Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light

Author(s): L M Joshi
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001532/1

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Facets of Jaina Religiousness
in Comparative Light
L. D. SERIES 85 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
BY L. M. JOSHI Professor of Religious Studies, and Head of the Department of Religious Studies Punjabi University, Patiala
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY, AHMEDABAD
SEN
in Etonnel

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CONS
भारतीय
Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light
L. D. SERIES 85
GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
अहमदाबाद
BY
L. M. JOSHI
Professor of Religious Studies, and Head of the Department of Religious Studies Punjabi University, Patiala
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY, AHMEDABAD

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS IN COMPARATIVE LIGHT by L. M. Joshi
First Edition : 1000 copies May 1981
Price? 1 8 100
Published by NAGIN J. SHAH Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380 009
Printed by JAGDISH ROY MANGLA at Royson Printers Pvt. Ltd. Phulkian Marg Patiala-147 001

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FOREWORD
The L.D. Institute of Indology has great pleasure in publishing three lectures on Facets of Jaina Religiousness in Comparative Light, delivered by Prof. Dr L. M. Joshi in the L.D. Lecture Series in February, 1981. The first two lectures are devoted to themes of soteriological reflection (anuprekşā) in Jainism. The third lecture expounds the Jaina conception of Holy Pentad-Arhats, Siddhas, Ācāryas, Upadhyāyas and Sädhus.
Soteriology includes doctrines and techniques that help man achieve salvation. One of the techniques of soteriological development is known as anuprekşā. In the first two lectures the learned author extensively deals with twelve themes of anupreksā, often drawing our attention to the corresponding terms and concepts in the Buddhist texts and occasionally referring to similar ideas and methods in the Brahmanical texts too. The comparative method applied to this problem makes the treatment interesting and revealing. His Preliminary Remarks (I.i) are thought-provoking and deserve special attention of the scholars.
In the Introduction to the third lecture, Dr. Joshi has discussed the essence of Dharma and argued that there can be Dharma without God. It is faith--not in God but in the purification of the self that constitutes the heart of Jainism. He states that the most important and fruitful manifestation of this faith is the Jaina doctrine of the holy pentad. The five members of the holy pentad are adored in the sacred formula of 'fivefold obeisance' (pañca-namaskāra-mantra); the author reviews the textual structure of this formula and its position in Jaina literature. He is quite right in pointing out the close association of this formula with the formula of four-fold refuge (catuh-saraña). In this connection his following comparative observation is note-worthy. "This formula of four-fold refuge reminds us of the Buddhist formula of three-fold refuge (tri-sarana) just as the formula of five-fold obeisance reminds us of the Buddhist formula of obeisance to the Triple Gem (tri-ratna). In the Buddhist instance the number of the refuges and the adorable ones is the same; there are only three śaranıs and three ratnas. In the Jaina instance the saranas are four while the adorables are five." After having compared the Jaina conception of Arhat with the Buddhist one, he concludes: "The Buddhist conception of an arhat, though helpful in understanding the Jaina conception, does not present an exciting parallel to the figure of a tirthankara". He has compared the notions of ācārya, upadhyāya, sādhu and guru found in the
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Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical traditions and clearly pointed out degrees of agreement and difference. Importance of the institution of guru in Tantric Buddhism, Nātha school and Santamata is brought to our notice. Comparative Notes at the end of this lecture deserves special attention. His study of original Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit texts has given freshness and lucidity to the interpretation and exposition of the old texts.
I am thankful to Prof. Dr L. M. Joshi for these three lectures which he prepared at our instance. I have no doubt that the students, teachers and others interested in the comparative study of religions will find this book illuminating and instructive.
L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380009 15th May, 1981.
NAGIN J. SHAH
Director
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PREFACE
I have always been fascinated by the deeply ascetic outlook towards life and the world which is reflected in the ancient religious texts of Jainism and Buddhism. The subjects of meditation or the themes of soteriological reflection in Jinist and Buddhist scriptures illustrate this ascetic outlook of munis and śramaņas. This outlook stands in sharp contrast with the this-worldly attitude of Vedic brāhmaṇas.
An attempt has been made in the first two chapters of this slender volume to discuss the meaning and function of twelve anuprekşās. The third chapter seeks to elucidate philosophical, ethical and devotional aspects of the Jaina doctrine of the holy pentad (pañcaparameșthin).
I follow a combined methodology which includes elements of historical, philosophical and philological approaches employed in a comparative perspective. The stress throughout is on the elucidation of religious phenomena and methodological tools are not allowed to overwhelm the centrality of the elements of human religiousness.
The following pages contain the text of a series of three lectures on Jainism which I delivered on February 25-27, 1981, at the L. D. Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad. I am thankful to Dr Nagin J. Shah, the Director of the L. D. Institute, for inviting me to deliver these lectures and for arranging their early publication. The Royson Printers of Patiala deserve praise for executing the work of printing so well.
Guru Gobind Singh Bhavan Punjabi University Patiala-147002
L. M. JOSHI Professor of Religious Studies Head of the Guru Gobind Singh Department of Religious Studies, and Dean, Faculty of
Religious Studies and Humanities
16 May, 1981

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SOME OTHER WORKS BY L. M. JOSHI
Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, first edition 1967; second revised edition 1977.
Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism
Kandy Buddhist Publication Society, 1970.
An Introduction to Indian Religions (in collaboration), Patiala Punjabi University, 1973.
Dhammapada, Pali text in Gurumukhi script, Punjabi translation and Introduction (in collaboration), Patiala Punjabi University, 1969.
History of the Punjab, volume one (edited and partly written) Patiala Punjabi University, 1976.
Vajracchedika Prajñāpāramitā with the Commentary of Asanga, Sanskrit texts edited and translated into Hindi with Introduction and Notes. Bibliotheca Indo-Tibetica-3. Sarnath Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1978.
Vimalakirtinirdeśasūtram, critically edited Tibetan text,
Sanskrit restoration and Hindi translation with Introduction and copious Notes in collaboration with Bhiksu Präsädika. Bibliotheca Indo-Tibetica-5. Sarnath: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1981.
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CONTENTS
Foreword
...
(ii)
Preface
...
(v)
1. THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION IN JAINISM-I
...
1-15
1. i. Preliminary Remarks I. ii. The Series of Twelve Themes I. iii. The Meaning of Anupreksā I. iv. Some Related Terms and Concepts I. v. The Purpose of Anuprekşās
II. THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION IN JAINISM-II
...
16-37
II. i. Anityānupreksā II. ii. Asaraṇānupreksā II. iii. Samsārānupreksā II. iv. Ekatvānupreksā II. v. Pộthakatvānupreksā II. vi. Aśucitvānuprekşi II. vii. Asravānupreksā II. viii. Samvarānupreksā II. ix. Nirjarānupreksā II. X. Lokānupreksā II. xi. Bodhidurlabhānupreksā II. xii. Dharmasvākhyātatvānupreksā
III. JAINA CONCEPTION OF THE HOLY PENTAD
... 38–69
III. i. Introduction : Jaina Faith III. ii. The Formula of Five-fold Obeisance III. iii. The Arhats III. iv. The Siddhas III. v. The Ācāryas III. vi. The Upādhyāyas III. vii. The Sādhus III. viii. Comparative Notes
Bibliography
... 70-74 ... 75
Index of Proper Names
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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
IN JAINISM—I
I.i. PRELIMINARY REMARKS
Jainism is chiefly a soteriological system of religious culture. Its soteriology represents a developed and distinct form of an ancient Indian stream of ascetic thought which had originated among munis and śramaņas of non-Vedic antiquity. Another distinct and developed form of this stream of ascetic spirituality is represented by Buddhism. The history of these two systems of śramaņa thought documented in the course of their development a remarkable degree of agreement in ethical ideas and ascetic practices in spite of some fundamental differences between their metaphysical principles. This fact of agreement or correspondence between Jaina and Buddhist traditions is of considerable relevance to students of all forms of śramaņa thought. For example, one can fruitfully elucidate several terms and concepts of Jaina soteriology with the help of parallels drawn from Buddhist sources, and vice versa, Buddhist terms and concepts can be studied in the light of their Jaina parallels.
The philosophers of śramana tradition laid special emphasis on renunciation (tyāga) and transcendental emancipation (mokşa). These two elements of their tradition excercised a tremendous and lasting influence on almost all subsequent developments in the history of Indian thought and culture. It can be maintained without any fear of contradiction that the very idea of transcendental emancipation (mokşa, mukti, nirvāṇa, nirvștti, kaivalya, nihśreyas, apavarga) has come to us from the philosophy of renunciation cultivated by munis and śramaņas. The introduction of the ascetic stage of life (samnyāsa-āśrama) in the Brahmanical scheme of varņāśrama-dharma in the post-Buddhist period, and the growth of ascetic cults and Sadhuism in general during the medieval centuries, can hardly be explained without recourse to powerful background furnished by the movements of śramana thought in the classical period of
1. On the origin and nature of framana thought see G.C. Pande, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism
(1957), pp. 251ff.; L.M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism (1970), pp. 31ff; G.C. Pande Sramana Tradition : Its History and Contribution to Indian Culture (1978); L.M. Joshi, Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India, second edition (1977), pp. 328-330,

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
Indian history.
The theory and practice of renunciation cultivated first by the śramaņas and then in the post-Buddhist period by the brāhmaṇas also, inspired over centuries a large and significant body of ascetic literature, especially ascetic poetry, in Pali, Prakrit, and Sanskrit languages. The main subject of this ascetic poetry is soteriological and relating to the quest of transcendental emancipation. Soteriology includes doctrines as well as methods of salvation and emancipation. Methods of soteriology include cultivation of the faculty of faith, ascetic practices, meditational excercises, scriptural studies, intense reflection, control of passions, renunciation of desires, intellectual analysis and comprehension of phenomena of existence, attainment of wisdom, and so on. Almost all these techniques have been cultivated and developed by the śramanas or ascetic sages of the Jaina tradition, and the extant literature of Jainism in Prakrit and Sanskrit offers us rich materials for their study.
One of these techniques of soteriological development, repeatedly discussed and described in Jaina texts, is known as anuprekşā. We have ventured to translate this word as "soteriological reflection". Here we propose to make a preliminary study of twelve themes of anuprekşā mainly on the basis of a few important Jaina treatises in Prakrit and Sanskrit, but we will not hesitate to refer to some cognate terms and related concepts found in Buddhist texts in Pali and Sanskrit. Our study will be confined to ethical and soteriological functions of anuprekṣā themes within the range of traditional list of twelve themes.
I. j. THE SERIES OF TWELVE THEMES
Some of the important texts which we have consulted show differences in the order of enumeration of twelve themes of anuprekşā.
2. The author has discussed some of these points in his forthcoming articles on "Asceticism" and
"Renunciation" contributed to the Encyclopaedia of Sikhism in preparation at the Punjabi
University, Patiala. 3. Ācārya Ātmārāmaji has shown the canonical basis of most of the themes of anupreksa in his
publication Tattvarthasūtra : Jaināgamasamanvaya (second impression, 1941), pp. 180-181, Walther Schubring, The Doctrine of the Jainas, tr. by W. Beurlen (1962), pp. 307-308, also points to several passages in canonical texts which went into the making of the list of twelve themes. A.N. Upadhye's edition of the Kārttikeyānupreksa (1960), Introduction, pp. 11-39, gives a good literary history of anuprekşā. K.K. Handiqui, Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture, 291-315, has elucidated some aspects of Jaina ascetic poetry. A large number of texts on this subject are briefly cited by Jinendra Varņi in his encyclopaedic compendium called Jainendra-Siddhanta-Kosa, Part I (1970), pp. 73-81. As far as this writer knows, no manual of anuprekṣās has been translated into English so far.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION (1) One of the texts to give a list of these themes is Tattvārthasūtra of Umāsvāmi or Umāsvāti also called Grdhrapiccha. He lists them in the following order : (i) anitya, (ii) aśaraņa, (iii) samsāra, (iv) ekatva, (v) anyatva, (vi) aśuci, (vii) asrava, (viii) samvara, (ix) nirjarā, (x) loka, (xi) bodhidurlabha, and (vii) dharmasrakhyāta. (2) The Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra has the following order : (i) anitya, (ii) aśarana, (iii) bhava, (iv) ekatra, (v) anyatva, (vi) aśauca, (vii) asravavidhi, (viii) samvara, (ix) karmanir jarā, (x) dharmasvākhyāta, (xi) loka, and (xii) bodhi.5 (3) The Praśamaratiprakaraṇa, attributed to Umāsvāti, gives the following order : (i) anit yatva, (ii) aśaranatva, (iii) ekatva, (iv) anyatva (v) aśucitva, (vi) samsāra, (vii) karmäsravavidhi, (viii) samvaravidhi, (ix) nirjaraņa, (x) lokavistāra, (xi) dharmasvākhyāta-tattvacintā, and (xii) bodhisudurlabhatva.
The Kārttikeyānuprekşā follows the order of enumeration of twelve themes found in the Tattrarthasūtra, while the order in the Yogaśāstra is in agreement with that found in the Jñānārņava of Subhacandra.? (4) Kundakunda, Vattakera, and Śivārya10 give a different order which is as follows: (i) adhruva, (ii) aśarana, (iii) ekatva, (iv) anyatva (v) samsāra, (vi) loka, (vii) aśuci, (viii) ăsrava, (ix) samvara, (x) nirjarā, (xi) dharma, and (xii) bodhi. (5) The list of twelve themes in the Maraṇasamāhill has the following order : (i) aņiccabhāva, (ii) asaranayā, (iii) egayā, (iv) annatta, (v) samsāra, (vi) asubhayā, (vii) logassabhāva, (viii) āsava, (ix) samvara, (x) nijjaraña, (xi) uttamaguna and (xii) bodhidullahayā. (6) The Mahānisihasutta12 enumerates them in the following order :
4. Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 7. 5. Yogaśāstra. IV 55-56. 6. Prašamaratiprakarana, verses 149-150. It would appear from the difference in the order of
enumeration of anuprekşās in the Tattvarthasūtra and the Praśamaratiprakarana that these two
works may not have been written by one and the same person named Umäsväti. 7. Jnanarnava, chapter II, vv. 8ff. 8. Barasa-Anuvekkha (in the Șat-Prabhrtadisamgraha), p. 425 after A.N. Upadhye, op. cit., p. 10. 9. Mülācāra, VIII. 2. 10. Bhagavati Mülaradhana, verse 1710. 11. Maranasamāhi (in Prakirnaka-daśakām), pp. 135ff. after A.N. Upadhye, op. cit., p. 14. 12. Mahānisi hasurta (Berlin edition), pp. 60. I have not seen this text. I quote from Upadhye, op. cit.,
p. 13 who, however, does not give serial number of each theme and does not seem to differentiate two themes in the line dhammam-suyak khāyam-supannattam titthagarehimtattacinta. Schubring, who has edited this text, notes that in the Mahānisiha list impurity (asucitva) is missing, and new is the titthagarehim tatta-cintabhāvana. The Doctrine of the Jainas, p. 307.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
(i) aniccatta, (ii) asarana (iii) egatta, (iv) annanna, (v) vivitta-samsāra, (vi) kammāsava,, (vii) samvara, (viii) viņijjara, (ix) logavitthara, (x) dhammam suyakkhā. yam-supannattam titthagarehim, (xi) tattacintā, and (xii) bohisudullahā.
The order of enumeration of twelve themes has no vital significance for actual soteriological progress in the spiritual career of a seeker of release. All the themes are important and it is only as a matter of academic interest that we notice the differences in the position of this or that theme in the order of enumeration found in different texts.
Besides the order, nomenclature also reveals some differences in various lists. Thus anuprekşā is also called bhāvanā. The Maranasamahi, the Mahānisiha, the Jñānārņava, the Yogaśāstra, and the Praśamaratiprakarana use bhāvanā instead of anuprekşā; this latter word is found used in a large number of works.
A marked variation is to be noticed in the position of dharma for which the Maranasamāhi uses uttamaguņa. In our first list it is at the end; in the second and the sixth lists it occupies the tenth position; in the third, fourth, and fifth lists it has the eleventh position. In five of the six lists given above bodhidurlabhatva is placed at the end of the series; in the order found in the Tattvārthasūtra and the Kärttikeyānuprekṣā, it has the eleventh position. The position of lokānupreksā also varies in various lists. In first and the third lists it has the tenth position; in the second list it is the eleventh; in the fourth list it is the sixth; in the fifth list it is the seventh while in the sixth list it is the ninth theme. The position of the first two themes, anitya and ašarana, is constant in all the six lists. In the first and second lists samsāra or bhava is the third theme; in fourth, fifth and sixth lists it occupies the fifth position, only in the third list it is placed at the sixth position. The three cardinal concepts of Jainism, viz. asrava, samvara and nirjarā, have, in the first three lists, seventh, eighth, and ninth positions, respectively. In the fourth and fifth lists they occupy eighth, ninth and tenth positions; only in the sixth list, they occur at sixth, seventh and eighth positions. The themes of ekatva and anyatva are placed at the fourth and the fifth positions in the first and the second lists, while in the other four lists they occupy the third and the fourth positions, respectively. The position of aśucitva (also called aśauca, asubhayā) is sixth in the first, second and fifth lists; fifth in the third list, and seventh in the fourth list; it is missing in the sixth list which has tattvacintā instead. It may be confessed here that the socalled six lists given above are selected at random. There is some likelihood of many more variations in the position of each of the twelve themes of soteriological reflection mentioned in a large number of other works not consulted by the present writer. However, philological and historical studies in the formation of the tradition of anupreksās need not detract our attention at this place.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
I. iii. MEANING OF ANUPREKSĀ
There is no doubt that anuprekşā is one of those basic terms which bring us directly to the core of the Jaina form of ascetic spirituality. The texts reveal nearly half a dozen variant spellings of this term in Prakrit, viz. anuppehä, anupehā, aņuvehā, aņuppekkhā, anupekkhā, and anuvekkha. In our treatment below we will use its Sanskrit form, anuprekşā.
In earlier Jaina texts anuprekşā is connected with both scriptural study and soteriological reflection. Scriptural study (svādhyāya) has always formed an important part of religious and philosophical training in India. Scriptural study has indeed been accepted as an aid to growth in religiousness. In canonical scheme anuprekšā is one of the five kinds of scriptural study, viz. vācanā, parip rcchanā, paråvartană, anuprekşā, dharmakathā.13 This fivefold method of scriptural study is mentioned in the Tattvārthasūtra with a difference in order and words.14 The Uttarādhyayanasūtra passage on anuprekşā has been translated by Hermann Jacobi in the following words : “By pondering (on what he has learned) he loosens the firm hold which the seven kinds of karman, except the żyushka (have upon the soul); he shortens their duration when it was to be a long one; he mitigates their power when it was intense; (he reduces their sphere of action when it was a wide one); he may either acquire äyushka-karman or not, but he no more accumlates karman which produces unpleasant feelings, and he quickly crosses the very large forest of the fourfold samsāra, which is without beginning and.
end."15
It is clear from this passage that even as a form of scriptural study anuprekşā has a soteriological function to perform. He who practices anuprek şā "quickly crosses the very large forest of the fourfold samsāra, which is without beginning and end.”
Pujyapāda and Akalanka seem to stress the svādhyāya aspect of anuprekşā. They explain it as "calling to mind the meaning of what is learnt" (adhigatārthasya manasā abhyāso anuprekşā).18
The important functional meaning of anuprekşā, as a technique of arresting influx of defiling tendencies into the self, is also found in the Tattvārthasūtra. It enumerates six methods of effecting cessation of influx, viz. gupti, samiti, dharma, anuprekşā, parişahaja ya and cāritra, protection, carefulness, religiousness, meditation, victory by patient endurance, and good conduct. 17 Here anuprek şā is a kind of mental effort to
13. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XXIX. 19-23. 14. Tattvarthas ütra, IX. 25-vācana, prcchana, anuprekşā, āmnāya, dharmopadeśa. 15. Jaina Sūtras, Part II, p. 165. 16. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 25, p. 339; Tattvārthavārttika on IX. 25, p. 624. 17. Tattvarthasūtra, 1X. 2.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
stop the course of all defiling tendencies; it is a measure of samvara, an agency of moral restraint. In this sense also anuprekşā is a kind of conscious mental activity and an intellectual awareness directed towards securing freedom from karmas. According to the commentators, "reflecting on the nature of the body and so on is anupreksā" (śarīrādinām svabhāvānucintanam anuprekşā).18 It is possible that these commentators are hinting at themes like anitya, aśuci etc. by referring to śarīrādinām svabhāva. But they have clearly not elaborated the meaning of anuprekşā in the sense in which its twelve themes are listed at Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 7.
Although some of the anuprekşä themes are connected with dharmya-dhyāna and śukla-dhyāna, they are not discussed by Umāsvāti, Pujya pada, and Akalanka in the context of four kinds of dhyāna mentioned in the Tattvārthasūtra, IX. 28. The Sthānāngasútra, which mentions four types of dhyāna, associates four anuprekşās with dharmya-dhyāna, viz. egānuppehā, añiccāņuppehā, a saraņāņuppehä, and samsārānuppehā. 19
According to Svāmī Kārttikeya anuprekşā means “reflection on the right principles” (sutatta cintā aṇuppehā).20 Subhacandra explains sutattva-cintä as reflection on or thinking of the entities such as the self and so on, sutattvacintă ātmādipadārtānām cintā cintanam anuprekșa bhavet).21 At the beginning of his commentary on Kärttikeya's treatise, he elucidates the meaning of anuprekşā in the following words - anu punaḥ punah prekşanam cintanam smaranam anityādi svarüpānām iti anupreksa nija nija nāmānusārena tattvānucintanam anuprekşā iti arthah.22
Subhacandra thus gives us three meanings or three synonymous terms, viz. prekşaņam, cintanam and smaranam, and adds, punah punaḥ to each of them. In other words, he means to say, punaḥ punaḥ prekṣaṇam, punaḥ punaḥ cintanam, and punch punaḥ smaranam. We have to understand that anuprekşā is a process involving both thought and vision, mind and the eyes. It is a process of repeatedly viewing or examining, of repeatedly thinking or considering, and of repeatedly recollecting or remembering, a series of facts of phenomenal existence. These facts of phenomenal existance are the themes of 'soteriological reflection and their traditional number is twelve (dvādaśa, duvālasa, bārasa).
Schubring refers to them as pessimistic reflections" which is a less elegant expression than Winternitz's "meditations" and Jacobi's "pondering",23 The anuprekşās
18. Sarvärthasiddhi on IX. 2, p. 312; Tattvārthavārtika on IX. 2, p. 591. 19. Țhānam (in Angasuttani, vol. I, Ladnun edn.), IV. 1. 68, p. 602. 20. Kārtikeyānupreksa, verse 97. 21. Kārttikeyānuprekșa-țīka (Upadhye's edn.), p. 48. 22. Karttikeyānupreksa-jika (Upadhye's edn.), p. 1. 23. Walther Schubring, op. cit., p. 307; Maurice Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, Eng. Tr.
vol. II, p. 577; Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, Part II, pp. 159, 165.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
are not to be considered "pessimistic". The Jainas do not consider them so. On the contrary, they are called "pure cultivations" (bhavana dvadaka viśuddhah). They are a source of endless happiness to the good people, and therefore they are like mothers. unto them (bhaviya-janäṇanda-jaṇanio, bhavyajanānandajananiḥ).. They contribute in a significant manner to the attainment of final beatitude and ultimate release; therefore, they can be called soteriological or liberative reflections or meditations.
They subsume most of the fundamental doctrines of Jaina faith and philosophy. They represent some of the salient facts of our phenomenal existence. The concept of anupreksa is at once religious, philosophical and soteriological. The process of anupreksa involves cultivation of a philosophical attitude to phenomenal existence and prepares the practioner for his ultimate transcendental goal which is conceived as ineffable state of the self in its highest and purest form. Meditation on these themes constitutes a system of psychological training and ethical behaviour designed to clear the way to supreme sanctification of the self. Repeated reflection on the nature and function of these themes advances right knowledge and reveals not only the dangers and imperfections of phenomenal existence which is conditioned and miserable, but also the potentialities and opportunities offered by existence in human form. A wise man is he who has become aware of the urgency of effecting ultimate release and has embarked upon that career. The anuprekṣas offer a career for those saints whose will is fixed on ultimate release from karma in all its forms.
I. iv. SOME RELATED TERMS AND CONCEPTS
As has been mentioned above, several Jaina texts use the term bhāvanā for anupreksa. Cognates of anuprekṣa are found in Buddhist literature in Pali and Sanskrit, while bhāvanā is well known in its Buddhist usage. To Buddhist meditational terminology also belong two other important terms, namely smṛti and anusmrti. In this sec tion we will give some attention to these related terms which seem to throw additional light on the concept of anupreksa.
7
Sheth gives four meanings of anupreksa, viz. cintana, bhavana, vicära, and svädhyāyavisega. Monier-Williams records only "anu-preksh, to follow with the eye","" In some Buddhist Sanskrit texts occurs the form anuprekşana,as which according to Edgerton, means "examination" or "investigation." ."29 Rhys Davids and Stede take notice of two
24. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 150.
25. Karttikeyanuprekṣā, verse 1.
26. Hargovind Das T. Sheth, Paia-Sadda-Mahannavo, p. 39.
27. Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p. 36.
28. Mülasarvästivadavinayavastu, vol. I, p. 258.
29. Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 31.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
Pali forms which are cognates of anuprekşā, namely anupekkhati and anupekkhanatā. The former is explained thus : 'to concentrate oneself on, to look carefully, to consider, to show consideration for,” while the latter is translated as "concentration (of thought)”.30
The context in which anupekkhati occurs in a canonical text is clearly soteriological; it occurs in the Vimuttāyatanasutta of the Anguttara collection in the course of a description of five spheres (āyatana) of release. These spheres are related to the study, teaching, repetition, investigation, and understanding of the Doctrine taught by the Tathāgata. The aim of these forms of scriptural study and reflection is to secure release of the mind by understanding the Dharma in both the spirit and letter. Therefore, the monk, who is on his way to release, "reflects in his heart on the Dharma, considers it, and concentrates his mind on it" (dhammam cetasā anuvitakk eti anuvicăreti manasā anupekkhati).31
There seem to be two meanings of bhāvanā in Jaina texts. In its early occurrences, it is understood in the sense of 'observance' of certain measures with a view to strengthening practice of five great ethical precepts (mahāvrata). Jacobi's remark that “the bhāvanās are sub-divisions of the five great vows" is therefore correct. The list of twenty-five bhāvanās or observances given in several texts32 shows that they belong to the area of ethical practices as much as to that of mindfulness.33 The close relation between five vratas and five bhāvanās, associated with each vrata, continued to be discussed and stressed in the later literature of Jainism.
In non-canonical texts we find the second meaning of bhāvanā as a standard synonym of anuprekşă. Its use in the sense of reflection or meditation became so universal that it almost replaced anuprekşā. However, in the time of Kunda kunda the two words seem to have been used as interchangeable symbols even in the context of twenty-five observances. 34
The use of bhāvanā in the sense of anupreksa is found in the Praśamaratiprakarana (VIII, 150) attributed to Umāsvāti, the Jñānārņava (II.2) of Subhacandra, the Yogaśāstra (IV. 55) of Hemacandra, and the Mülācära (VIII. 73) of Vattakera. The Kārttikeyānuprekşā also uses bhāvanā (verse 87) besides the usual anuprekşā. Two soteriological manuals carry the word bhāvana in their titles, viz. Dvādaśabhāvanā and
30. T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, Pali-English Dictionary, p. 39. 31. Anguttaranikāya, vol. II, (Nalanda edition), p. 291. 32. Tattvārthasūtra, VII, 3-8; Hermann Jacobi, Jaina Sūtras, Part I, p. 189. 33. See Ayāro (Ladnun edition), pp. 231 ff. 34. A. N. Upadhye, op. cit., p. 39, cites a line from a work of Kundakunda which runs thus
bhāvahi anuvekkhão avare panavisa bhāvana bhavi etc.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
Bhāvanāsandhiprakaraṇa.
Although bhāvanā in the sense of meditation or cultivation of thought is used rather very infrequently in Brahmanical texts, there is a short Tāntrika text of early medieval origin called the Bhāvanopanişad. It teaches Tāntrika type of meditation which is called bhāvanā. As is well known, the Yogasūtra employs bhāvanā in the sense of cultivation of certain virtuous emotions in order to counteract certain evil tendencies.36
It is in the classical Buddhist texts in Pali and Sanskrit that we come across a very widespread usage of bhāvanā. It is used in the sense of cultivation of thought, mental culture, meditational development or mind-development. Thus samatha-bhāvanā and vipassanā-bhāvanā are understood to mean 'development of tranquillity' and 'development of insight respectively. Generally speaking, bhāvanā indicates a process of deliberate deep thinking on some idea, element, or phenomenon; as a process of mental development in the sense of producing a specific kind of awareness, it can be viewed as a form of meditation. It has a fundamental position of importance in the meditational terminology of Buddhism, and its function is ethical as well as soteriological.
Buddhist texts repeatedly refer to 'wisdom based on meditational development' (bhāvanāmaya-paññā/bhāvanāmayi-prajñā), 'the path of meditational development' (bhāvanā-patha), 'the power of meditational development' (bhāvanā-bala), 'the basis of pure action consisting of meditational development' (bhāvanāmaya-puññakiriyāvatthu), 'delight in meditational development' (bhāvanārāmatā), and so on. Some texts mention four kinds of bhāvanā, viz. samatha, 'tranquillity'; vipaśyanā, ‘insight'; samathavipaśyanāabhyāsa, “practice of tranquillity and insight'; and śamathavipaśyanā-abhirati, 'delight in tranquillity and insight.o36
Meditational development or bhāvanā has been often recommended for overcoming evil tendencies; for example, one is recommended to have maitri-bhāvanā in order to get rid of hostility (pratigha), and to dwell upon the theme of liberality (dāna) in order to overcome avarice (lobha). It is understood as a psychological method of conquering impurities or defilements. The Buddha is reported to have said : atthi āsavā bhāvanā pahātabbā - "there are impurities (āsavas) which should be got rid of by meditational development."37 The impurities in this context are the four cardinal defiling influxes, viz. kāma, bhava, drșți, and avidyā, desire for sensual pleasure, desire for continued existence, perverted views, and spiritual blindness or ignorance. These asravas can be
35. Yogasūtra, II. 33-34. 36. Bodhisattvabhūmi (Patna edition), p. 77. 37. Majjhimanikāya, vol. 1 (Nalanda edition), p. 11.

