An Investigation Of Textual Sources On Samavasarana

Author(s): Nalini Balbir
Publisher: Nalini Balbir
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/269442/1

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An Investigation of Textual Sources on the samavasarana
("The Holy Assembly of the Jina")
NALINI BALBIR
Introduction: 0.1. Preliminary remarks; 0.2. The Canonical samavasarana The samavasarana-tract preserved in the exegetical literature: 1.1. Contexts; 1.2. Structure and stratification: 1.3. Critical edition; 1.4. Discussion of specific issues: 1.4.1. Samavesarana as a sacred space; 1.4.2. Ritual aspect: 1.4.3. Samawasarana and Jaina dogmatics Other textual material on samavasarana: 2.1. Typological survey: 2.2. Remarks Conclusion
3.
0. INTRODUCTION 0.1. The Sanskrit word samavasarana is a technical term familiar to all Jainas.' In the modern Indo-Aryan languages they speak (e.g. Hindi, Gujarati) they use it as a loan-word (sometimes with the pronounciation and spelling samarasarana). It calls to their minds the event of Enlightenment (kevala-jnana), one of the main auspicious events (kalyanaka) in the Jinas' biographies followed by their preaching to the whole universe assembled on this occasion. As such it is a symbolic expression of community which is present in their daily religious life. The concept is often embodied in their temples in the form of a movable roundish silver structure consisting of three
This contribution, especially its first part, is an expansion of Nalini Balbir, Amatyako-Studien vol. I. Stuttgart 1993, p. 65, where the sama vasarana-topic has been mentioned but not dealt with at length. Over the years, it has benefited from various discussions with both Prof. K. Bruhn and Prof. C.B. Tripathi
References given in the usual Sanskrit dictionaries are only to Jaina sources (Hemacandra's Parisistaparvan in Monier-Williams, with the meaning "descent (of a Jina from heaven to earth) or place of descent"; Somadeva's Yafastilakacampu in Schmidt's Nachträge to the Petersburg Dictionary, Apte gives the same meanings as Monier-Williams without any reference), and to Buddhist sources. On samavasarana in Buddhist Sanskrit, see Edgerton's Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary S.V.
M. Carrithers and C. Humphrey, Introduction (p. 2) to The Assembly of Usters. Jains in Sociery. Cambridge University Press 1991; M. Banks, Organizing Jainism in India and England. Oxford 1992, p. 77-78.
Festschrift Klaus Bruhn, Sul (1994) pp. 67-104.

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tiers, on the top of which a small statue is placed.' In this case, and also if it is an independent stone-structure located inside the temple (e.g. at Abu, Vimalavasahi temple, cell 20; Kumbharia, Mahavir temple) or outside (e.g. at the entrance of the newly built Jaina temple in Leicester, U.K.), or if it is a bronze image (see below 2.1.4), it is a three-dimensional structure. If it is carved or painted on the ceiling of a temple (e.g. Shantinath temple, Kumbharia, North Gujarat; Tiruparuttikunram, Tamil Nadu3), or if it is a pata or a miniature-painting on a palm-leaf or paper manuscript, it has the appearance of a flat round mandala with three concentric circles, or, less often, it takes the shape of a square. There seems, anyway, to be such a basic connection between samavasarana and any type of representation that samavasaraṇa is mainly deemed as a topic belonging to the study of art, even if the authors do take into account the rich textual material on the subject which is available and start with it: see, for instance, the important ten pages in U.P. Shah's Studies in Jaina Art (1955), his further remarks in Jaina-rupa-maṇḍana (1987), or the analysis (by Gopilal Amar) based on Digambara sources in Jaina Art and Architecture (1975).' The problem is that these studies tend to lay too much emphasis on the architectural
See for instance J. Jain and E. Fischer, Jaina Iconography. Leiden: Brill 1978. Part One, plate XXXIIIa.
* See below 2.1.4.
* See J. Jain and E. Fischer, Jaina Iconography, Part One, plate XXXIIIb; T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram (Jina-Kanchi) and Its Temples. Madras 1934, p. 104-116.
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For a cloth para containing a samavasarana in the central area, see W. Norman Brown, "A Painting of a Jaina Pilgrimage": Art and Thought. Essays in honour of A. Coomaraswamy, London 1947 = India and Indology. Delhi 1978, p. 256-258; Shridhar Andhare, "A Note on the Mahavira Samavasarana Pata", in Chhavi Golden Jubilee Volume. Banaras 1971, p. 343-345; and below (reference to a fairly modern para published in C. Caillat - Ravi Kumar, The Jain Cosmology. English rendering by K.R. Norman. Paris-Basel-New Delhi 1981: No. 5). For manuscripts see W. Norman Brown, Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kaipasútra. Washington 1934, p. 38 and figs. 13, 80, 92, 99 (square), 113, 126; W. Hüttemann, "Miniaturen zum Jinacaritra". Bassler-Archiv Band IV, Heft 2. Leipzig-Berlin 1913, p. 74-75; J. Jain and E. Fischer, Jaina Iconography, Part One, plate XXXI; J. Deleu, Die Mythologie des Jinismus. Wörterbuch der Mythologie, hrsg. von H.W. Haussig. Stuttgart 1976, p. 219 and Abb. 8, Tafel VII (square); W. Norman Brown, Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttaradhyayanasutra. New Haven 1941, p. 5; the various publications of Sarabhai Nawab; etc. The depiction of samavasarana is a very common motif of Jaina painting. - The circular samavasarana seems to be a continuation of the old ayagapata.s evidenced at Mathura.
U. P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art. Varanasi 1955, p. 85-95; Jaina-rupa-mandana (Jaina Iconography). Delhi: Abhinav Publications 1987, p. 23-26; Gopilal Amar, p. 529-533 in Jaina Art and Architecture. Published on the Occasion of the 2500th Nirvana Anniversary of Tirthankara Mahavira, Ed. by A. Ghosh. New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith 1975, vol. III, Part IX "Canons and Symbolism".
AN INVESTIGATION OF TEXTUAL SOURCES ON THE SAMAVASARANA
aspect of the samavasarana and to consider all the written sources on the same level, which leads us to think that the samavasarana was always a full-fledged entity that underwent no change. The aim of this paper, which in no way pretends to exhaust the subject, is to examine the textual material in all its variety in an attempt at understanding the Jaina concept of samavasarana and, more generally, the classical Indian conception of "sacred space". Like other cognate Indian forms (e.g. stupa and mandala), samavasarana belongs to the field of the history of religions. If for no other reason, the investigation of the written sources may be justified by the fact that the first texts (however vague their dates may be) probably much antedate any of the representations of the samavasarana available to us. Moreover we have no right to neglect the written sources, since we are lucky enough to have them: those who study the stupa could rightly be envious. Although the Digambara sources cannot be omitted in an attempt towards a comprehensive understanding of the samavasaraṇa, they will remain in the background and will not be studied so intensively as their Śvetămbara counterparts which present a "less complex" picture. The Digambara data would deserve a full-fledged investigation which goes far beyond the scope of the present paper.
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0.2. In the early scriptures (Angas and Upangas) of the Svetämbaras, the substantive samosarana is not as frequent as the verb which is almost exclusively used as a past participle, AMg. samosadhe (v.1. samosarie) in two kinds of stereotype formulas:10
(a) samane Bhagavam Mahavire...gămânugamam düijjamane iham agae, iha sampatte, iha samosadhe, iha Campãe nayarie bahim Punnabhadde ceie aha-paḍiruvam oggaham oginhittä samjameņam tavasā appāṇam bhāvemāṇe viharai (Aupapātikasūtra § 38; etc.).
See, for instance, M. Bénisti, "Etude sur le stúpa dans l'Inde ancienne", Bull. de l'Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient, L, 1 (1960) p. 89: "Les textes sanskrits décrivant le stupa sont des plus rares". This remains partly true although new documents have come to light since then: see, for instance, G. Roth's contribution to The stupa, its religious, historical and architectural significance, ed. by A.L. Dallapicolla. Wiesbaden 1980, p. 183ff. (see below 2.2.2).
See K. Bruhn, "Repetition in Jaina narrative literature, Indologica Taurinensia 11 (1983) p.
48.
10 Results based on the examination of all occurrences given in the Agamasabdakosa (Ladnun). The use of the substantive (in the plural) to designate various non-orthodox doctrines (cf. Sūtrakṛtānga 1,12 and Bhagavati XXX) is not considered here."

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(b) bhagavam Mahavire samosaḍhe, parisä niggaya, raya niggao (jaha Kūnio niggao). dhammo kahio. parisă paḍigaya, raya ya gao (Vipäkaśruta 1,2,11; etc.).
The subject of the verb is mostly the name of a Jina (Mahavira, Ariṣṭanemi, Munisuvrata), but can also be any Elder (thera) of the Jain community (Sudharma, Thavaccaputta)." The first part of the Aupapätika-sutra, which bears the title "samavasarana", forms the standard text on the topic and gives substance to the mere sketch of (a) and (b). The scenery of the place where Mahavira will sit consists of the following items: a park outside the city, a sanctuary (ceia; Sk. caitya), an aśoka-tree in the centre of the enclosure (various decorations), and a place to sit at the foot of the tree (§§ 1-10). The audience consists of lay-persons, ascetics and gods. The emphasis is laid on the preparation of the audience for the event, on the preaching of the Law which is attended among others by the main representative of the lay-community, i.e. the king, and its spiritual outcome, viz. taking the vows or giving up worldly life by the audience. The samavasarana is basically a speech-act. The communion between the speaker and the audience is assured since the Jina's language (Ardhamāgadhi) has the faculty of translating itself in such a way that it becomes each person's own language:
... så vi nam addhamägaha bhäsä tesim savvesim ariya-m-aṇāriyāṇam appano sabhäsäe pariņāmenam pariņamai (Aupapātika-sūtra § 56)."
On the other hand, the communion is also increased by the possibility of a dialogue. The solemn preaching of the Jina is often the occasion for a member of the audience to ask him a question in order to get an explanation about the apparently strange destiny of himself or of somebody else. The riddle is solved after the Jina has unfolded the intricate network of the previous births. This element, which was to become a popular motif in the later narrative literature," already appears in some Canonical sources: e.g. sami-samosaraṇam, savaga-dhammam, puvva-bhava-puccha (Vipa
"In the later literature, the verb can equally be applied to a Jaina pontiff (süri or ācārya).
13 The detailed conspectus given by E. Leumann (Das Aupaparikastra. Leipzig 1883) is a convenient tool for any analysis of this work. - The Prakrit text of the Kalpasütra (Jinacaritra) does not contain any information about the samavasarana. See below 1.4.1. about Acărănga II.15.
See sa vi ya nam addhamagaha bhasa bhäsijjamani sesim savvesim äriya-m-anariyanam duppaya-cauppaya-miya-pasu-pakkhi-sirisiväṇam appappanno hita-siva-su-hada bhasattäe parinamai, Samaväyänga 34; K.R. Norman, "The dialects in which the Buddha preached", in Die Sprache der ältesten buddhistischen Überlieferung. Göttingen 1980, p. 66; and below 1.4.3.
"See, for instance, Av.-story I1,8 (E. Leumann, Die Avatyaka-Erzählungen. Leipzig 1897, 16.20ff.; transl. in Nalini Balbir, Avasyaka-Studien, vol. 1, p. 279); Kuvalayamālā p. 99; etc.
AN INVESTIGATION OF TEXTUAL SOURCES ON THE SAMAVASARANA
kaśruta 2,1,1). More generally, any type of questioning is closely associated with the samavasaraṇa.15
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To sum up: At this early stage, samavasarana is a solemn event and it may refer to any solemn preaching of any person having the necessary qualifications for it. It does not refer to any structure and nowhere designates the place where the preaching takes place. The main component of the setting is a sacred tree." The large audience as described in the Aupapātika-sūtra (§ 56) does not explicitly include animals.
1. The samavasaraṇa-tract preserved in the exegetical literature
The first full-fledged record coming close to what we usually understand by samavasarana is a "tract" or "block" of 52 Prakrit (Jaina Mähäräṣṭri) verses (ārya) found in the earliest layer of the Jaina exegetical literature (first centuries after Christ), viz. Avasyakaniryukti (hereafter N) and Bṛhatkalpabhāṣya (hereafter K). This text presents the archetype of the classical Svetämbara samavasarana. It can be considered as the original pattern of all later Svetämbara accounts (below 2) and has been either partly reproduced in some of them (below 1.3) or at least used for rewording in Prakrit or Sanskrit; Hemacandra's Triṣaṣṭisalākāpuruşacarita (12th cent.) is the best representative of such a process.
1.1. Contexts
The niryukti.s and bhagya.s are not "commentaries" in the strict sense of the term. As stated by Prof. Bruhn (in one of his striking sayings), they are rather "pseudo-exegetical vis-à-vis the sutras" on which they are allegedly based. This has two
15 See, for instance, Daśavaikälika 6.1-2: nāṇa-damsaṇa-sampannam samjame ya tave rayam ganim agama-sampannam ujjäṇammi samosadham rayano ray'-amacca ya mahana aduva khattiya
pucchanti nihuy'-appano "kaham bhe ayara-goyaro?"; Avasyaka-niryukti 348: samusarane puccha, 367 punar avi a samosarane pucchia. This last sentence is the starting point for the inclusion of the "Universal History" in tabular form in the Avasyaka-niryukti.
See for its symbolism U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Ari p. 72-76; 0. Viennot, Le culte de l'arbre dans l'Inde ancienne. Textes et Monuments brahmaniques et bouddhiques. Paris: P.U.F. 1954, especially p. 88ff., 190ff. (tree and enlightenment).
"Avasyaka Studies I", p. 14 in Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus. Gedenkschrift für L Alsdorf. Wiesbaden 1981. Let me add that the reading of this particular contribution was what prompted me to immerse myself in the vast ocean of the so-called Avasyaka-literature.

