Historical Development Of Jaina Philosophy And Religion

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain
Publisher: Z_Jaina_Literature_and_Philosophy_a_Critical_Approach_001936_HR.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269738/1

Page #1
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion (c. 3rd-10th A. D. ] The Western scholars often remark that the tions, changes and developments took place in Jaina Indian philosophies and religions are not dynamic but thoughts and practices. Jainas were proud of the rigostatic. But this remark is not tenable when we study rous and austere life-styles of their monks. But in the any Indian Philosophy or religious tradition from post Nirvana era of Mahavira some relaxations and historical point of view. We notice a sequence of exception creeped into the code of conduct of Jaina changes and developments in their thoughts and monks. Not only the junior monks, i. e., Ksullakas, practices. This is true with regard to Jainism as well keeping three, two or one cloth alongwith a bowl but as other schools of Indian philosophy. the senior monks, having accepted nudity also started Though the basic tenets such as non-violence, keeping one woolen blanket to save themselves from self-control etc. of Jainism, in thought and practice, the extreme cold of northern region and also a bowl remained the same throughout the ages yet their for accepting the alms, particularly some liquids, explanations and their applications were modified in necessary in the old age. Thus, the code of Jinakalpa conformity with time and circumstances by Jaina and Sthavirakalpa along with samayik-caritra Tirtharikaras and Acaryas. Even in the earlier times, (junior monk-hood ) and Chedopasthapaniyacaritra every successive Tirthankara made reforms and (senior monk-hood ) came into existence, which, changes in the religious practices and ethical code of later later on, after c. 2nd A. D. divided Jainism into conduct as per the need of his age. As regards the Schism such as Digambara, Svetambara and Yapaniya, code of conduct of monks and nuns, 23rd chapter of with th ter of with their own Codes of Conduct. Uttaradhyayana, Avasyakaniryukti ( verses 1258 It was the first phase of major changes in the 1262 ) and some other commentaries on Jaina canons Jaina code of conduct, particularly the one for Jaina clearly maintain that the religious code of Mahavira monks and nuns. The second phase is known as and his predecessor Lord Parsva and other Caityavasa, i. e., the temple based living of monks. Tirtharkaras were different. It was found that where- With the advent of idol worship and the acquisition of as Lord Aristanemi laid more stress to avoid the great wealth in the name of these temples and deities violence and cruelity towards animal kingdom in by the community, the ceremonial-ritualistic aspect social rituals such as marriage ceremonies etc. Lord of religion became dominating and the monks started Parsva opposed the violence in the name of religious taking interest in external and pompous modes of austerities ( practices ). Lord Mahavira discovered religious practices. There also developed a special the root cause of violence in the will for the accumu- group of administrator clergies. Thus, the Bhattarakas lation of wealth and lust for worldly enjoyment hence in the Digambara sect and the Yatis in Svetambara laid much stress on celebacy and non-possession and sect, started living under luxurious conditions, prescribed a new religious code of conduct. Not only became managers of the temples and temple associain the earlier period but in the above said period, i. e., ted properties and assumed control over the templecorresponding c. 3rd-10th A.D. also, several revolu- rituals as well as over certain part of community

Page #2
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion living in a certain province. In their time, the code of Anekantavada (c. 4th-6th A. D.). conduct of monks and nuns remained confined into (iii) The age of systematization of Jaina the books only and did not appear in the practical life. philosophy (c. 7th-10th A. D.). Against this situation a revolution was This nomenclature underlies the tendencies, worked out, in Digambara tradition by Kundakunda dominating the particular era. However, this division (c. 6th A. D.) and in Svetambara tradition by is only a tentative one. No water tight compartment in Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.). But this revolution failed the division of ages is possible. The tendencies of one to reap any fruit and remained ineffective and the age can be traced in other ages also. For example, institution of Bhattarakas and Yatis thrived in the Agamic age terminates with c. 3rd A. D. but the final later centuries also. Its only credit was that the tradi- editing as well as the composition of some Agamic tion of the real ascetics, following the rigorous path of texts continued up to the c. Sth A. D. Not only this but Mahavira, could be saved for some centuries. Again the date of composition of commentaries on Agamas in Svetambara tradition, a great revolution took place extends up to the c. 11th A. D. Similar is the case in the c. 10th A. D. under the leadership of Jinesvara- with the age of critical presentation of Anekantavada; suri against the temple based living of the monks, i.e., as seeds of Anekanta can be traced in Agamas such as Caityavasa and administrator clergies. Due to this Bhagavatisutra etc. but its critical presentation contirevolution Kharataragaccha came into existence in nued not only upto Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.) but upto the c. 10-11th A. D. This revolutionary and reforma- Yasovijaya and Vimaldas (c. 17th A. D.). Similarly tive spirit continued in Jaina community in the later the age of philosophical systematization commences centuries also and owing to that sub-sects Tapa- from c. 7th A. D. but the actual effort in this direction gaccha (c. 12th A. D. ), Lonkagaccha (c. 15th A.D.), starts from the composition of Tattvarthasutra and its Sthanakavasi (c. 16th A. D.) and Terapanthi (c. 18th auto-commentary by Umasvati long before during the A. D.) came into existence in Svetambara tradition. c. 3rd A. D. and continued upto the period of YasoSimilarly, in Digambara tradition also Banarasimata vijaya, i. e., the c. 17th A. D. Thus, it is very difficult Digambara Terapantha (c. 16th A. D. ) and Tarana- to divide these ages strictly into a particular framepantha a non-idol worshipper sect, came forward work of time. with their reformative outlook. In fact, it is due to the The Age of Agamas impact of Hindu devotionalism and Tantrism that the Most of the Agamic literature was composed ritualistic idol-worship started in Jainism and it is that during c. 5th B. C.-3rd A. D. but some of Agamic due to the Muslim impact non-idol worship sects texts like Nandisutra and the present edition of such as Lorikagaccha, Sthanakavasi, Terapantha and Prasnavyakarana were composed in c. 5th-6th A. D. Taranapantha took birth in Jainism. This shows that in In the most important councils (Vacanas ), which practice Jainism is not a static but a dynamic religion. were held at Mathura and Valabhi in c. 4th-5th A. D. So far as the changes in the Jaina thought are respectively, for editing and rewriting of these concerned, Jaina scholars divided their history of Agamas, some new additions and alterations were philosophical development in three ages which are as also made and that is why some of the Agamas under: contain some informations and conceptions, develop(i) The Agama Age (c. 5th B. C.-3rd A.D.). ed later in c. 4th-5th, in Jaina philosophy. (ii) The age of critical presentation of The Agamas are mainly concerned with the

Page #3
24 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI religious code of conduct and moral preaching. Pt. Akalanka's Rajavarttika and Vidyanandi's SlokaDalasukha Malvania rightly observes that Anga varttika are the two works, regarded as main contriAgama deals with moral code of conduct (Carita- butions in Digambara tradition. Both these works crinuyoga ) rather than metaphysics (Dravyanuyoga ). tically elaborate the contents of Tattvartha. Through, So far as the subject-matter of Agamas is concerned these works we can assume that, the differ-ences this position remains the same upto the period of between Digambara and Svetambara became more Niryuktis (c. 3rd-5th A. D. ), Bhasyas (c. 6th A. D.) prominent in this era and the disputes on the problems and even Cumnis (c. 7th A. D.). Some scattered seeds of 'Stri-mukti', 'Kevali-bhukti' and simultaneousness of philosophical discussions maay no doubt be seen and succesiveness of Jnanopayoga and Darsanopain some of the Agamas and their commentaries; but yoga of Kevali came into prominence. Along with Visesavasyakabhasya, mainly a work full of philoso- these internal disputes of Jaina sects, logical refutaphical discussions, is an exception. tion of other schools of thought, is also the main Age of Critical Presentation of Anekantavada characteristic of this age. All the important philoso phical works, composed in this particular era, critically Similar is the case with the second era, i. e., evaluate the views of other schools of thoughts and the age of critical presentation of Anekantavada. So try to establish Jaina view of non-absolutism, based far as Anekantavada is concerned, it can be traced in on their theory of Anekantavada, as most logical and Agamas as a mere conception. Its critical presenta true. tion as a Jaina doctrine was introduced with the works of Siddhasena Divakara and Samantabhadra inc. 4th The Main Objective of Early Jainism 5th, respectively. The treatises, composed by them, Before discussing the early metaphysics and mainly for critical presentation of Anekantavada also epistemology of Jainas it would be proper to discuss worked as a base for the age of philosophical syste the main objective of early Jainism and its attitude matization. towards life, which is to get rid of the cycle of birth and death and thus, to emancipate man from sufferSiddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka and Dva ings. It tries to track down sufferings to their very trimsikas is regarded as the first book of critical root. The famous Jaina text of an early period Uttaraphilosophy. The concept of Pancajnana ( Five-fold dhyayanasutra says: knowledge ) is, for the first time, critically analysed kamanugiddhippabhavam khu dukkham in its subtle form in the said composition. It embraces savvassa logassa sadevagassa. other different contemporary views prevalent in Jaina jam kaiyam manasiyam ca kinci tradition. The author dives deep in evaluating the tassa antagam gacchai viyarigo. ( 32.19) established concepts in Jainism rather than peeping That is the root of all physical as well as outside in different systems. mental sufferings of everybody, including the gods, is In the works attributed to this age, particular the desire for enjoyment. Only a dispassionate attily in commentaries on Tattvarthasutra, the first extant tude can put an end to them. It is true that materialism commentary, after the auto-commentary of Uma- seeks to eliminate sufferings, through the fulfilment svati, is Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada ( first half of of human desires, but it cannot eradicate the prime the c. 6th A. D..). It not only depicts the concept of cause from which the stream of suffering wells up. Gunasthana but rather describes it with more details. Materialism does not have at its disposal an effective

Page #4
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 25 means for quenching the thirst of a man permanently. life. Spirituality consists in realising these higher Not only this, its attempts at the temporary appease- values of life. ment of a yearning, have the opposite effect of flaring Jaina spirituality teaches us that happiness or it up like the fire fed by an oblation of butter. It is unhappiness is centred in the soul and not in worldly clearly noted in the Uttaradhyayana : objects. Pleasure and pain are self-created. They are suvanna-rupassa u pavvayabhave subjective in nature also. They do not depend totally siya hu kelasasama asamkhaya. on the objects, but depend also on the attitude of a narassa luddhassa na tehim kinci person towards them. The Uttaradhyayanasutra iccha u agasasama anantiya. (9.48 ) ( 20.37 ) mentions: That is even if an infinite number of gold and appa katta vikatta ya, duhana ya suhana ya silver mountains, each as large as the Kailasa, are appa mittamamittam ca, duppatthiyasupatthio. conjured up, they would not lead to the final extin That the self (atma ) is both the doer and the ction of human desires, because desires are infinite enjoyer of happiness and misery. It is its own friend like space. Not only Jainism but all spiritual tradi- when it acts righteously and foe when it acts unrighttions unanimously hold that the root cause of sorrow eously. An unconquered self is its own enemy, unis attachment, lust or a sense of mineness. The ful- conquered passions and sense organs of the self are filment of desires is not the means of ending them. its own enemy. Oh monk ! having conquered them, I Though a materialistic perspective can bring material move righteously. prosperity, it cannot make us free from attachments In another Jaina text of the early period Auraand yearnings. Our materialistic outlook can be com- paccakkhanam (c. 3rd A. D.) it is mentioned : pared to our attempt of chopping the branches off ego me sasado appa, nanadamsanasamjuo while watering the roots of a tree. In the above men sesa me bahira bhava, savve samjogalakkhana. tioned gatha, it is clearly pointed out that desires are samjogamulajivenam, patta dukkhaparampara endless just as space (Akasa ) and it is very difficult tamha samjogasambandhar, savvablavena vosire. to fulfil all of them. If mankind is to be freed from (26.27) selfishness, violence, exploitation, corruption and The soul endowed with knowledge and peraffliction stemming from them, it is necessary to out- ception alone is permanent, all other objects are alien grow materialistic outlook and to develop an attitude, to self. All the serious miseries, suffered by self, are which may be described as spiritual. the result of individual's sense of 'mine' or attachThe word Adhyatma, the Samskrta equiva- ment towards the alien objects and so it is imperative lent of spirituality derived from adhi+ atma, implies to abandon completely the sense of mine' with regard the superiority and sublimity of Atman, the soul to the external objects. In short, according to Jainism force. In the oldest Jaina text Acaranga, the word not identifying oneself with the objects not belonging ajjhatthavisohi, connotes, inner purity of the self, to the soul, is the starting point of spiritual practice which is the ultimate goal of Jaina-Sadhana. Accor- (sadhana ). Non-alignment with material object is the ding to Jainism, the realisation of physical amenities pre-requisite for self-realisation, the main objective or creature comforts is not the ultimate aim of life. of early Jainism. According to it, renouncement of There are some higher ideals of life which are over attachment is the same as the emergence of a balanand above the mere biological and economic needs of ced view of even-sightedness ( samadrstita ).

