Brief Survey of Jaina Prakrit and Sanskrit Literature Part 4

Author(s): Nalini Joshi
Publisher: Sanmati Tirth Prakashan Pune
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/007633/1

Page #1

Jaina-Literature : 16th Century
LG
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
JŚ. JM.
Swāmi Kārttikeyā Kārttikeyā nupreksā Dharmasāgara (Upadhyāya) Iryāpathiki-saţtrimsikä
Pravacana-pariksā
Paryūşaņā-daśa-sataka
1 Utsūtra-khandana Gajasāra
Dandaka-prakarana Indrahamsa-gani
Bhuvana-bhānu-kevali-cariya Jayasoma-gaņi
Pausadha-prakarana Jinamāņikya
Kummā-putta-cariya Kanakakusala-gaņi Dīpālikā-kalpa Padmasundara (Upadhyaya) Jambū-cariya Vijayavimala-gani Bandhodaya-sattā-prakaraņa
Bhāva-prakarana (with self-comm.) Yasahkirti
Jagatsundarī-prayoga-mālā (BORI, MS.)
दर्शन (Philosophy) Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Logic (Nyāya) Religious Conduct Ritualistics Cosmology (Karaņānuyoga) Biography (Carita) Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Biography (Carita) Ritualistics Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) Philosophy (Karma) Ayurveda + Ritualistics
Skt.
Ajitadeva-sūri Brahmanemidatta
Candrakirti Candrakīrti-sūri Cărucandra Dharmasāgara Harsakula-gani
sīkā on Āyāra (Dīpikā) Śrīpāla-carita Kathā-kosa Nemi-nirvāna-kāvya (Nemi-puräna) Pārsva-purāņa Tikä on Sārasvata-vyākarana (Subodhika) Uttama-kumāra-carita Tīkā on Pajjosaņā-kappa (Kiraņāvali) sīkā on Sūyagada (Dīpikā) Kavi-kalpa-druma Bandha-hetūdaya-tribhangi Vimalamantri-carita Bali-narendra-kathānaka Karma-vamsotkiratna-kāvya Kharatara-gaccha-bphat-gurvāvali
Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Collection of Narratives Mythology (Purāņa) Mythology (Purāna) Grammar (Comm.) Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Grammar Philosophy (Karma) Biography (Carita) Narratives Biography (Carita) Legendary History
Indrahamsa-gani
Jayasoma (Upadhyāya) Jinapāla (Upadhyāya) Kamalasamyama (Upādhyāya)
Kanakakusala-gaņi
Canonical Comm. (Śve.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.)
Tīkā of Uttarajjhayana Avacūri on Bandha-svāmitva Karma-stava-vivarana Tīkā on Bhaktamara Tīkā on Caturvimsati-stotra Tikä on Kalyanamandira Tīkā on Sakalārhat-stotra Rohiņi-vrata-kathā (Rohinyasokacandra-nspa-katha) Surapriya-muni-kathānaka Sukla-pañcami-kathā Dāna-prakāśa Tīkā on Pajjosaņā-kappa Tīkā on Uttarajjhayaņa Ustaralāva-yantra (with self-comm.) Guru-tattva-pradipa (Utsūtra-kanda-kuddāla) Ārādhana-katha-kosa
Lakşmivallabha-gani
Narratives Narratives Narratives Religious Conduct Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Astronomy Religious Conduct Collection of Narratives
Megharatna (Muni) Nayaprabha-gani Nemidatta

Page #2

Jaina-Literature : 16th Century
LG
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
Skt.
Padmasāgara-gaņi
Padmasundara-gani
Uttarādhyayana-kathă-sangraha Jagadguru-kāvya Sthūlabhadra-carita Yasodhara-carita Tīkā on Tilakamanjari Tīkā on Pramāna-prakāśa Dharma-parīkņā Pārsvanātha-carita Rāyamallābhyudaya Akabara-sāhi-śrngāra-darpana Mallinātha-carita (MS.) Tikā on Panca-sangraha Campaka-śreşthi-kathā Tikā on Adhyātma-kalpa-druma (Adhyatma-kalpa-latā) Samba-pradyumna-carita Jambu-svāmi-carita
Collection of Narratives Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Narratives (Comm.) Logic (Nyāya) (Comm.) Secular (Satirical) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Poetics Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Narratives Philosophy (Spiritual)
(Comm.) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita)
Prabhācandra
Prītivimala Ratna-sūri
Ravisagara-gani Rāyamalla (Rācamalla)
(Pandita)
Rddhicandra (Pandita) śāntisāgara-gaņi Śrībhūşaņa Śrīpālasuta-daddha Subhacandra
Prthvidhara-carita Lāți-samhita Pañcădhyāyi Adhyātma-kamala-mārtanda Mrgānka-carita Tīkā on Pajjosaņā-kappa (Kalpa-kaumudi) Sāntinātha-carita Pañca-sangraha Tīkā on Kārtikeyānupreksā Cintāmani-vyākarana (with self-comm.) Candană-carita Candraprabha-carita Jivandhara-carita Karakandu-carita Padmanābha-carita Sreņika-carita Pāņdava-purāņa Samyaktva-kaumudi Samsaya-vadana-vidāraņa Nandiśvara-kathā (MS.) Siddhacakra-kathā (MS.) Aşta-lakși Dharma-parikṣā Samyaktva-kaumudi sīkā on Gacchāyāra sīkā on Bandha-hetūdaya-tribhangi Tikā on Gacchāyāra Tīkā on Tandula-veyaliya Satruñjayoddhāra Mayana-parājaya-cariu
Biography (Carita) Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Philosophy Philosophy (Spiritual) Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Canonical Comm. (Dig.) Grammar Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Mythology (Purāņa) Narratives Logic (Nyāya) Narratives Narratives Poetry (Anekārthika) Narratives Narratives Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Philosophy (Karma) (Comm. Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Canonical Comm. (Šve.) Legendary History Biography (Carita)
Samayasundara Saubhāgyasāgara Somadeva-sūri Vānararşi-gami
Vijayavimala-gani
Vivekadhira-gani Harideva
Apa.

