Brief Survey of Jaina Prakrit and Sanskrit Literature Part 4

Author(s): Nalini Joshi
Publisher: Sanmati Tirth Prakashan Pune
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007633/1

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Jaina-Literature : 16th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM JS. JM. Swami Karttikeya Karttikeya nupreksa Dharmasagara (Upadhyaya) Iryapathiki-sattrimsika Pravacana-pariksa Paryusana-dasa-sataka 1 Utsutra-khandana Gajasara Dandaka-prakarana Indrahamsa-gani Bhuvana-bhanu-kevali-cariya Jayasoma-gani Pausadha-prakarana Jinamanikya Kumma-putta-cariya Kanakakusala-gani Dipalika-kalpa Padmasundara (Upadhyaya) Jambu-cariya Vijayavimala-gani Bandhodaya-satta-prakarana Bhava-prakarana (with self-comm.) Yasahkirti Jagatsundari-prayoga-mala (BORI, MS.) darzana (Philosophy) Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Logic (Nyaya) Religious Conduct Ritualistics Cosmology (Karananuyoga) Biography (Carita) Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Biography (Carita) Ritualistics Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) Philosophy (Karma) Ayurveda + Ritualistics Skt. Ajitadeva-suri Brahmanemidatta Candrakirti Candrakirti-suri Carucandra Dharmasagara Harsakula-gani sika on Ayara (Dipika) Sripala-carita Katha-kosa Nemi-nirvana-kavya (Nemi-purana) Parsva-purana Tika on Sarasvata-vyakarana (Subodhika) Uttama-kumara-carita Tika on Pajjosana-kappa (Kiranavali) sika on Suyagada (Dipika) Kavi-kalpa-druma Bandha-hetudaya-tribhangi Vimalamantri-carita Bali-narendra-kathanaka Karma-vamsotkiratna-kavya Kharatara-gaccha-bphat-gurvavali Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Collection of Narratives Mythology (Purana) Mythology (Purana) Grammar (Comm.) Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Grammar Philosophy (Karma) Biography (Carita) Narratives Biography (Carita) Legendary History Indrahamsa-gani Jayasoma (Upadhyaya) Jinapala (Upadhyaya) Kamalasamyama (Upadhyaya) Kanakakusala-gani Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Tika of Uttarajjhayana Avacuri on Bandha-svamitva Karma-stava-vivarana Tika on Bhaktamara Tika on Caturvimsati-stotra Tika on Kalyanamandira Tika on Sakalarhat-stotra Rohini-vrata-katha (Rohinyasokacandra-nspa-katha) Surapriya-muni-kathanaka Sukla-pancami-katha Dana-prakasa Tika on Pajjosana-kappa Tika on Uttarajjhayana Ustaralava-yantra (with self-comm.) Guru-tattva-pradipa (Utsutra-kanda-kuddala) Aradhana-katha-kosa Laksmivallabha-gani Narratives Narratives Narratives Religious Conduct Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Astronomy Religious Conduct Collection of Narratives Megharatna (Muni) Nayaprabha-gani Nemidatta

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Jaina-Literature : 16th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM Skt. Padmasagara-gani Padmasundara-gani Uttaradhyayana-katha-sangraha Jagadguru-kavya Sthulabhadra-carita Yasodhara-carita Tika on Tilakamanjari Tika on Pramana-prakasa Dharma-parikna Parsvanatha-carita Rayamallabhyudaya Akabara-sahi-srngara-darpana Mallinatha-carita (MS.) Tika on Panca-sangraha Campaka-sresthi-katha Tika on Adhyatma-kalpa-druma (Adhyatma-kalpa-lata) Samba-pradyumna-carita Jambu-svami-carita Collection of Narratives Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Narratives (Comm.) Logic (Nyaya) (Comm.) Secular (Satirical) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Poetics Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Narratives Philosophy (Spiritual) (Comm.) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Prabhacandra Pritivimala Ratna-suri Ravisagara-gani Rayamalla (Racamalla) (Pandita) Rddhicandra (Pandita) santisagara-gani Sribhusana Sripalasuta-daddha Subhacandra Prthvidhara-carita Lati-samhita Pancadhyayi Adhyatma-kamala-martanda Mrganka-carita Tika on Pajjosana-kappa (Kalpa-kaumudi) Santinatha-carita Panca-sangraha Tika on Kartikeyanupreksa Cintamani-vyakarana (with self-comm.) Candana-carita Candraprabha-carita Jivandhara-carita Karakandu-carita Padmanabha-carita Srenika-carita Pandava-purana Samyaktva-kaumudi Samsaya-vadana-vidarana Nandisvara-katha (MS.) Siddhacakra-katha (MS.) Asta-laksi Dharma-pariksa Samyaktva-kaumudi sika on Gacchayara sika on Bandha-hetudaya-tribhangi Tika on Gacchayara Tika on Tandula-veyaliya Satrunjayoddhara Mayana-parajaya-cariu Biography (Carita) Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Philosophy Philosophy (Spiritual) Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Canonical Comm. (Dig.) Grammar Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Mythology (Purana) Narratives Logic (Nyaya) Narratives Narratives Poetry (Anekarthika) Narratives Narratives Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Legendary History Biography (Carita) Samayasundara Saubhagyasagara Somadeva-suri Vanararsi-gami Vijayavimala-gani Vivekadhira-gani Harideva Apa.

