Agam 05 Ang 05 Study Of Bhagvati Vyakhya Prajnapti Sutra

Author(s): Suzuko Ohira
Publisher: Prakrit Text Society Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001363/1

Page #1
Prakrit Text Series Vol. : XXVIII A STUDY OF THE BHAGAVATISUTRA ' A Chronological Analysis SUZUKO OHIRA PRAKRIT TEXT SOCIETY AHMEDABAD-9 1994.

Page #2
Prakrit Text Series No. 28 GENERAL EDITORS D. D. MALVANIA H.C. BHAYANI STUDY OF THE BHAGAVATISUTRA A CHRONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS SUZUKO OHIRA PRAKRIT TEXT SOCIETY Ahmedabad-9. 1994

Page #3
A Study of The Bhagavatisutra A Chronological Analysis Published by DALSUKH MALVANIA Secretary PRAKRIT TEXT SOCIETY AHMEDABAD-9. Price Rs. 130 1994 Available From: 1. MOTILAL BANARASIDASS, Nepali Khapra Post Box 75, Varanasi 2. CHAUKHAMBA VIDYABHAVAN, Chawk. Varanasi. 3. GURJAR GRANTHIRATNA KARYALAYA, Gandhi Road, Ahmedabad-1. 4. SARASWATI PUSTAK BHANDAR, Ratanpole, Mathikhana, Ahmedabad-1. 5. MUNSHI RAM MANOHARLAL NAI SARAK, Delhi. Lay Out of Book By : R. D. MALVANIA Printed by : DIMPLE PACKAGING & CONTAINERS F-6, NEW MADHAVPURA MARKET, SHAHIBAUG, AHMEDABAD-380004 INDIA PHONE : (R) 410256

Page #4
To My Dear Teacher Pt. D.D. Malvania

Page #5

Page #6
PUBLISHER'S NOTE We have pleasure in publishing Dr. Suzuko Ohira's "A STUDY OF THE BHAGAVATISUTRA A Chronological Analysis". Jainas have already accepted Bhagavati-sutra as an important text amongst all the Jaina canonical texts. The Western scholars too have equally considered the first twenty (I-XX) Satakas of Bhagavati as the oldest one. Dr. Ohira in her attempt has tried to set the chronological stratification of first twenty Satakas of Bhagavati with the awareness of the development of thoughts running through the canonical period. For this she has studied the thought contents of all the Agamic-texts, which she further stratified into five stages and compared both with a successful endeavour for the stratification of 1st 20 Satakas of Bhagavati. Dr. Ohira has spared no effort to bring in such a nice work. The Publication of such monographs is rare in Jaina studies, so my special thanks to Dr. Ohira on behalf of the Society. This detailed study has been done for the first time and the credit must be given to Dr. Ohira. I have also to thank Dr. Klaus Bruhn and Dr. Klaus Butzenberger for giving us very learned Foreword to the work. of Dr. Ohira D.D. Malvania Secretary Prakrit Text Society

Page #7

Page #8
FOREWORD An introduction to a monograph on the Bhagavati cannot do without a short introduction to the Bhagavati itself. Generally speaking, the subject is beset with many complexities, and this fact may justify an attempt to make the subject mor transparent by adding a second preface to the preface written by the authoress herself. The Bhagavati is one of the better known works of the Svetambara canon, but difficulties arise already when we try to describe its position within this canon. Nominally, the Bhagavati is "the fifth anga". But the term "anga" is deceptive as the eleven anga.s differ widely in size, character, and age. Nor are the anga.s clearly distinguished from other parts of the canon. This is most conspicuous in the case of the Bhagavati which is inter alia closely related to the Prajnapana - one of the twelve so-called upanga.s. Under the circumstances, it seems useful to stress right at the beginning the difference between the nominal position and the actual position of the Bhagavati in the literary ensemble known as Svetambara canon. It is likewise useful to stress already at this stage the difference between the evaluation of the Bhagavati as a literary composition (however incongruous) and the evaluation of the Bhagavati as a source for the study of early Jainism (i.e. of the canonical form of the Jaina doctrine). Here we have to add that the Bhagavati reached its present form in the course of many centuries, and that the period of the growth of the work almost coincides with the period of the growth of the Svetambara canon in its entirety. In his Doctrine of the Jainas (1935/1962), W.SCHUBRING has made ample use of the contents of the Bhagavati. In a different context, he has studied the Bhagavati also as a literary composition, but the latter line was mainly pursued by other scholars. Already in 1883, A.WEBER had observed that the Bhagavati consisted broadly speaking of two different compilations: an earlier part of "nucleus" (chapters 1-20, excluding chapter 15) and later accretions (chapters 21-41). The former part is characterized by absolute incoherence of the individual chapters and sub-chapters (sataka.s and uddesa.s), while the latter part consists of coherent uddesa.s (or groups of uddesa.s). W.SCHUBRING followed in broad lines WEBER's views, although he described the situation in his own words. J.DELEU prepared a detailed study of the Bhagavati, giving an exhaustive account of its contents and studying at the same time the morphology of the various parts of the work. In a later study, the same scholar made a significant improvement upon WEBER's model. He showed that, through the elimination of various accretions from the accepted nucleus, we can isolate a nucleus within the nucleus. A similar attempt was made by B.BHATT, who noticed within the accepted nucleus three early strata which he separated from the remaining (later) parts of the nucleus chapters. Here we may add that, in the case of the Bhagavati, the separation of layers cannot be based on differences in the form (different metres, difference between metre and prose) and on differences in the language: The form is always prose, and the language always Ardhamagadhi. As a