Page #3

Jaina-Literature : 16th Century
LG
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
Apa.
Jinaprabha-sūri Mahacanda (Muni) Mahīcandra Narasena
Moharāja-vijaya Dohā-pāhuda Santinaha-cariu Nāyakumāra-cariu Sirivāla-cariu Vaddhamāna-kahā Pasa-cariu Nijjhara-pañcami-kahā
Allegoric (Religious Poetry) Dohā Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Narratives
Padmakirti Vinayacandra

Page #4

Observations on 16th century - Jaina-Literature
* JŚ works are totally absent in 16th century.
* JM. works are very few. They are dedicated to various subjects but they lack in originality and noteworthiness.
* Apa. literature of this century is mostly biographical.
* Jaina poets started their poetical compositions in 'Dohā' metre around 10th century A.D. The language of Pāhudadohā and Sāvayadhammadohā is designated as late Apabhramsa. The famous Saint Kabir composed dohās around 15th century. In the same metre Jaina author Mahacanda presented his Dohāpāhuda in 16th century.
* Sanskrit works of Svetāmbaras and Digambaras are ample and variety of subjects is remarkable.
* Declining tendency of Prakrit works is very natural because Jaina authors had already started their writings in modern Indian regional dialects. Jaina literature of this century is found in Gujrati, Hindi, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam. These dialects acquired their independent identity. Jaina and non-Jaina streams of literature started flowing forcefully in regional languages.
* Kanakakusalagani, Padmasāgaragani (both Sve.) and Subhacandra (Dig.) are important among the Skt. authors.
* Secular classical Sanskrit works and works based on poetics, metrics are very few in this century. Unlike the previous centuries, the Jaina authors preferred writing on the subjects which are concerned to Jainism.
* Karma-literature of this century is noteworthy. Vijayavimalagani wrote his Karma-work in Jaina Mahārāștrī. His other works are in Sanskrit. Prabhācandra and Srīpālasuta wrote commentaries on Pancasamgraha.
* The popularity of Carita form took a different mode in this century. Jaina authors chose unique personalities other than 63 Salākāpuruṣas as the central characters of their biographies. The personalities of Kūrmāputra, Srīpāla, Uttamakumāra, Vimalamantri, Rāyamalla, Campakaśreștī, Sthūlabhadra, Jambūsvāmi, Sāmbapradyumna, Satī Candanā, Jīvandhara etc. found place as central characters. The popularity of Yaśodhara was retained in this century by Padmasāgaragani.
* Narrative literature of this century contains two works having the same title 'Samyaktvakaumudi'. Various collections of narratives were written with anything special about them.

Page #5

* It seems that the custom of reading out Pajjosaņākappa on the occasion of Paryusana had started from this century because three commentaries on Pajjosaņākppa are written by Dharmasāgara, Laksmīvallabha and sāntisāgara in this century. Vānararşi and Vijayavimala wrote commentaries on two Prakīrņakas viz. Gacchāyāra and Tandulaveyāliya. The study of Uttarādhyayana is continued in this century. Lakşmīvallabha wrote new commentary on Uttarādhyayana. Padmasāgaragani presented the collection of narratives pertaining to Uttarādhyayana in Sanskrit. Ajitadevasūri wrote commentary called 'Dīpikā' on Ācārānga. Harsakulagani wrote Dipikā on Sūyagada. In Digambara tradition Subhacandra wrote Skt. commentary on Karttikeyānupreksā.
* Recitation of Bhaktāmara and Kalyāṇamandira became a part daily religious conduct of Jainas', therefore Kanakakusalagaņi might have felt it necessary to write commentaries on both of these Stotras.
* Vratakathās were written by both Svetāmbara and Digambara authors in this century. This facts suggests that Śrāvakācāra is being observed by keeping the vows and performing various rites and rituals like their contemporary Hindu householders.
* Though 'Jagatsundarīprayogamālā' is a work dedicated to Ayurveda, in the second part of the work, various rites and rituals concerned to mystical yantras are given.
* Spiritual philosophies were written by Digambara authors like Ratnasūri and Pandit Rāyamalla.
* Right from the 11th century onwards, Kharatara Gaccha was active in literary fields. So Jinapāla Upādhyāya might have felt it necessary to write the historical accounts of Kharatara Gaccha.
* The contribution of this century to Nyāya is very meagre.
* In their satirical works 'Dharmaparīksā, Padmasāgara and Saubhāgyasāgara repeated the same subject and title in this century.
* In short, we can conclude that Svetāmbara Gaņis and Upādhyāyas are very active in this century and wrote new canonical commentaries. Among Digambara authors, Subhacandra and Pandit Rāyamalla are prominent. Various new rites and rituals found place in Jaina householders' conduct.
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Page #6