Page #5
26 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI The reason, as to why Jainism regards aban- donment of 'sense of mine' or of attachment as the only means for self-realisation, is that so long as there is attachment in a man, his attention is fixed not on self or soul, but on not-self, i.e., material objects. Materialism thrives on this object-oriented attitude or indulgence in the not-self. According to the Jaina philosophers, the identification with the not-self and regarding worldly object as a source of happiness or unhappiness, are the hallmarks of materialism. This is considered as a wrong view-point. The right view point regards the self as of supreme value and aims at the realisation of its quiddity or its ideal uncondi- tioned state of pure knower, which is free from attach- ment and passions. It is mentioned in Samayasara (209): evam sammaithi appanam munadi janagasahavar. that the self, possessed of a right view-point, realises the pure soul as knowledge. Thus according to Jainism the right view-point regards self as pure knower ( suddha drasta ) and distinct from not-self. This detached attitude only can free one from one's mental as well as physical sufferings. Cause of Bondage and Suffering of the Self Jainism maintains that the attachment (Raga ) and delusion (Moha ) obscure our spiritual nature and are responsible for our worldly existence and suffering. The most intense vasana is hrdaya- granthi, which is a deep attachment towards sense objects and worldly desires. The oldest nomenclature of Jaina sect is Niggantha-dhamma. The word Nig- gantha means the one who has unknotted his hrdaya- granthi, i.e., the 'mine'-complex. It means, in other words, one who has eradicated ones attachments and passions. The word, 'Jaina', also conveys the same meaning; a true Jaina is one who has conquered one's passions. According to Lord Mahavira, "to remain attached to sensuous objects is to remain in the whirl" (Acaranga, 1.1.5). The attachment towards sensuous objects is the root of our worldly existence (Acararga, 1.2.1). Further, it is also mentioned in the Acaranga, 1.3.1, "only he who knows the nature of the sensuous objects is possessed of self, knowledge, scripture, Law (dhamma ) and Truth (bambha )." The five senses together with anger, pride, delusion and desire are difficult to be conquered, but when the self is conquered, all these are completely conquered ( Uttaradhyayana, 9.36 ). Just as the female crane is produced from the egg and the egg from the crane, in the same way desire is produced by delusion and delusion by desire (Uttaradhyayana, 32.6). Attachment and hatred are the seeds of karma and delusion is the source of attachment and hatred. Karma is the root of birth and death. This cycle of birth and death is the sole cause of misery. Misery is gone in the case of a man who has no delusion, while delusion is gone in the case of a man who has no desire; desire is gone in the case of a man who has no greed, while greed is gone in the case of a man who has no attachment" (Uttaradhyayana, 32.8 ). According to the Tattvarthasutra 8.1, a famous Jaina text, perverse attitude (mithya-darsana ), non-abstinence ( avirati ), spiritual inertia ( pramada ), passions (kasaya ) and activity ( Yoga ) - these five are the conditions of bondage. We can say that mithyadarsana (perverse attitude), mithya-jnana (perverse knowledge ) and mithya-caritra ( immoral conduct) are also responsible for our worldly exis-tence or bondage. But perversity of knowledge and conduct depends upon the perversity of attitude. Thus, the perversity of attitude, which is due to darsana-moha is one of the important factors of bondage. Nonabstinence, spiritual inertia and passions are due to the presence of perverse attitude. Though activities of mind, body and speech known as Yoga are considered the cause of bondage yet these, in theirselves re incapable of bondage unless by perverse attitude and passions. They are only the cause of Asrava (in

Page #6
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 27 flux of karmic matter ), not the cause of bondage. Bondage is possible only through the Yoga in association with perverse attitude and passions. The perverse attitude (mithya-darsana ) and the passions (Kasayas) are mutually cause and effect of each other just as the egg and the hen or the seed and the tree. We can not fix the priority of one over the other, passions are due to the perverse attitude and perverse attitude is due to the passions. Early Jaina Doctrine of Karma/Bondage According to Jaina philosophy every activity of mind, speech and body is followed by the influx of a finer type of atoms, which are technically known as karma-vargana-pudgala. In the presence of passions, this influx (asrava ) of karmic matter cause bondage, which is of four types - 1. Kind ( prakiti), 2. quantity (pradesa ), 3. duration ( sthiti ) and 4. intensity (anubhaga) (Tattvarthasutra, 8.4). The activities of mind, body and speech, technically known as yogas, determine the prakrti and the pradesa of karmic- matter while the passions determine the dura-tion ( sthiti ) and the intensity (anubhaga -mild or intense power of fruition) of the Karma. Karma, in Jainism is the binding principle. It binds the soul with the body hence responsibile for our wordly existence. Karma has the same place in Jainism, as unseen potency ( adrsta ) in Nyaya, Prakrti in Sankhya, Maya in naya in Vedanta, Vasana in Buddhism, Sakti in Saivism and Pasa (trap ) in sakta school. Karma is something foreign which veils the natural faculties of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power. It is also responsible for our pleasant and unpleasant experiences and worldly existence. According to Vidyanandi, two functions of the Karma are to obscure the natural faculties of soul and to defile the soul. Jainism also believes in the same modus operandi of karma. According to it karma itself is compe-tent to produce its fruit in due course of time and there is no need of God or other external power for its fruition. The Karmas are of eight types -- (i) jnanavarana : knowledge obscuring, (ii) Darsanivarana : perception obscuring, (iii) Vedaniya : feeling producing, (iv) Mohaniya : deluding, (v) Ayu : age determining, (vi) Nama : body or personality determining, (vii) Gotra : status determining and ( viii) Antaraya : obstructive (Tattvarthasutra, 8.5). Among these eight types of karma, Jnanavarana, darsanavarana, mohaniya and antaraya - these four are considered as destructive karma or ghati karma, because they obscure the natural faculties of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite power, respectively. The other four - vedaniya, ayu, nama and gotra are called aghati or non-destructive karma. They are only responsible for bodily existence of present life and incapable of continuing the cycle of birth and death. It is only due to the deluding karma (mohaniya karma) that the cycle of birth and death continues. This deluding karma is responsibile for perversity of attitude and the passions. The emancipation of soul is only possible when the perversity of attitude is destroyed and passions are overcome. The Uttaradhyayanasutra says that just as a tree with its root dried up, does not grow even though it is watered, similarly actions (Karma ) do not grow it up when delusion (moha oravidya ) is destroyed ( 28. 30). 30 ). One devoid of a right attitude (darsana ) cannot have right knowledge (jnana ) and there can not be rectitude of will (carana-guna ) without right knowledge (jnana ). One devoid of the rectitude of will cannot have emancipation from evil will and one devoid of emancipation from evil will ( induced by karma ) cannot attain final emancipation ( 32.9). The Ultimate End: Moksa The attainment of emancipation or mukti is the pivot on which all the ethico-religious philoso

Page #7
28 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI phies of India revolve. Jainism maintains that the four non-destructive karmas, i.e., Nama, Gotra, liberation - the perfect and purified state of the soul, Ayusya and Vedaniya, are not exhausted the soul of is the only and ultimate goal of every individual. Arhat remains in a highly refined physical body and Mukti does not mean in Jainism, the losing of one's preaches truth to the world. Shedding physical and own identity. The self retains its identity even in the karmic body, when these four non-destructive karmas state of liberation. are exhausted the soul of Arhat goes upto the topIn Acaranga the nature of Paramatma (the most of the universe - abode of liberated soul known immaculate soul) is described as that which is be- as siddhasila, remains there eternally and enjoys peryond the grasp of logic and intellect. He is one and fect knowledge, perfect power, perfect perception alone. He is harmless. He is neither long nor short, and perfect bliss ( Niyamasara, 181-182 ). Thus, nor a circle nor a triangle. nor a quadrilateral nor a emancipation, according to Jainism, is nothing but sphere. He is neither black nor blue, nor red, nor realisation of one's own real nature. yellow, nor white. He is neither pungent nor bitter, Jaina Sadhana in Early Period nor astringent, nor sour, nor sweet. He is neither hard In the earliest Jaina agamas, particularly in nor soft, neither heavy nor light, neither cold nor hot, Acaranga and Uttaradhyayana, we have a mention of neither greasy nor dry. He is not subject to birth and Triyama. Caturyama and Pancayama. Though decay. He is free from attachment. He is simileless. Acaranga mentions Triyama, it does not give any deHe baffles all terminology. There is no word to des- tail about it. Its commentator Silanka had derived the cribe. He is neither sound nor form, nor odour, nor meaning of three-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right taste, nor touch. (Ayaro - Ed. Yuvacarya Maha faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct. But in my prajna, J. V. B., Ladnun, 1981, pp. 262-266.) opinion this derivation of Silanka is hardly in accorIn the Niyamasara ( 181 ), 'Being' (astitva ), dance with its real meaning. Triyama refers to the the pure existence is considered to be one of the three vows - Non-violence, Truth and Non-possesqualities of a liberated soul. Moksa, according to sion. Jaina tradition is very firm in maintaining that Jainism, means a complete perfection and purifica- Lord Parsva, the twenty-third Tirthankara had preation of soul. In the state of liberation there is neither ched Caturyama - Non-violence, Truthfulness, Nonpain nor pleasure, nor any obstruction, nor any anno- stealing and Non-possesiveness. Mahavira added one yance, nor delusion, nor any anxiety. A liberated soul more yama celebacy as an independent vow in the is really free from all sorts of impurities and from the Caturyama of Parsva and thus, introduced Pancacycle of birth and death (Niyamasara, 178-180 ). In yama. Formerly, it was taken for granted that woman liberation the soul realises the ananta-catustaya, i.e., is also a possession and no one can enjoy her without infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinte bliss having her in his own possession. But Mahavira took and infinite power. This ananta-catustaya is the in- it as an independent vow. In some of the canonical herent nature of the soul. Jainism believes that every works we also have a five-fold path of liberation but individual soul has the potentialities of Godhood and in a different way as Right faith, Right knowledge, the soul can attain to it. By shedding away all the Right conduct, Right penance and Right efforts. In karmic particles of four destructive karmas (ghati- Uttaradhyayana as well as in the works of Kundakarma ), the soul attains Arhathood, which is the kunda the four-fold path of liberation, i.e., Right state of vitaraga-dasa or jivana-mukti. So long as the faith, Right knowledge, Right conduct and Right pen

Page #8
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 29 ance are mentioned. Here Right effort has been Jaina scripture. merged into Right penance. Similarly, later on merg So far as Samyak-Caritra (Right conduct ) is ing the Right penance into Right conduct, Umasvati concerned, the meaning of the term remains the same prescribed the three-fold path of liberation in his throughout the ages. It encompasses the observance Tattvarthasutra (c. 3rd A. D. ). Acaranga has also of five great vows (mahavratas ), five vigilances mentioned the three-fold path in a different form, (samitis ), three controls (guptis ) and ten dharmas. namely -- non-violence (niksiptadanda ), wisdom This right conduct is exclusively prescribed for the (prajna ) and ecstasy (samadhi ) which is more like monks and nuns. Similarly, five minor vows ( anuthe three-fold path of prajna, sila ( supplementary Vratas ), three guna-vratas and four siksavratas as well vow) and samadhi of Buddhism. Satraktanga and as eleven Pratimas are prescribed as a right-conduct some other canonical works also mention two-fold for the house-holders (Sravakas ). According to both path of liberation, i.e., vidya (wisdom ) and carana - the sects Svetambara and Digambara, the code of (conduct ( Viljacarana pamokkho ). We see that conduct of Jaina monks and nuns was very rigorous at there are different views about the path of liberation the time of Mahavira (c. 6th B. C.) but with the pasbut Jainas never accepted single path either of knowl sage of time, coming to the period of Bhadrabahu-I, ( edge or devotion or action. They believe that neither c. 3rd B.C.) it became lenient. By this period various knowledge, nor faith nor conduct alone can be regar- exceptions in the five great vows as well as in other ded as a means of salvation. But all the three com- rules and regulations of Jaina monks and nuns has bined together make an integrated path of liberation been accepted. This lenient tendency is clearly visible which is a peculiarity of Jainism. In this integration in the Chedasutras of Bhadrabahu-l in the form of we have a reflection of its non-absolutistic approach atonements of the various exceptions and transgresAnekantavada, the central doctrine of Jainism. sions in the code of conduct. This liberalism in the Now, if we take each constituent of the three- code of conduct culminates in c. 6th-7th. In Bhasyas fold path, separately, Right faith (Samyak Darsana ) and Curnis of Chedasutras, one can find ample comes first. In earliest canonical works such as examples of this liberalism. It is quite difficult to Acaranga and Sutraktarga, the term Darsana is used mention all those changes which took place in the either in the sense of self-realisation or right vision Jaina code of conduct during the period of c. 3rd (right attitude). As 'faith' it is used for the first time B.C.-3rd A. D., because of two reasons - firstly, in Uttaradhyayana, and there it means nine catego- some of the exceptions mentioned in Bhasyas (c. 6th ries (Tattvas ). The same meaning is retained in A. D.) and Curnis (c. 7th A. D.) might have come in Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra while defining Samyak- practice after c. 3rd A. D. A period which is beyond Darsana. But after c. 3rd 4th the meaning is also the purview of this article and secondly, it is imposchanged and Samyak-Darsana is defined as faith, sible to include, all the changes that occurred, in the Vina' as a Deva (Ideal ), Nirgrantha as a Guru frame of this brief article. Here we can only refer the ( Teacher and non-violence as a Dharma. scholars to see these Chedasutras and their commenSimilarly, the term Samyak-Jrana ( Right taries. knowlege ) is used in the sense of discriminative The major changes which took place during knowledge of self and not-self in the earlier canons. above period are regarding the use of clothes and begBut later on the term is used as the knowledge of ging bowls by Jaina monks. On the basis of the fig

Page #9
30 ures of Jaina monks and nuns inscribed on the pedestals of Jina-images of Mathura (c. 1st B. C.-2nd A. D.) it can be easily inferred that by that time the use of clothes and begging bowls was in vogue, though the ideal state of nudity was intact. The figures of monks found at Mathura are almost nude but are depicted having a folded large piece of cloth, on their left arm, may be a woolen blanket, and which seems to be instrumental in hiding their nudity. Similarly, there are certain figures of Jaina monks, having begging bowls in their hands. These figures clearly show that in these centuries, i. e., c. 2nd B. C.-3rd A. D., the use of woolen blanket and begging bowls was common atleast among the Jaina monks and nuns of North India. But in South India, practice of nudity remained intact in that period. The Cause of Schism and Caityavasa Remarkably, it was this use of blanket and begging bowls, along with certain other exceptions in the code of conduct which led to the schism in Jainas into Svetambara, Digambara and Yapaniya. According to Avasyakamula-bhasya, the controversy regarding the use of clothes and begging bowl was raised first time after 606 years of the Nirvana of Lord Mahavira, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. D. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Name of Nihnavas Jamali Tisyagupta Asadha bhuti Asvamitra Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI Dhanagupta However, on the basis of facts, narrated above, it can be concluded that liberalism in the rigorous code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns caused the schism into Svetambara, Digambara and Caityavasa, i. e., living in temples or Mathas in Jaina order. This tendency of living in the temples of Jaina monks and nuns further caused the deterioration in their strict code of conduct and various exceptions were accepted into general rules. This liberalism, later on, also gave birth to the various Tantrika Sadhanas in Jainism. Though on the basis of the code of conduct, particularly the use of clothes and bowls, the first sectarian division took place inc. 1st-2nd A. D. But prior to that, we have also trace of another type of differences in Jaina order particularly pertaining to doctrines, started in the life-time of Lord Mahavira itself. In Jaina tradition, the persons, having doctrinal differences with the tradition of Mahavira, are called as Nihnavas. These Nihnavas were seven in number. Avasyakaniryukti (Verse 778-783) and Uttaradhyayananiryukti ( Verse 165-178) mention the following Nihnavas and their basic differences from the traditional Jainism along with time and place of their origin. The names of Nihnavas and their details are as under: Time of Origination Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahavira's tradition Bahuratavada (An action, in the process of completion, can't be called completed, it is uncompleted. Jiva-pradesavada (Any one pradesa of the soul 16 years after Maha can be called as Jiva. vira's enlightenment. Avyaktavada (difficult to say who is who). Samucchinnavada (All the objects are transient and get destroyed just after their origination.) Dvikriyavada (possibility of having two experiences simultaneously.) 14 years after Mahavira's enlightenment. 214 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. 220 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. 228 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. Place of Origination Sravasti Rsabhapur Svetambika Mithila Ulukatira

