Antiquity or Jainism and tirthankara mahavir

Author(s): Bhagchandra Jain
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Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/250015/1

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AN ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM AND TIRTHANKARA
MAHAVIRA
(Dr. Bhagchandra Jain Bhaskar, D. LITT.)
INTRODUCTION
Jainism is a religion which came into existence through an approach of non-violence and humanitarianism towards all creatures. It originated and developed on our beloved Indian soil with a judicious understanding of social requirements and philosophical necessities of the time. The Tirthankaras, Kulakaras and their loyal followers and believers have been contributing a lot since beginning to the growth of Indian culture. The history reveals the fact that Jainism has been all the time struggling with anti-social elements and powermongering groups to strengthen the national unity and unification of religious systems. TYPES OF INDIAN CULTURAL SYSTEM Brāhmanic System
Two types of cultural systems are found in India, viz. Brahmanic or Vedic system and Sramanic or NonVedic system. The early Brahmanic system is the civilization of those who conquered the self, the Jina and not the materialistic empire. The Kșatriya class developed this system of Sramanology in early days, if no: prior to vedic times. During the Upanisadic period even the well-versed Brāhmanic sages went to Ksatriyas to acquire the spiritual knowledge. Upto the time of Mahävira and the Buddha, the concept of sacrifice was changed to a certain extent. The Sramanic tradition undoubtedly adopted the Brāhmanic worshipping method and some sort of sociological exercises but with somewhat different connotations in the light of their own principles of Non-violence and humanity. The Jaina and Buddhist literature have recorded innumberable such references which explain the fundamental theoretical basis of Sramanology. Thus both the traditions exchanged and borrowed the philosophical views, keeping their own identities intact.
Mrs. Sinclair Stevension is of view that Jainism is a school of reformers which stood against Brahmanic supremacy over birth and sacrifices and stressed on Karmas. Jainism is therefore in her opinion is none the less a daughter of Brahmanism. She also holds the view that Mahavira was the founder of Jainisml. In the light of modern research, her view became out of context. We, therefore, need not refute it. It is a well-knwon fact that
Jainism is an independent religion of every days and Mahavira was the last Tirthankara in its tradition.
Brāhmanic ritualism was represented by the priests who were the custodians of prayers, assumed a very high degree of spiritual supremacy in the Vedic society and were considered to be the very progeny of Prajapati, the Creator - God. For the sole purpose of preserving spiritual leadership the Brahmanas evolved a system of very elaborate carnivorous sacrifices. Their rites were performed both to gain wordly enjoyment and to injure one's enemies. The social outlook and the goal of life of the Vedic system were based on the caste system. The so-called 'Sudras, the lower community, were considered ineligible to perform spiritual rites.2 SRAMANIC SYSTEM
Contrary to this, there was another cultural system prevelant at the same time in the society and that is Sramana. The Sramana tradition was based on equality and equanimity and self-efforts leading to salvation. According to it a being is himself responsible for his own deeds. Salvation, therefore, can be attained by anybody. Ritual in its opinion is not a means of emancipation. The only means of escaping from misery of Samsāra is the path of moral, mental and spiritual development based on complete non-violence and truth. The Sramana cultural system was led by the Ksatrayas who were spiritually more developed in practically all the spheres.
Since both these classes were leaders in the societies, the clashes between them were ought to have taken place. Hence, considering the contravention, divergence and antypathy, some of the scholars are of view that the Sramana cultural system is a sequel to protest the so called Brāhmanic philosophy. But this conclusion cannot be accepted, since the vedic literature itself contains several references to the Sramanas under the names of Vratyas, Arhatas, Asuras etc. It is, therefore, incorrect to say that Sramanism is an offshoot of Brāhmanism. As a matter of fact, its existence can be proved even earlier. But if it is not accepted due to certain reasons, one cannot reject the view that the two are parallel systems which have existed side by side without the one being an off-shoot of the other. Both the systems are continued parallelly since the time
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immemorial
The Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas admit the sacrifices and rituals which involved huge expenditure without spiritualism and mental purification. But the Upanisadas considered the soul as the base of religious thinking and meditation as the way of salvation. The change of this attitude towards the materialism needs our attention to investigate the cause of reality.
Most of the Upanisadas belong to post Buddhist period. By this time the religion of Tirthankara Pārsvanath, became very popular. Then Sramana leaders and philosophers like Mahavira and Buddha expressed their dissastisfaction on Vedic theology and preached the human beings the pathway of purification by dint of right vision, right knowledge and right conduct. The Upanişadic seers thought over the vexed questions and changed the Vedic philosophy accordingly. The adoption of a new attitude must have been a result of the influence of Sramaņa ideology. For instance, the Vratas of Jainism and Silas of Buddhism are not found in the Vedas, Brāhmaṇas and Aranyakas. The Upanişadas, Puranas and Smritis where they are mentioned belong to post-period of Parsvanatha, Mahavira and the Buddha. Mahavira and Buddha, as a matter of fact, developed the Vrātas of Pārsvanātha in terms of Panca Mahāvratas and Astangika mārgas respectively.
Likewise, asceticism (Sanyāsa) has been a prominent element of both Jainism and Buddhism. There were only two ways in the vedic religion, i.e. Brahmacarya and Grihastha Asrama. Sanyāsa is included therein afterwards. The Taittiriyāranyaka (1.62), Chandogyopanişada (2.23.1), Vrihadāranyaka (4.4.22) Jābālopanisada (4), Baudhāyana Dharmasūtra (2.6.30) etc. have, of course, mentioned it : but these texts are not so ancient ones. In the Sramana tradition there are only two ways prescribed, i.e. Grihastha and Sramana (asceticism) A Grihastha becomes Sramana and "Sramnya (ascetism) is much better than Grihasthäsrama (Uttaradhyayana, 2.29). The conception of soul, karma, Nirvana etc. were also taught by the Sramanas and Ksatriyas to Brāhmanas and Upanişadic Risis, as said by King Prabāhana to Aruni - Yatheyam vidyetah pūrvam na kašmiscana Brāhmana uvāsa tām tvaham tubhyam vaksyāmi, Brhadāraṇyakopanişada, (6.2.8).
In this context let us understand the derivation and meaning of the word 'Sramana which will assist in comprehending the nature of 'Sramana cultural units, Jainism and Buddhism. Dr. V. S. Pathak tried to reveal the fact that Shramanas were originally wanderers or Parivrajakas. According to him the word Sramana may
be derived from IE Klem kram = 'Sram. He supported his view by quoting the Satapatha Brahmana where the verbal forms of the root 'Sram occur in collocation of Cara to move e.g. Sramayantasceruh (1.2.5.7; 1.6.2.3: 1.5.3.3) and Srāmyan = cacāra (1.8.1.7; 1.8.1.10; 25.1.3., 3.9.14; 11.1.67 etc.). A verse from the Aitareya Brāh. (VLL. 15) may also be produced, i.e. Asya sarve pāpmanah sramena prapathe hatā (all his sins are slain on the road by Srama i.e. wandering).
It may be noted that the word Sramana in the sense of Priest is used by Finno-Ugrians who might have contact with the Indo-Aryans at the early stage of the Rigvedic period. The priesthood is the fundamental characteristic of Srāmanism which is based on the Carana or movement. The connotation of Caranas was developed into establishing the temporary colonies devoted to various gods with sacrifices.
The Indo-European languages have also possessed the same meaning of the word Sramana; For instance Sogdian "smn" or srmn," the Khotanese "ssmana" or "Sarmanoi, Tocharian "Saman" or "Samana", Iranian, Parthian "Cam to run and Persian chanidan to stride boldly. Frinno-Ugrian "Shaman", the Latin root Colore (Skt. Char), the Greek "Telos" and so on. These words represent the Pre-Vedic philosophy of Sramanas.
The practice of Srama is closely associated with tapas or austerities as found in the Atharvaveda (IV 35.2; VI 133.3; X 7.36 etc.). It is also associated with old Slav "Tep" to strike, and with "Pehlvi Tapah Kartan" to destroy" which may be supported by Greek askētikos, Latin asceticus or askēsos as a religious practice of physical mortification. It may be noted here that the Rigveda does not mention the physical mortification. However, the Atharvaveda recognized it as a path of spiritual realization.
Thus the Sramaņa tradition goes back to the IndoIranian period and definitely belongs to the pre-Vedic period. The words Arihant, Tirthankara, Vrātya, Muni etc. which are popular in the Srāmanic tradition are also referred to in the Vedas as the Sramanic practices karmas and attainment of Nirvana with the view "Mitti me sabbabhuesu", iii, Srma to exert, labour, effort or to perform austerity himself with the view "No niheija viriyam), iv) Non-violence (Ahimsā) - Ayatule payasu, v) to limit the desires (iccha-parimana) - Vittena tānam na labhe pamatte; vi) to accept completely pure and vegetarian meals and to be emancipated from intoxications (Ahāra-visúddi and Vyasana - mukti) amajjamaṁsāsi; vii) Anekānta (non-absolutism) - Appaņa saccamesejjā; viii) Samatā (equanimity) samayādhammaudāhare muni; ix) affection on religious
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persons (sādhārmika Vātsalya) - Uvavüha thirikarane.
These characteristics of the Sramana system clarify the differences between the Vedic and Sramanika outlook in three respects, viz. i) attitude to society, ii) goal of life, and iii) outlook towards living creatures. These differences may be understood as follows:1) Preponderence of detachment in the Sramanas
which is not found in the Brāhmanas. 2) Knowledge is accompanied with right conduct in
the Sramanas. 3) Sramana monk will have to be houseless and
observe celibacy. 4) A Sramana monk cannot own the property of any
kind. 5) Greater importance in Sramana system is given to
renunciation and not on the house-holder's stage. 6) There is no place for the sacrifice (yajna) and
priesthood in the Sramanic system which saved
the division of the society-into casts. 7) Total observation of non-violence in 'Sramana
system. Cessation of activity and not the ritualism is the main cause to attain the Nirvana in Sramana
system. 9) Srāmanic system is based on the individual and
not the society. 10) One is himself responsible for his deeds. God or
Deity is nothing to with. 11) 'Sramaņas do not accept the authority of the Veda.