Page #9
consequence, it was imperative to use morphological (literary) criteria for the historical analysis and to examine, in addition to that, the position of the Bhagavati visa-vis "related" works (Prajnapana, Jivabhigama etc. - all so-called "upanga.s"). If we remember that the Bhagavati occupies by itself more than one fifth of the Svetambara canon (calculated on the basis of the Suttagame edition) we realize that the entire cluster (Bhagavati in combination with the relevant portions of the related" works) forms a very substantial section of the canon and that this section can in fact not be adequately described on the basis of the traditional subdivisions. Dr.OHIRA's monograph is concerned with the nucleus alone, a total of nineteen chapters containing in all about 700 "sutra.s". Her study can be called systematic and historical, and this is also the best way of describing its specific character. The systematic study necessitated in the first place a subject-wise arrangement of the contents of the Bhagavati (Chapter II), a true desideratum, considering the fact that the nucleus (i.e. the part which is really relevant to the doctrinal evaluation of the work) was nowhere arranged according to any plan (supra) and that the description of the Bhagavati as an "omnium gatherum" of different elements (J.DELEU) applies a fortiori to the nucleus of the work. Again, the systematic study is by necessity also a historical study. There may be gaps and breaks in the development of the early Jaina doctrine and there may be a measure of uncoordinated and isolated material. But on the whole we must try to understand the making of the Bhagavati as a historical process, and we must try to understand its contents (at least within one and the same period) as a consistent whole; and what applies to the Bhagavati applies also to the "related" works, to further canonical works, and to post-canonical or extra-canonical works. Whatever its outer form, the whole mass of traditional data must be studied on the premise that there was organic development as well as logical coherence. Such a procedure implies a distinction between different periods. We may choose in this connection a simple and generalizing pattern ("earlyintermediate-late") which can be supplemented by more specialized observations on the relative chronology in the development of a specific dogmatical subject ("sutra x earlier than sutra y"). Such an approach to relative chronology is, however, not the course adopted by Dr.OHIRA. Dr.OHIRA proposes a more rigid matrix with the inclusion of absolute datings, and she has to some extent made chronology an end in itself. This has, in spite of the inherent difficulties, clear advantages. Dr.OHIRA has subdivided the doctrinal development of the early (canonical) phase of Jainism into five periods to which intervening periods could be added later on. This necessitated a broad survey of the development of the Jaina doctrine in its entirety, which appears in Chapter 1. Here the authoress presents the matrix for the chronological treatment of the (ca.) 700 sutra.s. Afterwards she can - in the systematic part (Chapter II) - assign each individual sutra to "its" period. Moreover, the numerous tables (Chapters II and IV) can now be provided with precise chronological data. Ignoring points of details, we may say that the tabular apparatus comprises three basic categories: Position of the sutra in the text, contents of the sutra, period to

Page #10
which the sutra belonged. Considering the fact that chronology and systematic evaluation of the contents are closely connected, we can easily see to which extent Dr.OHIRA's approach differs from the earlier nucleus discussion. How far both lines will ultimately converge remains to be seen. To assess the amount of work done by Dr.OHIRA it is necesssary to stress that her style is concise and that quotations and translations which might easily have doubled the extent of the long Chapter II are almost completely missing. Again the Bhagavati material is studied not only in connection with Abhayadeva's commentary and the above-mentioned "related texts" but also in connection with other works, canonical or extra-canonical. This applies in particular to Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra which had already been the subject of Dr.OHIRA's doctoral thesis (Ahmedabad 1982). The themes of her present study are dictated by the character of the work itself. If we ignore chapter 15 (an independent composition concerning Mahavira and Gosala) we can say that the Bhagavati is purely dogmatical (no narrative elements, and that the doctrinal material belongs mainly to the fields of philosophy of nature and soteriology (soteriology and ethics). A few words on the treatment of the karma theory may help the reader to find his way in the present study. The karma theory appears as Section E in the systematic description of the contents (see E in Chapter II, and the E-positions in Table IV of Chapter IV). The evolution of the Jaina theory of karma started in Dr.OHIRA's 3rd period (Table IV), and its main testimonia for the early period are the Bhagavati, the Prajnapana (see the P-references in column II of the Table of Synopsis), and the Tattvarthasutra. It should be added that, in the latter work, the discussion on karma is still in midstream and the information given by Umasvati far from complete. Although the karma theory forms a whole, we may be permitted to focus in the present context attention on the theory of karma destruction (E/2, E/4). There was, naturally, a development from primitive forms of thinking to painstaking theorizing, but it should be added that, to a large extent, this development can actually be traced in the Bhagavati and in other texts. If we ignore some very primitive statements we can probably say that there was a clear shift of emphasis from popular ethical thought (offence, suffering=atonement, restoration of the original state of the offender) to abstract soteriology. The latter term stands in this case not for a doctrine of salvation in the usual sense, but for an esoteric current in Jaina dogmatics which is not merely detailed and technical, but likewise in its basic character far removed from the common notions about action, retribution, and redemption. The typical "later karma theory" is of course later than the last period of the canon and also later than the Tattuarthasutra. As has been indicated above, Dr.OHIRA's book is not only of interest for the philologist investigating the literary composition of the Bhagavati, but also for the historian

Page #11
iv of Jaina thought who attempts to elucidate the history and development of early or even earliest Jaina teachings. We shall elaborate this point by finally adducing some considerations on the concepts of karma and jiva. Among the most different epistemological, ontological, soteriological etc. theories incorporated into traditional Jaina lore, and especially among the few central concepts and theories constituting the very core of Jaina philosophy, the karma-theory is a conspicuous example of a doctrine the development of which testifies to the evolution of Jainism as a whole from rather unsophisticated, even primitive roots to the extremely elaborated casuistics of later dogmatics. The approach of Dr.OHIRA enables anybody interested in the development of this theory to trace and focus on the different streams of soteriology and natural philosophy that finally yield the classical karma-theory as known to later dogmatics. Presuming quite unspecified assumptions on moral retribution, the development started with explicitly investigating the nature of this retribution, and with considering it a stream of subtle matter afflicting the individual. A second major event seems to have been the idea of describing matter according to the latest atomistic doctrines of natural philosophy, and thus being able to explain the otherwise disturbing circumstance that karmic matter is invisible: except if they constitute a considerably large conglomeration like a pot etc. (ghatadikarya), atoms are invisible (apratyaksa). Dr.OHIRA's chronological framework clearly distinguishes both achievements by subsuming them, on the basis of the. five different textual layers constituting the Bhagavati, under the first viz. third stage of canonical development. This point of view is not only suggested by the Bhagavati itself, it is also clearly substantiated by a wide array of parallel texts employed by Dr.OHIRA. In fact, any serious attempt at critically deconstructing the rudis indigestaque moles of the Bhagavati and reassigning its single parts to different historical stages of textual and conceptional development yields an important device in order to close the evident gap between earlier Jaina thought and the mature speculations of later philosophers. Incidentally, the second important event in the evolution of the karma-theory which has just been referred to by no means meant any closure to the development of this theory; on the contrary, it was a starting point for plenty of later clarifications and sophistications directly leading to a stage represented, e.g., by Umasvati, and beyond. While describing the fourth and fifth stages the latter being most complicated and elusive in its obvious substructure - Dr.OHIRA reconsiders this further development, the later results of which she studied in her aforementioned book on the Tattvarthasutra. Most closely connected with the concept of karma are the dual concepts of jiva and ajiva, the development of which is equally evident when considering the framework of stages suggested in the present book. Regardless whether we accept or not the view that a kind of primitive animism preceded the ancient Jaina view (cf.pp.5-6), it is clearly evident that the founder of Jainism already was able to utilize a set of assumptions regarding the jiva which was, by successively being combined with other theories and by thus being elaborated, gradually assimilated and improved upon.

