Banārasimata Digambara Terāpantha (c. 16th A. D. ) and Tarana- pantha a non-idol worshipper sect, came forward with their reformative outlook. In fact, it is due to the impact of Hindu devotionalism and Tantrism that the ritualistic idol-worship started in Jainism and it is that due to the Muslim impact non-idol worship sects such as Lorkāgaccha, Sthanakavāsi, Teräpantha and Taranapantha took birth in Jainism. This shows that in practice Jainism is not a static but a dynamic religion.
So far as the changes in the Jaina thought are concerned, Jaina scholars divided their history of philosophical development in three ages which are as under:
(i) The Agama Age (c. Sth B. C.-3rd A.D.). (ii) The age of critical presentation of
Anekāntavāda (c. 4th-6th A. D.).
(iii) The age of systematization of Jaina philosophy (c. 7th-10th A. D.).
This nomenclature underlies the tendencies, dominating the particular era. However, this division is only a tentative one. No water tight compartment in the division of ages is possible. The tendencies of one age can be traced in other ages also. For example, Agamic age terminates with c. 3rd A. D. but the final editing as well as the composition of some Āgamic texts continued up to the c. 5th A. D. Not only this but the date of composition of commentaries on Āgamas extends up to the c. 11th A. D. Similar is the case with the age of critical presentation of Anekāntavāda; as seeds of Anekānta can be traced in Āgamas such as Bhagavatisūtra etc. but its critical presentation continued not only upto Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.) but upto Yaśovijaya and Vimaldas (c. 17th A. D.). Similarly the age of philosophical systematization commences from c. 7th A. D. but the actual effort in this direction starts from the composition of Tattvārthasūtra and its auto-commentary by Umāsvāti long before during the c. 3rd A. D. and continued upto the period of Yaśovijaya, i. e., the c. 17th A. D. Thus, it is very difficult to divide these ages strictly into a particular framework of time. The Age of Āgamas
Most of the Agamic literature was composed during c. 5th B. C.-3rd A. D. but some of Āgamic texts like Nandisutra and the present edition of Praśnavyākarana were composed in c. 5th-6th A. D. In the most important councils (Vacanās ), which were held at Mathurā and Valabhi inc. 4th-5th A. D. respectively, for editing and rewriting of these Agamas, some new additions and alterations were also made and that is why some of the Agamas contain some informations and conceptions, developed later in c. 4th-5th, in Jaina philosophy.
The Āgamas are mainly concerned with the
Jain Education Interational

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religious code of conduct and moral preaching. Pt. Akalanka's Rājavārttika and Vidyānandi's ślokaDalasukha Malvania rightly observes that Anga vārttika are the two works, regarded as main contriAgama deals with moral code of conduct ( Caritā- butions in Digambara tradition. Both these works crinuyoga ) rather than metaphysics (Dravyānuyoga ). tically elaborate the contents of Tattvārtha. Through, So far as the subject matter of Āgamas is concerned these works we can assume that, the differ-ences this position remains the same upto the period of between Digambara and Svetambara became more Niryuktis (c. 3rd-Sth A. D. ), Bhāşyas (c. 6th A. D.) prominent in this era and the disputes on the problems and even Cūrnis (c. 7th A. D.). Some scattered seeds of 'Stri-mukti', 'Kevali-bhukti' and simultaneousness of philosophical discussions maay no doubt be seen and succesiveness of Jñānopayoga and Darśanopain some of the Agamas and their commentaries; but yoga of Kevali came into prominence. Along with Višeşāvaśyakabhāșya, mainly a work full of philoso- these internal disputes of Jaina sects, logical refutaphical discussions, is an exception.
tion of other schools of thought, is also the main Age of Critical Presentation of Anekāntavāda
characteristic of this age. All the important philoso
phical works, composed in this particular era, critically Similar is the case with the second era, i. e.,
evaluate the views of other schools of thoughts and the age of critical presentation of Anekāntavāda. So
try to establish Jaina view of non-absolutism, based far as Anekāntavāda is concerned, it can be traced in
on their theory of Anekāntavāda, as most logical and Agamas as a mere conception. Its critical presenta
true. tion as a Jaina doctrine was introduced with the works of Siddhasena Divākara and Samantabhadra inc. 4th-
The Main Objective of Early Jainism
The 5th, respectively. The treatises, composed by them,
Before discussing the early metaphysics and mainly for critical presentation of Anekantavāda also epistemology of Jainas it would be proper to discuss worked as a base for the age of philosophical syste- the main objective of early Jainism and its attitude matization.
towards life, which is to get rid of the cycle of birth
and death and thus, to emancipate man from sufferSiddhasena Divākara's Sanmatitarka and Dva
ings. It tries to track down sufferings to their very trimśikas is regarded as the first book of critical
root. The famous Jaina text of an early period Uttaraphilosophy. The concept of Pañcajñāna ( Five-fold
dhyayanasūtra says: knowledge ) is, for the first time, critically analysed
kāmāņugiddhippabhavam khu dukkham in its subtle form in the said composition. It embraces
savvassa logassa sadevagassa. other different contemporary views prevalent in Jaina
jam kāiyaṁ mānasiyam ca kinci tradition. The author dives deep in evaluating the
tassa antagam gacchai viyarāgo. ( 32.19) established concepts in Jainism rather than peeping
That is the root of all physical as well as outside in different systems.
mental sufferings of everybody, including the gods, is In the works attributed to this age, particular- the desire for enjoyment. Only a dispassionate attily in commentaries on Tattvārthasūtra, the first extant tude can put an end to them. It is true that materialism commentary, after the auto-commentary of Umā- seeks to eliminate sufferings, through the fulfilment svāti, is Sarvārthasiddhi of Pūjyapāda ( first half of of human desires, but it cannot eradicate the prime the c. 6th A. D. ). It not only depicts the concept of cause from which the stream of suffering wells up. Gunasthāna but rather describes it with more details. Materialism does not have at its disposal an effective

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means for quenching the thirst of a man permanently. life. Spirituality consists in realising these higher Not only this, its attempts at the temporary appease- values of life. ment of a yearning, have the opposite effect of flaring Jaina spirituality teaches us that happiness or it up like the fire fed by an oblation of butter. It is unhappiness is centred in the soul and not in worldly clearly noted in the Uttarādhyayana :
objects. Pleasure and pain are self-created. They are suvanna-rūpassa u pavvayābhave
subjective in nature also. They do not depend totally siyā hu kelasasama asamkhayā.
on the objects, but depend also on the attitude of a narassa luddhassa na tehim kinci
person towards them. The Uttarādhyayanasutra iccha u āgāsasamā anantiyā. (9.48 )
(20.37 ) mentions: That is even if an infinite number of gold and appā kattā vikattā ya, duhāna ya suhāna ya silver mountains, each as large as the Kailāśa, are
appā mittamamittam ca, duppatthiyasupatthio. conjured up, they would not lead to the final extin
That the self (ātmā ) is both the doer and the ction of human desires, because desires are infinite enjoyer of happiness and misery. It is its own friend like space. Not only Jainism but all spiritual tradi- when it acts righteously and foe when it acts unrighttions unanimously hold that the root cause of sorrow eously. An unconquered self is its own enemy, unis attachment, lust or a sense of mineness. The ful- conquered passions and sense organs of the self are filment of desires is not the means of ending them. its own enemy. Oh monk ! having conquered them, I Though a materialistic perspective can bring material move righteously. prosperity, it cannot make us free from attachments In another Jaina text of the early periodĀuraand yearnings. Our materialistic outlook can be com- paccākkhānam (c. 3rd A. D. ) it is mentioned : pared to our attempt of chopping the branches off ego me sasado appā, ņānadamsanasamjuo while watering the roots of a tree. In the above men
sesa me bahira bhāvā, savve samjogalakkhaņā. tioned gāthā, it is clearly pointed out that desires are samjogamülā jiveņam, pattă dukkhaparampara endless just as space ( Ākāśa ) and it is very difficult tamhā samjogasambandhar, savvablāveņa vosire. to fulfil all of them. If mankind is to be freed from
(26.27) selfishness, violence, exploitation, corruption and
The soul endowed with knowledge and peraffliction stemming from them, it is necessary to out
ception alone is permanent, all other objects are alien grow materialistic outlook and to develop an attitude, to self. All the serious miseries, suffered by self, are which may be described as spiritual.
the result of individual's sense of 'intne' or attachThe word Adhyātma, the Samskrta equiva- ment towards the alien objects and so it is imperative lent of spirituality derived from adhi+ātmā, implies to abandon completely the sense of 'inine' with regard the superiority and sublimity of Ātman, the soul to the external objects. In short, according to Jainism force. In the oldest Jaina text Ācārānga, the word not identifying oneself with the objects not belonging ajjhatthavisohi, connotes, inner purity of the self, to the soul, is the starting point of spiritual practice which is the ultimate goal of Jaina-Sadhanā. Accor- (sādhanā ). Non-alignment with material object is the ding to Jainism, the realisation of physical amenities pre-requisite for self-realisation, the main objective or creature comforts is not the ultimate aim of life. of early Jainism. According to it, renouncement of There are some higher ideals of life which are over attachment is the same as the emergence of a balanand above the mere biological and economic needs of ced view of even-sightedness ( samadrstita ).

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The reason, as to why Jainism regards abandonment of 'sense of mine' or of attachment as the only means for self-realisation, is that so long as there is attachment in a man, his attention is fixed not on self or soul, but on not-self, i.e., material objects. Materialism thrives on this object-oriented attitude or indulgence in the not-self. According to the Jaina philosophers, the identification with the not-self and regarding worldly object as a source of happiness or unhappiness, are the hallmarks of materialism. This is considered as a wrong view-point. The right viewpoint regards the self as of supreme value and aims at the realisation of its quiddity or its ideal unconditioned state of pure knower, which is free from attachment and passions. It is mentioned in Samayasara (209):
evar sammaithi appāņam munadi jaņagasahāvaṁ.
that the self, possessed of a right view-point, realises the pure soul as knowledge. Thus according to Jainism the right view-point regards self as pure knower (śuddha draṣṭa) and distinct from not-self. This detached attitude only can free one from one's mental as well as physical sufferings.
Cause of Bondage and Suffering of the Self
Jainism maintains that the attachment (Raga) and delusion (Moha) obscure our spiritual nature and are responsible for our worldly existence and suffering. The most intense väsana is hrdaya granthi, which is a deep attachment towards senseobjects and worldly desires. The oldest nomenclature of Jaina sect is Niggantha-dhamma. The word Niggantha means the one who has unknotted his hṛdayagranthi, i.e., the 'mine'-complex. It means, in other words, one who has eradicated ones attachments and passions. The word, 'Jaina', also conveys the same meaning; a true Jaina is one who has conquered one's passions. According to Lord Mahavira, "to remain attached to sensuous objects is to remain in the whirl" (Acaränga, 1.1.5). The attachment towards sensuous

objects is the root of our worldly existence (Acārānga, 1.2.1). Further, it is also mentioned in the Acārānga, 1.3.1, "only he who knows the nature of the sensuous objects is possessed of self, knowledge, scripture, Law (dhamma) and Truth (bambha )." The five senses together with anger, pride, delusion and desire are difficult to be conquered, but when the self is conquered, all these are completely conquered (Uttaradhyayana, 9.36). Just as the female crane is produced from the egg and the egg from the crane, in the same way desire is produced by delusion and delusion by desire (Uttaradhyayana, 32.6). Attachment and hatred are the seeds of karma and delusion is the source of attachment and hatred. Karma is the root of birth and death. This cycle of birth and death is the sole cause of misery. Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no greed, while greed is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment" (Uttaradhyayana, 32.8). According to the Tattvärthasūtra 8.1, a famous Jaina text, perverse attitude (mithya-darśana ), non-abstinence (avirati ), spiritual inertia (pramada ), passions (kaṣāya) and activity (Yoga) these five are the conditions of bondage. We can say that mithyadarśana (perverse attitude), mithya-jana (perverse knowledge) and mithya-caritra (immoral conduct) are also responsible for our worldly exis-tence or bondage. But perversity of knowledge and conduct depends upon the perversity of attitude. Thus, the perversity of attitude, which is due to darśana-moha is one of the important factors of bondage. Nonabstinence, spiritual inertia and passions are due to the presence of perverse attitude. Though activities of mind, body and speech known as Yoga are considered the cause of bondage yet these, in theirselves re incapable of bondage unless by perverse attitude and passions. They are only the cause of Asrava (in

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flux of kārmic matter ), not the cause of bondage power for its fruition. Bondage is possible only through the Yoga in
The Karmas are of eight types — (i) jñānaassociation with perverse attitude and passions. The varana : knowledge obscuring, (ii) Darsanāvarana : perverse attitude (mithya-darśana ) and the passions perception obscuring, (iii) Vedaniya : feeling produ( Kaṣāyas ) are mutually cause and effect of each cing, (iv) Mohaniya : deluding, (v) Ayu : age deterother just as the egg and the hen or the seed and the mining, (vi) Nama : body or personality determintree. We can not fix the priority of one over the other, ing, ( vii ) Gotra : status determining and (viii) passions are due to the perverse attitude and perverse Antarāya : obstructive (Tattvārthasūtra, 8.5). attitude is due to the passions.
Among these eight types of karma, JñanaEarly Jaina Doctrine of Karma/Bondage
varana, darśanăvarana, mohaniya and antarāya — According to Jaina philosophy every activity these four are considered as destructive karma or of mind, speech and body is followed by the influx of ghāti karma, because they obscure the natural facula finer type of atoms, which are technically known as ties of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite karma-vargaņā-pudgala. In the presence of passions, bliss and infinite power, respectively. The other this influx (āsrava ) of kārmic matter cause bondage, four - vedaniya, ayu, nāma and gotra are called which is of four types - 1. Kind (praksti ), 2. quantity aghāti or non-destructive karma. They are only res(pradeśa ), 3. duration ( sthiti ) and 4. intensity ponsible for bodily existence of present life and in(anubhāga) (Tattvārthasūtra, 8.4). The activities of capable of continuing the cycle of birth and death. It mind, body and speech, technically known as yogas, is only due to the deluding karma (mohaniya karma) determine the prakti and the pradeśa of kārmic- that the cycle of birth and death continues. This matter while the passions determine the dura-tion deluding karma is responsibile for perversity of attisthiti ) and the intensity (anubhāga -mild or intense tude and the passions. The emancipation of soul is power of fruition ) of the Karma. Karma, in Jainism is only possible when the perversity of attitude is desthe binding principle. It binds the soul with the body troyed and passions are overcome. hence responsibile for our wordly existence. Karma
The Uttaradhyayanasutra says that just as a has the same place in Jainism, as unseen potency tree with its root dried up, does not grow even though ( adrsta ) in Nyāya, Prakrti in Sankhya, Māyā in
it is watered, similarly actions ( Karma ) do not grow Vedānta, Vāsanā in Buddhism, Śakti in Saivism and
up when delusion (moha oravidya ) is destroyed (28. Pāśa ( trap ) in sākta school. Karma is something
mething
2017
30). One devoid of a right attitude (darśana ) cannot foreign which veils the natural faculties of infinite have right knowledge (ñana ) and there can not be knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and
rectitude of will (carana-guna ) without right knowinfinite power. It is also responsible for our pleasant
ledge (jñana ). One devoid of the rectitude of will and unpleasant experiences and worldly existence.
cannot have emancipation from evil will and one According to Vidyānandi, two functions of the Karma
devoid of emancipation from evil will ( induced by are to obscure the natural faculties of soul and to
karma ) cannot attain final emancipation ( 32.9). defile the soul. Jainism also believes in the same modus operandi of karma. According to it karma The Ultimate End : Mokşa itself is compe-tent to produce its fruit in due course
The attainment of emancipation or mukti is of time and there is no need of God or other external the pivot on which all the ethico-religious philoso