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10
FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
got rid of by a process of meditational development, involving deep reflection on and constant cultivation of seven factors of Supreme Enlightenment. The seven factors of Supreme Enlightenment (samyak sambodhyanga) are the following mental and spiritual practices : smrti, dharmavicaya, vīrya, priti, praśrabdhi, samadhi and upekșa--mindfulness, investigation of the Dharma, spiritual energy, joy, serenity, trance, and equanimity.38
The cultivation of four immeasurable (aprameya) social emotions called the holy abidings' (brahmavihāras) is often called bhāvanā. That is to say, bhāvanā is used in the sense of cultivation, production or development of four holy abidings (brahmavihāra-bhāvanā), viz. maitri, karunā, muditā and upekṣā, friendliness, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity or impartiality.39 As an example of cultivation of universal friendliness (maitri-bhāvanā) we may quote following two verses from one of the oldest Buddhist canonical texts : "Just as a mother keeps guard on her own son, her only son, as long as she lives, so also let every one cultivate (bhāvaye) an immeasurable (friendly) thought towards all beings. Let every one cultivate an immeasurable (friendly) thought towards all the creatures in the world - upwards, downwards, and across, unhindered, free of hatred and hostility."'40 In the same way cultivation of other three immeasurable virtues, compassion, altruistic joy, and equanimity is recommended to ascetics and lay members. In several canonical Sutras in Pali, these four bhāvanās are said to lead to fellowship with Brahma (Brahma-sahabyatā).41
Another related term worthy of consideration here is smrti (Pali sati) which may be translated as 'mindfulness', 'awareness', 'recollection', and in certain contexts, as 'memory'. It is one of the most important technical Buddhist terms with religious and psychological significance. It is listed as one of the eight factors of the Eightfold Way (samyak smrti), one of the five spiritual Powers (smsti-bala), and one of the seven factors of Enlightenment (smrti-sambodhyanga). The extraordinary soteriological relevance of smrti or mindfulness is found stressed in the following statement of the Buddha : "There is this one way, brethren, for the purification of beings, for going beyond sorrow and lamentation, for the ending of pain and misery, for entering the right path, and for realizing Nirvāṇa, namely, the four applications of mindfulness" (ekāyano ayam, bhikkhave, maggo sattānam visuddhiya, sokaparidevānam samatik kamāya, dukkhadomanassānam atthangamāya, ñāyassa adhigamāya, nibbānassa sacchi
38. Ibid., pp. 16-17. 39. See Visuddhimagga, chapter IX; Vimuttimagga (The Path of Freedom), pp. 181-192. 40. Suttanipāta, vv. 149-150. 41. See e.g. Dighanikāya, vol. I (Nalanda editition), pp. 209-212; cp. Divyāva lāna (Darbhanga edi
tion), p. 139-rşibhiḥ pravrajitvä сatvari brahmavihārän bhāvayitvā kāmeşu kāmacchandam prahāya ta Ibahulavihārino brahmaloka sabhag arayamupapannah.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION kiriyāya, yadidam cattaro satipatthana).43
The theory of smrtyupasthāna (satipatthāna) indeed offers an interesting parallel to the theory of anuprekşā or bhāvanā. The four great 'fields of mindfulness' are the body (kāya), feelings (vedanā), mind (citta), and the phenomena (dharmas). These four fields of mindfulness are in fact four themes of soteriological contemplation. A complete system of meditation and ascetic practice based on the philosophy of smộtyupasthāna has been developed in classical Buddhism.13 The purpose of this system of meditation is the cultivation of ascetic spirituality which reaches its culmination in Ultimate Holiness (anuttara visuddhi).
Closely connected with the conception of smrti and the theory of meditation is the Buddhist practice of anusmrti (Pali anussati). This word means 'recollection'; however, insofar as anusmrti is functionally similar to smrti and dhyāna, it can also be translated as 'contemplation' or 'meditation'. The practice of anusmrti is specially concerned with Buddhist devotional exercises which are a means of growing in religiousness.
A considerable degree of similarity exists between Buddhist anusmrtis and Jaina anuprekşās. This similarity is both theoretical and functional or practical. It is not claimed that the scope of the theory and practice of anuprekşās is co-extensive with the theory and practice of anusmrti. What is suggested here is that like the practice of anuprekşas the practice of anusmrti belongs to a soteriological technique which is common to Buddhism and Jainism; and that there is an unmistakable similarity in the nature and function of several of the themes of meditation listed under smrtis and anusmộtis on the one hand, and anuprekşās or bhāvanās on the other. It is, of course, noteworthy that the precise contexts and actual details of treatment of these themes in Buddhist and Jaina texts record important differences.
The ten anusmrtis or subjects of soteriological meditation are as follows: 1. Meditation on the Omniscient (buddhānussati) 2. Meditation on the Doctrine (dhammānussati) 3. Meditation on the Holy Order (sanghānussati) 4. Meditation on Morality (silānussati) 5. Meditation on Liberality (cāgānussati) 6. Meditation on the Gods (devatānussati) 7. Meditation on Death (marana-sati) 8. Meditation on the Body (kāyagatā-sati)
42. Dighanikāya, vol. II (Nalanda edition), p. 217; Majjhimanikāya, vol. I (Nalanda edition), p. 76. 43. The basic Pali text and its Commentary can be read in Soma Thera's English Translation in The
Way of Mindfulness (3rd edition). For an excellent modern discussion see Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, pp. 82-101.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS 9. Meditation on Breathing (änäpāna-sati)
10. Meditation on Peace (upasamānussati) In the canonical texts only the first six anussatis are listed,44 the remaining four are found in later texts. It is in the Visuddhimagga and its commentary called the Paramatthamañjūsäţiká that we find a detailed discussion of these subjects of meditation.45
Meditation on the Buddha means reflection on and recollection of the special qualities of the Enlightened One. The formula of recollection is as follows:
"Such, indeed, is that Blessed One, the Holy, the Omniscient, Endowed with knowledge and virtuous conduct, Sublime, Knower of the worlds, the Incomparable Leader for the training of persons; Teacher of gods and men, Enlightened and Blessed."
Meditation on the Dharma includes recollection of the special qualities of the Dharma as set forth in the scriptures, e.g. it is well-expounded, visible here and now, not conditioned by time, inviting study and investigation, and it culminates in Nirvāņa.
Recollection of the special qualities of the Holy Order (sangha)-e.g. that the community of the Blessed One's disciples has entered the good, right, and true path, that it is fit for gifts and offerings and is worthy of salutations, constitutes sanghānussati.
Meditation on the fourth and the fifth themes viz. ethical virtue or morality (sila) and renunciation or generosity (tyāga), are designed to promote moral restraint (samvara) and detachment (vairāgya). The meditation on (śīla) concentrates on the thought that the virtue (sila) is liberating since it liberates from the slavery of desire and craving. Meditation on generosity (tyāga) is recommended for securing freedom from greed, hate and delusion.
Meditation on the gods includes recollection of various classes of deities who have attained divine abodes by means of virtue, learning, generosity, understanding, and so on. He who desires happiness and good destiny is advised to remember gods and their deeds.
Mindfulness of death (maraņānusmrti) is sought to be cultivated with a view to making one aware of the inevitability of death. 'Death will take place, the life-faculty
44. Anguttaranikāya, vol. III (Nalanda edition), p.7; Dīghanikāya, vol. III (Nalanda edition), p. 193;
Lalitavistara (Dharbhanga edition), p. 23. 45. Visuddhimaggo of Buddhaghosa with the Paramatthamañjūsāļika of Dhammapāla edited by
Rewatadhamma, vol. I, chapters VII-VIII, pp. 409-626; Visu Idhimagga of Buddhaghosācariya, ed. by H.C. Warren and revised by Dharmananda Kosambi, pp. 162-243; English Translation in the Path of Purification by Bhikkhu Nānamoli, pp. 204-320.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
13
will be terminated'--this thought keeps one conscious of the ultimate insecurity (aśaraṇatā). Death is described as a murder with poised sword; it comes along with birth; reflection on death includes the thoughts of frailty of life and limited span of life.
Meditation on the body forms an essential aspect of the Buddhist theory and practice of four-fold mindfulness. In the course of meditation on the body, a monk reviews its constituent parts and directs his attention to the repulsiveness and impurity (aśuci) of the body. He who meditates on the fundamentally evil and destructible nature of the body is released from egoism, fear and craving.
The ninth theme of meditation is the process of breathing. A monk concentrates on breathing while he breathes in and breathes out. The aim of mindfulness with regard to breathing is to compose and still the mind. It is an essential step in the process of control and purification of the mind. He whose mind is stilled, knows and sees things as they really are.
The tenth theme of meditation is peace or quiescence (upaśama). Nirvāṇa is called the Abode of Excellent Peace (santivarapadam). Peace means extinction of all compounded phenomena, termination of the round of repeated becoming, destruction of craving, and cessation of all misery. To meditate on these special qualities of Peace is the function of upašamānusmrti. It will be seen that many of the themes of meditation (anusmrti) are similar to those of reflection (anuprekşā)
I. v. THE PURPOSE OF ANUPREKSĀS
The purpose of anuprekşās needs to be stressed here. Almost all the texts dealing with them stress their soteriological purpose. The twelve anuprekşās may be translated in the following words in the order they are listed in the Tattvārthasūtra before proceeding to sum up their purpose and function. 1. Reflection on the impermanent character of all phenomenal things (anityānupreksā). 2. Reflection on the utter helplessness of every living being in the face of death
(aśaraṇānuprek şā). 3. Reflection on the miserable course of existence-in-flux (samsārānuprekṣā). 4. Reflection on the utter loneliness of a being in the course of existence-in-flux
(ekatvānuprekşā). 5. Reflection on the fundamental distinction between the body and the self (prtha
katvānuprekşā). Reflection on the impurity of the body aśucitvānuprekşā).
Reflection on the defiling influx of karmas (asravānuprekşā). 8. Reflection on the method of controlling the defiling influx of karma (samvarānu
prekşā).

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
9. Reflection on the process of annihilating karma clinging to the self (nirjarānu
prekşā. 10. Rflection on the nature and extent of the universe (lokānuprekṣā). 11. Reflection on the rarity of attaining enlightenment (bodhi-durlabhānuprekşā). 12. Reflection on the well-expounded theory of religiousness (dharma-svākhyātatvānu
prekşā).
These reflections are conceived as aids to religious progress; they inspire renunciation of desires and promote detachment and dispassion. One text seems to stress the vajrāgya-bhāvanā as the chief aim of these reflections which also produce and strengthen desire for ultimate freedom.46 According to another text anupreksäs or bhāvanās are a means of purification of thoughts (bhāvasuddhi) and incentives to liberation.97 Hemacandra recommends these reflections for the attainment of equanimity (samatva) and selfishlessness (nirmamatva).48 Another author states that these reflections remove 'the obstructions on the path of renunciation' (vairāgyamärga vighneșu) and produce wishlessness (nisprhatā)."9 Svāmi Kārttikeya goes so far as to say that he who has recourse to these twelve forms of ascetic reflection, destroys all the karmas and attains the eternal bliss of Release.50 These authorities thus make anuprekşās an essential part of the Jaina path of ultimate Release. These reflections are recommended to both ascetics as well as lay members of the Jaina community. One of the cardinal teachings of Jainism is the technique of arresting the influx of karmic stuff into the self. This technique is known as samvara. Soteriological reflections are listed among the six agencies of effecting samvara61. Constant reflection on the twelve themes is recommended as a means of avoiding all that is opposed to the goal of ultimate Release. Several treatises describe them as essential factors in the process of dharmya-dhyāna52 In other words, anuprekşās are a means to the cultivation of righteous form of meditation. They prepare the stage for meditation on the nature and constitution of the universe. By means of meditation on the nature and constitution of the universe one is able to investigate into the nature of things as they are. Knowledge of the nature of things as they are is a prerequisite for the attainment of knowledge of the real nature of the self which in its turn results in liberation.
In short, anuprekşās have the following soteriological functions to perform;
46. Maranasamahi, vv. 636, 638, 571. 47. Jhanarnava, II. 4-6. 48. Yogaśastra, IV. 110. 49. Haribhadrasűri on Praśamaratiprakaraņa, verse 148, p. 102. 50. Kartikeyānupreksā, verse 488-khavadi kammapuñjam mutti-suham akkhayam lahadi. 51. Tattvarthasūtra, IX. 2. 52. Jānārnava, XL), 3.

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15
(1) they promote development of the spirit of renunciation (vairāgya); (2) they increase desire for ultimate Release (mok şa); (3) they strengthen technique of arresting the influx of karma (samvara); (4) they constitute essential aids to virtuous and righteous form of meditation (dharmya-dhyāna), and (5) they are a means of attaining ultimate Release (mokşa) of the self (ātma) from conditioned existence. The ascetic sages desirous of release (mumuk şubhiḥ) have praised these soteriological reflections because they are like the flight of steps to climb up the palace of Release.53 Svāmī Kārttikeya eulogizes religious significance of anuprekşās when he says that "he who reads the account (of twelve themes of soteriological reflection), listens to them, and cultivates them, attains eternal bliss."54
The great soteriological purpose of bhāvanās is declared already in the sūtrakrtanga. "Towards your fellow-creatures be not hostile ; that is the Law of him who is rich in control: he who is rich in control renounces everything, and in this (world meditates on the) reflections on life. He whose soul is purified by meditating on those reflections is compared to a ship in water; like a ship reaching the shore he gets beyond misery.”55 Summing up the importance and purpose of anuprekşās K.K. Handiqui has observed that “The Anuprekṣās are thus viewed from different standpoints but their wider aspect can hardly be mistaken. They are in the nature of reflections on the fundamental facts of life, and remind the devotee of the teachings of the Master on the subject of rebirth, karma and its destruction, equanimity and self-control, the glory of the Law and the final goal. They are no doubt designed to develop contemplative faculty of yogin, and may be called the starting point of dhyāna. But they have also a great moral significance inasmuch as they are meant to develop purity of thoughts and sincerity in the practice of religion."56
53. Jhanarnava, II. 7. 54. Karttikeyanupreksa, verse 490. 55. Hermann Jacobi's translation, Jaina Sūtras, Part II, pp. 329-330. The original may be seen in the
Suyaga lo (Ladnun edition), I, XV. 4-5, p. 340. 56. Yašastilaka and Indian Culture, p. 293.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION IN
JAINISM-II
We shall now turn our attention to traditional Jaina exposition of twelve themes of soteriological reflection citing occasionally parallel statements from the Buddhist sources. II. i. ANITYĀNUPREKSĀ
The first great theme is the fact of universal impermanence. Nothing in our phenomenal existence strikes us so starkly as the transitory nature of all things, the fleeting and evanescent character of everything that surrounds us, the law of constant flux and transformation of all that we see, feel and possess. Reflection on this truth of impermanence is called anityānuprekşā or adhruva-bhāvanā. “All that originates is destroyed invariably,” jam kimci vi uppannam tassa viņāso havei ni yameņa. This strongly reminds us of the Buddhist theory of impermanence and change. “Whatever is a rising thing that is a ceasing thing,” yam kimci samudayadhammam sabbam tam nirodha dhammam. Nothing in this world is eternal, everything is subject to change and decline. Association with loved ones, wealth, and prosperity, pleasures, health, body and youth, indeed existence itself-all these are impermanent.
That which is seen in the morning is not seen at noon, and that which is seen at noon is not seen at night; such is the impermanence of all the things of this world. The only foundation of embodied beings for achieving all their objectives is the body; but even this body is destined to destruction like the clouds devastated by strong wind.4 This universe, peopled by gods, men and beasts, disappears like foam; the supernatural powers are like knowledge attained during a dream; all the visible things are liable to destruction; all the pleasures are fleeting like lightning; all the dwelling places are impermanent like bubbles in water.5
1. Kartikeyānuprekşa, verse 4. 2. Mahāvagga (Nalanda edition), p. 15. 3. Prašamaratiprakarana, verse 151.
Cp. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 181
anityam adhruvam sarvam pariņāma kasuk ah saja. 4. Yogaśastra, IV. 57-58. 5. Bhagavati Aradhana, vv. 1711-1712; cp. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XIX. 12.