Jaina-Literature : 17th Century
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
JM.
Samayasundara-gani Vinayavijaya
Jain Literature: 17th Century Gaha-sahassi Paripāți-caturdaśakam
Anthology Religious Conduct
Skt.
Didactics (Comm.) Narratives (Secular) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Logic (Nyāya) Narratives Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Epic
Lexicon (Comm.) Didactics (Comm.) Biography (Carita) Anthology Anthology Anthology Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Collection of Narratives Eulogy (Stotra) Poetry (Anekārthika) Poetry (Anekārthika)
Bhānucandra-gaņi Vrtti on Vivega-vilāsa
Tīkā on Kādambarī Bhāvavijaya-gani
Tīkā on Uttarajjhayaņa Şaţtrimsat-jalpa-vicära
Campaka-mala-kathā Buddhivijaya
Citrasena-padmavati-carita Devavijaya-gani Pandava-carita Devavimala-gaņi Hīra-saubhāgya-mahākāvya Devasāgara (Muni) Tīkā on Abhidhāna-cintamani
(Vyutpatti-ratnākara) Gunakīrti-sūri
Tīkā on Sindūra-prakara Gunavijaya-gani
Neminātha-carita Hemavijaya-gani Anyokti-muktā-mahodadhi
Kirti-kallolini Sūkti-ratnávali Pārsvanātha-caritra Vijaya-prasasti-kāvya Kathā-ratnākara
Vijaya-stuti Jagannātha (Pandita) Caturvimsati-sandhāna
Sapta-sandhāna Jayaratna-gani (Uddyotasāgara) Jvara-parājaya Jayavijaya
Kāmaghata-katha
Dharma-pariksa Jnānasāgara-gani-sisya Dhanya-carita Kşamākalyāņa
Yasodhara-carita Mativardhana
Vrtti on Goyama-pucchā Mānavijaya
Pāpabuddhi-dharma-buddhi-kathā Meghavijaya-gani Hasta-sanjīvana (with self-comm.)
Praśna-sundari Ramala-sastra Udaya-dīpikā Varşa-prabodha (Megha-mahodaya) Laghu-trisasti-salākā-purusa-caritra Yukti-prabodha (with self-comm.) Pañcākhyānoddhāra Devānandābhyudaya (Samasya-pürti of Sisupala-vadha) Digvijaya-mahākāvya Kirāta-samasyā-pārti (Samasyā-pūrti of Kirātārjunīya) Santinātha-caritra (Samasyā-pürti of Naişadhiya)
Ayurveda Allegoric Secular (Satirical) Biography (Carita) Biography (Carita) Philosophy (Comm.) Narratives Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Astronomy Biography (Carita) Drama Ethics
Epic Epic
Epic Epic Epic

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Jaina-Literature : 17th Century
LG
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
Skt.
Meghavijaya-gani
Padmanabha Ratnacandra (Bhattaraka) Ratnacandra-gaņi Rūpacandra-gaņi Subhavijaya Sakalacandra-gaņi Sanghavijaya-gaņi Sahajakirti-gani
Saptasandhāna-mahākāvya
Epic (Anekārthika) Panca-tirthi-stuti
Eulogy (Stotra) (Anekārthika) Sivapuri-sankheśvara-pārsvanātha-stotra Eulogy (Stotra) Tīkā on Bhaktāmara-stotra
Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Pāņinīya-dvyāśraya-vijñapti-lekha Grammar Hema-kaumudi
Grammar (Comm.) Hema-sabda-candrikā
Grammar (Comm.) Pārsvanātha-nāma-mālā
Lexicon Vịtta-mauktika
Metrics Bhavisyadatta-kathā
Narratives Mani-pariksā
Logic (Nyāya) Arhadgīta
Philosophy (Spiritual) Bramha-bodha
Philosophy (Spiritual) Mātņkā-prasāda
Philosophy (Spiritual) Meghadūta-samasya-lekha
Poetry Dharma-mañjüşā
Religious Conduct Visa-yantra-vidhi
Ritualistics Citra-kosa
Poetry Yasodhara-carita
Biography (Carita) Subhauma-carita
Biography (Carita) Pradyumna-carita (Pradyumna-mahäkävya) Epic Gautamīya-kavya
Biography (Carita) Syadvāda-mālā
Nyāya (Comm.) Pratisthā-kalpa
Ritualistics Tīkā on Pajjosaņā-kappa
Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Sabdārņava-vyākarana (Manorama) (with self-comm.)
Grammar (Comm.) Tīkā on Dasaveyāliya (Dīpikā)
Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Tikä on Pajjosaņā-kappa (Kalpa-latā) Canonical Comm. (Šve.) Bhānucandra-gani-carita
Biography (Carita) Tīkā on Vāsavadatta
Drama (Comm.) Tīkā on Sobhana-stuti
Eulogy (Stotra) (Comm.) Tīkā on Kādambari-uttarardha
Narratives (Comm.) Tīkā on Kavya-prakāsa (Kavya-prakāśa-khandana)
Poetics (Comm.) Tīkā on Tajika-sāra
Astronomy (Comm.) Tīkā on Abhidhāna-cintāmaņi
Lexicon (Comm.) (Sāroddhāra) Tīkā on Nighantu-seşa
Lexicon (Comm.) Tīkā on Siloncha-kosa
Lexicon (Comm.) Tīkā on Vasanta-rāja-sakuna
Astronomy (Comm.) Candradūta (Samasya-pūrti of Meghadūta) Poetry (Anekārthika) Naya-kanikā
Logic (Nyāya) Haima-laghu-prakiyā (with self-comm.) (Haima-prakāśal
Grammar Induduta
Poetry Sulocană-caritra
Biography (Carita)
Samayasundar-gani
Siddhicandra-gaņi
Sumatiharsa (Muni) Vallabha-gani
Vasantarāja Vimalakīrti Vinayavijaya
Vādicandra (Bhattaraka)