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phies of India revolve. Jainism maintains that the four non-destructive karmas, i.e., Nāma, Gotra, liberation - the perfect and purified state of the soul, Āyusya and Vedaniya, are not exhausted the soul of is the only and ultimate goal of every individual. Arhat remains in a highly refined physical body and Mukti does not mean in Jainism, the losing of one's preaches truth to the world. Shedding physical and own identity. The self retains its identity even in the karmic body, when these four non-destructive karmas state of liberation.
are exhausted the soul of Arhat goes upto the topIn Acārānga, the nature of Paramātmā ( the
most of the universe - abode of liberated soul known immaculate soul ) is described as that which is be
as siddhasilā, remains there eternally and enjoys peryond the grasp of logic and intellect. He is one and
fect knowledge, perfect power, perfect perception alone. He is harmless. He is neither long nor short, and perfect bliss (Niyamasāra, 181-182 ). Thus, nor a circle nor a triangle, nor a quadrilateral nor a
emancipation, according to Jainism, is nothing but sphere. He is neither black nor blue, nor red. nor realisation of one's own real nature. yellow, nor white. He is neither pungent nor bitter, Jaina Sadhanā in Early Period nor astringent, nor sour, nor sweet. He is neither hard
In the earliest Jaina āgamas, particularly in nor soft, neither heavy nor light, neither cold nor hot, Ācārānga and Uttarădhyayana, we have a mention of neither greasy nor dry. He is not subject to birth and Triyāma. Caturyāma and Pancayāma. Though decay. He is free from attachment. He is simileless. Acārānga mentions Triyāma, it does not give any deHe baffles all terminology. There is no word to des- tail about it. Its commentator Śilänka had derived the cribe. He is neither sound nor form, nor odour, nor meaning of three-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right taste, nor touch. (Āyāro – Ed. Yuvācārya Mahā
faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct. But in my prajña, J. V. B., Ladnun, 1981, pp. 262-266.)
opinion this derivation of Silanka is hardly in accorIn the Niyamasāra ( 181 ), 'Being' ( astitva ), dance with its real meaning. Triyāma refers to the the pure existence is considered to be one of the three vows - Non-violence, Truth and Non-possesqualities of a liberated soul. Mokşa, according to sion. Jaina tradition is very firm in maintaining that Jainism, means a complete perfection and purifica- Lord Pārsva, the twenty-third Tirthankara had preation of soul. In the state of liberation there is neither ched Cāturyāma – Non-violence, Truthfulness, Nonpain nor pleasure, nor any obstruction, nor any anno- stealing and Non-possesiveness. Mahāvira added one yance, nor delusion, nor any anxiety. A liberated soul more yāma celebacy as an independent vow in the is really free from all sorts of impurities and from the Caturyāma of Pārśva and thus, introduced Pañcacycle of birth and death (Niyamasāra, 178-180 ). In yāma. Formerly, it was taken for granted that woman liberation the soul realises the ananta-catuştaya, i.e., is also a possession and no one can enjoy her without infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinte bliss having her in his own possession. But Mahāvira took and infinite power. This ananta-catuştaya is the in- it as an independent vow. In some of the canonical herent nature of the soul. Jainism believes that every works we also have a five-fold path of liberation but individual soul has the potentialities of Godhood and in a different way as Right faith, Right knowledge, the soul can attain to it. By shedding away all the Right conduct, Right penance and Right efforts. In kārmic particles of four destructive karmas (ghāti- Uttarādhyayana as well as in the works of Kundakarma ), the soul attains Arhathood, which is the kunda the four-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right state of vitarăga-daśā or jivana-mukti. So long as the faith, Right knowledge, Right conduct and Right pen

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Jaina scripture.
So far as Samyak-Caritra (Right conduct) is concerned, the meaning of the term remains the same throughout the ages. It encompasses the observance of five great vows (mahāvratas), five vigilances (samitis), three controls (guptis) and ten dharmas. This right conduct is exclusively prescribed for the monks and nuns. Similarly, five minor vows (aņuvratas), three guna-vratas and four sikṣāvratas as well as eleven Pratimas are prescribed as a right-conduct for the house-holders (Śravakas). According to both the sectsŚvetambara and Digambara, the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns was very rigorous at the time of Mahavira (c. 6th B. C.) but with the passage of time, coming to the period of Bhadrabahu-I, ( c. 3rd B.C.) it became lenient. By this period various exceptions in the five great vows as well as in other rules and regulations of Jaina monks and nuns has been accepted. This lenient tendency is clearly visible in the Chedasutras of Bhadrabahu-I in the form of atonements of the various exceptions and transgressions in the code of conduct. This liberalism in the code of conduct culminates in c. 6th-7th. In Bhāṣyas and Curnis of Chedasūtras, one can find ample examples of this liberalism. It is quite difficult to mention all those changes which took place in the Jaina code of conduct during the period of c. 3rd B.C.-3rd A. D., because of two reasons firstly, some of the exceptions mentioned in Bhāṣyas (c. 6th A. D.) and Curnis (c. 7th A. D.) might have come in practice after c. 3rd A. D. A period which is beyond the purview of this article and secondly, it is impossible to include, all the changes that occurred, in the frame of this brief article. Here we can only refer the scholars to see these Chedasūtras and their commentaries.
ance are mentioned. Here Right effort has been merged into Right penance. Similarly, later on merging the Right penance into Right conduct, Umasvati prescribed the three-fold path of liberation in his Tattvärthasūtra (c. 3rd A. D. ). Acaranga has also mentioned the three-fold path in a different form, namely non-violence (nikṣiptadanda), wisdom (prajña) and ecstasy (samadhi) which is more like the three-fold path of prajñā, sila (supplementary vow) and samadhi of Buddhism. Sūtrakṛtānga and some other canonical works also mention two-fold path of liberation, i.e., vidya ( wisdom) and caraṇa (conduct) (Vijjacaraṇa pamokkho ). We see that there are different views about the path of liberation but Jainas never accepted single path either of knowledge or devotion or action. They believe that neither knowledge, nor faith nor conduct alone can be regarded as a means of salvation. But all the three com
bined together make an integrated path of liberation which is a peculiarity of Jainism. In this integration we have a reflection of its non-absolutistic approach Anekantavāda, the central doctrine of Jainism.
Now, if we take each constituent of the threefold path, separately, Right faith (Samyak Darśana) comes first. In earliest canonical works such as Acārānga and Sūtrakṛtānga, the term Darśana is used either in the sense of self-realisation or right vision (right attitude). As 'faith' it is used for the first time in Uttaradhyayana, and there it means nine categories (Tattvas). The same meaning is retained in Umāsvāti's Tattvarthasūtra while defining SamyakDarśana. But after c. 3rd-4th the meaning is also changed and Samyak-Darśana is defined as faith, 'Jina' as a Deva ( Ideal), Nirgrantha as a Guru (Teacher) and non-violence as a Dharma.
Similarly, the term Samyak-Jñana (Right knowlege) is used in the sense of discriminative knowledge of self and not-self in the earlier canons. But later on the term is used as the knowledge of

29
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The major changes which took place during above period are regarding the use of clothes and begging bowls by Jaina monks. On the basis of the fig

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ures of Jaina monks and nuns inscribed on the pedestals of Jina-images of Mathura (c. 1st B. C.-2nd A. D.) it can be easily inferred that by that time the use of clothes and begging bowls was in vogue, though the ideal state of nudity was intact. The figures of monks found at Mathura are almost nude but are depicted having a folded large piece of cloth, on their left arm, may be a woolen blanket, and which seems to be instrumental in hiding their nudity. Similarly, there are certain figures of Jaina monks, having begging bowls in their hands. These figures clearly show that in these centuries, i. e., c. 2nd B. C.-3rd A. D., the use of woolen blanket and begging bowls was common atleast among the Jaina monks and nuns of North India. But in South India, practice of nudity remained intact in that period.
The Cause of Schism and Caityavāsa
Remarkably, it was this use of blanket and begging bowls, along with certain other exceptions in the code of conduct which led to the schism in Jainas into Śvetāmbara, Digambara and Yapaniya. According to Avaśyakamüla-bhāṣya, the controversy regarding the use of clothes and begging bowl was raised first time after 606 years of the Nirvana of Lord Mahavira, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. D.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Name of Nihnavas
Jāmāli
Tiṣyagupta
Asadha
bhūti
Asvamitra
Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI
Dhanagupta

However, on the basis of facts, narrated above, it can be concluded that liberalism in the rigorous code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns caused
the schism into Svetämbara, Digambara and Caityaväsa, i. e., living in temples or Mathas in Jaina order. This tendency of living in the temples of Jaina monks and nuns further caused the deterioration in their strict code of conduct and various exceptions were accepted into general rules. This liberalism, later on, also gave birth to the various Tantrika Sadhanās in Jainism.
Though on the basis of the code of conduct, particularly the use of clothes and bowls, the first sectarian division took place inc. 1st-2nd A. D. But prior to that, we have also trace of another type of differences in Jaina order particularly pertaining to doctrines, started in the life-time of Lord Mahavira itself.
In Jaina tradition, the persons, having doctrinal differences with the tradition of Mahavira, are called as Nihnavas. These Nihnavas were seven in number. Avasyakaniryukti (Verse 778-783) and Uttaradhyayananiryukti ( Verse 165-178) mention the following Nihnavas and their basic differences from the traditional Jainism along with time and place of their origin. The names of Nihnavas and their details are as under:
Time of Origination
Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahavira's tradition
Bahuratavāda (An action, in the process of completion, can't be called completed, it is uncompleted.
Jiva-pradeśavāda (Any one pradeśa of the soul 16 years after Mahā
can be called as Jiva.
vira's enlightenment.
Avyaktavāda (difficult to say who is who).
Samucchinnavada (All the objects are transient and get destroyed just after their origination.) Dvikriyavada (possibility of having two experiences simultaneously.)
14 years after Mahāvira's enlightenment.

214 years after Mahāvira's Nirvana.
220 years after Mahavira's Nirvana.
228 years after Mahavira's Nirvana.
Place of Origination
Śrāvasti
Rṣabhapur
Śvetāmbikā
Mithila
Ulakatira

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No.
Time of Origination
Name of Nihnavas
Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahāvira's tradition
Place of Origination
Rohagupta
Antaranjiā
544 years after Mahavira's Nirvāņa.
Trairāśikavāda or no-Jivavāda (three categories in world - living beings, non-living beings, neither living nor non-non-living beings. Abaddhikavāda (Karma-particles only touch the soul - pradeśas.
Daśapur
Gosthamāhila
544 years after Mahavira's Nirvāņa.
Apart from these, some divisions took place both. Except some issues on the ethical code of in the Jaina order only due to administrative needs. In conduct in which he makes some additions later on, Kalpasūtrasthavirăvali, the Jaina order is said to be Mahāvira accepts the metaphysics and epistemology divided in various Ganas, Kulas and Sakhās. This of Pārśva as it is. The reference of Jñānapravāda, the type of division was based neither on any theoretical fifth one of fourteen Pūrvas (the literature belonging differences nor on the Code of Con-duct. This to the tradition of Mahāvira's predecessor Lord division of Gaņa, Kula and sākhā was based on the Pārśva ) also proves that befüre Mahāvira there was a hierarchy of the spiritual teachers or on the basis of concept of Pañcajñānavāda assigned to Nirgrantha the group of the monks belonging to a particular tradition of Pārśva and was later developed in region. The final division of the Jaina church such as Mahāvira's tradition. Acārănga and Sūtrakṣtānga, the Śvetāmbara, Digambara and Yāpaniya came into oldest extant Jaina literature, do not bear any mark of existence in the c. 4th-5th A. D. as we do not find any the discussion over the theory of knowledge, whereas literary or epigraphic evidence for these sectarian Uttarādhyayana, Sthānānga, Samavāyānga. divisions dated pre-c. 4th-5th A. D.
Bhagavati, Anuyogadvāra and Nandisutra, elaboratDevelopment of Jaina Theory of Knowledge ely discuss the gradual development of the concep
The development of Jaina theory of five-fold tion of Pañcajñānavāda. It suggests that although the knowledge extends over a long period of 2600 years. theory of five-fold knowledge ( Pañcajñānavāda ) The tradition of Mahāvira's predecessor Pārsvanātha was derived from Pārsva's tradition, it was later on (c. 800 B. C.) bears clear marks of Pañcajñāna or developed by Mahāvira. five-fold knowledge, a preliminary conception of Pt. Dalasukha Malvania, in his well-known Jaina epistemology. In Rājapraśniyasūtra ( 165 ) book 'Agama Yuga kā Jaina Darśana' has mentioned Ārya Keși, a follower of Pārsva tradition, called him- three stages of the development of Pascajñänavāda self believer of the theory of five-fold knowledge and based on the chronology of Jaina Agamas. At the explained the same to King Paesi. Uttarādhyayana first stage knowledge was divided into five types — also the same refers. It is remarkable that there is not Mati ( the knowledge obtained through the sensemuch difference between Pārśva and Mahāvira, so far organs ( indriya ), quasi-sense-organs ( anindriya), as their Metaphysics and Epistemology are concerned. and mind ( mana ), Śruta ( scriptural knowledge ); Had there been any difference on these issues, it Avadhi ( clairvoyance ); Manah-paryaya (telepathy would have been definitely mentioned in Bhagavati or knowledge of others' mind ) and Kevala ( perfect and Uttarădhyayana, both pointing out the differences knowledge comprehending all substances and their regarding ethical code of conduct the traditions of modifications or omniscience ). The description of