Page #12
Here again, the Bhagavati, when critically examined, proves to be an invaluable aid in establishing the different stages of this process of development. So, finally, a chronology as suggested by Dr.OHIRA is by no means of interest for historians of Jaina literature only; by being forced to depart from contents and subjects rather than from criteria of language and metre, it automatically enters the domain of concepts and ideas and thus extends its scope beyond a mere chronologi. cal analysis. During the preparation of the present monograph, Dr.OHIRA has had the advantage of constant consultation with Pt. Dalsukh D. Malvania. Furthermore she could use Dr.K.K. Dixit's publications on early Jainism. Her study is thus closely connected with the L.D.Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad and reflects the cooperation of scholars from the two countries. For more than one reason it deserves our closest attention. Berlin, June 1993. Klaus Bruhn Klaus Butzenberger

Page #13

Page #14
TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword by Professor Klaus Bruhn and Dr.Klaus Butzenberger Preface ... ................... ix Chapter 1 Canonical Stages - A Chronological Survey of the Canonical Texts Section 1 The First Canonical Stage ** II The Second Canonical Stage III The Third Canonical Stage ......... IV The Fourth Canonical Stage ........ V The Fourth-Early Fifth Canonical Stages VI The Fifth Canonical Stage VI Summary Chapter Text Construction of the Bhagavatisutra 1 - XX - Table of Synopsis Chapter I Text Analysis ........ ........... Section A Cosmology .............. . ...... .............. Part 1 Cosmography ......... (1) Loka-aloka ...... ........... (2) Loka (-aloka) - Shape, size and regions (3) Tamaskaya and Krsnaraji ....... (4) Theory of directions ............ Part 2 ................ Astronomy ........ ......................... Part 3 Mythology (1) Mythological accounts of the celestial kings.. . (2) Etymological explanation of certain classes of devas ........................ .............. (3) Devas' rddhi and vikuruvana .............. (4) King Sakra ....... Section B Ajiua .......... Part 1 Pudgala . 2 Pancastikayas-cum-Addhasamaya ... ............ Section C Jiva ........ Part 1 General Aspects .... ........... (a) Classes of Beings 110 (b) Nature of Jiva - General Aspects .... ............ (c) Nature of Jiva - Physical Aspects ........ (1) Ahara 117 (2) Virya and vibration ****** ........... 118 (3) Sarira ....... . (4) Veda ........ 119 (5) Life span 119 113 117 118

Page #15
Part 2 Part 3 Section E Karma Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 (1) Sanjna and vedana (2) Lebya (3) Jnana (4) Ascent of a released soul Part 2 Cosmical Aspects Section D Ethical Problems Part 1 Action (6) Rebirth chart (7) Transit motion (8) Marana samudghata and ahara (9) Nirvrtti-karana ... (d) Nature of Jiva Part 4 (a) Kriya (b) 'Calamane calie' Ethics and Conduct ... (a) General Aspects (1) Loyalty and faith. (2) Five vows (3) Minor ethical problems (b) Ascetic Conduct. Psychical Aspects (1) Loyalty (2) Alms food (3) Supernatural power (4) Dispute with heretics (c) Lay Conduct Rebirth and Liberation.. A Preliminary Review Karma Bandha Nature and Mechanism (a) General Aspects (1) Mode of karma bandha (2) Karma bandha treated in the category of bandha in general (3) Types of karma bandha (4) Causes of karma bandha (b) Karma Praktis (1) Antaraya karma (2) Mohaniya karma (3) Nama karma (4) Vedaniya karma (5) Ayus karma (6) Iryapathika-samparayika karmas Vedana and Nirjara ........ 120 ..... 121 ....... 123 ..... 124 ......... 125 ..... 125 ......... 125 130 ........ 134 .... 135 ......... 141 .... 141 ......... 141 ... 147 ........ 152 ... 152 152 ... 153 156 158 158 ..... 160 161 ...... 162 165 ..... 168 174 ... 174 ...... 176. .... 181 ..... 181 ...... 181 ..... 182 ... 183 185 ........ 187 ..... 188 ........ 188 .... 190 ........ 191 .... 192 .... 194 195

Page #16
: Section F .......... : Jaina Church Part 1 Mahavira and Related Persons ......... (1) Mahavira ... (2) Mahavira and his relatives ......... (3) Mahavira and his disciples ...... (4) Mahavira and his rivals .......... Part 2 Tirthankaras ..... (1) Socca-asocca-kevalis .... (2) 24 Tirtharkaras .. (3) Great personages of the Jainas 204 204 205 207 Chapter IV Conclusion .. .... 208 240 Appendix Appendix Appendix I Notes ................ I Bibliography .......... I Dharma-Adharma 245 248 Sitro Index .............. General Index ........ 255 262