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17
"The body is invaded by diseases, the youth is devastated by old age; glories are ended by destruction, and existence ends in death."
vapurviddhi rujākrāntam jarākrāntam ca yauvanam/ aišvaryam ca vināśāntam maraņāntam ca jīvitam//
This verse of Subha candra offers a remarkable paralle to the following Pali gātha:
parijiņņamidam rūpam roganidam pabhanguram/
bhijjati pūtisandeho maranantam hi jīvitam//? "This body is entirely worn out, a nest of disease and perishable; this mass of impurities breaks up; indeed life ends in death."
Pujyapāda has to offer the following comment on the soteriological relevance of reflection on the fact of impermanence. “The bodies as well as the objects of pleasure of the senses are transient like bubbles. In the endless cycle of wordly existence, union and separation in the womb, etc. alternate in quick succession. However, the self under delusion considers the persons and objects associated with him as permanent. But there is nothing in the world which is permanent except the natural characteristics of knowledge and perception of the self. This is contemplation on the transitory nature of things. He who contemplates thus is free from intense attachment to persons and things, and hence he does not feel distress when he looses them or separates from them as in the case of garlands used and cast off.”
The impermanence of all the beings and things has been made the theme of a full-length doctrine of momentariness by Buddhist philosophers. The canonical texts in Pali and Sanskrit also frequently stress the fact of anit yatā of all things. Here we will refer only to a couple of verses expounding the theory of impermanence. The one verse is from the Dhammapada :
sabbe samkhārā aniccă ti yadā paññāya passati] atha nibbindati dukkhe esa maggo visuddhi yā/ 10
6. Jnanarnava, II, 10; cp. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XVIII. 12-13. 7. Dhammapada, verse 148. 8. Reality, translation by S.A. Jain, p. 245; Sanskrit text in Sarvārthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 355; cp.
Buddhacarita, VI, 48; IX. 33, "coming together of beings is transient as dream”. 9. See Tattvasangraha of Santarakṣita with the Pañjika of Kamalasila, chapter VIII (Sthirabhāva
parikşa): Ratnakırtinibandhavali, pp. 62-88; Jhanaśrīmitranibandhavali, pp. 1-159; Satkari Mookerjee, The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux: Th. Stcherbatsky, Buddhist Logic, vol. I,
pp. 79-113; Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India, pp. 34 ff. 10. Pali Dhammapada, verse 277; Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada, verse 373; Gandhari Dharma
pada, verse 106.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
"Impermanent are all conditioned things--when one discerns this with wisdom, one is then disgusted with suffering; this is the path to Sanctification." The other verse is from the Mahāparinibbānasutta :
aniccā vata samkhārā uppādavayadhammino
uppajjitvā nirujjhanti tesam vūpasamo sukhol/11 "Impermanent indeed are conditioned things. They are characterized by origination and cessation. For, having originated, they are stopped. Bliss lies in their pacification."
The first half of the verse of the Dhammapada quoted above is a famous formula used by Buddhist monks as a subject of deep meditation. Similarly the first line of the second verse quoted above almost epitomizes Buddhist thought and is used as a theme of soteriological reflection. We may also note in passing that the principle of universal impermanence is the subject of one of the fundamental doctrinal statements (dharmapadāni) made by the Buddha :
1. anityāḥ sarva samskārāḥ, all conditioned things are impermanent; 2. duhkhāḥ sarva samskārāh, all conditioned things are sorrowful; 3. mirātmānaḥ sarva samskārāḥ, all conditioned things are devoid of self; 4. śāntam nirvāṇam, Nirvāṇa is the Peace.
ed thin. Te sorronanent
Those who see permanence in this realm of impermanence suffer from perverted view or false opinion (mith yādrsti). The Yoga school considers cognition of permanence in what is transient as a form of nescience (avidyā).12 The Advaita school of Vedānta lays great emphasis on discrimination between the eternal and the transitory (nityānit ya vastu viveka).13 Bhartshari has also expressed the truth of impermanence in several telling verses. He points out that life changes like a wave, beauty of youth lasts for a few days, wealth and possessions are transient like thoughts, and enjoyments are like flashes of autumn al lightning; that old age frightens men like a tigress, diseases attack men like enemies, and life flows away like water flowing out of a leaky jar.14 Somadeva has saught to sum up this terrifying doctrine of universal impermanence by pointing out the omnipotence of death which destroys all, old and young, strong and weak, alike. 15
11. Dighanikāya, vol. II (Nalanda edition), p. 120 cp. also Dharmasamuccaya, chapter V
(Anityatīvarga). 12. Yogasūtra, II, 5. 13. Vivekacūļāmaņi, vv. 19-20. 14. Vairāgyašataka, vv. 36, 38; cp. v. 41, 49-50. 15. Yaşastilaka. II. 110-111. Cp. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 211
jatyā jātya dhruvam mrtyurărogye sati ruk sthital sampattau vyasanaprāptiryauvanasahaja jarall

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION
II. ii. AŠARAŅĀNUPREKSA
The second major theme of soteriological reflection is the truth of ašarana, absence of permanent refuge, lack of protection or shelterlessness in the phenomenal world of beings. All beings-gods, humans, and animals--are utterly helpless in the face of death; they are destined to die; they cannot overcome old age, disease, sorrow and the fear of death. He who wants to be fearless and deathless must reflect on the omnipotence of Death or Time and adopt ways and means of going beyond the sphere of samsāra. That is to say, he who wishes to be released from the jaws of Death must immediately embark upon the career of achieving mokşa. The awareness of the fact of helplessness is the initial aim of aśaraṇānuprekşā; he who has this awareness becomes heedful and seeks only the ultimate release which sans fear and danger.
In the presence of death, the supreme enemy of all embodied souls, everything becomes powerless; elephants, horses, chariots, army, magical charms, medicine, and prowess, all these become useless. 16 One must reflect on this fact and work out one's salvation.
The teaching of the Excellent Conqueror (Jinavara) is the sole refuge in this world of beings who are overpowered by the fear of birth, old age, and death and seized by painful feelings of bodily and mental diseases.17 This view is endorsed by another authority with equal zeal. For the beings coursing through the round of repeated metempsychosis, there is no other refuge except Faith, Wisdom and Morality (darśana, jñāna, caritra) which should therefore be honoured with utmost devotion.18 Several soteriological manuals of Jainism employ the following interesting and keen simile for illustrating the fact of aśarana. 'Just as there is no escape for the young one of a deer pounced upon by hungry tiger, similarly there is no escape for the beings from old age, disease, sorrow and death.'19
16. Jsanārņava, II. 12; Bhagavati Aradhana, verse 1734.
Cp. Dharmasa muccaya, verse 228na deva na nara yakşā năsura garudastathal
trāyanti mrtyusamaye karmana paripaśitam// 17. Prašamaratiprakarana, verse 152. 18. Kürttikeyanuprekṣā, verse 30. 19. Sarvārthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 315; Yogaśāstra, IV. 64; Karttikeyānupreksā, verse 24; Jņānārņava,
II. 17; Bhagavati Ārādhana, verse 1740. Cp. Dharmasamuccaya, vv. 43-44deva sura nara yaksā narak aga bhujangamahl gaccahanti vivaśaḥ sarvaḥ kalapaśam durā sadam traidhātukam idam sarvam kalapaśena pasitam! na ca paśyanti vivaša strsnāmohena mohitahl/

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The root cause of helplessness of beings lies in their karma. Once karma is allowed to come into existence there is no escape from its evil consequences such as birth, old age, death, disease, anxiety, fear and unpleasant feelings (jādijarämarañarujā cimtābhayavedaņādiye). When a jiva's karma has risen, there is here no protection nor any refuge for him; even if he goes to the underworld, he is not deiivered from suffering. One may seek shelter anywhere in mountain caverns, forests, rocks, earth, ocean, and reach the very end of the universe, even then one is not delivered from the consequences of a committed deed.20 Such is the grim reality of aśarana. He who is disgusted with the thought of his own complete helplessness, does not seek to identify himself with wordly objects. He seeks to walk on the path indicated by the Omniscient Lord.21
The Buddhist texts contain numerous statements of parallel import and significance. We will cite a few of them. The Jaina conception of triple refuge--darśana, jñāna and caritra-is matched by the Buddhist conception of triple refuge--the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. The Buddhist texts also declare that all the other forms of refuge are insecure, the Three Jewels are the only secure refuge. "Driven by fear, men go to many a refuge-mountains, forests, groves, trees and shrines. But no such refuge is safe, no such refuge is supreme. One is not emancipated from all sufferings by going to such a refuge. He who has taken refuge with the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, sees with right knowledge the Four Holy Truths--Suffering, Cause of Suffering, Transcendence of Suffering, and Holy Eightfold Path leading to the cessation of suffering. This indeed is the secure refuge. This indeed is the supreme refuge."22 These verses might also be interpreted as expounding a conception of four refuges viz. Three Jewels and the Four Truths. If this interpretation be a correct one, then we have more or less a corresponding Jaina conception of four refuges (cattāri saranam), viz. Arhats, Siddhas, Sadhus, and the Dharma expounded by the Kevalin. 2 8
The Dhammapada also teaches that there is no escape from death nor from the evil consequences of one's deeds. Not in the sky, not in the midst of the sea, nor in a mountain cave, is there a place in the whole world abiding where an evil-doer might be freed from the consequences of his evil deed or abiding where one might be able to
20. Bhagavati Aradhana, vv. 1729-1731. 21. Sarvārthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 316. 22. Dhammapada, w. 188-192. Cp. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 204
na mantrauşadhakarmāņi na deva năsurăstatha/
kalapaśena baddhasya trataro hi bhavanti tell 23. See Jinasahasranama-vrti, p. 139;
Jhānāranava, XXXVIII. 57 and comment on p. 377.

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overcome death.24 Another verse of this text reads thus: "The sons are no protection, neither father nor the relatives; for one overcome by death, there is no protection among kinsmen."25 Elsewhere the Buddha says that this whole world of beings is being constantly driven away by old age, disease and death. Santideva also draws our pointed attention to the fact of helplessness. "When one is caught up by the envoys of Death, a relative is of no use, a friend is of no use. At that moment, religious merit is the only protection, and that was never honoured by me."27
21
II. iii. SAMSARANUPREKṢA
The third theme in our standard list is samsara also called bhava. We have earlier referred to it as 'the miserable course of existence-in-flux'. Two most outstanding features of life in samsära are misery and flux or change. Misery is the opposite of happiness while flux is the opposite of peace. Both misery (duḥkha) and impermanence (anityatva) are undesirable. Existence involving constant misery and constant change is the nature of samsära (samsaraṇam samsarah parivartanam ityarthah). It is a process of continuous becoming (bhava), often referred to as the cycle of transmigration or the whirlpool of metempsychosis. It is a fundamental philosophical doctrine of all systems of ascetic spirituality. The doctrine is inseparably connected with the idea of moral law of retribution known as karma. The course of existence-in-flux offers the field for the process of karmic technology; conversely, the technology of karma flourishes only in the phenomenal realm of samsara. The awareness of the nature and function of samsara is the starting point of that philosophy of renunciation which places supreme value on transcendental goal of Ultimate Release. The beginningless round of repeated births and deaths terminates in Ultimate Release (nirvana, mokṣa, kaivalya). Meditation on samsära is recommended with a view to achieving its termination.
The course of existence-in-flux is made possible by karma; it is the chief cause of misery (karmamayaḥ samsāraḥ samsäranimittakam punarduḥkham.) Different forms
24. Dhammapada, vv. 127-128.
25. Ibid. verse 288.
26. Anguttaranikaya, vol. I (Nalanda edition), p. 143-upaniyati kho ayam, brāhmaṇā, loko jarāya byadhina maraṇena.
27. Bodhicaryavatara, II. 42. See also ibid., II. 45-46.
One can almost endlessly multiply the number of Buddhist sayings on impermanence and helplessness scattered in Pali and Buddhist Sanskrit literature. Space at our disposal does not permit us to cite more parallels here. A N. Upadhye has remarked: "Objectively speaking anitya-a. has a better place in Buddhism than in Jainism, because, according to the latter, it is only the paryayas or modes that are anitya, the substance being nitya." Kärttikeyanuprekṣa, Introduction, p. 41.
28. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 57.

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of existence, viz. gods, humans, animals and hellish beings, are surrounded by misery.29 They are all subject to change of condition and consequent disturbances involving differences in respect of country, family, body, knowledge, age, strength, enjoyment, and prosperity. Seeing these discrepancies in the course of becoming, the wise do dot involve themselves in it.30 Somadeva points out that the process of birth and rebirth has contradictory characteristics, and it invariably results in misery; for example, when wealth is gained health is wanting, and when there is health, long life accompanied by wealth is absent.31 That existence in samsära is a bag of miseries is stressed in the following two verses of the Uttarādhya yana sutra : “I do not delight even for a moment in this human life which is vain, a home of illness and disease and which is eaten up by old age and death. Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, and so are diseases and deaths; ah, this samsāra where the beings suffer, is nothing but suffering."32 The original Prakrit of the second of these two verses deserves reproduction here :
jammam dukkham jarā dukkham rogāņi maranäni ya/
aho dukkho hu samsāro jattha kisanti jantavo/ According to the Jaina view, samsāra is the process of leaving one body and embracing another body by the self owing to the fruition of karmas. Wandering across the endless cycle of births and deaths, passing through millions of crises in numerous wombs and families, one assumes different forms of relationship, such as father, son, grandson and so on, or mother, wife, sister, daughter and so on, being forced by the technology of karmas. In this process of endless repetition, the master becomes the servant, and the servant master; sometime, one becomes one's own son. He who reflects on this ridiculous nature of transmigration is shocked by its miseries and becomes disgusted with existence-in-flux. The Kārttikeyānuprekşā (vv. 32-33) defines samsāra thus :
ekkam cayadi sariram anņam ginhedi nava-navam jīvol puņu punu annam annam ginhadi mumcedi bahu-vāram// evam jam samsaranam nāņā-dehesu hodi jivassa/
so samsāro bhannadi miccha-kasăehim juttassa He who is thus disgusted with it works for his deliverance. 33 The Uttarādhyayana
29. The Jaina texts usually enumerate these four states of existence (gatis)-levatva, manus yatva,
tiryaktva, and narak atva. The Buddhist texts, however, enumerate six states-deva, manusya,
asura, preta, tiryak, naraka. 30. Praß amarat iprakarana, verse 102. 31. Yaśastilak a, II. 116. 32. Uttaradhyayanasūtra, XIX. 14-15. 33. Sarvārthasiddhi on IX. 7. p. 316; Yogaśāstra, IV. 65-67; Kārttikeyānupreksā, vv. 32-73; Jņānār.
nava on samsāra, vv. 1-16.

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sutra, in another context, states that by such reflection one quickly crosses the very large forest of the fourfold samsara which is without beginning and end. Embodied existence in any form is evil and full of sufferings, dangers, humiliations, privations and disappointments. Having been born once in heavan, one has to fall into lower realms, sometimes even in hells. In short, the entire process of becoming is thoroghly disgusting and painful.
Several passages in the Buddhist texts further illuminate the conception of samsăra and point out the value of cultivating awareness of its evils. "This wheel of old age and death (jarāmaranacakra) is irresistible and very cruel; it tears into pieces all helpless beings, but those devoid of the eye (of wisdom) do not know it."'35 The beings in samsara are separated even while they are in close intercourse just as the clouds in the sky are scattered by the wind.36 Śantideva alludes to the endless wheel of becoming (samsara) in remorseful terms.37 In one of the most remarkable verses in the whole range of the Pali literature, the Buddha refers to his past wanderings in the course of existence-in-flux in the following words: "Through many a birth (in the past) I wandered in samsāra seeking, but not finding, the builder of the house. To be born again and again is indeed miserable."
The following abridged translation of a passage sums up the early Buddhist notion of samsara. "Brethren, this samsara is of an incalculable beginning. Of this process of coursing on (or faring on) and running on of beings, cloaked by nescience and tied by craving, the earlist point is not revealed. If a If a man were to prune out grasses, sticks, boughs, and twigs in the whole of India and collecting them together, should make a pile laying them in a stack of squares saying for each: "This is mother, this is mother's mother. Brethren, the grasses, sticks, boughs, and twigs in the whole of India would be used up, even then the mothers of that man's mother would not be fully counted. Such is the incalculable beginning of this samsara. Brethren, for a very long time you have been experiencing misery, you have been suffering acutely, you have been suffering disaster, and thus the cremation-grounds have been flourishing. Brethren, thus far enough is there for you to be disgusted with things of the world, to Icose all passion for them, enough to be literated therefrom".
34. Uttaradhyayanasutra, XXIX. 22.
35. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 332; cp. Suttanipata, verse 517
36. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 233.
23
37. Bodhicaryavatāra, II. 28.
38. Dhammapada, verse 152; cp. Dharmasamuccaya, verse 182
punaḥ punaḥ prajayante cyavante ca punah punah devah sukhapramatta ye teşam sukham alakvatam
39. Samyuttanikaya, vol. II (Nalanda edition), p. 151,

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II. iv. EKATVĀNUPREKSĀ
That every soul is ultimately utterly lonely is the theme of the fourth anuprekşā. The metaphysical pluralism underlying the Jaina system of faith postulates reality of an infinite number of souls. Each embodied soul or self is born alone, grows old alone, suffers from illness and fear alone, and dies alone. It goes to heavens and enjoys pleasures alone; it goes to hells and suffers pain and grief alone. Each embodied soul is entirely responsible for its happiness and suffering, good and evil, liberation and bondage. No one else accompanies an individual soul in its course of traversing across millions of embodied existences.
This thought of loneliness should be viewed as enunciating the principle of individual liberty and individual responsibility extending to a person's transhistorical existences. One may prepare to go to hell or to go to heaven; one may work one's way through the cycle of becoming or one may mobilize all one's resources to effect one's release once for all.
Our texts paint a grim picture of every single person's lonliness and stress the need of winning ultimate Release.40 Somadeva speaks in loud terms of deceptions that delude men and women engaged in acquisitive and possessive ventures :
"You yourself alone undergo birth and death to suffer consequences of your own deeds. In happiness or misery you have no companion. Only a group of parasites surrounds you to make their living. Even this body, born with you, will not accompany you at death, let alone your external possessions. Why do you suffer all the more from these delusive bonds like wife and children, wealth and home, originating and ceasing every moment ?''41
Hemacandra makes the painful comment that the wealth acquired through sinful means by a person is enjoyed jointly by members of his family; but that sinner alone suffers in hell the evil consequences of his sinful deeds.42
The essence of ekatvabhāvanā is briefly indicated in the scriptures thus : "When a monk thinks thus--I am myself alone; I have no body belonging to me; I do not belong to any body'-then he should know clearly that he himself is alone,” ego ahamamsi, na me atthi koi, na yāhamavi kassai, evam se egāgiņameva appāņam samabhijanijjā.43
40. See Kārtrikeyānuprekșa, w. 74-79; Praśamaratiprakarana, verse 153; Jhanārņava on ekatva,
vv. 1-11; Sarvärthasiddhi on IX. 7. 41. Yašastilaka, II. 219-220. 42. Yogaśāstra, IV. 69. 43, A yāro (Angasuttani, vol. 1), VIII. 6. 97, p. 64.

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25
Here also the Buddhist sources offer several parallels. “Oneself, indeed, is one's lord; for, what other lord would there be ?” attā hi attano nātho kohi nātho paro siyä.44 "By oneself, indeed, is evil done; by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil avoided; by oneself is one purified. Purity and impurity depend on oneself. No one purifies another.”45 These verses emphasise a doctrine of self-reliance and individual moral responsibility. Two verses from śāntideva may also be added here :
jivalokam imam tyaktvā bandhūn paricitānstatha/ ekäki kvāpi yāsyāmi kim me sarvaih priyapriyaiḥ//
“Having left this world of beings along with relatives and acquaintances, I will go somewhere myself alone. What then do I have to do with those loved or not loved?'°46
eka utpadyate janturmriyate caika eva hi/ nānyasya tadvyathābhāgaḥ kim pri yairvighnakärakaih//
“A being is born alone, and alone he dies. No one else shares in his suffering. What is the use of friends and what is the use of opponents?”:47
The self does not belong to the world, and the world does not belong to the self. He who is free from attachment and selfishness is at the door of mokşa.48
11. v. ANYATVĀNUPREKSĀ
Belief in the reality of soul or self (jīva, ātmā) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism. As in the Sānkhya system so in Jainism the selves (puruṣas) are many. Each self is, in its essential nature, quite different and distinct from the body. The question, 'Is the soul the same thing as the body, or is the soul one thing and the body another?' had been raised and debated in the Buddha's time.49 The Buddha seems to have set aside the question as spiritually irrelevant. According to the Buddhist standpoint, neither the soul nor the body is ultimately real. Both being phenomenal things of conditioned character, the question of their ultimate identity or difference was meaningless from the Buddhist standpoint. The Jain doctrine, however, teaches in no uncertain terms that the two are separate and fundamentally different. The Jaina scriptures
44. Dhammapada verse 160; cp. also ibid. verse 380-attā hi attano nātho attā hi attano gati. 45. Ibid. verse 165. 46. Bodhicaryāvatāra, II. 62. 47. Ibid., VIII, 33. 48. It is noteworthy that the concentration on a single entity (ekatvābhyāsa) recommended in the
Yogasutra, I. 32, is a measure to counteract distraction and is not relevant here. 49. See Dīghanikāya vol. I (Nalanda edition) pp. 134-136-tam jivam tam sariram udahu anham jivam
ann am sarīram.

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refer to the arguments advanced by materialists who denied the existence of the soul and identified it with the body. 50
According to the classical Jaina view ātmā is without origin and without end; by nature it is pure, luminous and endowed with infinite power and knowledge. It is because of the flames of evil karmas that it is heated, so to say, and is encased in a body. The latter is material, inert and unconcious; the body is transitory and subject to change and decay. The self is thus different from the body. To reflect on this truth is called prthak atvabhāvanā or anyatvānuprekşā. Reflection on this separateness of the two promotes dispassion and the aspirant is released from the bonds of external objects.51
Some texts explain reflection on anyatva in the following sense : "I am different from my family members, attendants, wealth and the body;"52 "in this world one self becomes son, another self becomes father, and still another self becomes wife."53 In short knowing that the self is different from one's relatives, body etc., one should dwell on the separateness or independence of ātmā.54 II. vi. AŚUCITVĀNUPREKSA
The impurity of the body is the sixth theme of meditation. "The body is the receptacle of impurities. It is developed from impurities such as semen and blood in the womb. It is the seat of unclean things like lavatory. The skin-covering is full of apertures through which exude impurities. Like fire the body consumes quickly what comes in contact with it. Bathing, application of perfumes, incense, powder, garlands etc. cannot remove the impurities of the body."55 This body has the power to make pure things impure (asucikaranasāmarthya).56 This body is a ball of all that is impure, rotten and of fowl smell; it is the home of excrement and urine and thoroughly unclean. Several texts dwell at length on the material components such as bones, flesh, blood, fat, skin etc. of the body.57 Speaking of the birth of a body, Śivārya says: “That mouth of the womb which is the birthspot (of the body) is impure, unworthy of
50. Sūyaga !o (Ang asuttani, vol. I, Ladnun edition), pp. 352-353-anno jivo annam sarīram was held
to be a wrong view by some monks who are called 'shameless'. There were others who taught
etāvatavajiva narthi paraloye. They are also condemned. 51. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX 7, p. 317; Yašastilaka II. 123-125;
Tattvarthavårttika on IX. 7, pp. 601-602. 52. Praśamaratiprakarana, verse 154. 53. Jnanarnava on anyatva, verse 10. 54. Karttikeyānuprek şa, vv. 80-82. 55. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 317, translation by S.A. Jain, op. cit., p. 247. 56. Praśamaratiprakarana, verse 155, 57. Kārttikeyanurrekṣā, vv. 83-87 and the commentary of Subhacandra, pp. 41-43; Bhagavati
Aradhanā, yy. 1001 ff.

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THEMES OF SOTERIOLOGICAL REFLECTION observation, and stinking; one feels ashamed of naming this door of urine and blood.”58 Haribhadra, reaffirming the classical Indian attitude towards impurity of the body, says that "this body is lubricated by the dirty liquids which spring forth and flow from its nine holes. To imagine purity even in such a body is indeed a mockery of great delusion."59 Subhacandra remarks that this body is full of worms and parasites; it is tortured by disease and is tottered by old age; how can the great-souled ones delight in it ?60
Almost similar attitude towards impurity of human body is expounded in Buddhist literature. The Dhammapada refers to the body as “a mass of sores, a heaped up lump, diseased", as a "putrid mass", and as "a city made of bones, plastered with flesh and blood, wherein are stored old age, disease, pride and detraction.”61 A famous Sutta describes the impurities of the human body and recommends reflection on its worthlessness in the following words. “This body is an assemblage of bones, sinews, plastered with membrane and flesh, and wrapped in skin; it is not seen as it really is. It is filled with intestiness etc. and with mucus, saliva, perspiration, blood, and the fluid which lubricates its joints. Impurity flows from its nine streams. A fool led by nescience thinks it is a good thing. When it lies dead, swollen and livid, thrown in the cemetery, relatives do not care for it. Dogs, wolves, crows and jackals eat it. This body, with two feet, is cherished inspite of its being impure, ill-smelling, full of many kinds of stench, and trickling here and there. He who with such a body thinks to exalt himself and despise others, this is nothing but blindness.")62 Another Sutra teaches thus : asārako ayam kāyo mātāpit rsonitaśukrasambhūto aśucipütidurgandha svabhävo rāgadveșamohabhayavişādataskarākulo nityam satanapatanabhedanavikiraņavidhvamsanadharmā nānāvyādhisatasahasranīta. "This body is insubstantial, sprung from the blood and seed of mother and father, by nature impure, putried and ill-smelling, distressed by attachment, hatred, delusion, fear, despondency and thieves; always liable to breaking, falling, cutting, scattering, crumbling and full of a hundred thousand different diseases."83
In passing we may note that the idea of "nine doors" or "nine streams” of the human body is mentioned in Brahmanical and Chinese texts also.64 These texts, how
58. Ibid., verse 1014. 59. Yogaśāstra, IV. 73. 60. Jhānārnava, on asucitva, verse 4. 61. Dhammapada, vv. 147-150 (abridged), 62. Suttanipata (Vijayasutta), vy. 192-205 (abridged). 63. Dharmasangitisūtra, in the Siksa samuccaya, p. 124. 64. See Svetasvatar a Upanişad, III. 18; Bhagavadgīta, V. 13. (nava dvāre pure dehi etc.), Kapha Upa
nişad, V.1, refers to the body as a city with eleven doors (puram ekādaśa dvāram) in which "the Unborn One" dwells. See also Texts of Taoism in Sacred Books of the East, vol. 39, p. 180.