Page #10
No. 6. 7. Name of Nihnavas Rohagupta Gostha mahila Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion Their particular theory on which they differed from Mahavira's tradition Trairasikavada or no-Jivavada (three categories in world-living beings, non-living beings, neither living nor non-non-living beings. Abaddhikayada (Karma-particles only touch the soul- pradesas. Apart from these, some divisions took place in the Jaina order only due to administrative needs. In Kalpasutrasthaviravali, the Jaina order is said to be divided in various Ganas, Kulas and Sakhas. This type of division was based neither on any theoretical differences nor on the Code of Con-duct. This division of Gana, Kula and Sakha was based on the hierarchy of the spiritual teachers or on the basis of the group of the monks belonging to a particular region. The final division of the Jaina church such as Svetambara, Digambara and Yapaniya came into existence in the c. 4th-5th A. D. as we do not find any literary or epigraphic evidence for these sectarian divisions dated pre- c. 4th-5th A. D. Development of Jaina Theory of Knowledge The development of Jaina theory of five-fold knowledge extends over a long period of 2600 years. The tradition of Mahavira's predecessor Parsvanatha (c. 800 B. C.) bears clear marks of Pancajnana or five-fold knowledge, a preliminary conception of Jaina epistemology. In Rajaprasniyasutra (165) Arya Kesi; a follower of Parsva tradition, called himself believer of the theory of five-fold knowledge and explained the same to King Paesi. Uttaradhyayana also the same refers. It is remarkable that there is not much difference between Parsva and Mahavira, so far as their Metaphysics and Epistemology are concerned. Had there been any difference on these issues, it would have been definitely mentioned in Bhagavati and Uttaradhyayana, both pointing out the differences regarding ethical code of conduct the traditions of Time of Origination 544 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. 544 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. 31 Place of Origination Antaranjia Dasapur both. Except some issues on the ethical code of conduct in which he makes some additions later on, Mahavira accepts the metaphysics and epistemology of Parsva as it is. The reference of Jnanapravada, the fifth one of fourteen Purvas (the literature belonging to the tradition of Mahavira's predecessor Lord Parsva) also proves that before Mahavira there was a concept of Pancajnanavada assigned to Nirgrantha tradition of Parsva and was later developed in Mahavira's tradition. Acaranga and Sutrakrtanga, the oldest extant Jaina literature, do not bear any mark of the discussion over the theory of knowledge, whereas Uttaradhyayana, Sthananga, Samavayanga, Bhagavati, Anuyogadvara and Nandisutra, elaborately discuss the gradual development of the conception of Pancajnanavada. It suggests that although the theory of five-fold knowledge (Pancajnanavada) was derived from Parsva's tradition, it was later on developed by Mahavira. Pt. Dalasukha Malvania, in his well-known book 'Agama Yuga ka Jaina Darsana' has mentioned three stages of the development of Pancajnanavada based on the chronology of Jaina Agamas. At the first stage knowledge was divided into five types Mati ( the knowledge obtained through the senseorgans (indriya ), quasi-sense-organs (anindriya), and mind (mana), Sruta ( scriptural knowledge); Avadhi ( clairvoyance ); Manah-paryaya (telepathy or knowledge of others' mind) and Kevala ( perfect knowledge comprehending all substances and their modifications or omniscience). The description of

Page #11
Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI five-fold knowledge, found in Bhagavatisutra, is in vacaka, respectively. Regarding the authorship of accordance with this first stage. The Sthananga and Anuyogadvarasutra scholars have different opinions Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra (c. 3rd A.D.) refer the as to whether Aryaraksita himself is the author or second stage where the knowledge is divided into two some one else. So far as the question of Aryaraksita is main heads (i) Pratyaksa ( direct knowledge concerned it is a fact that he for the first time transincorporating sensory and scriptural knowledge) and lated the Jaina technical terms by Anuyoga-vidhi. It (ii) Paroksa (indirect knowledge which incorpora- is the text of philosophical method. In the beginning, tes the three extra-sensory knowledge ). Umasvati Anuyogadvarasutra mentions that mati, avadhi, also supports this two-fold division. At this stage, it manah-paryaya and kevala these four types of was supposed that apart from the cognition depend- knowledge depend on experience only. They can not ing on the soul alone (Atmasapeksa Jnana ), the be preached where as srutajnana can be studied and cognition depending on sense-organs and quasi- preached. At this third stage of development Anusense-organs (indriya-anindriya sapeksa ), depend- yogadvara gives importance to the four-fold division. ing on the intellect (buddhi sapeksa) and the cog- In this third stage of development particularly based nition depending on the Agamas, should be consi- on Nandi and Anuyogadvara, the cognition dependdered as Indirect knowledge (Paroksa Jnana ). It ing on sense-organs, even being considered transcenbecame a special feature of Jaina Epistemology dently as indirect (paroksa), was also included in because others were considering it as a direct know- direct knowledge (pratyaksa) following the concept ledge (pratyaksa ). The development of this second of other traditions and it was designated as samstage was very essential as it was to pave the way of vyavaharika pratyaksa ( perception according to the synthesis between the theory of knowledge (Jnana- common usage or ordinary perception). vada) and validity of knowledge. At this stage, the knowledge (Jnana) itself was considered as an instrument of valid knowledge (pramana) and was divided into Direct knowledge (pratyaksa) and Indirect knowledge (paroksa ). 32 The third stage of the development is represented by Nandisutra (c. 5th A. D. ). In the whole of the Agamas, Nandisutra is the only composition which thoroughly deals with the theory of five-fold knowledge. In Nandisutra another development is also visible where the sense-cognition is included in pratyaksa, following the common tradition. The second work, dealing with the conception of five-fold knowledge is Anuyogadvarasutra (c. 2nd). Anuyogadvara is earlier than Nandisutra because former does not include sense cognition in Direct knowledge as the latter does. It is believed that Anuyogadvara and Nandisutra are compiled by Aryaraksita and Deva In my opinion, primarily empirical sensual cognition was included in darsana and contemplative matijnana was confined only to the deliberative intellectual knowledge (vimarsatmaka jnana ). This distinction was also recommended in later period. Four early classifications of matijnana, i.e., avagraha, iha, avaya and dharana are also considered as deliberative knowledge but when sensory cognition was included in matijnana, the question arose as to how the knowledge, originated from sense-organs, would be regarded as indirect knowledge. Consequently, it was accepted as samvyavaharika pratyaksa (perception according to common usage) following the other philosophical traditions. To synthesize the first stage of five-fold knowledge with two-fold classification of pramanapratyaksa and paroksa of second stage, a third stage was introduced. An attempt was also made to

Page #12
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 33 correlate the Jaina concept of pratyaksa ( direct change in later periods also. Similarly the scriptural knowledge ) with the concept of perception knowledge also continued to be considered as indirect (pratyaksa ) of other philosophical traditions. (paroksa ). But among the two classes of matijnana - indriyajanya matijnana (originated from senses ) and Akalanka (c. 8th A. D.) who contributed a manojanya mati-jnana (originated from mind ), the parallel system of Jaina logic based on the Agamic conception and some later Acaryas classified the sense originated matijnana was considered asparoksa from the transcendental (paramarthika ) point of pratyaksa into two parts, i.e. sarvyavaharika view and pratyaksa from the point of view of pratyaksa ( perception according to common usage ) common usage ( samvyavaharika ). The other tradiand paramarthika pratyaksa (transcendental percep tions were considering sense originated matijnana as tion ). Its brief reference can be traced in Nandisutra and a detailed one in Jinabhadra's Visesavasyaka pratyaksa. When discussions over Pramanasastra ( science of valid cognition ) started, the matijnana, bhasya (c. 700 A. D.). Akalanka etc. have followed originated from mind, was further divided in different the same two-fold concept of pratyaksa. classes and got assimilated with different Pramanas. So it is clear that the conception of five-fold After Nandisutra the development of this conception knowledge is quite old but its gradual development of the five-fold knowledge is found in Visesavasyakatook place only during the c. 3rd-7th A. D. Because bhasya where not only its different classifications are Tattvarthasutra and its auto-commentary, both donot mentioned but the doubts regarding the very concept refer these two types of pratyaksa-samvyavaharika and the solutions are also discussed. This era witnesand paramarthika. By that period mati-jnana was sed intensive discussions over the relationship of considered as paroksa. The hypothesis of these two darsana and jnana as well as srutajnana and matitypes of pratyaksa - samvyavaharika and paramar- jnana. thika came into existence after c. 3rd-4th A. D. in the The development of the conception of fiveperiod of Nandisutra (c. 5th A. D. ) as the above fold knowledge continued during the c. 3rd-7th A. D. division was clearly mentioned in this text. but it got interrupted after the c. 7th A. D. and discus sions over Pramanavada (science of valid cognition) Bhagavatisatra refers to Nandisutra and started. This is noteworthy that Pramanavada in Anuyogadvara for the details about the Jaina theory Jainism was the result of the impact of other philosoof knowledge. It concludes that this portion was phical traditions. incorporated in Bhagavati at the time of Valabhi Vacana (c. 5th A. D.). Sthananga's classification of Jaina Concept of Pramana knowledge as pratyaksa and paroksa, also is contem The then The theory of five-fold knowledge, originally porary to Tattvarthasutra (c. 4th A. D.). In the above belonged to Jainas but the case is different with the mentioned scriptures avadhijnana ( clairvoyance), theory of Pramana. This latter conception is borromanah-paryaya-jnana (telepathy or knowledge of wed by Jainas from other philosophical traditions. others' mind ) and kevalajnana (perfect knowledge The concept of Pramana in Jaina philosophy came comprehending all the substance and their modes, into existence in c. 3rd 4th A. D. and continued to i.e., Omniscience ), all being beyond the range of our senses are considered as transcendental perception or Jaina Acaryas, first of all accepted the conself perception. This conception did not undergo any cept of Pramana as it was prevalent in other philoso

Page #13
34 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI phical traditions, particularly in Nyaya and Sankhya school, but in due course of time they got it associated with their concept of five-fold knowledge. Thus, whatever development of Jaina theory of Pramana is seen in Jainism, is the result of its synthesis with Pancainanavada. While classifying the Pramana some new concepts came into existence. They are undoubtedly unique contributions of Jaina philosophy. For instance, Smrti (memory), Pratyabhijna (recognition) and Tarka (Induction) were for the first time considered as Pramana. We shall now see as to how the development of Pramanavada took place in Jaina agamas. Jaina agamas refer three and four types of Pramana accepted by Sankhya and Naiyayikas, respectively. Sthananga clearly mentions three types of Vyavasaya (determinate cognition), i.e., Pratyaksa (perception), Pratyika and Anugamika (inference ) whereas Bhagavati mentions four types of Vyavasaya, i.e., Pratyaksa, Anumana, Upamana (comparison) and Agama (verbal testimony). Similarly, in Sthaninga four types of pramanas called Hetu are mentioned. In this way Sthananga mentions both, threefold and four-fold classification of Pramana in the form of Vyavasaya and Hetu, respectively. Anuyogadvarasutra not only clearly mentions four types of Pramana but also elaborately discusses each of them. The details about the four Pramanas given by Anuyogadvarasutra is very much similar to that of Nyaya school. As I have stated earlier, Bhagavati refers to the Anuyogadvara for more details about the Pramanas. It indicates that at the time of Valabhi council (c. 5th A. D. ) the concept of four types of Pramana had already been accepted by Jaina philosophers but when Pramanavada got synthesized with the conception of five-fold knowledge, the Upamana (comparison) had no place in it. Later, Siddhasena Divakara in his Nyayavatara and Haribhadrasuri in his Anekantajayapataka mentioned only three types of Pramanas. Umasvati (c. 3rd-4th A. D.) for the first time declared five-fold knowledge as Pramana and divided it into two classes Pratyaksa and Paroksa. Later on, Nandisutra divided Pratyaksa in two sub-classes Samvyavaharika and Paramarthika, including sensory perception into the first one and Avadhi, Manah-paryaya and Kevala into the second, respectively. The four Agamic divisions of Matijnana -Avagraha (the cognition of an object as such without a further positing of the appropriate name, class, etc.); Tha (the thought process that is undertaken with a view to specifically ascertain the general object that has been grasped by avagraha ); Avaya (when further attentiveness to final ascertainment takes place regarding the particular feature grasped at the stage of Iha) and Dharana (the constant stream of the ascertainment, the impression left behind it and the memory made possible by this impression, all these operations or the form of matijnana are called dharana) were accepted as the two classes of sensory perception. The indirect knowledge (Paroksa-jnana) enumerated the cognition originated from mind ( manasajanya jnana) and Verbal testimony ( Srutajnana) with a view that Inference (Anumana) etc. are the forms of Manasajanya-jana. Thus, the attempt to synthesize the concept of Pramana with the theory of five-fold knowledge in the true sense begins from the period of Umasvati. Acarya Umasvati maintains that these five types of cognition (knowledge) are five pramanas and divides these five cognition into two Pramanas direct and indirect. Pt. Malvania has observed that the first attempt of this synthesis was made in Anuyogadvarasutra, the only text accommodating Naiyayika's four-fold division of Pramana into knowledge. But this attempt not being in accordance with the Jaina view, the later scholars tried to solve this problem and ultimately succeeded in doing so. They discussed the

Page #14
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 35 concept of Pramanas on the base of five-fold knowledge of Jaina Agamas. According to Nyaya- sastra, the cognition originated from Mind (manasa- janya jnana) is of two types -- Pratyaksa and Paroksa. The knowledge originated from mind which experiences pleasure and pain, is Direct knowledge (pratyaksa) whereas the inference (anumana ) and comparison (upamana ) are Indirect forms of know- ledge (paroksa ). So having considered sensory-per- ception of Matijnana as Samvyavaharika Pratyaksa (perception according to common usage ), cognition based on intellect ( Bauddhika Jnana ) as inference ( anumana ) and verbal testimony Srutajnana ) as Agama pramana. Jainas synthesized the conception of five-fold knowledge with the Pramanasastra of the other schools of Indian philosophy. In Anuyogadvarasutra, Pratyaksa is divided in two heads, i. e., (1) perception originated from sense-organs (indriya- janya ) and (2) perception originated from quasisense-organs (no-indriya ). Quasi-sense originated perception included avadhi, manah-paryaya and kevalajnana. This concept of knowledge carries the same meaning as the one, conveyed by the transcendental knowledge in other philosophical traditions. The distinction between ordinary perception (Laukika Pratyaksa ) and Transcendental perception (Alaukika Pratyaksa ) of Vaisesikas is accepted by the Jainas under the name of Samvyavaharika and Paramarthika Pratyaksa and was synthesized later on with their conception of five-fold knowledge (pancajnanavada). ). According to Pt. Dalasukha Malvania the Agamic period (c. 5th A. D. ) has no trace of any independent discussion over Pramana. Till that period Jainacaryas have collected the opinions of other philo- sophical schools in their treatises. In the correspon- ding period a number of traditions on the types of Pramana were prevalent. Jaina Agamas refer tradi- tions of three and four types of Pramanas. The mention of three types of Pramanas -- Pratyaksa (perception ), Anumana ( inference ) and Agama (verbal testimony ), refers to the old Sankhya System. While mention of four pramanas including Upamana (comparison ) belongs to Naiyayikas. It clearly shows that by the end of c. 5th A. D. the concept of Pramana as an independent concept was not developed in Jainism. The first work which elaborately deals with the Pramanasastra is Siddhasena's Nyayavatara. The period of Siddhasena Divakara is fixed as c. 4th-5th A.D. Nyayavatara mentions three Agamic divisions of Pramana, i.e., perception, inference and verbal testimony (Agama ). Though Siddhasena has expressed briefly the Jaina opinion on the Nyaya-sastra of Sankhya and Nyaya but he has followed mostly the old tradition, accepted by Jaina Agamas. At some places he has only revised the definitions of Pramana of other schools on the basis of Jaina theory of Nonabsolutism (Anekantavada ). Nyayavatara clearly follows the Agamic tradition, as far as the description of Pramana is concerned. It, no where, mentions the later developed concept of Smrti (memory ), Pratyabhijna (recognition) and Tarka ( indirect proof : tarka is not by itself, a source of valid knowledge, though it is valuable in suggesting hypothesis which leads indirectly to right knowledge ) as Pramana. This proves that Nyayavatara is undoubtedly an ancient text compiled by Siddhasena Divakara. After Nyayavatara, the literary works which discuss the concept of Pramana are Pujyapada's Sarvarthasiddhi ( c. 6th A. D. ) of Digambara tradition, Siddhasenagani's commentary on Tattvartha-bhasya (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra's Anekantajayapataka (c. 8th A. D. ) of Svetambara tradition. In these works there is no trace of Pramana like Smrti etc. This concept is discussed for the first time in the works of Akalanka ( c. 8th A. D.) and Siddharsi's commentary on Nyayavatara (c. 9th A. D.) of Digambara and Svetambara traditions, respectively. The independent development of Jaina Nyaya