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five-fold knowledge, found in Bhagavatisūtra, is in vācaka, respectively. Regarding the authorship of accordance with this first stage. The Sthānănga and Anuyogadvārasūtra scholars have different opinions Umāsvāti's Tattvärthasūtra (c. 3rd A.D.) refer the as to whether Aryarakṣita himself is the author or second stage where the knowledge is divided into two some one else. So far as the question of Āryarakṣita is main heads — (i) Pratyakṣa ( direct knowledge concerned it is a fact that he for the first time transincorporating sensory and scriptural knowledge ) and lated the Jaina technical terms by Anuyoga-vidhi. It (ii) Parokșa ( indirect knowledge which incorpora- is the text of philosophical method. In the beginning, tes the three extra-sensory knowledge ). Umāsvāti Anuyogadvārasūtra mentions that mati, avadhi, also supports this two-fold division. At this stage, it manah-paryaya and kevala — these four types of was supposed that apart from the cognition depend- knowledge depend on experience only. They can not ing on the soul alone ( Ātmasāpekṣa Jñana ), the be preached where as śrutajñana can be studied and cognition depending on sense-organs and quasi- preached. At this third stage of development Anusense-organs ( indriya-anindriya sāpekșa ), depend- yogadvāra gives importance to the four-fold division. ing on the intellect ( buddhi sāpeksa ) and the cog- In this third stage of development particularly based nition depending on the Āgamas, should be consi- on Nandi and Anuyogadvāra, the cognition dependdered as Indirect knowledge ( Parokșa Jñāna ). It ing on sense-organs, even being considered transcenbecame a special feature of Jaina Epistemology dently as indirect ( parokșa ), was also included in because others were considering it as a direct know- direct knowledge (pratyakṣa ) following the concept ledge (pratyakşa ). The development of this second of other traditions and it was designated as samstage was very essential as it was to pave the way of vyāvahārika pratyakșa ( perception according to the synthesis between the theory of knowledge (Jñāna- common usage or ordinary perception ). vāda ) and validity of knowledge. At this stage, the
In my opinion, primarily empirical sensual knowledge (Jnana ) itself was considered as an cognition was included in darśana and contemplative instrument of valid knowledge (pramāna ) and was matiiñāna was confined only to the deliberative inteldivided into Direct knowledge (pratyakșa ) and
lectual knowledge ( vimarśātmaka jñāna ). This disIndirect knowledge (parokșa ).
tinction was also recommended in later period. Four The third stage of the development is repre- early classifications of matijñana, i.e., avagraha, ihā, sented by Nandisutra (c. 5th A. D.). In the whole of avāya and dhāraņā are also considered as deliberthe Agamas, Nandisutra is the only composition ative knowledge but when sensory cognition was which thoroughly deals with the theory of five-fold included in matijñana, the question arose as to how knowledge. In Nandisutra another development is the knowledge, originated from sense-organs, would also visible where the sense-cognition is included in be regarded as indirect knowledge. Consequently, it pratyaksa, following the common tradition. The was accepted as samvyāvahārika pratyakşa (percepsecond work, dealing with the conception of five-fold tion according to common usage ) following the other knowledge is Anuyogadvārasutra (c. 2nd ). Anu- philosophical traditions. yogadvāra is earlier than Nandisutra because former To synthesize the first stage of five-fold does not include sense cognition in Direct knowledge knowledge with two-fold classification of pramāna - as the latter does. It is believed that Anuyogadvāra and pratyakșa and parokșa of second stage, a third stage Nandisutra are compiled by Aryarakṣita and Deva- was introduced. An attempt was also made to
The

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correlate the Jaina concept of pratyaksa (direct change in later periods also. Similarly the scriptural knowledge ) with the concept of perception knowledge also continued to be considered as indirect (pratyakşa ) of other philosophical traditions. (parokșa ). But among the two classes of matijñāna - Akalanka (c. 8th A. D.) who contributed a
indriyajanya matijñāna (originated from senses ) and
manojanya mati-jñāna (originated from mind ), the parallel system of Jaina logic based on the Agamic
sense originated matijñāna was considered asparokșa conception and some later Ācāryas classified the
from the transcendental ( pāramārthika ) point of pratyakșa into two parts, i.e., sasvyāvahārika
view and pratyakșa from the point of view of pratyakșa (perception according to common usage )
common usage ( samvyāvahārika ). The other tradiand pāramārthika pratyakșa transcendental percep
tions were considering sense originated matijñāna as tion ). Its brief reference can be traced in Nandisātra
pratyakșa. When discussions over Pramāņaśāstra and a detailed one in Jinabhadra's Viseșāvasyaka
( science of valid cognition ) started, the matijñāna, bhāşya (c. 700 A. D.). Akalanka etc. have followed
originated from mind, was further divided in different the same two-fold concept of pratyakṣa.
classes and got assimilated with different Pramāṇas. So it is clear that the conception of five-fold After Nandisūtra the development of this conception knowledge is quite old but its gradual development of the five-fold knowledge is found in Višeşāvasyakatook place only during the c. 3rd-7th A. D. Because bhāsya where not only its different classifications are Tattvārthasūtra and its auto-commentary, both donot mentioned but the doubts regarding the very concept refer these two types of pratyaksa - saṁvyāvahārika and the solutions are also discussed. This era witnesand pāramărthika. By that period mati-jñāna was sed intensive discussions over the relationship of considered as parokșa. The hypothesis of these two darśana and jñāna as well as śrutajñāna and matitypes of pratyakṣa - samvyāvahārika and pāramār- jñāna. thika came into existence after c. 3rd 4th A. D. in the
The development of the conception of fiveperiod of Nandisūtra (c. 5th A. D. ) as the above fold knowledge continued during thec. 3rd-7th A. D. division was clearly mentioned in this text.
but it got interrupted after the c. 7th A. D. and discus
sions over Pramāņavāda ( science of valid cognition) Bhagavatisūtra refers to Nandisātra and
started. This is noteworthy that Pramāņavāda in Anuyogadvāra for the details about the Jaina theory
Jainism was the result of the impact of other philosoof knowledge. It concludes that this portion was
phical traditions. incorporated in Bhagavati at the time of Valabhi Vacană (c. 5th A. D. ). Sthānanga's classification of Jaina Concept of Pramāņa knowledge as pratyaksa and paroksa, also is contem-
The theory of five-fold knowledge, originally porary to Tattvarthasūtra (c. 4th A. D.). In the above belonged to Jainas but the case is different with the mentioned scriptures avadhijñāna ( clairvoyance ), theory of Pramāna. This latter conception is borromanah-paryaya-jñana (telepathy or knowledge of wed by Jainas from other philosophical traditions. others' mind ) and kevalajñāna (perfect knowledge The concept of Pramāna in Jaina philosophy came comprehending all the substance and their modes, into existence in c. 3rd 4th A. D. and continued to i.e., Omniscience ), all being beyond the range of our develop upto the c. 13th A. D. senses are considered as transcendental perception or Jaina Ācāryas, first of all accepted the conself perception. This conception did not undergo any cept of Pramāņa as it was prevalent in other philoso

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
phical traditions, particularly in Nyāya and Sankhya mentioned only three types of Pramănas. Umāsvāti school, but in due course of time they got it associated (c. 3rd-4th A. D.) for the first time declared five-fold with their concept of five-fold knowledge. Thus, what- knowledge as Pramāna and divided it into two classes ever development of Jaina theory of Pramāņa is seen Pratyaksa and Parokşa. Later on, Nandisūtra divided in Jainism, is the result of its synthesis with Pañca- Pratyaksa in two sub-classes Sāmvyāvahărika and jñanavāda. While classifying the Pramāņa some new Pāramārthika, including sensory perception into the concepts came into existence. They are undoubtedly first one and Avadhi, Manah-paryaya and Kevala into unique contributions of Jaina philosophy. For insta- the second, respectively. The four Āgamic divisions of nce, Smrti ( memory), Pratyabhijñā (recognition) Matijñāna --Avagraha (the cognition of an object as and Tarka ( Induction ) were for the first time such without a further positing of the appropriate considered as Pramāņa.
name, class, etc.); Ihā ( the thought process that is We shall now see as to how the development
undertaken with a view to specifically ascertain the of Pramānavāda took place in Jaina agamas. Jaina general object that has been grasped by avagraha ); āgamas refer three and four types of Pramāna Avāya (when further attentiveness to final ascertainaccepted by Sankhya and Naiyāyikas, respectively. ment takes place regarding the particular feature Sthänänga clearly mentions three types of Vyavasāya grasped at the stage of tha ) and Dhāraņā (the constant (determinate cognition), i.e., Pratyaksa (perception),
stream of the ascertainment, the impression left Prātyika and Anugāmika ( inference ) whereas
behind it and the memory made possible by this Bhagavati mentions four types of Vyavasāya, i.e., impression, all these operations or the form of matiPratyakşa, Anumāna, Upamāna (comparison ) and jñāna are called dhäranā ) were accepted as the two Agama ( verbal testimony ). Similarly, in Sthänārga classes of sensory perception. The indirect knowfour types of pramānas called Hetu are mentioned. ledge ( Parokşa-jñāna ) enumerated the cognition In this way Sthānānga mentions both, three
originated from mind ( manasajanya jñāna ) and fold and four-fold classification of Pramāņa in the
Verbal testimony ( Śrutajñāna ) with a view that form of Vyavasāya and Hetu, respectively. Anuyoga
Inference (Anumāna ) etc. are the forms of Manasadvärasutra not only clearly mentions four types of anyamana. Pramāna but also elaborately discusses each of them.
Thus, the attempt to synthesize the concept of The details about the four Pramāņas given by Pramāna with the theory of five-fold knowledge in Anuyogadvārasutra is very much similar to that of the true sense begins from the period of Umāsvāti. Nyaya school. As I have stated earlier, Bhagavati Ācārya Umāsvāti maintains that these five types of refers to the Anuyogadvära for more details about cognition ( knowledge ) are five pramānas and the Pramānas. It indicates that at the time of Valabhi divides these five cognition into two Pramānas - council (c. 5th A. D. ) the concept of four types of direct and indirect. Pt. Malvania has observed that the Pramāna had already been accepted by Jaina first attempt of this synthesis was made in Anuyogaphilosophers but when Pramanavāda got synthesized dvārasutra, the only text accommodating Naiyāyika's with the conception of five-fold knowledge, the four-fold division of Pramāna into knowledge. But Upamāna ( comparison ) had no place in it.
this attempt not being in accordance with the Jaina Later, Siddhasena Divākara in his Nyāyāva- view, the later scholars tried to solve this problem and tāra and Haribhadrasūri in his Anekāntajayapatākā ultimately succeeded in doing so. They discussed the

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concept of Pramāṇas on the base of five-fold (perception ), Anumāna ( inference ) and Agama knowledge of Jaina Agamas. According to Nyāya- (verbal testimony ), refers to the old Sankhya System. śāstra, the cognition originated from Mind (mānasa. While mention of four pramāṇas including Upamāna janya jñāna ) is of two types --- Pratyaksa and (comparison ) belongs to Naiyāyikas. It clearly shows Parokşa. The knowledge originated from mind which that by the end of c. 5th A. D. the concept of Pramāņa experiences pleasure and pain, is Direct knowledge as an independent concept was not developed in (pratyaksa) whereas the inference ( anumāna ) and Jainism. The first work which elaborately deals with comparison (upamāna ) are Indirect forms of know- the Pramānaśāstra is Siddhasena's Nyāyāvatāra. The ledge (paroksa ). So having considered sensory-per- period of Siddhasena Divākara is fixed as c. 4th-5th ception of Matijñāna as Sāmvyāvahārika Pratyaksa A. D. Nyāyāvatāra mentions three Āgamic divisions (perception according to common usage ), cognition of Pramāna, i.e., perception, inference and verbal based on intellect ( Bauddhika Jñāna ) as inference testimony (Agama ). Though Siddhasena has expre( anumāna ) and verbal testimony ( Śrutajñāna ) as ssed briefly the Jaina opinion on the Nyāya-śāstra of Āgama pramāņa. Jainas synthesized the conception Sānkhya and Nyāya but he has followed mostly the of five-fold knowledge with the Pramānaśāstra of the old tradition, accepted by Jaina Āgamas. At some other schools of Indian philosophy. In Anuyoga- places he has only revised the definitions of Pramāna dvārasutra, Pratyakṣa is divided in two heads, i. e., of other schools on the basis of Jaina theory of Non(1) perception originated from sense-organs (indriya- absolutism (Anekāntavāda ). janya ) and ( 2 ) perception originated from quasi
Nyāyāvatāra clearly follows the Āgamic trasense-organs ( no-indriya ). Quasi-sense originated
dition, as far as the description of Pramāra is concerperception included avadhi, manah-paryaya and
ned. It, no where, mentions the later developed conkevalajñāna. This concept of knowledge carries the
cept of Smsti ( memory), Pratyabhijñā ( recognition ) same meaning as the one, conveyed by the transcen
and Tarka ( indirect proof : tarka is not by itself, a dental knowledge in other philosophical traditions.
source of valid knowledge, though it is valuable in The distinction between ordinary perception (Laukika
suggesting hypothesis which leads indirectly to right Pratyaksa ) and Transcendental perception (Alaukika
knowledge ) as Pramāna. This proves that NyāyāPratyakșa ) of Vaišeșikas is accepted by the Jainas
vatāra is undoubtedly an ancient text compiled by under the name of Sāṁvyāvahārika and Pāramār
Siddhasena Divākara. After Nyāyāvatāra, the literary thika Pratyaksa and was synthesized later on with their
works which discuss the concept of Pramāņa are conception of five-fold knowledge (pañcajñānavāda).
Pūjyapāda's Sarvārthasiddhi (c. 6th A. D. ) of According to Pt. Dalasukha Malvania the Digambara tradition, Siddhasenagani's commentary Āgamic period (c. 5th A. D. ) has no trace of any on Tattvärtha-bhāsya (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra's independent discussion over Pramāņa. Till that period Anekāntajayapatākā (c. 8th A. D.) of Svetāmbara Jainācāryas have collected the opinions of other philo- tradition. In these works there is no trace of Pramāna sophical schools in their treatises. In the correspon- like Smộti etc. This concept is discussed for the first ding period a number of traditions on the types of time in the works of Akalanka ( c. 8th A. D.) and Pramāna were prevalent. Jaina Agamas refer tradi- Siddharși's commentary on Nyāyāvatāra (c. 9th A. tions of three and four types of Pramānas. The D.) of Digambara and Śvetämbara traditions, respecmention of three types of Pramānas - Pratyaksa tively. The independent development of Jaina Nyāya