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became so prevailing and indissociable in the later sources (see below 2.1.1).
effects: the explanations we would expect are often lacking and topics we would not think of looking for there are found. The samavasarana-tract in the Brhatkalpabhâsya is an instance of the second tendency. This extensive bhasya (6490 verses) is based on a disciplinary sutra which discusses the rules of conduct (kalpa) of monks and nuns. The samavasarana-tract appears fully unexpected, a metrical block (vss. 11761217) hardly connected with the rest. The efforts of the Sanskrit commentator to hide what could appear to us as a shortcoming in the composition are comparatively mcagre. The verse preceding the beginning of the tract contains the word kougdihim ("wonder, etc.") explained as follows: kautukam samavasaraṇam, ddi-grahanena bhagavato dharmadesand-sravanádi-parigrahah. atha kim idam samavasaranam? iti tad-vakravyatam pratipipadayisur dvära-gåtham dha (p. 365); it serves as an excuse to include the samavasarana-tract. The concluding remarks point in the same direction: evam tavat samavasarana-vaktayyarā prasangata uka (p. 377). As a matter of fact, the adverb prasangatah ('incidentally') is normally used to indicate an excursus or an alien element interrupting the main thread of ideas of the work. Here it probably also implies that samavasarana was such a well-known topic that it had somehow to be included. In this text, it is certainly one of those specific units which are known a priori and which do not participate in the intricacies of the text to the same extent as the other portions"."
In the Avasyaka-tradition, the connection of the unit with the whole is less disorientating. The samavasarana-tract (vss. 543-590) forms one block attached towards the end of the Universal History" section of the Av.-niryukti, and just precedes the Ganadharavada, the concluding block of this section (vss. 591-659)." The word ganahara, appearing in the last verses of the samavasarana-tract helps to connect it with the next tract and at the same time accounts for its inclusion at the place where it is found, namely in connection with Mahavira (the only Jina to have ganadhara.s) and nor in connection with Rşabha or any other Jina. What we find for them is only a reference to the spiritual outcome of their samavasarana.s, viz. the number of people who entered the sangha (N 265, 344-345). By inserting the tract after Mahavira's attainment of kevala-jfāna has been stated, the Avasyaka-tradition provides a starting point for the fixing of the pair kevala-Mäna / samavasarana which
1.2. Structure and stratification
In our two parallel traditions, the subject of samavasarana is dealt with in the usual fashion of Jaina exegetical literature: the programme of the tract is outlined in a list of catch-words in telegram-style (dvara-gāzha), either in the stem-form or in the nominative (ending in -e in the present case, which may denote an old verse); it is followed by its gradual development, and includes an illustrative ancodote (vs. 40, below 1.4.3). But one thing is clear: we are neither in possession of the "Ur-samavasarana-tract", nor of a complete tradition. What we have is a set of 52 Prakrit verses, a Prakrit prose-commentary related to these verses as handed down by the Av.. tradition (the Av.-cùrni), and the Sanskrit works of two commentators: Haribhadra (8th cent.?) for the Av. tradition and Ksemakirti (12th cent.) for the Brhatkalpatradition. But some of their statements show that they knew and consulted other sources (especially Prakrit) which are now extinct: thus Haribhadra (on vs. 12 of the tract) quotes a Prakrit sentence from the mularika-kyt or refers to anonymous groups (apare tu, on vs. 47) whom we cannot identify, whereas the two cúrnis on the Brhatkalpabhasya used by Ksemakirti (again on vs. 12) and the Wisesacúrni quoted by him (for vss. 19bis-22bis) are still unpublished. These references and quotations (more important in the case of samavasarana than elsewhere) suggest that there were some discussions of the topic among specialists.
Differences of opinions concern firstly the subdivisions of the tract. Vs. 1 runs:
samosarane, kevaiya, niva, puccha, vägarana, soya-pariname,
danam ca, deva-malle, mallanayane, uvari titthem The words and their sequence are well-established, and no variant is recorded which could help us in restoring a correct rhythm for the first line. An attempt to connect the list with the subsequent verses on the basis of the vocabulary used therein is possible:
K. Bruhn, Jainology in Western Publications I'. p. 15 in Jain Srudies in Honour of Jozef Deleu. Tokyo 1993.
"On the Ganadharavida see K. Butzenberger's article in the present volume. In some manuscripts Samarasarana and Ganadharavada constitute one section,
According to the Av.-tradition (N 265 and 540), this is in fact Mahavira's second samavasarana.
* In this precise case, the later commentators of the Av. nirvukti, such as Malayagiri and Jhānasagara do not contribute anything new. I shall therefore refer only to "Haribhadra as a representative of this tradition.
So eds. See below for the reading and the metre of the first line.

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items and is very clear about their contents, described respectively in vss. 31-35, 36, 37-38; the Av. commentaries rather feel that they should somehow be combined together but hesitate about the way to proceed: does the question turn on the Jina's beauty (riva-puccha) or on the nature of his exposé (vägaran-puccha)? Whatever the solution, the metre of the first line as it is is not correct. A way to emend it would be to read ruvam instead of riva, and to consider that the word puccha (without any real equivalent in the subsequent verses, except for tena) was a later insertion as a separate entry of the programme.
- Samosarane osaranam, vs.2 -kevaiya "how many" vs.27ff. or 29 which both contain a figure - riva "beauty" - růva, vs.31, 33 and 36. - puccha "question' tena "therefore", vs.36 - vägarana "exposé -> vāgarana, vs.37
soya-pariname "impact on the audience" pariname, vs.39; soya, vss40-41
dānam "gift" - pii-dānam, vs.42; denti, pi-d., vs.43; denti, vs.44; dänagunā, vs.45
deva-malla "religious offering-bali, apparently the usual synonym of the hapax malla, vs. 46, 47, 48 - mallånayaņa "bringing of religious offering": see preceding - uvari tirtham "at the end, the members of the religious community" - vs.
50-52, sīsa "pupil", āyariya "teacher", ganahara. This would suffice to show that fluctuations in the understanding are almost unavoidable. The vague contents of a term like "how many brings about a disagreement between the commentators of the two traditions (N/K) on the boundaries of the first and second entries. Haribhadra takes note of two possibilities: "how many" refers either to the number and varieties of spiritual progress (sāmāyika) accessible to different classes of beings on the occasion of a Jina's samavasarana or to the distance a monk must cover to attend a samavasarana and the atonement prescribed in case he does not come. Haribhadra favours the former explanation whereas the Av.-cúrni and Kşemakirti select the latter one:
samosarane N (Haribhadra): vss. 2-25 Av.-cūrņi, K: vs. 2-29
kevalya N (Haribhadra): vs. 26-30 Av.-cúrni, K: vs. 31 The fact that the Av.-сürmi and Kșemakirti opt for the same division could suggest that it was the original one. Haribhadra's emphasizing of sämáyika through a different division of the text may be an innovation resulting from the wish to underline the importance of this concept as a specific feature of the Avasyaka-corpus.
Both commentators are equally aware of the very thin boundary between the last two terms of the list (deva-malla and mallanayana) and admit that there is nothing wrong in uniting them as one item. The last uncertainty concerns the entries riva, puccha, vägarana: the Brhatkalpa-tradition considers them as three separate
That the samavasarana-tract underwent reworkings and some kind of enlarging is clearly proved by the groups of verses numbered 19-22 / 19bis-22bis. From the point of view of the contents both groups are similar and run parallel: they provide an explanation of vss. 16 (called samgrahagātha by Ksemakirti) and 18 which give a bare list of gods and human beings who attend the Jina's samavasarana by telling us where precisely they should take up a position. But the difference of wording in the two traditions (Av. / Bịhatkalpa) is a proof that these verses are parallel expansions which were not a part of the original tract. The commentators are aware of this: Haribhadra ascribes these verses to the bhäsyakära; Kșemakirti quotes them in his Sanskrit commentary but does not admit them on the same level as the other verses of the tract and seems to indirectly criticize Haribhadra and those who agree with
him.
Another sign of textual manipulation is provided by the fact that vss. 3-6 are found only in the Av.-niryukti as handed down by Haribhadra and the later commentaries, but are totally absent from the Brhatkalpabháşya and from the Av.-cürņi. In this case, it is quite clear that the Brhatkalpabhāşya and the Av.-cürni have both preserved the older tradition, and that vs. 3-6 are one example of a post-cürni insertion in the Av.-niryukti. As a matter of fact, vs. 3-5 tell how the Abhiyoga gods (a kind of servant-class) richly prepared the ground with jewels, spread flowers of all colours everywhere around, and created in all four directions doors with their usual ornaments (Salabhanjika-figures and banners having the image of the god of Love). These verses are made of semi-poetical and rather awkward clichés (see the repetition of the compound mani-kanaga-rayana-cittam, vs. 3 and 5) which could apply anywhere and are borrowed from the Canon: it would be easy to show how what we have here
Apare v anaryar okta-dvdra-dwayam apy ekadvāri-korya vyacaksate, tathapi avirodha iti, Haribhadra and Kyemakirti on vs. 49.
** Aträntare bhásyadarsegu kesucid eta gåtha drfyante ... etds ca dvayor api cürnayor agrhitar de praksepa-gáthaḥ sambhdvyane, Ksemakirti.