Page #15
36 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI commences from the period of Akalanka, who for the first time expounded Smrti, Pratyabhijna and Tarka as independent Pramanas. The Jaina theory of Nyaya was given a new direction in the c. 8th A. D. Akalanka not only established Smrti, Pratyabhijna and Tarka as independent Pramana but also revised the definitions or meanings of Perception, Inference and Agama, given by Siddhasena and Samantabhadra. In his definition of Pramana, he introduced a new term avisamvadi in place of svapara-avabhasaka. Most probably, this characteristic of changing defini- tions was borrowed from the Buddhist tradition. It was an especiality of Akalarka that he logically evaluated even the pre-established conceptions, hence rightly called the father of Jaina Nyaya. His works Laghiyastraya, Nyayaviniscaya, Siddhi- viniscaya and Pramanasangraha are related to the Jaina Nyaya. Pramanasangraha is the Akalanka's last work in which matured Jaina Nyaya, especially Pramana-sastra, is elaborately discussed. Though in his earlier works he mentioned Smsti, Pratyabhijna and Tarka as Pramana yet as independent Pramanas, these are established only in this work. As such from the point of view of the history of Jaina Pramanasastra this is a valuable work giving new dimension to the concept of pramana. In the history of Indian logic the Jaina logicians, in the c. 8th A. D., for the first time accepted memory (Smrti ), recognition (Pratyabhijna ) and induction ( Tarka ) as a Pramana. This is Jaina's special contribution to the field of Indian Pramanasastra. Not even a single tradition of Indian logic accepts memory (smrti ) as an independent Pramana. Only Vedanta-paribhasa, a work of c. 16th A. D., mentions Smrti as Pramana. Though Naiyayikas had accepted recognition (pratyabhijna ) as a kind of perception (pratyaksa pramana ) yet neither they regarded it as an independent Pramana nor accepted Smrti as its cause (hetu ). Jainas maintained, in case Smrti is not Pramana, how recognition (Pratyabhijna ) can be accepted as Pramana because in absence of memory (Smrti ), Pratyabhijna is not possible. If memory (Smrti ) is not Pramana, Pratyabhijna also a combination of past memory and present perception can not be considered as Pramana, because Pratyabhijna is based on Smrti. Similarly, Jainas established Tarka as independent pramana because in the absence of Tarka Pramana, Vyapti ( universal relation ) is not possible and without Vyapti, inference (Anumana) is quite impossible. To solve this problem Naiyayikas accepted Samanya Laksana Pratyasatti (generic nature of individuals ). Jainas accepted Tarka Pramana at the place of Naiyayika's Samanya Laksana Pratyasatti which is more extensive than that and may be called Inductive leap ( agamana). Jainas maintained induction (agamana ) and deduction (nigamana ) of Western Logic and introduced them in the name of Tarka and Anumana as an independent Pramana, respectively. An independent Tarka Pramana was needed because acquisition of Samanya (generality) through perception is not possible and without Samanya, Vyapti is not possible. Similarly in absence of Vyapti, Inference (anumana ) is impossible. Since in Jainism, Samanya Laksana Pratyasatti is no where mentioned as a kind of perception, Jainas established Tarka as independent Pramana to solve the problem of Vyapti. As Pratyabhijna was needed for Tarka and Smrti for Pratyabhijna, Jainas accepted all these three as independent Pramana. It was Akalanka (c. 8th A. D. ) who for the first time referred these three types of independent Pramana in Digambara tradition. Before Akalanka, his predecessors Samantabhadra (c. 5th A. D. ) and Pujyapada (c. 6th A.D.) do not make any mention of it. In Svetambara tradition, Siddhasena Divakara (c. 4th A. D. ), Jinabhadra (c. 6th A. D. ), Siddhasena Gani (c. 7th A. D.) and Haribhadra (c. 8th A. D.)

Page #16
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 37 mention nothing about these three independent c. 12th A.D. It was Yasovijaya who followed the style Pramanas. In Svetambara tradition, as per my know- of Navyanyaya and for the first time composed ledge, only Siddharsi (c. 9th A. D. ), in his commen- Tarkabhasa and Nyayabindu in Navyanyaya style, in tary of Nyayavatara has mentioned the validity of the latter part of c. 17th A.D. In Digambara tradition, these three independent Pramanas. Saptabhangitarangani was written by Vimaladas Thus, in Digambara tradition from c. 8th A.D. onowing the same style. and in Svetambara tradition by the end of c. 9th A.D. Thus, we can conclude that it is only from c. memory (smrti). recognition (pratyabhijna) and 3rd A. D.-12th A. D. when Jaina logic made its proinduction (tarka ) were established as independent gress and opened a new vistas for its further developPramana. Earliest works on Jaina logic were in brief ment, and mainly concerned with the Jaina concept of Development of the Theory of Non-absolutism Pramana. Works on Jaina logic, composed later on (Anekantavada ) and Syadvada were a healthy review of the conceptions of Pramana Non-violence in practice, non-absolutistic prevalent in other philosophical traditions. Patra- approach in thought and conditional predication or svami's Trilaksanakadarthana was the first one to qualified assertion (Syavada ) in speech are the refute the Hetulaksana of Dinnaga. Vidyanandi pillars upon which the splendid palace of Jainism is (c. 9th A. D.) wrote Pramanapariksa to evaluate the erected. Theory of non-absolutism (Anekantavada ) characteristics of Pramana, their divisions and sub- is the central philosophy of Jainism. So far as the divisions, prevalent in other philosophical traditions. historical development of this theory of AnekantaIn this period some more works pertaining to Jaina vada is concerned, its historical development can be logic (Pramanasastra ) had been composed but seem divided into three phases. Its first phase begins with to be destroyed. In Digambara tradition, Prabha- the preachings of Mahavira, i. e., c. 6th B. C. and is candra's Nyayakumudacandra and Prameyakamala- extended upto the composition of Umasvati's martanda are two of some prominent works Tattvarthasutra ( first half of the c. 4th A. D.). It was composed in c. 10th-11th A. D. Both of the works are the period of origination of Anekantavada. Basically, the commentaries on Akalanka's Laghiyastrayi and in the non-violent and tolerant attitude of Mahavira helSvetambara tradition, Vadidevasuri's Pramananaya- ped much in the development of the non-absolutistic tattvaloka and its commentary Syadvadaratnakara (c. principle of Anekantavada. In Sutrakrtanga, he clearly 11th A. D. ) are well known works on Jaina logic. opines, "one who praises one's own view-point and After that Hemcandra's Pramana-mimamsa (c. 12th discards other's view as a false-one and thus, distorts A. D.) is an important work which mainly deals with the truth will remain confined to the cycle of birth and the concept of pramana though it is incomplete. The death." development of Navya-nyaya (Neo-logistic system) It follows that Mahavira preached the utterbegins with the entry of Gangesh Upadhyaya in the most carefulness regarding one's speech. In his field of Indian Nyaya in c. 13th A. D. But for four opinion speech should be unassaulting as well as true. centuries the Jaina logicians were unacquainted with He warned his disciple monks against making unwarthis new literary genre and continued to follow the ranted.categorical assertions or negations. He instrucstyle of Vadidevasuri. Thus, the development of Jaina ted them to make only a conditional statement Logic ( Nyayasastra ) remained interrupted after (Vibhajjavaya Vagarejja ). It is the Vibhajjavada

Page #17
38 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI from which the theory of non-absolutism (Anekantavada) emerged. Sutrakrtanga, in its first chapter records various contemporary one-sided doctrines regarding the nature of soul and creation of the universe. Mahavira's approach to all these doctrines is non-absolutistic or relative. In every case, whether it was the problem of eternalism (Sasvatavada) and nihilism (Ucchedavada) about the soul or that of finiteness and infiniteness of the world or that identity and difference of body and soul or also that of monism and pluralism, Mahavira's approach was never absolutistc but relativistic. It was firmly maintained in Jaina canons that the nature of reality is complex and multi-dimensional as well as confluence of many self-contradictory attributes, so it can be approached and explained from various angles or view-points. It is believed that Tirthankara Mahavira while explaining the reality uttered first sentence as tripod (tripadi), i.e., Uppannei, Vigamei, Dhuvei Va. Accordingly in Jainism Reality / 'Sat' is defined as possessing origination, decay and permanence (Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat: Tattvartha, 5.29). This three-fold nature of Reality is the base of the Jaina theory of Non-absolutism. On the one hand, the nature of Reality is complex, i. e., a synthesis of opposites identity and difference, permanence and change, oneness and manyness and so on, and on the other hand scope of our experience, knowledge and even expression is limited and relative, so we can not know the Reality as a whole from any particular angle. Our every knowledge about the Reality will always be partial and relative only and in that position our expression or statement about the Reality will be always relative and not categorical ( arpita narpite siddhe: Tattvartha, 5). In canonical age we have an account of only this much discussion about Anekantavada. Thus, in the first phase of its development, this theory was evolved from the theory of Vibhajja vada. Though the theory of Vibhajjavada was common to both Jainism and Buddhism but so far as Buddhist approach to the metaphysical doctrine is concerned, it was a negative one, while Mahavira's was a positive one. Lord Buddha maintained that whether it is eternalism or nihilism, none of these can be regarded as true because any one-sided approach neither represents a right vision regarding Reality nor it explains our practical problems of sorrow and sufferings. That is why he kept mum while answering the questions related to the metaphysics. It is due to this negative approach that Buddha's theory of Nihilism came into existence later on in Buddhism. On the other hand, Mahavira's approach towards these onesided views was positive. He tried to synthesize these different views on the basis of his theory of Anekantavada. The synthesis is found for the first time in Bhagavatisutra, wherein, on the basis of two main divisions of Nayas - substantial standpoint (Dravyarthika Naya) and modal standpoint (Paryayarthika Naya) as well as Niscaya Naya, Vyavahara Naya and different Niksepas (Positing) and Gateways of investigations (Anuyogadvaras ) such as Substance (dravya ), space (desa ), time (kala), mode (bhava ), name (nama ), symbol (sthapana ), potentiality (dravya ), actuality (bhava ) etc. He has synthesised the various opposite view-points. So it is clear that in the first phase, i. e., before c. 3rd A. D. Vibhajjavada of Lord Mahavira was fully developed in the positive and synthesising theory of Anekantavada along with its subsidiary doctrines such as the doctrine of standpoint (Nayavada) etc. Thus, along with the origination of Anekantavada, the doctrines of Naya, Niksepa and Anuyogadvara came into existence. The second phase of the development of Nonabsolutism / Anekantavada began with Siddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka (c. 4th A. D.), continue till the Haribhadra's works such as Saddarsana

Page #18
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 39 samuccaya, Sastravartasamuccaya (c. 8th A. D.) etc. Mallavadi are some what different in their names and This second phase has three main characteristics -- presentation. Though the author showed the relationfirstly, apart from the Agamic Nayas, i. e., ship between the traditional seven Nayas and his Dravyarthika (Substantial) and Paryayarthika twelve Nayas ( See : Malvania D., Agama Yuga ka (modal ) or Niscaya ( Ideal ) and Vyavahara (pra- Jaina Darsana, p. 312. ) though doctrine of Anuyogactical view-point), the doctrine of Seven-fold Nayas, dvaras (gateways of the investigation ) can be traced i.e., Naigama ( considering both the general and in some of the Agamas of later period as Bhagavati, particular properties of the thing ), Sangraha ( consi- Samavayanga, Prajnapana and Anuyogadvarasutra dering general properties of an object ), Vyavahara yet the number of these gateways of investigation (considering specific properties of an object ), never remained constant. In Tattvarthasutra, it was Rjusutra ( confined only to the present mode of an only eight while in Dhavala tika of Satkhandagama object), Sabda (treating with synonyms ), Samabhi- its numbers were increased upto eighty. This doctrine rudha ( taking into cosideration only etymological of gateways of investigation is nothing but viewing, meaning of word. According to this Naya, even word understanding and explaining the nature of the things has a different meaning ) and Evambhuta Naya with their multiple facets or aspects and thus it can (denoting object in its actual state of performing its also be considered as a development of Vibhajyavada natural function ) was developed. Though the Agamic and Anekantavada. Here, it is noteworthy that this Nayas remained in vogue till the Kundakunda's increase in the number of the Nayas (view-points ) or period (c. 6th A. D.). the Anuyogadvaras was well received by later Jaina thinkers because the earlier Acaryas kept the door It is to be noted that in earlier Agamas such as Acaranga, Sutrakrtanga, Uttaradhyayana etc., this open in this regard. Siddhasena Divakara clearly mentions in his work Sanmatitarka ( second half of concept of seven-fold view-point (Nayas ) is absent. Only in Anuyogadvarasutra and Nandisutra this thec. 4th A. D.) that number of view-points can be as much as the way of linguistic expressions. (Sanmaticoncept of seven-fold view-point is found but these are the works of thec. 2nd-4th A.D. In Samavayanga, tarka, 3/47) it is an interpolation. Secondly, in Tattvarthasutra Doctrine of Seven-fold Predication (Saptabhangi) (first half of c. 4th A. D.) the number of basic view The second main characteristic of this second points are five. The Samabhirudha and Evambhuta phase of the development of Anekantavada, is the are accepted as sub-types of Sabdanaya. Siddhasena doctrine of seven-fold predications or the seven ways Divakara (c. 4th A. D. ) in his Sanmatitarka has of expressions (Saptabhangi ). The concept, regardaccepted six Nayas, he does not mention Naigama ing the ways of expressions, dates back to the Vedic Naya. Thus, we may conclude that the number of period. The two forms of expressions / predications - Nayas, as seven, was finalised later on but prior to the affirmation and negation, are accepted by all. These end of c. 5th A. D. Only with one exception of two depend on existence or non-existence. By negaMallavadi (c. 5th ), who mentions twelve Nayas in ting both the existence and non-existence, we have a his work 'Dvasaranayacakra, development in the third way of expression Avyaktavyata, i.e., inexpresnumber of Nayas became stagnant because of the sibility. By accepting the both a fourth way of expresdevelopment of the doctrine of Anuyogadvaras, i, e., sion was emerged, comprising both affirmation and the gateways of investigation. These twelve Nayas of negation. These four ways of expression are well

