Gujarati Painting of 16th 17th Century

Author(s): Lalit Kumar
Publisher: Z_Nirgrantha_1_022701.pdf and Nirgrantha_2_022702.pdf and Nirgrantha_3_022703.pdf
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269009/1

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GUJARATI PAINTING OF THE 16TH-17TH CENTURY A REAPPRAISAL Lalit Kumar In the style of the traditional Gujarati Jaina painting of the 16th century, certain definite changes were taking place. Of these, turning of the face in strict profile with the removal of the farther eye is the most perceptible feature'. Different kinds of costumes were also then introduced. The style, in its new look, may be designated as Neo-Gujarati Jaina Painting. Several scholars believe that Mughal influence brought about these changes. It had been argued that there was no painting style other than the Mughal which could have brought about the changes in the hidebound heretic tradition of the Gujarati painting". It is also said that, when Akbar was to start his impressive project of illustrating the Hamza Nama, he recruited artists froin all over the country. Some of them were from Gujarat, Rajasthan, North India, Malwa and the Deccan. Later they were trained under the two great Persian masters. Those artists who could not make grades had to leave the royal atelier in search of fresh job. But during this period of their apprenticeship they were exposed to a style which had changed their entire outlook. Thus they carried with them a set of new traits such as the faces in strict profile without the farther projecting eye and brought in new costumes. Scholars have pointed out Mughal influence in the famous Laghu Sangrahanisutra painted by Govinda in A. D. 1583 at Matar (Dist. Kheda), in L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, in the matter of costume, certain composition, and in the representation of animals and treess. The four-pointed jama is the most striking feature of these paintings (Plate 1). It is certainly a Mughal costume which was introduced by Akbar in his court. Very soon it had become a popular male sartorial type of north India. This is why it is - also seen in the Caurapancasika-Candayana group of paintings of the latter half of the 16th century. However, the presence of the four-pointed jama in the CaurapancasikaCandayana group of painting cannot be the result of the influence of the Mughal painting. If the four-pointed jama is to be taken as an important indicator of the Mughal influence on the traditional Gujarati Jaina painting style, then the possibility of the influence of the concurrent style of the Caurapancasika-Candayana painting cannot be ruled out. It is all the more important to investigate the influence of the latter because of the presence of some features which the earlier scholars had overlooked; for instance the cross-hetched (trellised) turban with a short kulah (plate 2), which is not in conformity with the theory of the Mughal influence. Such turbans of the Lodi period are never seen in the Mughal painting. The same holds true about the indiscriminate use of arabesque decoration on costume, bandhanvara/vandanamalika (door hangings), pondwalls, and in the background of some paintings. The arabesque decoration appears to be derived from the Candayana of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay?. A transparent odhani, short bodice (coli), and skirt (ghaghra) among the females are the new costumes.

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Vol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... 93 A short bodice is a feature of the later Caurpancasika-Candayana style. It may be noted that the waist length bodice was in vogue in the preceding period. Therefore, the alleged Mughal influence on the Matar Samgrahanisutra of A. D. 1583 does not seem tenable and, by the same token, on the traditional Gujarati Jaina painting style. The theory of Mughal influence is also not acceptable on two further counts. First, there is no gleaning of the Mughal technique, nor of the style in these paintings. Second, there is also no evidence to establish the migration of such apprentice artists from the royal studio. It may be noted that, when the artist of the Laghu Sanigrahanisutra of A.D. 1583 could deviate from the hierarcic injunction of the style, he could have also incorporated more features of the Mughal paintings. Even the four-pointed jama does not seem to have been derived from the typical jama of the Akbari paintings. In all probability, the Caurapancasika-Candayana tradition of north India had a greater influence on the traditional Gujarati Jaina painting style. The Matar Sanigrahanisutra of A. D. 1583 is not the first document to shed off the farther projecting eye. It was first attempted by the artist of the Uttaradhyayanasutra as early as A. D. 1537-38% He painted it at Singanpura, a suburb of Surat. The manuscript has two introductory illustrations ir, which the figures' faces are shown in strict profile without the farther projecting eye. It is difficult to ascertain whether it was an independent innovation of the artist or an isolated experiment under the influence of the Lodi tradition of north India. It may be recalled that the Lodi tradition had emerged either at the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century; therefore, it would be wrong to believe that the Gujarati artists were not aware of the new developments which were taking place in other parts of the country. Whatever the case may be, this had a little influence on the future painting style of Gujarat. Curiously enough, Gujarati Jaina painting style in the contiguous region of Malwa had little to do with the illustrated works like the Shah Nama of c. A. D. 1450 in Reitberg Museum, Zuricho, the Miftah al Fizula of c. A. D. 1490-1500 in British Library, the Nimat Nama of c. A. D. 1495-1505 in India Office Library!!, the Bustan of c. A. D. 15001503 in National Museum, and the Aja' ib-as-Sanai of c. A. D. 1500-1510 in British Library'), all painted at Mandu. This shows to what extent conservatism had restrained the progress of the Gujarati Jaina painting style in western India. The real emergence of the Neo-Gujarati Jaina painting style is seen from the third quarter of the 16th century in the Malwa region. The Abhidhanacintamani-namamala, a Sanskrit lexicon composed by Hemacandracarya, is the earliest dated document to provide a definite evidence for the impact of the Caurapancasika-Candayana group of paintings. Its colophon reads, "The Ms. was copied (and also painted) on the 5th of the bright half of the month Margasirsa in Samvat 1629 (A. D. 1573) at Nulahi Nagar (not identified) in Malwa, for the study for Pandit Devavijaya Gani, the disciple of the