These differences between the Vedic and Sramaņa cultural systems are sufficient to prove that they have their own independent origin. The emergence of Sramana system is not the result of a protest against the orthodox Vedic system made by the Ksatriyas or some other reasons as observed by some scholars. As a matter of fact, the Sramana philosophy represents the mental attitude of a particular group of religious people and therefore it bears a in independent identity in itself. This fact can be revealed right from Indus Civilization and the Vedic literature.
The Indus civilization and its counter cultural sides Harappa, Baluchistan, Rajasthan etc. have been placed through the radio-carbon method under the period about 3000 B.C. The authorship of the civilization is not yet decided, but normally the scholars like Allchins are of view that it was authoured improbably by the people of Indo-European or Indo-Iranian family or that it is the
creation of the Dravidians. Of these, it may be authered by the Dravidians. As we know, Drawid is the name of one of the sons of Risabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainas, who happened to be a leader of Vidyadharas, the ancestors of Dravidas. The Vidyadharas were the spiritual leaders and worshippers of Sramana culture headed by the Jainas.
Indus civilization is related with pre-Aryan pre-Vedic culture. It may be of earlier than that of Egypt and Sumerian cultures belonging to Chalcolothic period. The people of the Indus civilization were polytheustic. They used to worship the both male and female gods found in the excavation of Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Most of them are in yogic postures, either in Padmasana or Kūrmāsana or Khadgāsana. The nude figures excavated in Indus Valley and Lohanipur may be identified as the Jaina statues of Tirthankaras, most possibly of Risabhadeva. The Jaina literature discribes the Kāyotsarga posture of Rişabhadeva in connection with his penance. Some scholars such as G. C. Pande, R. N. Dandekar, and Marshal are of view that it is the figure of a god who was a proto-type of later Siva. But this view cannot be accepted as prototype of Shiva is nowhere found in a nude form, which is main characteristic of Jaina image. The Yogic postures are also intimately associated with Nāgas, Ašvas, elephants and other animals which are accepted as the symbols of Jaina Tirthankaras. CULTURAL ASPECTS IN VEDIC LITERATURE
After the decline and collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, the Vedic civilization emerges on Indian soil and becomes very prominent through the ages. Aryans were the leaders of Vedic culture and Anäryans were connected with Sramana culture. The Rigveda is undoubtedly the most ancient document of the Aryans which may be placed near about 2000 B.C. We are not here to prove the dates of Vedic and post - Vedic Sanskrit literature; but this much can, of course, be said that the antiquity of Sramana culture can easily be traced in the Vedic literature. The Indus civilization is known to the image worship which was not prevelent in the Vedic age. The Vedic sages are there seen in offering prayers and sacrifices with expectation of worldly rewards from gods. The Vedic religion is the religion of priests and upper classes. Those who had opposed their nonhumanistic and violent approach in connection with the attainment of worldly pleasures were treated as opponents. The clashes were occurred among these two groups. The supremacy of Vedic groups in classes may be observed when the opponants were given the nomenclature such as Dasa, dasyu, vrátya, muni, arhat
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and so on. They might have come to an agreement afterwards. As a result, the Vedic sages have devoted some hymns in the praise of Risabhadeva, and changed their attitude towards the society and beings. The Atharvaveda reflects such ideas and refers to the common religious ideals of the Aryans and non-Aryans with an admixtural point. NON-VEDIC GROUPS IN VEDIC LITERATURE
The opponent group to the Brāhmaṇical religion is mentioned in the Rigveda (11.12.5) as the people who believed neither in the existence of Indra and nor in heaven. They are called Yatudhānas (who causes Yatana) in the Rigveda. The non-Rigvedic Aryans are also named as Raksasas in some verses who opposed the rituals of Indra. As a matter of fact, the Vrätyas, Munis, Rākşasas, Yatis, and others were like-minded groups of Srāmanic ideology.
The term Vrātya is derived from Vrata - vow. The Vrātyakānda of the Atharvaveda describes the characteristics of Vrātyas, the Non-Vedic Aryans who used to practise austerities. Achārya Sāyana has appreciated the Vrätyas by calling them Vidvattama, Mahādhikāra. Punya'sila, Visvasammānya, and Brāhmanavišişta in the Sātyanabhāşya (AV. 15.1.11). Dr. Sampurnananda in his Atharvaveda Vrātyakānda (P. 1) signifies the Vrātyas a Parmātman which is not correct. The Vrätyakända itself signifies the Vrātya, a human being.
The subject matter of the Vrātyakända may be compared with the life of Risabhadeva who have been honoured by the Vedic Risis in several verses. The Vrātyas were definitely against the Vedic ideology (AV. xv. 12.1.4). According to the Panchavimsa Brāhaman, they were divided into two classes, i.e. the Arhatas and Yaudhas. As we know, the Arhathood is very popular in Sramana culture in the sense of Vitaragatva. The Buddhist monks were also called Arhat. The word Arhat is used in the Rigveda (2.4.33.10) in the sense of a leader of Sramaņas :Arhan bibharşi sayakani dhanvārhanniskam yajatam
višvarūpam Arhannidam dayase višvamabhvam na vā ojiyo rudra
tvadasti. The Muni Group of the Vedic literature represents the Srämanic ideology of Jainism and Buddhism. Its ascetic tendency does not reflect the Nivritti dharma of the Vedic religious ideas, as observed by some scholars like G. C. Pande; but it is really a part of Jainism, the Sramanology. Dr. G. C. Pande himself admits that the Vedic religion was "in the beginning essentially Pravritti
dharma but later on partly through inner evolution and more through the influence of the Muni Sramanas it developed Nivritti dharma as a tendency within its fold." (Studies in origin of Buddhism, P. 261).
The Munis of the Rigveda were the followers of Tirthankara Risabhadeva. The famous Kesisukta (Rv. X. 136) describes a Muni who bears long hair, clads in dirty, tawn-coloured garments, walks in the air or flies. He is delirious with the state of being a muni. He enjoys friendship with Vāyu and drank poison with Rudra. He follows the moving wind and attained the status of God. Mortal men could only see his body and no more. He treads the path of sylvan beasts, Gandharvas and Apsaras :
Munayo vātarasanah pisangāḥ vasate malā. Vātasyānudhrājim yanti yaddevāso abiksata. (RV.
10.11.136.2) Unmaditä mauneyana vātān ā tasthimā vayam. Sariredasmakam yuyam martaso abhi paśyatha. (Ry.
10.11.136.3) Corresponding to these references, the references to Vātarasana Sramana Risis and their leader Risabhadeva occured in the Bhāgavata Purana (Ba-hirsi tasminneva bisnudatta bhagavān paramarsibhih prasādito nābheh priyachikirsayā tadavarodhayane merudevyām dharmān darsayitukāmā vātarašanānam 'srāmananam risinam urdhvamanthinam suklaya tanvavatatāra (5.3.20) may be compared and said that Risabhadeva, the first Tirthankara of Jainas is wellrecognised by the Vedic sages. He was accepted as the incarnation of God (Sivapurana 7.2.9) even earlier to the incarnations of Rāma and Krişna.
These Sramana Munis and Risis were the followers of Muni tradition of the Rigveda and Atharvaveda (VII. 74.1). Taittiriya Aranyaka also mentions the mysterious powers attained by the Sramanic ascetics who led a celibate life and taught the Brāhmaṇas the way how to be abstained from sins (2.7.1).
Like Munis, the Yatis were also prevalent in the Vedic period. They were meditators belonged to NonAryan Group called Asuras according to the Sayanabhasya. Asuras were killed by Indra (Aitareya Brāhmanas, 7.8). The war between Devas and Danavas was the war held between Vedic Aryas and pre-Vedic Aryas (Sramanas) - (Matsya Purāna, 24.37). Asuras were not defeated atonce. The Vedic Aryas could conquer them only after the moment they became slack in following the right conduct as revealed by the dialogue held between Lakshmi and Indra (Mahabharata, 228. 49-50). Then the leadership went to the hands of Indira
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who ruled over the Northern India and the Asurasor Continuance of involution, 3) Vivatta-kappa or aeon centered in Southern India (Mahabharata, 225.37). The of evolution, and 4) Vivatta-tthāyi or continuance or Sāntiparva of the Mahabharata speaks of the spritualism evolution. The material world consists of an infinity of of the Asuras who were the followers of Sramanaworld-systems (chakkavālas). During Asamkheyyaideology (227.13).
kappas, the world-system has been completely disturbed
and then resolved. The Brahmas are reborn on the earth. The Asuras, Vratyas, Yatis and Munis were also called Brahmacharis who used to control over sexual
The earth became separated in due course from water, passions and followed Sramanology Atharvaveda, X1.5).
bodies became grass and solid and gradually the
evolution of world came into existance. Each They were also worshiper of nude figures which were
Asamkheyaya kappa is sub-divided into twenty not recognised by the Vedic Risis. Rigvedi Risis very clearly prayed "Let not Sisnadevah enter our sacrificial
Antarakappas, and each antarakappa is sub-divided into Pandala (RV. 7.21.5).
eight yugas or ages. These references compel us to be of view that the
The God in Jainism and Buddhism is neither a Sramana system was prevelent during the Vedic period.
creater and destructer nor a meditator from bestowing The Vedic Aryas were their opponent and therefore their
our result of past actions. A personal God has no place antiquity goes definitely back to Indus civilization and
in both these traditions. They deny the principles of even earlier to that it was in existence. The cult of Rudra
reward, judgement, incarnation and forgiveness. The
creation of universe depends on the nature and our or Shiva may be closely associated with the Sramana
efforts (Nimitta and Upadana.) One will have to bear the culture led by Jainas. This fact can be understood through peeping into the history of Jainism and Buddhism and
result of his own deeds. They cannot be extinguished their traditions in connection with creation of universe
simply by the mercy of God or the socalled God. Jainism
of course believes in Godhood, the parmatman stage of and conception of soul and god.
soul and in innumerable Gods. Karma stands to CREATION OF UNIVERSE
reincarnate the soul as cause to effect. It can be purged An antiquity of Jainism is co-related with the creation through following the Trinity, Right Faith, Right of universe and its tradition. According to Vedic Knowledge, and Right Conduct. Thus the universe in mythology, Brahma, Visnu and Mahesa are responsible
'Sramana cultural system is said to be an eternal for Creation, Preservation and Destruction of the Universe beginningless, endless and infinite. respectively. The universe is divided into four great
Jainism is said to be a primitive religion which epoches respectively called Satyuga, Tretāyuga,
believes that all the particles of earth, water, fire, wind Dvāparayuga and Kaliyuga. It is collectively called
and plants are possessed of life. The universe is eternal Mahāyuga which is equal to 4,320,00 years. A Kalpa is
and indestructible, not created by Brahma or the socalled equal to 1000 Mahāyugas or 4,320,000,000 years 14
God. The theory of atoms, six Dravyas and the Manus in each Kalpakāla are born in intervals of 71
worshipping of nudity form compel us to recognise its! Mahāyugas. The Purānas say that the Brahma creats traditional views which indicate the Pre-historic period the universe at the beginning of a day and the universe
and the cultural evolution of the creation. is submerged into water during the night. The disappearance of the universe is thus called Naimittika
AGES OF UNIVERSE Pralaya.