Page #19
40 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI accepted in Upanisadas and Buddhism. So far as Jain- ism is concerned it is in the Bhagavatisutra where for the first time these different ways of expressions (Bhangas ) are found. In Bhagavatisatra (9/5 ) while dealing with the concept of Hell, Heaven and abode of Siddhas, Lord Mahavira mentioned only three ways of expression, i. e., affirmation, negation and in- expressibility but while dealing with the aggregates of the different numbers of atom, he mentioned more than twenty-three ways of expressions. Pt. Dalsukha Malvania is right when he says that of course we have seven predications or Saptabhangi in Bhagavatisutra, but in my humble opinion these different ways of expressions (Bhangas ) do not represent the doctrine of seven-fold predications rather it is only a prior state. Here, these ways of expressions are framed on the number of atoms in aggregates. Secondly, this discussion may be a later interpolation because in Tattvarthasutra and its auto-commentary, this concept of seven-fold predication is absent. Thirdly, it is also clear that neither in Bhagavatisutra nor in the Tattvarthasutra and it's auto-commentary, the theory of seven-fold predication is systematically presented in its logical form, with number of predications as seven and only seven. For the first time in Siddhasena Divakara's Sanmatitarka, this theory of seven-fold predication is logically presented. After that in Apta- mimamsa of Samantabhadra (c. 5th ), Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada (c. 6th ), Pancastikaya ( 14 ) and Pravacanasara (2/23 ) of Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) and some other later works of this period this doctrine of seven-fold conditional predication has been discu- ssed in detail. In general, there are only three types of our linguistic expression - affirmation, negation and inexpressibility. On the basis of these three funda- mental ways of linguistic expressions and their combinations mathematically only seven predications are possible neither more nor less. In order to show the conditionality or relativity of these seven-fold predi- cations Jaina acaryas put a qualifying mark before each of the predication / statement, so that the affirmation or negation or even in-expressibility of predication may not be taken as absolute. This qualifying mark is the word 'Syat' (RTC), which being put before every predication, removes the every possibility of uncertainity and indefiniteness of the predication and make the predication conditional as well as relative. The seven-fold conditional predications are as follows: 1. Conditional affirmation (RIT afta) 2. Conditional negation ( PTL ifta) 3. Conditional inexpressibility (RIT 3Tama) 4. Conditional affirmation and negation respectively ( RITG 31 anita a) 5. Conditional affirmation and inexpressibility ( RTG 31 7 379Tel 7) 6. Conditional negation and inexpressibility ( RUG Ta 3athai 7 ) 7. Conditional affirmation, negation and inexpressibility (syAt asti ca nAsti ca avaktavyaM ca) It is noteworthy that for Jainas inexpressibility (anirvacaniyata or avyaktavyata ) does not denote absolute inexpressibility as Vedanta means. It is only conditional inexpressibility because simultaneous affirmation and negation are not possible in our linguistic expressions. The Jaina doctrines of non-absolutism, conditional predication and view-points yielded good results particularly in that age of philosophical disputation as well as religious and social conflicts. Though the Jaina thinkers made optical estimation of the philosophical assumptions of other schools of thought yet they paid proper respect to them and accepted their Truth value on the basis of different Nayas. In this regard the views of Siddhasena Divakara and Haribhadra are commendable. Siddhasena tried to establish the truth value of other schools of thought on different view-points. He said Sankhya school is

Page #20
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion true from substantial view-point, while Buddhist view is true from the view-point which is confined to only present mode of an object (Rjusutra Naya ). He further remarks that all schools of thought are true when they are understood from their own standpoint and so far as they do not reject the truth- value of others. A non-absolutist does not divide them into the category of true and false. The same spirit is also followed by Haribhadra in his works such as sastravartasamuccaya and Saddarsana- samuccaya. It is only Haribhadra, who in his Sad darsanasamuccaya, presented all the six schools of thought in their true spirit and without condemning them. No other work in the history of Indian philo- sophy has been written till date in such a noble spirit. In this period, Jaina acaryas tried to syn-thesize the different conflicting views and thus tried to establish harmony and peace in the society. Historical Development of Jaina Metaphysics Astikaya The doctrine of pancastikaya which refers to the five constituents of the universe is regarded as the most original theory of Jainism. There is, of course, no mention of pancastikaya in Acaranga, but it is found in the Parsva chapter of Rsibhasita (c. 4th B. C. ). This shows that this concept belongs to the tradition of Parsva (c. 8th B. C.). In the tradition of Mahavira, however, we find its first reference in Bhagavatisutra (about c. 1st B. C.). In Jaina philosophy the word astikaya means the substance which exists ( asti ) with an extension in the space, i.e., constituent component ( kaya ). In Jaina philosophy jiva, dharma, adharma, akasa and pudgala - these five are regarded as astikayas from the very ancient times, and there is no change in this concept, even today. They can be translated as the living beings (jiva ), Space (akasa ), Medium of motion and rest (dharma-adharma taken together) and Matter (pudgala ). Among these five astikayas, three of them - dharma, adharma and akasa are thought of as unitary and remaining two - jiva and pudgala as infinite in number. From the c. 3rd-10th A. D. there is no major change in the concept execpt that, with the development of the concept of saddravya (the six-fold theory of substance ), time (kala ) was also accepted as an unextended substance (anastikaya ). The debate whether time can be regarded as an independent substance or not begins with thec. 3rd 4th A. D. or even before the composition of Tattvarthasutra; and the difference of opinion in this regard continues upto the time of Visesavasyakabhasya (c. 7th A. D. ). Some of the Jaina philosophers regarded time as an independent substance while the others did not. But subsequently Digambara and Svetambara both the traditions synthesized the concept of astikaya and dravya and both of them agreed to accept time asanastikaya, i.e., an independent unextended substance. The idea of Pancastikaya is, distinctly, an original concept of the Jainas. We do not find it in any other ancient philosophical system, except that in the ancient times astikaya has a broad and general meaning, denoting anything that exists (asti ); but in due course of time there developed a distinction between astikaya and anastikaya and the former was taken to be an extended substance in space. Technically speaking astikaya is a multi-spatial substance ( bahupradesi-dravya ), i.e., a substance which is extended in space. Pancastikaya The Jaina concept of Saddravya ( theory of six substances ) has developed from this very idea of pancastikaya by adding time as an independent substance in the earlier concept of pancastikaya. The concept of Saddravya came into existence during the c. 1st-2nd A. D. Thus the concept of pancastikaya is definitely a very old concept because we find its reference in the Parsva chapter of Isibhasiyaim, one

Page #21
Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI of the oldest scriptures. Till the period of Acaranga move his hands. Thus, the concept of dharma and and the first Srutaskandha of Sutrakrtanga we donot adharma as the respective medium of motion and rest, find any reference to this concept so far as the seems to be a later concept. This idea has arrived by Mahavira's tradition is concerned. Thus, we can say the time of the composition of Tattvarthasutra (i.e. in that the concept basically belongs to Parsva tradition. the second half of the c. 3rd or first half of the When tire followers of Parsva were included in the c. fourth ). The allusions made in Bhagavati and other Mahavira's order, their concept of pancastikaya, along scriptures clearly show that the meanings of with some other concepts, was also accepted in the dharmastikaya and adharmastikaya in those days Mahavira's tradition. Bhagavatisutra for the first time were identical to the meaning of the terms dharma mentions that the world is made of dharma, adharma, and adharma as pious and sinful respectively. Thus, akasa, jiva and pudgala. Isibhasiyaim only refers to the concept of dharma andadharma as the medium of the five astikayas but has not mentioned their names. motion and rest, respectively, seems to be a latter Even, if the names were decided, we find no descri- concept, but this idea has arrived by the time of the ption as to their exact nature and function. Further, composition of Tattvarthasutra (i.e., c. 3rd A.D.). In the meaning that we understand of the pancastikaya, Uttaradhyayana, chapter 28th also dharma and today, is gradually ascribed to them in due course of adharma are mentioned as the medium of motion and time. We find atleast two references in the Bhagavati- rest respectively, but according to scholars this sutra which clarify that the dharma-astikaya and the chapter is a later addition of the c. 1st or 2nd A. D. adharma-astikaya at that time did not mean media of Seven Categories motion and rest, respectively. In the 20th sataka of Bhagavatisatra, it is mentioned that abstinence from In SatrakTtanga (2/5-765-782 ) we find two the eighteen places of sin and observance of the five categories of being (asti ) and not-being (nasti). The elements which are classified under being category vigilances (samitis ) alongwith three controls (guptis ) is dharmastikaya, while indulging in the eighteen are -- loka (universe), aloka ( space beyond places of sin and not following the five vigilances universe ) jiva ( the living-being ), dharma, adharma, (samitis ) and the three controls (guptis ) is, called bandha, moksa, punya, papa, asrava, samvara, vedana, nirjara, kriya, akriya, krodha, mana, lobha, adharmastikaya. In the 16th sataka of Bhagavati prema, dvesa, caturanta, samsara, deva, devi, siddhi, sutra, the question is raised whether a deity (deva ) standing at the end of the universe (unoccupied space) asiddhi, siddhanijasthana, aadhu, asadhu and kalyana. can move his hands outside the universe (aloka ) ? This detailed list is abridged in the second The answer given to this question is not only negative part ( srutaskandha ) of Sutrakitarga. Here we find but is also explanatory. It says that as the movement the mention of jiva-ajiva, punya-papa, asravaof Jiva and Ajiva is possible only through matter samvara, vedana-nirjara, kriya-adhikarana, bandha (pudgala ) and as there is complete absence ofjivas and moksa. It is an earlier stage, as Pt. Dalsukha and the pudgalas in the aloka, the movement of the Malvania observes, the concept of nine-fold elements hands of the diety is impossible there. If dharma is developed from this very list after deleting vedana, dravya was considered as a medium of motion, at that kriya and adhikarana from it. This is alluded, in time the answer would have been in different way, Samavayarga and Uttaradhyayana, approximately c. i.e., due to the absence of dharma-dravya he can not 2nd or 3rd A. D. Out of these nine-fold elements

Page #22
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion Umasvati presents, the concept of seven elements (tattvas) including punya and papa under asrava, in the c. 3rd-4th. We find discussions of the seven-fold or nine-fold categories (tattva) in the later composed scriptures of both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions. This shows that the concept of seven categories (tattva) has also its origin in Sutrakrtanga and has taken final shape in due course of time and got finalised in c. 3rd or 4th A. D. During the c. 7th10th A.D. these ideas had properly conceptualised as it is described in details with their various classes and sub-classes. We find that at the root of the formulation of the concepts of seven or nine-fold categories, six-fold substances and the six-fold jivanikaya, is the basic idea of Pancastikaya. The Jaina thinkers, of course, have developed the concept of six substances by synthesizing their conception of Pancastikaya and the idea of substance as it is found in the other philosophical systems. In the following pages we will try to see as to how it has worked out. Substance What is known as substance is the fundamental constituent of the universe. The sat, of the ancient Indian philosophical traditions, has taken the form of dravya (substance) later on. As a matter of fact, the philosophical traditions which regard the ultimate reality as one and unchangeable have adopted the world 'Sat' and those which consider the reality as many and changeable have used the word substance (dravya ), instead of 'sat'. In the systems of Indian thought like Nyaya and Vaisesika etc. the use of the word substance (dravya ) or padartha remains in vogue. So far as the Jaina philosophy is concerned though we find the term dravya in Acaranga yet the word is not used in any technical sense. In Uttaradhyayana, the word 'dravya' is mentioned for the first time. That particular chapter of Uttaradhyayana, where indravya is discussed, is reg 43 arded as relatively later, ofc. 2nd or 3rd A. D., by the scholars. There we find that not only the word dravya (substance) is used, but the mutual relation among the substance, attributes and modes are also discussed. Substance is defined as substratum of attributes (gunanam asavo davvo ). In my opinion, this definition of substance, given in Uttaradhyayana, seems to be influenced by the Nyaya-Vaisesika school. Pujyapada Devanandi defined substance as an aggregate of attributes in his commentary on Tattvarthasutra, known as Sarvarthasiddhi (c. 5th or 6th A. D. ). This definition seems to be influenced by the Buddhist Skandhavada. In favour of this view Pujyapada has quoted 'gunanam samuo davvo' from the scriptures. This shows that this concept should have been prior to the c. 6th. Both the definition of substance as 'substratum of attributes' and 'aggregate of attributes' should have been in my opinion, prevalent before the c. 3rd. By synthesizing these two views through Jaina theory of Anekantavada (non-absolutism) the substance is defined for the first time, as that which possesses attributes and modes in Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra. Six-substances (Saddravya) We have already stated that the concept of saddravya (six substances) has been developed from the idea of pancastikaya. By adding 'time' as an independent substance in pancastikaya, the concept of six substances (saddravya ) is formulated. Though from c. 2nd-7th A. D., 'Time' was always a matter of discu ssion whether it is an independent substance or not (as it is indicated in several works from Tattvarthasutra to Visesavasyakabhasya ), yet finally it was accepted as an independent substance. It was c. 7th A. D. when both the Svetambara and Digambara traditions agreed to accept the idea of saddravya and no change occurred in the theory afterwards. The six substances are now classified into the following three main divisions-astikaya-anastikaya, jiva (living),

Page #23
44 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI ajiva (non-living) and murta-amurta. In the first classification - dharma, adharma, akasa, jiva and pudgala - these five are regarded as astikaya and 'Time' as anastikaya ( unextended substance ). In the second classification dharma, adharma, akasa, pudgala and kala are regarded as Ajiva (Non-living beings) and the Jiva is considered as living being. In the last classification jiva, dharma, adharma, akasa and kala are regarded as amurta (abstract) and pudgala (matter) as marta (concrete). We have already stated that the development of the concept of substance in the Jaina philosophy is almost influenced by the Nyaya-Vaisesika philosophy. Jainacaryas have synthesised the Vaisesika idea of substance with their own concept of pancastikaya. As such while in Vaisesika there are nine substances, the Jainas, by adding time to pancastikaya have made them six in all. Jiva, akasa and kala remained common in both. Prthvi, ap, tejas and marut - the four, out of the five mahabhutas which are regarded as substances in the Vasesika are not recognised by the Jainas as independent substances. They are only considered as varieties of jiva-dravya. The Jainas have also not accepted 'dik' and 'mana' as independent substances, instead they have included three others - dharma, adharma and pudgala in their scheme of substances. It may also be noted that while the other traditions have treated prthvi, ap, vayu and agni as jada (nonliving), the Jainas regard them as living. Thus, the Jaina concept of six substances (saddravya ) seems to be quite original. We can only find its partial similarity with other traditions. The main reason behind this is that the Jainas have developed their idea of six substances (saddravya ) on the line of their own theory of pancastikaya. Sadjivanikaya Along with pancastikaya, we also find the concept of sadjivanikaya (six-fold living beings) in Jaina canons. This concept has developed from jivastikaya, one of the kayas in pancastikaya. The six kinds of jivastikaya are -- earth (prthvikaya), water (apkaya), air (vayukaya ), fire (tejas-kaya). vegitation (vanaspatikaya) and mobile beings (trasakaya ). The use of the word kaya (body) for earth etc. is found since remote past. In Palitripitaka Ajitakesa-kambali, calls prthvi, ap, tejas and vayu the four bhutas as kaya but Pakudhakaccayana adds three more to the list, i.e., happiness (sukha ), sufferings (duhkha) and the living being (jiva) and make them seven in number. The Jainas position is a little different. First they regard the five-jiva, dharma, adharma, akasa and pudgala as kaya (astikaya) and then include prthvi, ap, tejas, vayu, vanaspati and trasa, six in all, underjivanikaya. Thus, there are two concepts-pancastikaya and sadjivanikaya and both of them have been prevalent in Jainism in thec. 4th-3rd B. C. in their crude form, but were developed and systematised in c. 3rd-5th A. D. Distinct references of sadjivanikaya are available in the first chapter of Acaranga and in Sutrakrtanga also. It is accepted by all the scholars that all these scriptures are of the c. 4th B. C. and are conte mporary to the older part of Pali Tripitaka and earlier Upanisadas. It is likely that these concepts might have belonged to Mahavira. The concept of pancastikaya basically belongs to the Parsva tradition. It is recoginsed in the tradition of the Mahavira also while interpreting the world. There is a reference in the Bhagavatisutra to the effect that Mahavira has accepted the Parsva ideas that the universe is made of Pancastikaya. I do not agree with Pt. Malvania's opinion that the concept of pancastikaya is a later developed concept. It is true, of course, that in the earlier works of Mahavira's tradition there is mention of only sadjivanikaya and not of pancastikaya. But when the Parsva tradition merged with that of the Mahavira,