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is a versification of the Abhiyogas' tasks as described in the Rajapraśniya." As for. vs. 6, it is a kind of duplicate of vss. 7 and 8, which strangely interrupts the regular line of the development:
pāgāra-tiyam (vs. 2)
tinni ya păgăra-vare.... kavisisaga... (vs. 6)
pāgārā tinni (vs. 7)
kavisisä (vs. 8)
A final case, very similar to the preceding, is provided by vss. 9-10 which, again, are absent both in the Av.-curni and in the Bṛhatkalpabhäṣya. They describe in emphatic terms the exuberant turmoil accompanying the celebration of the Jina's samavasarana and the perfumed incense-pots magically created by the gods.
In short, there seems to be enough evidence to indicate that the two slightly different versions of the samavasarana-tract which we have are reworkings of an old independent source emboxed in different contexts. A similar hypothesis was expressed by E. Leumann in his unpublished edition of the Avasyaka-prose
commentaries:
"Dieses über das Samosarana handelnde Niryukti-Stück findet sich mit Ausnahme der offenbar secundären Strophen 20-23, 26f., 36-39 [i.e., in our numbering vss. 3-6, 9-10, 1922], wieder in Kalpabhäşya 1,370-411. Auch die zugehörigen Ausführungen unserer Cürni stimmen wörtlich überein mit dem betreffenden Theil der KalpaCürni; nur fehlen in der letztern nebst den einleitenden Worten die an V,18 angelehnten Bemerkungen, die eben nur eine Anknüpfung an Vorhergehendes bezwecken und eigentlich nichts von Belang enthalten, sondern einfach V,23-28 und 45 Anf. in gekürzter Form anticipieren. Bei der literargeschichtlichen Wichtigkeit des so in doppelter Weise überlieferten (vielleicht gemeinschaftlich einem frühern Werk entnommen) Samosarana-Commentars haben wir denselben in extenso aus [, wobei wir wie früher die Abweichungen der KalpaCürni durch C anmerken]."
1.3. Critical edition
Material used
- Avasyaka-niryukti (N, Bh) 543-590: text handed down by the various commenta
25 See Rayapasenatyam, p. 83 in Uvanga Suttani, Ladnun 1987; E. Leumann's analysis of the work, p. 491 ("Beziehungen der Jaina-Literatur zu andern Literaturkreisen Indiens", Actes du sixième congrès des Orientalistes tenu en 1883 à Leyde. Troisième partie, section 2. Leiden 1885).
Notebook No. 45, note on Av. V,18-69. For another remark by Leumann, as well as for his literary remains ("Nachlass"), see Nalini Balbir, Avatyaka-Studien vol. 1, p. 65 and 26-30.
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tors: Haribhadra (p. 230a-239b), Malayagiri (p. 301a-311a), Jñänasägara (p. 297309). For this section the traditional numbering used in manuscripts, in the ed. of the Av.-cürni and by Leumann, is section V, vss. 18-69.
- Bṛhatkalpabhāṣya (K) 1176-1217: Prakrit text with the Sanskrit commentary by Kṣemakirti, edited by Muni Caturvijaya and Muni Punyavijaya. Vol. 2, Bhavnagar 1936, p. 365-377.
- Later Svetambara literature where verses of the tract are quoted as such or, more often, have to be identified as quotations: Nemicanda (12th cent.), Mahavira-cariya, p. 60a-62a (= MVC; ed. Muni Caturvijaya, Bhavnagar vikram sam. 2044; reprint Shri Jaina Shāsana Ārādhană Trust); Jinaprabhasüri (14th cent.), Vividha-TirthaKalpa No. 46, vss. 20-3827 (= VTK; ed. Muni Jinavijaya. Shantiniketan 1934: Singhi Jain Series 10). These verses are:
9: cf. MVC 1401 15cd: MVC 1408cd 24-25: MVC 1425-1426 40-44: VTK 29-33
10-15: VTK 20-25 19-22 quoted MVC 1421-1424 28: VTK 27 46-49: VTK 34-37
13: cf. MVC 1405 24: VTK 26
30: VTK 28 51: VTK 38.
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Text
Programme of the tract
1. samosaraně, kevaiyā, rūva(m), [puccha], vāgaraṇa, soya-pariņāme, dāņam ca, deva-malle, mallâṇayane, uvari titthe (N 543 K 1176)
Samosarana; below 1.4.1
2. jattha apuvv'-osaranam, jattha va devo mah'-iddhio ei va'-udaya-puppha-vaddala2-pagara-tiyam ca Abhiogă (N 544 = K 1177)
3. mani-kanaga-rayana-cittam bhümi-bhāgam samantao surabhim a-joan-antarenam karenti devā vicittam tu (N 545)
4. venta-tthäim surabhim jala-thalayam divva-kusuma-nihärim pairanti samanteņam das'-addha-vannam kusuma-vasam (N 546) 5. mani-kanaga-rayana-citte cau-ddisim torane viuvvanti sa-cchatta-salabhanjiya-mayaraddhaya-cindha-santhane (N 547)
6. tinni ya păgăra-vare rayana-vicitte tahim sura-gan'-indă
"On vs. 1-19, see below 2.1.5.
* Varddala-fabda udaka-puspayoh pratyekam abhisambadhyate, Haribhadra. » Salabhanjikäḥ stambha-puttalikäḥ, Haribhadra.

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mani-kancana-kavisisaga-vibhúsie te viuvventi (N 548) 7. abbhantara majjha bahim, Vimaņa-Joi-Bhavanihiva-kaya u
păgără tinni bhave, rayaņe kanage ya rayac ya (N 549 = K 1178) 8. mani-rayana-hemaya vi ya kavisīsā savva-rayaniya dara savva-rayanamaya cciya padäga-dhaya-torana-vicittá (N 550 = K 1179) 9. tatto ya samantenam kaligaru-kundurukka-misenam
gandhena mañaharenam dhüva-ghadlo viuventi (N 551) 10. ukkuthi-shanayam kalayala-saddeņa savvao savvarm
titthagara-payamüle karenti devā nivayamana (N 552) 11. cei-duma, pedha, chandaya, asana, chattam ca, camarão ya,
jam ca 'nnam karanijam karenti tam Vāṇamantariya (N 553 = K 1180) 12. säháraņa-osaraṇe evam jatth' iddhimam tu osarai
ekko cciya tam savvam karei; bhayaņā u iyaresim (N 554 - K 1181) 13. sür'-udaya pacchimäe ogähantič puvvao 'ii;
dohi paumehi payā maggeņa ya hoi satt' anne" (N 555 = K 1182) 14. ayahina puvva-muho ti-disim padiruvagå u deva-kaya;
jegha-gani anno va dähina-puvve adůrammi (N 556 - K 1183) 15. je te devehi kaya ti-disim padirüvaga Jiņa-varassa
tesim pita-ppabhava taydņuruvam havai růvam (N 557 = K 1184) 16. titthaisesa-samjaya, devi Vemaniyana, samanio,
Bhavanavai-Vanamantara-Joisiyānam ca devio, (N 558 - K 1185) 17. kevalino ti-uņa Jinam tittha-paņāmam ca maggao tassa,
mana-m-adi viņamanta vayanti sa-tthāņa-sa-tthanam (N 559 = K 1186) 18. Bhavanaval Joisiya bodhavva, Vanamantara-sura ya
Vemāniyā ya manuya payahiņam jam ca nissae (N 560 = K 1187) 19. samjaya, Vemin-inthl, samjai, puvvena pavisium Viram
kaum payahinam puvva-dakkhine thanti disi-bhage (Bh 116) (19bis. anagård, Veminiya-var-angan, shuni ya puvvenam
pavisanti viviha-mani-rayana-kirana-nikarena darenam, K) 20. Joisiya-Bhavana-Vantara-devio dakkhinena pavisanti
citthanti dakkhisavara-disimmi ti-gunam Jinam kaum (Bh 117) (20bis. Joisiya-Bhavana-Vanayara-dayita layanna-ruva-kaliyło
pavisanti dakkhinenam padaya-jhaya-panti-kalienam, K)
21. avarena Bhavanavasi Vantara-Joisa sura ya aigantum
avar'-uttara-disi-bhage thanti Jinam to namamsitt (Bh 118) (21bis. Joisiya Bhavana Vanayara, sa-sambhamā laliya-kundala-Sharan
pavisanti pacchimenam vi tunga-dippanta-siharenamp, K) 22. sa-mah-inda kappe-surà raya nara-nario udipenam
pavisittà puvv'-uttara-disi cithanti panjalia” (Bh 119) (22bis. Sa-mah'inda Kappovaga-devä raya nari ya nario
pavisanti uttarenam pavara-mani-maüha-chenam, K) 23. ekk'-ekkiya diske tigam tigam hoi sannivitham tu;
adi-carime vimissă thi-purisa; sesa patteyam (N 561 - K 1188) 24. entam mah'-iddhiyam panivayanti thiyam avi vayanti paņamanta;
na vi jantana na vikahá na paroppara-maccharo na bhayam (N 562 = K 1189) 25. biiyammi honti tiriya, taie pågåra-m-antare jāņa;
pågåra-jadhe tiriyå vi honti patteya missä và" (N 563 - K 1190) 26. savvam ca, desa-viratim, sammam ghecchati va hoti kahana u
ihara amudha-lakkho na kahei bhavissai na tam ca (N 564 = K 1191) 27. maņue cau-m-annayaram; tirie tiņni va duve va padivajje;
jai n'atthi niyamaso cciya suresu sammatta-paţivatti (N 565 = K 1192) 28. tittha-paņāmam kaum kahci sähärasena saddenam
savvesim saņņīņam joyama-nhariņā bhagavam (N 566 = K 1193) 29. ta-ppuvviya arahaya pūiya-püya ya viņaya-kammam ca
kaya-kicco vi jaha kaham kahae namae taha tittham (N 567 = K 1194)
How many? (kevaiya); starts here according to K and Av.-cürni 30. jattha apuvv'-osaranam na ditthi-puvvam vajena samanenam
bārasahi joyanchim so ei; anagame lahuya (N 568 = K 1195)
Beauty (rūvam); below 1.4.3 31. savva-suri jai růvam angutha-pamanayam viuvvejja
Jiņa-pãy'-anguttham pai na sohac tam jah' ingalo (N 569 = K 1196) 32. ganahara, ahāra, aņuttară ya jāva Vana" Cakki Väsu Balä
Mandaliyā tā hiņā; cha-tthana-gayā bhave sesä (N 570 = K 1197)
Padaga-jhaya-torand cina, K. * Read sür'-udaya; readings súrodaya/ sadaya are unmetrical; honti, K; margena ya ti prákytarudd vibhall-varyaye märgatah prsthato bhagavatah, Ksemakini.
*Abbreviation for manapaidyanana)Jaina Sk. mana parydya, i.e. the second of the five types of knowledge, a kind of telepathy.
Pavisanti panaminam thaniya puw-uttara-disde, MVC 1424cd. Eklektič, K.
Payara-bahim tiriya vi kevald maņuya-missä vd, MVC 1426cd. * Na dipha-puwan, K; adighapusan, VTK. *Abbreviation for Vanamantara, Sk. Vyantara