According to Jain tradition, the universe and its The Old Testament also supports the view that the
creation are eternal and infinite. It can be divided into whole world was submerged under water. When the
two parts (Kalpas), viz. Avasarpini or descending era
subdivided into six ages, viz. Susamā-suşamā, ii) susama flood subsided, all the surviving creatures spread themselves all over the world and multiplied. Thus the
ill) susama-duşama, iv) duşamā-susama, v) dusamā and new creation started again. This happens 15 times during
vi) duşamā-duşamā. 2) Utsarpini or ascending era
subdivided into six having the same names in reverse one Kalpa, where-as according to Jain tradition it is only once at the end of the 4th epoch and that too partially.
order. In the Avasarpiņi era people attain all the pleasure
and happiness at the starting point which reduce According to Buddhism, the beginning of universe
gradually upto the last era. The Utsarpini era commenses is incalculable or imperceptible (Samyuttanikāya, ii. 178).
with utmost sorrowful condition and ends with most The whole world system is grasped through the Kalpas. pleasant age. The first three of the Avasarpini era and Each Kalpa is subdivided into four periods, 1) the last three of the Utsarpini era are collectively called Samvattakappa or aeon of involution, 2) Samvatta-tthayi
the Bhogbhūmi (happy and contented) where the people
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achieve and fulfil their requirements from Kalpavriksas (wishing trees). They used to inhabitate in forest and lead their lives on fruits and roots. Art and industries were also not known to them. From historic viewpoint this may be called the early and later stone age. KARMABHUMI (AGE OF ACTION)
The remaining ages are called Karmabhumi (age of action) where the people learn to work, toil, write, trade, educate and art etc. The inventors of this age are called Kulakaras (legislators and founders of civilisation) who are said to be appeared in the first of these last three ages or in the fourth age of the era, the transitional period of the age. During the Bhogabhūmi period people used to live with a cooperative, calm and quite atmosphere under lesser necessities accomplished by the Kalpavrakşa. This natural gift weakened gradually, population enhanced, delinquencies increased, ethnic clashes advanced. The result of this phenomenal change compelled the Kulakaras to creat the revolutionary Karmabhumi period for welfare of the society. The kulas were formed by the Great sages called Kulakaras. The number of Kulakaras are varied in ancient Jain literature. The Thanänga in the Svaramandaladhikara refers to seven Kulakaras, viz. Vimalavahana, 2. Chaksusmāna, 3. Yasasvi, 4. Abhichandra, 5. Prasenajita, Marudeva, and 7. Nabhi. The Mahāpurāna’of Jinasena enumerates fourteen Kulakaras, viz. 1. Pratiksva, 2. Sanmati, 3. kşemankara, 4. Kşemandhara, 5. Simankara, 6. Simandhara. 7. Vimalavähana. 8. Chaksusmāna. 9. Yasasvi, 10. Abhichandra, 11. Chandrabha, 12. Prasenajita, 13Marudeva, and 14. Nābhi. The Jambudvipapranjnapti" adds the name of Risabhadeva to the list as the fifteentha Kulkaras. These Kulakaras changed the old order and invented a number of new methods for evolving the civilization and educating the people in various ways. In those days the life was very easy and simple. It changed gradually and as result, the Kulakaras are said to have formed three types of Dandaniti (punishment), viz. Hakara (admonition), Makara (warning) and Dhikkāra (reprimand). The first five Kulakaras found it enough to rebuke the wrong-doer with "Ha" (exclaming). The next five had the need of "Ma" to reinforce the effect of disapproval. "Ha" expressed the exclamation towards the misdoing while "Ma" signified regret, as if to say "I regret that You should have done such a thing as this 1". This was enough to curse the offences to right the way for the future. The remaining Kulakaras added "Dhik" to the existing code of penalties to express their abhorrence of the evil deed. The regular laws were laid down by Tirthankara Rishabhadeva and his son Bharat.
COMMENCEMENT OF HUMAN CIVILIZATION
The human civilization has been divided into three parts, viz. paleolithic, mesolithic and Neolithic. Human beings got real entry into civilization in the third Neolithic age which may be named Kulakara Yuga/or Utsarpini period in the light of Jain tradition. The Kulakara is, as a matter of fact, a social institution which performs the prohibitive, regulative and welfare functions for the society. The formation of state, Corporation etc. is the developed form of the Kulakara institution.
The Kulkaras are also called Manu in the Adipurana. The 14 Manvantaras in Vedic tradition also carry out the same activities. The Visnupurāna? describes the main functions of the Manvantaras.
As soon as the Karmabhumi started, the Kalpavraksas disappeared from the land and acute problem of food and other material began. Eventually. people went to Nabhirai, the fourteenth Kulakara, who sent them to Risabhadeva, the First Tirthankara. He realised the situation and instructed the people in the arts of agriculture, housing, art, architecture, reading, writing etc. He became the first teacher of mankind. Dr. H. D. Sankalia rightly pointed out that "if modern archaeology were to describe these stages of man's culture, it would call the era, which Nabhi or his son Risabha initiated, as the era of Agriculture: the one preceded would be the Stone Age period. SALAKAPURUSAS
After Kulakaras, the sixty three Great Personalities or men of mark (Salaka Purusas) are said to have been appeared on earth, viz. 1) 24 Tirthankaras :- 1. Risabha or Adinatha, 2) Ajita.
3) Sambhava, 4) Abhinandana, 5) Sumati, 6) Padmaprabha, 7) Supārsva, 8) Chandraprabha, 9) Puspadanta, or Suvidhi 10) Sitala, 11) Sreyansa, 12) Vasupujya, 13) Vimala, 14) Ananta, 15) Dharma, 16) Santi, 17) Kunthu, 18) Araha, 19) Malii, 20) Munisuvrata, 21) Nami, 22) Nemi, 23) Parsva,
and 24) Mahāvira or Varshamana. 2) 12 Chakravartis - 25. Bharata, 26) Sagara, 27)
Maghavā, 28) Sanatkumāra, 29) Sänti, 30) Kunthu, 31) Araha, 32) Subhauma, 33) Padma, 34)
Harisena, 35) Jaisena, and 36) Brahmadatta. 3) Balabhadras - 37) Achala, 38) Vijaya, 39) Bhadra,
40) Suprabha, 41) Sudarsana, 42) Ananda, 43)
Nandana, 44) Padma, and 45) Rama. 4) 9 Vasudeva or Narayanas - 46) Triprastha, 47)
Dviprastha, 48) Svayambhū, 49) Puruşottama, 50) Purusa Sangha, 51) Purusa Pundarika 52) Datta,
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53) Narayana, 54) Kruṣṇa.
5)
9 Prativasudevas or Pratinārāyanas : 55) Ašvakagriva, 56) Taraka, 57) Meraka, 58) Madhu, 59) Nisumbha, 60) Bali, 61) Prahalada, 62) Ravana, and 63) Jarasandha.
The Bhavas of these Salakāmahāpurusas have also been described in Jaina literautre at great length which can be correlated with known facts of world history. For instance, Marici and Nayasara Bhavas of Tirthankara Risabhadeva and Mahavira respectively (Avasyaka Nirvukti, 347-49) can be understood and corelated with Neolithic age. It may also be mentioned here, as pointed out by Dr. Jacobi, 27 Salakāpurusas are related to Krisna and Aristanemi or Nemi legends who played an important role at all times in the system.
PROBLEM OF ARYANS
The problem of Aryans was a very controvertial one in our ancient literature. Taking into consideration of all the views it may be said, as Ramchandra opined, that the Aryans began their historic migrations Circa 2500 B.C. from their original habitat in the South of the Circumpolar region and to the North of the Caspian and Aral Seas covering the Northern parts of the mountaneous Eurasian Steppes and the southern part of the thick Siberian forests extending upto the eastern sea-coast. This reign was known to the Post-Aryan ancients as Uttarakuru. They reached West Asia circa 2000 B.C. Greece circa 1500 B.C. and Bharat circa 1200 B.C. The Aryan hegemony in this region was firmly established by circa 1000 B.C. and in Egypt by circa 500 B.C. It has generally been held by the original scholars that the culture and civilization the Aryans annihilated, was definitely far superior both materially and spiritually than their own."
Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain is of opinion that there were three types of human groups in India, viz. i) Northern group which was spiritual, non-violent and idol-worshiper called "Aryas", ii) Southern group well-versed in arts and industries called Dravidas or Vidyadharas, and iii) Northern-western group spread over Asia, Europe, Eran etc. called "Indo-Aryan", Dr. Jain has tried to establish the theory that the Aryan and Dravidian cultures originally belong to the Jainas. He appears to be right in his stand. Dravidas were definitely other than the Vedic Aryans. They are, therefore, called Anāryans. Dāsas, Dasyus, Asuras etc. are referred to in Vedic literature as opponents of Vedas. Since the Jaina culture has been refuting the Apauruseyatva of Vedas since inception, the reference must be connected with the Jainas. The references of Risabhadeva, the First Tirthankara of Jainas also occurred therein.