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bw Lalit Kumar Nirgrantha revered Hirvijaya Suri, the chief pontiff of the Tapagaccha. This Ms. was got written (and illumined) through Vasta by Shah [Saha) Bhojaraj, the son of Shah (Saha) Rupacanda and his wife Ripadevi of the Kakarya gotra hailing from the senior branch of the "Usavala Jnati. 14* The figures in these painting are in the traditional style but there are some figures in strict profile without the farther-projecting eyes. Thus, these paintings belonged to a phase of transition. The males wear a crown, pyjama, patka, and a scarf; whereas the females wear a short coli, ghaghara and dupatta which is invariably placed on the turban with its two ends standing out like wings on either side. A patka tied in the centre with its characteristic loops on either side had its influence from the Caurapancasika-Candayana group of paintings. The costume of a standing female figure deserves greater attention. She has worn a short coli and a scarf on her head. But the ghaghra and sash projecting forward at an angle is an influence of the CaurapancasikaCandayana tradition. It is further attested by another folio which depicts a combat (dvandayuddha) scene. The two male contestants are sporting a kulahdar turban on their head 18. All figures have their noses marked by a tiny dot which somewhat looks like a nose stud. It seems to be a regional character. An unpublished illustrated MS. of the Dhananjaya Namamala is the second important document in the L. D. Institute of Indology, which casts more light on the impact of the Caurapancasika-Candayana style on the Gujarati Jaina painting style. The colophon of the manuscript reads : "Sanivat 1631 varse Vaisakha mase sveta pakse pancamya-tithu Ravi-vasare. Srimat Tapagacche Sri Hiravijaya Suri vijaya-rajye. Pan. Devavijaya Ganibhihi likhitam. svayam vacanayamiti-sreyah." In translation : "In Sanvat 1631 (A.D. 1575) on the fifth day of the bright half of the month of Vaisakha, on Sunday, during the pontificate of Sri Hiravijaya Suri of the Tapagacchia, Pandita Devavijaya Gani copied it for his study." The MS. has 26 boxes demarcated for illustrations, either on one or both sides of the folios, but only 11 boxes contain sketches in yellow lines drawn by a professional artist. Unfortunately, the task of illustrating the Ms. had been abandoned for some reasons. Later, an unskilled person had tried to accentuate the lines of some sketches with black ink. The first sketch is a standing figure of a Jaina nun in strict profile. In the second sketch, a king is sitting on a couch decorated with torana hangings. Fortunately, it remained untempered in its original yellow lines. A copy of the sketch is reproduced here as Plate 3. The royal figure has worn a turban with a tall kulah sticking on the top. It is the most important feature which apparently shows the influence of the Caurapancasika-Candayana group of paintings. Other costume of the male includes a jama, patka and a scarf. In yet another folio, a god sporting a helmet like cap with a finial on top is seated on a couch which is much like the couch seen in the Abhidhanacintamani-namamala of A. D. 1573 discussed earlier. The colophon is silent about its place of execution. However, it can be attributed to Malwa for two reasons. First, it shares certain features with the ACN of A. D. 1573 and second, its association with Pandita Devavijaya Gani who seems to be the same friar as of the ACN of A. D. 1573.

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Yol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... 95 The Parsvanatha-vivahalu dated A. D. 1576, in Boston Museum, is yet another document on which scholars have already pointed out the influence of the Caurapancasika style, especially with regard to the turban tied around a short kulah and the transparent odhani". It follows the conventional Gujarati Jaina painting style and therefore, it would be wrong to attribute this document to the kulahdar group of paintings. The cosmological diagram painted on cloth from the Khajanchi collection in National Museum, New Delhi, is another document which amply demonstrates the influence of the Caurapancasika-Candayana style on the traditional Gujarati Jaina painting. The male wears jama with its characteristic tie-knots, pyjama, patka and kulahdar turban; whereas the female wears conventional costumes and a transparent dupatta. The farther eye is absent but the female type follows the conventional style. It has been dated c. A. D. 1570-8021. With regard to its provenance, one is inclined to attribute it to Malwa. Its kulahdar turbans are sufficiently close in appearance to the one seen in the Abhidhana of A. D. 1573. It also shows two important regional features, namely nose-stud like dot marked on the nose of the figure and the horse caparisoned in the Malwa fashion. The latter is undoubtedly derived from the Persian paintings and is consistently found in the documents painted in Malwa. (See Appendix A). All these documents show that the Caurapancasika-Candayana style had been exercising its influence on the conventional Gujarati Jaina painting style of the Malwa region which actually gave birth to the new style. Subsequently, it had spread in Gujarat where the famous Matar Laghu-Sangrahanisutra was painted in A. D. 1583. It has also hastened the growth of the new style. The style as seen in the Matar Sangrahanisutra of A. D. 1583, had a gradual development. The typical facial type, for instance, had emerged some time in the eighth decade of the 16th century. The squarish face is characterised by a prominent forehead, sharper nose, fish-shaped eye, recurved eye brows, a thin mouth, and rounded chin. Sometimes the males sport moustaches. The facial type is first encountered in the Pancakhyana of the M. S. University, Baroda and the Bhagavata dasam skandha of the Kankroli collection. Both show figures in conventional costumes but for the patka. which is a new attire and is tied over the dhoti at the waist25. Costumes are relieved with the kind of arabesque decoration as seen later in the Matar Samgrahanisutra of A. D. 1583. The turban without kulah of the type of the Matar Samgrahaisutra of A. D. 1583 made its first appearance in the Pancakhyana26. U. P. Shah has attributed the Pancakhyana to c. A. D. 1550-7027. This is relatively a more convincing date than his revised one in which he has pushed its date back to c. A. D. 1530. As suggested by style, both Pancakhyana and the Bhagavata dasam skandha cannot be removed far apart in time. Both represent the growth of the style prior to the Matar Laghu-samgrahanisutra and therefore, both can be attributed to c. A. D. 1575-80. The real importance of the Bhagavata of the Kankroli collection was very well understood by M. R. Majmudar. He observed : "This miniature is a landmark in the history of Indian book-illustrations; it