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commences from the period of Akalarka, who for the Smrti is not Pramāna, how recognition first time expounded Smrti, Pratyabhijña and Tarka (Pratyabhijñā ) can be accepted as Pramāņa because as independent Pramānas. The Jaina theory of Nyāya in absence of memory (Smrti ), Pratyabhijña is not was given a new direction in the c. 8th A. D. possible. If memory (Smrti ) is not Pramāņa, PratyaAkalanka not only established Smrti, Pratyabhijñā bhijñā also a combination of past memory and present and Tarka as independent Pramāņa but also revised perception can not be considered as Pramāņa, the definitions or meanings of Perception, Inference because Pratyabhijñā is based on Smrti. Similarly, and Āgama, given by Siddhasena and Samantabhadra. Jainas established Tarka as independent pramāņa In his definition of Pramāna, he introduced a new because in the absence of Tarka Pramāna, Vyāpti term avisamvādi in place of svapara-avabhāşaka. ( universal relation ) is not possible and without Most probably, this characteristic of changing defini- Vyāpti, inference (Anumāna) is quite impossible. To tions was borrowed from the Buddhist tradition. It solve this problem Naiyāyikas accepted Sāmānya was an especiality of Akalanka that he logically Laksana Pratyāsatti ( generic nature of individuals ). evaluated even the pre-established conceptions, Jainas accepted Tarka Pramāņa at the place of hence rightly called the father of Jaina Nyāya. His Naiyāyika's Sāmānya Laksana Pratyāsatti which is works Laghiyastraya, Nyāyaviniscaya, Siddhi- more extensive than that and may be called Inductive viniscaya and Pramāṇasangraha are related to the leap ( āgamana ). Jainas maintained induction Jaina Nyāya. Pramāṇasangraha is the Akalanka's last (āgamana ) and deduction (nigamana ) of Western work in which matured Jaina Nyāya, especially Logic and introduced them in the name of Tarka and Pramāna-śāstra, is elaborately discussed. Though in Anumana as an independent Pramāņa, respectively. his earlier works he mentioned Smrti, Pratyabhijña An independent Tarka Pramāṇa was needed because and Tarka as Pramāņa yet as independent Pramānas, acquisition of Sāmānya (generality ) through percethese are established only in this work. As such from ption is not possible and without Sārnānya, Vyāpti is the point of view of the history of Jaina Pramāņa- not possible. Similarly in absence of Vyāpti, śāstra this is a valuable work giving new dimension to Inference (anumāna ) is impossible. Since in Jainism, the concept of pramāņa.
Samānya Laksana Pratyāsatti is no where mentioned In the history of Indian logic the Jaina logi
as a kind of perception, Jainas established Tarka as cians, in the c. 8th A. D., for the first time accepted
independent Pramāņa to solve the problem of Vyapti. memory (Smrti ), recognition ( Pratyabhijña ) and
As Pratyabhijña was needed for Tarka and Smrti for induction ( Tarka ) as a Pramāņa. This is Jaina's
Pratyabhijña, Jainas accepted all these three as special contribution to the field of Indian Pramāņa
independent Pramāņa. śāstra. Not even a single tradition of Indian logic It was Akalanka (c. 8th A. D. ) who for the accepts memory (smrti ) as an independent Pramāņa. first time referred these three types of independent Only Vedānta-paribhāṣā, a work of c. 16th A. D., Pramāna in Digambara tradition. Before Akalanka, mentions Smrti as Pramāņa. Though Naiyāyikas had his predecessors Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D.) and accepted recognition (pratyabhijña ) as a kind of Pūjyapāda (c. 6th A. D.) do not make any mention of perception (pratyakșa pramāna ) yet neither they it. In Śvetāmbara tradition, Siddhasena Divākara (c. regarded it as an independent Pramāņa nor accepted 4th A. D. ), Jinabhadra (c. 6th A. D.), Siddhasena Smrti as its cause (hetu ). Jainas maintained, in case Gani (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.)

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mention nothing about these three independent c. 12th A.D. It was Yaśovijaya who followed the style Pramāņas. In Svetāmbara tradition, as per my know- of Navyanyāya and for the first time composed ledge, only Siddharşi (c. 9th A. D. ), in his commen- Tarkabhāṣā and Nyāyabindu in Navyanyāya style, in tary of Nyāyāvatāra has mentioned the validity of the latter part of c. 17th A.D. In Digambara tradition, these three independent Pramāņas.
Saptabhangitarangani was written by Vimaladas Thus, in Digambara tradition from c. 8th A.D.
D
"
following the same style. and in Svetāmbara tradition by the end of c. 9th A.D.
Thus, we can conclude that it is only from c. memory (smrti ), recognition ( pratyabhijña) and 3rd A. D.-12th A. D. when Jaina logic made its proinduction (tarka ) were established as independent gress and opened a new vistas for its further developPramāna. Earliest works on Jaina logic were in brief ment. and mainly concerned with the Jaina concept of Development of the Theory of Non-absolutism Pramāņa. Works on Jaina logic, composed later on (Anekāntavāda ) and Syādvāda were a healthy review of the conceptions of Pramāna
Non-violence in practice, non-absolutistic prevalent in other philosophical traditions. Pātra- approach in thought and conditional predication or svāmi's Trilaksanakadarthana was the first one to qualified assertion (Syalvāda ) in speech are the refute the Hetulaksana of Dinnāga. Vidyānandi pillars upon which the splendid palace of Jainism is (c. 9th A. D.) wrote Pramānapariksā to evaluate the erected. Theory of non-absolutism (Anekāntavāda ) characteristics of Pramāņa, their divisions and sub- is the central philosophy of Jainism. So far as the divisions, prevalent in other philosophical traditions. historical development of this theory of AnekāntaIn this period some more works pertaining to Jaina vāda is concerned, its historical development can be logic (Pramāņaśāstra ) had been composed but seem divided into three phases. Its first phase begins with to be destroyed. In Digambara tradition, Prabhā- the preachings of Mahävira, i. e., c. 6th B. C. and is candra's Nyāyakumudacandra and Prameyakamala- extended upto the composition of Umāsvāti's mārtanda are two of some prominent works Tattvārthasūtra (first half of the c. 4th A. D. ). It was composed in c. 10th 11th A. D. Both of the works are the period of origination of Anekāntavāda. Basically, the commentaries on Akalanka's Laghiyastrayi and in the non-violent and tolerant attitude of Mahavira helSvetāmbara tradition, Vādidevasūri's Pramāṇanaya- ped much in the development of the non-absolutistic tattvāloka and its commentary Syädvādaratnākara (c. principle of Anekāntavāda. InSūtrakıtānga, he clearly 11th A. D. ) are well known works on Jaina logic. opines, "one who praises one's own view-point and After that Hemcandra's Pramāņa-mimāṁsā (c. 12th discards other's view as a false-one and thus, distorts A.D.) is an important work which mainly deals with the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and the concept of pramāna though it is incomplete. The death." development of Navya-nyāya ( Neo-logistic system) It follows that Mahāvira preached the utterbegins with the entry of Gangesh Upādhyāya in the most carefulness regarding one's speech. In his field of Indian Nyāya in c. 13th A. D. But for four opinion speech should be unassaulting as well as true. centuries the Jaina logicians were unacquainted with He warned his disciple monks against making unwarthis new literary genre and continued to follow the ranted categorical assertions or negations. He instrucstyle of Vādidevasūri. Thus, the development of Jaina ted them to make only a conditional statement Logic ( Nyayaśāstra ) remained interrupted after (Vibhajjavāya Vägareija ). It is the Vibhajjavāda

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from which the theory of non-absolutism (Anekānta- vāda. Though the theory of Vibhajjavāda was comvāda ) emerged. Sūtrakrtānga, in its first chapter mon to both - Jainism and Buddhism but so far as records various contemporary one-sided doctrines Buddhist approach to the metaphysical doctrine is regarding the nature of soul and creation of the concerned, it was a negative one, while Mahāvira's universe. Mahāvira's approach to all these doctrines was a positive one. Lord Buddha maintained that is non-absolutistic or relative. In every case, whether whether it is eternalism or nihilism, none of these can it was the problem of eternalism (śāśvatavāda ) and be regarded as true because any one-sided approach nihilism (Ucchedavāda ) about the soul or that of neither represents a right vision regarding Reality nor finiteness and infiniteness of the world or that iden- it explains our practical problems of sorrow and tity and difference of body and soul or also that of sufferings. That is why he kept mum while answering monism and pluralism, Mahāvira's approach was the questions related to the metaphysics. It is due to this never absolutistc but relativistic. It was firmly negative approach that Buddha's theory of Nihilism maintained in Jaina canons that the nature of reality is came into existence later on in Buddhism. On the complex and multi-dimensional as well as confluence other hand, Mahāvira's approach towards these oneof many self-contradictory attributes, so it can be sided views was positive. He tried to synthesize these approached and explained from various angles or different views on the basis of his theory of view-points. It is believed that Tirtharikara Mahāvira Anekāntavāda. while explaining the reality uttered first sentence as The synthesis is found for the first time in tripod (tripadi ), i.e., Uppannei, Vigamei, Dhuvei Vā. Bhagavatisutra, wherein, on the basis of two main Accordingly in Jainism Reality / 'Sat' is defined as divisions of Nayas - substantial standpoint (Dravyapossessing origination, decay and permanence rthika Naya ) and modal standpoint (Paryāyārthika (Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat : Tattvärtha, 5.29). Naya ) as well as Niscaya Naya, Vyavahära Naya and This three-fold nature of Reality is the base of the different Niksepas ( Positing) and Gateways of inJaina theory of Non-absolutism. On the one hand, the vestigations (Anuvogadvāras such as -- Substance nature of Reality is complex, i. e., a synthesis of (dravya ), space (deśa ), time (kāla ), mode (bhāva ), opposites : identity and difference, permanence and name (nāma), symbol (sthāpanā ), potentiality change, oneness and manyness and so on, and on the (dravya ), actuality ( bhāva ) etc. He has synthesised other hand scope of our experience, knowledge and the various opposite view-points. So it is clear that in even expression is limited and relative, so we can not the first phase, i. e., before c. 3rd A. D. Vibhaljavāda know the Reality as a whole from any particular angle. of Lord Mahavira was fully developed in the positive Our every knowledge about the Reality will always and synthesising theory of Anekāntavāda along with be partial and relative only and in that position our its subsidiary doctrines such as the doctrine of expression or statement about the Reality will be standpoint (Navavāda ) etc. Thus, along with the orialways relative and not categorical (ārpitā nārpite gination of Anekāntavāda, the doctrines of Naya, siddhe : Tattvārtha, 5). In canonical age we have an Niksepa and Anuyogadvāra came into existence. account of only this much discussion about
The second phase of the development of NonAnekäntavāda.
absolutism / Anekāntavāda began with Siddhasena Thus, in the first phase of its development, Divakara's Sanmatitarka (c. 4th A. D. ), continue till this theory was evolved from the theory of Vibhaija- the Haribhadra's works such as Saddarśana

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samuccaya, Šāstravārtāsamuccaya (c. 8th A. D. ) etc. Mallavādi are some what different in their names and This second phase has three main characteristics — presentation. Though the author showed the relationfirstly, apart from the Āgamic Nayas, i. e., ship between the traditional seven Nayas and his Dravyārthika (Substantial ) and Paryāyārthika twelve Nayas [ See : Malvania D., Āgama Yuga kā (modal ) or Niscaya ( Ideal ) and Vyavahāra ( pra- Jaina Darśana, p. 312. ) though doctrine of Anuyogactical view-point ), the doctrine of Seven-fold Nayas, dvāras ( gateways of the investigation ) can be traced i.e., Naigama ( considering both the general and in some of the Āgamas of later period as Bhagavati, particular properties of the thing ), Sangraha (consi- Samavāyānga, Prajñāpanā and Anuyogadvārasūtra dering general properties of an object ), Vyavahāra yet the number of these gateways of investigation (considering specific properties of an object ), never remained constant. In Tattvārthasūtra, it was Rjusūtra ( confined only to the present mode of an only eight while in Dhavalā tikā of Satkhandāgama object), Sabda (treating with synonyms ), Samabhi- its numbers were increased upto eighty. This doctrine rūdha ( taking into cosideration only etymological of gateways of investigation is nothing but viewing, meaning of word. According to this Naya, even word understanding and explaining the nature of the things has a different meaning and Evambhūta Naya with their multiple facets or aspects and thus it can ( denoting object in its actual state of performing its also be considered as a development of Vibhajyavāda natural function ) was developed. Though the Āgamic and Anekāntavāda. Here, it is noteworthy that this Nayas remained in vogue till the Kundakunda's increase in the number of the Nayas (view-points ) or period (c. 6th A. D.).
the Anuyogadvāras was well received by later Jaina
thinkers because the earlier Acāryas kept the door It is to be noted that in earlierāgamas such as
open in this regard. Siddhasena Divākara clearly Acarānga, Sūtrakstānga, Uttarădhyayana etc., this
mentions in his work Sanmatitarka ( second half of concept of seven-fold view-point (Nayas ) is absent.
thec. 4th A. D.) that number of view-points can be as Only in Anuyogadvārasūtra and Nandisutra this
much as the way of linguistic expressions. (Sanmaticoncept of seven-fold view-point is found but these
tarka, 3/47) are the works of thec. 2nd-4th A.D. In Samavāyānga, it is an interpolation. Secondly, in Tattvärthasūtra Doctrine of Seven-fold Predication (Saptabhangi) (first half of c. 4th A. D.) the number of basic view
The second main characteristic of this second points are five. The Samabhirūdha and Evambhūta phase of the development of Anekāntavāda, is the are accepted as sub-types of Sabdanaya. Siddhasena doctrine of seven-fold predications or the seven ways Divākara ( c. 4th A. D. ) in his Sanmatitarka has of expressions (Saptabhangi ). The concept, regardaccepted six Nayas, he does not mention Naigama ing the ways of expressions, dates back to the Vedic Naya. Thus, we may conclude that the number of period. The two forms of expressions / predications - Nayas, as seven, was finalised later on but prior to the affirmation and negation, are accepted by all. These end of c. 5th A. D. Only with one exception of two depend on existence or non-existence. By negaMallavādi (c. 5th ), who mentions twelve Nayas in ting both the existence and non-existence, we have a his work 'Dvāśāranayacakra', development in the third way of expression Avyaktavyatā, i.e., inexpresnumber of Nayas became stagnant because of the sibility. By accepting the both a fourth way of expresdevelopment of the doctrine of Anuyogadvāras, i. e., sion was emerged, comprising both affirmation and the gateways of investigation. These twelve Nayas of negation. These four ways of expression are well