SHRIMAD JAYANTSENSURI ABHINANDAN GRANTH/ENGLISH SECTION

TIRTHANKARA RISABHADEVA
Risabhadeva was the son of Manu Nabhi and Marudevi. He taught the arts of agriculture, writing etc. to the human race and therefore he is worshipped as "The God of Agriculture" or "Sun-God". He was called Reshef by Phoenecians and Apollo by the Greeks etc.11 The Rigveda12 refers to him clearly. Vatarasana Munis occurred in the Vedas must be related with Risabhadeva and Digambar Munis and their Sadhanās 13 The Bhāgavat Purāṇa, refers to his life and penance in detail which is followed by Visnu, Siva, Agni, Kurma, Markandeya, Vayu and other Purānas. According to it Risabhadeva was fifth Manu who enthroned his son Bharat, renounced the world through penance and attained Kaivalya. It is also said that he was an incarnation of Visnu who took the birth for promotion of the teachings of Vatarasanā Śramanas.
20
The Rigveda praises the Kesi highly prior to the Vatarašanās which indicates that the Kesi was the leader of them.14 The Sivapurana15 refers to him as one of the twenty eight Avatāras, the protector of a certain form, even prior to Rāma, Krishna. The reason of his incarnation as mentioned earlier is said to preach the religion of Vatarasana Sramaņa sages.16 The another reason was to instruct the people and spread the Kevalajnana1. On the basis of comparative study of the Rigveda and the Bhagavat Purana one can easily come to the conclusion that the Siva and the Risabha are one and the same. This fact can be supported by another hyme of the Rigveda itself where Kesi and Risabha have simultaneously been mentioned :
Kakardave Vrṣabho yukt āsi, avavacita sarathirasya
kesi.
Dudher yuktasya dravataḥ sahānasa, rochantisma nispado mudgalanim. 18
The historicity of Rṣabhadeva can also be proved by archaeological evidence. Most of the scholars are of view that the people of Indus valley were most civilized and cultured. Marshall19 ascribed it to Dravidians who may be followers of Jainism particularly Rṣabhadeva whose images in Kayotsarga position are found in Harappa and Mohenzodaro. T. N. Ramchandran is right to say that "we are perhaps recognising in Harappa statutte a fullfledged Jain Tirthankara in the characteristic pose of physical abandon (Kayotsarga). The statutte under description is, therefore, a splendid representative specimen of this thought of Jainism at perhaps its very inception.20 This torso most probably represents Tirthankara Risabhadeva. Similarly the figures on the Mohenjodaro cells, too, depict the Yoga pose in nude form of the Jinas.

अपने मन मस्तिकष्क से, चिन्तन कर के मित्र । जयन्तसेन सुकर्म कर, निर्मल होत चरित्र ॥

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The Kāyotsarga pose is very popular in Jainism. It is a special freature of Jaina Tirthankara as observed by Acārya Hemacandra. This is the main reason why Dr. Kalidas Nag recognised the ancient Argiv Statues of ten thousand years old as the statue of Rsabhadeva. Mohenjodaro excavation gives us an impression that the expanded hood of a snake marked on the heads of the statues there is a sign of Naga clan. As we know, the Nāga, Yakşa, Gandharva, Kinnara and Dravida clans were originally belonged to Sramana cult, existed prior to Vedic cult. On the basis of these references we can assume that the Sramana cult is even older than Brāhmana cult. BHARATA AND BAHUVALI
Rsabhadeva and his sons Bharat and Bahubali are well-known personalities to literature, art and architecture. Let us know something about the status of them found at Sramanavelagola, the place for penance and meditation of Lord Bahubali and Candragupta Maurya, the Samrat of Magadh. The colossus of Bhagwan Bahubali is the best and the most important ancient monument in the field of Indian iconography: Lord Bahubali, as we know, was one of the beloved sons of Tirthankara Rsabhadeva, the son of the last Kulakara Nābhirāya. He was married to Yasasvati (Sunanda) and sumangala with a newly established method which was not adopted earlier. Yasasvati gave birth to Bharat and Brahmi and Sumangala to Bahubali and Sundara. It is said that 98 more sons were born from Sumangala 21 According to Jinasena, the total number of sons were 101 adding the name Rşabhasena.22
Tirthankara Rsabhadeva distributed his kingdom among the princes. Out of them, Bharata, the eldest son became the sovereign of Ayodhyā and Bahubali was enthroned to Podanapura. We do not find any other detailed description as to which provinces were allotted to other sons. The names of provinces have been generally mentioned in the Puranas of course.
Later Bharata started all efforts to fulfil his ambition to be Cakravarti. He was finally opposed by Bahubali and consequently the war between them became essential to determine as to who was more powerful. On declaration of war, the leaders of both the sides thought that the war would cause a destruction and misery to both the parties. Hence it had to be avoided at any cost. Bharata and Bahubali were persuaded by the elders to avoid the bloodshed and restrict the conflit to both of them only. According to one concept the duel was restricted to Dristiyuddha (starting constantly at each other till one of them is exhausted), Jalayuddha (splashing of water) and mallayuddha (wrestling). At last
Bharata could not meet the challenge and was defeated by Bahubali. Bharata was frustrated and provoked so much that he hurled the Cakra on Bāhubali. But it could not hurt him at all.
The reaction of this unfortunate event on the mind of Bahubali was that he renounced worldly life and went to mount Kailasa for severe penance. He ultimately attained Kevalajāna and then Nirvana. RECOGNITION OF PODANPUR
Now the question is as to how the place Podanapur! could be recognised. Jinasena described the cultural peculiarties of the provinces. An envoy of Bharata Cakravarti had come to visit Podanapura to convey the message of Bharata to Bahubali. Podanpura, the capital of Bahubali's kingdom, might have been in the present Andhra Pradesha. Gunabhadra made it clear that Podanpura was situated in South India.
Jambu Visessane dvipe Bhārate dakşine mahān. Suramye vişayastatra vistirnam podanam puram.23
The Buddhist literature also supports the view that Podanapura (Potan, Podan, Patali) was the capital of Ašmaka šituated on the bank of the Godavari.24 Panini also agres with this view.25
Dr. Hemachandra Rai Chaudhari recognises Bodhana as Podana of the Mahabhārata and Pottana of Buddhist literature. The Vasudevahindi also supports the view of Dr. Rai Chaudhari.
The Svetāmbara tradition in general is of the view that Taksašila was the capital of Bahubali. One tradition says the Podanpura town is Bodhana of Nizamabada district in Andhra Pradesa. The Bharatakavya of Pampa. the Vemulvada Piller inscription and the Parvani Copper Inscription also support the view. This town was also the capital of the Rāstrakuta king Indraballabha. Tha Jaina temple therein was converted into a mosque during the Mugala period.
According to the Jaina tradition, Bharata had installed the Bāhubali statue at Podanapura. After a sufficient gape of period it was covered and became difficult to locate. Acārya Jinansena narrated the whole story to the mother of Camundarai who went on to find out the exact place at Padanapura 25 He visited on the way the Candragupta Vasadi of Sramanabelagola and paid homage to Lord Pārsvanātha and Acārya Bhadrabahu. It is said that during the night in a dream he was instructed by Padmavatidevi that it would not be possible for him to reach Podanapura. But he could have a Darsana of Bahubali there itself, if he threw a golden arrow from Candragiri to the South direction.
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Cāmundarāya shot the arrow in the Southern direction Later on the Colas invaded and occupied Gangavādi and the upper portion of the Bahubali statue became and Talakādā. This was the starting point of the fall of visible. The statue was then discovered. Then it was the Ganga dynesty. Kaliganga, the younger brother of methodised by artists. Eventually the Mastakabhiseka Rakkasaganga expelled the Colas from Mysore province was performed with the kind assistance of Gullakāyaji. and established the kingdom of Hyesala Naresa Cāmundaraya named the town as Belagola and donated Vişnuvardhana (116 A.D.). 96 thousand Varahas for its administration and welfare.
Vişnuvardhana and eitht Generals, i.e. Gangarāja. This event is found described in the Bhujavalicarita Bappa, Punisa, Baladeva, Mariyana, Eca and Visnu. of Pancabāna and also in the SramanabelagolāGangarāja, the minister of Vişnuvardhan was the inscription No. 84 (250). With slight variation it is also prominent one. His mother Pecikave had constructed a available in the Bhujabalisataka, Gommateswaracarita, number of Jaina temples in Sravanabelagolā. Gangarāja Rājāvalikatha and Sthalapurana. However Cāmundarāya constructed a Nisadyā in her memory in is recognised unanimously as the one who installed the Sravanabelagolā. Two more inscriptions are available Gommatesvara statue. This is also recorded in the which show as to how Gangarāja was brave and honest Sravanabelagolā inscriptions No. 75 (179-180), 76 (175, to his master. He defeated the Colas and Cālukyas and 176, 177), 85 (234) and 105 (254). No. 75 and 76 are saved Gangavādi. Vişnuvardhan was pleased, and on engraved on the left and right of the statue. They can his demand, he donated Govindavādi and Parama be, therefore, considered the earliest ones.
villages for the conduct of worship of Gommatesvara. Boppana Pandita composed a hymn in praise of
Gangarāja presented these villages to his mother Bahubali entitled Sujanottamsa which is engraved on
Pocaladevi and wife Lakşmidevi for conducting the
worship in the Jaina temples constructed by them. He the left side of the Gommatesvara door. Camundarāya
had also constructed some more Jaina temples and is also said to be a main source of installing the statue.
made contribution to the development of The Gommatesavara statue became very popular. Sravanabelagola. His sons Boppa and others also did a A number of events are connected with it. It is a traditional
lot towards its development. beleif that there was a shower of Namerupuspa on the statue. No bird flies upon it. All the while, fragrance and
Gangarāja Marasimha and his General lustre from the below portions of the hands of the statue
Cāmundaraya assisted the Rastrakūta kings Akālvarsa
III, Khottiga, Indra IV etc., in saving their kingdoms from were coming out 26 people come from all walks of life to
the Colas, Pāndyas, Gurjaras, Cālukyas, Kirātas etc. pay homage to Lord Bahubali's statue with the hope that they would be free from diseases and get the way
Though the Rastrakutas and the Calukyas did not do! to prosperity in the material field and also would get
much towards the development of Sravanabelagola spiritual satisfaction.27
directly. They protected the holy place and the
monuments indirectly. The inscriptions found around This excellent and enormous statue installed by
Sravanabelagola area reveal the facts in this connection. Cāmundarāya is the best and most important ancient in comparison to other dysasties the Ganga dynasty monument in the field of Indian iconography in particular.
contributed much to protecting and developing the The Camundaraya Purāna (978 A.D.) does not mention
Sravanabelagola complex. about the statue but Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravarti, the teacher of Camundaraya, refers to it in the
The Bahubali statue of Sravanabelagola made him Gommattasära (993 A.D.). This means that the statue
very much popular in all the spheres and walks of life. was installed between 978-993 A. D. Govinda Pai, Dr.