Page #17

Page #18
PREFACE The Bhagavatisutra (abbreviated hereafter as Bhagavati) or the fifth Anga of the Jainas is essentially a work on the Jaina doctrines of Jiva-ajiva developed during the long canonical period which distinguish Jainism from other philosophical systems of thought. It offers a panoramic record of the Jaina theoreticians' thought world and thought patterns on the relevant problems developed from the initial stage of their theorization until the maturity reached in the final canonical stage. How the Jainas came to learn the art of theorization, how the advanced theoretical discussions conducted in the Prajnapana came into being, and how the problems of Jiva-ajiva took the course of development after the completion of the other Pannatti texts are nowhere traceable but in the Bhagavati. As a whole, it preserves numerous key texts pertaining to the general problems of Jiva-ajiva within a cosmographical framework, which are indispensable to trace the evolution and development of the relevant thought documented in a conclusive form in the other canonical texts. Particularly noteworthy here is that the Bhagavati alone provides us with valuable material relevant to ajiva, i.e., the scheme of pudgala, early karma theory and fundamental realities called pancastikaya-cum-addhasamaya. ix The Bhagavati nucleus was probably a sizable collection of fragmentary passages on the problems pertaining to the fields of ontology (ie., jiva, pudgala and karma, including the relevant ethical subject matter) and cosmography composed in the prePrajnapana period. It must have been compiled for the first time under the title of Viyahapannatti at about the time of the Second Canonical Council at Mathura or Valabhi where it was authorized as the fifth Anga. The Viyahapannatti thus compiled did not likely go through a process of systematic organization, and to this were added at random the materials composed in subsequent ages. The Bhagavati in its present form is the result of a compilation made at the Third Valabhi Council, and it is as a whole a disorderly collection of numerous fragmentary passages on Jivaajiva covering various branches of knowledge developed during the 1,000 years of the canonical period, including many story texts and systematic treatises. Such being the case, the chronological layers of its contents covering all branches of knowledge are hopelessly entangled. The Bhagavati as it stands is thereby impossible to be utilized by us for the purpose of grasping at once the history of the Jaina doctrinal system of Jiva-ajiva developed in the canonical period, unless the chronological layers of its contents in each subject field are disentangled and arranged in a clearcut way to facilitate the comprehension of their position in a historical context. This is the primary objective aimed at in our present attempt. The chronological date of Satakas XXI-XLI is already evident from Dr. K.K. Dixit's analysis made in his article, "A Recent Study of Bhagavatisutra Reviewed". 'satakas are therefore excluded from the object of our analysis proper. We are thus setting before us the task of a chronological stratification of the layers of Satakas

Page #19
X I-XX. In Chapter I attempted is a general survey of the currents of thought running through the canonical period, which is divided into five stages in order to establish the criteria of thought content developed in each canonical stage, so that they might enable us to evaluate the age of the relevant material in the Bhagavati in the corresponding canonical stages. A Table of Synopsis of Satakas I-XX is made in Chapter II, which is classified according to subject from A to F. Our chronological analysis of the contents of the Bhagavati is conducted in Chapter III according to this sequence by subject. The data resulted therefrom are subjected to our final examination in the concluding Chapter IV, in order to ascertain the nature of the Bhagavati nucleus texts, the process of expansion to their present volume, and the position of the Bhagavati in Jaina canonical literature. This survey is beset with numerous difficulties which shall become evident in the course of our study. The major difficulty here is that the criteria themselves for analyzing the layers of the Bhagavati into five canonical stages are on shaky ground, because none of the present canonical texts, which are all infested with later interpolations, has yet been stratified into its chronological layers. On the other hand, unless the meanings and values of the problems hidden in the Bhagavati key texts are elucidated in a historical context, it is difficult to stratify the layers of the other canonical texts. Such being the case, our survey amounts to a preparatory move towards later studies of the canonical literature in this direction, which is wide open for future improvement. As we know, we have Prof. A. Weber, Prof. W. Schubring, Prof. J. Deleu and Dr. K.K. Dixit as our predecessors in the history of studying or stratifying the Bhagavati. Prof. Bruhn meanwhile reminded me to read Prof. B. Bhatt's "Stratification in Satakas 1-20 of the Vyahapannatti" (in Indologica Taurinensia, 11, 1983), and also kindly sent me a copy of Prof. J. Deleu's "A Further Inquiry into the Nucleus of the Viyahapannatti" (in Indologica Taurinensia, 14, 1987-88). All these studies are very helpful in furthering the task of its stratification. It was right before I came back to Japan in April 1978 that I handed in the original work of this Bhagavati study to my guiding teacher, Pt. D.D. Malvania, First Director of the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. Its revision and publication have been overdue since then. Despite a long lapse of time, the overall content of the work has remained nearly the same as in 1978, with the following improvements made. The study was originally. based on the Agamodaya Samiti edition which has long been out of print. In this revised work, sutra referencer is renumbered according to the Suttagame which is currently available in the market. Then, at the suggestion of Mr. Kenji Watanabe, a Lecturer at the Joshibi University and a colleague at the Shukutoku Junior College, a sutra index is now provided along with a general index. As to the origin of dharmastikaya and adharmastikaya, I corrected my old view and attached it here