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33. sanghayana, rüva, santhana, vanna, gai, satta, sära, ussāsā
em-ai 'nuttaraim havanti nămódae tassa (N 571 = K 1198) 34. pagadinam annāsu vi pasattha udaya anuttará honti
khaya uvasame vi ya tahā khayammi avigappam āhamsu" (N 572 = K 1199) 35. assaya-m-aiyão já vi ya a-suhä havanti pagadio
simba-rasa-lavo vva pae na honti tå a-suhaya tassa (N 573 = K 1200) 36. dhammodaeņa ruvam karenti rūvassino vi jai dhammam
gijjha-vao ya surůvo pasamsimo tena rūvam tu (N 574 = K 1201)
Mandaliana sahassă piī-danam sayasahassa" (N 581 = K 1208) 44. bhatti-vihavanuruvam anne vi ya denti ibbha-m-asya
souņa Jiņāgamanam niutta-m-aņioiesum vă (N 582 = K 1209) 45. devaņuatti," bhatti, pûya, thira-karana, satta-anukampá,
skodaya dana-gunā, pabhāvanā c'eva titthassa (N 583 = K 1210)
Exposé (vāgarana); below 1.4.3 37. käleņa asankhena vi sankhâtitäņa samsaiņam tu
má samsaya-vocchitti na hojja kama-vägarana-dosā (N 575 = K 1202) 38. savvattha avisamattam riddhi-viseso akala-haranam ca
savvannu-paccao vi ya acinta-guna-bhūtio jugavam (N 576 - K 1203)
Offerings (deva-malla / mallanayana); below 1.4.2 46. raya ya ray-amacco, tassa 'sai paura-janavao vă vi
dub-bali: khandiya, bali-chadiya. tandulāņadhagam kalama" (N 584 = K 1211) 47. bhaiya punāniyānam, akhand'-aphudiyana, phalaga-sariyanam,
kirai bali. sura vi ya tatth' eva chuhanti gandhai (N 585 = K 1212) 48. bali-pavisana-samakālam puvva-ddårena thăti parikahana
ti-gunam purao pādana; tass' addham avadiyam deva (N 586 = K 1213) 49. addh'-addham ahivaino; avasesam havai păgaya-janassa; savvamaya-ppasamani; kuppai na 'nno ya cha-mmāse" (N 587 = K 1214)
Impact of the Jina's exposé on the audience (soya-pariname); below 1.4.3 39. vasõdayassa va jahā vannadi honti bhayana-visesă
savvesim pi sa-bhasam Jiņa-bhāsä pariname evam (N 577 = K 1204) 40. såhäranåsavatte tad-uvaogo u gåhaga-girae
na ya nivvijjai soya kidhi-vaniya-dási-aharaná (N 578 = K 1205) 41. savvåuam pi soya khavejja" jai hu sayayam Jino kahae
si -unha-khup-piväsä-parissama-bhae aviganento (N 579 = K 1206)
The last stage of the samavasarana (uvari: tirtham): the ganadhara.s intervene; below 1.4.3 50. kheya-viņoo, sisa-guna-divanä, paccao ubhayao vi
sisáyariya-kamo vi ya, ganahara-kahane gun, honti" (N 588 = K 1215) 51. rāôvaniya-sthåsaņe nivittho va paya-vidhammi
jettho annayaro vă ganahari kahai biše (N 589 = K 1216) 52. sankhaie vi bhave sãhai jam vă paro u pucchijjā;
na ya nam an-äisesi viyanai esa chaumattho (N 590 = K 1217)
Gift (dānam); below 1.4.3 42. vitti u suvannassā bārasa addham ca sayasahassăim
tavaiyam ciya kodi pīti-dānam ca Cakkissa" (N 580 = K 1207) 43. cyam c'eva pamäņam navaram rayayam tu Kesava denti;
Osdsd, K; námodaya, K; Haribhadra seems to understand the whole line as one compound, *Payadinam annds' avi, K; pagadinam annāsu wi mi sasthy-arthe saptami, Haribhadra. "Gajhavao, K; rūkam evam ru, K. "So K and Malayagiri; sa-bhāsā, Haribhadra.
Taovaogo, K. Jhavija, K, VTK. "Pilddnam tu Cakkinam, K.
"Vitti pi sayasahassā, K. * Devdnuvitri, K.
Tassdsai, K; kalameti prdkyta-Sallya kalamanām tandulandom, Haribhadra; drsarwid vibhakti vyatyaye kalamanám fali-vifesanam balim karoti, kşemakirti,
"Taddaddha mohol p., K.; mo pôdapūrane, Ksemakirti: sarmaya-prafamanah, sarvarogopasamano 'yam balih, gāhāyām prákytarvát strirvam, Ksemakirti, see also Haribhadra. "Sanskrit rendering in Hemacandra's Trisaspisalákápuruşacarita 11,3,836 (and 1,3,678):
guroh kheda-vinodaf ca praryayaf ca dvayor api guru-fisya-kramas cēti ganabhrd-desand-gunah Sthasanovaviftho, K, VTK; ganahari kahel biyat, K; ganahari karel b., VTK. Sahal mi defivacanah kathayati, Haribhadra; nam iti vákydlamkare, Haribhadra.

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are an echo of stereotyped Canonical passages used for similar occasions, c.g. Jambódvipaprajnapti V describing the birth-consecration performed by the gods for every new-born Jina." Many details of the samavasarana architecture also recall the construction of the god Suriyabha's flying palace described at length in the Canonical Rajapraśniya (see already above 1.2).
1.4. Discussion of specific issues
The programme of the samavasarana-tract includes items of different kinds. Samosarane, the first and the longest item, deals with what concerns the place of the preaching and is thus connected to the study of what historians of religions call "sacred space". The next terms of the list are the starting point for theoretical discussions meaningful in the setting of Jaina dogmatics and also constitute attempts at justifying why certain elements of the samavasarana are what they are. The last items relate to magico-religious rituals and seem to possess an archaic flavour. The dog matic and ritual aspects are peculiar to the samavasarana-tract in all its versions. In other sources (see below 2), they almost disappear and the architectural aspect comes in the foreground.
The mention of the three walls (vs. 7) shows that the samavasarana-space is a constructed area. At this stage there is no clear specification about the exact geometrical shape (circular / square). The institution of a hierarchy and of different levels of sanctity in the three zones so defined is the main point. It is present in the form of a network of correspondences between different planes, as is shown in the following table:
Wall
Colour
Divine architects
Corresponding world of the Jaina cosmolo
Material of the wall / of the coping (vs. 8 kavisisa)
Inner
Vaimānikas
Upper
Red
Jewels (rubies) / gems Gold / rubies
Yellow
Middle Outer
Jyotiskas Bhavanavasins
Middle Lower
Silver / gold
White
1.4.1. Samavasarana as a sacred space
First of all, it is important to note that the main agents for all the tasks connected with the samavasarana are the gods. This is not unexpected. They are known from the Canon to participate in all the main episodes of a Jina's life. In the Acårånga (II, 15), they are instrumental in Mahavira's incarnation in his mother's womb, in the transplantation of the embryo, on the occasion of his birth, on the day of his renunciation, on the day when he reaches Omniscience and they also attend his first general preaching. In the Kalpasūtra (Jinacarita), they are mentioned on the occasion of the Jina's incarnation, transplantation, night of birth, renunciation and nirväņa. In some cases, "gods" mean only Sakra alone, in others, it means specific groups, especially the following four:
Bhavanaväsin, Vyantara, Jyotiska, Vaimanika who are also those mentioned in the context of samavasarana. The categories of gods involved and the respective part played by them depend on the magnificence of the samavasarana. Vss. 2 and 12 draw a (rather unclear) distinction between the extraordinary (apūrva) samavasarana where all categories of gods participate and the ordinary one (sadharana) where all tasks can be performed by any god who is present. The following description is applicable to the first case.
The first task of the gods is the establishment of a sacred space clearly separate from its surroundings. This is done by inferior gods (Abhiyoga) through purification by the means gods usually have at their disposal: rains of water, flowers and a "world-destruction-storm' (vaya, vs. 2, for samvattaya vaya, Av.-cúrņi 325.11). The brief evocation of vs. 2 and the corresponding prose of the Av.-curņi
Although the symbolic connection between the classes of gods and the type of material used for the walls is not explained in the texts and is not clear, this kind of correspondence is not unknown. We are partly reminded of the town of the Cakravartin as it is described in Buddhist sources: each of its seven concentric walls corresponds to
* See L. Alsdorf, "Further contributions to the history of Jain cosmography and mythology, Kleine Schriften (ed. A. Wezler, Wiesbaden 1974) p. 137.
» While vs. 7 only puts the terms side by side, the prose commentaries relate them to each other without ambiguity: abbhintarillam pågåram Venantyd devd karenti, majjhima Jorislyd, bihirilla Bhavanavdsl karenri, abbhintarillo rayanamayo, malihillo kanayamao. bähirillo rayatamayo, Av.cúrni 325.13-14, very similar to 325.2-4; anupürvya, Haribhadra; yashdkramam, Ksemakirti. Information on colour is available only in the extract from one of the two Bohatkalpacurpis as
(p. 367): atra Viesa-candy intham wifeso dryase: cdukkoná tinni pdgard ralijanti caudara. abhhantarillo lohiyakkhehim, majjhillo piyachim, bähirillo seyachim. savo samosarana-bhago Joyanam. abbhintara-majjhimánam pagaranam antaram joyana, mahimabahiranom pågåranam antaram gauan ti.