Its description was not therefore out of context. As Nemicandra Shastri, Dr. Jyoti Prasad Jain and others
already pointed out, in all the three conflicts (Dristiyuddha, have come to the conclusion that the Bahubali statue
Jalayuddha and mallayuddha) Bāhubali overcome Bharat was installed on Sunday, the 5th of Caitrasukla in 981
in all the Yuddhas and then renounced the world forthwith A.D.
and became the monk. Bharat repenting for the
unfortunate event apologised but could not succeed to Camundaraya had also built on the Candragiri the bring him back. Bāhubali performed severe penance so Jaina temple called Cāmundaraya Vasadi in about 985 much that ant-hills sprang up about him. Eventually he A. D. which was extended by his sons Ecana and
attained omniscience. Jinadevan. Rakkasaganga (985 A.D.), the son of Govinda has been mentioned as Rakkasamani (Gangavajra) in
Bharat was very considerate and sober-minded the inscription of Bahubalivasadi (Sravanabelagolā). The
Cakravarti. He ruled over kingdom with religious Jaina Acarya Vijayadeva Nagavarma was his teacher 28 performance and then became muni and attained the
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Nirvana. Our country was named Bhāratvarsa after his name ANTIQUITY OF OTHER TĪRTHANKARAS
Amongst other Tirthankaras some important ones should be mentioned here in addition to Vedic literature, the Pāli and Buddhist literature too mention the names of Jain Tirthankaras. Rsabhadeva is called one of the Jain Tirthankaras in Chinese Buddhist literature. (The Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist terms, p. 184).29 The Manjusrimulakalpa (45.27 Ed. by Ganapati Shastri, Trivendram, 1920)30 refers to him as Rsabhanirgrantharupin, and the Dharmottarapradipa (p. 288) mentions him along with the name of Vardhamāna or Mahāvira. It may be noted here that the name of Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas in Buddhism appear to have been influenced by those of the Jain Tirthankaras. For instance, Ajita, the name of second Tirthankara has been given to the Paccekabuddha who lived ninety-one Kappas ago.32 Padma, the sixth Tirthankara, is the name of the eighth of the twenty-four Buddhas, 33 It is also the name of Paccekabuddha to whom Anupama Thera offerred some Akuli flowers.34 Canda is the name of a chief lay supporter of Shikhi Buddha. Puffavati is the name of Benaras in the Jätaka.35 It would have been named after Puspadanta. Vimala, Paccekabuddha, has been named after the thirteenth Tirthankara. Likewise, Dhamma, the name of the fifteenth Tirthankara of Jainas, has been given to a Bodhisatva.36
Munisurvratanatha was worshipped by the people who lived even before Lord Rāma. Some of his images had been unearthed at Kankāli Tilā, Mathurā. Aristanemi or Nemi the twenty-second Tirthankara, is referred to in the Dhammikasuta of the anguttaranikāya. The Majjhimanikāya (Isigilisutta) refers to Arittha as one of the twenty-four Pratyekabuddhas who inhabited the Rsigiri mountain. The Dighanikāya draws our attention to the name of Drdhanemi as a Cakkavatti. In the same work there is a reference to king Aritthanemi who is called a Yakkha.37 The Mahābhārata refers to him as Jinesvara. Lord Krisna was his real cousin. The Yajurveda also refers to him.38
Dr. Prananath is of opinion on the basis of a copper plate grant of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnazzar 1 (1140 B.C.) that the king came to Mount Revata to pay the homage to Lord Nemi. Upto the period of Tirthankara Neminatha, the historical tradition of Jainism is not being recognised unanimously by the historians and archaeologists as well inspite of sufficient corroborative literary evidences. The scholars unfortunately questioned the veracity of its statements. Mrs. Sinclair Stevension
rightly observed "It is the misfortune of Jainism that so much of its life-story falls within these unexplored tracts of time, and, though, the Jainas have kept historical records of their own, it is very difficult to correlate these records with known facts in the world's history. 30 TĪRTHANKARA PĀRSVANĀTHA
Tirthankara Pārsvanātha is undoubtedly a historic personage who flourished 250 years earlier than Mahāvira or Nigantha Nātaputta at Varanasi, was born to king Asvasena and queen Vāmā. He belonged to the Ksatriya clan of the Nāgas, called Ugravamsi having royal emblem of hooded cobra. He rendered his remarkable services to humanity by teaching Nonviolence and attained Nirvāṇa on the Sammeda Sikhara which is called today the Parsvanātha hill. The Anguttara mentions the names of kings of Vārānasi - Brahmadatta, Uggasena, Dhananjaya, Mahasilava, Samyama, Vissasena etc.40 Pärsvanātha belongs to the Ugravamsa which may have been named after Uggasena and Vissasena may be recognised as his father. Brahmadatta is also said to have been a Jain king who devoted his whole life for Jainism. Vappa of Manorathapuran, the Buddhas uncle was a follower of Parsvanatha tradition.
In early Pali literature various doctrines of Jainism have been acknowledged. They belong to Pārsvanātha or Aristanemi, if not to earlier Tirthankaras. Pārsvanatha was known as Purisajaniya or the distinguished man according to the Anguttara Nikāya. The Dharmottarapradipa (P. 286) also refers to both Pārsvanatha and Ariştanemi. The Caturyāmasamvara, which is attributed to the Nigantha Nataputta in the Sämannaphalasutta, is in reality a teaching of Parsvanātha. Some Niganthas mentioned in Pali literature are apparently followers of Parsvanātha. For instance, Vappa,41 Uali,42 Abhaya, 43 Aggivessayana Saccaka, 44 Dighatapassi,45 Asibandhakaputta Gāmani, 46 Deva Nink, Upatikkha Sina, 49 are lay followers while Sacca, Liha, Avavadic, patacarso are lay women followers of the Pārsvanatha tradition. They had later on become the followers of the Nigantha Nataputta. Jacobi, therefore, says that Parsva was a historical person. This is now admitted by all as very probable.
The archaeological evidence also supports the fact. The scenes concerning his life, belonging to 2nd century B.C. are found in sculpture in the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri. The inscription found in Mathura Kankälitilā in this connection indicates his popularity. some more hundreds of sculptures can be cited to prove his historicity.
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TYPES OF SRAMANA SYSTEM IN THE SIXTH-FIFTH C.B.C.
By the time of Tirthankara Pārsvanātha, the Sramana system was divided into several categories. During Tirthankara Mahavira and Mahātmā Buddha some more categories would have been added to the list. The Dasavaikalika Niryukti gives some synonymatic words for Sramana - Pravrajita, anagara, pasanda, caraka, tapasa, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, šramana, nirgrantha, samyata, mukta, tirna, trāyi, dravya, muni, kşānta, danta, virata, ruksa and tirastha (158-159). Of these Caraka, tapasa, parivrajaka etc. are connected with Non-Jaina Sramanik traditions. The Jaina literature describes five types of Sramaņa tradition, i.e. i) Nirgrantha (Jainas), ii) Sakya (Buddhists). Tāpasa (Jatilas), iv) Geruka (Tridandi Parivrājakas), and v) Ajivaka (followers of Gosālaka) - (Pravacanasāroddhāra, 731-33).
As discussed earlier, Tirthankara Rsabhadeva is supposed to be originator of Srāmanism. Its progressive and humanistic approach made a paramount impact on Vedic and Upanisadic seers. Therefore, sometimes the compound designation "Samana-Brahmana" or "Brāhmana-Samana" to denote a religious sect that is opposed to the caste superiority of the Brāhmana community and its ritualism. T.W. Rhys Davids rightly says that Samana connotes both asceticism and inward peace. Samana-Brāhmana should therefore mean, a man of any birth who by his reputation as a religious thinker, had acquired a position of a quasi-Brahmana and was looked up to by the people with as much respect as they looked up to a Brähmana by birth. "(Dialogues of the Buddha, 11, intro. P. 165). Jain literature also gives the same connotation to this term. Sometimes the term Samana-Brahamana is also used in Pāli-Prākrit literature either for the followers of the Brahmana community or for any follower of any sect of Sramaņas.
The leaders of Sramaņa system were referred to in Buddhist literature as "Heritical teachers (Tirthankaras). These contemporary teachers "were doubtless, like the Buddha himself, inspired by the wave of dissastisfaction with the system of orthodox Brahmanism." Six such teachers are mentioned in the Pali Canon :- 1) Purana Kassapa, 2) Makhali Gosāla, 3) Ajita Kesakambali, 4) Pakudha Kaccāyana, 5) Sanjaya Belatthiputta, and 9) Nigantha Nataputta. Most of them are somehow related to Sramanic Jainism as I have already discussed in detail in my earlier Thesis "Jainism in Buddhist literature (1972) TĪRTHANKARA MAHĀVĪRA AND MAHĀTMĀ BUDDHA
Tirthankara Mahavira and the Mahātmā Buddha
were the great spiritual leaders of India in sixth-fifth century B.C. They followed the ancient Sramana tradition from which they had been alienated by the pressures of secular society. They have found their ways through psychoanalysis, social concern, involement in the movements for peace and justice. Both the spiritual leaders created an atmosphere of trust and understanding through interreligious dialogue, the unparallel vehicle and the model for developing the distinctive spiritual journey of the time for entire human community and souls. Age of Spiritual Leaders
During this period there emerged great spiritual leaders, prophets and philosophers whose teachings represent a change from muthic to self-reflective thinking and individualistic purification. For instance, Confucius and Lao-tse-tung appeared in China; Zoroaster in persia; Elijah, Isaiah and Jeremian in Isarel; Pythagoras Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Moses in Asia Minor in Greece. Likewise in our India there were very popular scholar some Vedic and Upanisadic ages like Asila Devala, Dvaipāyana, Pārāsara, Nami, Videhi Ramagupta. Bahuka, Nārāyana etc. and Srāmanic teachers like Buddha, Makkhali Gosala, Sanjaya Velatthiputta, Pakudha Kaccäyana, and others who were imparting the spiritual teachings according to their own traditions.