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accepted in Upanişadas and Buddhism. So far as Jain- cations Jaina ācāryas put a qualifying mark before ism is concerned it is in the Bhagavatisūtra where for each of the predication / statement, so that the affirthe first time these different ways of expressions mation or negation or even in-expressibility of predi(Bhangas ) are found. In Bhagavatisūtra (975) while cation may not be taken as absolute. This qualifying dealing with the concept of Hell, Heaven and abode mark is the word 'Syāt' (RIC), which being put of Siddhas, Lord Mahāvira mentioned only three before every predication, removes the every possiways of expression, i. e., affirmation, negation and in- bility of uncertainity and indefiniteness of the prediexpressibility but while dealing with the aggregates cation and make the predication conditional as well of the different numbers of atom, he mentioned more as relative. The seven-fold conditional predications than twenty-three ways of expressions. Pt. Dalsukha are as follows: Malvania is right when he says that of course we have
1. Conditional affirmation ( PTC 3a) seven predications or Saptabhangi in Bhagavati
2. Conditional negation (RICH ) sūtra, but in my humble opinion these different ways 3. Conditional inexpressibility ( RICE 37972) of expressions (Bhangas ) do not represent the doc
4. Conditional affirmation and negation retrine of seven-fold predications rather it is only a prior spectively (PITE 3a z titaa) state. Here, these ways of expressions are framed on 5. Conditional affirmation and inexpressibilthe number of atoms in aggregates. Secondly, this ity ( RT 3 7 379mai a) discussion may be a later interpolation because in
6. Conditional negation and inexpressibility Tattvārthasütra and its auto-commentary, this concept ( Rua ia o 370mai 7 ) of seven-fold predication is absent. Thirdly, it is also 7. Conditional affirmation, negation and inclear that neither in Bhagavatisutra nor in the expressibility (स्यात् अस्ति च नास्ति च अवक्तव्यं च) Tattvärthasūtra and it's auto-commentary, the theory It is noteworthy that for Jainas inexpressiof seven-fold predication is systematically presented bility (anirvacaniyatā or avyaktavyatā ) does not dein its logical form, with number of predications as note absolute inexpressibility as Vedānta means. It is seven and only seven. For the first time in Siddhasena only conditional inexpressibility because simultaDivākara's Sanmatitarka, this theory of seven-fold neous affirmation and negation are not possible in our predication is logically presented. After that in Apta- linguistic expressions. mimāmsă of Samantabhadra (c. 5th ), Sarvārtha- The Jaina doctrines of non-absolutism, considdhi of Pūjyapāda (c. 6th ), Pañcāstikāya ( 14 ) and ditional predication and view-points yielded good Pravacanasāra ( 2/23 ) of Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) results particularly in that age of philosophical dispuand some other later works of this period this doctrine tation as well as religious and social conflicts. of seven-fold conditional predication has been discu- Though the Jaina thinkers made optical estimation of ssed in detail. In general, there are only three types of the philosophical assumptions of other schools of our linguistic expression - affirmation, negation and thought yet they paid proper respect to them and acceinexpressibility. On the basis of these three funda- pted their Truth value on the basis of different Nayas. mental ways of linguistic expressions and their com- In this regard the views of Siddhasena Divakara and binations mathematically only seven predications are Haribhadra are commendable. Siddhasena tried to possible neither more nor less. In order to show the establish the truth value of other schools of thought conditionality or relativity of these seven-fold predi- on different view-points. He said Sankhya school is

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true from substantial view-point, while Buddhist view is true from the view-point which is confined to only present mode of an object (Rjusūtra Naya ).
He further remarks that all schools of thought are true when they are understood from their own standpoint and so far as they do not reject the truth- value of others. A non-absolutist does not divide them into the category of true and false. The same spirit is also followed by Haribhadra in his works such as Sastravārtāsamuccaya and Saddarśana- samuccaya. It is only Haribhadra, who in his Şad- darśanasamuccaya, presented all the six schools of thought in their true spirit and without condemning them. No other work in the history of Indian philo- sophy has been written till date in such a noble spirit. In this period, Jaina ācāryas tried to syn-thesize the different conflicting views and thus tried to establish harmony and peace in the society. Historical Development of Jaina Metaphysics Astikāya
The doctrine of pañcāstikāya which refers to the five constituents of the universe is regarded as the most original theory of Jainism. There is, of course, no mention of pañcāstikāya in Ācāranga, but it is found in the Parśva chapter of Rşibhāşita (c. 4th B. C. ). This shows that this concept belongs to the tradition of Pāráva (c. 8th B. C.). In the tradition of Mahāvira, however, we find its first reference in Bhagavatisūtra (aboutc. Ist B. C.).
In Jaina philosophy the word astikāya means the substance which exists ( asti ) with an extension in the space, i.e., constituent component ( kāya ). In Jaina philosophy jiva, dharma, adharma, akāśa and pudgala -- these five are regarded as astikāyas from the very ancient times, and there is no change in this concept, even today. They can be translated as the living beings (jiva ), Space (ākāśa ), Medium of motion and rest (dharma-adharma taken together ) and Matter (pudgala ).
Among these five astikāyas, three of them - dharma, adharma and akāśa are thought of as unitary and remaining two - jiva and pudgala as infinite in number. From the c. 3rd-10th A. D. there is no major change in the concept execpt that, with the development of the concept of saddravya (the six-fold theory of substance ), time (kāla ) was also accepted as an unextended substance (anastikāya ). The debate whether time can be regarded as an independent substance or not begins with the c. 3rd 4th A. D. or even before the composition of Tattvārthasūtra; and the difference of opinion in this regard continues upto the time of Viśeșāvaśyakabhāsya (c. 7th A. D. ). Some of the Jaina philosophers regarded time as an independent substance while the others did not. But subsequently Digambara and Svetāmbara both the traditions synthesized the concept of astikāya and dravya and both of them agreed to accept time asanastikāya, i.e., an independent unextended substance.
The idea of Pañcāstikāya is, distinctly, an original concept of the Jainas. We do not find it in any other ancient philosophical system, except that in the ancient times astikaya has a broad and general meaning, denoting anything that exists ( asti ); but in due course of time there developed a distinction between astikāya and anastikāya and the former was taken to be an extended substance in space. Technically speaking astikāya is a multi-spatial substance (bahupradeśi-dravya ), i.e., a substance which is extended in space. Pañcāstikāya
The Jaina concept of Şaddravya ( theory of six substances ) has developed from this very idea of pañcastikāya by adding time as an independent substance in the earlier concept of pascāstikāya. The concept of Şaddravya came into existence during the c. 1st-2nd A. D. Thus the concept of pañcastikāya is definitely a very old concept because we find its reference in the Pārśva chapter of Isibhāsiyāim, one
Jain Education Interational

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of the oldest scriptures. Till the period of Ācārānga move his hands. Thus, the concept of dharma and and the first Srutaskandha of Sutrakītānga we donot adharma as the respective medium of motion and rest, find any reference to this concept so far as the seems to be a later concept. This idea has arrived by Mahavira's tradition is concerned. Thus, we can say the time of the composition of Tattvārthasūtra ( i.e. in that the concept basically belongs to Pārśva tradition. the second half of the c. 3rd or first half of the When the followers of Pārśva were included in the c. fourth ). The allusions made in Bhagavati and other Mahavira's order, their concept of pañcāstikāya, along scriptures clearly show that the meanings of with some other concepts, was also accepted in the dharmāstikāya and adharmāstikāya in those days Mahāvira's tradition. Bhagavatisütra for the first time were identical to the meaning of the terms dharma mentions that the world is made of dharma, adharma, and adharma as pious and sinful respectively. Thus, akāśa, jiva and pudgala. Isibhāsiyāim only refers to the concept of dharma andadharma as the medium of the five astikāyas but has not mentioned their names. motion and rest, respectively, seems to be a latter Even, if the names were decided, we find no descri- concept, but this idea has arrived by the time of the ption as to their exact nature and function. Further, composition of Tattvārthasūtra (i.e., c. 3rd A.D.). In the meaning that we understand of the pañcāstikāya, Uttarādhyayana, chapter 28th also dharma and today, is gradually ascribed to them in due course of adharma are mentioned as the medium of motion and time. We find atleast two references in the Bhagavati- rest respectively, but according to scholars this sütra which clarify that the dharma-astikāya and the chapter is a later addition of thec. Ist or 2nd A. D. adharma-astikāya at that time did not mean media of
Seven Categories motion and rest, respectively. In the 20th śataka of
In Sutrakstānga (2 / 5-765-782 ) we find two Bhagavatisütra, it is mentioned that abstinence from
categories of being (asti ) and not-being (nästi ). The the eighteen places of sin and observance of the five
elements which are classified under being category vigilances (samitis ) alongwith three controls (guptis )
are - loka (universe ), aloka ( space beyond is dharmāstikāya, while indulging in the eighteen
universe ) jiva ( the living-being ), dharma, adharma, places of sin and not following the five vigilances
bandha, mokṣa, punya, pāpa, asrava, samvara, (samitis ) and the three controls (guptis ) is, called
vedanā, nirjarā, kriyā, akriyā, krodha, māna, lobha, adharmăstikāya. In the 16th śataka of Bhagavati
prema, dveșa, caturanta, samsāra, deva, devi, siddhi, sitra, the question is raised whether a deity (deva )
asiddhi, siddhanijasthāna, aādhu, asādhu and kalyāņa. standing at the end of the universe (unoccupied space) can move his hands outside the universe ( aloka ) ? This detailed list is abridged in the second The answer given to this question is not only negative part ( śrutaskandha ) of Sūtrakrtānga. Here we find but is also explanatory. It says that as the movement the mention of jiva-ajiva, punya-pāpa, asravaof Jiva and Ajiva is possible only through matter samvara, vedanä-nirjarā, kriya-adhikarana, bandha (pudgala ) and as there is complete absence ofjivas and mokșa. It is an earlier stage, as Pt. Dalsukha and the pudgalas in the aloka, the movement of the Malvania observes, the concept of nine-fold elements hands of the diety is impossible there. If dharma- is developed from this very list after deleting vedanā, dravya was considered as a medium of motion, at that kriya and adhikarana from it. This is alluded, in time the answer would have been in different way, Samavāyānga and Uttarādhyayana, approximately c. i.e., due to the absence of dharma-dravya he can not 2nd or 3rd A. D. Out of these nine-fold elements

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Umāsvāti presents, the concept of seven elements arded as relatively later, ofc. 2nd or 3rd A. D., by the (tattvas ) including punya and pāpa underäsrava, in scholars. There we find that not only the word dravya the c. 3rd 4th. We find discussions of the seven-fold (substance ) is used, but the mutual relation among or nine-fold categories (tattva ) in the later composed the substance, attributes and modes are also discusscriptures of both the Svetāmbara and the Digambara sed. Substance is defined as substratum of attributes traditions. This shows that the concept of seven (guņāņām āsavo davvo ). In my opinion, this definicategories (tattva ) has also its origin in Sūtrakstānga tion of substance, given in Uttarādhyayana, seems to and has taken final shape in due course of time and be influenced by the Nyāya-Vaišeșika school. Pujyagot finalised in c. 3rd or 4th A. D. During the c. 7th- pāda Devanandi defined substance as an aggregate of 10th A.D. these ideas had properly conceptualised as attributes in his commentary on Tattvārthasūtra, it is described in details with their various classes and known as Sarvărthasiddhi (c. 5th or 6th A. D.). This sub-classes.
definition seems to be influenced by the Buddhist We find that at the root of the formulation of Skandhavāda. In favour of this view Pujyapāda has the concepts of seven or nine-fold categories, six-fold quoted 'guņāņām samuo davvo' from the scriptures. substances and the six-fold jivanikāya, is the basic This shows that this concept should have been prior idea of Pañcastikaya. The Jaina thinkers, of course, to the c. 6th. Both the definition of substance as 'subhave developed the concept of six substances by syn- stratum of attributes' and 'aggregate of attributes' thesizing their conception of Pañcāstikāya and the should have been in my opinion, prevalent before the idea of substance as it is found in the other philoso- c. 3rd. By synthesizing these two views through Jaina phical systems. In the following pages we will try to
theory of Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism ) the subsee as to how it has worked out.
stance is defined for the first time, as that which pos
sesses attributes and modes in Umāsvāti's TattvārthaSubstance
sutra. What is known as substance is the fundamental constituent of the universe. The sat, of the ancient Six-substances ($addravya ) Indian philosophical traditions, has taken the form of
We have already stated that the concept of dravya ( substance ) later on. As a matter of fact, the saddravya ( six substances ) has been developed from philosophical traditions which regard the ultimate the idea of pañcāstikāya. By adding 'time' as an indereality as one and unchangeable have adopted the pendent substance in pañcāstikāya, the concept of six world 'Sat' and those which consider the reality as substances (saddravya ) is formulated. Though from many and changeable have used the word substance c. 2nd-7th A. D., 'Time' was always a matter of discu(dravya ), instead of 'sat. In the systems of Indian ssion whether it is an independent substance or not thought like Nyāya and Vaiseșika etc. the use of the (as it is indicated in several works from Tattvārthaword substance (dra vya ) or padārtha remains in sūtra to Viseşāvasyakabhäsya ), yet finally it was vogue. So far as the Jaina philosophy is concerned
accepted as an independent substance. It was c. 7th though we find the term dravya in Ācārānga yet the A. D. when both the Svetämbara and Digambara traword is not used in any technical sense.
ditions agreed to accept the idea of saddravya and no In Uttarādhyayana, the word 'dravya' is men- change occurred in the theory afterwards. The six tioned for the first time. That particular chapter of substances are now classified into the following three Uttarādhyayana, where in dravya is discussed, is reg- main divisions--astikaya-anastikaya, jiva ( living ),

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ajiva ( non-living ) and murta-amūrta. In the first jivāstikāya, one of the kāyas in pañcāstikāya. The six classification - dharma, adharma, ākāśa, jiva and kinds ofjivāstikāya are — earth (prthvikāya ), water pudgala - these five are regarded as astikāya and (apkāya ), air (vāyukāya ), fire ( tejas-kāya ), 'Time' as anastikāya ( unextended substance ). In the vegitation ( vanaspatikāya ) and mobile beings second classification dharma, adharma, akāśa, pud- (trasakāya ). The use of the word kāya (body) for gala and kāla are regarded as Ajiva ( Non-living earth etc. is found since remote past. In Palitripitaka beings ) and the Jiva is considered as living being. In Ajitakeśa-kambali, calls prthvi, ap, tejas and vāyu – the last classification jiva, dharma, adharma, akaśa the four bhūtas as kāya but Pakudhakaccăyana adds and kāla are regarded as amūrta (abstract) and three more to the list, i.e., happiness ( sukha ), pudgala ( matter ) as mūrta (concrete ). We have sufferings (duḥkha) and the living being (jiva ) and already stated that the development of the concept of make them seven in number. The Jainas position is a substance in the Jaina philosophy is almost influen- little different. First they regard the five - jiva, ced by the Nyāya-Vaišeșika philosophy. Jainācāryas dharma, adharma, akāśa and pudgala as kāya have synthesised the Vaiśeșika idea of substance with (astikāya ) and then include prthvi, ap, tejas, vāyu, their own concept of pañcāstikāya. As such while in vanaspati and trasa , six in all, under jivanikāya. Thus, Vaiseșika there are nine substances, the Jainas, by there are two concepts — pañcāstikāya and sadjivaadding time to pañcāstikāya have made them six in nikāya and both of them have been prevalent in all. Jiva, akāśa and kāla remained common in both. Jainism in thec. 4th-3rd B. C. in their crude form, but Pithvi, ap, tejas and marut – the four, out of the five were developed and systematised in c. 3rd-5th A. D. mahābhūtas which are regarded as substances in the
Distinct references of sadjivanikāya are avaiVaseșika are not recognised by the Jainas as indepen
lable in the first chapter of Ācārānga and in Sūtradent substances. They are only considered as varie
krtänga also. It is accepted by all the scholars that all ties of jiva-dravya. The Jainas have also not accepted
these scriptures are of the c. 4th B. C. and are conte'dik' and 'mana' as independent substances, instead
mporary to the older part of Pāli Tripitaka and earlier they have included three others - dharma, adharma
Upanişadas. It is likely that these concepts might and pudgala in their scheme of substances. It may
have belonged to Mahāvira. also be noted that while the other traditions have treated prthvi, ap, vāyu and agni as jada (non
The concept of pañcăstikāya basically belongs living ), the Jainas regard them as living. Thus, the to the Pārsva tradition. It is recoginsed in the tradition Jaina concept of six substances (saddravya ) seems to of the Mahāvira also while interpreting the world. be quite original. We can only find its partial simi- There is a reference in the Bhagavati sütra to the effect larity with other traditions. The main reason behind that Mahāvira has accepted the Parsva ideas that the this is that the Jainas have developed their idea of six universe is made of Pascāstikāya. substances ( şaďdravya ) on the line of their own
I do not agree with Pt. Malvania's opinion that theory of pañcāstikāya.
the concept of pañcāstikāya is a later developed Şadjivanikāya
concept. It is true, of course, that in the earlier works Along with pañcastikāya, we also find the of Mahavira's tradition there is mention of only şadconcept of sadjivanikāya ( six-fold living beings ) in jivanikāya and not of pañcāstikāya. But when the Jaina canons. This concept has developed from Pārsva tradition merged with that of the Mahavira,