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ever, do not subscribe to the Śramanic notion of impurity of the body described above.
II. vii. ASRAVĀNUPREKṢĀ
One of the cardinal principles of Jainism, the notion of asrava is also an important theme of soteriological reflection. Earlier we referred to it as 'the defiling influx of karma'. Most of modern writers on the subject have translated the term āsrava as 'influx' or 'inflow'; this translation, however, does not clearly convey the complex meaning of asrava which represents a key-concept. In our opinion it cannot be adequately translated into English.
The Jaina texts explain asrava as a process or an activity of the body, speech and mind; this process or activity is called yoga in a technical sense peculiar to Jainism. Activity whether good or evil, is viewed as asrava which is in every instance defiling." This is not to say that the activities of passionless saints are as bad as those of the passionate people. What is meant is that from the standpoint of the ultimate immaculate nature of atma, both good (subha) and evil (asubha) processes are defiling in nature.
The asravas are calamitous in this existence and in the existence hereafter. The demands of sense-organs and passions are like the strongly flowing current of a great river and they inevitably lead to karma. To contemplate on the evils of asravas with a view to growing into religiousness is called reflection on the defiling influx of karma. He who holds false opinion or wrong view (mithyadṛṣṭi), who is devoid of restraint, who is heedless, and is given to passions and activities of the body, speech, and mind, his karmas constitute defiling process; therefore one should arrest this process.67 By reflecting on the causes and processes of karma, one comes to know the nature of asravas and is convinced that they should be given up."
The word asrava (Pali asava) is well known to Buddhist sacred literature but its meaning is somewhat different from that found in Jaina texts. 'Impurities', 'inflows", 'intoxicants', 'deadly drugs', 'cankers' are some of the translations of asravas made by modern scholars. The four asravas mentioned in numerous Buddhist texts are: kāma, bhava, drşti, and avidyd, lustful desire, desire for continued existence, speculative and false opinion, and ignorance, respectively. These are more or less psychological phenomena which bemudle and intoxicate the mind which then cannot make advances in soteriological direction. Complete annihilation of asravas leads to the attainment of
65. Tattvärthasutra VI. 1-3.
66. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 317; Tattvärthavarttika on IX. 7, p. 602.
67. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 157.
68. Kärttikeyanuprekṣa, vv. 88-94; cp. Yogaśastra, IV. 74-78; Jñānārṇava on asrava, vv. 1-8,

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Arhatship; an Arhat is called kşînäsrava; he is called an Arhat because he has destroyed his äsravas which are like enemies of spiritual life.
It would appear that functionally the asravas have almost an identical negative role in soteriological cultures of Buddhism and Jainism. Their consequences are evil and lead to bondage according to both the systems. To put an end to these enemies of ultimate release is the aim of both these ascetic spiritualities.
II. viii. SAMVARĀNUPREKṢA
The term samvara may be said to sum up the whole range of Jaina ethics. The practical form of Jaina religiousness can indeed be called samvara-marga, 'the way of restraint. The triad of asrava, samvara, and nirjard is a special feature of Jainism and it has inspired a great body of ethical literature. Literally, samvara means. traint, control, arrest or stoppage; ethically it means deliberate act of arresting the process of all those bodily, vocal and mental movements that lead to defiling phenomena. In short, 'restraint is the cessation of defiling influx' (asravanirodhaḥ samvarah). The process of taking in of karmic stuff by the self is obstructed by means of a conscious ethical effort; this obstruction or interruption is called samvara, and it is of supreme importance in the technique of annihilating karma in all its forms. To uphold in one's self an idea which does not acquire either good (punya) or evil (papa) process of karmic formation, and to remain stilled (in one's self); this is the restraint (samvara) taught by the Teacher and one should reflect upon this.70 To think of merits of restraint is called reflection on restraint (samvaraguṇānucintanam samvaranuprekşā)." To stop carefully the oncoming mass of the dust of new karmas with the helping hand of concentration, and to uphold the banner of right principles, this is called samvara by saints and this is for the benefit of the soul." In short, cessation of all defiling processes of karmic technology is known as samvara." Cessation of all defiling processes of karmic technology demands complete control of sense-organs and protection. of the self from onslaughts of sense-pleasures which delude the mind. To meditate on the ways and means of effecting arrest of asravas is called samvaränuprekṣa. The practice of samvara is the heart of the Jaina theory of ethical and religious behaviour (cäritra).
The stress on samvara is equally characteristic of Buddhism. The notion of three
69. Tattvärthasutra, IX. 1.
70. Prasamaratiprakarana, verse 158.
29
71. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 318.
72. Yasastilaka, II. 135.
73. Yogasastra, IV. 79.
74. Kärttikeyanuprekṣa, verse 101.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
fold restraint (tridanda) is basic to both Buddhism and Jainism. Consider, for example, the following two verses :
kāyena samvutā dhirā atho vācā ya samvutā/ manasā samvutā dhira te ve suparisamvutā//76
“The wise who restrain their body, who restrain their speech, the wise who restrain their mind, are indeed well restrained."
kāyena samvaro sādhu, sädhu vācāya samvaro manasā samvaro sadhu, sadhu sabbattha samvarol
sabbattha samvuto bhikkhu, sabba dukkhā pamuccati// “Restraint in the body is good; restraint in speech is good; restraint in the mind is good; restraint in everything is good. A monk restrained in everything is liberated from all miseries."
The Buddhist texts use the word samvara not only in the sense of restraint or control, but also in that of 'vow' and 'obligation'. Thus we have a sizeable body of ascetic rules which are obligatory for monks and nuns (prātimokşa-samvara) and the Mahāyānasūtras deal in great detail with what is called the bodhisattva-samvara, the vow of an enlightened being which consists in working for universal liberation. II. ix. NIRJARĀNUPREKSĀ
The concept of nirjarā is peculiar to Jainism. It is one of the seven fundamental truths of the Jaina system. The entire ascetic and ethical effort of a Jaina saint is directed towards destruction of karmas. The karmas which have come into operation and are attached to the units of the soul have to be detached and eradicated. This act of separation, isolation, dissociation or detachment of the soul from the karmas together with the fact of cessation, eradictation or annihilation of the accumulated karmas is called nirjara. Mere restraint (samvara) is not enough; restraint is good for obstructing the increase of karmas. But the karmas which have already come into operation, which have been accumulated in the past, have to be eradicated. This process of eradicating past karmas is known as nirjară (pūrvak stakarmaśātanam tu nirjara).?? The crucial importance attached to austerities and penances in the Jaina path of release is due to their effectiveness in destroying karmas. The destruction of karmas takes place on their fruition or maturity (nirjarā vedanāvipāka). This is of two types; karmas may reach their fruition after the doer has suffered their consequences in evil states such as hell; this kind of nirjarā is no good; one should consciously effect nirjarā by practising penances and by conquering afflictions; this kind of nirjarā is aus
75. Dhammapada, Verse 234. 76. Ibid., verse 361. 77. See Bhagavati Aradhana, verse 1844 and Aparājitasūri's Țikā thereupon.

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picious. To contemplate on the merits and demerits of these two types of eradication of karma is called reflection on nirjarā (nirjarāyā gunadoșabhāvanam nirjarānuprekşā).78 The karmas are the seeds of existence-in-flux (samsāra); reflection on nirjarā inspires the aspirant to annihilate those seeds and leads one on to the threshold of ultimate Release.
Incidentally we may here refer to the Buddhist theory of four Right Efforts (samyakprahāņāni). One of the these relates to the process of abandoning or getting rid of the impure roots of karma. One is recommended to make right and strenuous exertion or effort to be free from those evil karmic phenomena which have already arisen (utpannānāmakusalamülānām dharmāņām prahāņāya).79 II. X. LOKĀNUPREKSĀ
The nature of the universe is recommended as an object of reflection with a view to cultivating wisdom. The Jaina view of the structure of the universe is more or less peculiar to Jainism. The shape of the universe is believed to resemble a man in standing posture with outstreched legs and with the hands resting on the hips. This position is said to be static.80 The universe is called loka because it is filled with
sentient beings. It is surmounted by the abode of the released souls. Each being has been wandering below the abode of the siddhas across the length and breadth of the universe for numerous existences. All the hells and heavens are located in the universe which is composed of the upper, the middle, and the lower regions and is bounded by the three atmospheres (gross air, vapour and thin air). One is asked to contemplate on the fact that one has been born repeatedly in different regions suffering the consequences of one's karma.81
As an atheistic system of thought, Jainism teaches that this universe has neither any creator nor any supporter. The theory of creation of the universe by God or Isvara is criticized and rejected also by Buddhism and the Sānkhya. According to Jaina texts, the universe is begin ningless, eternal and self-existent. It is eternal because its constituent elements or substances are eternal even though they are always undergoing change and modification.82 The self is involved in the course of existence-in-flux in
78. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 318, Tattvārthavārttika on IX. 7, p. 603; Kárttikeyānupreksa, verse 104.
The Commentary refers to these two types as savipäka-nirjarā and avipāka-nirjara. 79. See Dharmasamgraha, Section 45; Arthaviniscayashtra, Section 14. 80. Yogaśāstra, IV. 103; Yaśastilaka, II. 138. 81. Praśamaratiprakarana, verse 160. Tattvārthasūtra, III. 1-2 with commentaries of Pūjyapāda and
Akala ka. An elaborate account of the Jaina theory of loka is given in the Kartikeyānupreksa,
vv. 115-283. 82. Jhanarnava on lokabhāvana, verse 4; Yogaśāstra, IV. 106; Kārttikeyānupreksā, verse 115; cp.
Bodhicaryāvatāra, IX. 119-126; Tattvasangraha, chapter II on iśvarapariksa. A short text called the Isvarabhangakarika by Kalyanarakṣita exists in the Tibetan version in Tanjur, Text No. 5745 in Peking Edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka.

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different regions of the universe because of karmas clinging to it. Meditation on the nature and extent of loka is a way of cultivating detachment and increasing desire for reaching the sphere free from karma, the sphere of the siddhas. II. xi. BODHIDURLABHĀNUPREKSĀ
The utmost rarity of attaining enlightenment is the eleventh theme of soteriological reflection. Generally speaking, our texts on anuprekşās emphasize rarity of human birth. A human being is specially equipped with potentialities of effecting his ultimate Release. It is therefore important for him to know the difficulties and hazards which beset a spiritual career.
The term bodhi means knowledge, insight or enlightenment. In the first place, one should know that human birth is extremely rare. It is as difficult of attainment as a heap of jewels at street-crossings. After spending an infinitely long time in wanderings in several lower forms of existence, a being is born in human form.83 Knowing this rarity of human birth one must make the best use of it and seek the highest end. In the second place, having been born as a human being one must know the rarity of the discovery of Three Jewels, viz. right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct, which constitute the way to Ultimate Release. 84
It is stressed that even when one is born in human form, in a favourable country, in good family, with long life and good health, and even when one is endowed with faith, has a good teacher and has heard the true doctrine, one may still find it very difficult to attain right knowledge or bodhi.85 One must reflect on these rarities. This reflection is called bodhidurlabhānuprekşā. He who does not know the immense soteriological value of human existence, and wastes it in the pursuit of pleasures or in the acquisition of wordly possessions, is like a person who burns precious jewels for the sake of ashes.86 The jewel of right knowledge (bodhiratna) is the most precious jewel, and it is attained after suffering for numerous aeons in the course of existence-in-flux. Meditation on this fact of extreme rarity of bodhiratna is thus a most important task of human life.
The rarity of human birth has been emphasized in Buddhist texts repeatedly. A Sutra in the Pali Canon speeks of the scarcity of human birth (manus sattadullabhatā). The celebrated simile of the tortoise and the yoke-hole' is used in this Sutra and in many other Buddhist texts. Suppose there is a yoke with one whole thrown into the
83. Kārttikeyānuprekşā vv. 284-290. 84. Bhagavati Aradhana, verse 1860. 85. Praśamaratiprakaraņa, verse 162. 86. Yaśastilaka, II. 156; Sarvārthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 319. The rarity of human birth is stressed also
by Sankara in his Vivekacū lamaņi, vv. 2-3.

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sea and it is taken in four different directions by the winds blowing from four cardinal directions. There is a blind tortoise there in that sea who comes to the surface once in a hundred years. “What do you think about this, brethern? Could that blind tortoise push his neck through that one hole in the yoke? If at all, Venerable Sir, then only once in a long time. More difficult than that, I say, brethren, is human status once again for the fool who has gone to the hell."87
Mātộceta expresses the simile in the following words : "I, having gained human estate to which belongs the great joy of the Good Law, even as a turtle's neck might chance to thrust through a yoke hole in the mighty ocean, how shall I not extract worth from this voice of mine pervaded as it is with impermanence and beset by dangers arising from the imperfections of karma?"?88 Nāgārjuna has expressed the same idea in the following two verses. Admonishing his royal disciple, King Gautamiputra śātavāhana, he says: "O lord of men, make this (human life) fruitful by practising the Holy Dharma, for it is more difficult to obtain a human birth from animal states than a tortoise to place (its neck) in the aperture of a wooden yoke which are in the same ocean. Having obtained a human birth, one who commits sins is more foolish than one who fills a jewel-adorned golden vessel with vomit.'989
The rarity of birth as a man is taught in the Sūtrasamuccaya, the Gandavyūhasūtra, the Bodhicaryāvatāra and the Sikşāsamuccaya. Sāntideva says that the favourable opportunity is hard to obtain; once obtained, it can lead to the achievement of man's well-being; if it is not utilized, for one's ultimate good now, will this opportunity come again? Birth in human form is one of the eight rarities which are obtained only when eight inauspicious opportunities have been transcended.90 II. xii. DHARMASVĀKHYĀTATVĀNUPREKSĀ
The last of twelve themes of reflection is the well expounded body of religious
87. Majjhimanikāya, vol. III (Nalanda edition), pp. 236-240. Note also the following verse :
"Remember how the parable was told of 'purblind turtle in the Eastern Seas, Or other oceans, once as time goes by, Thrusting his head thro' hole of drifting yoke';
So rare as this chance of human birth." Therigātha, verse 500. Translation by C.A.F. Rhys Davids. 88. Satapancaśatka of Mātrceta, vv. 5-6. Translation by D.R. Shackleton Baily. 89. Suhrllekha, vv. 59-60. Translated from the Tibetan by Lozang Jamspal, Ngawang s. Chophel
and Peter Della Santina, pp. 36-37. 90. See Nagarjuna's Sütrasamuccaya (mDo-kun-las-btus-pa)-I. Translated by Bhikkhu Päsādika in The
Journal of Religious Studies, vol. VII, no. 1 (1979), p. 22: Gan.lavyuhasūtra (Darbhanga edition), p. 90 (durlabho mānuşya pratilabhah); Bolhicaryāvatāra, I. 4 and the commentary pp. 4-5; Siksāsamuccaya (Darbhanga edition) p. 4. The commentary to the Suhrllekha, op. cit., p. 36, gives a list of eighteen opportune conditions which are favourable for religious endeavour culminating in Buddhahood.

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teachings. As is well known, the Tattvärthasutra mentions ten-fold Dharma or virtuous conduct among means of arresting the defiling process of karmas. These ten aspects of Dharma are: forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, truthfulness, purity, restraint, austerity, renunciation, non-attachment, and chastity. The order of enumeration of these ten aspects of virtuous conduct is not identical in all the texts. The order in the Tattvärthasutra is as follows: kşamā, mārdava, ärjava, lauca, satya, samyama, tapa, tyaga, ākiñcanya, and brahmacarya. The Jñänärṇava has the following order:
34
titikṣā mārdavam śaucam ārjavam satya samyamau brahmacaryam tapas tyaga akiñcanyam dharma ucyate/
The Yogatastra has still another order:
samyamaḥ sunṛtam saucam brahma akiñcanatā tapaḥ kşantir mardavam rjuta muktiś ca de sadha sa tua
The order given in the Kärttikeyanuprekṣā is identical with that of the Tattvärthasūtra except that the word nigganthattam (nirgranthatvam) is used in place of akiñcanya.
The Dharma has been well taught by the Jinas for the benefit of the world of beings. Those who are devoted to its practice they can easily cross over the ocean of existence-in-flux. The Dharma is the kinsman of those without kinsmen, the companion of those without companions, the protector of those without protection; it is indeed the only affectionate one of the whole world." The Dharma protects the beings from falling into the hells and the nether worlds; Dharma bestows (upon the beings) that glory of the Omniscient which is incomparable."
The Dharma is the means of attaining all the good things and all kinds of happiness. One becomes adorable through Dharma. Dharma is the source of good in human life as well as in heavens; it even results in the bliss of liberation. In short, the Dharma taught by the Jinas is the destroyer of all sufferings. Meditation on the powers, attributes, and glories of Dharma is what is called reflection on the Dharma.
91. Tattvärthasutra, IX. 6.
92. Jñānārṇava on Dharmabhāvanā, verse 20.
93. Yogafastra, IV. 93.
94. Karttikeyanuprekṣā, vv. 392-404.
95. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 161.
96. Yoga astra, IV. 10.

92
97. Ibid., verse 102.
98. Bhagavati Aradhana, vv. 1851-1854 (abridged).

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The doctrine proclaimed by the Jinas is characterized by inoffensiveness (ahimsā), it is established on truth; it is rooted in humility (vinaya), its strength lies in forbearance (kşamā); it is protected by chastity (brahmacarya); its chief feature is quiescence (upaśama); its mark is restraint, and its prop is non-possession and non-attachment (nisparigrahatā). It is because of their not attaining Dharma that the beings have been suffering and coursing in samsāra through the rise of karmas. 99
The practice of virtuous conduct is indeed difficult. It is difficult specially for the householders. It has been said in the scriptures that for the householders, immersed in their homes and worldly concerns, the cultivation of Dharma is rare indeed. 100 Dharma includes both philosophy and religion, theory and practice of good life, ascetic culture and ethical behaviour. Merit (punya) is not the highest aim of Dharma; liberation of the soul from samsāra is the ultimate aim of religious culture. Dharma is that which takes one to the cherished goal of liberation (işte sthāne dhatte iti dharmah).101 The Good Dharma destroys karmas, rescues beings from the miseries of samsāra, and upholds them in excellent bliss.102
The notion of ten-fold Dharma found in the Manusmrti has somewhat different contents and they are described in a strictly Brahmanical framework. “By twice-born men belonging to any of)these four orders, the tenfold law must be ever carefully obeyed. Contentment, forgiveness, self-control, abstention from unrighteously appropriating anything, (obedience to the rules of) purification, coercion of the organs, wisdom, knowledge (of the supreme soul), truthfulness, and abstention from anger (form) the tenfold law. Those brāmaņas who thoroughly study the tenfold law, and after studying obey it, enter the highest state.”:103
The greatness and glory of Dharma are taught almost on every page of Buddhist canonical texts. An ancient and well known formula glorifying the Dharma, which every good Buddhist recites daily, reads thus :
svāk khāto Bhagavatā dhammo sandithiko akāliko ehipassiko opaneyyiko paccatiam veditabbo vññühi.104
This means : "The Dharma has been well expounded by the Blessed One, visible here and now, not conditioned by time, inviting investigation, leading onward (to Nirvāņa), and to be directly comprehended by the wise, each for himself."
99. Sarvärthasiddhi on IX. 7, p. 319. 100. Daśavaikalikasūtra (Lalwani's edition), p. 210. 101. Sarvarthasiddhi on IX. 2, p. 312. 102. Ratnakaranda Sravakācāra, verse 2. 103. Manusmrti, VI 91-93. Translation by George Bühler. 104. Majjhimanikāya, vol. I (Nalanda edition), p. 50.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS Dharma is called svākkhyāta or "well expounded” because it is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, and because it announces the life of purity that is wholly perfect and immaculate with meaning and with detail."
dhammam . . . . . . . ādikalyānam majjhekalyānam pariyosānakalyānam sättham sabyañjanam kevalaparipunnam parisuddham brahmacariyam.105
Moreover, it is called svākkhyāta because it has been proclaimed "for the good of all beings, for the happiness of all beings, out of compassion for the world of beings, for the wellbeing, for the good and for the happiness of gods and men" (bahujanahitāya bahujanasukhāya lokānukampāya atthāya hitāya sukhāya devamanussānam).106 It may be described as well expounded also because it has been well imparted, it is effectual for guidance, it is conducive to peace, and because it has been imparted by one who is Supremely Enlightened.107
The Buddhist texts have a list of ten ways of morally good action. These ten ways of morally good action constitute Dharma because they obstruct going into the evil states of existence (kugatigamana vidhāraņārthena dušakuśalādayo dharma ucyante).108 Besides ten ways of morally good action, Dharma includes Three-fold Training in morality, meditation, and wisdom (šila, samadhi, prajñā), the Eight-fold Path, 108 ten Transcendental Virtues (päramitās)110 and four Holy Abidings (brahmavihāra).111
It can be said that the practice of compassion (karuņā) is the most important teaching of Buddhism. All the other social virtues such as friendliness (maitri), liberality (dāna), service (sevā), and the entire system of moral restraint and ascetic discipline are founded on the principle of compassion. In short, the practice of Dharma is subsumed by the practice of compassion. Aryadeva has said that "the Tathāgatas have briefly summarized Dharma as ahimsā" (dharmam samăsato ahimsām
105. Samyuttanikāya, vol. I (Nalanda edition), p. 105. 106. Mahāvagga (Nalanda edition), p. 23; Samyuttanikaya, vol. I (Nalanda edition), p. 105. 107. Dighanikāya, vol. I]I (Nalanda edition), pp. 93-94. 108. Prasannapada-Madhyamakavrtti, p. 132. Ten ways of morally good action are: abstention from
killing living beings, abstention from theft, abstention from unchastity, abstention from telling lies, abstention from slander, abstention from harsh speech, abstention from frivolous and meaningless talk, abstention from covetousness, abstention from malevolence or ill-will and
abstention from wrong views. 109. Right View, Right Resolve, Right Speech, Right Action. Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right
Mindfulness and Right Concentration. 110. Liberality, Morality, Patience, Energy, Meditation, Wisdom, Skill in Liberative Method, Aspir
ation, Strength, Knowledge. 111. Friendliness, Compassion, Sympathetic Joy, Impartiality (maitri, karunā, muditā and upeksa).

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varṇayanti tathaägataḥ),112 Karunā and ahimsa are interchangeable terms. The Buddha has taught that the Bodhisattva's entire religious training is founded on the great compassion (mahākaruṇāmālāḥ sarva bodhisattva sikşa),11
Dharma is acknowledged as the source of happiness here and hereafter. who properly observes righteousness lives happily in this world and in the next.
dhammacāri sukham seti asmim loke paramhi ca.111
Elsewhere the gift of Dharma is declared to be the excellent among all gifts (sabba dānam dhamma dānam jināti).15
We may conclude this discussion of dharmanupreksā in particular and of anuprekgas in general with two quotations, one from a Buddhist text:
dhammārāmo dhammarato
dhammam anuvicintayam dhammam anussaram bhikkhu saddhamma na parihayati/118
and another from a Jaina text :
bārasa aṇuvekkhão bhaniya hu jiņāgamāṇusāreņa
io padhai sumai bhāvai so pāvai sasayam sokkham/[117

37
112. Catuḥaŝataka, verse 298 (XII. 23).
113. Šikṣāsamuccaya, p. 81 quotation from the Ratnakutashtra.
114. Dhammapada, verse 189.
115. Ibid., verse 354.
116. Ibid., verse 364.
117. Karttikeyanuprekṣa, verse 490.

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III. I. INTRODUCTION : JAINA FAITH
The themes of soteriological reflection, discussed in the preceding pages, represent one major facet of the ascetic spirituality revealed and propagated by munis and śramaņas. In the following pages we shall endeavour to elucidate another major facet of the Jaina form of religiousness, namely, the conception of five classes of holy beings. The twelve themes of soteriological reflection offer a stern philosophy of renunciation, while the theory of the holy pentad has functioned as the foundation of faith and centre of devotion in Jaina community. Before we discuss the meaning and significance of the holy pentad, we may briefly review the nature of this 'faith' which the Western writers have called 'Jainism' and which the Jainas themselves call 'Dharma'.
Like Buddhism, Jainism is also an atheistic or non-theistic system of religious faith and philosophy. Without acknowledging the existence of God as the creator and governor of the universe, Buddhism and Jainism have inspired a great deal of religiousness in the history of mankind. The history of these religious traditions has eminently shown that a theistic vision of the ultimate truth is not the only one, and that the usual meaning of the word 'religion' is quite inadequate. This has been indeed acknowledged already hy some celebrated scholars of Religionswissenschaft. Professor Wilfred Cantwell Smith has even proposed that the use of the word 'religion' should be discontinued because the term 'religion' is confusing, unnecessary, and distorting " He also makes a clear distinction between religious 'faith' of a person and the 'cumulative tradition to which he may belong. In his more recent work, he has offered a detailed and profound analysis of the nature of 'faith' and 'belief'. His views about the nature and function of faith are quite illuminating and insightful. According to him “it is faith that generates the tradition in the first place, and that continues to be its raison d'etre." "Faith is nourished and patterned by the tradition, is formed and in some sense sustained by it-yet faith precedes and transcends the
1.
See e.g. Emile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, p. 45; Wilfred Cantewell Smith, The Meaning and En:/ of Religion : A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind, chapter V, pp. 109ff. Ibid., p. 48. Ibil., chapters VI and VIII, 139ff, 1547f.
2. 3.