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Jaina-Literature : 16th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM Apa. Jinaprabha-suri Mahacanda (Muni) Mahicandra Narasena Moharaja-vijaya Doha-pahuda Santinaha-cariu Nayakumara-cariu Sirivala-cariu Vaddhamana-kaha Pasa-cariu Nijjhara-pancami-kaha Allegoric (Religious Poetry) Doha Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Narratives Padmakirti Vinayacandra

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Observations on 16th century - Jaina-Literature * JS works are totally absent in 16th century. * JM. works are very few. They are dedicated to various subjects but they lack in originality and noteworthiness. * Apa. literature of this century is mostly biographical. * Jaina poets started their poetical compositions in 'Doha' metre around 10th century A.D. The language of Pahudadoha and Savayadhammadoha is designated as late Apabhramsa. The famous Saint Kabir composed dohas around 15th century. In the same metre Jaina author Mahacanda presented his Dohapahuda in 16th century. * Sanskrit works of Svetambaras and Digambaras are ample and variety of subjects is remarkable. * Declining tendency of Prakrit works is very natural because Jaina authors had already started their writings in modern Indian regional dialects. Jaina literature of this century is found in Gujrati, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. These dialects acquired their independent identity. Jaina and non-Jaina streams of literature started flowing forcefully in regional languages. * Kanakakusalagani, Padmasagaragani (both Sve.) and Subhacandra (Dig.) are important among the Skt. authors. * Secular classical Sanskrit works and works based on poetics, metrics are very few in this century. Unlike the previous centuries, the Jaina authors preferred writing on the subjects which are concerned to Jainism. * Karma-literature of this century is noteworthy. Vijayavimalagani wrote his Karma-work in Jaina Maharastri. His other works are in Sanskrit. Prabhacandra and Sripalasuta wrote commentaries on Pancasamgraha. * The popularity of Carita form took a different mode in this century. Jaina authors chose unique personalities other than 63 Salakapurusas as the central characters of their biographies. The personalities of Kurmaputra, Sripala, Uttamakumara, Vimalamantri, Rayamalla, Campakasresti, Sthulabhadra, Jambusvami, Sambapradyumna, Sati Candana, Jivandhara etc. found place as central characters. The popularity of Yasodhara was retained in this century by Padmasagaragani. * Narrative literature of this century contains two works having the same title 'Samyaktvakaumudi'. Various collections of narratives were written with anything special about them.

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* It seems that the custom of reading out Pajjosanakappa on the occasion of Paryusana had started from this century because three commentaries on Pajjosanakppa are written by Dharmasagara, Laksmivallabha and santisagara in this century. Vanararsi and Vijayavimala wrote commentaries on two Prakirnakas viz. Gacchayara and Tandulaveyaliya. The study of Uttaradhyayana is continued in this century. Laksmivallabha wrote new commentary on Uttaradhyayana. Padmasagaragani presented the collection of narratives pertaining to Uttaradhyayana in Sanskrit. Ajitadevasuri wrote commentary called 'Dipika' on Acaranga. Harsakulagani wrote Dipika on Suyagada. In Digambara tradition Subhacandra wrote Skt. commentary on Karttikeyanupreksa. * Recitation of Bhaktamara and Kalyanamandira became a part daily religious conduct of Jainas', therefore Kanakakusalagani might have felt it necessary to write commentaries on both of these Stotras. * Vratakathas were written by both Svetambara and Digambara authors in this century. This facts suggests that Sravakacara is being observed by keeping the vows and performing various rites and rituals like their contemporary Hindu householders. * Though 'Jagatsundariprayogamala' is a work dedicated to Ayurveda, in the second part of the work, various rites and rituals concerned to mystical yantras are given. * Spiritual philosophies were written by Digambara authors like Ratnasuri and Pandit Rayamalla. * Right from the 11th century onwards, Kharatara Gaccha was active in literary fields. So Jinapala Upadhyaya might have felt it necessary to write the historical accounts of Kharatara Gaccha. * The contribution of this century to Nyaya is very meagre. * In their satirical works 'Dharmapariksa, Padmasagara and Saubhagyasagara repeated the same subject and title in this century. * In short, we can conclude that Svetambara Ganis and Upadhyayas are very active in this century and wrote new canonical commentaries. Among Digambara authors, Subhacandra and Pandit Rayamalla are prominent. Various new rites and rituals found place in Jaina householders' conduct. *************************************************************************************************************