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45
the philosophical ideas of the former also got their which they transmigrate from one Yoni to another and way in the latter. As such, the idea of pañcāstikāya the manner in which they take their food etc. A type was basically of Pārsva tradition, so it could find its of jivas are called anasyūta there. From this, we can place in Bhagavatisūtra after its merging in conclude that the idea of anantakāya ( infinite jiva in Māhāvira's tradition.
one body ) and pratyekakāya (Onejiva in one body) The Jainas regard, not only vegetation and came into existence in c. 3rd 4th. The decision as to other living beings but even earth, water, fire and air which of the creatures (jivas ) are to be included in too, as living beings. This is a very typical Jaina con- the two, three or the four sensedjiva, respectively is pt. In the other systems, such as Nyáva-Vaišesika also finalised afterwards. In Bhagavati, it takes the
se four elements are considered as maha - form of jiva-ajiva division, however, the concept has bhūtas and as such jada (unconscious, inanimate ). fully developed by the time of Prajapanā because Among the mahābhūtas, akāśa (space) is the only there we have detailed discussions on indriya, ahāra, element, regarded as non-living (ajiva ) in both the paryāpti etc. traditions (Jainism as well as Nyāya-Vaiseșika ).
After the c. 3rd an important change occurred That is why akaśa is included in pañcāstikāya but has in the classification of mobile and immobile being no place in sadjivanikāya in which only the other (trasa and sthāvara ). Right from Acāränga to four, viz., earth, water, fire and air are included. The Tattvārthasūtra, earth, water and vegetation are Jaina thinkers accept not only the life as dependent on regarded as immobile (sthāvara ) and fire, air and the earth, water and the like but also as living too. That is two, three, four and five-sensed living creatures as why the abstinence from violence towards earth, mobile (trasa). The last chapter of Uttaradhvavana. water, air, fire and vegetation is so prominently pres- Kundakunda's Pancāstikāyasāra and Umāsvāti's cribed in the Jaina Sadhanā, parti-cularly for the Tattvārthasutra confirm it. Afterwards not only earth, Muni's. The subtleness and the extre-me that we find
water and vegetation but all the one-sensed beings are in the observance of non-violence (Ahimsă ) in the
regarded as immobile. However, due to the moveJainism have their roots in the idea of sadjivanikāya.
ment seen in fire and air it becomes difficult to regard If we regard earth etc. under the category of the living them as immobile. The root cause of the problem was beings, it is but natural to abstain from their violence. that in those days the two or more sensed beings were
The conception ofşadjivanikāya in Jainism is called trasa, hence it was thought that other than two the oldest one. It is accepted as such from its origin to or more sensed beings all the one sensed beings are date. It is difficult to say that it has undergone any considered as sthāvara ( immobile ). This shows the fundamental change between c. 3rd-10th except that change which had taken place in the c. 5th-6th in the some important issues regarding their classification trasa-sthāvara classification, approximately. After have been raised and some detailed informations that in both the Svetămbara and Digambara sects, the about their body, their way of taking food, their concept of pañcasthāvara has found firm footings. It language, their classes, sub-classes etc. are depicted is noteworthy here that when air and fire are regarded in Prajñāpanā and Jivājivābhigama. According to Pt. as trasa, there is the use of the term udara (urala ) for Malvania there is a description in the second chapter trasa. In the beginning the criterion of classification of Sūtrakıtānga, known as Āhāraparijña, regarding of trasa-sthāvara is made from the point of view of the yonis in which jivas take the birth and the way in moveability of things, and as air and fire are

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moveable in nature they are thought of as trasa. The Jivasthāna, Mārgaņāsthāna, Gunasthāna have also moveable nature of vāyu is so apparent that it is developed. Wherever these topics have been discuscalled trasa, first of all out of five one sensed beings. sed in the Arga-Agamas such as Bhagavati etc. the By minute observations, it is seen that fire too has a reference has been made to Anga-bāhya Agamas tendency of gradual expansion through fuel so it is (External authorities such as Prajñāpanā etc. It also included into trasa (mobile). But the move-ment confirms that these theories are developed after the of water is regarded as possible only due to the low c. 2nd. First they are discussed in the Anga-bāhya level of the earth so movement is not its own nature. Āgamas and afterwards at the time of Valabhi-vācanā Therefore, water, like the vegetation is also taken as they are included in Arga-āgamas with the note that sthāvara ( immobile ). As the movement in air and for detailed discussions relevant Ariga-bāhya scripfire is inherent so these two are considered as trasa tures are to be seen. and other as stha varas. Further when the two or more Jaina Theory of Gunasthāna and its Developement sensed jivas are recognised as immobile (sthavara)
The doctrine of fourteen stages of spiritual the problem of reconciling this view with agamic development (Gunasthāna ) is one of the most popustatements arose. In the Svetambara schools this lar theories of Jainism. Except Samavāyānga, none of reconciliation is marked as the basis of the distin- the canonical work refers to this theory. Scholars are ction of labdhi and gati. From the standpoint of the of the strong opinion that the reference relating to labdhi, air and fire are viewed as immobile (sthāvara ) Gunasthāna found in Samavāyanga is an interpolabut viewed from the angle of movement (gati ) they tion incorporated at the time of second Valabhi remain mobile (trasa ). In the Dhavala commentary Council (c. 5th A. D. ). The Niryuktis are also silent of Digambara tradition (c. 10th ) the problem is about this theory, except the present edition of solved differently. It is said that the basis of calling Avasakaniryukti wherein, two gathās mention the air and fire as sthāvara, is not their movement but names of these fourteen Gunasthānas. This is remarktheir Nāma-karma origin. Jayasenācārya, the comm
able that till the time of Haribhadra's commentary on entator of pañcāstikāya of Kundakunda, solves the Avaśyaka Niryukti, these two gathās were not problem by making a distinction between niscaya- tinction between niscaya-
accepted as Nirvukti pathas as in his con
accepted as Niryukti gathās as in his commentary, he naya and vyavahāra-naya. According to him, the has clearly mentioned that these găthas has been earth, water and vegetation are included into pañca quoted by him from the Sangrahani-sutra. sthāvara because of their Nāma-karma origin, but air
It seems that till the c. 4th A. D. the concept and fire classification under pañcasthāvars are only
of these fourteen stages of spiritual development has from the practical point of view ( vyavahāra ). From
not come into existence. Umāsvāti's Tattvārthasūtra niścayanaya they are trasa as they actually appear to
throwing light on almost every aspect of Jaina philobe mobile. All these excercises really are worthwhile
sophy and religion including various stages of attempts to reconcile the differences, cropped of
spiritual development does not mention the fourteen during respective contentions of the ancient and the
Gunasthānas as such. The same is the case with its later scriptures.
auto-commentary. Though in the ninth chapter of the So far as the question of different classifica- Tattvārthasutra the author has mentioned four, seven tions of jivas are concerned they are crystalised and ten stages of spiritual development, yet he does during the c. 3rd-10th. In that period the concepts of not make any mention of these fourteen stages in it.

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Thus, we may conclude that the theory of the fourteen stages of spiritual development was not prevalent at the time of compilation of Tattvarthasutra, otherwise, Umāsväti would have mentioned it.
These evidences show that the theory of fourteen Gunasthānas came into existence after Tattvārthasūtra, i.e., c. 4th A. D. For the first time, this theory was introduced along with all its details, in Puspadanta and Bhütabali's Satkhandagama (c. 5th A. D.). After that it is discussed in Pujyapada's Sarvarthasiddhi ( c. 6th A. D. ) and Tattvärthabhāṣya-tika of Siddhsenagani (c. 7th-8th) in detail, however, its pre-concept in the form of ten stages was already present in Acaranganiryukti (22-23) and Tattvärthasūtra (9/47). From these ten stages of spiritual development the theory of fourteen Gunasthāna was conceptualised in c. 5th A. D.
These fourteen stages are as follows:
1. The first stage is called mithyadṛṣti, i.e., perversity of attitude. It is the lowest stage from where the spiritual journey of soul starts. It is considered as a stage of spiritual development only because in this very state the efforts for the attainment of the right vision are made. The process of granthibheda occurs at the end of this stage. At this stage the soul, is in the grip of extreme passions (anantănubhandhi kaşaya).
3. The third stage is technically known as samyag-mithyādṛsti. It is mixed stage of the right and

5. The fifth stage is known as deśavirata samyagdṛṣṭi. This is the stage of right attitude with partial observance and partial non-observance of moral code. A house-holder, who possesses right vision and observes five aṇuvratas, three gunavratas and four sikṣāvratas, comes in this category. In this stage one knows what is right and also tries to practise it, but one cannot have full control over one's passions. At this stage there is only partial expression of the energy of self-control. After attaining the fourth stage, if one develops spiritual strength and has control over the second set of four passions, i.e.
2. The second stage is known as såsvädana- apratyäkhyani-kaṣāya-catuska, one is able to attain. samyagdṛsti, i.e., to have a momentary taste of the right vision. This is an intermediate stage and it occurs when soul falls from the right attitude towards the false attitude. This stage is called sāsvādana
samyagdrsti because in this stage soul has a taste of right attitude or right version just as a person after eating delicious dishes vomits and has a taste of those dishes in that state of vomiting.
47
false attitudes like the taste of curd mixed with sugar, which is neither sweet nor sour. This is the stage of doubt. In this stage soul accepts neither the perverse attitude nor the right one. It remains in dilemma.
4. The fourth stage is aviratasamyagdṛsti, a stage of right attitude without right conduct. Though in this scheme of Guṇasthana it is considered to be the fourth stage, but in reality it is the first stage in the upward journey of the soul towards its spiritual heights. It is the stage in which the soul gets the glimpse of truth for the first time. At this stage the self knows right as a right and wrong as a wrong but due to the lack of spiritual strength, inspite of the knowledge and the will, he cannot abstain himself from the wrong path of immorality.
this stage.
6. In spiritual journey of the soul, the sixth stage is called pramatta-samyata-gunasthana. It is the stage in which the self observes right conduct fully. He observes five mahāvratas and other rules of moral conduct of a monk, yet he has an attachment towards his body and due to this attachement the spiritual inertia is still there. This is the stage of selfcontrol with spiritual inertia. At the end of this stage the aspirant tries to subside or annihilate the third set

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of four passions and spiritual inertia and climbs the seventh ladder.
7. The seventh stage is the stage of selfcontrol and self awareness alongwith freedom from spiritual inertia, which is technically known as apramatta-samyata-guṇasthāna. At this stage the self has full control over his passions and observes the moral code without any negligence. This stage can be attained by overcoming the nine types of pramädas or unawareness and the three sets of four types of passions. From this stage there are two ways open for the upward spiritual journey of the soul. They are technically known as upasama-śreņi and kṣapakaśreņi. Upasama-śreņi is the path of suppression or subsidence while the Kasapaka-srepi is the path of annihilation. The person, who climbs the ladder of spiritual progress by suppressing his passions, is bound to fall from spiritual heights but the person who climbs up the ladder of spiritual heights through the annihilation of his passions ultimately attains nirvana or emancipation.
8. The eighth stage of spiritual development is called aparvakarana. In this stage self attains a special purification and spiritual strength, and thus becomes capable of reducing the duration and the intensity of the previously bonded karmas. At this stage soul performs the four processes of the karma sthitighata (destruction of the duration of karmas), rasaghata (destruction of the intensity of karmas), guna-sankramana (transformation of the quality of karmic matter) and apūrva-sthitibandha (bondage of an unprecedented kind of duration). This total process is technically known as aparva-karaṇa. In this stage the soul for the first time experiences the spiritual bliss and tranquility and emotional disturbances do not effect it much. At this stage the three sets of four passions alongwith anger and pride of the fourth set disappear, only subtle deceit and greed alongwith nine sub-passions (instincts) remain.

-
9. The ninth stage is named as anivṛttikaraṇa, because the process of anivṛttikarana operates in this stage. It is also known as badara-samparāya guṇasthāna, because in this stage there is occasional possibility of the soul being effected by gross passions (badara-samparāya ), although it has a power of control over them. At this stage, out of nine sub-passions, three types of sexual instinct subside and only six instincts and subtle greed remain, but due to the presence of sub-passions and subtle greed, a fear of attack by gross passions remain. At the end of this stage struggle for spiritual progress comes to an end and the soul climbs the tenth ladder.
10. This stage is named as silkṣmasamparayagunasthana, because at this stage only the subtle form of greed remains. This greed can be interpreted as the subconscious attachment of the soul with the body. When this subtle attachment alongwith remaining sub-passions is subsided or annihilated, the soul ascends to the next stage. The soul, who has made his spiritual progress through the ladder of subsidence (upasama-śreņi) ascends to the eleventh gunasthana and the soul, which take up the ladder of annihilation (kṣapaka-śreņi), climbs directly to the twelfth stage.
11. This stage is known as upasantamohaniyagunasthana; because in this stage deluding karma remains in the subsided form. It is the highest stage for those who ascend through the ladder of subsidence or suppression. But ultimately the suppressed passions arise and disturb the tranquility of mind. The soul invariably descends from this stage either to the sixth, fifth or fourth or even first stage. This is noteworthy that Jainism does not advocate the process of suppression of the passions for the spiritual progress. This view of Jainism is further supported by the modern psychologists such as Freud etc.
12. The twelfth stage in the spiritual development of the soul is called kṣinamoha-guṇasthāna. In this stage deluding karma, which is the main obstruc

.