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tradition, and in turn sustains it." Faith, he continues, is an engagement, a capacity to be involved with the sacred and its manifestations. He believes that the majority of human beings on this earth, since the palaeolithic times, have been men and women of faith. Faith signifies that human quality that has been expressed in, has been elicited, nurtured, and shaped by, the religious traditions of the world.” He rightly affirms that "faith ... is the fundamental religious category; even the fundamental human category." These observations suggest that faith is the foundation of all forms of human religiousness and spiritual endeavour. Whether or not Jainism is called a 'religion', the fact remains that it represents a kind of faith or human quality which has successfully engaged a section of humanity, the Jaina community-in the task of growing in holiness in quest of transcendental perfection.
Jainism is called tirtha in the sense of human way of religious progress by persons in the course of conditioned existence. Its cofounders are called tirthankaras, those enlightened sages who made a “ford" (tirtha) to go beyond the sphere of conditioned existence, and for that purpose established an 'order' (tirtha) of the faithful.
Jainism is also called dharma in the sense of means of securing happiness for the beings and their freedem from sufferings of samsāra. It is called dharma also because it leads beings to and upholds them in the most desirable sphere (işta-sthāna). In essence dharma constitutes in the first place a way to good life and then to ultimate Release (mokşa). Right Vision' (samyagdarśana) is an integral, or as Professor Smith would like to say, a fundamental category in the framework of this dharma. The Jaina scholars usually translate darśana in this context as 'faith'. The fashionable custom of translating darśana in other contexts as 'philosophy' is rather inappropriate; 'view' or 'point of view' is a better rendering of the word darśana in the context of Indian systems of thought. The Jaina darśana' would mean the Jaina view of truth'.
Some writers seem to believe that Jainism was originally only a 'philosophy and that later on it developed as a 'religion'. Thus Williams has observed that "the essential change in Jainism during the medieval period is its transformation from a philosophy, a darśana, to a religion." This observation is rather inept. Jainism was a ‘religion' in the sense of tirtha or dharma from the time at least of Bhagavān Mahāvíra. It is, however, true that in early Jaina scriptures we find chiefly the exposition of ascetically oriented muni-dharma or yat yācāra and little is said about the religious practices of the lay folk. With the passage of time a significant body of texts known as Śrāvakācāras, manuals of religious conduct for devout men and women living in
4. WC. Smith, Faith and Belief, p. 5. 5. Ibid., p. 6. 6. Ibid., p. 7. 7. R. Williams, Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Medieval Srävaka:āras, pp. XX-XXI.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
society, came into existence. But the seeds of śrāvakācāra or śrāvaka-dharma have definite canonical foundation. Jainism or Jaina Dharma can hardly be called only a 'philosophy' or only a 'religion either in its early or later phase. It has always been a pathway (märga) to ultimate Release (mokşa) from bondage (bandhana) of karma based on a particular point of view.
Pt. Dalsukh Malvania has, at one place, described Jainism as “an ethical system” and pointed out several reasons for according the status of "religion' to it. He points out that "the acceptance of God is not a necessary condition for a system to be a religion.” In support of this statement we may refer to Jaina, Bauddha, Sānkhya, Mimāmsā, Taoist and Confucian instances which do not teach belief in the reality of God or Creator. Pt. Malvania lists the following reasons for considering Jainism as a religion : it teaches belief in the transmigration of the soul; its ethics is a means for the release of the individual soul from all bondages; it advocates asceticism as a way to avoiding the social evils; it teaches a theory of karma; it enjoins worship of perfect souls who attained release and taught a way to it; and finally, "like any other religious system, Jainism also has its own mythology, which puts Jainism on the religious map."9 All these are good reasons as far as they go. We are, however, of the opinion that the word 'religion' is not so important or necessary as the above arguments seem to assume.10 Frankly speaking, the word Dharma is much more meaningful and comprehensive than the word “religion. In the English language it is difficult to think of a religion without God, whereas Dharma, while it includes much that is signified by religion, has dispensed with the idea of God. Nevertheless, Dharma whether of the Jainas or of the Bauddhas, has inspired a profound conception of supreme Holiness which, in its essential nature, is different from the conception of Divinity found in theistic religious systems of the world. 11
A fundamental fact about Jainism is that it is the product and manifestation of faith (śraddhā) in the reality of an ultimate transcendent state of Holiness (viśuddhi) revealed by the Jinas. The long and short of Jaina form of religiousness, therefore, is the theory and practice of this Holiness.
8.
9.
“Though an Ethical System Jainism is a Religion" in Approaches to the Stuly of Religion (seminar papers), p. 93. Ibil. pp. 93-94. The following observation of Pt. Malvania does not hold good in the case of Buddhism : "The aim of religion, especially in India, is to know the self in its true nature, to realize the natural condition of the soul so that it can be free from all the internal and external bondages" (loc. cit.). According to Buddhism, the aim of religious striving is to realize selflessness (nairātmya) because in Nirvana there is neither the self nor anything belonging to it. We have already referred to the opinion of W.C. Smith (in The Meaning and End of Religion) who hopes that the use of the word 'religion' will disappear in the future. S.A. Jaina, Reality, p. 298, gives "God" as one of the meanings of siddha. This is incorrect.
10.
11.

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JAINA CONCEPTION OF THE HOLY PENTAD
It is not without significance that the word 'Right Vision' (samyagdarśana) is mentioned as the first constituent factor of the pathway to ultimate Release in the first aphorism of the Tattvarthasutra which gives a summary of the essentials of Jainism. This text defines 'Right Vision' as faith in the principles ascertained as they are (tattvärtha śraddhanam samyagdarbanam) 13 J.L. Jaini gives 'belief or conviction" as the meaning of kraddhanam. S.A. Jaina translates śraddha as 'belief' and darkana as 'faith',14
13
Acarya Pujyapada, in his comment on this Sutra, has pointed out that 'Right Vision' or 'faith' is of two kinds: impure (saräga) and pure (vitarāga); the former is characterized by tranquillity (upalama), fear of existence-in-flux (samvega), love (anukampa), devout belief (astikya) etc., while the latter is concerned only with selfpurification (armaśuddhi),15 We might add here that faith in the purification of the self is the heart of Jaina Dharma.
The first Sutra of the ancient Jaina Canon exhorts the disciple to be firm on his faith. One should follow that faith (saddhäe) with which one had renounced one's home life and thus overcome doubts." A person, inspired by deep faith in the doctrine of self-purification taught by the Jina, renounces home life and becomes a mendicant monk with a view to effecting purification of his self. His entire religious effort is rooted in this faith. Another canonical Sutra points out that hearing the Dharma is scarce and having faith in the Dharma is supremely scarce (saddha parama dullaha)."At another place this scripture teaches that "faith will enable us to put away impurity" (saddha khamam ne vinaittu rägam). These statements remind us of several similar sayings found in Buddhist sacred texts. For example, consider the following
18
passages:
41
"Faith is the excellent wealth of a man" (saddhidha vittam purisassa settham)." "By faith one crosses the flood (of samsara)" (saddhaya tarati ogham)."
"Just as Vakkalin was released by faith (muttasaddho), and Bhadrävudha and Alavi-Gautama also won it the same way, similarly, Pingiya, you too will be
12.
Tattvarthasutra, I. 1-2.
13.
Tattvartha Sutram: A Treatise on the Essentials of Jainism, p. 4.
14. Reality, p. 4.
15.
Sarvarthasiddhi on Tattvarthasutra, I. 2. p. 7.
16. Acarangasutra, I. 3.18 (Sutt ägame, vol. I, p. 2).
17.
Uttaradhyayanasutra, III. 8-9.
Ibid., XIV. 28.
18.
19. Suttanipata (Nalanda edition), p. 296, verse 184 (P.T.S, edition, verse 181). Ibid. (Nalanda edition), p. 296, verse 186 (P.T.S. edition, verse 183).
20.

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released by faith (saddham) and go beyond the realm of death."21 “Faith is the supreme friend, Nirvāṇa is the supreme bliss" (vissāsa paramä ñāti nibbānam paramam sukham).22 "Faith goes beyond the path of death and shows the path of excellent release" (śraddha atikramu mārapathas ya darśika uttama mokşapathas ya).28 "Faith is the supreme vehicle by which the (spiritual) leaders go out of samsāra); therefore, a wise man should follow (the Dharma) with faith. The pure Dharma does not flourish in a faithless man; just as a green shoot does not come forth from seeds burnt by fire."24
The nature and function of braddhā in Jainism and Buddhism have not received a serious attention of scholars which they certainly deserve. The idea of God-Creator should not be taken as the source of faith; in fact, the idea of God-Creator is the product of faith. The non-theistic religious traditions are also products of faith, but they have nurtured a non-theistic view of ultimate truth which needs to be appreciated.
It is clear from the fore going preliminary remarks th at faith is the foundation of religiousness and soteriology in Jainism. One of the most important and fruitful manifestations of the faith of Jaina community is the doctrine of the holy pentad. The doctrine of the holy pentad is summed up in a sacred mantra, a prayer formula, known as pañca-namaskāra-mantra, to a consideration of which we now turn our attention.
III. ii. THE FORMULA OF FIVE-FOLD OBEISANCE
Faith is often accompanied by worship and devotion. Indeed, the triad of śraddha, bhakti and pūjā, “faith', 'devotion', and 'adoration' brings us directly to some of the core elements of classical forms of Indian religiousness. One of the briefest and commonest ways of expressing faith in and offering adoration to the ideal of ultimate transcendent Holiness as conceived in Jainisn is to recite and meditate on the famous and sacred formula of 'five-fold obeisance' (pañca-namaskāra-mantra, pañca-ņamokkāramangala, pañca-parameșthi-stuti). The five members of the holy pentad who are adored in this formula are : the arhats, the siddhas, the ācāryas, the upādhyāyas, and the sādhus. These words or symbols will be explained in some detail in the following pages. Let us first review the textual structure of the formula and its position in Jaina literature.
; In a critically edited (Prakrit) version of the Pannavaņāsutta we find the following text printed within square brackets :
21. 22. 23. 24.
Ibid. (Nalanda edition), p. 440, verse 171 (P.T.S. edition, verse 1145). Dhammapada, verse 204. Nārada Thera translates vissāsa as 'trusty' which is meaningless. Ratnolkādhārani quoted in the Sikşasamuccaya, p. 5. Daśadharmasūtra quoted in the Siksa samuccaya, p. 6.

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namo arihantānam, namo siddhānam, namo āyariyānam, namo uvajjhāyānam, namo loe savvasāhūnam.
In a footnote to this reading25 the learned editors have given the following Prakrit verse which is usually added to the above mantra in ritual texts of a later date :
eso pañcanamukkāro savvapävappaņāsano/ mangalānam ca sabbesim padhamam havai mangalaml/
We may translate the above lines in the following words:
"Obeisance to the arhats, Obeisance to the siddhas, Obiesance to the ācāryas, Obeisance to the upādhyāyas, Obeisance to all the sādhus in the world.
This five-fold obeisance destroys all evil; it is the foremost blessing among all the blessings." Professor Padmanabh S. Jaini has offered the following translation :
"I bow before the worthy ones (arhat)-the Jinas; I bow before the Perfected beings (siddha)-those who have attained moksa; I bow before the (mendicant) leaders (ācārya) of the Jaina order; I bow before the (mendicant) preceptors (upādhyāya); I bow before all the (Jaina) mendicants (sādhu) in the world.
This five-fold salutation, which destroys all sin, is pre-eminent as the most auspicious of all auspicious things."26
This mantra occurs in the Jaina Kalpasūtra also which, however, is an extracanonical sacred book. 37
Professor Gustav Roth, who has published an interesting and valuable study of
25.
Panna
Pannavaņāsuttam, edited by Muni Punyavijayaji, Dalsukh Malvania and Amritlal M. Bhojak, Part I, Text, p. 3 and footnote 2. The Jaina Path of Purification, pp. 162-163. Suttāgame, vol. II, First Appendix, p. 1 (Kappasuttam); Kalpa Sutra, edited and translated by K.C. Lalwani, p. 3.

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44
FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
the pañca-namaskāra-mantra, 28 has expressed the view that "it is not certain if the formula originally headed' the Pannavaņāsutta. He has referred to its absence in the Suttāgame edition of this particular Sūtra.29 According to him the formula of fivefold obeisance does not occur in the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon except in a passage of the late Mahānisihasutta. He also quotes the text of the mantra from the BhaktiGucchaka,30 a modern anthology of ritual prayers, and discusses various aspects of its significance and occurrence in the Mahānisihasutta, Pratyekabuddha Karakanąu, the Vasudevahindi and the Satkhandāgama and its commentary, the Dhayalāțīkā. He also notes in this context the importance of the Hāthīgumphā Inscription of King Khāravela.
Since the evolution of this formula is of great significance for understanding the history of Jaina religiousness, the views of Professor Roth deserve a serious notice.
At one place he makes the following observation :
“While we meet with this sacred formula frequently in Jaina ritual-texts of later times, we hardly find any reference to it in the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon. The only one which has become known so far, is the passage included in Mahānisihasutta, III. 5-10. The editors of this text which is usually included in the Cheya-sutta section of the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon have proved its comparatively late date of composition (c. 7th cent. A.D.). They have shown that this text is undoubtedly apocryphal in relation to the old genuine Jaina Canon. It is therefore not surprising when we do not find the Mahānisiha included in the Suttāgame edition of the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon undertaken by the Sthānakavāsins.'31 In this connection, Prof. Roth refers to the works of European scholars like Walther Schubring, H.V. Glasenapp, Jozef Deleu and F.R. Hamm whose contributions to Jaina studies and to the study of the Mahānisi hasutta are well known.32
At another place, he again says that the "The Mahānisiha passage of the Sacred pamca-namokkāra ... is the only one occurring in a text of the Svetãmbara Jaina Canon, as far as I can see. Occasionally we meet with passages in the Canon reading in an abbreviated form :ņamo tthu nam Arahantānam... jāva ... sampattānam. In this abbreviated sentence, however, no pamca-namokkāra formula is concealed."33
Professor Roth observes that the earliest literary evidence of the pamca-namok
28. "Notes on the Pamca-Namokkāra-Parama-Mangala in Jaina Literature" in The Adyar Library
Bulletin, vol. XXXVIII, Mahavira Jayanti Volume, Adyar, 1974, pp. 1-18. 29. Ibid., p. 8. 30. Edited by Balabhadra Jain and published by Rajakrishna Jain, Delhi, 1956. 31. Gustav Roth, op. cit., p. 3. 32. Ibid., p. 3 footnotes 1 and 2. 33. Ibid., p. 7.

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kära is to be found in the Satkhandāgama, I. 1, composed by Puspadanta. Accepting Dr. Hiralal Jain's opinion, he seems to believe that the Șatkhaņdāgama may have been composed between the first and second centuries of the Christian era. Then he refers to the existence of “namo arahamtānam namo sava-siddhānam" in the Hāthīgumphā Cave Inscription of Khāravela (c. Ist cent. B.C.).34 He says : "It seems to me evident that this formula of two invocations only, is not the abbreviated form of the pamcanamokkāra but its more original and simple version.”35
In conclusion, the learned author writes as follows:
“The following line of the development of our formula seems likely to me. Originally, there existed in the centuries before Christ the sacred formula consisting of only two members, represented by the above quoted inscription. Later on, this formula was extended by the three members by Puspadanta (c. 2nd cent. A.D.). Influenced by the clause namo sava-siddhānam of the original version, he concluded his enlarged formula of five in vocations with namo loe savva-sähūņam.''36
It is somewhat surprising that no mention is made by Prof. Roth of the Bhagavati Sūtra which is certainly relevent for a study of the evolution of the namaskāra formula. It seems that Professor Roth has followed the opinion of Walther Schubring who also held that the only canonical reference to the sacred formula was to be found in the Mahānisihasutta.37 The Bhagavati Sūtra is the fifth Anga of the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon. In its three different editions, consulted by the present writer, a slightly extended version of the formula is found. The Suttāgame edition gives the following reading :
ņamo arihantāņam namo siddhāņam namo āyariyāņam ņamo uvajjhāyānam namo loe savvasähūņam//1//ņamo bambhi yassa livīyassa//2// ņamo suyassa//37/38
The Angasuttāṇi edition has a slightly variant reading which is as follows:
1. namo arahantānam,
namo siddhānam, namo āyariyānam,
34. See D.C. Sircar, Select Inscriptions, vol. I, pp. 206ff. 35. Gustav Roth, op. cit., p. 18. Incidentally, here we may note that the two members, Siddha and
Jina (Mahavira), are invoked in the first verse of the Pannavaņā sutta also, see Suttāgame, vol. II,
p. 265: Pannavaņā suttam. (Bombay edition), Part 1, Text., p. 3. 36. Gustav Roth, op. cit., p. 18. 37. Walther Schubring, The Doctrine of the Jainas, pp. 281-82, footnote 4. 38. Suttgame, vol. I, Bhagavati vivahapannatti, p. 384.

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namo uvaj jhāyāņam,
namo savvasāhūņam/ 2. namo bambhie liviyel/
3. namo suyassal/39 Prof. K.C. Lalwani's edition of the Bhagavati Sütra gives the following text and translation of this extended formula :
namo arahantānam/namo siddhānam ņamo āyariyānam/namo uvajjhāyānam namo loe savvasāhūņam/ ņumo bambhie livie namo suyassal "Obeisance to the Victors. Obeisance to the Liberated Souls. Obeisance to the Preceptors. Obeisance to the Teachers. Obeisance to the Monks in all Spheres. Obeisance to the Brāhmi Script.
Obeisance to the Scriptures."40 It will be noticed that in the Suttāgame we have the reading of arihantānam whereas in the other two texts the reading is arahantānam. Also noteworthy is the difference between bambhiyassa livīyassa of Suttāgame and bambie livie of the other two editions. The Hāthīgumphā Cave Inscription of Khāravela has the form arahata (arahantānam) and not arihata (arihantānam). In the above text of the formula seven members have been invoked, the Brāhmi Script and the Sūtras or Scriptures (of Jainism) being the sixth and the seventh members. This formula taken as it is, cannot be called pañcanamaskāra-mantra. But it does contain the invocation to the members of the celebrated holy pentad. We might therefore say that the sacred formula of pañca-namaskāra occurs in the Bhag.zvati Sūtra which is an important text of the Svetāmbara Jaina Canon. It is true that the famous śloka, which eulogizes the five-fold obeisance, is not found in the Bhagavati Sūtra.
The Avassa yasutta (Avaśyakasūtra) is also an early text belonging to the category of Jaina Agama. It is the second of the 'mūla-sūtras' ('Fundamental Scriptures'?). Our formula of pañca-namaskāra occurs in this Sutra also. The reading (pātha) of the formula is identical with that found in the beginning of the Șatk handāgama which is as follows :
39.
Angasuttāni (Vācanā Pramukh Ācārya Tulasiji, Sampādaka Muni Nathamalaji), vol. II, Bhagaval Viahapannatti, p. 3. Bhagavati Sūtra, edited and translated by K.C. Lalwani, Calcutta : Jain Bhavan (1974), p. l.
40.

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ņamo arihantānam, namo siddhāņam, namo āyariyāṇam, namo uvajjhāyāṇam, namo loe savvasāhūņam.
The Prakrit śloka, containing praise of this five-fold obeisance, is found in the Āvaśyak a sütra but not in the Şarkhanạāgama."
From the preceding notes it is clear that the sacred formula of five-fold obeisance has been found recorded in at least four sacred texts of early date, viz. Pannavaņāsutta, Bhagavai-vivāhapannatti, Āvassa ya sutta, and the Satkhandāgama.'18 The first three texts belong to the Aga ma collection of Svetāmbara School, while the fourth text belongs to the Digambara School. In the case of the Bhagavati Sūtra, the three editions have given three different readings. In Suttăgame we have namo arihantānam, in Angasuttāni we have namo arahantānam, while in Lalwani's edition we have namo arahantānam.
Finally, it may be pointed out that the inclusion of 'Script' (livi, lipi) and 'Scripture' (suya, sūtra) in the category of invocations, recorded in the Bhagavati Sūtra, points to an old tradition of veneration accorded to the holy word and its written form. It is not known to the present writer when these sixth and seventh members were added to the formula of five-fold obeisance and when or how they came to be dropped from it. Attention may be drawn here to the fact that at the end of several Mahāyānasutras we find eulogy of reciting, writing, copying and preserving the Sutras (Dharmaparyāyas) 42
It appears that the early history of the pañca-namaskāra-mantra is still a matter of controversy, and the conclusions drawn by Professor Roth may or may not be right. The problem has been discussed jointly by the three editors of the Pannavaņāsutta on the one hand, and by Dr. Hiralal Jain on the other. Briefly speaking, their opinions are as follows.
According to Muni Punya vijayaji, Pt. D. Malvania and Pt. Amritlal M. Bhojak, “in all the manuscripts containing only the text of the Prajñāpanāsūtra there is an indication of salutation to the five holy personages. But Āc. Haribhadra and Ac.
41. Sutrāgame, vol. II, Avassayasuttam, p. 1165; Avašyakasūtram, Niyojaka : Muni Sri Kanaiyalalji,
Rajkot, 1958, pp. 45, 66; Şarkhandāgama, vol. I part I, edited by Hiralal Jain, p. 8. 41a. The Sutrāgame edition of Jaina scriptures gives the pañca.namaskāra-mantra at the beginning of
the following other texts--Panha vāgaranam, Jambuddıvapannattı and Suriyapannati, Sutlāgame
vol. I, p. 1199, vol. II, pp. 535 and 753. 42. See Vajracchedika Prajnaparamitāsūtra with the commentary of Asanga, edited and translated
by L.M Joshi, Sarnath : Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1978, pp. 43, 68; Saddharmapundarikasūtra, chapter 27; Asfasahasrika Prajāpāramitāsūtra (Darbhanga edition) p. 260iyam prajnaparamita śrotavya udgrahitavya chārayitavyā vacayitavya ... svadhyātavya likhitavya etc.

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Malayagiri have not commented on it. So the editors are of the opinion that it does not constitute a part of the text.''43 They have noted that this mantra or mangala is recorded in the beginning of the Avaśyakasūtra and also in the beginning of the Bhagavatisūtra. They inform us that according to Ac. Jinabhadra the pañca-namaskāramantra is a sūtra and a mangala and it should be regarded as a part of the Sutras. At one place, they observe that “this Pañcanamaskāra-Mantra might have been composed by some one author or, it might have evolved in its present form through the passage of time."'44 Finally they state that "it becomes quite clear that originally this Mantra was not in the Agama, that is, the Anga Agama; and that it was composed after the composition of Anga works. Opinions differ on the question of its authorship. Having taken into consideration the importance attached to Namaskāra-Mantra Ac. Jinabhadra regarded it as a part of each and every śruta work. And following Niryukti he proved it to be the work of Tīrthankara and Gañadharas. On the other hand, Virasena regards Ac. Puspadanta as the author of Pañcanamaskāra-Mantra. But Āc. Abhayadeva regards this Mantra occurring in the beginning of Bhagavatisútra as constituting the beginning of Bhagavatīsūtra proper and hence he comments on it.”45
Dr. Hiralal Jain is of the opinion that the pañca-namaskāra-mantra is an integral part of the Satk haņdāgama and its author was certainly Acārya Puspadanta. He states that the Prajñāpanāsūtra is not earlier than the date of the council of Valabhi and that the Şațkhaņdāgama is prior to the Prajñāpanāsūtra.46 The editors of this latter text, however, think that the Satkhandägama is later than the Prajñāpanāsūtra which they place in the first century B.C.47
The formula of five-fold obeisance is indeed the characteristic Jaina prayer, a sacred hymn (stuti, stava, stotra), a litanical formula of frequent silent repetition (japa), an auspicious theme of meditation (mantra), a symbol of spiritual blessing (mangala), having sanctity and authority of a revealed word. It is recited in the beginning of all Jaina rituals and ceremonies with a view to paying homage to the members of the holy pentad. Its recitation by an able, learned and pious Jaina monk (muni or sādhu) is eagerly entreated and sought by all devout householders of the Jaina community whenever they visit monks. The pañca-namaskāra-mantra forms part of the mangala (or mangali), the religious blessings which the monks give to their devo ut lay followers. Its recitation is a form of pūjā or adoration of the five holy personages; a mode of bhakti or an act of sharing in the divine glories of the holy beings; and an act of
43. 44. 45. 46. 47.
Pannayanāsuttam, Part II, Introduction (translated by Nagin J. Shah), pp. 235-239. Ibid., p. 239. Ibid., p. 250. Satkhan lagamaḥ, edited by Hiralal Jain, vol. 1, Part I. Sampadakiya, pp. 5, 12. Pannavaņāsuttam, Part II, Introduction, p. 235.

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declaring and affirming faith, belief and conviction in the doctrines and practices of Jainism.
This is the mantra imparted to those who embrace Jaina faith; the conversion ceremony begins with the recitation and repetition of this formula. He who takes refuge in the Jina and his path is initiated into this sacred litany and he chants it in reverent salutation to the five holy beings. The method of chanting is devotional, reverential and musical.
The polarity between the ascetic members (muni, śramaṇa, sadhu) and lay members of Jaina community is quite pronounced, but this formula transcends this polarity as it is recited by all the followers of Jainism, ascetics and laity alike. This is the usual prayer repeated by every pious Jaina, and the most of the munis and śrāvakas often meditate on this sacred formula.
Commenting on this formula, Dr. Williams has made the following observation :
"This supreme prayer, this best object of meditation, serves as a quarry for magic formulae of varying lengths and different potency, thirty-five-syllables-or sixtyeight if the complementary verse is added-are counted in the full namaskara (sarvākşara-mantra) but various abbreviations, of which the most popular is the use of the initial akşara of five paromesthins (mukhyākṣara-mantra), are employed to give totals. of sixteen, six, five and two aksaras. The whole nämaskāra can also be concentrated in the single syilable on which is held to be a contraction of the mukhyākṣara-mantra, siddha being replaced by asarlra and sadhu by muni to give a, a, a, u, m. Audibly muttered in an unending repetition, these formulae play an important part in the pada-stha-dhyana. This practice of japa is accompanied by the telling of the beads, which may be of gold or gems or merely of lotus seeds.
49
"The recitation of the pañca-namaskara, the aparajita-mantra as it is styled, comes to be synonymous with acceptance of Jaina creed and it is with this prayer on his lips that the pious layman should wake each morning. Twice a day at the morning and evening twilights he is to meditate on the excellent protection derived from it."48
As is usual in the case of several sacred formulae or mantras of Vedic, Buddhist, Saiva, Šakta, Vaisnava or Tantrika origins and affiliations, great magical and supernormal powers are associated with pañca-namaskāra-mantra. Mantras have played an important role not only in mysticism and religious rituals but also in magical or
48.
Jaina Yoga, p. 185.