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one type of precious stone." More generally, the map of the samavasaraṇa also refers us to the traditional pattern of city planning in South Asia, where life is organized in concentric circles revolving around a central temple. On the other hand, the mention of only three groups of gods (the Vyantaras are here absent), each referring to one of the three worlds of the Jain cosmology, is a way of suggesting that the samavasarana is an image of the cosmos (below 2.2.4). The higher they are in the vertical image of the worlds, the closer to the centre they are." About the material of the walls, the striking and queer thing is that the list mixes ratna.s, for the first one, and dhatu.s (gold and silver), for the second and the third. The general connection between rubies and sun in the Indian tradition might account for the fact that rubies are used for the central part."
The central point of the sacred space is the place where the objects meant for the Jina are located. According to vs. 11, they are: a sacred tree (asoka, prose commentaries), a small stool at the foot of the tree surmounted with a canopy (chandaya), a throne surmounted with superposed umbrellas and fly-whisks. Ca (in jam c'annam, vs. 11) is understood by the commentaries as implying a wheel of the Law (dhamma-cakka) placed on a lotus-flower. However, there seems to have been diverging traditions about the gods who are involved in the preparation of these objects: the Vyantaras according to the verse tract and all the prose-commentaries (Av.-cürņi, Haribhadra, Kşemakirti), other gods of a better status according to another (apparently contradictory) passage: the aśoka-tree is fashioned by Śakra, umbrellas and flywhisks by Isäna, other objects by Bali and Camara (Av.-cürni 325.5-6). Except for the tree (already present in the Canonical sources as the main sign of the preaching setting) and the dharma-cakra, all objects point to a royal figure rather than to an ascetic. However, the wonder of the arising of lotuses where the Jina (or the new-born Bodhisattva) steps (vs. 13) may refer to both ascetic and royal milieus.
Cf. J. Przyluski, "La ville du Cakravartin. Influences babyloniennes sur la civilisation de l'Inde": Rocznik Orjentalistyczny V (1927; published in 1929), p. 15foll.
For an anthropologically oriented investigation of the hierarchy of gods, see the monographs collected in Classer les dieux? Des panthéons en Asie du Sud. Etudes réunies par V. Bouillier and G. Toffin. Paris: EHESS 1993, Puruşartha 15, especially M. Gaborieau, "Des dieux dans toutes les directions. Conception indienne de l'espace et classification des dieux", p. 23-42.
"I thank Dr. A. Roşu for this information, available in L. Finot, Les lapidaires indiens. Paris 1896, especially p. 175.
"On the general association between the throne and the tree, see J. Auboyer, Le trône et son symbolisme dans l'Inde ancienne. Paris: PUF 1949, p. 59-60.
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The area is at first empty. The next stage is the ordering of space and of its inhabitants which follows a very strict etiquette (described in vss. 16ff.), especially in the area close to the centre, viz. the inner part of the samavasarana-ground. The map of the samavasarana is a space oriented according to the four main directions, each corresponding to an entrance and leading to a fifth point, the centre where the Jina is located. The importance of this central point is emphasized by the rite of the pradakṣina which is to be performed by all the categories of beings whose place is in the intermediate quarters of the inner part near the centre (infra). All directions are not equally valued. As expected in India, the east is the best: the Jina enters by the eastern side and is turned towards the east (puvva-muho, vs. 14). There is a perfect correspondence between space and time: the duration of the samavasarana fits in with the course of the sun: it starts with sunrise and ends with sunset (vs. 13). The wish to make the samavasarana a really universal assembly from which no single creature should be excluded is probably partly responsible for a peculiar detail, somewhat naively stated: the superpower (prabhava) of the Jina accounts for the fact that the gods were able to create in the other three directions three exact replicas (padiruvaga, vs. 15) of the Jina with the same accessories as the real one, "so that everybody is sure that he speaks to him"." This of course calls to mind the caumukha-composition which obeys the same principle, i.e. an "upright cube or cylinder on the four sides of which Jinas appear". Pictorial representations occasionally show another interpretation: they represent a total of five Jina-figures (one in the centre and four replicas)."
The groups who have to take their places in the intermediate quarters around the Jina are respectively gods and human beings (ascetics / non ascetics). The style of the verse-tract (vss. 16-18 + 23) is so abrupt and concise that it is difficult to get a precise idea of the exact position of all the groups; hence the parallel expansion of vss. 19-2219bis-22bis (see above 1.2): they indicate through which entry the groups come and where they go, but they do not specify how those who take their positions in the same quarter are located (who is behind whom). The maximum amount of accuracy is to be seen in the Prakrit prose of the Av.-curni (327.1-328.2), and this probably suggests that the verse-tract is a summary of the prose (rather than
Evam savvo logo janai "amham kahei" tti, Av.-cürni 325.7-8; and again 326.13 jaha savvo jänati mama sa-padihutto ti ("so that everybody knows that he also faces him").
60
K. Bruhn, The Jina images of Deogarh. Leiden 1969, p. 16.
See, for instance, C. Caillat - Ravi Kumar, The Jaina Cosmology No. 5.

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the reverse). The quarters allotted to each group depend on the direction from where they enter the sacred space after a complete pradaksina:
Entry Quarter Beings East South-East ganadhara.s, kevalin.s, monks having spe
cial powers (labdhi.s) and all types of knowledge except Omniscience, other
monks, Vaimānika-goddesses, nuns. South South-West Goddesses of the following three classes:
Bhavanavasin, Jyotiska, Vyantara West North-West Gods of the following three classes: Bhava
navāsin, Jyotiska, Vyantara North North-East Vaimānika gods, men, women The sequence of directions of entry underlines the importance ascribed to the eastern direction which is the starting point of the circle. On the spiritual level it corresponds to the most advanced stage. It is therefore the place from where the religious community enters, in an order which reflects the level of the different groups: The ganadhara.s are the closest to the Jina in space as they are close to him from the point of view of their knowledge and behaviour; the elder one must be very close (vs. 14cd). Our tract introduces a hierarchy among the members of the religious community." Some features of this location of different groups are difficult to explain. If it is possible to understand why the Vaimānikas are separated from other groups of gods, since they are normally said to have more ability for right faith, the fact that their gods and goddesses side with human beings is puzzling. The place of the Vaimanika goddesses after the monks but before the nuns may suggest that they are closer to spiritual achievement than the nuns. Why the directions other than east correspond to the groups of gods / goddesses remains an unanswered question. The insistance is on an organization based on triads. The fact that only the north-eastern and south-eastern groups are mixed (males and females together) is explicitly stated (vs. 23).
The hierarchy is based not only on the places in the respective quarters, but also on the posture (standing / scated) which determines a sub-hierarchy within certain groups. It is explicitly stated for the north-eastern group: only the male
members of the religious order are allowed to sit, while both the Vaimanikagoddesses and the nuns stand: hayanti, na nisidanti, as the Av. cürni says (327.8-9). The fact that no clear specification is given in the case of other groups (only thayanti: "take their positions"? or "stand?" is used) has slightly annoyed Haribhadra, and is also a problematic issue for some later sources (cf. 2.1.5):
arra ca mulasika-karena Bhavanaparidevi-prabhinam sthanam nişidanam va spaståksarair noktam, avasthana-matram eva praripaditam, pūrvácaryopadesa-likhitaparrakadi-citrakarma-balena tu sarvă eva devyo na nişidanti, devah purush striyas
ca nişidantiti praripadayanti kecana ity alam prasangena (Haribhadra 233b.1-3). We note, en passant, that in order to sort out this point Haribhadra clearly refers to the existence of iconographic material and to its being based on an old tradition (pür. vācāryāpadeśa-likhita-patraka), which indicates that already in his time (8th cent.) the representation of samavasarana was common.
The middle and outer circles are of decreasing sanctity. Their organization seems to be a little looser. The middle circle is allotted to animals, and the outer one is the place for all vehicles, especially those of the gods (vs. 25ab). The freedom is even greater outside the compound, where the choice between segregation and mixture is possible (vs. 25cd), and where all categories of beings may be represented: according to the commentators, vi in tiriya vi) means "also gods and human beings". However, the general striking and original feature of the samavasarana is its religious (/spiritual)-based organization, in accordance with the basic principles of the Jain doctrine and its favouring of a teaching meant for all (pravacana), conversely, its avoidance of any social criterion: according to our tract, all human beings take their places in the same quarter (north-east), which supposes that they are all able to progress. The interpretation may have slightly changed later on: a late samavasaranapatta has in its legend the words frävaka and frávika, i.e. Jain lay-followers, instead of a generic term (nara / nari; manuyā, etc.).
1.4.2. Ritual aspect of the samavasarana.
The final phase of the samavasarana is the occasion for a curious magico-religious rite. The Prakrit term malla in deva-malla / mallånayana, vs. 1) used for its designation in the verse-programme is apparently an hapar legomenon and perhaps some kind of taboo-word. The Av.-curņi (332.13) understands devamalla as a chrono
Most textual and pictorial sources usually only distinguish the following three groups: monks, Vaimanika-goddesses and nuns. See, for instance, the samavasarana-parta in C. Caillat. Ravi Kumar, The Jain cosmology, No. 5, where the legend reads sådhu, Vaimdnikadevi, sadhvi.
Tiriya vi: api-sabdāt manusya deva api, Haribhadra and Ksemakirti.

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logical designation of the precise moment when the first porisi after sunrise is over (viz. around 9 a.m.). However, malla is attested neither in the verses developing the entry (vss. 46-49), nor in the prose-commentaries, where it is artificially sanskritised as málya and replaced by a more common word: bali (fem.; see above 1.3. note on vs. 49), i.e. religious offerings. One must avoid an improper offering (dubbali). A proper offering consists of one adhaga (= four prastha.s) of high quality rice, full, cleaned, without impurity. The adjectives recur elsewhere, for instance in the Tandulavaicărika-prakirnaka. The syntagm ball pavisai ("the offerings enter") is a metonymic designation. In the account of the Av. cúrni, the relevant passage runs as follows:
"At the end of the first porisi (deva-malle) either the king or his minister, or a leading person from city (pauram!) or village enters with (offerings) through the eastern door. They are surrounded by the gods and the sound of musical instruments. So much for the bringing. When the offerings have entered and are inside the inner wall, the Tirthamkara, who was preaching the Law, becomes silent. Then the king and others, the offerings in their hands, surrounded by the gods, perform a triple pradaksina of the Tirthamkara and put the offerings at his feet. The gods take half of them, without letting them fall on the ground. Half of the rest the king takes. The rest is taken by the people. Then, if a lump of rice is thrown (by the Jina) on to the head of somebody, his previous diseases will cease, and for the next six months he will not get any new disease." After the offerings have been made, the Tirthamkara gets up, goes out through the northern door of the first innermost) wall, and in the east where the divine canopy (devacchandaya) is," there he sits as if in meditation (samadhi) (333.1-7)."
The solemnity of the event is emphasized by the contrast between the music and the silence of the Jina. The offerings have a symbolic value. They seal the exchange-process between the Jina and the audience and they are a further sign of the perfect cohesion of all actors and participants in the samavasarana, since gods, representatives of the society and the Jina have their own part to play. The going and coming of the offerings from the king and people to the Jina and back, as well as their sharing among all participating groups, also point in the same direction. Their power comes from the fact that they have been endowed with a supplementary value through their direct contact with the Jina. The specification about the fact that they should not fall is important: the holy contact should not be broken under any circumstances. The whole process evokes the familiar gesture of the Jaina monks, when, at the end of their vyakhyan.s, they shower handful of white or coloured grains of rice which the audience cagerly catches, or the Hindu prasad.
1.4.3. Samavasarana and Jaina dogmatics
The samavasarana-tract is an opportunity to emphasize certain fundamental ideas of the Doctrine.
The main aim of the samavasarana, achieved by the Jina's preaching and favoured by the all-pervading peaceful atmosphere, since, as an often quoted half-verse says, "there is neither oppression, nor wrong talk, nor mutual hate, nor fear" (vs. 24cd), is to help beings in their spiritual progress. This is expressed (vs. 26) through the chain savvam (abbreviation for savva-viraim), desa-viraim and samman (suyam and sammam, cf. N 796). This chain defines the basic concept of sämdyika, broadly "equanimity or ability to consider all beings as having as much importance as oneself, and enlists its four stages in descending order: full renunciation (of ascetics), partial renunciation of laypersons), scriptural knowledge and right faith. The number and the nature of varieties accessible are related to the class of beings to which one belongs. Human beings can reach any of the four stages, while animals may attain the second or at the most the third stage. In case no human being or animal reaches the first stage, at least one of the gods attains it.
The qualities of dana (vs. 42-45) are extolled. The gifts of money are meant as awards offered by the king to the person, an official or not, who has brought the announcement that a samavasarana is to be held (vs. 44). As is well-known, this figure has become a standard character in the narrative literature. The amounts to be offered are not fixed and depend on the wealth possessed in the case of ordinary
"Ed. W. Schubring, Wiesbaden 1969, p. 12 6 VII; Hemacandra, Trisaspisalakapuruşacarita 1,3,667.
"Cp. the well-known instance kuntah pravidanti quoted and explained by Indian poeticians (Mammata, Kavyaprakasa, comm. on 11.10).
This sentence is also quoted by Kșemakinti in his commentary on vs. 47.
"Note in the corresponding verse (49) the use of kappal; for its meaning in Ayurvedic contexts see Sk. kopa "excitement of the morbific elements).
Earlier the samavasarana-tract and its prose commentaries implied that this object is located in the central part of the sacred space. The later sources listed in 2. below) generally remove this inconsistency and explicitly state that the devacchandata is located in the north-eastern part of the middle precinct and is meant for the Jina to rest in after his preaching.