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Jaina-Literature : 17th Century WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM JM. Samayasundara-gani Vinayavijaya Jain Literature: 17th Century Gaha-sahassi Paripati-caturdasakam Anthology Religious Conduct Skt. Didactics (Comm.) Narratives (Secular) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Logic (Nyaya) Narratives Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Epic Lexicon (Comm.) Didactics (Comm.) Biography (Carita) Anthology Anthology Anthology Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Collection of Narratives Eulogy (Stotra) Poetry (Anekarthika) Poetry (Anekarthika) Bhanucandra-gani Vrtti on Vivega-vilasa Tika on Kadambari Bhavavijaya-gani Tika on Uttarajjhayana Sattrimsat-jalpa-vicara Campaka-mala-katha Buddhivijaya Citrasena-padmavati-carita Devavijaya-gani Pandava-carita Devavimala-gani Hira-saubhagya-mahakavya Devasagara (Muni) Tika on Abhidhana-cintamani (Vyutpatti-ratnakara) Gunakirti-suri Tika on Sindura-prakara Gunavijaya-gani Neminatha-carita Hemavijaya-gani Anyokti-mukta-mahodadhi Kirti-kallolini Sukti-ratnavali Parsvanatha-caritra Vijaya-prasasti-kavya Katha-ratnakara Vijaya-stuti Jagannatha (Pandita) Caturvimsati-sandhana Sapta-sandhana Jayaratna-gani (Uddyotasagara) Jvara-parajaya Jayavijaya Kamaghata-katha Dharma-pariksa Jnanasagara-gani-sisya Dhanya-carita Ksamakalyana Yasodhara-carita Mativardhana Vrtti on Goyama-puccha Manavijaya Papabuddhi-dharma-buddhi-katha Meghavijaya-gani Hasta-sanjivana (with self-comm.) Prasna-sundari Ramala-sastra Udaya-dipika Varsa-prabodha (Megha-mahodaya) Laghu-trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra Yukti-prabodha (with self-comm.) Pancakhyanoddhara Devanandabhyudaya (Samasya-purti of Sisupala-vadha) Digvijaya-mahakavya Kirata-samasya-parti (Samasya-purti of Kiratarjuniya) Santinatha-caritra (Samasya-purti of Naisadhiya) Ayurveda Allegoric Secular (Satirical) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Comm.) Narratives Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Biography (Carita) Drama Ethics Epic Epic Epic Epic Epic

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Jaina-Literature : 17th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM Skt. Meghavijaya-gani Padmanabha Ratnacandra (Bhattaraka) Ratnacandra-gani Rupacandra-gani Subhavijaya Sakalacandra-gani Sanghavijaya-gani Sahajakirti-gani Saptasandhana-mahakavya Epic (Anekarthika) Panca-tirthi-stuti Eulogy (Stotra) (Anekarthika) Sivapuri-sankhesvara-parsvanatha-stotra Eulogy (Stotra) Tika on Bhaktamara-stotra Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Paniniya-dvyasraya-vijnapti-lekha Grammar Hema-kaumudi Grammar (Comm.) Hema-sabda-candrika Grammar (Comm.) Parsvanatha-nama-mala Lexicon Vitta-mauktika Metrics Bhavisyadatta-katha Narratives Mani-pariksa Logic (Nyaya) Arhadgita Philosophy (Spiritual) Bramha-bodha Philosophy (Spiritual) Matnka-prasada Philosophy (Spiritual) Meghaduta-samasya-lekha Poetry Dharma-manjusa Religious Conduct Visa-yantra-vidhi Ritualistics Citra-kosa Poetry Yasodhara-carita Biography (Carita) Subhauma-carita Biography (Carita) Pradyumna-carita (Pradyumna-mahakavya) Epic Gautamiya-kavya Biography (Carita) Syadvada-mala Nyaya (Comm.) Pratistha-kalpa Ritualistics Tika on Pajjosana-kappa Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Sabdarnava-vyakarana (Manorama) (with self-comm.) Grammar (Comm.) Tika on Dasaveyaliya (Dipika) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Tika on Pajjosana-kappa (Kalpa-lata) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Bhanucandra-gani-carita Biography (Carita) Tika on Vasavadatta Drama (Comm.) Tika on Sobhana-stuti Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Tika on Kadambari-uttarardha Narratives (Comm.) Tika on Kavya-prakasa (Kavya-prakasa-khandana) Poetics (Comm.) Tika on Tajika-sara Astronomy (Comm.) Tika on Abhidhana-cintamani Lexicon (Comm.) (Saroddhara) Tika on Nighantu-sesa Lexicon (Comm.) Tika on Siloncha-kosa Lexicon (Comm.) Tika on Vasanta-raja-sakuna Astronomy (Comm.) Candraduta (Samasya-purti of Meghaduta) Poetry (Anekarthika) Naya-kanika Logic (Nyaya) Haima-laghu-prakiya (with self-comm.) (Haima-prakasal Grammar Induduta Poetry Sulocana-caritra Biography (Carita) Samayasundar-gani Siddhicandra-gani Sumatiharsa (Muni) Vallabha-gani Vasantaraja Vimalakirti Vinayavijaya Vadicandra (Bhattaraka)

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Jaina-Literature : 17th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM Skt. Vadicandra (Bhattaraka) Yasodhara-carita Jnana-suryodaya Pandava-purana Parsva-purana Ambika-katha Pavana-duta (Samasya-purti of Meghaduta) Holika-caritra Biography (Carita) Drama Mythology (Purana) Mythology (Purana) Narratives Poetry Narratives pa. Bhagavatidasa Sasi-leha Biography (Carita)