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96 Lalit Kumar records the transition from three-fourth profile to strict profile". But he attributed the Bhagavata to late 15th century, rather too early a date for these paintings. Nirgrantha The Neo Gujarati Jaina painting style also had two distinct expressions. The Matar Samgrahanisutra of A. D. 1583 is the finest expression of the new style. It may be termed the superior idiom' which is characterised by the presence of the typical facial type and improved draughtsmanship. The lines are assured, colour scheme rich, and gold colour sparingly used. The second expression of the Neo-Gujarati painting style reflects the 'inferior idiom. The paintings of this idiom follow the conventional angular draughtsmanship but the figures are seen in the new costumes. The facial type of the superior idiom is never seen in these paintings. The Samgrahanisutra painted at Cambay in A. D. 1587, in the L. D. Institute, illustrates the inferior idiom at its best2". Cambay is not far from Matar. In one of the miniatures, a lady is seen in the conventional costume but in another new costumes like the ghaghra, short coli and odhani are seen. The jama and the turban can be seen in the attire of the males. A similar style is being followed by the Samgrahanisutra earlier published by Anand Krishna". Four-pointed jama embellished with arabesque decoration, patka and turbans without kulah constitute the male attires. The artist of this manuscript seems to have been delighted as much with the use of arabesque decoration as was the artist of the Candayana of the Prince of Wales Museum. This Samgrahani can be attributed to c. A. D. 1585-90. Some more examples of the inferior idiom can illustrate the further development of the style. The Samgroghanisutra dated A. D. 1600, in Birla Academy, Calcutta, follows the inferior idiom at a slightly higher level. The angularity in draughtsmanship is now mellowed down. And the pinkish countenance and floral motifs strewn in the background are the, new features. Of the same date and style is the Sanigrahanisutra (plate 4) in L. D. Institute. The Sangrahianisitra dated A. D. 1604, in the Spencer collection in the New York Public Library, was also painted at Matar. It shows that the . inferior idiom was also in vogue, side by side with the superior idiom in the same region. The continuity and growth of the superior idiom is seen later in the Lagla ksetra samasa of Dehla-no Upasraya, Ahmedabad. It was also painted in A. D. 1583 and follows the same style as noticed in the Matar Sangrahanisutra painted by Govinda Legacy of the superior idiom is next seen in the famous Gita Govinda of the N. C. Mehta collection, now at the L. D. Institute of Indology campus. The quality of draughtsmanship, however, is not uniform in this extensively illustrated manuscript. The paintings show a curious mixture of costumes. Some figures are attired in traditional, costumes and some in new costumes. The latter include, among the females, a ghaghra, short coli, sash, and odhani. The odhani and the sash are worn in the manner of the