Page #20
as its Appendix II. Also some errors have been corrected and misleading expressions revised according to Prof. Bruhn's advice. I am afraid, however, that there remains a good amount of mistakes of one type or another. Not many teachers could be that patient and broad-minded as Pt. D.D. Malvania to his impatient and self-asserting student. And it was simply a stroke of good luck that I could have a most peaceful time in India immersed in the study of Jainism under his fatherly care. It is too formal to express my sincere appreciation to my dear teacher in simple words, whom I troubled a lot not only in Ahmedabad but also after I came back to Japan and even up to the publication of this work which he kindly accepted. It should have been published much earlier as he wanted, but my final decision of its printing was made only after I came in contact with Prof. Bruhn. When I think of Pt. Malvania, I cannot but have a sense of guilt for not having been able to respond to his favour nor to do what I ought to have done as his disciple. Let me humbly dedicate this volume now to my dear teacher Pt. Malvania, asking his forgiveness for all. I am unfathomably indebted to the works of Dr. K.K. Dixit, former Research Officer of the L.D. Institute of Indology, not only to the said article on the Bhagavati, but practically to all of his works and articles relevant to the studies on Jaina canonical literature. I would also like to thank Prof. Dr. J. Deleu of the National University at Gent, Belgium for his kindness in sparing me a copy of his Vyahapannatti, which was a great help in conducting this project. My foremost obligations go to Prof. Dr. Klaus Bruhn of the Freie Universitat Berlin, without whose insistence this work would have never been printed. And I feel highly honoured that this old work came to life with his foreword. The path of its publication was not at all smooth for various reasons, and in this matter particularly I had to impose upon him undue amount of sacrifice in time and energy under the illconditions of his health. Without his thoughtful advice and constant encouragement, I confess, I would have given up its publication in the course of time. Likewise I am extremely thankful to Dr. Klaus Butzenberger of the Freie Universitat Berlin, for kindly sparing his time in writing the foreword jointly with Prof. Klaus Bruhn I world like to express my thanks to Miss Joan Morris, England, for revising my English language. I also wish to express my thanks to Mr. Rudy Smet, Belgium, for persuading her to take on this task, and for going through this work from the editorial point of view. I have been helped by Mr. Watanabe, to whom I am also thankful. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my obligations to the Prakrit Text Society, Varanasi, for kindly undertaking the publication of this work.

Page #21

Page #22
CHAPTER I CANONICAL STAGES A Chronological Survey of the Canonical Texts

Page #23

Page #24
CHAPTER 1 CANONICAL STAGES A Chronological Survey of the Canonical Texts The Bhagavati deals with all the branches of knowledge coming under the general heads of jiva-ajiva developed during the 1,000 years of the canonical period, and they have been edited in the most disorderly manner possible as is made evident by a glance through the Table of Synopsis in Chapter II. The major and foremost task before us is to perform a chronological analysis of the Bhagavati I-XX of which the dates have not yet been determined. In view of this, the immediate step for our task calls us to conduct a chronological survey of the trends of the currents of thought runnning through the canonical texts which have relevancy to the Bhagavati contents. We would therefore propose to divide the canonical period into five stages as below for the following purposes: firstly, to establish the criteria of thought development made in each of these canonical stages so that they enable us to evaluate the date of each sutra or sutra group in the Bhagavati I-XX in the corresponding stage/s; and secondly, to allow us to locate which texts in the Bhagavati constitute its nucleus. 3 Section 1 The first stage (6/5th - 4th centuries B.C.) Acaranga I, Sutrakrtanga I. Uttaradhyayana (excluding IX, XI-X II, XVI-XXIV, XXVI, XXVI-XXXIV and XXXVI, of which XXX II and XXXV express the old concepts in later language) and Dasavaikalika (excluding culikas) I The second stage (3rd - 1st centuries B.C.) Da'sa'srutaskandha (excluding V, VI and X), Brhatkalpa, Vyavahara, Nisitha, Acaranga II (excluding the third appendix) and Sutrakrtanga II I The third stage (1st century B.C./1st century A.D. - 3rd century A.D.) Bhagavati nucleus and Surya-Candra p. (prajnapti) IV The fourth stage (former half of 4th century A.D.) Jivajivabhigama minus Dvipasagara p. and Prajnapana The fourth-early fifth stages (4th century A.D.) Jnatadharmakatha, Upasakada'sa, Antakrdda'sa, Anuttaropapatikada'sa and Vipakasutra

Page #25
4 5 6 VI The early fifth stage (latter half of 4th century A.D.) Jambudvipa p., Duipasagara p. and Pranavyakarana The fifth stage (latter half of 4th 5th centuries A.D.) The rest of the Angabahya texts - 2 The 12 Angas including five story texts above must have been authorized in the fourth canonical stage, which we shall discuss in Section V. Thus these five Angic story texts should be logically placed in the fourth stage. However, the later interpolations made in these Angic story books are finely woven into the refined form of stories, which makes it quite difficult to stratify their layers. These texts are after all the products of retouching made in the fifth canonical stage, and some stories therein must have been composed in the early fifth canonical stage. For this reason, we assign them to the fourth-early fifth canonical stages. On the other hands, the Prajnapana that is also fully beset with the later accretions is essentially a theoretical treatise, of which it will be possible to separate the chronological layers in the future. We thus allot this text to the fourth canonical stage at present. The date of Mahavira's nirvana, which may fall in the 6-5th centuries B.C., is still debatable. The Acara I which was composed after his nirvana conveys his original teachings at large, and therefore the upper limit of the age of the first stage is placed in the 6-5th centuries B.C. The upper limit of the date of the second canonical stage is fixed by the traditional date of Bhadrabahu I who is known to have composed some of these old Chedasutras. The upper limit of the date of the third stage is difficult to determine, and it is assigned above on the basis of a speculation on the age when the theory of atoms began to gain circulation in Jaina circles.' The lower limit of the date of the SuryaCandra p. seems to fall in the early 3rd century A.D.2 The lower limit of the date of the fourth stage can be roughly fixed by the date of the Second Canonical Convention held at Mathura and Valabhi. According to tradition, the Second Canonical Convention was held at these two places almost simultaneously in 300 A.D. or 313 A.D., but both dates are open to question. We would at present propose a date somewhere between the first quarter and the second quarter of the 4th century A.D., i.e., by the late former half of the 4th century A.D." The Jivajivabhigama nucleus and the Prajnapana document the corollaries of the theoretical thought contents of the Jainas developed by that time, for the compilation of which allowance of a quarter to half a century would be sufficient, even allowing for some temporal distance existing between these two texts. We would thus assign the fourth canonical stage roughly to the former half of the 4th century A.D. 7 The lower limit of the age of the fifth canonical stage is to be demarcated by