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Observations on 17th century - Jaina-Literature * In 17th century, JS. works are absent. JM. and Apa. works are very scanty. Almost all works are written in Skt. * Tapagaccha is very active in this century in the literary field. Akabar, the Mughal Emperor was influenced by Hiravijayasuri of Tapagaccha. Disciples of Hiravijaya viz. Vinayavijaya, Buddhivijaya, Meghavijaya and Hemavijaya contributed a lot in literary activities. Devavijayagani and Hemavijayagani wrote biographies of their Guru, Hiravijaya. * Meghavijayagani wrote on various subjects and handled various forms of literature. Meghavijaya composed Samasyapartikavyas on famous classical Sanskrit epics. Most of them were presented in Jainized form. His works on grammar were based on Hemcandra's grammar. He presented a short version of Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacarita. Among his ample works dedicated to astrology, two works viz. Varsaprabodha and Hastasanjivana are publised and other works are not published. His Bhavisyadatakatha is proper Sankritization of Dhanapala's Apabhraisa Bhavisayattakaha. * Kalidasa's Meghaduta was so popular in this century among Jaina poets that Meghavijayagani, Vimalakirti, Vinayavijaya and Vadicandra Bhattaraka wrote Samasyapurtis on Meghaduta. * Sanskrit Caritas are ample and Ksamakalyana, Padmanatha and Vadicandra Bhattaraka wrote Yasodharacaritas, continuing the tradition. * The tradition of satirical work titled Dharmaparikna is continued in this century by Jayavijaya. * Canonical commentaries on Uttaradhyayana, Pajjosanakappa and Dasavaikalika are written in this century. * Bhanucandragani's commentary on Banabhatta's Kadambari is mentioned with honour in the history of Skt. literature. * Jaina author Pt. Jagannatha presented his Anekarthikakavyas (poetry with multiple meanings) exhibiting his intellectual gymnastics. * Lexical work of this century is mostly commentarial in nature. * In short, though the Skt. works are huge in number, they lack in originality and creativity. Commentarial and imitative literature is ample in this century. ************************************************************************

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Jaina-Literature : 18th Century LG WRITER WORK SUBJECT / FORM JM. Jinavijaya Yasovijaya Jain Literature 18th Century Jambu-svami-carita Biography (Carita) Guru-tatta-vinicchaya (with self-comm.) Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Jailakkhana-samuccaya Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Visadikarana-prakarana Poetical Composition (Prakarana) Dhamma-parikkha Secular (Satirical) Skt. Ajitasena Jinavijaya Jnanavimala-suri Mohanavijaya Narendrasena Sadananda (Muni) Vijayalaksmi Vimaladasa Yosovijaya Alankara-cintamani Pancakhyana-varttika Sripala-carita Tika on Panhavagarana Manatunga-manavati-carita Pramana-prameya-kalika Tika on Siddhanta-candrika Upadesa-prasada Sapta-bhangi-tarangini Phalaphala-visayaka-prasna-patra Vijayollasa-mahakavya Dharma-samgraha Dva-trimsika Vitaraga-stotra Tinanvayokti Jnana-bindu Nyaya-khanda-khadya Nyayaloka Anekanta-pravesa Anekanta-vyavastha Jaina-tarka-bhasa Jnana-sara-prakarana Naya-pradipa Naya-rahasya Nayopadesa Sapta-bhangi-naya-pradipa Vada-mala Tika on Asta-sahasri Tika on Sastra-vartta-samuccaya Marga-visuddhi Tika on Kamma-payadi (S.) Adhyatma-sara Adhyatmopanisat Bhasa-rahasya-prakarana Poetics Narratives Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Logic (Navya Nyaya) Grammar (Comm.) Didactics Logic (Navya Nyaya) Astronomy Epic Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Eulogy (Stotra) Eulogy (Stotra) Grammar Logic (Navya Nyaya) Logic (Navya Nyaya) Logic (Navya Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) Logic (Nyaya) (Comm.) Logic (Nyaya) (Comm.) Philosophy Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Philosophy (Spiritual) Philosophy (Spiritual) Poetical Compositiom (Prakarana) Yoga Yoga (Comm.) Yoga (Comm.) Vairagya-kalpa-lata Tika on Sodasaka-prakarana Tika on Visavisio

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Observations on 18th century - Jaina-Literature * In 18th century, JM. works are very few and they are written by Yasovijaya and Jinavijaya, both belonging to Tapagaccha. * Sanskrit works are ample and are mostly written by Yasovijaya pertaining to logic. In fact, Yasovijaya of 18th century was the last great Jaina logician. He studied Navya Nyaya and gave a new style to Jaina logic. His main works are on Naya and Anekantavada. His Jainatarkabhasa is very popular and Jnanabindu is honoured in academic field of Nyaya. Yasovijaya's originality of thought and style of presentation is so unique that he has attained unparallel position in the field of Navya Nyaya in the scenario of whole Indian logic. After him, the growth and progress of Jaina logic is almost stopped. Besides Nyaya, his works on philosophy, Yoga and Karma are also important. * In 18th century, Jinavijaya composed various Rasas. The language of Rasas is noted down as Apabhramsa, but more precisely, we should call it old Gujrati. The only region where Apa. works were written without break is Gujrat and Rajsthian i.e. Western India. It is almost impossible to separate the Apa. works from those written in early Gujrati and Western Rajsthani. Rasa and Phaga really belong to the earliest New Indo Aryan languages. The old Gujrati is seen in various Balavabodhas, Tabbas and Avacuris from 17th18th century onwards. * The oldest Jaina literature written in modern Indian regional languages is seen in Kannad from 10th century onwards. History of Jaina Marathi literature starts from 15th century. Almost the same position is found about other modern languages. * In this brief survey of Jaina Prakrit and Sanskrit literature, various Prakrits, Sanskrit and Apabhrmsa languages are covered. The streams and currents of modern Indian languages are flowing parallel to this literature from 10th century onwards. This literature is not covered in this brief survey. The independent histories on this literature are written by different scholars of Jainology in last few decades. Curious readers can go through these books for detailed information. Yasovijaya's gigantic contribution to Jaina Sanskrit literature is the last phase of this brief sketch of Jaina literature. **************** ***** ******************* ***************************************************************************** *********