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Vol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... 97 Caurapancasika females. The males wear the four or six pointed jama, pyjama, parka.and turban. Besides, the turban of the Matar Samgrahani of A. D. 1583, there are some other types of turbans of local origin. The spray trees with their overspreading foliage hovering over the horizon is a new development. The method appears very effective for the representation of woods as required by the text. Occasionally, the horizon is treated in semi-circular form (plate 5). Lingering of old conventions in the treatment of the dramatis personae with the exception of the use of the new facial type, the Gita Govinda can be dated C. A. D. 1585. It appears rather justified in comparison with the text dated document, the Uttaradhyayanasutra dated A. D. 1591, discussed below. The famous painted Uttaradhyayanasutra of A. D. 1591 is another controversial document where scholars have allegedly pointed out the Mughal influence in the gherdar jama36 In fact, there is no Mughal influence on these paintings of the superior idiom of the Neo-Gujarati Jaina painting style. According to its colophon, the Ms. was copied by the earlier noted Pandita Devavijaya Gani". Incidentally, this is the third illustrated Ms. discussed here which finds the name of this bibliophile Faina friar. The Ms. has 46 paintings. Out of these four show a mixture of conventional Gujarati painting style and the inferior idiom of the Neo-Gujarati paintings 38. It appears that the project was assisted by an artist who had not been able to give up his traditional style. Architecture as background is a major element of composition in these paintings. Sometimes compositions are divided into two or more registers: The squat and stripped domes, eaves, merlons, and architraves supported by duck or elephant trunk-shaped struts attached to the pillars are some of the architectural features. The arabesque and lotus chevron are the two major ornamental devices used in the architecture. The clouds are shown in streaks. Curiously enough, the male and female figures are seen in the conventional costumes with the only exception of a gherdar jama. It can be compared with the Candayana of Prince of Wales Museum". The four pointed jama and the turban type of the Matar Sanigralanisutra of A. D. 1583, are conspicuous by their absence. However, a new turban type without a kulah, a ubiquitous feature of later miniatures, make its first appearance in this Ms. Similarly, thick moustaches also become a regular feature of the later paintings. The presence of the Mandu type horse and the nose-stud dot marked on the nose of every figure including the monks suggest Malwa origin of the Uttaradliyayanasatra"!. But for the facial type of the Matar Samgrahani of A. D. 1583, it seems to have been painted in Gujarat, because the superior idiom had already been in vogue in the Matar-Cambay region. It is further corroborated by another unpublished Sarngrahanisutra of L. D. Institute which shows the Mandu type of horse (Plate 6). The Ms. has no colophon but the short-space: filler inscription reads: "Tarapura-madliye likhitar". This makes it amply clear that it was copied (and illustrated) ar Tarapur, a town which lies between Matar and Cambay. The style of this Sarirgrahani is not far from the style of the Uttaradhyayanasutra of A. D. 1591 and, therefore, it inay also be assigned to the same date.

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98 Nirgrantha The Balagopalastuti of the Kankroli collection also shows the kulahdar turban, transparent odhani, jama, and yogapatta". Spray trees follow the style of the Gita Govinda of N. C. Mehta collection; while the architecture is in the style of the Uttaradhyayana of A. D. 1591. Therefore, it can be dated to c. A. D. 1590-95. To the same period can be attributed the Bhagavata dasam skandha of the National Museum, New Delhi". Lalit Kumar In the subsequent period, the new style spread to the north Gujarat. The Bhagavatisutra painted at Patan in A. D. 1595, now in L. D. Institute, shows the miniature as painted in the Neo-Gujarati painting style (Plate 7). But the artist sticks to the old convention of gold colour in patches against the red and blue background. The tradition of the superior idiom is further continued in the Gita Govinda of the Sawai Mansingh Museum, Jaipur, the Gita Govinda of the Kankroli collection", and the RatiRahasya of the L. D. Institute. All the three sets are similar in style and show tufts of flowering grass in the monochromatic background. It could be that all the three sets were painted in one region. Stylistically, these paintings can be attributed to c. A. D. 1590-95. The important stylistic features developed in the Matar Sangrahanisutra dated A. D. 1583, the Gita Govinda of N. C. Mehta dated c. A. D. 1585, and the Uttaradhyayanasutra dated A. D. 1591, are seen, however, with slight variation in the degree of individual skills, for example, the Bhagavata dasam skandha painted at Ahmedabad in A. D. 1598", and the Bhagavata dalam skandha painted by Govinda in A. D. 1610". One of the folios from this Bhagavata no doubt shows a remarkable dynamism. The artist has also made a rare but naivete attempt in delineation of faces in three-quarter profile". From the first decade of the 17th century, the migration of the artists from the royal Mughal studio began. Such artists who began to work for lesser clienteles, gave birth to a new style generally referred to as the 'Popular Mughal style'. Agra was the major centre of this style where munificent Jaina community extended its patronage for the illustration of the Jaina works. The Vijnaptipatra (a request letter) painted by Ustad Salivahana in A. D. 1610 at Agra is a famous document of the Popular Mughal style which was sent to Patan50. The same artist had also painted the Salibhadra-caupai Ms. in A. D. 1624. The Sangrahanisutra dated 1613 in Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, is also painted in the same style. It is the first Samgrahani in this style, which had set a new trend for the subsequent production of the Sangrahani manuscripts' illustrations. The Nala-Damayanti-rasa of the L. D. Institute and that of Prince of Wales Museum, were painted in the Popular Mughal style by the artists migrated to Gujarat. In this way Gujarati artists were gradually exposed to the works of the Popular Mughal style either through artists or their works coming from Agra. For example, the Sangrahanisutra of