The Sämannaphalasutia of the Dighanikāya mentions six heritical teachers and the Brahmajalasutta refers to 62 types of Micchaditthis (Pubbantanuditthis 18 and Aparantanuditthis - 44). These Micchaditthis are related with soul, universe, rebirth etc. which are resulted in the establishment of the views like Ucchedavada, Amarāvikkhepavāda, Nevasanninäsannivada, etc. The Prakrit literature perhaps divides these views into 363 types (Kriyāvada 180, Akriyāvāda 84, Ajnänavāda 67, and Vinayavāda 32).
Kriyāvada believes in existence of nine Tattvas (Jiva, Ajiva, Ashrava, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjara, Moksa, Punya and Papa) with the help of Svatan and Paratan, and Nitya and Anitya in five ways, viz. Kāla, niyati, svabhāva, isvara and atma - 9 x 2 x 2 x 5 = 180. Sankhyas, Naiyāyikas, Vaisesikas, Bauddhas and Jainas are included into the Kriyāvādi philosphy.52 In contrary to Kriyavāda, the Akriyāvada does not believe in existence of seven Tattvas with the help of svatah and paratah in six ways (kāla, yadrccha etc.) = 7x 2 x 6 x = 84.53 The Buddha is said to be both Kriyavadi and Akriāvādai, Nigantha Nātaputta as Kriyāvādi and Cārvak as Akriyāvadi in Pāli literature. The Ajnänavada is of 63 types. In its opinion the nine tattvas cannot be perceived by seven ways (Sat, asat, sadasat. avaktavya, sad
Kri
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vaktavya, asadvaktavya, and sadasadvaktavya) = 9x7Humvauddha, Dantukkhaliya, Nimajjaka, Sampakkhala. = 63. Sanjaya Velatthiputta is the originator of the view Dakkhikulaga, Uttarakulaga, Sankhadhammaka, according to the Dighanikāya. 54 Silankācārya relates by Kuladhammaka, Miy aluddhaya, Ratthitavasa, mistake the Ajnanavāda, Niyativāda, and Vinayavāda Uddandaka, Disaspekkhi, Vakkaposi, Ambivasi, Bilavasi. with Makkhali Gosālaputta who is the exposer of the Belavāsi, Rukkhamulia, and Ambubhakkhi.61 The same Niyativāda, undoubtedly.55 The Vinayavāda believes that Sutra mentions some of the Pravrajita Sramanas, viz. the salvation can be attained by paying an honour to Sankhya, Joi, (jogi). Kapila, Bhrgutya, Hansa. Devas, kings, sages, clans, aged persons, lower class Paramahansa, Bahudaya, Kudiwaya, Kanhapariwayaga, people and parents through mind, words, body and views etc. The seven types of Ajivika Sramanas are also = 8 x 4 = 32.
mentioned there in the Sutra, viz. Dugharantariya, Acarya Akalanka mentioned some more names as
Tigharantariya, Satagharāntariya, Uppalaventiya the exposers of the views. According to his
Gharasamudaniya, Vijjuantariya, and Uttiyasamanas. Tattvārthavārtika, Kautkala, Kāneviddhi, Kausika,
Seven types of so called Ninhavas are also explained Harismasru, Mancapika, Romasa, Harita, Munda,
there, viz. Bahuraya (Jamali). Jivapaesiya (Tisyagupta), Asvalayana etc. were the Kriyavādis. Maricikumara.
Avvattiya (Aşādācārya), Samuccheiya (Asvamitra). Kapila, Uluka, Gargya, Vyāghrabhuti, Vaduli, Mathara,
Dokiritiyă (Gangācārya), Terasiya (Rohigupta) and Maudgalyāyāna etc. were Akriyavādis. Sākalya, Valkala,
Abaddhiya (Gostha Mahila). Out of five types of Samanas Kuthumi, Satyamugra, Narayana, Vrdhha, Madhyandina,
(Niganthas, Sakyas, Tapasas, Gairikas, and Ajivikas) Mauda, Paipalāda, Vādarāyana, Ambasthi
the only Nirgranthas (Jainas) and Sākyas (Bauddhas) Krdauvikāyana, Vasu, Jemini etc. were Ajnanavādis. And
are remained these days. Vasiştha, Paräshara, Jatukarni, Vālmiki, Romaharsini, The people were confused by these philosophical Satyadatta, Vyāsa, Elaputra, Aupamanyava, Indradatta, views. The spiritual sphere was violated by the sacrifices, Ayasthuna etc. were Vinayavādis. The Twelve Anga rites and rituals. The humanity was divided by the caste Drastivada of Jainas which is said to have been lost system and the so called lower class people were must have dealt with all these philosophical views in deceived by a certain section on the name of religion. detail.56
Kesi said with anxiety the Gautam "The masses are Niyativada of the Ajivika sect was established by
weltering in the encircling gloom, who shall them light? Makkhali Gosalaka, the Mankhaliputra of the Prakrit
Gautam replied "The one who initially was the prince of literature. He was originally the disciple of Mahavira.
the kingdom of Videha and who is today the great Due to some difference of opinion, he afterwards
exponent of freedom from body - consciousness, the separated his sect and called it Niyativāda. Santa,
verily enlightened, the propounder of the principle of Kalanda, Karnikāra, Achidra, Agnive'syāyana and
perennial creation and the truely venerable Mahavira Gomāyuputra Arjuna were his main disciples who used
has already risen as a sun who will lead the masses to have the meals through displaying the Citrapata in
from darkness to light.62 hands. Mankhaliputta and his disciples are called as TIRTHANKARA MAHAVIRA Pāsattha, the polluted personalities from the path of
Tirthankara Mahavira, the Nigantha Nātaputta of Pārsvanātha tradition.57
Pali literature, was a great realist philosopher who had Tajjivatacchariravada is one of the kinds of not, as a matter of fact, innovated a new philosophy but Ucchedavāda according to Pāli literature. The Präkrita advocated the old one followed by his predecessors literature understands it as Cārvak.se Atmasasthavāda, with new additions and interpretations without involving Atamadvaitavāda, Svabhāvavada, Aranyaka, himself in any kind of controversies. He attained Avyakratavāda, kālavāda, Yadracchāvāda. Purusavāda. enlightenment by his own constant striving and then Purusarthavada, Isvaravada, Daivavada etc. were also showed the path to all others out of his abundent popular at that time. Nāyādnammakahão mentions some compassion for suffering beings. His life is, therefore, more conceptions, viz. Caraka, Cirika, Carmakiandika, human appeal to both individual as well as social. Bhicchunda, Banduraga, Gautama, Govrati, Grhidharmi,
Mahavira was born at kundanapur (Vaisāli). His Dharmacintaka, Aviruddha, Vrddha, Srāvaka,
parents Siddhārtha and Trišala were the chief of Vaisali Raktapata.59 The Sutrkrtanga mentions some Asamyami
and followers of Tirthankara Parsvanatha (Pasavaccijja sects. viz. Gautama, Govratika. Randadevata.
ta, - Āyaränga, 2.15.16). Mahavira renounced the worldly Virabhadraka, Agnihomavadi and Jalasaucavādi.60 The
life at the age of thirty and attained kevalajnāna after Aupapadikasutra refers to some of the Vanaprasthas.
constant severe penance. He then preached the viz. Hottiya, Pottiya, Kottiya, Janni, Saddhai, Thalai,
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Dhamma for about thirty years and aftained Nirvāna at Pava in 527 B.C. The scriptures whatever we have at present reached to us through him. He is called Nigantha in the sense that he is free from all bonds, and is called Nätaputta because Näta or Nāya was the name of his clan.63 The term Nigantha for a Jaina came to be used perhaps along with the origin of Jainism itself.
The Vedic literature does not mention at all the life and contribution of Mahavira. The Pāli literature, of course, refers to his principles and later, not the early, part of his life. So far as concerned with the Jaina literature, both the Digambar and Svetämbar traditions are not unanimous on certain points. The Tiloyapannatti is perhaps the earliest book of Yativrsabha (about 5th C.A.D.) which mentions the life of Mahāvira some what rather the detail. The Tisatthimahāpurisagunālankāra of Puşpadanta (Sak Sam. 880), Uttarapurāņa of Gunabhadra. Vardhamānapuräna of Chämundaräi, and Vardhamancarita of Asanga etc. are some more works which can be mentioned in this connection. The Svetāmbara tradition is more enriched. The Ayaranga, Suyagadanga, Thānānga, Samavāyānga, Uvāsagadsänga, Vyākhaprajnapti, Kalpasūtra, Avasyaka Niryukti, Višesāvasyakabhāsya, Ayārāngacūrņi, Cauppanna Mahāpurisacariyam, Paumacariyam, Trisastišalakapurusacaritam (Hemachandra) etc. are important works for recording the life of Mahavira. The historical development for its recording is naturally traceable, like exaggerations, fictitious elements, astonishments and poetical peculiarities. This is the reason why Acharya Samantabhadra had stressed on the point of Vitaragata and not on the attainment of devas, bos gruniens, Astaprātihāryas and other amazements which could be perceived in fraudulents.64
4.
IN PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE
No substential references to his schooling are available in the literature except that a Brahmina teacher was astonished on hearing his scholarly answers to the questions asked. He remained under the householdership upto the age of 30 where he could blow ablaze in mind the flame of emancipation through cultivation of selfrealisation with perfection in non-violence, truth and celibacy. Mahāvir left the home for the best and renounced the ego, attachment, possessive instinct. During the pre-enlightenment period of twelve years Mahāvira roamed the following villages and camped in the rainy seasons, viz.
Kundagrāma, Karmaragrāma (Chapara). Kollaga Sannivesa, Morak Sannivesa, Jnatakhandavana,
Duijjantaka, Asthikagrāma (Varşavasa). 2. Morak Sannivesa, Daksina - Uttara Vacala.