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Comprehensive Concluding Remarks on Jaina-Literature 1. Language-adaption of Jainas: (i) Variety of languages: Jainas have traditionally been viewed and represented in scholarship, both Western and Indian as conservative, unchanging, strict and renunciative in attitude. This traditional view is not totally wrong but it contains only partial truth If we cast a glance at this brief survey of Jaina literature, we find that Jaina authors are very much flexible and adaptable in language acquisition, whether orally or in written form. The intrinsic model of Anekantavada (i.e. theory of non-absolution) and fourfold Niksepas (i.e. Dravya-Ksetra-Kala-Bhava) can be easily applied to the literary activity of Jainas. Jaina authors are always careful in manifesting their thoughts in contemporary languages. They chose suitable language according to the subject, time, place and form of literature. The variety of languages used by them is stunning. No other religion of Indian origin had carried out its literary activities in various Prakrit dialects than Jainas. Literary expressions of Brahmanical tradition are mostly seen in Sanskrit. Though Lord Buddha preached in Pali, his followers chose Sanskrit for their literary expressions only two or three centuries after Buddhanirvana. Jainas expressed themselves chronologically in Ardhamagadhi, Jaina Sauraseni, Jaina Maharastri, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa and in all the modern Indian regional languages from 10th century A.D. onwards up till now. (ii) Variations in Each Language: (a) Ardhamagadhi : Strictly speaking Ardhamagadhi is the language of the sacred books of Jainas, the so-called Ardhamagadhi canon. The 45 books consist different forms and varied contents. These canons acquired written form after 1000 years from Lord Mahavira's nirvana. The oldest form of Ardhamagadhi is seen intact in the texts in Acaranga (I), Rsibhasita etc. The second stage of Ardhamagadhi is seen preserved in old Upangas and Dasavaikalika etc. Antagada, Vipaka, Nayadhammakaha, Nandi and Anuyogadvara represent third stage. The true serial order of 45 canons is challenging job for a scholar of linguistics. (b) Jaina Sauraseni: The name Jaina Sauraseni is given to the Prakrit dialect which is seen in the works of the Digambara writers, most of whom came from the south. Digambaras produced JS. literature in two phases. In the first phase the treatises from 2nd century A.D. up to 8th century A.D. are covered. The second phase is seen in the 11th and 12th century. The language found in all these books is fairly uniform but differs considerably from the Jaina Maharastri of the writers of the north. The oldest JS works are found in prose form, but the JS works of Kundakunda and onwards are written in poetry form. The debate about the antiquity of Sauraseni and Ardhamagadhi is going on among the scholars of Jainism nearly over a century. The literature found in JS. is mostly philosophical, ethical and spiritual. It is a fact that Jainas never used Sauraseni in its classical literary form. (c) Jaina Maharastri : From among the MIA dialects, the Svetambaras have used Jaina Maharastri to compose their post-canonical literature. According to Dr. A.M.Ghatage, "Slowly AMg. has come under the influence of Maharastri so as to develop into what is called Jaina

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Maharastri." In no other Prakrit language than JM., such a huge literature is produced in India for such a long period from 4th century A.D. up to 18th century A.D. Maharastri was understandable in the bigger middle region of India during this period. The earlier Sve. Jaina Acaryas like Bhadrabahu (II), Kalakacarya, Padalipta etc. were closely associated with Maharastra and specially Pratisthana. Nearly from 3rd century B.C. up to 2nd century A.D. Andhrabhstya Satavahanas ruled over Maharastra who were pro-Prakrit and liberal in religions matter. Three stages of JM. are evidently seen as follows: * 1st stage: (3rd to 6th century A.D.) Archaic form of JM. is seen in various Niryuktis, Bhanyas, Curnis and Narrative works like Paumacariya and Vasudevahindi. * 2nd stage: (7th to 10th century A.D.) In its classical form, JM. is seen in works of Haribhadra, Uddyotana, Silanka and Dhanapala. It shows influence of Sanskrit but still maintaining tendencies of colloquial languages in variety of forms and the use of Desi words. * 3rd stage: (11th to 18th century A.D.) The late form of JM. is best seen in the stories of Sukhabodha and anthology called Vajjalagga. Here we see a strong influence of Apabhraiia dialects in phonology and grammar. Apabhramsa influence originates from the spoken languages of the authors. In Jaina Maharastri literature, on logic and works on scientific and technical subjects are comparatively much less than in Sanskrit, but the role played by JM. in producing rich cultural, social and to religions data is really very useful in understanding Indian culture in better manner. It throws light on the life of masses in India during this long period. (d) Apabhramsa: Apabhramsa is a group of dialects developed from old MIA languages in various regions during around 8th century A.D. Therefore uniformity is not found in various Apabhramsa dialects. Apa. works written by Jaina authors are ample. In comparison, the Apa. works written by non-Jaina writers are scanty. The most striking feature of Apa. literature is that the whole of it is written in verse and there hardly exists any prose in it, except a passage in the book called Kuvalayamala, written by Uddyotanasuri. When we observe century-wise position of Apa. we know that Svayambhu's epic and mythology are the first works of Apa. written in the 8th century. During 9th up to 11th centuries, the number of Apa. works are increasing. Hemacandra wrote Apa. grammar as a part of his Prakrit grammar. Apa. gathas of Hemacandra show traces of different dialects. The initial Apa. works are mostly biographical in nature and are written by Digambara authors. Svetambaras started their Apa. writings from 11th century onwards. They are biographical, didactic and religious in nature. 15th century is the peak-point of Apa. literature. In the later centuries, Apa. works show decline serially and works composed in modern Indian languages are increasing. The language used by the Digambara writers appears to be fairly uniform and constitute the bulk of Apa. literature. The few works of the Svetambara poets, written in Western India show peculiar different features in grammar. The use of Desi words and roots shows a perceptible increase in this literature. Biographical Apa. literature is included in 'Prathamanuyoga' according to Digambaras.