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semi-secular arts of India.49
Professor Roth has cited three verses from the Pratyekabuddha Karakaņdu illustrating the employment of the pamca-namokkāra invocations for the sake of protection against all sorts of evils and dangers.” Paumāvai Devi, having lost herself in the wilderness of a forest, is said to have ultimately remembered the formulae of five-fold obeisance. We quote Professor Roth's translation :
"The formula of the Five Invocations is for this reason my refuge, because this indeed brings happiness in this and in the other worlds. And it is said :
“Through the eminent incantation of the obeisance-formula, the dangers of disease, flood, fire, thieves, of the fight with lions and elephants, and of snakes, instantaneously vanish. (1)
And the danger from female goblins, vampires, bears and murderers has not any power over it. All perils vanish through the power of the obeisance-formula. (2)
And further :
In whose heart-cavity the lion-like obeisance-formula is constantly located, for them the elephants' attack-like confrontation with the eight knots of Karma has completely vanished' (3)."50
This kind of description of magical powers of this sacred formula is found in many Jaina texts of medieval date.51
Closely associated with the formula of five-fold obeisance is the formula of fourfold refuge (catuḥ-saraņa).52 It is also an important part of daily Jaina pājā and reads thus :
I take refuge in the four (cattāri saranam pavvajjāmi)--- I take refuge in the arhats (arahante saranam pavvajjāmi) I take refuge in the siddhas (siddhe saranam pavvajjämi) I take refuge in the sādhus (sādhu saranam pavvajjämi)
49.
Quite interesting and valuable details about the theory and practice of mantra will be found in the following works - Mohanlal B. Jhavery. Comparative an! Critical Study of Mantrafastra (with special treatment of Jaina Mantravada); Agehananda Bharati The Tontri Tradition; Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Foundations of Tibetan Mysti 'ism : Gopinātha Kavirāja, Bharatiya Samskrti
aur sa hana, Part 1; and Teun Goudriaan, Māyā Divine and Human See Bibliogrphy below. 50. Gustav Roth, op cit., pp. 5-7. 51. See Nemichandra Shastri, Mangalamantra Namokara: eka Anuintana.
See K.R. Norman, Causarana-Painnaya : Edition and Translation" in The Adyar Library Bulletin, vol. XXXVIII, 1974, pp 44ff.

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I take refuge in the dharma expounded by the omniscient Jina (kevali
pannattam dhammam saranam pavvajjāmi). According to a generally accepted Jaina tradition, the third refuge, sādhu, in the above formula of four refuges, includes ācāryas, upādhyāyas and sādlius. This means that the first three refuges symbolize the five holy beings adored in the formula of fivefold obeisance. The refuge-formula is thus only a variation of the obeisance-formula with the significant addition of dharma or the Doctrine preached by the all-knowing Jina.
This formula of four-fold refuge reminds us of the Buddhist formula of three-fold refuge (tri-sarana) just as the formula of five-fold obeisance reminds us of the Buddhist formula of obeisance to the Triple-Gem (tri-ratna). In the Buddhist instance the number of the refuges and the adorable ones is the same; there are only three śaranas and three ratnas. In the Jaina instance the saraņas are four while the adorable ones are five.
The Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha are the three jewels' as well as three ʻrefuges' of the Buddhists. Obeisance is offered first to the Buddha, then to the Dharma and finally to the Sangha. It may be pointed out that the ideal spiritual Sangha in Buddhist theory consists of the four classes of enlightened beings, viz. Samyaksambuddhas, Pratyekabuddhas, Arhats, and Bodhisattvas. It is this Sangha which is the refuge of the devout Buddhists, The historical and human Sangha also consists of four classes of the followers of Buddha and his Dharma viz. bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇis, upāsakas and upāsikas. The human Sangha in some sense symbolizes the spiritual Sangha. We may say that the human and historical Sangha is an aspect of the way to transcendental and transhistorical Sangha. The fashionable practice, current in some circles of modern writers, of interpreting Sangha merely as 'the order of monks' is based on an inadequate understanding of Buddhist faith, which in fact, envisa ges a transhistorical and supramundane (lokottara) character of the Triple-Gem.58
The Jaina sources usually classify sentient beings into four states (gati), viz. gods (deva), humans (manuşya), animals (tiryak) and hells (naraka).54 All these classes of beings are denizens of the realm of transmigration (samsāra). Ontologically a fifth class of beings is recognized in Jaina faith. This class consists of the released souls, those disembodied beings who are wholly freed from all forms of karma. They are known as the siddhas. Theoretically, therefore, the siddhas constitute the highest
53.
For a detailed discussion of this aspect of Buddhism the reader is referred to the following works: Bhikshu Sangharakshita, A Survey of Buddhism; Ibid., The Three Jewels; L.M. Joshi, God's Alternative; Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India. Tattvārthasūtra, VIII. 10.
54.

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state of pure-existence (parama-gati, siddha-gati or mokşa-gati). They symbolize the supreme ideal of Holiness and beatitude called mokşa.
The question has often been raised and discussed in several Jaina treatises that in the pañca-namaskāra-mantra the first to be invoked are the arhats and not the siddhas. In the enumeration of holy beings in this sacred formula the topmost class of beings has been relegated to the second position. Why? One possible answer to this question is that the siddhas symbolize the End whereas the arhats or tirthankaras symbolize the Means. The siddhahood represents the end of Jainism in the sense of the ultimate goal of religious culture, as well as in the sense of the termination of Jaina method (märga). The method terminates in mokṣa which is identical with siddhagati. The arhats, on the other hand, are a kind of saviour-gods and torchbearers; they help sentient beings by preaching the method of achieving mokşa. They lead along the way to siddhahood. It is the functional value or practical religious relevance of the arhats for suffering beings which is indicated by their first position in the formula of five-fold obeisance. Teaching the method of purification is a kind of activity, a form of karma, which is impossible in the state of disembodied existence enjoyed by the siddhas. They are, therefore, inaccessible to beings in samsāra, because they have gone beyond the sphere of karma and samsāra. The arhats are merciful and they promulgate the Dharma in the world of beings. They are the supreme spiritual gurus and therefore, they are invoked first. This is also the traditional explanation of placing the arhats before the siddhas in the litany of obeisance. Nevertheless, the spiritual supremacy of the siddha over the arhat is an acknowledged doctrinal point. The arhats pay homage to the siddhas at the time of joining the order. The siddhas symbolize the changeless and eternal state of perfection whereas an arhat is still wearing his last body waiting for the final leap to the siddhahood.
Buddhist texts, let us not forget here, make a distinction between sopadhiseşanirvāṇa and anupadhiseşa-nirvāņa; likewise, the Vedantic texts make a distinction between jīvanmukti and videhamukti. The word upadhi refers to the skandhas, the personality factors, which constitute the embodied state. When an arhat is released from the skandhas or personality factors, he attains the ultimate Release. He is then lost to the world, so to say, and his state cannot be described in words.
It is out of conern for the spiritual weal and welfare of the world of sentient beings that the Mahāyānasūtras insist on the ideal of a Bodhisattva and eulogize the practice of uiversal ethical virtues (pāramitās) like liberality, morality, forbearance, energy, meditation, wisdom and so on. Once a saint wins his release, it is pointed out, he ceases to be compassionate and active. A genuinely universal soteriology is made accessible to beings lost in the forest of darkness (avidya) and harassed by the storm of miseries of conditioned existence through the kind activities of jīvanmukta

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saints. They are, therefore, remembered and honoured in the first place.
It should not be assumed, however, that the siddhas are never invoked first. In a large number of ancient and medieval Jaina texts adoration is offered first to the siddhas and then to the arhats in the Pannavaņāsutta itself the author pays homage first to the siddha, next to Jina Mahāvīra.56 Vīrasenācārya56 also mentions siddha first and arhat afterwards. Kundakunda57 does the same. A few other texts in which the siddhas have precedence over the arhats in benedictory verses are the following: Brhaddravyasangraha-ţikā, first verses adores siddha, second verse adores arhat. Bhagavati Āradhana, first line of the first verse remembers the siddhas while the second line remembers the arhats. In the Gommațasāra-Jivakāņda, siddhas are invoked first, arhats next in the first line of the verse. Yogasăra-Prābhrta, verse 1 adores siddhas only. Paramātmaprakāśa verses 1-5 adore the siddhas whereas the arhats are adored in verse 6. Yogasāra verse 1 adores the siddha (paramātmā) while verse 2 adores Jinendra.
Any further discussion on this point is not called for in the present context. The formula of five-fold obeisance indicates that all the five classes of holy persons are worthy of honour in spite of the difference in virtuous properties peculiar to each class.
Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson has stated that these five classes, from sādhu to siddha, represent "different ranks a man may hold as an ascetic before he finally attains mok şa.”:58 This statement appears to us to be misleading. The state of perfection (siddha-gati) is not a 'rank' or 'office which a man can hold. It is the state of supreme Holiness wholly transcendental and ineffable. Nor can it be said that the sādhus, upādhyāyas and ācāryas represent an ascending order of religiousness. We have seen above in the formula of four refuges that sādhu is a word which includes upādhyā ya and ācārya. This is to say, an ācārya is also a sādhu; a sādhu functions as ācārya or as upādhyāya. It is of course, true that our texts describe different kinds of virtues and attainments of an ācārya or upādhyā ya but both of them are sädhus and many ethical virtues are common to them.
Our discussion of the nature of faith in Jainism and the formula of five-fold obeisance has already lengthened beyond our hope. We shall now describe the nature of the holy pentad celebrated in the pañca-namaskāra-mantra. III. iii. THE ARHATS
The word arhat (variants are arhanta, arahata, arahanta, arihara, arihanta) gene
55. 56. 57. 58.
Pannavaņāsuttam, part I, Text, p. 1; Sutrāgame, vol. II, p. 266. Satkhan lāgamah with Dhavalaţikā, vol. I, part I, p. 1. Samayasara, 1.1. The Heart of Jainism, p. 239.

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rally means worthy, able, accomplished, praised, celebrated, honoured, holy, a saint, a released sage. It is a technical term of profound religious significance in Jainism and Buddhism. It is one of the common epithets of Vardhamāna Mahāvīra and Sākyamuni Buddha. In Jaina texts arhat is often used as a synonym of jina, 'Conqueror', vīra, 'Hero', tirthankara, an 'omniscient teacher of Dharma' and an acknowledged leader of a gana or Order. It is also recognized that one could be an arhat without being a tirthankara. An arhat is endowed with omniscience (sarvajñatva) and therefore he is often called kevalin.
There seem to be two main strands in the conception of an arhat. One strand relates to an arhat's worthiness or holiness by virtue of which he deserves and commands respect and adoration. The other strand stresses an arhat's victory over the forces of evil rooted in the mechanism of karma. These two strands stress purity of conduct and perfection of gnosis.
The first strand is highlighted in the following two statements :
"Arhanta on account of being worthy of excellent adoration" (atiśaya-pūjārhatvād vā arhantaḥ).59
“Those who are worthy of obeisance, worthy of adoration, and supreme among gods in the world, are (called) arhats" (arahanti namokkāram arihā pūjā surauttama loe).60
The second strand is stressed in the following statements :
"Arihanta on account of destroying the enemy" (arihananād arihanta); "Arihanta on account of destroying impurity” (rajohananād vā arihanta); “Arihanta on account of non-existence of secret” (rahasyābhāvād vā arihanta). 61
“They become jinas or conquerors on account of conquering anger, conceit, delusion, and avarice; they are called arhats on account of destroying enemies and birth" (jida-koha-māņa-māyā jida lohā teņa te jiņā honti). 62 The words 'enemy' (ari), 'impurity' (raja) and 'secret' (rahasya) refer to four kinds of ghāti-karma, viz. knowledge obscuring (jñānāvarāņa-karma), vision obscuring (darśanāvaraņa-karma), confusing (mohanīya-karma), and obstructing (antarāya-karma). Freedom from these four kinds of karma is the most important achievement of an arhat. By destroying these enemies, of spiritual life, one becomes omniscient and endowed with four infinite virtues, viz. vision, wisdom, bliss and energy (darśana, jñāna, sukha, virya).
59. Dhavalaţikā, 1. 1.1 (Şarkhandāgamaḥ, vol. I, part I, p. 45). 60. Mulācāra, gatha 505. 61. Dhavalaţika, I. 1.1 (Şarkhandāgamah, vol. I, part I, pp. 43-45). 62. Mülācāra, gātha 561. Anger, conceit, delusion, and avarice are called kas āya (passions).

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One of the synonyms of arhat is vitaraga, he who is dispassionate or freed from attachment. According to one view arihantänam/arihadbhyaḥ referes to the fact of destruction of aforementioned four types of karma by an arhat. Arahantaṇam/arhadbhyah refers to those who teach the fearless path of the 'city of Release' among the beings overwhelmed by the terrible course of transmigration. Arahantāṇam/arahadbhyaḥ may also refer to those who do not leave their dispassionate nature even while they are in contact with the objects which cause passion. And aruhantāṇam/arohadbhyaḥ may refer to the fact that the seeds of all kinds of karma are destroyed in an arhat. These interpretations have been put forth by Acarya Ghāsīlālji."
One Jaina authority teaches that "one should meditate on the arhat (ariho), the purified soul, established in the body of bliss, who is endowed with vision, bliss, gnosis, and energy, and who has destroyed the four-fold ghati-karma", Another authority celebrates the mercy aspect of the tirthankara in the following words: "Salutation to the Arhat who comprises in his being infinite faith, infinite knowledge, infinite energy and infinite bliss; to the saviour who has constructed out of mercy the bridge to righteousness."65 A third authourity eulogizes the last tirthankara's virtues thus: "Of infinite knowledge (vijñāna), with failings outgone, of tenets irrefutable, to be worshipped by immortals; glorious Vardhamana, the Jina, the chief of authorities, the self-originated, I shall endeavour to praise."68 These great authorities are famous masters of Jaina tradition and they are speaking out of deep faith and conviction.
55
Acarya Haribhadrasüri pays homage to Arhat Mahavira as 'the Lord of yogins' (joginaham) who gave instruction on what constitutes the proper yoga. Arhatship includes perfection in yoga; here yoga is understood as the unity of true knowledge, true faith, and true conduct; this kind of yoga results in union with Ultimate Release. The Arhat is the Lord of this kind of yoga. Acarya Pujyapāda praises the Jina as the propounder of the way to Ultimate Release, as the destroyer of the mountains of karma, and as the knower of the elements of the universe. Another authority pays homage to twenty-four tirthahkaras from Rṣabhadeva to Vardhamana as the knowers. of the technique of ten-fold Dharma. Forbearance, humility, sincerity, purity, truthfulness, restraint, penance, renunciation, freedom from ownership, and celebacy, these are the ten forms of supreme-Dharma. The glories, powers, epithets and
70
Avalyakasutra-Munitorayi-jikā, pp. 46-47.
64. Nemicandra in Bṛhaddravyasangraha, verse 50.
65. Hemacandra in Pramāṇamīmāmsā, verse 1. Translation by Satkari Mookerjee and Nathmal Tatia. 66. Mallişenasuri in Syādvāda-Mañjarī, verse 1. Translation by F.W. Thomas.
67. Yogaŝataka, verses 1-2.
68.
69.
70.
Sarvarthasiddhi on Tattvärthasutra, opening verse.
Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 1.
See above, section on Dharmanuprekṣa, for a slightly different translation of ten-fold Dharma.

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attributes of the arhat are the subject of a well-known text called Jina sahasranama or
A Thousand Names of Jina' compiled by Āśādhara in the twelfth century. A. D.? This text reminds us of some similar Buddhist texts such as the Bhadrakalpikasūtra (F. Weller, Tausend Buddhanamen des Bhadrakalpa), Mañjuśrījñānasattvasya-paramarthanāmasangiti, and Brahmanical texts, such as the Vişnusahasranama-stotra, the Sivasahasranāmastotra and the Durgāsahasranāmastotra.
The notion of arhat in Buddhism certainly helps in understanding its parallel in Jainism. One description of an arhat is found in the following two verses : "Those who have well perfected their minds in the factors of Enlightenment, who do not cling to anything, who rejoice in freedom from grasping, whose impurities have been destroyed, who are luminous, they are liberated in this world. For him who has finished his journey, for him who is without suffering, for him who is released from everything (or from all sides), for him who has destroyed all knots, the fever (of passion) does not exist."'72 The seven factors or constituents of Enlightenment (bodhyanga) referred to above are--mindfulness (smrti), investigation of the Truth (dharmavica ya), energy (virya), joy (prīti), serenity (praśrabdhi), concentration (samādhi), and equanimity (upekṣā). The knots or ties (gantha) referred to above are said to be of four kinds-covetousness (abhidhyā), ill-will (vyāpāda), indulgence in rites and ceremonies (silavrataparāmāsa), and adherence to one's preconceptions as truth (idam satyabhiniveśa).
A Mahāyānasūtra defines an arhat thus : “An arhat is one who has attained meditations, object of meditations, trances, deliverances, psychic powers, superknowledges, and who is free from defilements, sufferings, and thought-constructions" (dhyāna-dh ye ya-samadhi-vimokşa-bala-abhijñā kleśa-duḥkha-vikalpa-abhāvād arhanniti ucyate).13 We cannot here comment on these different numerical topics such as four dhyānas, four samāpattis, three or eight vimokşas, five balas and so on, but we must enumerate in passing six abhijñās or superknowledges. They are--supernormal powers (rddhi), divine ear (divya-śrotra), divine eye (divya-cakşu), knowledge of others' minds (paracittajñāna), memory of one's former existences (pūrvanivāsānusmrti), and extinction of defiling influxes (asrarakşaya).
The two strands in the conception of arhat discussed above after the Jaina texts are found mutatis mutandis in some Buddhist texts also. The arhat is exceedingly adorable and he has annihilated enemies of spiritual life. According to Ācārya
71. Edited by H.L. Jaina with Asādhara's own commentary and with the commentary of Sruta
sāgarasuri.
Dhammapada, vv. 89-90. 73 Sa:Ilharmalankāvarārasitra (Darbhanga edition), p. 49, lines 22-23.
72

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Haribhadra an arhat deserves adoration and offerings because of excellence in good qualities (paja-dakṣina-guna-prakarsad arhataya arhantab). He also notes the popular tradition of the fame of an arhat as the 'foe-destroyer' (hatäritvät arhantah)." An arhat is called kṣinäsrava, one whose äsravas or defiling influxes have been destroyed; nihklesa, one whose afflictions, karmas, and birth have been eradicated; vastbhata, one who has become independent by becoming free from all bonds; kṛtakṛtya, one who has discharged one's obligation (who has done what was to be done); apahṛtabhāra, he who has laid aside his burdens; anupräpta-svakärtha, he who has achieved his end; samyagajñā-suvimukta-citta, he whose mind has been delivered from all bonds by means of right knowledge, and so on."5
A formula of arhatship, often repeated in Pali texts, reads thus: "Knowledge. and vision arose in me-'my liberation is unshakable'. This is the last birth, there is now no more rebirth."""
57
Acarya Buddhaghosa has sought to explain the word arhat (arahanta) in some detail. He points out five reasons for remembering the Buddha as an arhat. He says: tattha ärakatta, arinam arānañ ca hatattä, paccayadinam arahatta, papakarane rahabhāvā ti imehi tava käranehi so Bhagava araham ti anussarati." This passage has been rendered thus: "Herein, what he recollects firstly is that the Blessed One is accomplished (arahanta) for the following reasons: (i) because of remoteness (araka), and (ii) because of his enemies (ari), and (iii) the spokes (ara) having been destroyed (hata), and (iv) because of his worthiness (araha) of requisites, etc., and (v) because of absence of secret (rahābhäva) evil-doing." Remoteness (draka) refers to the fact that the Buddha is utterly remote from all defilements (sabbak ileschi suvidûravidûre thito); the word enemics (arīnam) refers to the group of passions which he destroyed. by his sword of wisdom; the word spokes (aranam) refers to the spokes of the wheel of repeated becoming (samsaracakka) which were destroyed by him at the Seat of Enlightenment; the word worthiness (araha) refers to the fact that the Buddha is the most worthy of offerings and adoration, and the word absence of secret (rahabhava) refers to the fact that the Buddha has no secret or hidden evil. For these reasons he is called accomplished (arahanta),
It may be pointed out here that although Arhat is one of the names of the
Abhisamayalankara-Alokavyākhyā (Darbhanga edition), p. 273.
Ibid., loc. cit.
Samyuttanikaya (Nalanda edition) vol. II, p. 144.
Visuddhimagga, Varanasi edition, p. 411; Harvard University edition, pp. 163ft.
The Path of Purification, translated by Bhikkhu Nanamoli, pp. 206ff. See Paramatthamanjūsātākā, vol. I (Varanasi edition), pp. 411-422.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.

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Buddha, the conception of the arhat in Buddhist tradition is not so profound and exalted as that of the Buddha or the Bodhisattva. The Buddhist conception of an arhat, though helpful in understanding the Jaina conception, does not present an exciting parallel to the figure of a tirthankara. The characteristic Jaina figure of an arhat emerges from the following lines of the Sakra-stava :
“Praise to the arhats, the blessed ones, who are the cause of the beginnings, who provide the path across, who have of themselves attained enlightenment, the best among men, the lions among men, the lotus among men, the gandhahastins (perfumed-elephants) among men, the best of those in the world, the lords of the world, benefactors of the world, the lights of the world, the irradiators of the world, those who give freedom from fear, who give insight, who give the right direction, who give refuge, who give enlightenment, who give the sacred doctrine, who expound the sacred doctrine, who are the authorities on the sacred doctrine, the guides to the sacred doctrine, the oecumenical monarchs of the sacred doctrine, those who maintain the irrefutable knowledge and insight, who have thrown off all travesties, the Jinas, who drive away evil, who have crossed over, who aid others across, the enlightened and the enlighteners, the liberated and the liberators, the omniscient, the all-seeing, those who have reached the place that is called siddha-gati from which there is no return, and which is bliss immutable, inviolable, endless, imperishable, and undisturbed; praise to the Jinas who have overcome fear.''80
III iv. THE SIDDHAS
Walther Schubring has remarked that "the Siddhas are soul, soul pure and simple.”81 This remark does not tell us much about the being of a siddha. A very remarkable canonical passage describes the released soul in entirely negative words probably because the siddha-gati is indescribable. A siddha is without any shape, size, colour, smell and taste; it (we use 'it' consciously) is devoid of body and is neither female nor male (na itthi na purise); its likeness does not exist (uvamā ņa vijjae); it is a formless reality (arūvi sattā); it is that unconditioned which is without condition. That which is unconditioned is indescribable. 82
Nevertheless, repeated efforts are made in many texts to describe the nature of the siddha. In keeping with its fundamental metaphysical pluralism, Jainism teaches that the number of siddhas is infinite. Their abode is at the top of the universe (lokāgra).
80. 81. 82
R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, pp. 193-194 The Doctrine of the Jainas, p. 329. Ācārangasūtra, 331-333 in Suttāgame, vol. I, p. 19.

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59
The siddhas are in peace that passeth understanding. They are in nirvāṇa, free from all traces of karma, change, and unrest. They are in supreme bliss. They are eternally pure (siddhā suddhā sadā honti).83
A soul or self (ātman) can become a siddha without becoming an arhat. Every arhat becomes a siddha after discarding his physical frame. Tirthařkara Mahāvīra's enterance into siddha-sthāna is described in the following words : "Śramaņa Bhagavān Mahāvīra died, passed away, left the world, cut off the ties of birth, old age, and death; he became a siddha, awakened, released, and maker of the end; finally liberated and emancipated from all sufferings.'84
The siddhas are described as those who, having burnt up the impurities of karma with the fire of meditation, have become eternally immaculate and of the nature of wisdom.85 A siddha is holiness embodied. Holiness is release from karmas (karmavipramokşo mokṣaḥ). Although a siddha is of the nature of pure release, certain attributes are said to be inseparable from siddha-gati viz. faith, wisdom, vision, and perfection (samyak tva-jñāna-darśana-siddhatva). In addition to these, infinite energy and infinite bliss also characterize a siddha. According to one view, the siddhas have the forms of their last bodies.86 Schubring informs us that "they measure two thirds of the body they had in the last moment of their earthly existence."87 This view is opposed to that found in the Acārāngasūtra which we have quoted earlier (see above footnote 82). Another text also states that released state is formless (amutta, amūrtatva): “There exist perfect wisdom, perfect bliss, perfect energy, perfect view, formlessness, existence, and spatiality" (vijjadi kevalaņāņam kevalasokkham ca kevalam viriyam kevaladitthi amuttam atthittam sappadesattam/).88 It is stated that nirvāņa means siddha, and siddha means nirvana.89
Vīrasenācārya points out that the siddhas are firmly established, having accomplished their task, having achieved their aim, and having destroyed eight kinds of karmas (siddhā nişthitāḥ kṣtak rtyāḥ siddhasādhyāḥ naștäştakarmāṇaḥ). The difference between an arhat and a siddha consists in this that the former has destroyed four kinds of ghātikarmas while the latter has destroyed eight kinds of karmas
83. 84. 85.
86
Gommațasāra, Jivakānda, verse 732. Kalpasūtra, 124. Paramātmaprakaśa, verse 1. Tattvarthasūtra, x. 2, 4 and Sarvärtha siddhi, p. 360. The Doctrine of the Jainas, p. 329. Niyamasara, verse 181. Ibid., verse 182.
87. 88. 89.