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Jaina-Literature : 17th Century
LG
WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
Skt.
Vādicandra (Bhattaraka)
Yasodhara-carita Jnāna-sūryodaya Pāndava-purāņa Pārsva-purāņa Ambikā-kathā Pavana-dūta (Samasyā-purti of Meghadūta) Holika-caritra
Biography (Carita) Drama Mythology (Purāņa) Mythology (Purāņa) Narratives Poetry Narratives
pa.
Bhagavatīdāsa
Sasi-lehā
Biography (Carita)

Page #9

Observations on 17th century - Jaina-Literature
* In 17th century, JŚ. works are absent. JM. and Apa. works are very scanty. Almost all works are written in Skt.
* Tapāgaccha is very active in this century in the literary field. Akabar, the Mughal Emperor was influenced by Hīravijayasūri of Tapāgaccha. Disciples of Hiravijaya viz. Vinayavijaya, Buddhivijaya, Meghavijaya and Hemavijaya contributed a lot in literary activities. Devavijayagani and Hemavijayagani wrote biographies of their Guru, Hīravijaya.
* Meghavijayagani wrote on various subjects and handled various forms of literature. Meghavijaya composed Samasyāpārtikāvyas on famous classical Sanskrit epics. Most of them were presented in Jainized form. His works on grammar were based on Hemcandra's grammar. He presented a short version of Hemacandra's Trișaștiśalākāpuruşacarita. Among his ample works dedicated to astrology, two works viz. Varsaprabodha and Hastasañjīvana are publised and other works are not published. His Bhavisyadatakathā is proper Sankritization of Dhanapāla's Apabhraíśa Bhavisayattakahā.
* Kālidāsa's Meghadūta was so popular in this century among Jaina poets that Meghavijayagani, Vimalakīrti, Vinayavijaya and Vādicandra Bhattāraka wrote Samasyāpūrtis on Meghadūta.
* Sanskrit Caritas are ample and Kșamākalyāņa, Padmanātha and Vādicandra Bhattāraka wrote Yaśodharacaritas, continuing the tradition.
* The tradition of satirical work titled Dharmaparīkņā is continued in this century by Jayavijaya.
* Canonical commentaries on Uttarādhyayana, Pajjosaņākappa and Daśavaikālika are written in this century.
* Bhānucandragani's commentary on Bāṇabhatta's Kādambari is mentioned with honour in the history of Skt. literature.
* Jaina author Pt. Jagannātha presented his Anekārthikakāvyas (poetry with multiple meanings) exhibiting his intellectual gymnastics.
* Lexical work of this century is mostly commentarial in nature.
* In short, though the Skt. works are huge in number, they lack in originality and creativity. Commentarial and imitative literature is ample in this century.
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Jaina-Literature : 18th Century
LG WRITER
WORK
SUBJECT / FORM
JM.
Jinavijaya Yasovijaya
Jain Literature 18th Century Jambū-svāmi-carita
Biography (Carita) Guru-tatta-vinicchaya (with self-comm.) Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Jailakkhaņa-samuccaya
Ethics (Monastic Conduct) Visadikarana-prakarana
Poetical Composition
(Prakarana) Dhamma-parikkha
Secular (Satirical)
Skt.
Ajitasena Jinavijaya Jnānavimala-sūri
Mohanavijaya Narendrasena Sadananda (Muni) Vijayalaksmi Vimaladāsa Yośovijaya
Alankāra-cintamani Pañcākhyāna-vārttika Sripāla-carita Țīkā on Paṇhāvāgarana Mänatunga-mānavati-carita Pramāņa-prameya-kalikā Tīkā on Siddhānta-candrikā Upadeśa-prāsāda Sapta-bhangi-tarangini Phalāphala-vişayaka-praśna-patra Vijayollăsa-mahäkāvya Dharma-samgraha Dvā-trimśikā Vītarāga-stotra Tinanvayokti Jnāna-bindu Nyāya-khanda-khādya Nyāyāloka Anekānta-pravesa Anekānta-vyavasthā Jaina-tarka-bhāṣā Jnāna-sara-prakarana Naya-pradīpa Naya-rahasya Nayopadesa Sapta-bhangi-naya-pradīpa Vāda-mālā Țīkā on Aşta-sahasri Tīkā on Šāstra-värttā-samuccaya Mārga-viśuddhi Tīkā on Kamma-payadi (S.) Adhyātma-sāra Adhyātmopanişat Bhāṣā-rahasya-prakarana
Poetics Narratives Biography (Carita) Canonical Comm. (Sve.) Biography (Carita) Logic (Navya Nyāya) Grammar (Comm.) Didactics Logic (Navya Nyāya) Astronomy Epic Ethics (Householders' Conduct) Eulogy (Stotra) Eulogy (Stotra) Grammar Logic (Navya Nyāya) Logic (Navya Nyāya) Logic (Navya Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) Logic (Nyāya) (Comm.) Logic (Nyāya) (Comm.) Philosophy Philosophy (Karma) (Comm.) Philosophy (Spiritual) Philosophy (Spiritual) Poetical Compositiom
(Prakarana) Yoga Yoga (Comm.) Yoga (Comm.)
Vairāgya-kalpa-latā Tīkā on Sodaśaka-prakarana Tīkā on Visavīsio