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(e) Sanskrit: The rise of Skt. on the horizon of Jaina literature is very late i.e. around 4th or 5th century A.D. 'History of Jaina Sanskrit Literature' is a wholesome branch of literature in itself. If we will count the number the works carefully, we will come to know that the number of Sanskrit works are equal to the sum total of AMg., JS., JM. and Apabhramsa works. All important subjects and all literary forms are handled in Sanskrit by the Jaina writers. In the beginning of Jaina Sanskrit era, Digambaras were more active. From the gth century onwards both Svetambaras and Digambaras contributed a lot to the Sanskrit literature. During 12th century up to 15th century, Jaina Sanskritist wrote enthusiastically on various subjects. In the history-books of Jaina literature it is noted with a lament that a huge bulk of Jaina Sanskrit works is resting in unpublished form. Nearly 1000 years after Lord Mahavira, all the religious and philosophical expressions were carried out with the help of Prakrit dialects in Jaina environment. Around 5th century A.D. Umasvati realised the necessity to transform Jaina philosophy into a school of learning. He found that Jainas could not ignore the pan-Indian intellectual language viz. Sanskrit. Thus Jainas entered the field of Sanskrit through the monumental philosophical work Tattvarthasutra. In the history of Indian logic (Nyaya) Buddhist were the first, Brahmins were next to them and Jainas were the last. In the 5th-6th century, Siddhasena Divakara wrote Sanmati Tarka (JM.) and Nyayavatara (Skt.). Jaina logicians realised that no other language than Skt. can be used effectively in the field of logic. Five stages in the Jaina logic are seen. They are as follows - 1] Canonical Age (Agama-yuga) (up to 5th century), 2] Anekanta-yuga represented by Samantabhadra (5th century), 3] Pramana-yuga represented by Akalanka (8th century), 4] Tika-yuga represented by Prabhacandra (11th century), 5] Navya-nyaya-yuga represented by Upadhyaya Yasovijaya (18th century) Among the hundreds of Jaina Sanskrit works on logic, around ten or twelve works are original and noteworthy. Others are commentaries and commentaries written on commentaries. Jainas' Contribution to Indian Sanskrit Literature: In the field of grammar, Canda is the first grammarian of Prakrit languages. Hemacandra's grammar is studied by Skt. grammarians. Jainedra, Sakatayana and Kalantra grammars are also noteworthy. In the study of Indian Mathematics, Gaaita-sara-samgraha of Mahaviracarya is unavoidable. He had handled mathematics as an independent science and not as device for calculating measurements in astronomy and geography, There are references of numerous treatises on Ayurveda composed by ancient Jaina authors, which are extinct. It shows the unforgivable negligence towards the mundane sciences. Ugraditya's Kalyanakaraka of 12th century, is a reputed work on Ayurveda. Though 12th century is the peak-point of Jaina literature, Sanskrit works pertaining to 10th century, attained an esteemed position in Indian literature. Allegoric narrative of