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tion in the spiritual progress, is completely destroyed. (iii) transcendental self (paramātmā ). It is clear that At the end of this stage the rest three ghāti-karma, in Jainism these three stages of spiritual quest are a jñānāvarana, darsanāvaraņa and antarāya are also later developed concept, because neither the canodestroyed and the soul ascends to the thirteenth stage. nical works nor the earlier works of Jaina philosophy 13. This stage is known as sayogi-kevali
of Umasvāti, Siddhasena Divākara etc. refer it. In gunasthāna. In this stage soul attains the four infini
Digamabara tradition, for the first time we have a tes, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite perception,
mention of these classification in Ācārya Kundainfinite bliss, infinite power and thus becomes omni
kunda's Mokşaprābhrta ( 4 ) then in the Pujyapada's scient. It is the highest stage of spiritual development.
Samādhitantra ( 4 ), Svāmikumāra's KārtikeyānuIt is the stage of jivana-mukti of other systems of prekșa ( 192 ) and yo
avstems of prekṣā ( 192 ) and Yogindu's Paramātmaprakāśa Indian philosophy. Only due to the existence of four (13). In Svetambara tradition, Haribhadra has mennon-destructive karmas, i.e., ayu ( age ), nāma, gotra
tioned these three states of spiritual quest in his work : and vedaniya, soul remains in the body till the span of
These three stages are as under: age determining karma is not exhausted.
1. The extrovert self (bahirātmā ) : Possesses 14. This stage is named as ayogikevali-guna
perverse attitude hence consequently does not discristhāna, because in this stage the omniscient soul
minates soul from body, regards the external thing as controls its activities of mind, body and speech and
mine and takes keen interest in the worldly enjoythus prepares itself for the final emancipation. In this
ment." stage the remaining four non-destructive karmas are
2. The introvert self (antarātma ): The self, destroyed and the soul, after leaving the body, pro
which possessess the right attitude and therefore, ceeds for its heavenly abode at the top of the universe
clearly distinguishes the soul from the body and the and lives their for time-infinite.
other external belongings is called an introvert self. It
does not take interest in the worldly enjoyments, but Three Stages of Spiritual Quest
meditates on one's own real nature and regards exterThere are two classifications of spiritual nal belongings as alien to it. This has been further quest in Jainism — Theory of fourteen guṇasthānas subdivided into three states -(i) lower, (ii) middle already discussed and the theory of three stages of and ( iii ) higher. The soul belonging to fourth stage of spiritual developments. This second classification is gunasthāna is called lower introvert self. The soul based on Upanişadic classification of the soul. The belonging to the fifth or the sixth stage ofgunasthāna Upanişadas have two, three and four-fold classifica- is called middle introvert self and the soul belonging tion of the soul. In two-fold classification, the soul is to the seventh to twelfth gunasthāna is called higher of two kinds – antahprajñāna and bahisprajñana introvert self. (Māņdūkyopanişad, 7) and in four-fold classifica- 3. The transcendental self (paramātmā ): The tion, four stages of the soul, are : (i) sleeping state, self, completely free from all sorts of impurities and (ii) dreaming state, ( iii ) awakened state and (iv) passions such as aversion, attachment, pride, anger, transcendental state ( Māņdūkyopanişad, 2/12). deceit, greed, sexual desire and other sub-passions. Similarly, in Jainism spiritual quest has been sum- According to Jaina tradition this type of self possesmarised in three stages — (i) the extrovert self ses four infinities, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite (bahirātmā ), (ii) the introvert self (antarātmā ) and perception, infinite bliss and infinte power. There are

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two categories of transcendental Self-(i) Arhatas caritra ), ( three jewels of Jainism) which are equally and (ii) Siddhas.
Three-fold Path of Liberation
The Jaina theory of bondage and liberation of the soul is unique in Indian philosophy. Jainism holds that jiva is bound by its own karmas. With every activity mental or physical and, however, subtle that may be, the karma particles veils the soul and this is the bondage of the jiva. Thus, the cause of the bondage of the jiva is its own passionate activity of mind, body and speech. As the cause of the bondage is the union of karma-matter with the soul, the liberation means the separation or complete annihilation of these karma-particles, Jainism prescribes three-fold
path for attainment of liberation. This three-fold concept witnessed gradual changes in it between c. 3rd-10th A. D. Acaranga for the first time in its 6th chapter, mentions triyama, but as this term is used there vaguely, it is quite difficult to derive any definite meaning from it. That is why the commentators explained it in different ways. Some explained it as three yamas, i.e., non-violence, truth and nonpossession, while some took it as Right knowledge, Right faith and Right conduct. In my opinion, this term connotes the meaning of non-violence (nikhitta
danda ), reasonableness (prajña) and composure or equanimity of mind. Apart from this three-fold concept we find mention of four-fold path of liberation in Uttaradhyayana and Kundakunda's Pañcästikäya. This four-fold path includes - Right attitude, Right knowledge, Right conduct and Right penance. In Samavayanga and Sthananga, we find different outlook as the both of the works mention two-fold, threefold, four-fold and five-fold path of liberation. Thus, till the canonical age the number of constituents of the path of liberation was not fixed. For the first time in the Umasvati's Tattvärthasutra it was fixed as three-right knowledge (samyak-jana), right faith (samyak-darśana ) and right conduct (samyak

recognised and well received in both of the sects of JainismŚvetambara and Digamabara alongwith
their sub-sects.
In c. 4th-5th the meaning of the constituents of this three-fold path was reinterpreted. For example the term darśana used in Acaranga, connoting the meaning as 'to see' or 'to observe' got its new interpretation in Uttaradhyayana as 'to believe' or 'to have faith' in categories (tattvas ), Tattvärthasūtra also supports this meaning. Later on, this meaning of samyak-darśana was replaced by the meaning as to have faith in Arhanta as a 'Deva', i.e., the object of worship, Nirgrantha as a teacher (guru) and religion
as non-violence or being benevolent to others. This meaning is still in vouge.
as
Similarly, the meaning of samyak-jñāna or right knowledge also got some new interpretation. In the earlier times Jaina thinkers held that the right knowledge consists in knowing the things in its real nature alongwith its infinite facets. This right knowledge is classified into five types in earlier Agamas (i) Matijñāna the knowledge obtained through five senses and the mind. It includes both sense perception as well as rational and inferential knowledge, (ii) Śrutajñāna — the knowledge acquired through language or through symbols and expressions or scriptural knowledge, (iii) Avadhijñāna extra-sensory perception akin to clairvoyance, (iv) Manaḥparyayajñāna - reading the thought-waves of others mind and (v) Kevalajñāna perfect knowledge. The detailed description about the development of these types of knowledge has already been discussed in the present article under the heading of 'Jaina Theory of Knowledge'.
-
—
Later on, Right knowledge was considered as the knowledge of the seven categories (tattvas ), i.e., jiva (living subtance), ajiva (non-living substance), asrava (influx of karmic matter), samvara (stoppage

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
vectors of attachment and aversion. From practical point of view right conduct means the adoption of such rules of disciplines as prescribed by the Jinas.
of the influx of the karmic matter ), nirjară ( stoppage of the accumulated karmic matter ) and Moksa (com- plete annihilation of the karma and to remain in one's pure nature ). But after thec. 3rd A. D. the meaning of right knowledge changed and it was held that right knowledge consisted in the discrimination between the self and not-self. The right knowledge is the knowledge of the pure self but the pure self can be known only through the reference to not-self. Thus, knowing the nature of the not-self and differentiating it from the self is called the science of discrimination (bheda-vijñana ) and this science of discrimination constitutes the real meaning of right knowledge. Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) has made an exhaustive study of the science of discrimination in Samayasāra ( 207-210 ). He says anger, deceit etc. are due to the power of fruition of the karmic matter, hence not the real nature of the self. The self is the pure knower. In Istopadeśa ( 33 ) of Pujyapāda Devanandi (c. 6th A. D. ) it is mentioned that right knowledge is that in which a clear distinction between the self and not-self is made. Amrtacandra also followed the same meaning of right knowledge in his works. He says 'he who is liberated (siddha ) has become so, through discrimination of self from not-self and who is in bondage, is so due to its absence ( Samayasārakalaśa, 132 ). Thus, in Jainism during c. 6th-10th A. D., the right knowledge is equated with this science of discrimination of self and not-self which as a right knowledge was well accepted in Jainism as well as in Gita, Sankhya-Yoga system and sankara-Vedanta also.
In Jainism right conduct has been described from two points of view - real and practical. In the earlier agamas from real point of view right conduct is considered in which the soul is completely free from passions and perversities. It is the state of equa- nimity of mind. In Jainism, it is maintained that conduct is dharma, dharma is equanimity and equa- nimity means the state of self which is free from the
Later on, right conduct is considered by Jaina thinkers on the basis of its two aspects -- external and internal. These two aspects are technically called dravya and bhāva respectively. In Jainism external rightness of an action is to be decided in relation with other living beings. In other words, external rightness of an action depends upon its outer social results. If an action results in the well being of others or cultivates social good from the practical or extrinsic viewpoint, it is called good or right. But the intrinsic purity or righteousness of an action depends on the intention or motive of the doer. It is purity of intention or motive and not the external result, that makes an action' intrinsically good or bad. In earlier times extrinsic aspect was more important for Jainas. In Sūtrakrtānga the Buddhist view is criticised on the basis that they neglect the external aspect of an action. Later on, stress was given on intrinsic aspect by Jaina themselves. It is considered that an action is wrong if it is actuated by a bad intention, may it lead to the happiness of others. But we must be aware of the fact that Jainism being an integral philosophy does not hold any one-sided view, it gives due importance to the intention as well as the consequences of an action. It adds due imporatnce to the social aspects of morality. Jainas do not believe in the dualism of thought and action. For them a right action is the proof of mental purity and the mental purity is the basis for the righteousness of an action. This outlook about the righteousness of the conduct remained unchanged in the later times also. One should be aware of the fact that the general code of conduct for an house-holder as well as for monks and nuns remained the same from the earliest time to the c. 10th but with the passage of time some changes occurred in the interpretation of such rules.

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
In fact, the canonical works have mere skel- were accepted in earlier code of conduct. Secondly, ton of rules and regulations of conduct, it is only in this period is considered very important as most of the Bhasya (c. 6th A. D.) and Carnis (c. 7th A.D.). the Jaina sects emerged in this period during c. 4thJaina thinkers tried to robe this skelton. They gave not 5th A. D. This period is known as the period of only the various interpretations to the rules and regu- Schism in Jaina history. Three important Jainalations for the monks and nuns as well as for the lay Sects - Digambara, Svetāmbara and Yapaniya have followers, according to their time and circumstances, their origin in this period. This is also to be noted that but discussed in detail their exceptions and atone- before c. 2nd 3rd A. D., the code of conduct of Jaina ments also. In the earlier times, it was maintained that ascetics was very rigorous but from the c. 3rd 4th instead of breaking the rules prescribed for self- many exceptions-relaxations were accepted in their control, it is better to accept the Samadhimarana, but earlier code of conduct. in those centuries it was maintained that one should
The distinguished feature of this age was that protect one's self by all means. A monk or a nun who by this period Jaina ascetics started living in the protected his life by accepting or resorting to the temples and mathas instead of living in outskirts of exception was not considered the guilty of breaking the cities and secluded places. Not only this but insthe rules if his mind was pure. In Oghaniryukti ( 47- tead of following the vow of non-possession, in its 48 ), it is said that for the proper following of the path true spirit, Jaina monks became the owner of these of liberaton, protection of body is essential. Thus, in
temples, mathas and the properties donated to the these centuries accepting the exceptions was favoured.
temples. It was only this period when tradition of So far as the developments or the changes in Caityavāsa, i.e., living in the Jina temples or mathas the ethical code of conduct of monks and nuns are started. Due to the tendency of Caityavāsa Jaina concerned, the period from c. 3rd-10th A. D. must be monks became liberal to some extent in their code of considered of much importance on the two grounds. conduct. They started leading luxurious life ins-tead Firstly, in the c. 4th-5th A. D. a major diversion took of rigorous one. Inspite of these drawbacks of this place in the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. period one thing is very remarkable that most of the Before this said period Jaina sādhanā meant self- important Jaina literature was composed as well as purification, hence exclusively individualistic, but by written in this period. It is noteworthy that in this these centuries, instead of self-purification, stress was period (c. 4th-5th A. D.) writing of the Jaina canons laid on the propagation as well as survival of Jainism as well as other works on palm-leaves was started. in the society. As a result, instead of individual, Jaina The Bhattārakas and Yatis made better efforts to preorder ( sangha ) became more important. It was main- serve the treasure trove of Jaina literature. They offertained that at any cost, the image of Jaina order (Jaina ed the medical services not only to Jaina society but society as a whole ) should not be damaged and for to the other people also. Thus, inspite of, some weakthis purpose external behaviour was considered of ness in following the religious code of conduct of much imporatnce than that of internal purification. A Jaina monks, they got favour of Jaina society at large slogan had been given that an action though pure, if due to their benevolent services to the society. against the general will, should not be followed. Not Development of the Concept of Tirthankara only this, but to maintain the dignity of Jaina sangha and Bhakti Movement in Jainism and propogation of Jaina religion various exceptions
The concept of Tirtharikara is the pivot,

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Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion
53
around which the whole Jaina religion revolves. In more older than that of Dighanikaya. In the whole Jainism, Tirthankara is regarded as the founder of Jainaāgamic literature, the word 'Tirtharikara' is used religion as well as the object of worship. Generally, for the first time in Uttaradhyayana and in second part the Jaina concept of Tirtharkara resembles that of of Ācāranga. Words like Arhat, Jina, Buddha are incarnation ( avatāravāda ) of Hinduism. Both carry frequently used in excessive form in the old Āgamas, the same object as they are propounders of religion the synonyms of Tirthankara. Presently, the word but there is a fundamental difference in both of the Tirtharikara has become a specific term of Jaina concepts. According to Gita, the purpose behind the tradition. incarnation of God is to propound religion and to
Chronologically, the concept of Tirthankara destroy the wicked while in Jainism Tirthankara is
came into existence betweenc. 3rd-1st B.C. So far as only regarded as propounder of religion, not the des
the fully developed concept of Tirthankara is concertroyer of wickeds. Not only this, the second funda
ned, the first complete list of Tirthakaras is found in mental difference between avatāra and Tirthankara is
the appendix of the Samavāyārga which was incorthat, in former the supreme power or God descends
porated at the time of Valabhi council, i.e., c. 5th on earth to reincarnate himself in different forms in
A.D. Among Jaina agamas the first part of different ages and in this way, He is the one and only
Ācāranga, considered as the oldest extant Jaina text person who reincarnates himself from time to time,
(c. 5th B. C.), mentions the ascetic life of Mahavira on the contrary, in Jainism every Tirtharkara is a
only. Sutrakļānga which describes some special different person (Soul) and on account of his special
features of Mahāvira's life only hints about Parśva's personal efforts (sādhana ) made in previous births,
tradition. Rşibhasita mentions Pārsva and Vardhamana attains the supreme position. Though, it is very diffi
( Mahavira ) as Arhat Rşi. The second part of cult to say that in this entire hypothesis of twenty-four
Ācārānga, for the first time describes Mahāvira as Tirtharkaras and twenty-four Avatāras, who has taken
Tirtharkara alongwith some details of his parents, to what extent from whom but it is fact that in the
mentioning them as Pārśvāpatya. Uttaradhyayana process of development of their concepts both have
clearly mentions some of the life-incidents of influenced each other.
Tirtharikara's like Aristanemi, Pārśva and Mahāvira, The word Tirtharikara is being used from time whereas it indicates only the name of Rşabha, śānti, immemorial. It mainly connotes the meaning as one Kunthu and Ara. Similarly, the Namipavaijā, the 9th who eastablishes four-fold order (caturvidha sangha ). chapter of Uttaradhyayana, elaborately describes the According to the old Buddhist literature, such as, facts about Nami but it does not mention Nami as Dighanikāya and Suttanipāta ( at the time of Buddha Tirtharkara. Even in Kalpasūtra, there are some details and Mahāvira ) there were flourished several persons about the life of Mahāvira, Pārsva, Aristanemi and who declared themselves as Tirtharikaras. Digha- Rşabha out of twenty-four Tirtharikaras. Remaining nikāya mentions the Jñataputra Mahāvira as one of names of second to twenty first Tirthankaras, seem to the six Buddha's contemporaneous Tirthankaras. be incorporated in the list of Tirtharkaras, later on in Though, it seems quite amazing because the first c. 4th-5th A. D. In Digambara tradition earliest desŚrutaskandha of Ācārănga and Satrakņtānga, elabo- cription about 24 Tirthankaras is found for the first rately describing the life of Mahāvira, do not call him time in Tiloyapannatti, which is supposed to be comas Tirthankara. It shows that these agamic texts are posed after c. 5th A. D. So far as iconographical