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(naṣṭāṣṭakarmäṇaḥ siddhāḥ naṣṭaghatikarmano arhanta iti tayorbhedah),
92
The siddhas are nameless, classless, ageless and sans feeling. They are established on the peak of the universe which is eternal, immovable, and undecaying (dhuvamacalam ajara-thana logasiharam-assido siddho). Because a siddha is free from karmas he becomes free from ten kinds of prana, and in the utter absence of the body, there is utter non-existence of pleasure and pain in him. The abode of the siddhas is wholly free from birth, old age, death, and disease (siddhikşetre vimale janma-jarämarana-rogairmukta). It is stressed that release (mukti) in this system is not nonexistence; it is the reality of pure self (suddhätmä) which is identical with mukti, siddha or paramätma. Some of the achievements, powers, and attributes of a siddha, the holiest of holi beings, are highlighted in the hymn of 'Four Refuges'. The following verses from this hymn also give us an insight into the piety and devotional fervour of a devout Jaina.
60
"Perfected by the destruction of eightfold karman, rich in spontaneous knowledge and insight, perfected by the attainment of all their aims, may those Siddhas be my refuge. Standing on the summit of the three worlds, standing in the highest place, having unthinkable power, standing in the auspicious place of perfection, may the Siddhas be my refuge. With their enemies uprooted, observable by those who are not fools, visible to Sayogins, having obtained spontaneous happiness, possessing the highest release, the Siddhas (are my) refuge. With their foes repulsed, with all the seeds of existence burnt up by the fire of meditation, to be resorted to by eminent sages, the Siddhas are to be remembered as a refuge. Having made the greatest joy arrive, the essence of virtue, having split the roots of existence, having put sun and moon to shame, having put an end to strife, the Siddhas (are my) refuge. Having gained the highest knowledge, having obtained things which are hard to obtain, free from arrogance, pillars upholding the house of the world, without any activity, the Siddhas (are my) refuge."
"Without any activity", the siddhas do not act as teachers or saviours; that role is played properly by the arhats. But the siddhas are the ultimate realities and a source of that faith which has nourished what is now known as Jainism. The task of teaching and training disciples in the discipline which culminates in siddhahood is carried on by ascetic sages who are themselves striving to reach the end of their
90
91.
Dhavalatika on Satkhandagamaḥ, vol. I, part I, p. 47.
Bhagavati Aradhana, verse 2127.
Ibid., verse 2130.
92.
93. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 288.
94.
Causarana-Painnaya, vv. 24-29. Translation by K.R. Norman.

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journey in siddhahood. 95
III. v. THE ĀCĀRYAS
The third member of the holy pentad is called ācārya which means a religious teacher or a spiritual preceptor. The ācārya is one from whom religious vows are taken and practised (tatra ācaranti tasmäd vratāni iti ācāryah).96 Such an ācārya is generally an ordained, virtuous and learned monk of the Jaina Order. The usual definition of a religious teacher goes thus : "he who himself observes five-fold good conduct and makes others to observe that conduct is an ācārya" (pañca vidham ācāram carati cārayati iti ācāryaḥ).97 The five-fold good conduct includes cultivation of faith (darśana), wisdom (jñāna), ethical behaviour (cāritra), penance (tapa), and energetic effort (viryācāra). Knowledge and practice of Dharma are thus the main traits of an ācārya's character. He is described as an expert in fourteen kinds of sciences (vidyās), as one who knows by heart Eleven Scriptures (ekādaśāngadharah) or the Ācārânga, or who has perfect knowledge of time in regard to himself and in regard to others, and who is firm like the mountain) Meru, tolerant like the earth, who has, like an ocean, expelled impurity, and who is free from seven-fold fear.98 A religious teacher (dharmācārya) is possessed of thirty-six ethical qualities viz. nine-fold holy conduct (navavidha-brahmacar yagupti), five-fold sense-control (pañcendriya-samvaraņa), renunciation of four-fold defilement (kaşāyacatuştaya-rahitatva), practice of five major vows (pañca-mahāvratopetatva), practice of five-fold good conduct(pañcavidha-ācārapālakatva) five-fold self-regulation (pañcasamiti-samitatva), and three-fold protection (guptitrayaguptatva). These thirty-six virtues subsume almost the entire gamut of Jaina ethics. Besides excellence in ethical culture, the ācāryas are skilled in the explanation of
95.
The idea of siddhahood is known outside Jainism too. Kapilamuni, the putative father of the Sankhya system of thought, is once referred to as the best among the siddhas (Bhagavadgitā, x. 26-siddhānam Kapilo munih). Tantrika Buddhist tradition has preserved a list of eighty-four siddhas. The list includes the names of Sarahapāda, Krşņapāda, Indrabhūti, Lakşaminkarādevī, Nāgārjuna, Gorakşa, Matsyendra, Sabara, Dambīpāda etc. (see Caturasitisiddhapravetti, Sarnath : Central Institute of Tibetan Studies 1979; The Blue Annals, translated by G. Roerich, Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1976). These siddhas were masters of an esoteric technique of release which widely differs from the Jaina path of purification. There is also a marked difference between the Tantrika conception of mukti and Jaina conception of siddhahood. For a discussion of medieval siddhas, yogins and nathas and for bibliographical information see L. M. Joshi, "The Siddha Tradition before Guru Nanak" in Essays in Honour of Dr. Ganda Singh, pp. 45-72. Sarvārthasiddhi on Tattvārthasūtra, X-24, p. 338. Dhavalațīka on Şarkhan lagama I. 1.1, p. 49; Avašyak asūtram-Munitoşanīļāka, p. 50. According to the Pascadhyāyi (of Rājamalla) the name acārya is beginningless (ācāryo anādito). Dhavalatika, 1. 1.1.. pp. 49-50.
96.
97.
98.
*

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revealed scriptures (paramārşa-pravacanärtha-nirupaṇe nipuṇāḥ).”
An acarya is sometimes called a ganadhara if he is the head of a community of mendicant monks (yati-samudaya). Right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct constitute the essence of the Jaina path (samayasära); he who is himself established and who establishes his community of followers in these three (foundations) is called a ganadhara. The word gona means sangha, community or order. By upholding the acārya the entire order is upheld, and by upholding the order, the means of attaining spiritual welfare and release is ensured. We have already noted above that one of the meanings of tirtha is the order or sahgha. By honouring the acarya one honours. the tirtha, and this tirtha is the means of attaining welfare as well as the supreme goal.102 Hence obeisance is offered to an ācārya. The word guru is also used for ācārya. The tirthankara-arhat is called the guru of the three worlds. The äcāryas, upadhyāyas, and sadhus are certainly venerated as guru because they have become great by virtue of their excellence in the three jewels (triratna) of Jainism.
III. vi. THE UPADHYAYAS
62
The word upadhyaya generally means an instructor or teacher of religious texts. As an instructor of a part of the Veda for wages only, an upadhyaya was considered in the Vedic tradition as inferior to an ācārya. As the fourth member of the Jaina holy pentad, an upadhyaya is, as a rule, an ordained monk of the Jaina order who is expert in teaching scriptural doctrines. One text states that "the upadhyayas are those (spiritual) heroes (sura) who are possessed of the three jewels (ratnatraya), who are expounders of the realities enunciated by the Jina, and who are endowed with an attitude of desirelessness."103 Another text states that "an upadhyaya is one under whom the scriptures are studied for the sake of ultimate Release" (mokşärtham sastram upetya tasmadadhiyata iti upadhyayah). According to Acarya Akalañka "he is called an upadhyaya who is established in the observance of vows and practice of meditation and from whom good people study the revealed scriptures" (vineyenopetya yasmad vratafilabhāvanādhiṣṭhānādāgamam brutäkkyamadhiyate sa upadhyāyaḥ).10 Tradition is unanimous in saying that the upadhyayas are virtuous and learned sages. They are expounders of fourteen sciences (vidyas), or expounders of their contemporary tenets, and they possess most of the qualities of acaryas,100
99.
100.
101.
Haribhadrasuri on Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 2.
Bhagavati Ārādhanā, verse 289.
Ibid., verse 325.
See Aparajitasuri's Ţika on Bhagavati Aradhana, verses 325-326.
102.
103.
Niyamasara, verse 74.
104.
Sarvarthasiddhi on Tattvärthasutra IX. 24, p. 338.
105.
Tattvärthavarttika on Tattvärthasutra IX. 24, p. 623.
106. Dhavalaṭīkā, I. 1.1 p. 51. See also Munitoşanitika on Avasyakasūtram, pp. 58-59.

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63
It is generally believed that an upādhyāya is versed in eleven Anga texts and fourteen Purva texts. Knowledge of these twenty-five scriptural texts constitutes an upādhyāya's twenty-five merits. They (the upādhyāyas) have several other ethical virtues in common with the sādhus.
The Pañcādhyāyī throws some light on the intellectual equipment of the upādhyāya and draws an important distinction between him and the ācārya. It says that the upādhyāya dispels doubts and answers questions; he is a logician (vādī), and an expert in the theory of non-absolutism (syadvadakovida), he is skilled in speech, he knows everything about the sanctity of words (vāgbrahmasarvajña), and is expert in doctrinal treatises. The chief feature of an upādhyāya is his experience in the scriptures; he is a guru who himself studies (the scriptures) and teaches them to his pupils. The remaining features, the observance of vows etc., are common to all (the other ascetics). An upādhyāya can give instruction about the Dharma, but he cannot issue a commandment of Dharma. This latter can be done by an ācārya or sūri.107 III. vii, THE SĀDHUS
The word sādhu generally means good, proper, righteous, virtuous, pious, honourable, venerable; an ascetic, a saint, a chaste person, a monk, and a devotee. In Jaina tradition, a sādhu usually means an ordained monk; śramana, muni, yati and yogi are interchangeable with sādhu.
As the fifth and last member of the holy pentad, the sādhus as a class of holy personages are esteemed and worshipped by devout men and women of Jaina community. As has been pointed out above, sādhus include ācāryas and upādhyāyas who constitute third and fourth category of holy personages included in the pentad. The sādhus constitute the third refuge in the formula of four-fold refuge. The Causarana-Paiņņa ya (vv. 31-41) contains following eulogistic description of the sādhus.
"Relatives of the world of living beings, gone to the far bank of the river of evil states of life, very eminent, making people attain pleasant happiness by knowledge and other means, the Sadhus (are my) refuge. Kevalins, having supreme clairvoyant powers, having mind-reading powers, knowing the scriptures, teachers and preceptors in the Jina's doctrine, all those Sādhus (are my) refuge. Possessors of fourteen, ten, or nine Pūrvas, and (those) who possess twelve or eleven Angas, the Jinakalpikas, the Yathālandikas, and the Sädhus purified by penance. And those having milk-producing speech, honey-producing speech, divided sense organs, and granary minds, having the power of motion, of changing their bodies, and of com
107.
Pañcadhyāyi (of Rājamalla), II. 659, 661-662 quoted after Jainadharmāmýta, edited by Hiralal Jain, p. 92.

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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS pleting verses, the Sādhus (are my) refuge.108 With enrity and opposition abandoned, continually without perfidy, having calm beauty on their faces, a mass of approved virtues, with delusion destroyed, the Sådhus (are my) refuge. With bonds of affection broken, providing no abode for love, desirous of happiness which is free from love, pleasing the minds of good men, delighting the soul, the Munis (are my) refuge. With senses and emotions cast aside, with the delight and happiness of union with wife and home abandoned, not distinguishing between joy and grief, with carelessness gone, the Sādhus (are my) refuge. Free from faults, e.g. injury, having shown compassion, having the wisdom and brilliance of the Self-created one, following the ageless, deathless path, having the merit of good deeds, the Sādhus (are my) refuge. Free from the mockery of love, free from the filth of the Kali age, with theft abandoned, free from evil, passion, and amorous pleasure, the Sādhus (are) adorned with virtues like jewels. Since teachers and others are well established in Sādhuhood, and thence they are Sädhus, being included in the term 'Sādhus' therefore those Sādhus (are my) refuge."109
The above verses show that the sadhus are friendly, learned and virtuous people, who have renounced worldly life and possessions. Their epithet jia-loa bandhuņo, 'friends of the world of living beings' (verse 31) suggests that they are not anti-world, but spiritual friends of the people in the world.
One authority describes these holy personages thus : ananta-jñānādi suddhātma svarūpam sādhayanti iti sādhavaḥ pañcamahāvratadharāḥtriguptiguptāh aștādaśasilasahasra dharāś caturasiti-sata-sahasragunadharāś ca sādhavaḥ.10 This means that the sādhus are those who strive to realize the pure self which is of the nature of infinite knowledge etc; they are upholders of the five great vows and they are protected by threefold protection; the sādhus are upholders of eighteen thousand types of ethical conduct (śīla), and they are endowed with eighty-four hundred thousand kinds of virtues. These unusually large numbers of virtuous qualities are symbolic of the preeminently ethical character of sädhus who are believed to be 'good' in thought, speech, and act. Another text states that they are called sädhus who are freed from worldly occupations, given to four kinds of meditations (ārädhanā), without knots (nigganthā) and devoid of infatuation (nimmohā).111
The sādhus practise renunciation (vairāgya) to its highest limit; they are often sky-clad, but they are merciful; they are known as nirgrantha, free-from knots, because
TL
108.
109. 110. 111.
Part of this translation of verse 34 is not intelligible to us. The text has khir' asava-mahu a sava sambhinna-ssoa kutha-buddhi a cărana veuvvi-pay' anusărino sāhuno saranam, Translation by K.R. Norman. Dhavalațāka I. 1.1, p. 52. Niyamasara, verse 75.

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they have loosened internal as well as external knots or ties; they seek eradication of karmas by means of austerities and penances.112 One text teaches that the service (sevā) of sadhus results in the destruction of transmigration, in the attainment of tranquillity, and in the increase of knowledge and intelligence; it also results in the increase of one's glory and religious merits. Another text states that the happiness which the sådhus enjoy in this world as a result of renouncing worldly concerns is not accessible to the king of kings nor to the king of gods.114 Having given up thoughts of the world, a sadhu constantly dwells on the thought of the knowledge of the self, having conquered anger, avarice and sensuality, a sädhu lives in happiness free from the fever of passions. Such, in brief, is the image of a member of the sadhu class. III. viii. COMPARATIVE NOTES
It is noteworthy that the institutions of acarya, upadhyaya, and sadhu are not peculiar to Jainism; they are well known also in Buddhist and Brahmanical traditions. What is peculiar to Jainism is the doctrine of the holy pentad (pañcaparameşthin) in which spiritual guides, scriptural instructors, and mendicant monks have been accorded an extraordinary position of holiness and religious authority. The holy pentad is known as pañcaparameşthin. One Jaina text declares that "a paramesthin is one who is established in the Supreme Station" (paramapade tişthati iti parameşthi),114
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It is obvious that the parameşthins are not individual persons but certain ethical and spiritual qualities idealized and personified. Obeisance is offered not to a person but to the holiness symbolized and exemplified by that person. The sadhus constituting the third refuge are thus a mass of ethical excellence and intellectual attainments. The individual sådhus are subject to birth, aging, disease and death; they cannot be the refuge of beings tormented by sufferings of the existence in samsara. It is the manifestation of the sacred in sadhus which makes them extraordinary. It is this act of manifestation, of showing and revealing something which is sacred or holy and entirely different from what is characteristic of our world, that constitutes the essential nature of sadhus venerated in the formula of obeisance.
The sadhus of the Jaina conception like the bhiksus of Buddhist tradition are all followers of what has rightly been called the "extraordinary norm";118 that is to say,
112. Pancadhyayi, II. 71; II. 672.
113. Vijayodayatika on Bhagavati Aradhana, p. 348.
114. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa, verse 128.
115. Ibid., verse 129.
116. Svayambhu-stotra-țīkā, quoted after Jainendra Siddhānta-koša, vol. III, p. 22.
117. Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane, p. 11, uses the word "hierophany" for this pheno
menon.
118.
See Franklin Edgerton, "Dominant Ideas in the Formation of Indian Culture" in The Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 62, (1949).
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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS unlike the ācāryas and upādhyāyas of Vedic-Brahmanic tradition who followed the "ordinary norm,” these sädhus are members of an ascetic order; they are ordained monks who have renounced home life, and whose sole aim is to exert (śrama) in the direction of spiritual perfection (siddhi) and peace (upaśama). They are known as śramanas and clearly contrasted with brāhmaṇas. The words śramana and mundaka (in spite of the samnyāsa-āśrama and the Mundaka-Upanişad) never found a respectable place in Brahmanical literature. They are, however, very sacred and esteemed words in the texts and documents of Jainism and Buddhism.
The notions of ācārya, upadhyāya, sādhu and guru are commonly found in almost the entire range of Indian literature.119 But there are important shades of difference in their meanings in different traditions of literature and ideology. In Buddhist and Jaina instances of these words we come across a considerable degree of agreement in their meanings. But between the Brahmanical and sramanical conceptions the differences are quite pronounced. Before we conclude this section we may add here a few comparative notes to the conceptions of ācārya, upādhyāya, sādhu, and guru.
In several later Vedic texts we find mention of ācārya. Usually he is conceived as a learned brāhmaṇa, a seer (rși), who has "studied" or "heard" (śuśruvān). The subject of his scholarship was Vedic lore, generally consisting of ritual texts and sacrificial techniques. The ācārya of Vedic conception was no ascetic; he was usually a householder with wife, children and property. He acted as the priest and was respected on account of his learning in the Veda and his religious vocation. Towards the end of the Vedic period which coincided with the age of Sākyamuni Buddha and Vardhamāna Tirthankara, the Upanisads introduced into Vedic tradition certain new ideas and dimensions of ascetic spirituality already diffused by śramaņas and munis. From these remarkable texts we learn that the office of an acārya or guru was no longer a monopoly of brāhmaṇas; several brilliant teachers of Upanişadic philosophy were powerful monarchs of ksatriya lineage, such as Ajātaśatru, Pravāhaņa-Jaivali, Aśvapati-Kaikeya and Janaka-Videha. These royal ācāryas also were householders. The Mundaka-Upanişad shows that ascetic acāryas had now become known in Vedic circles. This text, like the Katha and the Svetāśvatara, is post-Buddhist in date. All these Upanişads reveal considerable influence of śramaņa thought as a result of which there is a gradual change in the nature and function of the acārya. He is now conceived as a knower of the brahman, the ultimate Reality sometimes identified with the atman. Liberated saints (yatis) who are freed from impurities (kṣīņadoşă), and whose passions
119.
Professor Jan Gonda has expressed the view that "all Vedic terms for the preceptor are unquestionably Indo-European or Indo-Aryan in origin : guru, acārya, upadhyāya, $rotriya." See his Change and Continuity in Indian Religion, p. 262. This book contains a very valuable and detailed historical discussion on "the Guru", pp. 229-283.

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are spent up (vitarăga), are also mentioned in the Mundaka Upanişad.120 These liberarated saints are comparable to the śramaņas and sädhus. The early Buddhists conceived of a 'holy man' (b: āhmaṇa) in terms of an arhat and a khiņāsava.121
The divinity of the ācārya or guru is expressly taught in Brahmanical texts. The ācārya is "to be given desirable wealth” (ācāryāya priyam dhanam āhstya).122 A student is asked to wait upon the acārya as if he were a god (deva).123
The Manu-Smrti, which retains traditional Brahmanical conceptions, gives following definitions of ācārya, upadhyāya, and guru. "A brāhmana (dvija), who initiates a pupil and teaches him the Veda together with the Kalpa and the Rahasya, is called the ācārya. He who teaches a part of the Veda or also the Vedāngas for his livelihood, is called the upādhyāya. A brāhmaṇa (vipra) who performs according to rules the ceremonies of garbhādhāna and so on, and gives food (to the child) is called the guru.124 The sole criterion of veneration of a person according to this text is the knowledge of the Veda.125 It has scant regard for those who place supreme premium on the quest of ultimate Release. "A dvija who seeks mokṣa without having studied the Vedas, without producing sons, and without having offered sacrifices, goes downwards."126 It is clear that these views are far removed from those of Jaina sages, and mere occurrence of identical terms should not mislead us. The Jaina conceptions of the ācārya, the upādhyāya and the guru are more or less radically different from those found in early Brahmanism.
As in Jaina tradition so in Buddhist tradition, the conceptions of ācārya, upadhyāya, and sādhu are found ascetically oriented. The rules of Vinaya stress the need of both the ācariya and the upajjhāya in the training of young monks (bhikkhus). All of them are ordained members of the holy order of monks (sangha). The texts described qualities and duties of acariyas, upajjhāyas and bhikkhus which need not be discussed here. 127
120. Muntlaka Upanişad, II. 1-5; III. 1-6, 121. Dhammapada, vv. 93, 420. 122. Taittiriya Upaniş ad, I. xi. 1-2, ācārya devo bhava. 123. See Apastamba-Dharmasutra, 1.2.6.13. On ascetics in Brahmanism see Vasis tha-Dharmasutra.
X. 1-31; Baudhayana-Dharmasūtra, II. 10. 17. 1-45; Gautama-Dharmasutra, III. 1-36; Manu-Smrti, VI. 41-96. See also Yatidharmasangraha edited by V.G. Apte, Anandasrama Sanskrit Series, vol. 60 (1928). It is customary with Brahmanical Dharama sāstras to exalt the stage of the householder even after accepting the stage of a renouncer which they relegate to the last years of
one's life. 124. Manu-Smrti, II. 140-142, 125. Ibid., II. 156. 126. Ibid., VI. 37. 127, . See the Mahāvagga and Sutta Vibhanga sections of the Vinayapitaka. English translation by
I.B. Horner in Book of the Dissipline; Sukumar Dutt, Early Buddhist Monachism; R.K. Mokerji,
Ancient Indian Eduration,; J. Takakusu, A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago by I-tsing (A.D. 671-695).

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The general image of "the holy man" (arahanta, ariya, sävaka, thera, bhikkhu, samana, or brāhmaṇa) of Buddhist conception can be summed up in the following words. He is quiescent and engaged in meditation, steadfastly working for release from bonds; he shines in wisdom among the ignorant worldings; he his called sappurisa, good man, and pandita, learned; he gives up attachment to everything, and is not affected either by pleasure or by pain; he does not desire son, wealth or kingdom; he is virtuous, wise, and righteous; without clinging to anything, free from asravas and shining in purity, he is released while living in the world. He may be dressed gaily, if he is in peace, with passions subdued, and senses controlled, fixed on the path, pure in conduct, and has set aside violence, he is indeed a holy man, an ascetic, a monk. He is called a samana because he has extinguished all evil. A monk (bhikkhu) is he who has gone beyond good and evil, who is pure in conduct and who lives with understanding in this world. He is called muni who avoids evil and who understands. both worlds. He who is without craving and without grasping, who is skilled in language and its explanation, who knows the grouping of letters and their sequence, who is wearing his last body, he is known as a man of great wisdom (mahāpañño) and a great man (mahāpurisa). A holy man has both knowledge as well as meditation. He whose knowledge is profound, who is endowed with wisdom, who knows the right path and the wrong path, who has attained the excellent goal, he is called a holy man.128
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The Buddhas, Arhats, Bodhisattvas, Mahāśrāvakas or Mahästhaviras, are all revered as ācāryas and gurus in Buddhist tradition. The Pratyekabuddhas, however, do not teach nor establish an order of disciples. The long tradition of genealogy of teachers of different philosophical schools of Buddhism is known as the acarya-parampara, and great masters of Buddhist thought and authors of Sastras are usually remembered and venerated as ācāryas. They are venerated on account of their vast learning in the field of Tripitaka studies, ability to expound Sutras or Agamas, and also on account of their excellence in ethical culture and spiritual attainments. Besides monks, some householder Buddhists are also known as ācāryas in the sense of teachers of sacred scriptures. The main function of the Bodhisattvas is to carry on the work of the Buddha, that is to say, to train and lead people on the Path of Buddhahood. They are considered as great religious teachers and honoured as saviours and spiritual friends of living beings. Bodhisattva Vimalakirti of Vaisali represents this class of holy men who are outstanding for their religious and intellectual virtues and who combine the functions of the acarya, upadhyāya, sädhu and bodhisattva. 129
128.
129.
Dhammapada, vv. 23, 59, 83, 89. 142, 265, 269, 352, 372, and 403 (abridged).
See Vimalakirtinirdeśasutra, Tibetan version, Sanskrit restoration and Hindi translation prepared by Bhiksu Prasadika and L.M. Joshi, Sarnath: Central Institute of Tibetan Studies, 1981.