Page #24
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 45 the philosophical ideas of the former also got their which they transmigrate from one Yoni to another and way in the latter. As such, the idea of pancastikaya the manner in which they take their food etc. A type was basically of Parsva tradition, so it could find its ofjivas are called anasyata there. From this, we can place in Bhagavatisatra after its merging in conclude that the idea of anantakaya ( infinite jiva in Mahavira's tradition. one body) and pratyekakaya (Onejiva in one body) came into existence in c. 3rd 4th. The decision as to other living beings but even earth, water, fire and air which of the creatures (jivas ) are to be included in too, as living beings. This is a very typical Jaina con the two, three or the four sensed jiva, respectively is cept. In the other systems, such as Nyaya -Vaisesika also finalised afterwards. In Bhagavati, it takes the etc. these four elements are considered as maha- form ofjiva-ajiva division, however, the concept has bhutas and as such jada (unconscious, inanimate). fully developed by the time of Prajnapana because Among the mahabhutas, akasa (space) is the only there we have detailed discussions on indriya, ahara, element, regarded as non-living (ajiva ) in both the paryapti etc. traditions (Jainism as well as Nyaya-Vaisesika ). After the c. 3rd an important change occurred That is whyakasa is included in pancastikaya but has in the classification of mobile and immobile being no place in sadjivanikaya in which only the other (trasa and sthavara ). Right from Acaranga to four, viz., earth, water, fire and air are included. The Tattvarthasutra, earth, water and vegetation are Jaina thinkers accept not only the life as dependent on regarded as immobile (sthavara ) and fire, air and the earth, water and the like but also as living too. That is two, three, four and five-sensed living creatures as why the abstinence from violence towards earth, mobile (trasa ). The last chapter of Uttaradhyayana, water, air, fire and vegetation is so prominently pres Kundakunda's Pancastikayasara and Umasvati's cribed in the Jaina Sadhana, parti-cularly for the Tattvarthasutra confirm it. Afterwards not only earth, Muni's. The subtleness and the extre-me that we find water and vegetation but all the one-sensed beings are in the observance of non-violence (Ahimsa ) in the regarded as immobile. However, due to the moveJainism have their roots in the idea ofsadjivanikaya. ment seen in fire and air it becomes difficult to regard If we regard earth etc. under the category of the living them as immobile. The root cause of the problem was beings, it is but natural to abstain from their violence. that in those days the two or more sensed beings were The conception ofsadjivanikaya in Jainism is called trasa, hence it was thought that other than two the oldest one. It is accepted as such from its origin to or more sensed beings all the one sensed beings are date. It is difficult to say that it has undergone any considered as sthavara ( immobile ). This shows the fundamental change between c. 3rd-10th except that change which had taken place in the c. 5th-6th in the some important issues regarding their classification trasa-sthavara classification, approximately. After have been raised and some detailed informations that in both the Svetambara and Digambara sects, the about their body, their way of taking food, their concept of pancasthavara has found firm footings. It language, their classes, sub-classes etc. are depicted is noteworthy here that when air and fire are regarded in Prajnapana and Jivajivabhigama. According to Pt. as trasa, there is the use of the term udara (urala ) for Malvania there is a description in the second chapter trasa. In the beginning the criterion of classification of Sutrakrtanga, known as Aharaparijna, regarding of trasa-sthavara is made from the point of view of the yonis in which jivas take the birth and the way in moveability of things, and as air and fire are

Page #25
46 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI moveable in nature they are thought of as trasa. The moveable nature of vayu is so apparent that it is called trasa, first of all out of five one sensed beings. By minute observations, it is seen that fire too has a tendency of gradual expansion through fuel so it is also included into trasa (mobile). But the move-ment of water is regarded as possible only due to the low level of the earth so movement is not its own nature. Therefore, water, like the vegetation is also taken as sthavara (immobile ). As the movement in air and fire is inherent so these two are considered as trasa and other as sthavaras. Further when the two or more sensed jivas are recognised as immobile (sthavara) the problem of reconciling this view with Agamic statements arose. In the Svetambara schools this reconciliation is marked as the basis of the distinction of labdhi and gati. From the standpoint of the labdhi, air and fire are viewed as immobile (sthavara) but viewed from the angle of movement (gati) they remain mobile (trasa). In the Dhavala commentary of Digambara tradition (c. 10th) the problem is solved differently. It is said that the basis of calling air and fire as sthavara, is not their movement but their Nama-karma origin. Jayasenacarya, the commentator of pancastikaya of Kundakunda, solves the problem by making a distinction between niscayanaya and vyavahara-naya. According to him, the earth, water and vegetation are included into panca sthavara because of their Nama-karma origin, but air and fire classification under pancasthavars are only from the practical point of view (vyavahara). From niscayanaya they are trasa as they actually appear to be mobile. All these excercises really are worthwhile attempts to reconcile the differences, cropped of during respective contentions of the ancient and the later scriptures. So far as the question of different classifications of jivas are concerned they are crystalised during the c. 3rd-10th. In that period the concepts of Jivasthana, Marganasthana, Gunasthana have also developed. Wherever these topics have been discussed in the Anga-Agamas such as Bhagavati etc. the reference has been made to Anga-bahya Agamas (External authorities) such as Prajnapana etc. It confirms that these theories are developed after the c. 2nd. First they are discussed in the Anga-bahya Agamas and afterwards at the time of Valabhi-vacana they are included in Anga-agamas with the note that for detailed discussions relevant Anga-bahya scriptures are to be seen. Jaina Theory of Gunasthana and its Developement The doctrine of fourteen stages of spiritual development (Gunasthana) is one of the most popular theories of Jainism. Except Samavayanga, none of the canonical work refers to this theory. Scholars are of the strong opinion that the reference relating to Gunasthana found in Samavayanga is an interpolation incorporated at the time of second Valabhi Council (c. 5th A. D. ). The Niryuktis are also silent about this theory, except the present edition of Avasakaniryukti wherein, two gathas mention the names of these fourteen Gunasthanas. This is remarkable that till the time of Haribhadra's commentary on Avasyaka Niryukti, these two gathas were not accepted as Niryukti gathas as in his commentary, he has clearly mentioned that these gathas has been quoted by him from the Sangrahani-sutra. It seems that till the c. 4th A. D. the concept of these fourteen stages of spiritual development has not come into existence. Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra throwing light on almost every aspect of Jaina philosophy and religion including various stages of spiritual development does not mention the fourteen Gunasthanas as such. The same is the case with its auto-commentary. Though in the ninth chapter of the Tattvarthasutra the author has mentioned four, seven and ten stages of spiritual development, yet he does not make any mention of these fourteen stages in it.

Page #26
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 47 false attitudes like the taste of curd mixed with sugar, which is neither sweet nor sour. This is the stage of doubt. In this stage soul accepts neither the perverse attitude nor the right one. It remains in dilemma. Thus, we may conclude that the theory of the fourteen stages of spiritual development was not prevalent at the time of compilation of Tattvarthasutra, otherwise, Umasvati would have mentioned it. These evidences show that the theory of fourteen Gunasthanas came into existence after Tattvarthasutra, i.e., c. 4th A. D. For the first time, this theory was introduced along with all its details, in Puspadanta and Bhutabali's Satkhandagama (c. 5th A. D.). After that it is discussed in Pujyapada's Sarvarthasiddhi ( c. 6th A. D.) and Tattvarthabhasya-tika of Siddhsenagani (c. 7th-8th ) in detail, however, its pre-concept in the form of ten stages was already present in Acaranganiryukti ( 22-23 ) and Tattvarthasutra ( 9/47 ). From these ten stages of spiritual development the theory of fourteen Gunasthana was conceptualised in c. 5th A. D. These fourteen stages are as follows: 1. The first stage is called mithyadrsti, i.e., perversity of attitude. It is the lowest stage from where the spiritual journey of soul starts. It is considered as a stage of spiritual development only be- cause in this very state the efforts for the attainment of the right vision are made. The process of granthibheda occurs at the end of this stage. At this stage the soul, is in the grip of extreme passions (ananta- nubhandhi kasaya ). 2. The second stage is known as sasvadana- samyagdrsti, i.e., to have a momentary taste of the right vision. This is an intermediate stage and it occurs when soul falls from the right attitude towards the false attitude. This stage is called sasvadanasamyagdrsti because in this stage soul has a taste of right attitude or right version just as a person after eating delicious dishes vomits and has a taste of those dishes in that state of vomiting. 3. The third stage is technically known as samyag-mithyadrsti. It is mixed stage of the right and 4. The fourth stage is aviratasamyagdrsti, a stage of right attitude without right conduct. Though in this scheme of Gunasthana it is considered to be the fourth stage, but in reality it is the first stage in the upward journey of the soul towards its spiritual heights. It is the stage in which the soul gets the glimpse of truth for the first time. At this stage the self knows right as a right and wrong as a wrong but due to the lack of spiritual strength, inspite of the knowledge and the will, he cannot abstain himself from the wrong path of immorality. 5. The fifth stage is known as desavirata samyagdrsti. This is the stage of right attitude with partial observance and partial non-observance of moral code. A house-holder, who possesses right vision and observes five anuvratas, three gunavratas and four siksavratas, comes in this category. In this stage one knows what is right and also tries to practise it, but one cannot have full control over one's passions. At this stage there is only partial expression of the energy of self-control. After attaining the fourth stage, if one develops spiritual strength and has control over the second set of four passions, i.e. apratyakhyani-kasaya-catuska, one is able to attain this stage. 6. In spiritual journey of the soul, the sixth stage is called pramatta-samyata-gunasthana. It is the stage in which the self observes right conduct fully. He observes five mahavratas and other rules of fully moral conduct of a monk, yet he has an attachment towards his body and due to this attachement the spiritual inertia is still there. This is the stage of selfcontrol with spiritual inertia. At the end of this stage the aspirant tries to subside or annihilate the third set

Page #27
48 Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI of four passions and spiritual inertia and climbs the seventh ladder. 7. The seventh stage is the stage of selfcontrol and self awareness alongwith freedom from spiritual inertia, which is technically known as apramatta-samyata-gunasthana. At this stage the self has full control over his passions and observes the moral code without any negligence. This stage can be attained by overcoming the nine types of pramadas or unawareness and the three sets of four types of passions. From this stage there are two ways open for the upward spiritual journey of the soul. They are technically known as upasama-sreni and ksapakasreni. Upasama-dreni is the path of suppression or subsidence while the Kasapaka-sreni is the path of annihilation. The person, who climbs the ladder of spiritual progress by suppressing his passions, is bound to fall from spiritual heights but the person who climbs up the ladder of spiritual heights through the annihilation of his passions ultimately attains nirvana or emancipation. 8. The eighth stage of spiritual development is called apurvakarana. In this stage self attains a special purification and spiritual strength, and thus becomes capable of reducing the duration and the intensity of the previously bonded karmas. At this stage soul performs the four processes of the karma sthitighata (destruction of the duration of karmas ), rasaghata (destruction of the intensity of karmas ), guna-sankramana (transformation of the quality of karmic matter) and apurva-sthitibandha (bondage of an unprecedented kind of duration). This total process is technically known as apurva-karana. In this stage the soul for the first time experiences the spiritual bliss and tranquility and emotional disturbances do not effect it much. At this stage the three sets of four passions alongwith anger and pride of the fourth set disappear, only subtle deceit and greed alongwith nine sub-passions (instincts) remain. -- 9. The ninth stage is named as anivrttikarana, because the process of anivrttikarana operates in this stage. It is also known as badara-samparaya gunasthana, because in this stage there is occasional possibility of the soul being effected by gross passions (badara-samparaya ), although it has a power of control over them. At this stage, out of nine sub-passions, three types of sexual instinct subside and only six instincts and subtle greed remain, but due to the presence of sub-passions and subtle greed, a fear of attack by gross passions remain. At the end of this stage struggle for spiritual progress comes to an end and the soul climbs the tenth ladder. 10. This stage is named as suksmasamparayagunasthana, because at this stage only the subtle form of greed remains. This greed can be interpreted as the subconscious attachment of the soul with the body. When this subtle attachment alongwith remaining sub-passions is subsided or annihilated, the soul ascends to the next stage. The soul, who has made his spiritual progress through the ladder of subsidence (upasama-sreni) ascends to the eleventh gunasthana and the soul, which take up the ladder of annihilation (ksapaka-sreni), climbs directly to the twelfth stage. 11. This stage is known as upasantamohaniyagunasthana; because in this stage deluding karma remains in the subsided form. It is the highest stage for those who ascend through the ladder of subsidence or suppression. But ultimately the suppressed passions arise and disturb the tranquility of mind. The soul invariably descends from this stage either to the sixth, fifth or fourth or even first stage. This is noteworthy that Jainism does not advocate the process of suppression of the passions for the spiritual progress. This view of Jainism is further supported by the modern psychologists such as Freud etc. 12. The twelfth stage in the spiritual development of the soul is called ksinamoha-gunasthana. In this stage deluding karma, which is the main obstruc