Page #11

Observations on 18th century - Jaina-Literature
* In 18th century, JM. works are very few and they are written by Yaśovijaya and Jinavijaya, both belonging to Tapāgaccha.
* Sanskrit works are ample and are mostly written by Yaśovijaya pertaining to logic. In fact, Yaśovijaya of 18th century was the last great Jaina logician. He studied Navya Nyāya and gave a new style to Jaina logic. His main works are on Naya and Anekāntavāda. His Jainatarkabhāṣā is very popular and Jñānabindu is honoured in academic field of Nyāya.
Yasovijaya's originality of thought and style of presentation is so unique that he has attained unparallel position in the field of Navya Nyāya in the scenario of whole Indian logic. After him, the growth and progress of Jaina logic is almost stopped. Besides Nyāya, his works on philosophy, Yoga and Karma are also important.
* In 18th century, Jinavijaya composed various Rāsas. The language of Rāsas is noted down as Apabhramsa, but more precisely, we should call it old Gujrati. The only region where Apa. works were written without break is Gujrat and Rajsthian i.e. Western India. It is almost impossible to separate the Apa. works from those written in early Gujrati and Western Rajsthani. Rāsa and Phāga really belong to the earliest New Indo Aryan languages. The old Gujrati is seen in various Bālāvabodhas, Tabbās and Avacūris from 17th18th century onwards.
* The oldest Jaina literature written in modern Indian regional languages is seen in Kannad from 10th century onwards. History of Jaina Marathi literature starts from 15th century. Almost the same position is found about other modern languages.
* In this brief survey of Jaina Prakrit and Sanskrit literature, various Prakrits, Sanskrit and Apabhrmsa languages are covered. The streams and currents of modern Indian languages are flowing parallel to this literature from 10th century onwards. This literature is not covered in this brief survey. The independent histories on this literature are written by different scholars of Jainology in last few decades. Curious readers can go through these books for detailed information.
Yaśovijaya's gigantic contribution to Jaina Sanskrit literature is the last phase of this brief sketch of Jaina literature.
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Comprehensive Concluding Remarks on Jaina-Literature
1. Language-adaption of Jainas: (i) Variety of languages: Jainas have traditionally been viewed and represented in scholarship, both Western and Indian as conservative, unchanging, strict and renunciative in attitude. This traditional view is not totally wrong but it contains only partial truth If we cast a glance at this brief survey of Jaina literature, we find that Jaina authors are very much flexible and adaptable in language acquisition, whether orally or in written form. The intrinsic model of Anekāntavāda (i.e. theory of non-absolution) and fourfold Niksepas (i.e. Dravya-Kșetra-Kāla-Bhāva) can be easily applied to the literary activity of Jainas. Jaina authors are always careful in manifesting their thoughts in contemporary languages. They chose suitable language according to the subject, time, place and form of literature. The variety of languages used by them is stunning. No other religion of Indian origin had carried out its literary activities in various Prakrit dialects than Jainas. Literary expressions of Brahmanical tradition are mostly seen in Sanskrit. Though Lord Buddha preached in Pāli, his followers chose Sanskrit for their literary expressions only two or three centuries after Buddhanirvāņa. Jainas expressed themselves chronologically in Ardhamāgadhi, Jaina Sauraseni, Jaina Mahārāștri, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa and in all the modern Indian regional languages from 10th century A.D. onwards up till now.
(ii) Variations in Each Language: (a) Ardhamāgadhi : Strictly speaking Ardhamāgadhi is the language of the sacred books of Jainas, the so-called Ardhamāgadhi canon. The 45 books consist different forms and varied contents. These canons acquired written form after 1000 years from Lord Mahāvīra's nirvāņa. The oldest form of Ardhamāgadhi is seen intact in the texts in Acārānga (I), Rsibhāșita etc. The second stage of Ardhamāgadhi is seen preserved in old Upāngas and Daśavaikālīka etc. Antagada, Vīpāka, Nāyādhammakahā, Nandi and Anuyogadvāra represent third stage. The true serial order of 45 canons is challenging job for a scholar of linguistics.
(b) Jaina Saurasenī: The name Jaina Saurasenī is given to the Prakrit dialect which is seen in the works of the Digambara writers, most of whom came from the south. Digambaras produced JŚ. literature in two phases. In the first phase the treatises from 2nd century A.D. up to 8th century A.D. are covered. The second phase is seen in the 11th and 12th century. The language found in all these books is fairly uniform but differs considerably from the Jaina Mahārāștrī of the writers of the north. The oldest JŚ works are found in prose form, but the JŚ works of Kundakunda and onwards are written in poetry form. The debate about the antiquity of Sauraseni and Ardhamāgadhi is going on among the scholars of Jainism nearly over a century. The literature found in JŚ. is mostly philosophical, ethical and spiritual. It is a fact that Jainas never used Sauraseni in its classical literary form.
(c) Jaina Mahārāştri : From among the MIA dialects, the Svetāmbaras have used Jaina Mahārāștrī to compose their post-canonical literature. According to Dr. A.M.Ghatage, “Slowly AMg. has come under the influence of Mahārāștrī so as to develop into what is called Jaina