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Vol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... Jaisalmer Bhandara apparently follows the style of the dated Sangrahani of A. D. 161354. These may be termed as the documents of the Gujarati Popular Mughal style. This is how the Popular Mughal style began to influence the local tradition. However, the Mughal influence on Neo-Gujarati Jaina painting style seems very gradual and slow. The Samrat Samprati Samgrahalaya of Sri Mahavira Jaina Aradhana Kendra at Koba in Gandhinagar (Gujarat), has an important Adhidvipa cloth painting done at Kheralu (Dist. Mehsana) in A. D. 1624. It is a significant example in the history of Gujarati painting for two reasons. First, it is the only dated Adhidvipa pata of the new scheme that began with the Khajanchi Adhidvipa pata dated c. A. D. 1570-80, in the National Museum. The latter has unmistakable Caurapancasika influence as shown earlier and the continuity of this tradition from the 16th to the 17th century in Gujarat establishes beyond doubt the role of the Caurapancasika style played in the development of the Neo-Gujarati Jaina painting styles. Second, it is one of the earliest dated document on which the impact of the Popular Mughal style is apparent. The workmanship of the painting is perfunctory but it clearly shows the transformation of the faces which now look rather naturalistic (Plate 9). It is an important departure, and henceforth facial type of the superior idiom ceases to continue but in the matter of other details it maintains its regional character. A pronounced impact of the Popular Mughal style is experienced in the second quarter of the 17th century. The faces now look not only naturalistic but in the right perspective with the shifting of the pupil of the eye focused at a far off distance. Now the contemporary Mughal costumes, turbans, architecture, birds, animals, and trees are all treated under the new inspiration. But the background remained monochromatic. Some of the important dated documents of this period are : 1. The Sarigrahanisutra painted in Patan in A.D.1630, in L.D. Institute of Indology 2. The Sanigrahanisutra painted in Cambay in A.D.1637, in L.D.Institute of Indology57. 3. The Sangrahanisutra dated A. D. 1637, in Prince of Wales Museun 58 4. The Sanigrahanisutra painted in Wadhwan in A. D. 1638, in National Museums: and 5. The Sangrahanisutra painted in Cambay in A. D. 1642-43, in British Libraryo In the light of stylistic changes under the influence of the popular Mughal style, the Petlad Balagopala Stuti of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, earlier published for the first time by M. R. Majmudar, should be studied. These paintings are among the finest examples which show the nature of realism which Gujarati artists could bring about in their style. The elegantly delineated faces of this series are the hallmark of the painting style of the second quarter of the 17th century. Jahangiri turbans and also broad pataka now began to appear. But the artists could not give away their allegiance to older motifs, for instance, the arabesque decoration on the jama worn by Krsna in one

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100 Lalit Kumar Nirgrantha of the paintings of this series. It is painted in continuation of the style of the various dated Sanigrahanis listed above. However, trees in the archaic style depicted in silhouette against a monochromatic background is in contradiction to the realism of the faces. This shows the artist's full enjoyment of the newly acquired skill which he concentrates only on the faces. He could not show the same degree of skill when he made Krsna sit in crosslegged posture. This Balagopala Stuti should be dated c. A.D. 1630-40. The dispersed Bhagavata paintings were painted around the same period which were earlier published by Herman Goetz, Stuart Cary Welch and Milo C. Beach, R.K. Tandon, and Stella Kramarisch64. It is apparent from the series that there were many hands at work. The Popular Mughal style in the 17th century had also influenced the Gujarati paintings at different levels and in different areas. One of these examples is the Gita Govinda of B. J. Institute, Ahmedabad. It has been put in a class apart. But the paintings follow the general style of the 17th century which is fairly obvious in the case of the male figures (Plate 10). The stunted females, with their faces having round and sloping forehead and narrow waist, show an interpretation of the new experience at a different level. The dupatta worn by the females provide the background in silhouette to the figure. It is a hallmark of the style of these paintings. Though there is a little folkish element in the style, these paintings can be easily attributed to c A. D. 1630. The Ragamala dated A. D. 1608 is the only document which has no antecedent from Gujarat. However, one can see there a distant echo of the Caurapascasika Style In fact, the Caurapancasika influence had been working at different levels in some parts of Rajasthan too. The Yasodhara Caritra dated A. D. 1596, a second set of the same text painted at Amer in A. D. 159007 and the Adipurana painted at Mozamabad in A. D. 160666, are three very important examples published by Saryu Doshi which further corroborates the fact that the Caurapancasika style was spreading far away from its home in Uttar Pradesh to the. region of Malwa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. Therefore, it is quite obvious that the first expression of Malwa, Mewar, Amer, and later Gujarati painting styles are rooted in the Caurapancasika-Candayana style, a very viral and viable painting tradition. The Cawand Ragamala dated A. D. 1605, considered to be the earliest document of Mewari painting, should be studied in this milieu. It seems the product of the New Gujarati Jaina painting style in Rajasthan. There is very little which can be definitely attributed to Mughal in this Ragamala set. Appendix A Persian horses and the provenance of certain highly controversial documents of paintings : These horses based on Persian model have their characteristic style of strapping, the most apparent feature being the loops with a tasselled pendant seen on the thighs of their hind legs. The horses caprisoned in this fashion are found in the Mandu Kalpasutra dated A. D. 1439 in National Museum , another Kalpasutra dated c. A. D. 1430 in the L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad", and the Shah Nama of c. A. D. 1450 in Reitberg