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kings, but are fixed and extraordinarily large in the case of Cakravartins, members of heroic triads (Baladeva/Vasudeva/Prativasudeva), or so-called mandaliya.s. They decrease in quality (gold/silver) and quantity from one case to the other. The dry list of words defining the good reasons to perform such offerings (given in vs. 45) looks stereotype and could fit anywhere: desire to please the gods, proof of devotion, sign of worship, reinforcing of the religious community, desire to show one's sympathy to the person who has announced such good news, to propagate the Jain faith and to perform a good karman.
The peculiarity of the samavasarana-tract is also to consider that certain points are not self-evident and need justification to be understood in the proper way.
The first question is: Why does the Jina pay respects to the tirtha before he starts preaching (vss. 28-29) although he has reached the Goal (kaya-kicco vi)? The term tirtha has different connotations: the Jaina community (ascetics and layfollowers), the corpus scriptorum, the supreme knowledge (kevala-jnana), the Tirthamkara himself; seemingly all four are implied here. The question is answered by saying that the Jina is continuing the tradition of earlier Arhats; he worships the objects of reverence, and thereby follows the disciplinary ritual.
The query about the Jina's beauty (rüva, vs. 31-36) in the samavasarana is even more crucial. This beauty is "unsurpassed" (anultara). It concerns the constitution, the shape, the structure, the colour, the general appearance of the body, the inner essence, the voice and the respiration. It cannot be paralleled by that of any other being (see the descending scale of vs. 32 and the prose commentaries thereupon) and cannot be duplicated even by the heavenly beings. There is no contradiction with the three replicas prepared by gods (see above 1.4.1), since their origin is the internal power of the Jina alone. Secondly, this extraordinary beauty is explained in terms of the karma-theory. The category responsible for it is the so-called namakarman (vs. 33) which gives every individual his own characteristics. Moreover, all Categories of karman effect positively in the case of the Jina. This is summarized in the striking formula dhammodaenam rüvam (vs. 36): "beauty arises from the practice of the Law". The fact that even beautiful beings practice the law is an incitation for others, and the fact that the being whose words have to be grasped is beautiful is a
In spite of the diversity of the audience, the Jina's exposé (vagarana, vs. 3738) is addressed to all at the same time (jugavam). This needs an explanation. An expose done in succession (kama) would require such an immeasurable length of time that there would be a risk of innumerable beings not having their doubts removed and remaining deprived of access to spiritual improvement, if, for instance, death took them away before time. This would be a defect, since the samavasarana is a preaching for all. There is no inconvenience in a simultaneous exposé, which is made possible by the extraordinary qualities (riddhi-viseso) of the Jina and by his being Omniscient. His far-reaching voice itself is also endowed with the faculty of helping beings in their progress: as the Av.-cūrņi says (331.11), it is "a protection against hell", and is meant for all and at the same time unrivalled (sähäranåsavatte, vs. 40). Its application is in accord with the language of the listener so that he never gets tired of it, and could spend his whole life listening to the Jina, if he preached continuously. This idea is somewhat naively illustrated through the awkward and meagre anecdote of the old maid servant (kidhi = ther) of a merchant expanded only in the prose commentaries: while bending down to pick up some wood which had fallen down, she came to hear the voice of the Jina and remained in the same position from midday to sunset, forgetting about food, drink, heat and tiredness. The exegetical tract takes on the canonical statement, which may belong to the nucleus of a samavasarana, that the Jina's language is transformed in the respective language of all members of the audience. However, the comparison with the different effects rain has on different soils may be a secondary embellishment.
Finally, there is a necessity to explain the part played by the ganadhara.s who represent the Jina in the second porisi (biãe, vs. 51). The argument that it is a means to avoid the Jina any pain (kheya-vinoo, vs. 50) is not very convincing, especially on account of what has been specified in the previous verses. The main point is, however, to show the qualities of the Jina's disciples and to convince the audience
"The mention of these "Great men befits the inclusion of the samavasarana-tract in the "Universal History section of the Avasyakaniryukti.
For all the technical terms used here see H. von Glasenapp. The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy. Bombay 1942,
Cp. the presence of the so-called månastambha in the samavasarana-structure of the Digambaras (see below 2.2.1).
17 Av.-cūrni 331.13-332.4; also in Prakrit in Haribhadra's and Ksemakini's commentaries. See Nalini Balbir, Avafyaka-Studien, vol. 1, p. 142.
See above Introduction 2. The statement of the Av.-cúrni corresponds to Aupapatikasutra 56, whereas Ksemakirti quotes the relevant extract from the Samavāyanga (see n. 13).

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about a real continuity in the tradition. So, sitting on a throne brought by the king or on a mere stool, a ganadhara will tell the innumerable previous births of beings, or answer any question which is put to him (pucchejja, compare above 0.2). His skill is such that listeners cannot guess that he does not possess Omniscience and superhuman qualities (vs. 52) which are strictly speaking the characteristics of the Tirthamkara alone.
2. Other textual material on samavasarana
It is proposed to establish here a typology of the works in which one might expect some information about the samavasarana and see what it can teach us about the conception of the samavasarana in different contexts.
2.1. Typological survey 2.1.1. Descriptions of single samavasarana.s
This is the richest category. Such descriptions are found in narrative literature. An account of the samavasarana is a topos (or a 'standard episode) of the "Universal History". Any work dealing with the career of a Jina is a fitting place for the inclusion of such a description, which is invariably appended to the account of his attainment of Omniscience. A list of some of these passages, with a brief analysis of their most remarkable individual features, is given below." Svetambara tradition:
- Sanghadása, Vasudevahindi (between 4th and 6th cent. ?) 341.14ff.: prose de
scription of Santinátha's samavasarana in Jaina Maharastri with occasional stereotype poetical compounds. The word samavasarana occurs only at the end (343.7). The part played by the gods is variously emphasized. The whole account betrays a knowledge of the evidence available from the samavasaranatract or any other comparable tradition. Note the details about the places occupied by the various categories of beings in the sacred space (341.26ff.): taro ya payakkhiņi-kauna kaya-panivaydo Vemaniya-devio bhavissa-sahu-thanassa dakkhinena dakkhina-puvenam samthiydo, bhavissa-sähuni-ganassa ya. pacchimenam Bhavandhiva-Vanayara-Joisiya-devio dahine-paccacchimena bhayavao phitlydo, paccacchimena duvdra-uttarena Bhavanaval Joisiyd Vantara ya devd. Vemdniya devd uttara-duvdrena, puracchimena maruya manussio ya. The picture is the same as in the samavasarana-tract (see above 1.4.1). The last two sentences are written in a cryptic abbreviating style: understand (paccacchima-Juttarena and (uttara.) puracchimena. - 345.23ff.: very brief evocation of Kunthu's samavasarana. Out of five sentences, three refer to the preparation of the ground
(samosarana-bhüml), its cleaning and purification. - Uddyotanasuri, Kuvalayamála (dated 779 A.D.): Jaina Mähärastri; verses (äryā);
96.28-97.23: samavasarana of Dharmanatha; full-fledged description close to the theoretical tract found in the exegetical literature (compare, for instance, 97.20 with vs. 24cd). However, the location of the audience is rather imprecise (karthal... karthai). - 217.21ff.: brief prose description (long compounds) of Mahavira's samavasarana confined to the main elements. - Ratnaprabhasüri's Sanskrit version of the Kuvalayamala (13th cent.) has a re
markably long passage in Sanskrit anustubhs (p. 40- 41). - Silanka, Cauppannamahapurisacariya (9th cent.): Jaina Mähärastri; mixed verse
and prose; p. 42 (lines 2-5): Rşabha's samavasarana: very brief description in a few long compounds (cp. above, Kuvalayamála 217.21ff.); p. 83: Padmaprabha's samavasarana. No real description. The only point stressed is the disappearance of all conflicts and hates between beings on the occasion of a samavasarana; p. 300 and 303: two metrical and similar descriptions of
Mahavira's samavasarana in ornate style. - Guņacandra, Mahaviracariya (11th cent.), beginning of chap. 8, p. 2516-253a:
Jaina Mähärastri; mixed verse and prose; in spite of its sophisticated kavyalike style, it is still in the orbit of the samavasarana-tract: vs. 15 of Guņa
- Vimalasuri, Paumacaria (end of the 3rd cent.?) 2.50-61: Jaina Mähårästri; verses
(āryā); description of Mahavira's samavasarana. The place is clearly stated to be circular: note the use of the term mandala (in mandalabhoyam, 50). A special word is used to name the three concentric circles where the various kinds of beings sit or stand to attend the preaching: pk. vakkhara. The monks are in the first one; the goddesses of the Saudharma in the second one; and all other beings, viz. nuns, other goddesses (Jyotiska, Vyantara, Bhavanaväsin), all gods (Jyotiska, Vyantara, Bhavanavasin, Saudharma, Kalpavasin), men and kings, animals are in the third one. The Jina is said to speak in Ardhamagadhi.
*K. Bruhn, "Repetition in Jaina narrative literature, Indologica Taurinensia 11 (1983) P. 47.
See 1.3 above for Hemacandra's Trisastitalákápurusacarita, Nemicanda's Mahdviracariya and Vividharithakalpa No. 46, vs. 20-38; below 2.1.5 for Vividhatirthakalpa No. 46, vs. 1-19.