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Mahārāștrī." In no other Prakrit language than JM., such a huge literature is produced in India for such a long period from 4th century A.D. up to 18th century A.D. Mahārāștri was understandable in the bigger middle region of India during this period. The earlier Śve. Jaina Ācāryas like Bhadrabāhu (II), Kālakācārya, Pādalipta etc. were closely associated with Mahārastra and specially Pratisthāna. Nearly from 3rd century B.C. up to 2nd century A.D. Andhrabhstya Satavāhanas ruled over Mahārastra who were pro-Prakrit and liberal in religions matter. Three stages of JM. are evidently seen as follows:
* 1st stage: (3rd to 6th century A.D.) Archaic form of JM. is seen in various Niryuktis, Bhāṇyās, Cūrņis and Narrative works like Paumacariya and Vasudevahindi.
* 2nd stage: (7th to 10th century A.D.) In its classical form, JM. is seen in works of Haribhadra, Uddyotana, Sīlānka and Dhanapāla. It shows influence of Sanskrit but still maintaining tendencies of colloquial languages in variety of forms and the use of Deśī words.
* 3rd stage: (11th to 18th century A.D.) The late form of JM. is best seen in the stories of Sukhabodhā and anthology called Vajjālagga. Here we see a strong influence of Apabhraíía dialects in phonology and grammar. Apabhramśa influence originates from the spoken languages of the authors.
In Jaina Mahārāștri literature, on logic and works on scientific and technical subjects are comparatively much less than in Sanskrit, but the role played by JM. in producing rich cultural, social and to religions data is really very useful in understanding Indian culture in better manner. It throws light on the life of masses in India during this long period.
(d) Apabhramśa: Apabhramśa is a group of dialects developed from old MIA languages in various regions during around 8th century A.D. Therefore uniformity is not found in various Apabhraṁsa dialects. Apa. works written by Jaina authors are ample. In comparison, the Apa. works written by non-Jaina writers are scanty. The most striking feature of Apa. literature is that the whole of it is written in verse and there hardly exists any prose in it, except a passage in the book called Kuvalayamāla, written by Uddyotanasūri. When we observe century-wise position of Apa. we know that Svayambhu's epic and mythology are the first works of Apa. written in the 8th century. During 9th up to 11th centuries, the number of Apa. works are increasing. Hemacandra wrote Apa. grammar as a part of his Prakrit grammar. Apa. gāthās of Hemacandra show traces of different dialects. The initial Apa. works are mostly biographical in nature and are written by Digambara authors. Svetāmbaras started their Apa. writings from 11th century onwards. They are biographical, didactic and religious in nature. 15th century is the peak-point of Apa. literature. In the later centuries, Apa. works show decline serially and works composed in modern Indian languages are increasing. The language used by the Digambara writers appears to be fairly uniform and constitute the bulk of Apa. literature. The few works of the Svetāmbara poets, written in Western India show peculiar different features in grammar. The use of Deśī words and roots shows a perceptible increase in this literature. Biographical Apa. literature is included in 'Prathamānuyoga' according to Digambaras.

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(e) Sanskrit: The rise of Skt. on the horizon of Jaina literature is very late i.e. around 4th or 5th century A.D. 'History of Jaina Sanskrit Literature' is a wholesome branch of literature in itself. If we will count the number the works carefully, we will come to know that the number of Sanskrit works are equal to the sum total of AMg., JŚ., JM. and Apabhramsa works. All important subjects and all literary forms are handled in Sanskrit by the Jaina writers. In the beginning of Jaina Sanskrit era, Digambaras were more active. From the gth century onwards both Śvetāmbaras and Digambaras contributed a lot to the Sanskrit literature. During 12th century up to 15th century, Jaina Sanskritist wrote enthusiastically on various subjects. In the history-books of Jaina literature it is noted with a lament that a huge bulk of Jaina Sanskrit works is resting in unpublished form.
Nearly 1000 years after Lord Mahāvīra, all the religious and philosophical expressions were carried out with the help of Prakrit dialects in Jaina environment. Around 5th century A.D. Umāsvāti realised the necessity to transform Jaina philosophy into a school of learning. He found that Jainas could not ignore the pan-Indian intellectual language viz. Sanskrit. Thus Jainas entered the field of Sanskrit through the monumental philosophical work Tattvārthasūtra.
In the history of Indian logic (Nyāya) Buddhist were the first, Brahmins were next to them and Jainas were the last. In the 5th-6th century, Siddhasena Divākara wrote Sanmati Tarka (JM.) and Nyāyāvatāra (Skt.). Jaina logicians realised that no other language than Skt. can be used effectively in the field of logic. Five stages in the Jaina logic are seen. They are as follows -
1] Canonical Age (Agama-yuga) (up to 5th century), 2] Anekānta-yuga represented by Samantabhadra (5th century), 3] Pramāņa-yuga represented by Akalanka (8th century), 4] Tīkā-yuga represented by Prabhācandra (11th century), 5] Navya-nyāya-yuga represented by Upādhyāya Yaśovijaya (18th century)
Among the hundreds of Jaina Sanskrit works on logic, around ten or twelve works are original and noteworthy. Others are commentaries and commentaries written on commentaries.
Jainas' Contribution to Indian Sanskrit Literature:
In the field of grammar, Canda is the first grammarian of Prakrit languages. Hemacandra's grammar is studied by Skt. grammarians. Jainedra, Sākatāyana and Kālantra grammars are also noteworthy.
In the study of Indian Mathematics, Gaạita-sara-samgraha of Mahaviracarya is unavoidable. He had handled mathematics as an independent science and not as device for calculating measurements in astronomy and geography,
There are references of numerous treatises on Ayurveda composed by ancient Jaina authors, which are extinct. It shows the unforgivable negligence towards the mundane sciences. Ugraditya's Kalyāṇakāraka of 12th century, is a reputed work on Ayurveda.
Though 12th century is the peak-point of Jaina literature, Sanskrit works pertaining to 10th century, attained an esteemed position in Indian literature. Allegoric narrative of