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In Tāntrika Buddhist texts the institution of the ācārya or guru seems to have acquired a peculiar significance. The guru or acārya initiates the disciple in esoteric theory and practice of yoga and is held in highest esteem by his disciples. One text states that in all the three worlds there is nothing superior to the ācārya. It is stressed that the preceptor should never be insulted even when the disciple has attained siddhi. Tantrika teachers are known as siddhas, vajrācāryas, and gurus.130
The institution of the guru is an important feature of the Nātha school131 and Guru Goraksanātha is often remembered as the most famous guru of yogins of medieval India.
In the Santamata, particularly in the writings of Kabīradāsa, guru occupies a position of singular significance.182 Sometimes, the guru is treated as the very image of God. The Guru-mahatmya is an important and popular text of Kabirapantha. In the Caitanya cult also the guru is venerated as an avatāra of Krsna. Caitanya himself is called the Gurudeva.183 The doctrine of the guru is a fundamental tenet also of Sikhism which has promoted the veneration of a series of ten gurus.134 The Sikh Canon is now generally known as the Gurugranthasāhib which embodies the doctrine of the Gurus (Gurumata). Tulasīdāsa, though accords highest place to the brāhmaṇa, frequently pays homage to the guru as the foremost enlightener. 135 In the different sects of medieval and modern Hinduism the tradition of great reverence for the guru has increased with the passage of time. In contemporary India also we find that the ācārya and the guru are being worshipped even as avatāras. The gurus or ācāryas of medieval and modern India have not been ascetics or sādhus in every case. 136 Many of these gurus are known as santas, they are also called sādhus in the sense of bhaktas. We have thus two traditions of sādhus, that of the ascetics (munis, svāmis, yogins, bhikṣus), and that of the householders often called santas; while the sādhus or the santas of ascetic variety are found associated with Jaina, Buddhist, and Brahmanical Hindu communities, the householder sadhus, usually called santas, are for the most part followers of theistic sects of Hinduism, Kabīrapantha, Sikhism and Rādhāsoāmi sect. These brief notes from comparative religion thus further elucidate the distinctive features of Jaina theory of the sādhu.
130. 131.
132. 133.
See L.M. Joshi, Studies in the Buldhistic Culture of India, second edition, pp. 285-286. See Gorakha-Bānī edited by P.D. Barathwal, Prayaga : Hindi Sahitya Sammelana, 1942, pp. 5, 37, 49, 61, etc.; Siddha-Siddhanta-Paddhati, edited by Kalyani Malik, Poona : Oriental Book House, 1954; Hashayoga-Pradīpikä edited and translated by Srinivasa Iyangar, Adyar : Adyar Library, 1972. See Kabiragranthāvali edited by Shyam Sundar Das, Kasi: Nāgari Pracāraņi Sabhā, 1965 (reprint). See Prabhat Mukerjee, History of the Chaitanya Faith in Orissa, New Delhi : Manohar Publications, 1979. See Nanakacandrodaya-mahakävyam edited by Vrajanatha Jha, Varanasi : Sanskrit University, 1977; W.H. McLeod, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. Ramacaritamanasa, opening caupais. See The Nature of Guruship, edited by Clarence O. McMullen, Batala, 1976.
134.
135. 136.

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Angasuttani, vols. I-III, Vacana Pramukha: Acārya Tulasi. Editor: Muni Nathmal. Ladnun: Jaina Visva Bharati, 1975.
Anguttaranikaya, vols. I-IV. General Editor: Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nalanda Devanagari Pali Series, Nalanda Nava Nālandā Mahāvihāra, 1960.
Arthaviniscayasutra. Edited by P. L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 17, Part I. Darbhanga :
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Avasyakasūtram with Munitos aṇīțikā of Muni Ghasilalji. Edited by Muni Kanhaiyalalji, Rajkot: Svetambara Sthanakavāsi Jainas astroddhārasamiti, 1958.
Bhagavati Aradhana of Śivarya with the Vijayodayatika of Aparajitasūri. Edited by Kailashchandra
Shastri. Jivaraja Jaina Granthamala-36. Sholapur: Jaina Samskṛti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1978. Bhagavadgita with the Bhasya of Sankara, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1964. Bharati, Agehananda, The Tantric Tradition, London: Rider & Co., 1969. Bodhicaryavatara of Santideva. Edited by P.L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 12. Darbhanga :
Mithila Institute, 1960.
Bodhisattvabhumi edited by Nalinaksha Dutt. Tibetan Sanskrit Texts Series, vol. VII. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1966. Bṛhaddravyasangraha of Nemicandra-Siddhantadeva. Edited by Manoharlal Shastri, Agas: Śrimad
Rajachandra Jaina Sastramālā, 1960.
Buddhacarita of As vaghosa. Edited and translated by E.H. Johnston. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1972 (reprint).
Bühler, Georg (Tr.) The Laws of Manu. Sacred Books of the East, vol. XXV. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1964 (reprint).
Catuḥsataka of Aryadeva (chapters VIII-XVI). Tibetan and Sanskrit texts edited by Vidhusekhara Bhattacharya. Santiniketan: Visvabharati, 1931.
Caurasi Siddhon ka Vṛttanta (Caturaŝiti-Siddha- Pravṛtti). Tibetan text edited and translated into
Hindi by Sempa Dorje. Sarnath: Central Institute of Tibetan Studies, 1979. Causarana-Painnaya edited and translated by K. R. Norman in The Adyar Library Bulletin, vol.
Xxxviii, Mahavira Jayanti Volume, 1974, pp. 44-59.
Conze, Edward, Buddhist Thought in India. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1963.
Daśavaikälikasūtra of Sayyambhava. Edited and translated by Kastur Chand Lalwani, Delhi :
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Dayal, Har, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970. Dhammapada in Khuddakanikaya, vol. I. General Editor: Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nālandā Devanagari Pali Series. Nalanda: Nava Nālandā Mahavihara, 1959.
Dharmasamuccaya: Extraites du Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasutra par Avalokitasimha, part I, chapitres I-V, verses 1-381. Texte Sanskrit édité avec la version tibetaine et les versions chinoises et traduit en francais par Lin Li-Kouang. Paris: Librairie d'Amerique et d'Orient, 1946.

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Dharmasangraha edited by P. L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 17, Part 1, Darbhanga :
Mithila Institute, 1961. Dīghanikaya, vols. I-III. General Editor : Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nalanda Devanāgari Pali
Series. Nalanda : Nava Nālandā Mahāvihāra, 1959. Divyāvadāna edited by P. L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 20. Darbhanga : Mithila Insti
tute, 1959. Durkheim, Emile, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, New York: The Free Press, 1965. Edgerton, Franklin, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1970 (reprint). Edgerton, Franklin, "Dominant Ideas in the Formation of Indian Culture" in JAOS, vol. 62, 1942. Eliade, Mircea, The Sacred and the Profane, New York, Harcourt, Brace & World, 1959. Gandavyūhasūtra edited by P.L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 5. Darbhanga : Mithila Insti
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vol. IV. Lucknow, 1927. Gonda, Jan, Change and Continuity in Indian Religion. The Hague : Mouton & Co. 1965. Gorakha-Bani edited by Pitambar Datt Barathwal. Prayaga : Hindi Sahitya Sammelana, 1942. Goudriaan, Teun, Maya Divine and Human. Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. Govinda, Lama Anagarika, The Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, London : Rider & Co., 1960. Handiqui, K.K. Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture, Jivarāja Jaina Granthamala, No. 2. Sholapur : Jaina
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pitha, 1955. Jaina Sutras, parts I and II. Translated by Hermann Jacobi, Sacred Books of the East, vols. XXXI,
XLV, Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1964 (reprint). James Legge, The Text of Taoism, part I. Secred Books of the East, vol. xxxix, New York: Dover
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FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS Lalitavistara, edited by P.L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 1. Darbhanga : Mithila Institute,
1958. Mahāvagga, General Editor : Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nalanda Devanāgari Pali Series. Nalanda :
Nava Nālandā Mahāvihāra, 1956. Majjhimanikāya, vols, I-III, General Editor : Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nalanda Devanagari Pali
Series. Nalanda : Nava Nālapdā Mahāvihāra, 1958. Malvania, Dalsukh, "Though an Ethical System Jainism is a Religion" in Approaches to the Study of
Religion (seminar papers), edited by Harbans Singh, Patiala, Punjabi University, 1973. Manu-Smrti edited by Ramteja Pandeya, Kasi : Pandita Pustakalaya, 1947. McMullen, Clarence O. (ed.) The Nature of Guruship, Batala: The Christian Institute of Sikh Studies,
1976. Monier-Williams, Monier, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass 1964, (reprint) Mookerjee, Satkari, The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux. Calcutta : University of Calcutta
Press, 1935. Malācāra of Vattakera with the Commentary of Vasunandin, 2 vols. Bombay : Manikachandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Nos. 19 and 23, 1922, 1923. Mülasarvästivādavinayavastu, vol. I, edited by S. Bagchi. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts, No. 16, Darbh
anga : Mithila Institute, 1967. Mundaka Upaniş ad in Upanişatsangraha, Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass, 1970. Nānamoli, Bhikkhu (Tr.), The Path of Purification. Colombo : A. Semage, 1964. Niyamasära of Kundak unda. Edited and translated by Uggarsain, Sacred Books of the Jainas, vol.
IX. Lucknow, 1931. Pancadhyāyī of Rājamalla. Edited by Phulchandra Sastri, Varanasi : Ganesa Varņi Granthamala,
1950.
Pande, G.C., Studies in the Origins of Buddhism, Allahabad : University of Allahabad, 1957. Pande, G.C., Śramana Tradition : Its History and Contribution to Indian Culture, Ahmedabad : L,D.
Institute of Indology, 1978. Pannavaņāsuttam edited by Muni Punyavijayaji, D. Malvania and Amritlal M. Bhojak, 2 vols.
Bombay : Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, vol. I, 1969, vol. II. 1971. Paramātmaprakasa of Yogindudeva. Edited by A.N. Upadhye, Agas : Srimad Rājachandra Jaina
Šāstramala, vol. 3, 1973. Pramanamimamsa of Hemacandra. Edited and translated by Satkari Mookerjee and Nathmal Tatia.
Varanasi : Tara Publications, 1970. Prašamaratiprakarana of Umāsvāti with the Commentary of Haribhadrasūri Edited by Raja
kumarji Jain, Śri Rayacanddra Jaina Šāstramala-21. Bombay : Sri Paramas rutaprabhāvaka
Mandala, 1950. Prasannapada-Madhyamak avytti of Candrakīrti. Edited by P.L. Vaidya. Buddhist Sanskrit Texts,
No. 10. Darbhanga : Mithila Institute, 1960. Ratnakaran la Śrāvakācāra, edited and translated by Champat Rai Jain, Arrah, 1917. Ratnakirtinibandhävali edited by A.L. Thakur. Tibetan Sanskrit Works Series, Vol. III. Patna : KP.
Jayaswal Research Institute, 1957. Reality (Sarvärthasiddhi). English translation by S.A. Jain. Culcutta: Vira Śāsana Sangha, 1960. Rhys Davids, C.A.F., Psalms of the Early Buddhists, Part I: Psalms of the Sisters (Therīgātha)
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mala-17, 1974. Samyuttanikāya, vols. I-IV. General Editor : Bhikkhu Jagadish Kashyap. Nalanda Devanāgari Pali
Series. Nalanda : Nava Nalandā Mahāvihāra, 1959. Sarvārthasiddhi or Tattvärthasūtravrtti of Pūjyapāda. Edited by Phulachandra Sastri. Mürtidevi
Jaina Granthamala-13. Varanasi : Bhāratiya Jñānapitha, 1971. Sastri, Nemicandra, Mangalamantra Namokāra : Eka Anucintana, Varanasi: Bhāratiya Jñānapītha,
1960. Satapancaśatka of Mātộceta. Edited and translated by D. R. Shackleton Bailey. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1951. Şarkhandūg amah with Dhavalaţika, vol. I, part I. Edited by H.L. Jain and A.N. Upadhye. Shola
pur: Jaina Samskrti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1973. Schubring, Walther, The Doctrine of the Jainas. Translated by W. Beurlen, Delhi : Motilal Banarsi
dass, 1962. Sheth, Hargovind Das T., Paia-Sadda-Mahannavo, Varanasi : Prakrit Text Society, 1963 (second
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Thera, Soma, The Way of Mindfulness, Kandy : Buddhist Publication Society. 1967. Uttarādhyayanasūtram, edited by R.D. Vadekar and N.V. Vaidya, Poona, 1959. Vairāgyaşataka of Bhartshari in Subhas itatrisati. Edited by D.D. Kosambi and N.R. Acharya,
Bombay : Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1957. Varni, Jinendra Jainendra-Siddhantakośa, vols. 1-4. Varanasi : Bharatiya Jñānapitha, 1970, 1971,
1972, 1973. Visuddhimagsa of Buddhaghosa with the Paramatthamañjūsātikā of Dhammapāla, vols. I-III.
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Cambridge : Harvard University Press, 1950. Vivekacūļamani of Sankara. Gorakhpur : Gita Press, 2017 vs. Williams, R. Jaina Yoga, London Oriental Series, vol 14. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. Winternitz, Maurice, History of Indian Literature, vol. II, New Delhi : Oriental Reprint Corpora
tion, 1972. Yaśastilaka of Somadevasüri, 2 vols. Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1901, 1903. Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra. Edited by Muni Samadarsi, Delhi : Sri Rishabhcandra Jauhari and
Krishanlal Jain, 1963. Yogaśataka of Haribhadrasūri. Edited by Muni Punyavijayaji. L.D. Series, No. 4. Ahmedabad : L.D.
Institute of Indology, 1965. Yogasutra of Patañjali with the Commentary of Vyása. Edited by Brahmalina Muni. Varanasi:
Chaukhambha Sanskrit Series Office, 1970.

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INDEX OF PROPER NAMES
PERSONS
Abhayadeva, Ācārya, 48, Agehananda Bharati, 50 Ajātaśatru, philosopher-king, 66 Akalanka, Ācārya, 5, 6, 31, 62 Alavi-Gautama, saint, 41 Amritlal M. Bhojak, 43, 47 A.N. Upadhye, 2, 3, 8, 21 Aparajitasari, Acārya, 30, 62 Arhat Mahāvīra, 55 Āśādhara, Acārya, 56 Asanga, Ācārya, 47 Aśvapati-Kaikeya, philosopher-king, 66 Atmaramaji, Acārya, 2 Aryadeva, Ācārya, 36 Balbhadra Jain, 44 Bhagavān Mahāvīra, 39 Bhadrāudha, saint, 41 Bhartphari, poet, 18 Bhikkhu Pāsādika, 33, 68 Bhikkhu Nāņamoli, 12, 57 Bhikshu Sangharakshita, 51 Blessed One, Buddha, 35, 57 Buddha, 9, 12, 18, 20, 21, 25, 57, 58 Buddhaghosa, Acārya, 12, 57 Caitanya, saint, 69 C.A.F. Rhys Davids, 33 Clarence O, McMullen, 69 Dalsukh Malvania, 40, 43, 47 D.C. Sircar, 45 Dhammapala, Acārya, 12 Dharmananda Kosambi, 12 Dombipāda, Siddha, 61 D.R. Shackleton Bailey, 33 Edward Conze, 17, 51
Emile Durkheim, 38 Franklin Edgerton, 7, 65 F.R. Hamm, 44 F.W. Thomas, 55 F. Weller, 56 Ghasilalji, Ācārya, 55 Gautamiputra Śātavāhana, king, 33 G.C. Pande, 1 Georg Bühler, 35 Goraksa, Siddha, 61 Goraksanātha, Siddha, 69 G. Roerich, 61 Guru Nānak, 61 Gustav Roth, 43, 44, 45, 50, 57 Gțdhra piccha, Acārya, 3 Haribhadra, Acārya (Buddhist), 14, 27, 47, 62 Haribhadrasūri, Acārya, 14, 27, 47, 62 Har Dayal, 11 Hargovind Das T. Sheth, 7 H.C. Warren, 12 Hemacandra, Ācārya, 3, 8, 14, 24, 55 Hermann Jacobi, 5, 6, 8, 15 Hiralal Jain, 45, 47, 48, 56, 63 H.V. Glasenapp, 44 I.B. Horner. 67 Indrabha'i, Siddha, 61 I-tsing, pilgrim-scholar, 67 Jan Gonda, 66 Janaka-Videha, philosopher-king, 66 Jinabhadra, Acārya, 48 Jipendra Varņi, monk-scholar, 2 Jinendra, Mahāvīra, 53 J. Takakusu, 67 J.L. Jaini, 41 Jozef Deleu, 44

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53
Kabīradāsa, saint, 69 Kalyāṇarakṣita, 31 Kalyani Malik, 69 Kamalaśīla, Ācārya. 17 K C. Lalwani, 43, 46 Khāravela, king, 44, 45 Kapilamuni, śramaņa-philosopher, 61 K.K. Handiqui, 2, 15 Krşņa, avatāra of Vişņu, 69 Krşņapāda, Siddha, 61 K.R. Norman, 50, 60, 64 Kundakunda, Ācārya, 3. 8, 53 Lakşamīnkarādevi, Siddha, 61 Lama Anagarika Govinda, 50 Lozang Jamspal, 33 Mahāvíra Jina, 53 Malayagiri, Ācārya, 48 Malliseņasūri, Acārya, 55 Māțrceta, Acārya, 33 Maurice Winternity, 6 Mircea Eliade, 65 Mohanlal B. Jhavery, 50 Monier Monier-Williams, 7 Matsyendra, Siddha, 61 Muni Kanaiyalalji, 47 Muni Nathamalji, 46 Muni Punyavijayaji, 43, 47 Nāgārjuna, Acārya, 36, 61 Nagin J. Shah, 48 Narada Thera, 42 Nathmal Tatia, 55 Ngawang S. Chophel, 33 Nemicandra, Acārya, 55 Nemichandra Shastri, 50 Padmanabh S. Jaini, 43 P.D. Bharathwał, 69 Peter Della Santina, 33 Piógiya, saint, 41 Prabhat Mukerjee, 69 Pravāhana-Jaivali, 66
Pajyapada, Acārya, 4, 5, 17, 31, 41, 55 Puşpadanta, Ācārya, 45,48 Rājamalla, Acārya, 61,63 Rajakrishna Jain, 44 Rewatadhamma, monk-scholar, 12 R.K. Mookerji, 67 Ķşabhadeva, Jina, 55 R. Williams, 39, 49, 58 S.A. Jain 17, 26, 40, 41 Śabara, Siddha, 61 Śäkyamuni Buddha, 54, 56 Sankara, Ācārya, 32 śāntarakṣita, Acārya, 17 śāntideva, Acārya, 21, 23, 25, 33 Sarahapäda, Siddha, 61 Satkari Mookerjee, 17, 55 Shyam Sundar Das, 69 Sinclair Stevenson, 53 Śivārya, Ācārya, 3, 26 Somadeva, Ācārya, 18, 22, 24 Soma Thera, 11 Sramana Bhagavān Mahāvira, 59 Srinivasa Iyangar, 69 Sruta sāgarasüri, Acarya, 69 Subhacandra, Ācārya, 3, 6, 8, 17, 26, 27 Sukumar Dutt, 67 Svāmī Kārttikeya, Ācārya, 6, 14, 15 Teun Goudriaan, 50 Th. Stcherbatsky, 17 Tirthankara Mahāvīra, 59 Tulasiji, Acārya, 46 Tulasidāsa, saint-poet, 69 T.W. Rhys Davids, 7, 8 Umāsvāmi, Acārya, 3 Umāsvāti, Ācārya, 3, 6, 8 Vaiśālī, 68 Vakkalin, saint, 41 Vattakera, Ocārya, 3,8 Vardhamāna Tirthankara, 54, 55, 66 V. G. Apte, 67

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INDEX OF PROPER NAMES
Vimalakirti, Bodhisattva, 68 Virasena, Acārya, 48, 59 Vrajanath Jha, 69 Walther Schubring, 2, 3, 6, 44, 45, 59 W. Beurlen, 2 W.H. McLeod, 69 William Stede, 7, 8, Wilfred Cartwell Smith, 38, 39, 40
BOOKS
Abhisamayālańkāra-Alokavyākhyā, 57 Acārāngasätra, 41, 58, 59, 61 Anguttaranikāya, 8, 12, 21 Apastamba-Dharmasutra, 61 Arthaviniscayasūtra, 31 Astasahasrikā-Prajñāpāramitāsūtra, 47 Avasya kasatra, 46, 47, 48, 55, 61, 62 Ayāro, 8, 24 Baudhāyana-Dharmasūtra, 67 Bhadrakalpikasutra, 56 Bhagvadgitā, 27, 61 Bhagavati Ārādhanā, 3, 16, 19, 26, 30, 32,
34, 53, 60, 62, 65 Bhagavatīsūtra, 45, 46, 47, 48 Bhagavati-vivāhapaņņatti, 45, 46, 47 Bhakti-Gucchaka, 44 Bhāvanāsandhiprakaraņa, 9 Bhavanopanisad, 9 Bodhicaryāvatāra, 21, 23, 25, 31, 33 Bodhisattvabhūmi, 9 BỊddravyasangraha-tīkā, 53, 55 Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dharmapada, 17 Catuḥśataka, 37 Caturasītisiddhapravștti, 61 Causaraña-Paiņņaya 60, 63 Dasadharmasutra, 42 Daśavaikälikasutra, 35 Dhammapada, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27,30,
37, 42, 56, 67, 68, Dharmasamuccaya, 16, 18, 19, 21,23
Dhavalātikā, 44, 53, 60, 61, 62. 64, Dighanikaya, 10, 11, 12, 18, 25, 36, Divyāvadāna, 10 Durgāsahasranāmastotra, 56 Dvādaśabhāvanā, 8 Gaņdavyuhasūtra, 33 Gāndhārī Dharmapada, 17 Gautama-Dharmasūtra, 69 Gommațasāra-Jivakända, 53, 59, Gorakha-Bāņi, 69 Gurugrant hasähib, 67 Guru-mahātmya, 69 Hathayoga-pradīpikā, 65 Isvara bhangakārikā, 31 Isvarapariksā,31 Jainadharmāmsta, 63 Jainendra Siddhāntakośa, 2, 65 Jambuddivapaņņattī, 47 Jinasahasranāma, 56 Jõānārņava, 3, 4, 8, 14, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24,
26, 27, 28" 31, 34, Jñānaśrīmitranibandhāvali, 17 Kabiragranthāvali, 69 Kalpasutra, 43, 59 Katha Upanisad, 27, 66 Lalitavistara, 12 Mahānisīhasutta, 3, 4, 45, Mahāparinibbānasutta, 18 Mahāvagga, 16, 36, 67 Majjhimanikāya, 9, 11, 33, 35, Manjusrijñānasattvasya-paramartha
nāmasangīti, 56 Manusmști, 35, 67 Maranasamāhi, 3, 4, 14 Mulācāra, 3, 8, 54 Mulasarvāstivādavinayavastu, 7 Mundaka Upanişad, 66, 67 Munitosaņīļīkä, 55, 61, 62 Nának acandrodaya-mahäkāvyam, 69 Niyamasāra, 59, 62, 64
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Suttanipata, 10, 23, 41 Pañcadhyay, 61, 63, 64
Panhavägaranam, 47
Pappavanasuttam, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 53
Paramätmaprakása, 53, 59
Paramatthamañjūsāṇīkā, 12, 57
Prajñāpanasutra, 48
Prakirņaka-dasakam, 3
Pramanamimāmsā, 55
FACETS OF JAINA RELIGIOUSNESS
Prasamaratiprakarna, 3, 4, 7, 8, 14, 16, 19, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 32, 34, 56, 60 62.65
Prasannapada-Madhyamakavetti, 36 Pratyekabuddha-Karakandu, 44
Rāmacaritamānasa, 69 Ratnakaranda-Srāvakācāra, 35 Ratnakirtinibandhävall, 17
Ratnakutasutra, 37
Saddharmalankavatärasutra, 56 Saddharamapundarikasütra, 47 Sakrastava, 58
Samayasära, 53
Samyuttanikāya, 23, 36, 57
Sarvärthasiddhi, 5, 6, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 32
Sat Prabhṛtādisangraha, 3 Siddha-Siddhanta-Paddhati, 69
Siksasamuccaya, 27, 33, 37, 42 Sivasahasranamastotra, 56
3thänängasütra, 6 Suriyapanṇatti, 47 Satrakṛtänga, 25 Satrasamuscaya, 33

Päia-Sadda-Mahannavo, 7 Sattavibhanga, 67
Suyagado, 15, 26 Svayambhu-Stotra, 65 Svetasvatara Upanisad, 27, 66
Syädvädamañjarl, 55
Tattvärthasutra, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, 14, 28, 29,
31, 34, 41, 55, 59, 61, 62 Tattvärtha värttika, 6, 28, 31, 62 Tattvasangraha, 17, 31 Taittiriya Upanisad, 67
Tattvärthasutra-Jainagamasamanvaya, 2
Thānam, 6
Therīgāthā, 33
Uttaradhyayanasutra, 5, 16, 17, 22, 23, 41
Vairagyaśataka, 18
Vajracchedikā-Prajñāpāramitästtra, 47
Vasistha-Dharmasutra. 67
Vasudevahindi, 44
Vijayodayatka, 65
35, 55, 59, 61
Śatapañcāśatka, 33
Satkhaṇḍāgamaḥ, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 53, 60, 61 Yaśastilaka, 2, 18, 22, 24, 26, 29, 31, 32
Yatidharmasangraha, 67
Yogasära-Prabhṛta, 53
Vimalakirtinirdeśasutra, 68 Vimuttayatanasutta, 8. Vimuttimagga, 10
Vispusahasranamastotra, 56 Visuddhimagga, 10, 12, 57 Vivekacudamani, 18, 32
Yogasära, 53
Yogaśastra, 3, 4, 14, 16, 19, 22, 24, 27, 28,
29, 34 Yogaśataka, 55 Yogasutra, 9, 18, 25

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