Suramipur, Svetāmbi, Rājagrah Nalanda
(Varşāvāsa). 3. Kollaga. Suvarnakhil, Brahmanagrāma, Campa
(Varşāvāsa). Kalapa, Panta, Kumaraka, Coraka, Prsthacampā!
(Varsāvāsa). 5. Kayangala, Halliduya, Avarta. Kälankabuka
Purnakalasa, Sravasti, Nangala, Lādha (läta desa). Malaya, Bhaddila, (Varsāvāsa). Kadali, Tambaya, Kubiya, Vaisali, Jambusanda, Kupiya, Grāmaka, Bhaddiya. (Varşāvāsa) - near vaisali.
Magadha, Alabhiyā (Varšāvāsa). 8. Kundaka, Bahusalaga, Lohārgalā, Gobhumi,
Mardana, Sālavana, Purimatāla, Unnāga, Rājagrha
(Varšāvāsa). 10. Kūrmāragrāma, Siddhārthapur, Vaisāli,
. Vānijyagrāma, Srāvasti (Varšāvāsa). 11. Sānulatthiya, Dradhabhumi, Mesāli, Siddhārapura,
Vajragrāmya, Alamviā, Svetāmbikā, Vārānasi, Mithilā, Malaya, Kaušāmbi, Rājagraha, Vaišāli
(Varsavāsa). 12. Sunsumārapura, Nandigrāma, kausāmbi,
Medhiāgrāma, Sumangala, Suchettā, Pālaka,
Campā (Varšavāsa). 13. Jambhiya, Medniya, Chammāni, Madhyamapāvā,
Jambhiyagrāma. ATTAINMENT OF KEVALAJNANA AND PREACHING
During these years of his pursuit a number of incidents occured in his life : clamities of Gopalaka,
Own deeds are sole responsible for one's past, present and future life. This is the main theme of Šramana culture. According to Jainism, the soul pure in its intrinsic nature from times immemorial. Due to wrong views and illusion it relates with Karmas and makes its cycling into births. Mahāvira changed himself and turned his mind to the spiritual direction when he was line or Nayasara in previous birth. He was then eventually born under such turmoil atmosphere on the thirteenth day of moon of Chaitra, March 30, 599 B.C. at (Vaishali) Ksatriyakunda. His parents Siddhartha and Trisalā were the Ksatriya king of Videha. Trisala saw the sixteen or fourteen dreams before she gave the birth to the child. viz. elephant, bull, line, garland, moon, Lakşmi, banner, (dhvjā), metal base (kumbha), a pair of fish, lotus-pond, throne, celestial plane, plane of serpentine, demi-gods, collation of gems, flame without smoke. These dreams were interpreted to Siddhartha who got the impression about the noble son, the Vardhamāna or Mahāvira.
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Sulapani, Agni, Tapta Dhuli, Lohārgala, Kataputana, Sangama, Candakausika, Karnasalakā Niskāsana meetings with Makkhali Gosālaka, Pārsvastna Sädhus, separation with Gosālaka, etc. Eventually he attained the Kevalajnana in Jambhiyagrama on Vaisakha Sukla Dasami, April 23, B.C. 557. thirteenth Varsavasa Jambhiyagrāma may be identified with modern village jamui situated on the bank of quil (Rjukülā), near Rajagriha and Kevali (where he attained the Kevalajñāna).
Mahavira reached next day Madhyamā Pāwā from Jrmbhikagrāma where a Somil Brāhamana organised a large sacrificial rite. Eleven great scholars were invited to perform the Yajha. Mahāvira had to wait for sixty five days. Due to paucity of appropriate scholars preaching could not take place. Mahavir felt the necessity and appropriate time for sponsoring non-violence before the scholars and their 4400 disciples. They were somehow attracted by the verstile personality and scholarship of Tirthankara Mahavira who replied their philosophical questions and satisfied their queries. As a result, all the eleven Scholars Indrabhuti Gautam, Angibhuti, Vāyubhuti, Vyakta, Sudharma, Mandita Mauryaputra, Akampita, Acalabhrata, Metarya and Prabhāsa became his disciples. This incident might have taken place at the vipulacala (Rājagriha) about 30 miles away from Jrmbhiyagrāma. The Digambara tradition replaces Maundraya, Putra, Maitraiya and Andhavela to Vyakta, Mandita, Achalabhrata and Metarya. GAUTAMA GANADHARA AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF SANGHA
Tirthankara Mahavira selected Indrabhūti Gautama as the Head of the Sangha and the Sangha was divided into four units, monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. Likewise he arranged the system of religious leadership into seven units, Achārya, Upādhyāya, Sthavira, Pravartka, Gani, Gandhara, and Ganavacchedaka. He then started the preaching for masses65 and roamed different places upto the last moment. After the attainment of Kevalajñana Lord Mahävira camped thirty years in the rainy seasons as follows :1. Madhyamapāwā, Rājagraha (Varšāvāsa). 2. Brāhmanakunda, Ksatriya - Kunda, Vaisali
(Varšāvāsa). 3. Kaušāmbi, Srāvastī, Vānijyagrama (Varšavāsa). 4. Rājagraha (Varšāvāsa). 5. Champā, Vitibhāpa, Vanijyagrāma (Varšavāsa)
Vārānasi, Alambhiyā, Rājagraha (Värsavāsa) 7. Rajagriha (Varšāvāsa)
8. Kaušāmbi, Alambhiyā, Vaisali, (Varšāvāsa) 9. Mithila, Kākandi, Pelāsapura, Vānijyagrāma, Vaisāli
(Varšāvāsa) 10. Rājagraha (Varšāvāsa) 11. Kavangalā, Srāvasti, Vānijyagrāma (Varsavāsa) 12. Brāhmanakunda, Kausambi, Rājagraha (Varšāvāsa) 13. Champā (Varšāvāsa) 14. Kakandi, Mithila (Varšavāsa) 15. Srāvasti, Mithila (Varšāvāsa). 16. Hastinapur, Mekānagari, Vānijyagrāma (Varšāvāsa) 17. Rājagraha (Varšāvāsa) 18. Campā, Dasārnapur, Vānijyagrāma, (Varšāvāsa) 19. Kāmpilyapura, Vaisāli (Varšāvāsa) 20. Vaisāli (Varsāvāsa) 21. Rājagriha, Campā, Rājagraha (Varşāvāsa) 22. Rājagriha, Nālandā (varşāvāsa) 23. Vānijyagrāma, Vaisali (varşāvāsa) 24. Sāketa, Vaisali, (varšavāsa) 25. Rājgriha (Varšāvās) 26. Nālandā (varšāvāsa) 27. Mithilā (varşāvāsa) 28. Mithila (varsāvāsa) 29. Rajagraha (varşāvāsa) 30. Apāpāpuri (varşavāsa) - The Parinirvānabhumi
During the period his religion spread over all the parts of India. The great kings like Prasenajita of Srāvasti, Srenika of Magadha, Dadhivāhana of Champā, Satanika of Kaušāmbi, Jitasatru of Kalinga. He might have also visited South India which is named by Hemangada in Jaina literature. Jivandhara, the son of King Satyandhara was in power at that time. Jainism was prevelent even prior to Mahāvira there in South, but advent of Mahavira would have inspired much for propagation. As we are informed by the Pali literature, Jainism was the state religion of Shrilankā before reaching there Sanghabhadra and Sanghamitra for Buddhist missionary activities.
The Vratisangha of Tirthankara Mahavira was as follows : 66 1. Ganadhara
11 2. Gana
7 or 9 3. Kevali
700 4. Manahparyayajñāni
500
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5. Avadhijñāni
1300 6. Fourteen Pūrvadhāris
300 7. Vādis
400 8. Vaikriyakalabdhidhāris
700 9. Anuttaropapātikamunis
800 10. Sadhus
1400 11. Sādhvis
36000 12. Srāvakas
159000 13. Sravikās
318000
Total 531718 The ordinary Sravaka-Sravikas are excluded from this counting.
After passing twentyninth Varsavāsa at Rajagriha, Mahavira reached to Apāpuri (may be Majjhimā) the capital of Mallas where he spent his last Chaturmāsa. the morning of the fourth month Kartika Krisna Amavasya, he passed his last breath and entered into Salvation at the age of 72 years. At that time the king of Kasi, Licchavis of Kausala, nine Mallas and eighteen Ganarajas were present who celebrated the Nirvana Mahotsava by flaming the lamps. The Samannaphalasutta of the Dighanikāya refers to the event. Date of Mahavira's Parinirvana
The date of Mahavira's Parinirvāna, like the date of the Buddha, has been a subject of much controversy among the scholars. The Pali Canon has two main references which give an idea of the age and death of Mahavira. The first reference to Mahavira as one who has long been recluse, old and well-sticken in years (chirapavvajite, addhagate, vayonupatte).67 The another reference recorded is that when the Buddha was at the Ambavana of the Sakyas, Nigantha Nātaputta had just died at Pāvā.68 Ananda is supposed to have conveyed this news to the Buddha in a very pleasent mood.
Jacobi is perhaps the first savant who tried to determine the date of Mahavira. On the basis of the Hemachandra's Parisistaparvan which tells us that Chandra Gupta ascended throne 155 years after the death of Mahavira, Jacobi is of opinion that the death of Mahavira must have oceured in 468 B.C. as the Chandragupta's ascension took place in 313 B.C. (313 + 155 - 468 B.C.).69 Charpentier also supported this view. They were of the opinion that the statement of the Pali Canon was spurious. Basham, too, is inclined to accepts Jacobi's view. But he based his arguments on the Bhagawatisutra and a less favoured theory that
the date of the Buddha's parinirvana in 483 B.C. The Pāli record in his opinion does not refer to the death of Mahavira at Pavā, but to that of Gosala at Savatthi.
Majumdar and Raychaudhuri are of the view that Mahavira's death should have taken place in 478 B.C. In support of this view they suggest that Mahavira died sixteen years after the accession of Ajatasatru, and according to the Ceylonese Chronicles, the Buddha died eight years after the enthronement of Ajatasatru (323+ 155 = 478 B.C.).
Hoerle with a more comprehensive attitude suggests 484 B.C. as the date of Mahāvira's death and 483 B.C. as the date of Buddha's death. He is of view that the war took place not in the year of Ajatasatru's legel, but of his de fact accession?