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Siddharsigani viz. Upamitibhavaprapancakathā, Dhanapāla's famous Tilakamañjari and Śomadeva's often quoted Yaśastilakacampū are the three Sanskrit works of Jaina authors produced in the 10th century. Amitagati's Subhāṣitaratnasamdoha (11th century) is strikingly different among the ample Sanskrit anthologies. Yaśovijaya's mastery over traditional and Navya Nyāya is unforgettable in the field of logic.
These are some of the masterpieces in Jaina Sanskrit literature.
Expertise of Jaina authors as commentators:
It will not be an exaggeration if we say that 1/4 of the Jaina literature is commentarial literature. These authors wrote commentaries on Jaina as well as non-Jaina works, without any sectarian bias. Amitagati's Kāvyaprakāšakhandana, Mānikyacandra's commentary on Kāvyaprakāśa, Siddhicandragani's commentary on Bāṇabhatta's Kādambarī, Asadhas commentary on Meghadūta, Cāritravardhanagani's commentaries on five famous Skt. epics are some of glimpses of commentarial literature of Jainas. These Jaina authors were mostly wandering ascetics and resting at a place during rainy season, delivering religious preaching. Naturally they developed an art of explaining a particular point by giving suitable examples and illustrations. During the religious tours they got opportunities to observe the society and nature minutely. The inherent model of Anekāntavāda and Niksepa helped them a lot in understanding and expressing the matter from various viewpoints. As a result of all these factors, they might have acquired expertise in commentarial work.
Repetitive and Imitative Works of Jaina Authors:
Up to the 5th century of Christian Era, the Jaina authors were engaged in philosophical, ethical and religious reflections. If we cast a glance at the Sanskrit literature up to 5th century, we realise that all the monumental works in the fields of contemporary human endeavor were produced by creative authors of Brahmanic tradition, viz. four Vedas, Brahmaņas, Āranyakas, old Upanişdas, Vālmīki's Rāmāyana, Vyāsa's Mahābhārata, ancient Puranas like Agnipurana and Bhāgavata purana, six Darśanas, Patanjali's Mahābhāsya, Kautilyā's Arthasatra, Bharata's Nātyaśastra, Bhāsa's dramas, Caraka and Suśệta-samhitas of Ayurveda, Smrtigranthas of Manu and Yajñavalkya.
It was a great challenge for Jaina authors to study this huge literature before producing anything new in these fields. They studied these varied branches according to their interest thoroughly but due to the lack of first grade originality and talent, they produce a lot of repetitive and imitative literature. The first Jaina Mahārāştri Carita, the first Sanskrit Carita and the first Apabhramsa Carita are the Jaina versions of Rāmāyaṇa. Though the Jaina authors tried to bring variety in the biographies, the long and boring lists of biographies in every century are eloquent of the second or third grade genius of the authors. Pārsvābhudaya presented Samasyāpūrti of Meghadūta at first and Jaina authors produced ample Samasyāpūrti Kāvyas and Anekarthika Kāvyas during a long span of time. The same thing is true about dramas and Sattakas. The epics and mythologies were popular among Jainas but they proved to be least attractive in non-Jaina field.

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Salient Features of Jaina Literature
(A) Importance of Prakrit Literature from Linguistic Point of View:
Linguistically, the Prakrits used by Jaina authors are the dialects pertaining to Middle Indo Aryan group of languages. With the help of the ample literature in AMg., JŚ., JM. and Apa. a linguist can study the minute details of these languages and compare it with the modern Indian languages. We owe a lot to Jaina authors for preserving the necessary data for linguistic studies.
(B) Utility of Jaina Literature in Date-Fixing and Historical Accounts:
In the 14th century, a lot of works on legendary history presented by Jaina authors in works like Prabandhakoșa, Prabhāvakacarita, Vividhatīrthakalpa etc. of course mixed with legends and mythological elements. The stories about Ārya Syāma, Bhadrabāhu, Kālakācārya, Pādalipta, Siddhasena-divākara, Bappabhatti etc. are narrated with important events in the past. With the help of these accounts and by cross checking it with other literature and inscriptions, we can reconstruct the hoary past of India.
Nandisūtra, the later canonical text (5th century A.D.) refers 'Bhāgavata' and 'Bhārata'. These references are useful in fixing the upper limit of Bhāgavata and Bharata. It is very curious that the word 'Bharata' is used and not "Mahābhārata'. It suggests that the third version of Mahābhārata is not still finalised. The references of Krņakathā are found in the AMg. canonical texts like Antagada and Nāyādhammakahā and Rāmakathā is not mentioned. It supports the peculiar opinion of a scholar that Rāmāyaṇa's final version came into vogue even after the final version of Mahābhārata. This issue is of course needs further scrutiny and research.
The thorough study of Jaina literature will throw new light on the history of ruling dynasties like, Cālukya, Solankī, Rāștrakūta, Iloyasal, Kadamba, Andhrabhỉtya, Satavāhana etc. We find the glimpses of Mughal history in the writings of the authors of Kharatara Gaccha and Tapāgaccha.
(C) Contribution of Brahmins to Jaina Literature:
The relationship of Brahmins and Sanskrit language is too close during the whole known history of India. Though all the Tīrthankaras belong to Kștrya clan, this religion got tremendous support of Brahmins, right from Lord Mahāvīra.
The process of conversion from Hinduism to Jainism was continuous up till 16th 17th centuries. Logic-based philosophy, ethics, cosmology, epistemology and spirituality might have attracted Brahmin intellegensia towards Jainism. With the profound background of satric studies and writing skills, these Brahmin authors create huge literature in Sanskrit, specially from 11th to 15th centuries. They handled various subjects mainly philosophy, logic, yoga, grammar, poetics etc. and brought new literary forms like epic, mythology and classical poetry. Authors like Dhanapāla, Hemcandra etc. belonged to Vaisya clan, but they are comparatively much less than Brahmins. These Brahmin authors not only brought new forms of literature but also brought changes in religious rites and rituals. Vidhi, Pūjā, Pratistā and Mantras constitute important part of the religious conduct of Mandiramārgins and Digambaras. Many scholars of Jainism have developed a model to look at these changes