Page #28
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion tion in the spiritual progress, is completely destroyed. At the end of this stage the rest three ghati-karma, jnanavarana, darsanavarana and antaraya are also destroyed and the soul ascends to the thirteenth stage. 13. This stage is known as sayogi-kevaligunasthana. In this stage soul attains the four infinites, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss, infinite power and thus becomes omniscient. It is the highest stage of spiritual development. It is the stage of jivana-mukti of other systems of Indian philosophy. Only due to the existence of four non-destructive karmas, i.e., ayu (age), nama, gotra and vedaniya, soul remains in the body till the span of age determining karma is not exhausted. 14. This stage is named as ayogikevali-gunasthana, because in this stage the omniscient soul controls its activities of mind, body and speech and thus prepares itself for the final emancipation. In this stage the remaining four non-destructive karmas are destroyed and the soul, after leaving the body, proceeds for its heavenly abode at the top of the universe and lives their for time-infinite. Three Stages of Spiritual Quest There are two classifications of spiritual quest in Jainism Theory of fourteen gunasthanas already discussed and the theory of three stages of spiritual developments. This second classification is based on Upanisadic classification of the soul. The Upanisadas have two, three and four-fold classification of the soul. In two-fold classification, the soul is of two kinds - antahprajnana and bahisprajnana (Mandukyopanisad, 7) and in four-fold classification, four stages of the soul, are: (i) sleeping state, (ii) dreaming state, (iii) awakened state and (iv) transcendental state (Mandukyopanisad, 2/12). Similarly, in Jainism spiritual quest has been summarised in three stages (i) the extrovert self (bahiratma), (ii) the introvert self (antaratma) and 49 (iii) transcendental self (paramatma). It is clear that in Jainism these three stages of spiritual quest are a later developed concept, because neither the canonical works nor the earlier works of Jaina philosophy of Umasvati, Siddhasena Divakara etc. refer it. In Digamabara tradition, for the first time we have a mention of these classification in Acarya Kundakunda's Moksaprabhrta (4) then in the Pujyapada's Samadhitantra (4), Svaamikumara's Kartikeyanupreksa (192) and Yogindu's Paramatmaprakasa (13). In Svetambara tradition, Haribhadra has mentioned these three states of spiritual quest in his work: These three stages are as under: 1. The extrovert self (bahiratma): Possesses perverse attitude hence consequently does not discri minates soul from body, regards the external thing as mine and takes keen interest in the worldly enjoyment. 2. The introvert self (antaratma): The self, which possessess the right attitude and therefore, clearly distinguishes the soul from the body and the other external belongings is called an introvert self. It does not take interest in the worldly enjoyments, but meditates on one's own real nature and regards external belongings as alien to it. This has been further subdivided into three states (i) lower, (ii) middle and (iii) higher. The soul belonging to fourth stage of gunasthana is called lower introvert self. The soul belonging to the fifth or the sixth stage of gunasthana is called middle introvert self and the soul belonging to the seventh to twelfth gunasthana is called higher introvert self. 3. The transcendental self (paramatma): The self, completely free from all sorts of impurities and passions such as aversion, attachment, pride, anger, deceit, greed, sexual desire and other sub-passions. According to Jaina tradition this type of self possesses four infinities, i.e., infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinte power. There are

Page #29
Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI two categories of transcendental Self-(i) Arhatas caritra ), (three jewels of Jainism ) which are equally and (ii) Siddhas. recognised and well received in both of the sects of Three-fold Path of Liberation Jainism - Svetambara and Digamabara alongwith The Jaina theory of bondage and liberation of their sub-sects. the soul is unique in Indian philosophy. Jainism holds In c. 4th-5th the meaning of the constituents that jiva is bound by its own karmas. With every of this three-fold path was reinterpreted. For example activity mental or physical and, however, subtle that the term darsana used in Acaranga, connoting the may be, the karma particles veils the soul and this is meaning as 'to see' or 'to observe' got its new interprethe bondage of the jiva. Thus, the cause of the tation in Uttaradhyayana as 'to believe' or 'to have bondage of the jiva is its own passionate activity of faith' in categories ( tattvas ), Tattvarthastra also mind, body and speech. As the cause of the bondage supports this meaning. Later on, this meaning of is the union of karma-matter with the soul, the libera samyak-darsana was replaced by the meaning as to tion means the separation or complete annihilation of have faith in Arhanta as a 'Deva', i.e., the object of these karma-particles, Jainism prescribes three-fold worship, Nirgrantha as a teacher ( guru ) and religion path for attainment of liberation. This three-fold as non-violence or being benevolent to others. This concept witnessed gradual changes in it between meaning is still in vouge. c. 3rd-10th A. D. Acaranga for the first time in its 6th Similarly, the meaning of samyak-jflana or chapter, mentions triyama, but as this term is used right knowledge also got some new interpretation. In there vaguely, it is quite difficult to derive any definite the earlier times Jaina thinkers held that the right meaning from it. That is why the commentators knowledge consists in knowing the things in its real explained it in different ways. Some explained it as nature alongwith its infinite facets. This right knowthree yamas, i.e., non-violence, truth and non- ledge is classified into five types in earlier Agamas possession, while some took it as Right knowledge, as -- (i) Matijnana - the knowledge obtained Right faith and Right conduct. In my opinion, this through five senses and the mind. It includes both term connotes the meaning of non-violence (nikhitta- sense perception as well as rational and inferential danda ), reasonableness (prajna) and composure or knowledge, (ii) Srutajplana- the knowledge acquired equanimity of mind. Apart from this three-fold con- through language or through symbols and expresscept we find mention of four-fold path of liberation in ions or scriptural knowledge, (iii) Avadhijnana - Uttaradhyayana and Kundakunda's Pancastikaya. extra-sensory perception akin to clairvoyance, (iv) This four-fold path includes - Right attitude, Right Manahparyayajnana -- reading the thought-waves of knowledge, Right conduct and Right penance. In others mind and (v) Kevalajnana - perfect knowSamavayanga and Sthananga, we find different out- ledge. The detailed description about the developlook as the both of the works mention two-fold, three- ment of these types of knowledge has already been fold, four-fold and five-fold path of liberation. Thus, discussed in the present article under the heading of till the canonical age the number of constituents of 'Jaina Theory of Knowledge'. the path of liberation was not fixed. For the first time Later on, Right knowledge was considered as in the Umasvati's Tattvarthasatra it was fixed as the knowledge of the seven categories (tattvas ), i.e., three-right knowledge (samyak-jnana ), right faith jiva (living subtance), ajiva (non-living substance ), (samyak-darsana ) and right conduct ( samyak- asrava (influx of karmic matter ), samvara ( stoppage

Page #30
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion is so due to its absence (Samayasarakalasa, 132). Thus, in Jainism during c. 6th-10th A. D., the right knowledge is equated with this science of discrimination of self and not-self which as a right knowledge was well accepted in Jainism as well as in Gita, Sankhya-Yoga system and Sankara-Vedanta also. rightness of an action is to be decided in relation with other living beings. In other words, external rightness of an action depends upon its outer social results. If an action results in the well being of others or cultivates social good from the practical or extrinsic view study of the science of discrimination in Samayasara (207-210). He says anger, deceit etc. are due to the power of fruition of the karmic matter, hence not the real nature of the self. The self is the pure knower. In Istopadesa (33) of Pujyapada Devanandi (c. 6th A. D.) it is mentioned that right knowledge is that in which a clear distinction between the self and not-self is made. Amrtacandra also followed the same meaning of right knowledge in his works. He says 'he who is liberated (siddha) has become so, through discri of the influx of the karmic matter),nirjara (stoppage of the accumulated karmic matter) and Moksa (complete annihilation of the karma and to remain in one's pure nature). But after thec. 3rd A. D. the meaning of right knowledge changed and it was held that right knowledge consisted in the discrimination between the self and not-self. The right knowledge is the knowledge of the pure self but the pure self can be known only through the reference to not-self. Thus, knowing the nature of the not-self and differentiating it from the self is called the science of discrimination (bheda-vijnana) and this science of discrimination constitutes the real meaning of right knowledge. Kundakunda (c. 6th A. D.) has made an exhaustive point, it is called good or right. But the intrinsic purity or righteousness of an action depends on the intention or motive of the doer. It is purity of intention or motive and not the external result, that makes an action intrinsically good or bad. In earlier times extrinsic aspect was more important for Jainas. In Sutrakrtanga the Buddhist view is criticised on the basis that they neglect the external aspect of an action. Later on, stress was given on intrinsic aspect by Jaina themselves. It is considered that an action is wrong if it is actuated by a bad intention, may it lead to the happiness of others. But we must be aware of the fact that Jainism being an integral philosophy does not hold any one-sided view, it gives due importance to the intention as well as the consequences of an action. It adds due imporatnce to the social aspects of morality. Jainas do not believe in the dualism of thought and action. For them a right action is the mination of self from not-self and who is in bondage, proof of mental purity and the mental purity is the basis for the righteousness of an action. This outlook about the righteousness of the conduct remained unchanged in the later times also. One should be aware of the fact that the general code of conduct for an house-holder as well as for monks and nuns remained the same from the earliest time to the c. 10th but with the passage of time some changes occurred in the interpretation of such rules. In Jainism right conduct has been described from two points of view - real and practical. In the earlier agamas from real point of view right conduct is considered in which the soul is completely free from passions and perversities. It is the state of equanimity of mind. In Jainism, it is maintained that conduct is dharma, dharma is equanimity and equanimity means the state of self which is free from the 51 vectors of attachment and aversion. From practical point of view right conduct means the adoption of such rules of disciplines as prescribed by the Jinas. Later on, right conduct is considered by Jaina thinkers on the basis of its two aspects - external and internal. These two aspects are technically called dravya and bhava respectively. In Jainism external

Page #31
Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI In fact, the canonical works have mere skel- were accepted in earlier code of conduct. Secondly, ton of rules and regulations of conduct, it is only in this period is considered very important as most of the Bhasya (c. 6th A. D.) and Carnis (c. 7th A. D.). the Jaina sects emerged in this period during c. 4thJaina thinkers tried to robe this skelton. They gave not 5th A. D. This period is known as the period of only the various interpretations to the rules and regu- Schism in Jaina history. Three important Jainalations for the monks and nuns as well as for the lay Sects - Digambara, Svetambara and Yapaniya have followers, according to their time and circumstances, their origin in this period. This is also to be noted that but discussed in detail their exceptions and atone- before c. 2nd-3rd A. D., the code of conduct of Jaina ments also. In the earlier times, it was maintained that ascetics was very rigorous but from the c. 3rd 4th instead of breaking the rules prescribed for self- many exceptions-relaxations were accepted in their control, it is better to accept the Samadhimarana, but earlier code of conduct. in those centuries it was maintained that one should The distinguished feature of this age was that protect one's self by all means. A monk or a nun who by this period Jaina ascetics started living in the protected his life by accepting or resorting to the temples and mathas instead of living in outskirts of exception was not considered the guilty of breaking the cities and secluded places. Not only this but insthe rules if his mind was pure. In Oghaniryukti ( 47- tead of following the vow of non-possession, in its 48), it is said that for the proper following of the path true spirit, Jaina monks became the owner of these of liberaton, protection of body is essential. Thus, in temples, mathas and the properties donated to the these centuries accepting the exceptions was favoured. temples. It was only this period when tradition of So far as the developments or the changes in Caityavasa, i.e., living in the Jina temples or mathas the ethical code of conduct of monks and nuns are started. Due to the tendency of Caityavasa Jaina concerned, the period from c. 3rd-10th A. D. must be monks became liberal to some extent in their code of considered of much importance on the two grounds. conduct. They started leading luxurious life ins-tead Firstly, in the c. 4th-5th A. D. a major diversion took of rigorous one. Inspite of these drawbacks of this place in the code of conduct of Jaina monks and nuns. period one thing is very remarkable that most of the Before this said period Jaina sadhana meant self- important Jaina literature was composed as well as purification, hence exclusively individualistic, but by written in this period. It is noteworthy that in this these centuries, instead of self-purification, stress was period (c. 4th-5th A. D.) writing of the Jaina canons laid on the propagation as well as survival of Jainism as well as other works on palm-leaves was started. in the society. As a result, instead of individual, Jaina The Bhattarakas and Yatis made better efforts to preorder (sargha ) became more important. It was main- serve the treasure trove of Jaina literature. They offertained that at any cost, the image of Jaina order (Jaina ed the medical services not only to Jaina society but society as a whole ) should not be damaged and for to the other people also. Thus, inspite of, some weakthis purpose external behaviour was considered of ness in following the religious code of conduct of much imporance than that of internal purification. A Jaina monks, they got favour of Jaina society at large slogan had been given that an action though pure, if due to their benevolent services to the society. against the general will, should not be followed. Not Development of the Concept of Tirthankara only this, but to maintain the dignity of Jaina sangha and Bhakti Movement in Jainism and propogation of Jaina religion various exceptions The concept of Tirtharikara is the pivot,

Page #32
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion around which the whole Jaina religion revolves. In Jainism, Tirthankara is regarded as the founder of religion as well as the object of worship. Generally, the Jaina concept of Tirthankara resembles that of incarnation (avataravada ) of Hinduism. Both carry the same object as they are propounders of religion but there is a fundamental difference in both of the concepts. According to Gita, the purpose behind the incarnation of God is to propound religion and to destroy the wicked while in Jainism Tirthankara is only regarded as propounder of religion, not the destroyer of wickeds. Not only this, the second fundamental difference between avatara and Tirthankara is that, in former the supreme power or God descends on earth to reincarnate himself in different forms in different ages and in this way, He is the one and only person who reincarnates himself from time to time, on the contrary, in Jainism every Tirthankara is a differ-ent person (Soul) and on account of his special personal efforts (sadhana) made in previous births, attains the supreme position. Though, it is very difficult to say that in this entire hypothesis of twenty-four Tirthankaras and twenty-four Avataras, who has taken to what extent from whom but it is fact that in the Chronologically, the concept of Tirthankara came into existence betweenc. 3rd-1st B. C. So far as the fully developed concept of Tirthankara is concerned, the first complete list of Tirthankaras is found in the appendix of the Samavayanga which was incorporated at the time of Valabhi council, i.e., c. 5th A.D. Among Jaina agamas the first part of Acaranga, considered as the oldest extant Jaina text (c. 5th B. C.), mentions the ascetic life of Mahavira only. Sutrakrtanga which describes some special features of Mahavira's life only hints about Parsva's tradition. Rsibhasita mentions Parsva and Vardhamana (Mahavira) as Arhat Rsi. The second part of Acaranga, for the first time describes Mahavira as Tirthankara alongwith some details of his parents, mentioning them as Parsvapatya. Uttaradhyayana process of development of their concepts both have clearly mentions some of the life-incidents of influenced each other. The word Tirthankara is being used from time immemorial. It mainly connotes the meaning as one who eastablishes four-fold order (caturvidha sangha). According to the old Buddhist literature, such as, Dighanikaya and Suttanipata (at the time of Buddha and Mahavira) there were flourished several persons who declared themselves as Tirthankaras. Dighanikaya mentions the Jnataputra Mahavira as one of the six Buddha's contemporaneous Tirthankaras. Though, it seems quite amazing because the first Srutaskandha of Acaranga and Sutrakrtanga, elaborately describing the life of Mahavira, do not call him as Tirthankara. It shows that these agamic texts are 53 more older than that of Dighanikaya. In the whole Jainaagamic literature, the word 'Tirthankara' is used for the first time in Uttaradhyayana and in second part of Acaranga. Words like Arhat, Jina, Buddha are frequently used in excessive form in the old Agamas, the synonyms of Tirthankara. Presently, the word Tirthankara has become a specific term of Jaina tradition. Tirthankara's like Aristanemi, Parsva and Mahavira, whereas it indicates only the name of Rsabha, Santi, Kunthu and Ara. Similarly, the Namipavajja, the 9th chapter of Uttaradhyayana, elaborately describes the facts about Nami but it does not mention Nami as Tirthankara. Even in Kalpasutra, there are some details about the life of Mahavira, Parsva, Aristanemi and Rsabha out of twenty-four Tirthankaras. Remaining names of second to twenty first Tirthankaras, seem to be incorporated in the list of Tirthankaras, later on in c. 4th-5th A. D. In Digambara tradition earliest description about 24 Tirthankaras is found for the first time in Tiloyapannatti, which is supposed to be composed after c. 5th A. D. So far as iconographical