The orthodox Jaina tradition which dates the death of Mahavira in 527 B.C. appears to be more reliable. It is stated that the date of Chandragupta Maurya's accession falls 215 years after the death of Mahavira. According to Hemachandra the accession took place 155 years after the death of Mahavira. Here Hemachandra appears to be wrong in calculation. He omitted by oversight the period of 60 years of king Palaka who on the same day began to rule at Ujjeni after the death of Mahāvira. Afterwards Nanda's dominion is listed for 155 years. Then commences the enthronement of Chandragupta Maurya. The Chandragupta Maurya's accession took place in 322 B.C. This accession must be on Avanti which was held 10 years earlier than Pataliputra accession. Therefore the death of Mahavira must be an event of 527 B.C. (322-10 + 215 = 527 B.C.). This view can be supported if we accept the Vikrama era commenced with Vikrama' death and Vikrama was born 470 years after the death of Mahavira (57 + 470 = 527 B.C.). According to the Titthogali Painnaya, the Saka Samvat was started 605 years after the death of Mahavira. Historically the Saka Samvata commences 78 years B.C. This fact also supports the view of 527 B.C. as the date of Mahavira's death. The Place of Mahavira's Death
The place of Mahavira's death has also been a controvertial point. The traditional Pava is the place of Mahavira's death which is situated in the southern part of the Gangā river, close to Rājagriha. The another Pava is the modern Papura village twelve miles away from Kusinārā or Kasiya situated on the little Gandaka river, to the east of the District of Gorakhapur at the northern part of the Ganga. it is most probable that Pavā was included in the territory of the Mallas since a Santhagara was built by them in Pava. It is also said that at this place the Buddha ate his last meal at the house of
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2.
Cunda, and as a result he had an attack of dysentery. symbol is its pre-requisite stage for the attainment of He then left the place and proceeded to Kusinara where emancipation from karmas. the ultimately attained Parinirvana.?
Jainism is more known to us through Tirthankara Conclusion
Mahavira, the contemporary spiritual thinker of the
Buddha. His prominent spiritual followers have written a On concluding remark we can state that Jainism is
vast literature in Prakrit and Sanskrit. Our analysis of one of the most ancient living ieligions and philosophies of the world. It belongs to the Sramana tradition of India
Jaina religion, philosophy, psychology, spirituality, which has been propagated by spiritual victor from time
discipline, practices etc. is based on their monumental immemorial. In the light of various literary accounts and
works. historical and a'chaeological evidence, it appears, It may be mentioned here that both Jainism and Jainism, the religion of humanistic approach was started Buddhism arose and grew up in the same province of with the beginning of human civilization in the Indian India. The leaders of both sects were sometimes living sub-continent by Risabhadeva, the first Tirthañkara of in the same city, but they never meet perhaps personally. Jainas in the first era of the present cycle. It is neither Their followers however, used to indulge in discussions, originated in and developed within the Vedic tradition conversations and debates. This fact is dealt with in nor it is an offshoot of Buddhism. But it is, as a matter of detail in my book entitled " Jainism in Buddhist Literature" fact, pre-Vedic origin belonging to the non-Aryan culture of India and therefore Jainism may be indigenous to India. This fact can be ascertained from the Vedic
NOTES literature and the archaeological excavation of 1. AN ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM Mohanjodaro and Hadappa sites where the ascetic1 The Heart of Jainism, London, 1979, Introduction, sculptures depict the cultural aspects of Sramana munis.
p. 5-6. Arhatas, Vratyas and Vatarasanas of pre-Aryan religion, viz. Jainism. It is also an established fact that the
Rigveda, 10.90.12 Upanisadic philosophical speculations have deep impact 3. Mahāpurāna, 1.3.229-232. of Jaina dogmas and ascetic practices.
4. Jambdvipaprajnapti, P. 132 Among the successors of Rişabhadeva, the twenty 5. Adipurāna, 3.2.45-47 second Tirthankara Neminātha is related to Lord Krisna 6. Süryasiddhanta. Calcutta. 1925, 1.18.19 and the twenty third Tirthankara Pārsvanātha and twenty fourth Tirthankara Mahāvira are well-known to the Pāli
7. Vişnupurāna, 3.2.45-47 literature of early Buddhism. Remaining spiritual leaders 8. Voice of Ahimsa, Vol. 11, p. 11 are not much known to the history of today.
9. Muni Hajarimala Smriti Grantha, Byavar, 1965, p.
12, 5th Chapter These Tirthankaras are not the founders of Jainism. They are propagator of the supreme truth and spirituality.
10. Bhāratiya Itihāsa: Eka Drsti, pp. 21-23. They had attained it through right conduct and penance. 11. Voice of Ahimsa, 1957-58 They were individual human souls and not the devine
12. Rigveda, 4.58.3; 10.161.1 personalities who revealed the path of purification and liberation from all passions and desires through right
13. Munayo vātaršanā pisangā vasate malā. vision. They threw off the yoke of bloody sacrifices and Vātasyānu dhrājum yanti yaddevāse avisat. other Brahmanic rituals and rejected the conception of
Unmăditā mauneyena vatām ātasthimā vayam. the incarnation of God. They refused the idea that God
Sarire dasmākam sū yam martāse abhisyatha. - as the creator and destroyer of the universe and put aside the authority of the Vedas and derecognised the
Rigaveda, 10.136.2-3. caste system of the Brahmanic society. Pluralistic system 14. Kesyagni keši visam kesī vibharti rodasī. of their thought paved the way of salvation for the Kesī višvam svardrše kesidam jyotirucyate. - realization of self by each and every being. Another
Rgveda, 10.136.1 important feature of Jainism is to observe non-violence in all spheres of speculation, social conditions and
15. Sivapurāna, 7.2.9. political and religious disciplines and practices. It implies 16. Barhisi tasminneva visnudatta bhagawān a passimistic and ascetic outlook towards mundane life. paramarşibhiḥ prasādite nābheh priyacik rşaya Complete detachment from sansara and observation of tadavarodhyayane merudevyām dharman nudity indicating non-indicating non-possession as its darsayitukāmo vātarsanānām Sramananām rsīnam
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urdhvamanthinam suklaya tanuvavatarah.. Srimadbhagawat, 5th Skandha. 5.3.22. 17. Ayamavatare rajasopaplutakaivalyopasiksanartham, ibid. 18. Rigveda, 10.102.6, Athava asya sarathih sahayabhutah Kesi prakrstakeso Rsabho avavacita - Sayanacarya. 19. Mohenzodaro & Indus Civilization, p. 110. 20. Religion of Tirthankaras, p. 46. 21. Kalpasutra Kiranavali, 151-2. 22. Adipurana, 16.28 23. Uttarapurana, 35.28-36; See also the Parsvanathacarita of Vadiraja, 9.37-8,2-65. 24. Suttanipata, 977. 25. Astadhyayi, 1.373 26. ibid. Padya No. 14, 27. Jaina Silalekha Sangraha, Vol. 1, No. 24, 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. author's article published in Mabhiseka Smaranika, pp. 195; 116. 28. Silalekha No. 235 (158). 29. The Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms, p. 184 30. Manjusrimulakalpa, 45.27 Ed. by Ganapati Shastri, Trivendram, 1920 31. Dharmottarapradipa p. 286 32. Theragatha, i. 68 33. Jataka, i. 36 34. Theragatha, i. 335 35. Jataka, vi. 133 36. Dhammajataka 37. Dighanikaya, iii. 291 38. Yajurveda, 9.25 39. The Heart of Jainism, London, 1915, introduction, p.5-6. 40. Anguttaranikaya, i. 290 41. ibid. ii. 196 ff. 42. Majjhimanikaya, i. 371 ff. 43. ibid. i. 392 ff. 44. ibid. i. 232 ff.; MA. i. 450. 45. ibid. i. 371 ff 46. Samyuktanikaya, iv. 312 ff. 47. A name of Deva who utters a verse in praise of Nigantha Nataputta 48. Mahavagga 49. Samyuttanikaya, i. 65 ff 50. Jataka, iii, 51. Majjhimanikaya, i.371 ff 52. Sutrakrtanga, 1.12; Niryukti 121; Vritti, p. 210-211 53. ibid. 1.12; Niryukti, 121 54. Anguttaranikaya, iii. 295 55. Samannaphalasutta, Dighanikaya 56. Tattvarthavartika, 1.20.12 p. 47 57. Sutrakastanga, 3.4.9; Vrtti, p. 98; 11.113, Vrtti, p. 199 etc. 58. ibid. 1.1.11; Vrtti p. 20, 2 59. Nayadhammakahao, 15th Adhayana, Aupapatika, 38 60. Sutrakrtanga, Kusila Adhyayana 61. Aupapatikasutra 62. SA. Papancasudani, ii. 432 63. See the author's book "Jainism in Buddhist Literature" 64. Devagamanabhoyanacamaradivibhutayah. Mayavisvapi drsyante natastvamasi no mahan. Adhyatamam bahirapyesa vigrahadi mahodayah. Divyah satyo divaukasassvapyasti ragadimatsu sah. - Aptamimamsa, 1-2. 65. Panceva atthikaya cchajjivanikayamahavvaya panca. Attha ya pavayanamada saheuo bandha-mokkho ya. - Dhavala, 9 p. 129-30; Visesavasyakabhasya, 1540-1947. 66. Kalpasutra, 133-144; Uttarapurana, 74.373-79; Tiloyapannatti, 4.1166-79; Harivamsapurana, 60.432-40. 67. D. i. 57 68. Dighanikaya, iii, 119 (Pasadikasutta); Majjhima. ii. 244 (Samagamasutt); Dighanikaya, iii. 209. 69. SBE. Vol. xxii, intro. p. xxvii, 1884. 70. Indian Antiquary, 1914, pp. 118; also see the Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1, pp. 139-40. 71. See in detail, the author's book "Jainism in Buddhist Literature, pp. 26-31. SHRIMAD JAYANTSENSURI ABHINANDAN GRANTH/ENGLISH SECTION 30 फल की तजकर कामना, कार्य करो धी मान / जयन्तसेन फले फुले, जीवन तरूवर जान ||