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as degenerations but from a different angle we can look at it as new devices for existence.
(D) Tattvārtha: Jainism in Nutshell:
For understanding the diversified tendencies of Hinduism, one has to go through the six orthodox Darśanas, but the uniqueness of Tattvārtha contains in presenting philosophical tenets and doctrines, cosmology, epistemology, ethics and spiritual practices in a single text in nutshell. In true sense, Tattvārtha is a crest-jewel of Indian Sūtra literature.
(E) Enrichment of Sanskrit Vocabulary with Jaina Hybrid Sanskrit Terms:
With the help of the vast Jaina Sanskrit literature, a compact dictionary containing Jaina hybrid Sanskrit terms can be prepared. For example, the Prakrit word 'āsava' has two Sanskrit renderings viz. āsrava and āśrava ; 'phāsuya' is Sanskritized as prāsuka and prāśuka ; 'posaha' is given as poșadha, pausadha and prausadha ; 'veuvviya' is rendered as vaikriya, vaikurvika and vaikriyika. The noun is given as 'vikurvaņā'. Staunch Sanskritists dismiss many such words as wrong forms of Skt. words, but since they are used commonly is Jaina Sanskrit works, they should be taken into account. The words like 'piņda', 'uncha' and “kalā' etc. are used in different sense and in different context so they must be included in Sanskrit dictionaries.
(F) Better Understanding of Indian Culture:
Jaina Mahārāstrī story literature provides a rich and variegated data of the contemporary Indian culture. The stories, examples, illustrations and the big narratives like Samarāiccakahā and Kuvalayamālā are full of minute details of the society. We can understand the behavioral patterns of Indians society through the narrative literature about classes and masses, festivals and celebrations, fairs and pilgrims, religious and social ceremonies, customs and beliefs as well as rights and rituals. For the better understanding of the geographical, social, economic and cultural conditions of Indian society, Prakrit and especially JM. literature is a must.
(G) Absence of Female Writers:
It is not an unexpected but very gloomy fact in the male dominated society of India, that there is not even a single female writer among the galaxy of male writers during the history of 25 centuries of Jain literature.
* Utility of the Project * In this project a sincere attempt has been made to present the history of Jain literature in century-wise form.
A Researcher can select various topics for his studies, such as: 1] A particular century, with all subjects and languages 2] All the works of a particular author 3] Development of a particular subject in each century 4] Graph of a particular language through all the centuries 5] How and why the new subjects and literary forms arose during these centuries? 6] Comparative century-wise history of Jaina, Buddhist and Hindu literature.

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A new trend of research in Jainological studies is dawning in last two decades. Recent historical surveys of Jaina religion treat the Jaina community not just as it was in the beginning, but as a growing, changing, innovating, internally diverse religious group. Jaina scholars recognize that in the medieval India, great Jaina authors and polymaths like Haribhadra, Jinasena and Hemcandra offered comprehensive visions of the way the world is and should be organized. I think, this survey will provide a new thought pattern to lead the Jainological studies.
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List of Reference Books 1) अपभ्रंश-साहित्य , प्रो. हरिवंश कोछड , भारती साहित्य मंदिर , दिल्ली , 1956 2) आगमयुग का जैन दर्शन , पं. दलसुख मालवणिया, सन्मति ज्ञानपीठ, आगरा, 1966 3) A Comprehensive and Critical Dictionary of Prakrit Languages, Vol.-1 (Introduction), Dr. A.M.Ghatge, BORI, Pune, 1996 4) जैन न्याय , पं. कैलाशचंद्र शास्त्री , भारतीय ज्ञानपीठ प्रकाशन , वाराणसी , 1966 5) जैन साहित्य का इतिहास , पं. कैलाशचंद्र शास्त्री, भाग 1, 2 , श्री गणेश वर्णी दिगम्बर जैन संस्थान, वाराणसी , 1975-1976 6) जैन साहित्य का बृहद् इतिहास , भाग 1-7 , पार्श्वनाथ विद्याश्रम शोध संस्थान , वाराणसी , 1966-1987 7) दर्शन और चिंतन , पं. सुखलालजी संघवी , सुखलालजी सन्मान समिति , अहमदाबाद , 1957 8) पाइय-सद्द-महण्णवो (प्रस्तावना), हरगोविंददास सेठ , प्राकृत टेक्स्ट सोसायटी , बनारस , 1963 9) प्राकृत भाषा और साहित्य का आलोचनात्मक इतिहास , डॉ. नेमिचंद्र शास्त्री , तारा पब्लिकेशन्स , वाराणसी, 1966 10) प्राकृत साहित्य का इतिहास , डॉ. जगदीशचंद्र जैन , चौखम्बा विद्याभवन, वाराणसी , 1985 11) प्राचीन भारताचा सांस्कृतिक इतिहास , प्रा. गायधनी , कॉन्टिनेन्टल प्रकाशन , पुणे , 1955 12) भारतीय संस्कृति में जैन धर्म का योगदान , डॉ. हीरालाल जैन , मध्यप्रदेश शासन साहित्य परिषद् , भोपाल , 1962 13) संस्कृत साहित्य का इतिहास , वाचस्पति गैरोला , चौखम्बा विद्याभवन , वाराणसी , 1960 14) हिन्दी जैन साहित्य का बृहद् इतिहास , खंड-१, डॉ. शितिकण्ठ मिश्र , पार्श्वनाथ विद्याश्रम शोध संस्थान , वाराणसी , 1989 15) History of Indian Literature , Part II , Winternitz M. , Culcutta, 1933 16) A History of Canonical Literature of the Jainas , Kapdiya H.R. , Bombay , 1941 **********************************************************************************************