Page #26
3 the date of the Third Canonical Council held at Valabhi (453 A.D. or 466 A.D. according to tradition, which is again disputable. We would estimate that it took place roughly in the late 5th century A.D. at present. We should also remember that some' Angabahya texts are known to have been composed in the 6th century A.D. Thus the lower limit of the age of the present canonical texts belonging to the fifth stage sometimes falls later than the 5th century A.D. The assignment of the dates to these five canonical stages is itself still controversial, and it is a tentative proposal to be improved in the future. It has been attempted to examine the canonical texts belonging to these five stages in the first six sections of this Chapter 1. Needless to say, no strict and distinct period divisions exist in the historical flow of thought development, and these have been here created to facilitate our purpose. The third stage above is especially designed with a view to finding which texts in the Bhagavati fall in this period as they are supposed to form the major portion of its nucleus. Thus, for instance, if a certain concept expressed in the Bhagavati does not yet occur in the second canonical stage, but is popularly known in the fourth stage, it can be considered to belong to the third canonical stage. (We can otherwise propose to divide the canonical age, for instance, into two periods, i.e., (1) First-second stages representing the age of ethics and conduct, and (2) Third-fifth stages representing the age of evaluation and completion of the doctrinal system; or into three periods, i.e., (1) First-second stages, (2) Third-fourth stages representing the age of theoretical evaluation and development, and (3) Fifth stage representing the age of completion of the doctrinal system.) 10 The difficulty besetting us here is that all the canonical texts in their present form are not free from later interpolations. Really speaking, our chronological analysis of the Bhagavati contents shall never be achieved as it ought to be done unless each and every canonical text is stratified into its layers, for this alone can establish the solid ground of criteria to stratify the hopelessly entangled layers of the Bhagavati contents. Major strides in this direction of canonical studies have been made, including the recent achievements of Dixit,' yet our task in this chapter largely remains a virgin field. In the course of our study, we shall try our best to detect which portions of the relevant canonical texts, in addition to our predecessors' contributions, are likely to be later accretions. This is, however, still a drop of water in the ocean. The criteria themselves which should facilitate our aim in view are thus on shaky ground, and this ought to be improved by future scholars. 11 We are attempting to trace in this chapter the trends of the thought contents developed by the Jainas in these five canonical stages which are judged to be important enough for us to undertake a chronological analysis of the

Page #27
Bhagavati I-XX. Our study of the canonical texts is concentrated on the abovementioned texts, and the other Angabahya texts belonging to the fifth stage are excluded from our examination, for their chronological dates are definitively known already. The Sthana and the Samavaya, which form the third and the fourth Angas, are also excluded from our treatment, for their numerically ordered collection of the conceptual items developed in the long course of the canonical period does not render much help for our porpose. The later interpolated portions in each canonical text taken up in this chapter are as a rule placed in parentheses. The reasoning for and the testification of their accretions in later times are generally not offered herein, but they become self-evident in Chapter II where a subject analysis of the Bhagavati contents and their chronological evaluation are made in a historical context. The canonical texts are based on the Sutta game in two volumes, excluding the following texts: Acaranga (Agamodaya Samiti, 1916), Sutrakrtanga (Agamodaya Samiti, 1917), Uttaradhyayana (Atmananda Sabha, 1918) and Dasavaikalika (Devchand Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhar, 1918).

Page #28
13 15 16 14 Mahavira's (MV) doctrines expressed in the Acara I are twofold, that the phenomenal world consists of six kinds of beings, i.e., earth-beings, waterbeings, fire-beings, wind-beings, vegetal beings and movable beings, and that violence (arambha) committed to these beings by threefold ways necessarily bears its consequence of misery in rebirth. These two doctrines seem to be the original teachings expounded by MV himself, which are unconnected with those of the then masters in the other schools. These doctrines make his way to liberation self-evident, and confirm that his teachings of ethical conduct are built up and developed upon them. 17 SECTION I THE FIRST CANONICAL STAGE The Acaranga I, Sutrakrtanga I, Uttaradhyayana (excluding Chs. IX, XI-XII, XVI-XXIV, XXVI, XXVI-XXXIV and XXXVI) and Dasavaikalika (excluding culikas) form the oldest text group falling in the first canonical stage in due order, and there is undeniably a long temporal distance between the Acara I and the Da'savaikalika. 5 According to the doctrine of six jiva-nikayas (classes of beings), all lifeless things are expressed in terms of a colony of subtle living beings as frequently framed cittamamtam-acittam which constitute the phenomenal world together with gross living beings. For instance, a piece of cloth may be considered in terms of a colony of invisible beings dependent upon it, e.g.. earth-beings and wind-beings. Thus whatever physical action or vocal action one performs, he cannot escape from committing violence (arambha) to these subtle beings that are all around him. In breathing, speaking or stretching out his hand, he cannot but kill wind-beings. In extinguishing fire he murders firebeings, in walking a street he harms earth-beings, and in shaking a water pot he hurts water-beings. The doctrine of non-violence (anarambha) is an ethical corollary of his world view (lokas kingdom of the six types of beings), and he propounded it in three ways, i.e., not committing violence oneself, not causing others to commit it and not approving previously committed violence. These later came to be called the threefold karanas. - A primitive belief in the existence of invisible, subtle souls must have, as has already been pointed out by many scholars, existed for long among aborigines in the form of animism. MV's contribution to this primitive thought is that he adopted the theory of mahabhutas or elements (i.e., earth, water, fire and wind), which had gained currency by his time, in order to establish his world view as such on the theoretical level. Likewise, the primitive populace seem to have believed that any intentional violence committed to a victim is retributed by his vaira (revenge, hostility and