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canda is a reminiscence of vs. Il of the tract, as well as the compound kaya.. kicco vi ("though he has attained the goal"), on which see above 1.4.3. The specific mention of Sakra and Isäna as responsible for the making of the asoka-tree and the three umbrellas remind us of the Av.-cúrni (see above 1.4.1).
-Hemacandra, Parisistaparvan (12th cent.): Sanskrit: anuştubh; 1.29-45: Mahavi
ra's samavasarana. No mention of beings other than the Jina and the king. -Bhavadevasüri, Parsvanathacarita (13th cent.) 6.222-259: Sanskrit; anustubh (see
below 2.2.2). - Dhanesvara, Satrunjayamahatmya (14th cent.) 1.174-221: Sanskrit; anustubh; R$a
bha's samavasarana. Information about the construction of the sacred space (racana), including measurements and ornamentation; traditional data about the
entrance and location of the audience. - Vinayacandrasūri, Mallinäthacarita (15th cent.) 5.293-323: Sanskrit; anustubh (sce
below 2.2.2).
where the following beings take their places in succession: male members of the religious community, Kalpavāsin-goddesses, nuns, Jyotiska goddesses, Vyantara-goddesses, Bhavanavasin-goddesses, Jyotiska-gods, Vyantara-gods, Bhavanavasin-gods, Kalpavasin-gods, men, animals; description of the central
area with the Jina and the eight marvels. - Muni Nayanandi (11th cent.), Sudamsanacariu 1.8-9 and Padmakirti (11th cent.?).
Pāsanāhacariu 15.7-8: Apabhramsa: no remarkable feature. - Raidhū (15th cent.), Sammaijinacariu 6.9-10: Apabhramsa; indication about the
main architectural components (staircases, dhúlišala-pavillon, manastambha.s, gardens, wells, small temples); description of the central area and details about
the location of the audience similar to Jambúsámicariu (above). - Pasaņāhacariu 4.15-16: Apabhrama; noteworthy is the clear mention of the
three walls and the areas they define.
Digambara tradition: The oldest, most detailed and important accounts of this class are: - Ravişeņa (7th cent.), Padmacarita 2.135-154; 4.23ff.
- Jinasena (8th cent.), Adipurana 22.76-312: Sanskrit; mainly anustubh; refer to the
detailed account given in U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, p. 89-93; sum
marized in U.P. Shah, Jaina-rüpa-mandana, p. 24-25. - Jinasena (8th cent.), Harivamsapurana, chap. 57 (182 vs.): Sanskrit: anustubh;
the samavasarana-area is said to be a square (57.6). - For Tamil Puranas and a complete description of the Digambara samavasarana,
see T.N. Ramachandran, Tinuparuttikunram and its Temples, p. 104-116.
2.1.2. Works on cosmology The inclusion of a samavasarana-passage in works of this category is not systematic. It is to be expected only where cosmology as such (description of the three worlds) is discussed in the frame of "Universal History", viz. if the career of a Jina (usually Rşabha) is narrated. This means that this category is contextually very close to the preceding. However, the care it takes in giving precise measures makes it globally different when viewed from its contents.
Digambara tradition: Trilokaprajnapti 4.710-894: Jaina Sauraseni Prakrit. A systematic general description of samavasarana in 31 points (summarized analysis and drawings in Jainendrasiddhantakosa vol. 4 s.v. samavasarana, p. 334-335). Measurements are given for each element. They are different depending on the Jina concerned, and decrease from Rşabha to Mahavira. Svetambara tradition: Vinayavijaya, Lokaprakása 30.530-655. This late Sanskrit work (17th cent.) presents an inflated account of the samavasarana and integrates almost all the earlier material, sometimes in the form of quota
Shorter and selective accounts are, for instance: - Asaga (10th cent.), Santināthapurana 15.38-50: Sanskrit; anusfubh. - Virakavi (11th cent.), Jambūsāmicariu 1.15-17: Apabhrama; very sober and clear
description of the twelve compartments (baraha korha) around the centre
I have had no access to the Samavasarana-darpana which forms the beginning of Medhāvin's Dharmasamgraha-Sravakácara (15th cent.), mentioned, for instance, in W. Schubring. Die Lehre der Jainas. Berlin-Leipzig 1935 1910 and R. Williams, Jaina Yoga. London 1963 (reprint Delhi 1983) p. 30.

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tions (especially from Avasyakaniryukti, and Dharmaghosasuri's Samavasara nastotra, on which see below 2.1.5).
2.1.3. Modus operandi for the construction of a samavasarana-structure
In the sections they devote to Jaina architecture and iconography, some of the vastusastra.s written in western India by the architects (Somapura or Sutradhara) of the Middle Ages (11th-15th cent.) include prescriptions on building the independent samavasaraṇa-structure found in the temples, usually "in front of the Jina's image". References can be collected from the brief survey published by Prabhashankar O. Sompura and M.A. Dhaky, "The Jaina Architecture and Iconography in the Vastusăstras"." I have had access only to the Diparnava, a late compilation, whose 25th section deals with samavasarana. The first part gives instructions for the building of the different components making the three-dimensional structure called "Meru-samavasarana", along with their measurements. The vocabulary used betrays Hindu influences (cf. Kailasa, sadasiva). The second part of the chapter (vss. 43-55) is a general account of what a samavasarana is.
2.1.4. Inscriptions and allied literature
Occasionally, inscriptions record the installation of a samavasarana vertical stone structure inside a temple. The most famous is the one found in the Vimalavasahi temple at Mount Abu:"
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sam. 1212 (= 1155 A.D.) Jyestha-vadi 8 Bhome śri-Korana-gacche śri-Nannācāryasantane śri-Osavamse mantri-Dhadhukena śri-Vimala-mantri-hastiśälāyām śriAdinatha-samavasaraṇam karayam cakre; śri-Nannasüri-patte śri-Kakkasuribhiḥ pratisthitam. Velapalli vastavуena."
Published in U.P. Shah - M.A. Dhaky, Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture. Ahmedabad 1975, p. 13-19. The works in question are the Västusästra of Viśvakarman (11th cent.), the Västuvidya (12th cent.), the Präsädamandana of Sutradhara Mandana (15th cent.) and the Vṛkṣarnava (15th cent.).
"Photograph in D.R. Bhandarkar, "Jaina Iconography. II. Samavasarana", Indian Antiquary 40 (1911) Fig. 1; Muni Shri Jayantavijayaji, Holy Abu. Bhavnagar 1954, Fig. 21; U.P. Shah, Jainarupa-mandana, Fig. 182 (Plate XCIV); etc.
"Muniraj shri Jayantavijaya, fri Arbuda pracin Jain lekhasandoha, vol. 2. Ujjain vikram sam. 1994, No. 229 Jinavijaya, Prácin Jain Lekhasamgraha, vol. 2. Bhavnagar 1921, No. 248.
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A similar inscription, dated sam. 1536 (= 1479 A.D.), is found in the cella of the Rṣabha temple in Jaisalmer:
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[names of the donor and his family-members]... śri samavasarana (m) kāritam pratisthitam Sri-Kharatara-gacche... Sri-Jinabhadrasûri-page śri-Jinacandrasuribhiḥ Sri-Jinasamudrasuri-pramukha-sahitaiḥ ..."
Two inscribed bronzes depicting samavasarana have been treated by U.P. Shah: the Cambay bronze is dated sam. 1252 = 1195 A.D.; the Sirohi / Surat bronze is dated sam. 111x (circa 1053-1062 A.D.)."
Confirming evidence is available from the semi-historical works of the 13th-14th centuries: see, for instance, the Kharataragaccha-bṛhadgurvavali about the installation of two original (mula) samavasarana-models in sam. 1379 (= 1322 A.D.) at Satrunjaya, and about another one installed in Pățan two years later. The prabandha.s mention the number of samavasarana.s sponsored by the famous persons they eulogize among their religious deeds. Thus the minister Vastupala is credited with 505 samavasarana.s on cloth."
2.1.5. Hymns
The catalogues of manuscripts abound in works named samavasaraṇa-stava, stotra and the like, popular among both sects of the Jainas.
One Svetambara work is Dharmaghosa's Samavasarana-stava (13th cent.), short hymn in Prakrit (24 vss.) accompanied by a useful detailed Sanskrit commen
*Ed. in A. Nahta - Bh. Nahta, Bikaner Jain Lekhasamgraha. Calcutta virăbda 2482, No. 2810 p. 397. An independent samavasarana-stone structure (without inscription) is found in the Mahavira temple of Kumbharia; the structure found in the Santinätha-temple, wrongly named samavasarana by some, in fact represents the Aştăpada, as is clear from the accompanying inscription (dated samp
1266).
"Jaina Bronzes from Cambay", Lalit Kald 13 [1967] p. 31-32. A photograph of the Sirohi Surat bronze is also published in U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Fig. 76. For anothe samavasaraṇa-bronze, dated sam. 1534 (= 1477 A.D.), see U.P. Shah, Treasures of Jaim Bhandaras. Ahmedabad 1978, Fig. 170 and p. 97.
Ed. Jinavijaya Muni. Bombay 1956 (Singhi Jain Series 42): 71.17; 77.20.
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505 samavasaraṇāni paṭṭasūtramayani, Püratanaprabandhasamgraha 65.24. Instead partasura the corresponding passage of the Prabandhakosa (129.18 132.10) uses the worl jādara (maya), "a type of white silk" (B.J. Sandesara - J.P. Thaker, Lexicographical Studies in Jain Sanskrit. Baroda 1962, p. 64).

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!
tary. It offers an interesting combination of features imported from the old tract and from other sources. In their contents and wording its verses 4,22 and 23 clearly be tray the influence of the tract (vss. 7-8, 12 and lab respectively). The Av.-curņi and vitti are explicitly referred to and quoted (vs. 17) in the discussion concerning the posture (sitting or standing) of certain members of the assembly (see above 1.4.1). On the other hand, the architectural aspect is a new element: the distinction between two possible shapes of the samavasarana-space (round / square) and their consequences on the organisation of the components are considered (vs. 5ff.). The personification of some decorative elements (e.g. the banners, vs. 13) and the mention of individual gods and goddesses along with their attributes in the function of dvărapăla.s (vss. 19-21) probably come from the iconographic tradition. This work seems to have been highly reputed: it has obviously inspired the first part of Jinaprabha's Vividhatirthakalpa No. 46, and in certain manuscripts of the VTK it follows Jinaprabha's own tract.
Vişnusena's Samavasarana-stotra is a representative of the Digambara tradition in Sanskrit. This literary composition using different metres for its 63 verses de scribes the various elements of a samavasarana (going from the centre towards the outer part), their sophisticated ornamentation, their number or measurements, following the pattern of the Trilokaprajñapti (above 2.1.2), of which one verse (4.808) is quoted. The popular motif of perfect harmony between natural foes is present (vss. 58-59).
The Digambara samavasarana has elements such as the dhalisala (a pavillion located outside the precinct), the gandhakuri (name given to the central part where the Jina is), or the manastambha," to mention only a few important ones, which are specific to it. The Digambara samavasarana, with its forests and lakes, is comparable to a full-fledged town or a paradise and includes derived elements. Its structure is much more complex than its Svetambara counterpart. On the other hand, the Digambara sources ascribe the organisation of the samavasarana to a particular god, viz. Kubera, who prepares it following Indra's command, the Svetambara works speak in terms of classes of gods. Digambara authors also unambiguously state that the samavasarana takes place in the sky: the Sudamsanacariu (1.9.1) specifies the distance above the ground; elsewhere we read that those who want to watch a samavasarana have to raise their eyes. The absence of all these features in a given work can be regarded as a proof that it is not of Digambara affiliation. However, contamination cannot be totally excluded (see above 2.1.5).
2.2.2. No category of works throws any substantial light on the significance of the various elements making a samavasarana. None of our sources is similar to a treatise such as the Buddhist Kriyasamgraha or the Stupa-laksana-karika-vivecana investigated by M. Bénisti and G. Roth respectively." They provide us with a 'stūpastructure-cum-doctrinal-notion-symbolism (G. Roth, p. 197) and give a systematic 'catalogue' (ibid. p. 186) of homologies between a specific element and a dogmatic concept. However, a few hints of this type are quite rarely found in some of the later Jaina descriptions and seem to be confined to them). As in the Buddhist tradition, the numerical correspondence plays a fundamental part in these symbolic identifications. Thus, for instance, the three umbrellas (chattra-traya) are equated with the three jewels (tri-ratna) of the doctrine. In other cases, there is no precise correspondence, but only the general idea that the various architectural components of a samavasarana do have a religious part to play or are auspicious and contribute to spiritual progress. Thus, the dharma-cakra, compared to the full disc of the sun,
2.2. Remarks on the survey 2.2.1. The convenient distinction between Svetambara and Digambara sources is fully justified. The accounts of both sides indeed exhibit a basically similar conception of the samavasarana and some common basic elements, for instance the central asoka-tree. But a mere perusal is sufficient to show that there are differences in the components and in the technical vocabulary used by authors of both trends.
It has been edited and studied critically by D.R. Bhandarkar: "Jaina Iconography: II. Samava sarana", Indian Antiquary 40 (1911) p. 125-130 and 153-161.
"Compare VTK vs. 6 and Dharmaghoşa vs. 7; vs. 9 of both texts; VTK vs. llab and Dharmaghosa vs. 10.
P. 133-139 in Siddhdniasdrddisamgraha ed. by Pannalal Soni. Bombay vikram sam. 1979 (Manikcand Digambara Jaina Granthamáls 21).
"On which see, briefly, K. Bruhn, "The Concept of mana (Pride) in Jaina Dogmatics": Jain Studies in Honour of Jozef Deleu. Tokyo 1993, p. 200; U.P. Shah, Srudies in Jaina Art p. 60.
"Jo samosarana lacchië uljoio, uddha-dihihi niyadehi punu folo, Jambūsāmicariu 1.15.9.
See references in n. 8 above. Asaga, Santināthapurana 12.45.