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Vol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... 101 Muscum, Zurich. Such horses are generally not met with in the paintings from Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh. With this point in view, I am inclined to attribute the Kalakacarya Katha of A. D. 1414, in the P. C. Jain Collection, Bombay", 10 Mandu. The Kalakacarya Katha dated A. D. 1414" and the Zurich Shah Nama of c. A. D. 1450", also have two more features of considerable importance, namely floral decoration on the back of Shahi's throne and braid or chain motifs. Both are Persian elements and should have been adopted from a cominon source. Thus, if we reckon the chain or braid motif and horse type as the regional character of the works executed in Malwa region, then it would be easy to suggest the provenance of a highly controversial but a small group of the 15th century paintings, namely the Berlin Candayana and the Candayana of Bharat kala Bhavan, the lost Sikandar Nama and the Berlin Hamza Nama, to Malwa. Anand Krishna has already suggested the provenance of the Berlin Candayana as Malwa". But there are some scholars who attribute the Berlin Candayana to Delhi region". However, Karl Khandalavala rules out all such possibilities. Ile maintains that the Berlin Candayana alongwith other documents of this group, should hail from Eastern India and in all probability from Jaunpur, especially the Candayana because in his opinion this ballad was not known in any other region. But mention may be made that the Mandu type of horses are not seen in any of the documents attributed to north India such as the Aryanyaka parva dated A. D. 1516, the Mahapurana of A. D. 1540, the Mrgavata dated to c. A. D. 1570, and all other documents of the Caurapancasika group of paintings. Therefore, the Berlin Candayana and the Bharat Kala Bhavan Candayana, the lost Sikandar Nama, and the Berlin Hamza Nama should be attributed to the Malwa region. Notes and References: 1. Anand Krishna considers the turning of the face in strict profile as the beginning of the Rajasthani painting. "Some pre-Akbari Examples of Rajasthani Illustrations," Marg, XI/2,18. 2. Almost all the documents showing the early developments of the new style are Jaina and therefore the parental nomenclature of the style has been adhered to with a prefix "Neo" to differentiate the new style from the older one. 3. Karl Khandalavala, "Leaves from Rajasthan," Marg, IV/3, Bombay 1950, 16 17. 4. Ibid., 8! 5. Karl Khandalavala, "The Origin and Development of Rajasthani Painting," Marg, XI/ 2, 12; also see Moti Chandra and U. P. Shah, New Documents of Jaina Painting, Bombay 1978, 27-28. 6. Chandra and shah, NDJP, figs. 44-46."* " . 7. Karl Khandalavala and Mori Chandra, New Documents of Indian Painting - A Reappraisal, Bombay 1978, 98. 8. J. P. Losty, "Some Olustrated Jaina Manuscripts," The British Library Journal, 1/2, London 1975, 155-56, Figs. 19-20. 9. B. N. Goswami, A Jainesque Sultanate Shah Nami and the context of Pre-Mughal Painting in India, Zurich 1988. 10. J. P. Losty, The Art of the Book in India, London 1982, 66.

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102 Lalit Kumar Nirgrantha 11. ibid., 67. 12. Ibid., 67-68. 13. Ibid., 68. 14. M. R. Majmudar, "Two Manuscripts Illustrated in the Western Indian style during Hiravijaya Suri's Time-Abhidhana Namamala and Uttaradhyayana Sutra," Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, XV, Baroda 1962, 16. 15. Ibid., pl. IX-XVIII. 16. Ibid., pl. X, fig, 3-4. 17. Ibid., pl. XI, fig. 3 18. Ibid., pl. XII, fig. 1 19. W. G. Archer, Indian Miniature, Connecticut, n. d., pl. 7 and 8. 20. Karl Khandalavala, Moti Chandra, and Pramod Chandra, Miniature Painting from the Sri Moti Chandra Khajanchi Collection, New Delhi 1960, 23-24, fig. 14-17. 21. Ibid., 14. 22. U. P. Shah has also attributed it to Malwa. (Treasures of Jain Bhandaras, Ahmedabad 1978, 33). 23. U. P. Shah, More Documents of Jaina Paintings and Gujarati Paintings of the Sixteenth and later centuries, Ahmedabad 1976, 16, fig. 5 (a), 55, 56 and 57. 24. M. R. Majmudar, "The Gujarati School of Painting and some Newly Discovered Vaisnava Miniature," Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, X, 1942, 16, PI. I, fig. 1. 25. Shah, More Documents., fig. 57. 26. Ibid., fig. 56. 27. Ibid., 16. 28. Majmudar, "The Gujarati School of Paintings," JISOA, 16. 29. Chandra and Shah, NDJP, 30. 30. Krishna, "Some pre-Akbari Examples," Marg, XI-2, 21, figs. 6-8. 31. Karl Khandalavaia and Saryu Doshi, A Collector's Dream Indian Art in the Collection of Basant Kumar and Sarla Devi Birla and the Birla Academy of Art and Culture, Bombay 1987, 66, fig. 4. 77. 32. Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jaina Painting, Bombay 1985, 66. 33. Ibid., fig. 11 on p. 73 depicts Mt. Meru, The last line of the explanatory notes at the bottom ends with "Matargrama". It apparently refers to the place name i. e. Matar village where this Samgrahani was copied and illustrated. Place name has been found included in the explanatory notes in many other Samgrahanis too. It appears to be an ethical code of conduct practised by scribes at such occasions whenever they had fallen short of the text; the place name was included to complete the line. The Matar Sangrahani dated A. D. 1583 also shows a similar practice being followed. Whatever may have been the true reasons behind this idiosyncrasy of the scribe, it turns out to be of immense value; for it definitely provides information on the provenance of the manuscript especially when the colophon of the manuscript, is either lost or is silent about this. 34. Ibid., 66, fig. I on the same page. 35. N. C. Mehta, "A New Document of Gujarati Painting," JISOA, XIII, 1945 36-48.