Page #33
54 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI evidences are concerned only images of the four Tirthankaras - Mahavira, Parava, Aristanemi and Rsabha - are found during c. 3rd B. C.-1st A. D. The images of other Tirthankaras are of later period, i.e., after c. 2nd-3rd A. D. This suggests that the concept of 24 Tirtharikaras came into existence only after c. 3rd. With the development of the concept of Tirtharikaras the system of their worship ( Paja- paddhati ) also came into prominence. Jainism emerged as an ascetic religion. Initia- lly, it laid more stress on austerity and meditation. In the beginning all sorts of ceremonial or sacrificial performances (karmakanda ) were totally absent in it. It was only a religion of self-purification. In Agamas there are no traces of ceremonial performances or any system of idol worship or religious adoration, asking for the grace of God. In Jaina tradition, for the first time the six essential duties ( sadavasyakas), i.e., practice for equanimity ( Samayika ), praising twenty- four Tirtharkaras (Caturvimsati stavana ), paying respect to acaryas ( vandana ), atonement of blemi- shed activities (pratikramana ), mortification (kayotsarga ) and taking some vow (pratyakhyana ) were introduced Most probably, in c. 2nd-3rd B. C., these six essentials ( sadavasyakas) got ordained and established. Archaeological evidences emphatically show that in Jaina tradition, making of the Jaina images was started in c. 3rd 4th B. C., but no evidence found about the modes of worshipping these idols, particularly in ancient Agamas. For the first time, Rayapaseniyasutta mentions the rituals of worshipp- ing of Jina-image. A comparative study proves that it was only an adoption of Hindu method of worshipp- ing their dieties. Though, some of the portions of Rayapaseniyasutta are undoubtedly old, but the portion which deals with the art of temple building and rituals relating to the worship is still older and belongs to the c. 3rd 4th A. D. To me, it appears that the development of devotionalism and ceremonial performances in Jainism, started from c. 3rd 4th A. D. In this period, the Hindu system of ceremonial perfomance and worship was adopted in Jainism with minor changes. Starting from the period of Lord Parsva and Mahavira upto the c. 2nd A. D., the sramanic tradition in gene-ral and Jainism in particular joined hands in the development of new spiritualistic Hinduism, through condemning all sorts of ceremonial as well as sacri-ficial performances alongwith Vedic sacerdotalism, but Jainism itself started imitating blindly the Hindu rituals in c. 3rd4th, and thus a variety of ceremonial offerings came into existence in the Jaina religious practices. This blind adoption of Hindu practices occured not only in Svetambara and Yapaniya tradi-tion of Northern India but in the Digambara sect of South India also. As a result, not only the Vaisnava system of worship and ceremonies started in the Jaina temples but sacrificial offerings and ladles became prevalent. Due to these influences of Hindu caste system and untouchability also paved their way in Jainism. Jaina lay-devotees started wearing brahmanical sacred thread (yajnopavita ) and performing sacrifices and sacrificial ladles. Acaraya Jinasena (c. 8th A. D.) had adopted all the Hindu sanctifying rites (samskaras ), with some modifications in his work Adipurana. Following blindly, the Hindu mantras of worshipping, Jaina lay devotees started invoking and departing the Tirtharikaras in their Paja ceremonies, while according to the Jaina philosophy the Tirtharikaras neither come nor depart after final emancipation, as well as they may not be adored as the object of worship for the worldly attainment, as they are free from all types of attachment and aversion (vitaraga ). But a lay-devotee always remains in search of such a diety who can save him from worldly calamities and help him in worldly attainments. For this purpose

Page #34
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion Jaina acaryas accepted several Hindu godesses like Kali, Mahakali, Padmavati, Ambika, Siddhayika, etc. as demi-goddesses (Yaksis). They accepted various rituals and incantations for worshipping these goddesses. Thus, in between c. 5th-8th A. D. several Hindu gods and godesses became part and parcel of Jaina deities. The special feature of this age was that performing arts like Dance, Music etc., which were strongly opposed in earlier agamas, such as Uttaradhyayana strongly expounds all sorts of dances as vexation and songs as lamentation, are cropped in Jaina system of worship, gradually. This description of fine arts in Rayapaseniya, as a part of Jaina way of worship was incorporated in about the c. 5th A. D. at the time of Valabhi-vacana. This depicts a complete picture of gradual development of fine arts like Sculpture, Dance, Music, Drama etc. in Jaina tradition. When the Tantrism and Vamamarga came invogue in c. 5th-6th A. D., Jainism could not save itself from the impact of these traditions. Being an ascetic and spiritual religion, Jainism was not much affected with Vamamarga but Tantrism and ceremonial performances of Hinduism definitely left their impact on it. Archaeological evidences emphatically show that in Jaina tradition the making of Jaina images strated in c. 4th-3rd B. C. Though, on the basis of Harappan Teracotas and seals some Jaina scholars opine that tradition of making Jaina images is as old as the Harappan culture, yet it is very difficult to prove these teracotas and seals as of Jaina origin. Later, in the Kharvela epigraphs (c. 2nd B. C.) it is clearly mentioned that Nandas (c. 4th B. C.) had taken away the Jaina images from Orissa to Patna which is enough to prove that the making of Jaina Though the development of various secular arts and sciences was a movement, independent of any religious tradition, yet it may be noted that religious traditions not only contributed in their development, but also decided the direction of development. Jainas believe that various arts and sciences were Development of Various Arts & Architecture in developed by Lord Rsabha, the first Tirthankara. In Jainism in Early Period Jaina canonical literature 64 arts of women and 72 arts of men are mentioned. We have a general reference to these arts / sciences in Sutrakrtanga, Jnatadharmakatha, Antakrddasa, Samavayanga, Anuttaraupapatikadasa, Rayapaseniyasutta, Jambudvipaprajnapti, etc. Though in these canonical works we do not find any details about these yet on the basis of these works and their commentaries Dr. N. L. Jain, in his book (Scientific Contents in Prakrta Canons, P. V., Varanasi, 1996) has presented the following list of various arts and sciences prevalent in c. 2nd-3nd A. D. 55 images was prevalent in c. 4th B. C. The earliest Jaina image, found from Lohanipur, Patna, belongs to Mauryan period (c. 3rd B. C.). Several Jaina images alongwith epigraphs have been found from Mathura and remains of Jaina temples from Kankalitila. Among those, the earliest images date from c. 2nd B. C.-2nd A. D. Many of these images are found with dated epigraphs of Kusana period, i. e., c. 1st-2nd A. D. So far as the literary evidences are concerned, we for the first time, find in Rayapaseniyasutta, the details of temple architecture and the rituals related to idol-worship. The Rayapaseniyasutta is undoubtedly an early work, and its portion dealing with temple architecture and various performing arts, by no means, can be of later period than c. 3rd A. D., because its various incarnations (avataras ) tally with the archaeological remains of c. 1st-2nd of Kankalitila, Mathura.

Page #35
Aspects of Jainology: Volume VI Different Types of Learning Arts and Sciences in Various Canons 56 Number of Learnings 1. Terrestriology (Storms) 2. Meterology 3. Dreamology 4. Astrology 5. Science of Limbal Movement 6. Science of notes (birds) 7. Palmistry 8. Science of Distinctive marks in body 9. Science of Women Studies 10. Science of Men Studies 16. Science of Portridge 17. Science of Quails 18. Science of Young Quails 11. Science of Horses (Training & Management) 12. Science of Elephants (Training & Management) 13. Science of Cows and Oxen 14. Science of Sheep 15. Science of Poultry 19. Science of Royal Wheels 20. Science of Royal Umbrella 21. Science of Royal Sceptre 22. Science of Swords 23. Gemology (Precious Stones) 24. Science of Coinage, Cowries or Special Gems 25. Science of Shieldings 26. Science of Prosperity 27. Science of Fiascos 28. Science of Natural or Acquired Conception 29. Science of Stimulation 30. Atharva-vedic Incantation 31. Science of Jugglery/Magic 32. Science of Oblation with Fire 33. Archery 34. Science of Moon 1 SK 64 2 RP 72 3 AKT 72 4 GDK 72 5 ANU 72 6 JDP 72

Page #36
Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 45 35. Science of Sun 36. Science of Venus 37. Science of Jupiter 38. Meteorology 39. Science of Glow of Horizon 40. Science of Notes of Animals 41. Science of Notes of Special Birds 42. Prognostics of Dust-falls 43. Prognostics of Hair-falls 44. Prognostics of Meat-falls 45. Prognostics of Blood-falls 46. Science of Goblins 47. Science of Semi-goblins 48. Science of Sleeping 49. Science of Unlocking 50. Candalic Learning/Psychotherapy 51. Shabari ( Kiratana ) Language 52. Dravida ( Tamila ) Language 53. Kalingi (Oriya ) Language 54. Gauri (A specific cardiolic) Language 55. Gandhari Language 56. Science of Descending 57. Science of Ascending 58. Science of Yawning 59. Science of Sustainance 60. Science of Embracing/Clinging 61. Science of Dispeptisation 62. Science of Surgery and Medicine 63. Demonology/De-demonology 64. Science of Invisibility/Disappearance 65. Art of Writing 66. Mathematics 67. Dramatics 68. Vocal Music 69. Instrumental Music 70. Science of Musical Notes, Phonetics 71. Science of Percussion Instruments 72. Science of Orchestra 13888888|||||||||||||||||||||||||||| 18618888I|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| 1833335xillilll|||||||||||||||||||||| 153555581||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| |11||||||||||||||||||||||||||||>>>>>>>>

Page #37
Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI 4 ********* 73. Art of Gambling 74. Special type of Gambling/Art of Speech 75. Art of Playing by Dice 76. Art of Playing by Special Dice 77. Art of Quick Poetics/Guarding City 78. Water Purification/Ceramics 79. Food Science/Agriculture 80. Art of Soft/Medicated Drinks 81. Textiles and Fabrication 82. Cosmetics and Perfumery 83. Science of Bed-dressing 84. Art of Composing Arya-metrics 85. Art of Riddlery Poetics 86. Magadhan Language Poetics 87. Art of Comp. Non-samsksta 32 Letter Poetics 88. Art of Comp. Gitika-meter Poetics 89. Art of Comp. Anustup-meter Poetics 90. Chemistry of Silver 91. Chemistry of Gold 92. Art of Goldsmithy 93. Women Cosmetisation 94. Building/Architectural Engineering 95. Town Planning 96. Construction of Army Barracks 97. Science of Measures 98. Astrology/Medicine/Military Science : Counter movement of Army Art 99. Military Science : Arraying of Army 100. Cyclic Arraying of Army 101. Garudic Arraying of Army 102. Wedge Arraying 103. General Fighting 104. Wrestling 105. Intense Fighting 106. Sight Fighting/Stick Fighting 107. Fist Fighting/Boxing/Pugilistic Fighting 108. Hand-to-Hand Fighting 139. Creeperlike Fighting ||||||||||||||||||||||||| 1933393IIIIIIIIIII3935551SN ********* 3333333333 1333333333333333333333333 sesssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssssss <333333333333333333333333333333333Page #38
110. Art of Divnie Arrows/Transformation 111. Art of Swordsmanship 112. Silver Digest (Pak) 113. Gold Digest (Pak) 114. Metal Digest 115. Jewel-Gem Digest 116. Rope Tricks 117. Circular Play-tricks/Playing with Fabrics 118. Special Type of Gambling (Nalika-khela ) 119. Art of Piercing Leaves 120. Art of Drilling Hard Earth 121. Art of Animation/Inanimation 122. Science of Omens/Omenology 123. Sc. of Dramatic Dressing/Painting 124. Science of Planet Rahu 125. Planetology 126. Town Planning 127. Army Barracking 128. Horses Training Historical Development of Jaina Philosophy and Religion 129. Elephant Training 130. Knowledge of Special Learning 131. Science of Incarnation 132. Science of Knowing Secrets 133. Science of Direct Knowing About Objects 134. Planetory Motion/Science of Military Movements 135. Chemistry of Perfumes 136. Art of Flowering/Tasting of Foods/ Art of Wax-technique 137. Counter Arraying of Army 138. Art of Home Construction 139. Powder Technology 140. Art of Inanimation 141. Agriculture 142. Science of Architecture Total 1 64 2 72 3 4 72 5 888[ 8 [ | F[| 8 88 [ 8 || [ce] / 888[ 8 / / 72 6 [8|| 888 [ 8. [| | ] 72 59

Page #39
60 Aspects of Jainology : Volume VI Conclusion To conclude, I would like to mention here some of the specialities of early Jainism. Though early Jainism was much rigorous in its code of conduct yet on the other hand it was very liberal in its approach. The earliest Jaina canonical works, Sutra- krtanga and Rsibhasita not only incorporate the preachings of the various sages of Upanisadic, Buddhists and some other Sramanic traditions, but call them Arhat, Rsis, as acceptable to their own tradition. Furthermore, Sutrakrtanga, propounding this liberalism, says "One who praises one's own views as true and condemns others view as false dis- torts the truth and remains confind to the cycle of birth and death." It was the non-violent, liberal and assimilating approach of early Jaina thinkers which gave birth to the non-absolutism (Anekantavada ), the fundamental principle of Jaina philosophy. On the basis of this principle early Jaina thinkers built their philosophical structure and developed their meta- physical and epistemological theories in which they tried to reconcile beautifully the rival views of Indian philosophy. Whether it was the question of metaphysical theories or the epistemological problems of Philosophy, they always tried for the reconciliation of the opposite conflicting views. Though, some of the basic concepts of Jaina Philosophy such as Pancastikayavada, eight types of karmagranthi and five-fold knowledge were prevalent even before the times of Lord Mahavira or of Lord Parsva, but the concepts such as three-fold nature of reality, six substances, two-fold and seven-fold divi- sion of Nayas, four-foldNiksepas, different Anuyoga dvaras and doctrine of Syadvada and Saptabhangi have developed gradually in due course of time. Barring the concept of Saptabhangi, fourteen Gunasthanas and six types of Pramanas, all other concepts of Jaina metaphysics and epistemology took their shape before c. 2nd-3rd A. D. It is the Tattvarthasutra of Umasvati and its auto-commentary (c. 3rd A.D. ) in which Jaina philosophy for the first time, was presented in a systematic form. But it was not the last stage of the development of the Jaina philosophy, since various new definitions and details about these concepts were formulated even after this period which I would like to discuss in the second volume of this project. In developing their own philosophical system, Jaina thinkers while on the one hand, have accomodated various philosophical concepts of other contemporary Indian schools, on the other hand they synthesised the various contradictory theories of Indian schools of thought in such a way that the contradictions are completely dissolved in the non-absolutistic broader perspective. It is the most important contribution of early Jaina thinkers to the Indian philosophy. But in the process of adopting the thoughts and practices of other Indian systems, particularly Hinduism, caste-system, untouchability, wearing of sacred thread and various other rituals also creeped their way in Jainism. As a result spiritualistic Jainism became ritualistic. Though it was a later development (c. 6th-7th A. D.) yet, it no doubt had given some scratches to the ideal spiritualistic image of Jainism. It was necessary, perhaps, for the survival of Jainism in the middle centuries of Indian history,