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is considered as able to repel enemies in the form of wrong belief." Elsewhere, the vedika.s are said to destroy all obstacles, the main temple is said to annihilate all sins, and the stairs which lead towards it are equated with the (figurative) steps (technical term freni) which lead to ultimate release." The full auspicious jars are, so to say, ready to sprinkle with water the believers dried up by illusion, and the jars filled with incense have been made by the gods to destroy the bitings of misfortunes." The wish of some writers to introduce poetical embellisments (in this case utpreksa.s marked with iva) may be responsible for such equations.
100
In fact, writers seem to have attached less importance to this type of identification than to those stressing the parallel between the samavasarana as a microcosm and the macrocosmos. They are found in works of all categories: see, for instance, the Digambara Santinathapuraṇa (15.41) where the samavasarana is said to be known under one hundred names, one of which is triloka-sära, "an essence of the three worlds". The structure of the samavasarana with concentric circles and the Jina at the centre remind the authors of the Jambudvipa. In the Adipurăṇa, Jinasena stresses the connection between the central aśoka-tree and the rose apple tree of Jambudvipa (22.186), or between the small stupa.s found in the Digambara samavasarana and Meru (22.265). Elsewhere the correspondences concern some specific component of the samavasarana: the three umbrellas are meant to praise the magnificence of the three worlds; the four doors leading to the centre are there as if to invite the four guardians of the directions." The actual shape of the samavasarana-structure does not appear to be a basic point and is of no consequence in this regard: the theoretical tract does not specify it. The Trilokaprajñapti (one of the earliest texts) indicates that Rṣabha's samavasarana is "as round as the disc of the sun"," but from other texts and pictorial representations we know that it can be either round (vṛtta) or square (caturasra)." The first one is better attested, but both are actually two different ways
91 micchatta-sattu-vikkhobha-dakkham akkhanda-bhānu-bimba-samam jantina ya kamalövari thāvijjai dhammavaracakkam (Gunacandra, Mahaviracariya vs. 14 p. 252a).
Raidhu, Sammaijinacariu 6.9.30, 35-36.
Mallinathacaritra 5.302 and 304.
"Mallinathacaritra 5.307 or the Sanskrit version of the Kuvalayamälä vs. 234.
Mallinathacaritra 5.300.
Trilokaprajñapti 4.716: ravimandalam vva vaļā.
4
97 E.g. Vividhatirthakalpa No. 46 vs. 19; Dharmaghosasüri, Samavasaranastotra vs. 5; Lokaprakasa 30.574; U.P. Shah, Jaina-rupa-mandana p. 25; ubi alla.
AN INVESTIGATION OF TEXTUAL SOURCES ON THE SAMAVASARANA of representing the same idea of an oriented sacred space."
101
2.2.3. The Śvetämbara passages listed in 2.1.1 clearly appear as the application of the model provided by the samavasarana-tract, as is seen, for instance, from the use of the same specialized vocabulary. Thus they provide an instance for the study of repetition cum variation in the process of re-writing. The ritual aspect and the filling up of the sacred space, which emerge as fundamental features of the theoretical tract, give precedence to the description of decorative and architectural elements (banners, auspicious symbols, step-wells, parks) to the extent that several writers take this opportunity to exhibit their ability as poets (long compounds, alliterations, similes, etc.). Noteworthy is the growing tendency to mention individual gods with their attributes." In many cases, the orientation of the sacred space is not described carefully or is conspicuous by its absence. Its presence or absence cannot be accounted for in terms of chronology. Hemacandra, 12th cent., is more faithful in this respect to the old model than Silänka, 9th cent. Hemacandra exhibits his faithfulness to tradition by stating the presents to be offered to the person who brings the news of the samavasarana (see above 1.4.3), by keeping to the traditional numbers, 10 or by systematically taking into account the ritual of the bali (see above 1.4.2). These points are not dealt with in other samavasaraṇa-texts which all show a tendency towards selection instead of exhaustiveness. The almost constantly recurring elements are the characteristics of the Jina's voice and speech, 103 and the three replicas resulting from his personal supernatural power. 104 The halo behind the Jina (bhamandala) is repeatedly mentioned, 105 Together with the preceding elements, it serves to enhance
On the possible origin of the square shape of the samavasarana, see the discussion in U.P. Shah, Jaina-rupa-mandana, p. 25; and, more generally, S. Kramrisch, The Hindu temple. University of Calcutta 1946, vol. 1, p. 22.
99 See above 2.1.3 and 2.1.5; Lokaprakasa 30.542ff.; 560-562.
100 Parisistaparvan 1.38 (paritoşika); and each samavasarana-passage of the Trişaşṭisaläkāpuruşacarita; Bhāvadevasüri, Pärtvanäthacarita 6.244.
101 Cakravarti donor: Trişaṣṭiśalakāpuruşacarita, Johnson's translation vol. 2 p. 97; Baladeva or Vasudeva donor: Johnson's translation vol. 3 p. 85, 105, 125, 149; etc.
102
E.g. Trişaştisalakāpuruşacarita, Johnson's translation vol. 1 p. 210-211; vol. 2 p. 129, 251, 265; vol. 3 p. 59.
Vasudevahindi 342.9; Kuvalayamälä 97.23; etc.
104 Kuvalayamälä 97.14; Pärsvanathacarita 6.235; etc.
Paumacariya 2.53; Kuvalayamālā 97.8; Cauppannamahäpurisacariya p. 300; Mallinathacaritra 5.321; Parsvanathacarita 6.236.

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AN INVESTIGATION OF TEXTUAL SOURCES ON THE SAMAVASARANA
103
the wondrous side of the samavasarana.
2.2.4. Categories 2.1.1 and 2.1.2. are basically different from categories 2.1.3ff. In the first set, samavasarana refers both to an act (the preaching of the Jina) and to the place of preaching. In the second set, samavasarana is to be understood as an object which becomes an object of worship, to the extent that it can become the subject of an hymn as a Jina (or a god or a goddess) is, the centre of a puja (especially among Digambaras) or that even a temple can be dedicated to it: Bhandarkar mentions the temple of Kumalgadh in Udaipur state, where the setting of the different groups attending the samavasarana is very much in agreement with the old sources. This may also account for the fact that the samavasarana became a subject which could be dealt with in the Vividhatirthakalpa, side by side with compositions devoted to Satrunjaya, Gimnar and other sacred places. This is probably the result of an evolutive process, which is not unique in Jainism. Nandiśvaradvipa, originally a continent of the Jain cosmology, and Astăpada, a mythical mountain, hava similarly become objects of worship which are either depicted on the walls of the temples, or constitute themselves the centre of a temple. Their original meanings have been retained, but they have been enriched through such a process. One of the reasons why these three items have been submitted to it may be that they all somehow embody the quintessence of the cosmos.
ments are still simple. Great emphasis is laid on the 'anatomic surnaturelle of the Jina, his wondrous, extraordinary and beautiful appearance and voice which are given a rational explanation thanks to the karma-theory. In other sources, this idea is strengthened, so that a samavasarana-description almost always includes a complete list of the 'eight marvels' (asta-prdriharya)' or of the 34 'excellencies" (arifesa). This idea also accounts for the representation of the Jina as a richly adorned figure in the manuscript-illustrations. On the occasion of the samavasarana, the Jina, who is supposed to have just reached Omniscience, unites all varieties of perfections, both spiritual and physical. He goes beyond the opposites, and combines both the qualities of a supreme king (cakravartin) and of a spiritual master. Thus, the samavasarana can be viewed as the Jaina archetype of all religious assemblies, which daily re-enact it, and, finally, it is a resort for all: some writers apparently like formulas of the type samavasaranam Saranam. The iconography of samavasarana has developed along its own lines: as is well known, the motif of pairs of animals who are natural enemies but peacefully listen together to the Jina's teaching has become a distinctive feature of miniature-painting, whereas the literary tradition does not put it in the foreground.
3. CONCLUSION In its general meaning, the word samavasarana refers to any assembly of beings. In its technical meaning, documented by the Canonical Svetambara literature, it refers to a sacred assembly held outdoors. Its description remains factual, and the setting is simple. The emphasis is on the sacred speech of the Jina. Slowly, incorporating and attracting elements from Canonical descriptions of various types of constructions (carth-palaces, flying-palaces of the gods, etc.), the samavasarana develops into a fully built fictive structure, especially in Digambara sources where it is a religious counterpart of a paradisiac town. The samavasarana-tract preserved in the exegetical literature is important, for it gives a complete picture of the early conception. The sacred space, which is first consecrated and then constructed, is both organized into a hierarchy and inclusive. The centre is endowed with symbolism. Architectural ele
On which see, for instance, U.P. Shah, "Evolution of Jaina Iconography and Symbolism, in U.P. Shah and M.A. Dhaky, Aspects of Jalna Art and Architecture, Ahmedabad 1975, p. 53-54.
See R. Williams, Jaina Yoga, p. 216, 221, 222 for statements of correspondences between the daily ritual and the samavasarana in the Medieval frdakdedra.s.
** D.R. Bhandarkar, op. cit., p. 160-161.

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104 NALINI BALBIR 254999 bat T eam Our ANN334.00 Circular representation of a samavasarana. As usual, the Jina is an adorned figure. The human and divine audience is shown in the four intermediate directions, in groups of three. Two pairs of animals appear in the corners of the picture. Folio of a palm-leaf manuscript, end of the 14th cent. Museum and Picture Gallery Baroda. In: S. Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting. Bombay, Marg Publications 1985, No. 11, p. 37.