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
evidences are concerned only images of the four the development of devotionalism and ceremonial Tirtharkaras - Mahāvira, Pārsva, Ariştanemi and performances in Jainism, started fromc. 3rd 4th A. D. Rşabha -- are found during c. 3rd B. C.-1st A. D. In this period, the Hindu system of ceremonial The images of other Tirthankaras are of later period, perfomance and worship was adopted in Jainism with i.e., after c. 2nd 3rd A. D. This suggests that the minor changes. Starting from the period of Lord concept of 24 Tirtharkaras came into existence only Pārśva and Mahăvira upto the c. 2nd A. D., the after c. 3rd. With the development of the concept of śramaņic tradition in gene-ral and Jainism in Tirthankaras the system of their worship ( Pūjā- particular joined hands in the development of new paddhati ) also came into prominence.
spiritualistic Hinduism, through condemning all sorts Jainism emerged as an ascetic religion. Initia- of ceremonial as well as sacri-ficial performances lly, it laid more stress on austerity and meditation. In alongwith Vedic sacerdotalism, but Jainism itself the beginning all sorts of ceremonial or sacrificial started imitating blindly the Hindu rituals in c. 3rdperformances (karmakanda ) were totally absent in it. 4th, and thus a variety of ceremonial offerings came It was only a religion of self-purification. In Āgamas
into existence in the Jaina religious practices. This there are no traces of ceremonial performances or any
blind adoption of Hindu practices occured not only in system of idol worship or religious adoration, asking
Svetāmbara and Yāpaniya tradi-tion of Northern for the grace of God. In Jaina tradition, for the first
India but in the Digambara sect of South India also. time the six essential duties ( sadāvasyakas ), i.e.,
As a result, not only the Vaişnava system of worship practice for equanimity ( Sāmāyika ), praising twenty
and ceremonies started in the Jaina temples but four Tirtharkaras (Caturviméati stavanapaving sacrificial offerings and ladles became prevalent.
carvas (vandan). atonement of blemi. Due to these influences of Hindu caste system and shed activities (pratikramana ), mortification (kāyo- untouchability also paved their way in Jainism. Jaina tsarga ) and taking some vow (pratyakhyāna ) were lay-devotees started wearing brahmanical sacred introduced.
thread (yajñopavita ) and perforining sacrifices and
sacrificial ladles. Ācāraya Jinasena (c. 8th A. D.) Most probably, inc. 2nd-3rd B. C., these six
had adopted all the Hindu sanctifying rites essentials ( sadāvaśyakas) got ordained and esta
( samskāras ), with some modifications in his work blished. Archaeological evidences emphatically show that in Jaina tradition, making of the Jaina images was started in c. 3rd 4th B.C., but no evidence Following blindly, the Hindu mantras of found about the modes of worshipping these idols, worshipping, Jaina lay devotees started invoking and particularly in ancient Āgamas. For the first time, departing the Tirtharkaras in their Pūja ceremonies, Rāyapaseniyasutta mentions the rituals of worshipp- while according to the Jaina philosophy the Tirthaing of Jina-image. A comparative study proves that it rikaras neither come nor depart after final emancipawas only an adoption of Hindu method of worshipp- tion, as well as they may not be adored as the object of ing their dieties. Though, some of the portions of worship for the worldly attainment, as they are free Rayapaseniyasutta are undoubtedly old, but the from all types of attachment and aversion (vitarāga ). portion which deals with the art of temple building But a lay-devotee always remains in search of such a and rituals relating to the worship is still older and diety who can save him from worldly calamities and belongs to the c. 3rd 4th A. D. To me, it appears that help him in worldly attainments. For this purpose
Adipurăņa.

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55
Jaina ācāryas accepted several Hindu godesses like images was prevalent in c. 4th B. C. The earliest Kali, Mahakali, Padmāvati, Ambika, Siddhayika, etc. Jaina image, found from Lohānipur, Patna, belongs to as demi-goddesses ( Yaksis ). They accepted various Mauryan period (c. 3rd B. C.). Several Jaina images rituals and incantations for worshipping these alongwith epigraphs have been found from Mathurā goddesses. Thus, in between c. 5th-8th A. D. several and remains of Jaina temples from Kankālițila. Hindu gods and godesses became part and parcel of Among those, the earliest images date from c. 2nd B. Jaina deities. The special feature of this age was that C.-2nd A. D. Many of these images are found with performing arts like Dance, Music etc., which were dated epigraphs of Kuşāņa period, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. strongly opposed in earlier āgamas, such as Uttarā- D. So far as the literary evidences are concerned, we dhyayana strongly expounds all sorts of dances as for the first time, find in Rāyapaseniyasutta, the vexation and songs as lamentation, are cropped in details of temple architecture and the rituals related to Jaina system of worship, gradually. This description idol-worship. The Rayapaseniyasutta is undoubtedly of fine arts in Rāyapaseniya, as a part of Jaina way of an early work, and its portion dealing with temple worship was incorporated in about the c. 5th A. D. at architecture and various performing arts, by no means, the time of Valabhi-vācanā. This depicts a complete can be of later period than c. 3rd A. D., because its picture of gradual development of fine arts like various incarnations (avatāras ) tally with the archaSculpture, Dance, Music, Drama etc. in Jaina tradi- eological remains of c. 1st-2nd of Kankālițila, tion. When the Tantrism and Vāmamārga came in- Mathurā. vogue in c. 5th-6th A. D., Jainism could not save it
Though the development of various secular self from the impact of these traditions. Being ano
arts and sciences was a movement, independent of ascetic and spiritual religion, Jainism was not much
any religious tradition, yet it may be noted that religiaffected with Vāmamārga but Tantrism and ceremo
ous traditions not only contributed in their developnial performances of Hinduism definitely left their
ment, but also decided the direction of development. impact on it.
Jainas believe that various arts and sciences were Development of Various Arts & Architecture in developed by Lord Rşabha, the first Tirtharikara. In Jainism in Early Period
Jaina canonical literature 64 arts of women and 72 Archaeological evidences emphatically show arts of men are mentioned. We have a general that in Jaina tradition the making of Jaina images reference to these arts / sciences in Satrakrtānga, strated in c. 4th-3rd B. C. Though, on the basis of Jñatādharmakatha, Antakyddaśā, Samavāyānga, Harappan Teracotas and seals some Jaina scholars Anuttaraupapātikadaśā, Rayapaseniyasutta, opine that tradition of making Jaina images is as old Jambūdvipaprajñapti, etc. Though in these canonical as the Harappan culture, yet it is very difficult to works we do not find any details about these yet on prove these teracotas and seals as of Jaina origin. the basis of these works and their commentaries Dr. Later, in the Khārvela epigraphs (c. 2nd B. C. ) it is N. L. Jain, in his book ( Scientific Contents in Prākṣta clearly mentioned that Nandas (c. 4th B. C.) had Canons, P. V., Varanasi, 1996 ) has presented the taken away the Jaina images from Orissa to Patna following list of various arts and sciences prevalent in which is enough to prove that the making of Jaina c. 2nd-3nd A. D.

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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
Different Types of Learning Arts and Sciences in Various Canons
2 3 4 5 RPAKT GDK ANU JDP 72 72 72 72 72
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3
4
5
6
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35. Science of Sun 36. Science of Venus 37. Science of Jupiter 38. Meteorology 39. Science of Glow of Horizon 40. Science of Notes of Animals 41. Science of Notes of Special Birds 42. Prognostics of Dust-falls 43. Prognostics of Hair-falls 44. Prognostics of Meat-falls 45. Prognostics of Blood-falls 46. Science of Goblins 47. Science of Semi-goblins 48. Science of Sleeping 49. Science of Unlocking 50. Candalic Learning/Psychotherapy 51. Shabari ( Kiratana ) Language 52. Dravida ( Tamila ) Language 53. Kalingi (Oriya ) Language 54. Gauri (A specific cardiolic) Language 55. Gandhari Language 56. Science of Descending 57. Science of Ascending 58. Science of Yawning 59. Science of Sustainance 60. Science of Embracing/Clinging 61. Science of Dispeptisation 62. Science of Surgery and Medicine 63. Demonology/De-demonology 64. Science of Invisibility/Disappearance 65. Art of Writing 66. Mathematics 67. Dramatics 68. Vocal Music 69. Instrumental Music 70. Science of Musical Notes, Phonetics 71. Science of Percussion Instruments 72. Science of Orchestra
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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI
2
3
73. Art of Gambling 74. Special type of Gambling Art of Speech 75. Art of Playing by Dice 76. Art of Playing by Special Dice 77. Art of Quick Poetics/Guarding City 78. Water Purification/Ceramics 79. Food Science/Agriculture 80. Art of Soft/Medicated Drinks 81. Textiles and Fabrication 82. Cosmetics and Perfumery 83. Science of Bed-dressing 84. Art of Composing Arya-metrics 85. Art of Riddlery Poetics 86. Magadhan Language Poetics 87. Art of Comp. Non-samskrta 32 Letter Poetics 88. Art of Comp. Gitikā-meter Poetics 89. Art of Comp. Anuştup-meter Poetics 90. Chemistry of Silver 91. Chemistry of Gold 92. Art of Goldsmithy 93. Women Cosmetisation 94. Building/Architectural Engineering 95. Town Planning 96. Construction of Army Barracks 97. Science of Measures 98. Astrology/Medicine/Military Science :
Counter movement of Army Art 99. Military Science : Arraying of Army 100. Cyclic Arraying of Army 101. Garudic Arraying of Army 102. Wedge Arraying 103. General Fighting 104. Wrestling 105. Intense Fighting 106. Sight Fighting/Stick Fighting 107. Fist Fighting/Boxing/Pugilistic Fighting 108. Hand-to-Hand Fighting 139. Creeperlike Fighting
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1
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4
5
110. Art of Divnie Arrows/Transformation 111. Art of Swordsmanship 112. Silver Digest ( Pak) 113. Gold Digest ( Pak ) 114. Metal Digest 115. Jewel-Gem Digest 116. Rope Tricks 117. Circular Play-tricks/Playing with Fabrics 118. Special Type of Gambling ( Nalika-khela ) 119. Art of Piercing Leaves 120. Art of Drilling Hard Earth 121. Art of Animation/Inanimation 122. Science of Omens/Omenology 123. Sc. of Dramatic Dressing/Painting 124. Science of Planet Rahu 125. Planetology 126. Town Planning 127. Army Barracking 128. Horses Training 129. Elephant Training 130. Knowledge of Special Learning 131. Science of Incarnation 132. Science of Knowing Secrets 133. Science of Direct Knowing About Objects 134. Planetory Motion/Science of Military
Movements 135. Chemistry of Perfumes 136. Art of Flowering/Tasting of Foods/ Art of
Wax-technique 137. Counter Arraying of Army 138. Art of Home Construction 139. Powder Technology 140. Art of Inanimation 141. Agriculture 142. Science of Architecture
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Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI Conclusion dvaras and doctrine of Syadvada and Saptabhangi To conclude, I would like to mention here have developed gradually in due course of time. some of the specialities of early Jainism. Though Barring the concept of Saptabhangi, fourteen Gunaearly Jainism was much rigorous in its code of sthanas and six types of Pramanas, all other concepts conduct yet on the other hand it was very liberal in its of Jaina metaphysics and epistemology took their approach. The earliest Jaina canonical works, Sutra- shape before c. 2nd-3rd A. D. It is the Tattvarthakrtanga and Rsibhasita not only incorporate the sutra of Umasvati and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd preachings of the various sages of Upanisadic, A.D.) in which Jaina philosophy for the first time, Buddhists and some other Sramanic traditions, but was presented in a systematic form. But it was not the call them Arhat, Rsis, as acceptable to their own last stage of the development of the Jaina philosophy, tradition. Furthermore, Sutrakitanga, propounding since various new definitions and details about these this liberalism, says "One who praises one's own concepts were formulated even after this period views as true and condemns others view as false dis- which I would like to discuss in the second volume of torts the truth and remains confind to the cycle of this project. In developing their own philosophical birth and death." It was the non-violent, liberal and system, Jaina thinkers while on the one hand, have assimilating approach of early Jaina thinkers which accomodated various philosophical concepts of other gave birth to the non-absolutism (Anekantavada ), contemporary Indian schools, on the other hand they the fundamental principle of Jaina philosophy. On the synthesised the various contradictory theories of basis of this principle early Jaina thinkers built their Indian schools of thought in such a way that the conphilosophical structure and developed their meta- tradictions are completely dissolved in the non-abphysical and epistemological theories in which they solutistic broader perspective. It is the most important tried to reconcile beautifully the rival views of Indian contribution of early Jaina thinkers to the Indian philosophy. Whether it was the question of philosophy. metaphysical theories or the epistemological prob But in the process of adopting the thoughts lems of Philosophy, they always tried for the recon- and practices of other Indian systems, particularly ciliation of the opposite conflicting views Hinduism, caste-system, untouchability, wearing of Though, some of the basic concepts of Jaina sacred thread and various other rituals also creeped Philosophy such as Pancastikayavada, eight types of their way in Jainism. As a result spiritualistic Jainism karmagranthi and five-fold knowledge were prevalent became ritualistic. Though it was a later development even before the times of Lord Mahavira or of Lord (c. 6th-7th A. D. ) yet, it no doubt had given some Parsva, but the concepts such as three-fold nature of scratches to the ideal spiritualistic image of Jainism. reality, six substances, two-fold and seven-fold divi- It was necessary, perhaps, for the survival of Jainism sion of Nayas, four-foldNiksepas, different Anuyoga in the middle centuries of Indian history.