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Vol. 1-1995 Gujarati Painting of... 103 36. Khandalavala, "Leaves from Rajasthan", Marg, 17, fig. 4. 37. Sanivat 1647 Varse Bliadrava Sudi cerasi gurupuspe. Tapagacche Sri Hiravijayasuri rajye Pan[.) Devavijayagani likhitam. 38. Norman Brown, Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttaradhyana Sutra, Connecticut 1941, fig. 28, 39, 72 and 73. 39. Khandalavala and Chandra, NDIP, fig 99. 40. Karl Khandalavala considers these as the Akbari turbans : ("Leaves from Rajasthan.," Marg, 17.) 41. It seems probable, as gleaned from various colophons of the manuscripts associated with this friar, that he had been either in Malwa or Mewar region : Nulahinagara (Malwa) in V.S. 1629/A. D. 1572. Sarangapura (Malwa) in V.S. 1630/A.D. 1673. Srimalapura (Mewar) in V.S. 1652/A.D. 1595. Pimpadagrama (Mewar) in V.S. 1653/A.D. 1596. 42. Incidentally, the manuscript was recovered from a bhandara (repository) in Surat. 43. Shah, More Documents., figs. 45-48. 44. Kapila Vatsyayana, Miniature of the Gita Govinda, Jaipur 1980, figs 1-2. 45. Ibid. 46. For the illustraions, see Kapila Vatsyayana, Jaura Gita Govinda, New Delhi 1979, figs. 16-17. 47. Shah, More Documents., 17-18, fig. 58. 48. Ibid., fig. 49 49. M. R. Majmudar, "Two Illustrated MSS. of the Bhagavata Dasa maskandha,"Lalit kala, No. 8, 50-52. 492. R. K. Tandan, Indian Miniature painting, Banglore 1982, 50-51, Fig-11. 50. Pramod Chandra, "Ustad Salivahan and the Development of Popular Mughal Art", Lalit kala, No. 8, 35-34. 51. Ibid., 34-36. 52. Ibid., 45. 53. Ibid. : (All these works have been generally dated to A. D. 1620). 54. Jaina Citrakalpadruma, (Gujarati), (Ed.) Sarabhai Nawab, Ahmedabad 1936, figs. 270-71. 55. Lalit Kumar, "On the style of Adhidvipa Cloth Painting-Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century", Prof. H. G. Shastri Felicitation Volume, Ahmedabad, June 1994, 142-145, fig 1-5. 56. Shali, More Documents., fig. 63. 57. Ibid., fig. 64. 58. Chandra, "Ustad Salivahana.," LK, pl. XVII, fig. 41. 59. Khandalavala etc. al., Miniature Painting., figs. 87-88. 60. J. P. Losty, "Some Illustrated.," BLI, 158-59, figs. 21-23. 61. Majmudar, "The Gujarati School.," JISOA, X, 28-31. 62. Ibid., pl. VI, fig. 2., pl. VII, fig. 1. 63. Ibid., pl. VI, fig. 2. 64. H. Goetz, "A New Key to Early Rajput and Indo-Muslim Painting : A Unique Bhagavat Purana Album from Southwest Marwar," Roop-Lekha, XXIII, 1-2, 1953; also, Stuart Cary