Page #29
anger, etc.) which catches hold of the assailant until his due revenge is fulfilled. Vaira is the efficacy of retribution which will hit and bind an assailant without fail, and will not abate until due fruition is achieved. When looked at from the side of an assailant, vaira is the sin that he committed by his own self. And sins were considered in the olden days as something material which could be cleansed by water or burnt up by fire. The theory of vaira as such must have been a widely spread belief in ancient times. Parsva probably was the sage who advocated non-violence on the basis of this vaira theory. He probably founded a sect by teaching means of controlling one's senses and being attentive in action so that himsa would not be committed towards living beings. These were then probably absorbed by MV to form a part of his practice of ahimsa. The doctrine of karma or deed had been widely accepted by MV's time as demonstrated in the secret conversation held between Jaratkarava Artabhaga and Yajnavalkya in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad and Buddha's teachings expressed in early texts such as the Suttanipata, Dhammapada, Udana and Itiuuttaka. The cause of vaira is necessarily the action (karma) of beings. Here MV grasped the old theory of vaira in the context of the then current theory of karma, and gave a new logical outlook to the way of non-violence (anarambha) which is verily held as the way to liberation. In other words, MV systematized the old tenet of Parsva by integrating the current thoughts, and established the independent sect of the Jainas by advocating the Jainas to be the atmavada, lokavada, karmavada and kriyavada. A conspicuous difference between the earliest strata of the Jaina texts, i.e., Acara I - Sutrakrta I, and non-Jaina works, i.e., the early Upanisads and early Buddhist texts, is that the former insist that all actions are necessarily sinful, while the latter approve that there are two types of actions, i.e., good and bad, which bring forth good and bad consequences respectively. This early Jaina position can be easily comprehended within the purview of MV's thesis. Thus in contrast to the other schools, the early Jainas denied the existence of devaloka. The Upanisadic sages and Buddha adopted the doctrine of karma and transmigration so that these would fit their views of reality and liberation. MV pushed forward this primitive animistic concept to formulate his view of reality and liberation, of which the traces are clearly found in the Acara I and the other texts which are at our disposal. 21 As pointed out by Dixit in "The Problems of Ethics and Karma Doctrine as Treated in the Bhagavati Sutra" (in Sambodhi, I-3, p.6), ... purise kim miyaverenam putthe purisa-verenam putthe?' (Bhagavati, 1.8.68) reveals the early usage of the term vaira in the sense of the principle of retribution, which later developed into the concept of karma matter. Likewise, the word vaira is used

Page #30
22 23 24 7 in the primitive sense of the principle of retribution in the Acara 1.3.2.3, and in the Sutrakrta I.1.1.3 and 1.10.21, which are expressed in connection with himsa. Vaira is also used in the sense of hostility. The word vaira frequently occurring in the early Buddhist texts is employed in the ordinary sense of hostility. The word srota in the sense of stream is again a common term shared by the early Buddhist texts (e.g., Suttanipata 3.38.13; Dhammapada 24.14 and 27.1) and the Acara (I.4.3.138-39, I.5.4.160, 1.5.6.168-69 and 1.9.1.16). Acara I, the word srota is expressed in terms of adana-srota, atipata-srota, urdhava-srota, addhah srota and tiryak-srota. Atipata-srota probaby means that vaira is emitted by a victim upon his slaughterer in the form of a stream, and adana-srota probably signifies that the slaughterer receives the emitted vaira. Srota in urdhava, adhas and tiryanc probably mean that the jivas who are fully present in all these directions, i.e., in the air, on the earth and in the earth, are capable of emitting vaira in the form of current at any time, because if a man dances up and down, for instance, in a field, he harms beings around him in all these directions. Another common term shared by these two schools is asrava, which is used by the Buddhists in the technical sense of defilements or passion, and by the Jainas in the technical sense of flowing in' of karma matter. From the usage of these terms, it seems that vaira or the efficacy of retribution was conceived among the primitive populace in the sense of a force that catches the soul of an assailant by 'flowing in' (asrava) in the form of a stream (srota). Vaira seems to have been understood as a kind of energy discharged by a victim's soul. The primitive idea as such is thus clearly stamped in the terms employed by the Acara I, while the same terms used by the early Buddhist texts have cast away the original senses as such, for Buddha did not share the animistic world view and the way of liberation held by MV. The word srota appears rarely after the Acara I. This alludes to a direction towards sloughing off a remnant of the primitive concept of vaira. At the same time, the word vaira itself comes to be used in the ordinary sense of hostility or anger in the Uttara (IV.2 and VI.7) and Da'savaikalika (IX.3.7). On the other hand, the word rajas or sometimes mala in the sense of karma matter starts to appear from the Sutrakrta I onwards: for instance, in the Sutrakrta I.2.1.15, 1.2.16, 1.8.7 and 1.11.21, in the Uttara II.11, IV.7, M.8 and X.3, and in the Dasavaikalika II.14, (IV.15, gathas 21 and 25, which however probably belong to a later date) and IX.3.15. It has already been noted that the word karma in the Acara I is used in the sense of action in general, and the same generally holds true with the Sutrakrta I. However the word karma occurring in the Uttara (excluding of course the chapters that belong to later periods) and Da'savaikalika very often becomes difficult to be understood in the sense of

Page #31
action. In many cases it connotes karma matter. The Jainas thus seem to have understood karma in the sense of a concrete material substance like rajas or dust in the late first canonical stage. (The terms Jiva and ajiva in a technical sense make appearance in the Da'savaikaika IV.12-13; ajiva parinama occurs in V.1.77 and pudgala parinama in VI.59-60. These portions are probably the later additions.) The word kriya hardly occurs at this stage except in the form of a universally accepted technical term like kriyavada. In the Acara 1.1.1.5, Jainism is claimed to be the atmavada, lokavada, karmavada and kriyavada, where karmavada is distinguished from kriyavada. Since the concept of karmavada in the later sense is absent at this stage, it must denote a naive theory that any action committed necessarily produces its fruit of misery, in contrast to the theory of kriyavada which seems to express the idea that the soul is endowed with action and is the agent responsible for its own action. Atmavada probably means that the soul exists independently by itself against anatmavada that denies its independent existence; and lokavada here must denote a theory that the kingdoms of six jiua-nikayas exist. (The Sutrakrta 1 .16.1-2 enumerate a list of vices which are later called eighteen kriyas; this Sutrakrta 1.16 which is composed in prose must be the later accretion.) 26 An' inquiry into the causes of arambha is pursued in various ways by MV as an inquiry into the causes of trsna was sought similarly by Buddha. The causes of arambha enumerated in the Acara I - Sutrakrta I include raga and duesa, moha, pramada and four kasayas, i.e., krodha-mana-maya-lobha. All these concepts make their appearance in the early Buddhist texts such as the Suttanipata, Dhammapada, Udana and Itivuttaka. However, clarification of the concept of four kasayas does not seem to appear until the Da's avaikalika VI. 37-40. And these four kasayas took a very long time to establish themselves as one of the causes of asrava and as the content of caritramohaniya karma in the context of the karama doctrine. The same holds true for the evolution of other principal ethical concepts in general. Gupti, samiti, samvara and samyama are synonymously used to connote the ascetic conduct in controlling senses and self in the Acara I - Sutrakrta I. Old Buddhist texts also teach gupti, samvara, samyama and damana in controlling senses and self. The early Jainas call a disciplined monk suurata; and they use sila in the sense of conduct in general in much the same way as the Buddhist camp does. What the Acara I - Sutrakrtra I condemn most is arambha along with parigraha that forms the main cause of arambha. It is however true that five vratas, i.e., restraint from pranatipata, mrsavada, adattadana, maithuna and parigraha, occur individually, partially or fully in these early texts, which is similarly true with the Buddhist 'silas in their early texts. Therefore all these ethical problems were probably talked about