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Siddharsigani viz. Upamitibhavaprapancakatha, Dhanapala's famous Tilakamanjari and Somadeva's often quoted Yasastilakacampu are the three Sanskrit works of Jaina authors produced in the 10th century. Amitagati's Subhasitaratnasamdoha (11th century) is strikingly different among the ample Sanskrit anthologies. Yasovijaya's mastery over traditional and Navya Nyaya is unforgettable in the field of logic. These are some of the masterpieces in Jaina Sanskrit literature. Expertise of Jaina authors as commentators: It will not be an exaggeration if we say that 1/4 of the Jaina literature is commentarial literature. These authors wrote commentaries on Jaina as well as non-Jaina works, without any sectarian bias. Amitagati's Kavyaprakasakhandana, Manikyacandra's commentary on Kavyaprakasa, Siddhicandragani's commentary on Banabhatta's Kadambari, Asadhas commentary on Meghaduta, Caritravardhanagani's commentaries on five famous Skt. epics are some of glimpses of commentarial literature of Jainas. These Jaina authors were mostly wandering ascetics and resting at a place during rainy season, delivering religious preaching. Naturally they developed an art of explaining a particular point by giving suitable examples and illustrations. During the religious tours they got opportunities to observe the society and nature minutely. The inherent model of Anekantavada and Niksepa helped them a lot in understanding and expressing the matter from various viewpoints. As a result of all these factors, they might have acquired expertise in commentarial work. Repetitive and Imitative Works of Jaina Authors: Up to the 5th century of Christian Era, the Jaina authors were engaged in philosophical, ethical and religious reflections. If we cast a glance at the Sanskrit literature up to 5th century, we realise that all the monumental works in the fields of contemporary human endeavor were produced by creative authors of Brahmanic tradition, viz. four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, old Upanisdas, Valmiki's Ramayana, Vyasa's Mahabharata, ancient Puranas like Agnipurana and Bhagavata purana, six Darsanas, Patanjali's Mahabhasya, Kautilya's Arthasatra, Bharata's Natyasastra, Bhasa's dramas, Caraka and Suseta-samhitas of Ayurveda, Smrtigranthas of Manu and Yajnavalkya. It was a great challenge for Jaina authors to study this huge literature before producing anything new in these fields. They studied these varied branches according to their interest thoroughly but due to the lack of first grade originality and talent, they produce a lot of repetitive and imitative literature. The first Jaina Maharastri Carita, the first Sanskrit Carita and the first Apabhramsa Carita are the Jaina versions of Ramayana. Though the Jaina authors tried to bring variety in the biographies, the long and boring lists of biographies in every century are eloquent of the second or third grade genius of the authors. Parsvabhudaya presented Samasyapurti of Meghaduta at first and Jaina authors produced ample Samasyapurti Kavyas and Anekarthika Kavyas during a long span of time. The same thing is true about dramas and Sattakas. The epics and mythologies were popular among Jainas but they proved to be least attractive in non-Jaina field.

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Salient Features of Jaina Literature (A) Importance of Prakrit Literature from Linguistic Point of View: Linguistically, the Prakrits used by Jaina authors are the dialects pertaining to Middle Indo Aryan group of languages. With the help of the ample literature in AMg., JS., JM. and Apa. a linguist can study the minute details of these languages and compare it with the modern Indian languages. We owe a lot to Jaina authors for preserving the necessary data for linguistic studies. (B) Utility of Jaina Literature in Date-Fixing and Historical Accounts: In the 14th century, a lot of works on legendary history presented by Jaina authors in works like Prabandhakosa, Prabhavakacarita, Vividhatirthakalpa etc. of course mixed with legends and mythological elements. The stories about Arya Syama, Bhadrabahu, Kalakacarya, Padalipta, Siddhasena-divakara, Bappabhatti etc. are narrated with important events in the past. With the help of these accounts and by cross checking it with other literature and inscriptions, we can reconstruct the hoary past of India. Nandisutra, the later canonical text (5th century A.D.) refers 'Bhagavata' and 'Bharata'. These references are useful in fixing the upper limit of Bhagavata and Bharata. It is very curious that the word 'Bharata' is used and not "Mahabharata'. It suggests that the third version of Mahabharata is not still finalised. The references of Krnakatha are found in the AMg. canonical texts like Antagada and Nayadhammakaha and Ramakatha is not mentioned. It supports the peculiar opinion of a scholar that Ramayana's final version came into vogue even after the final version of Mahabharata. This issue is of course needs further scrutiny and research. The thorough study of Jaina literature will throw new light on the history of ruling dynasties like, Calukya, Solanki, Rastrakuta, Iloyasal, Kadamba, Andhrabhitya, Satavahana etc. We find the glimpses of Mughal history in the writings of the authors of Kharatara Gaccha and Tapagaccha. (C) Contribution of Brahmins to Jaina Literature: The relationship of Brahmins and Sanskrit language is too close during the whole known history of India. Though all the Tirthankaras belong to Kstrya clan, this religion got tremendous support of Brahmins, right from Lord Mahavira. The process of conversion from Hinduism to Jainism was continuous up till 16th 17th centuries. Logic-based philosophy, ethics, cosmology, epistemology and spirituality might have attracted Brahmin intellegensia towards Jainism. With the profound background of satric studies and writing skills, these Brahmin authors create huge literature in Sanskrit, specially from 11th to 15th centuries. They handled various subjects mainly philosophy, logic, yoga, grammar, poetics etc. and brought new literary forms like epic, mythology and classical poetry. Authors like Dhanapala, Hemcandra etc. belonged to Vaisya clan, but they are comparatively much less than Brahmins. These Brahmin authors not only brought new forms of literature but also brought changes in religious rites and rituals. Vidhi, Puja, Pratista and Mantras constitute important part of the religious conduct of Mandiramargins and Digambaras. Many scholars of Jainism have developed a model to look at these changes