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194 Lalit Kumar Nirgrantha Welch, Milo C. Beach, Gods, Thrones, and Peacocks, New York, 1976; R. K. Tandon, Indian Miniature Painting, and Stella Kramarisch, Painted Delight, Philadelphia 1982. 65. U. P. Shah, "Three Paintings from a New Ragamala set dated Samvat 1665 (1608-9 A. D.);" Bulletin of Baroda Museum and Picture Gallery, XXV, Baroda 1973-74, 89-94. 66. Doshi, MJP, 69 (fig. 8, pp. 142-144, Fig. 19, 21). 67. Ibid., 70, fig. 13 on, 138-139. 68. Ibid., 70, fig. 9 on 71 and fig. 2 on 87. 59. Lalit Kumar, "Dancers' Costume and Provenance of the Caurapancasika style," Lalit kala, 25, 47-50. 70. Khandalavala and Chandra, NDIP, fig 9. 71. Pramod Chandra, "A Unique Kalakacarya Katha Ms. in the style of the Mandu Kalpasutra of 1439 A. D.," Bulletin of the American Academy of Benaras, I, Varanasi 1967, figs. 4, 5 and 10. 72. Goswami, JSSN, fig. 1, 8, 10, 12, and 17. 73. Doshi, NJP, 126, fig. S. 74. Goswami, JSSN, fig. 5. 75. Ibid., fig. 3. 76. Anand Krishna, "An Illustrated Manuscript of the Laura Canda in the Staatsbibliothek, Berlin," Chhavi-2, Varanasi 1981, 285. 77. Losty, The Art of the Book, 63. 78. Karl Khandalavala, "Three Laura Canda Paintings in the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco," Lalit kala, No. 22, 21. Details of Illustrations 1. An illustration from the Sangrahani Sutra MS., painted by Govinda at Matar in A. D. 1583. Courtesy : L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 2. Details same as in Plate 1. 3. A copy of the sketch from the Dhananjaya Namanala MS. Dated A. D. 1575. Courtesy : L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 4. An illustration from the Sangrahani Sutra MS., C. A. D. 1600. Courtesy : L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 5. An illustration from the Gita Govinda MS., C. A. D. 1585. Courtesy : N. C. Mehta Gallery, Ahmedabad. 6. An illustration from the Sangrahani Sutra MS., painted at Tarapur, c. A. D. 1595. 7. An illustration from the Bhagavati Sutra MS., painted at Patan in A. D. 1595. Courtesy : L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. 8. An illustration from the Bhagavata Dasam Skandha MS., painted by Govinda in A. D. 1610. Courtesy : Col. R. K. Tandon, Collection, Secundrabad. 9. Adhidvipa Cloth Painting (detail)., Painted at Kheralu, (Dist. Melisana) in A. D. 1630. Courtesy : Shri Mahavir Jaina Aradhana Kendri, Koba, Gandhinagar. 10 An illustration from the Gita Govinda MS., C. A. D. 1630. Courtesy : B. J. Institute, Ahmedabad.

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gaMdhara Fono ba, Lagnu Sumyrum Collection: Muni Sri nartaka 2. The Sangrahani Sutra MS., painted by Govinda at Matar in A. D. 1583. XXIXA 1. The Sangrahani Sutra MS., painted by Govinda at Matar in A. D. 1583. mAgAyya nirbhaya giMdiesa ghAsavIdAdA [dApha risa mana mAramA devAnI .

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3. The sketch from the Dhananjaya Namamala MS. Dated A. D. 1575. 4. The Sangrahani Sutra MS., C. A. D. 1600. 232 For Privale & Personal Use Only

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kvikAmavikAminAmanivRtAkiMvAkalA keliniHsobaMraniraMdhakArilivanopAkimuca zikAMtAlAMtamanAmanAgavipathilA umevAkSamAketAlatamaMnurvajulalatAUjepiyanAga lai 5. The Gita Govinda MS., c. A. D. 1585. 6. The Sangrahani Sutra MS., painted at Tarapur, C. A. D. 1595. savanA adhi PRE gAthA gAvi

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raiyaanAdarAtizayAbAmAmAmAlinagalAudAganimAzayatAkalpANAdikAlyANayAvidhikA nimivAdijiyazya divAzidhApAradivAsiriyAmA sannAvidhanalelikAniA maMgalAdi maMgAlaznapatighAvamAdhIlAmammimayAdizAmAyuktAni / TANTANTAYAVARANE JAVASAJAUR RAVAYCHE MAMAVANA NAMASKAR SYNALAVNINNA VANUITUR Pance ANNA AAVAVAN INTAINSTI reasoka AMANNATIVASNAAD diyomAmaNiyAdiganArAmAlAmAvAdhAnirityarya diyayapadAyaNimAdiziyagatAkApazAkAdivivilanakanistpimiyA / maragAdiyAdiminAyazimatAdarAmajharAbhAkAmalAyAgamArAmadAbanAyADaravATImAhavAhanAnA 7. The Bhagavati Sutra MS., painted at Patan in A. D. 1595. zvArUMdhAnAnaTAnAvidhAyakozanAbAnAmbanAgaMmRgarADivANAmamaMtAtatazrAva rAUvatAkhAtechuvAnitorAmApavAvamadArakiTahAnapAdAnalenemunizvA gAmyatAlachucAmunahAkaraNamananasataMjAvAlAgAsanamanAdAsamainyAniyA yonidAvAdA padavAzrAsonona he AryaTanopiparayAta kamAyogya evaM vara venaTadAvAyAnitadAyAthAkiMpatibaMdhAviyAtAyatavAdadAtapAdaka pani matsnA hajatAca to vADi 8. The Bhagavata Dasam Skandha MS., painted by Govinda in A. D. 1610.

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Prese se 32 Uplelphatis pani-11765 marakonAtadI vApAnImA FREER AMRU bhAgabanana- niSabhamanana daravardhakSatra harikonAnI mahAhimataparvata himavataMtra masAlida mInadAnanda narakAtAna AzileBREE mIna-ka-libalamArIkAnAnara DAABywherchi wanA Btu 50b2D baMtravi JITLE 9. Adhidvipa Cloth Painting (detail)., Painted at Kheralu, (Dist. Mehsana) in A. D. 1630. 19OM J ducation International 10 The Gita GovindavaMS:,rsenalAse D.ly 1630. Jaitanyaroo