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as degenerations but from a different angle we can look at it as new devices for existence. (D) Tattvartha: Jainism in Nutshell: For understanding the diversified tendencies of Hinduism, one has to go through the six orthodox Darsanas, but the uniqueness of Tattvartha contains in presenting philosophical tenets and doctrines, cosmology, epistemology, ethics and spiritual practices in a single text in nutshell. In true sense, Tattvartha is a crest-jewel of Indian Sutra literature. (E) Enrichment of Sanskrit Vocabulary with Jaina Hybrid Sanskrit Terms: With the help of the vast Jaina Sanskrit literature, a compact dictionary containing Jaina hybrid Sanskrit terms can be prepared. For example, the Prakrit word 'asava' has two Sanskrit renderings viz. asrava and asrava ; 'phasuya' is Sanskritized as prasuka and prasuka ; 'posaha' is given as posadha, pausadha and prausadha ; 'veuvviya' is rendered as vaikriya, vaikurvika and vaikriyika. The noun is given as 'vikurvana'. Staunch Sanskritists dismiss many such words as wrong forms of Skt. words, but since they are used commonly is Jaina Sanskrit works, they should be taken into account. The words like 'pinda', 'uncha' and "kala' etc. are used in different sense and in different context so they must be included in Sanskrit dictionaries. (F) Better Understanding of Indian Culture: Jaina Maharastri story literature provides a rich and variegated data of the contemporary Indian culture. The stories, examples, illustrations and the big narratives like Samaraiccakaha and Kuvalayamala are full of minute details of the society. We can understand the behavioral patterns of Indians society through the narrative literature about classes and masses, festivals and celebrations, fairs and pilgrims, religious and social ceremonies, customs and beliefs as well as rights and rituals. For the better understanding of the geographical, social, economic and cultural conditions of Indian society, Prakrit and especially JM. literature is a must. (G) Absence of Female Writers: It is not an unexpected but very gloomy fact in the male dominated society of India, that there is not even a single female writer among the galaxy of male writers during the history of 25 centuries of Jain literature. * Utility of the Project * In this project a sincere attempt has been made to present the history of Jain literature in century-wise form. A Researcher can select various topics for his studies, such as: 1] A particular century, with all subjects and languages 2] All the works of a particular author 3] Development of a particular subject in each century 4] Graph of a particular language through all the centuries 5] How and why the new subjects and literary forms arose during these centuries? 6] Comparative century-wise history of Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu literature.

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A new trend of research in Jainological studies is dawning in last two decades. Recent historical surveys of Jaina religion treat the Jaina community not just as it was in the beginning, but as a growing, changing, innovating, internally diverse religious group. Jaina scholars recognize that in the medieval India, great Jaina authors and polymaths like Haribhadra, Jinasena and Hemcandra offered comprehensive visions of the way the world is and should be organized. I think, this survey will provide a new thought pattern to lead the Jainological studies. * * **** ** ** *** * * *** * ** * ** * * * ** ** ** ** ** *** * * ** * *** * ** ** ** * *** * ** ** *** *** *** *** * ** * * *** * ** ** * * ** **

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List of Reference Books 1) apabhraMza-sAhitya , pro. harivaMza kochaDa , bhAratI sAhitya maMdira , dillI , 1956 2) Agamayuga kA jaina darzana , paM. dalasukha mAlavaNiyA, sanmati jJAnapITha, AgarA, 1966 3) A Comprehensive and Critical Dictionary of Prakrit Languages, Vol.-1 (Introduction), Dr. A.M.Ghatge, BORI, Pune, 1996 4) jaina nyAya , paM. kailAzacaMdra zAstrI , bhAratIya jJAnapITha prakAzana , vArANasI , 1966 5) jaina sAhitya kA itihAsa , paM. kailAzacaMdra zAstrI, bhAga 1, 2 , zrI gaNeza varNI digambara jaina saMsthAna, vArANasI , 1975-1976 6) jaina sAhitya kA bRhad itihAsa , bhAga 1-7 , pArzvanAtha vidyAzrama zodha saMsthAna , vArANasI , 1966-1987 7) darzana aura ciMtana , paM. sukhalAlajI saMghavI , sukhalAlajI sanmAna samiti , ahamadAbAda , 1957 8) pAiya-sadda-mahaNNavo (prastAvanA), haragoviMdadAsa seTha , prAkRta TeksTa sosAyaTI , banArasa , 1963 9) prAkRta bhASA aura sAhitya kA AlocanAtmaka itihAsa , DaoN. nemicaMdra zAstrI , tArA pablikezansa , vArANasI, 1966 10) prAkRta sAhitya kA itihAsa , DaoN. jagadIzacaMdra jaina , caukhambA vidyAbhavana, vArANasI , 1985 11) prAcIna bhAratAcA sAMskRtika itihAsa , prA. gAyadhanI , kaoNnTinenTala prakAzana , puNe , 1955 12) bhAratIya saMskRti meM jaina dharma kA yogadAna , DaoN. hIrAlAla jaina , madhyapradeza zAsana sAhitya pariSad , bhopAla , 1962 13) saMskRta sAhitya kA itihAsa , vAcaspati gairolA , caukhambA vidyAbhavana , vArANasI , 1960 14) hindI jaina sAhitya kA bRhad itihAsa , khaMDa-1, DaoN. zitikaNTha mizra , pArzvanAtha vidyAzrama zodha saMsthAna , vArANasI , 1989 15) History of Indian Literature , Part II , Winternitz M. , Culcutta, 1933 16) A History of Canonical Literature of the Jainas , Kapdiya H.R. , Bombay , 1941 **********************************************************************************************