Page #32
commonly by the then leaders of the sramanic circles without any specific technical sense being attached to them. A certain period of time must have been required for them to be consolidated in the form of ethical principles that are peculiar to the individual systems. (Five samitis and three guptis came to be fully expounded in the Uttara XXIV, which however must belong to later times as it explains them from the standpoint of dravya-ks etra-kala-bhava.) Five uratas, which are also called pratyakhyanas, along with the renunciation of eating at night are for the first time elucidated in the Das avaikalika IV by a peculiarly Jaina way of trividham trividhena. (This portion composed in prose is also suspected to be a later addition.) The designation of trividham trividhena as three karanas and three yogas does not occur until the Dasavaikalika IV. MV taught not to commit arambha by threefold ways, i.e., not committing it oneself, not causing others to commit it and not approving the action already committed. This karana-triplet is persistently propounded in the Acara I, wherein yoga-triplet by mind-speech-body makes no appearance. On the other hand, triplet of mind-speech-body makes its consistent appearance in the early Buddhist texts. Since anarambha by way of karana-triplet is the self-sufficient ethical conduct that is naturally expected in an aspirant within the purview of MV's world view and liberation, it must have been originally taught by MV himself. On the other hand, yoga-triplet is a method integral to the doctrine of trsna taught by Buddha. It thus seems that the Jainas soon adopted this Buddhist concept, as evinced in the texts beginning with the Sutrakrta I, in order to establish it as the content of the three guptis and as the content of yoga-triplet. The Buddhists also borrowed karana-triplet from the Jainas as corroborated in the Suttanipata 2.26.19ff. Generally speaking, when a technical term or a concept appears for the first time, its meaning may have been crudely distinguished from the other concepts but is still groping its way towards its lucid definition. And it requires a certain period of time to be able to provide its final exposition. It thus seems that the essenial ethical principles of the Jaina ascetics were vaguely taking the form of an outline by the end of the first canonical stage, and came to be formulated in the second canonical stage. The Da'savaikalika provides a list of injunctions and prohibitions involving alms-collection, etc.: it makes itself a practical manual for novices along with some chapters of the Uttara, for instance, Chapter I that instructs proper forms of etiquette (vinaya). A direction towards 'sambhoga or a practice of joint eating is already evinced in the Das avaikalika V.1.95. The Uttara I, X VII and XXVI describe ill-disciplined students, and in its XXVI an acarya disheartened by his incorrigible students decides to take up lonely wandering. These are indicative of the fact that the early practice of solitary wandering of ascetics was beginning to die out.

Page #33
10 The Uttara V.20 complains that some monks have worse discipline than some householders, and the Dasavaika lika V.2.40 mentions that if a monk behaves wrongly, not only monks but laymen also blame his bad character. (The problem of pious householders emerges in the Uttara V.24-25 in that a pious layman attains yaksaloka, while a pious monk attains either liberation or rebirth as a god with great power. This concept seems to be added in later times. Danava, Gandharva, Raksasa, Yaksa, Asura, Kinnara and Bhuta occurring in the early text group which must have been borrowed from the Brahmanical mythology, such as found in the Manusmrti, 1.37, VI.23, etc., are also likely to have been interpolated at a slightly later time. Bimonthly observance of pausadhopavasa by laymen makes its appearance in the Uttara V.23, which must again belong to later times. Concern shown towards lay Jainas is thus still minimal in this stage. 32 It is a unique feature of these early canonical texts that they commonly breathe an atmosphere of lonely wandering and condemnation of the worldly society, upon the ground of which stood the sramanic circles against the Brahmanical system. However, the vigorous ascetic idealism expressed in the Acara I - Sutrakrta I is already showing a sign of a turning in the direction of group wandering which later took the forms of gana-kula-gaccha-sakhasambhoga of the ascetic community. 33 Then what was the way of liberation preached and practised by MV, and what was the significance of lonely wandering? According to his world view, arambha of any sort committed to the six types of living beings causes one to fail in attaining liberation. Then, akarma or non-action is the sole ideal path to moksa. Absolute non-action is surely suicidal to any individual and to Jainism itself, therefore let us see what kind of utmost rigorous measure of non-action was demonstrated by MV himself and expressed in the Acara 1.9. 34 He went alone stark naked, without using cold water, not bathing, not cleaning his teeth, not using fire and not scratching his body. He slept little, was always vigilant, and wandered around carefully without speaking much. He bore all the hardships (sparsas are fully enumerated in the Uttara I), ate coarse food and often fasted. He exposed himself to the heat and sat squatting in the sun. He often practised meditation. All these constitute the content of tapas performed by MV. He might have eaten only once a day, because food, necessarily obtained by killing living beings, should be cut down in frequency, quantity and quality. Likewise using medicine which is acquired by grinding herbs, roots, etc., of living beings would have been avoided by him. He had a mission to spread his message and train his disciples, but otherwise he would probably have refrained from unnecessary speech, for speaking involves violence to subtle beings. The content of tapas practised by MV was actually the content of lonely wandering, and its severeness becomes self-evident if we .

Page #34
compare it with the content of the twelvefold tapas evolved in later ages. (Naturally, the nature and meaning of tapas practised by the monks at MV's time underwent a conspicuous change in later times.) The idealism of akarma in the context of the doctrine of non-violence is of course meant in the sense of the maximum capacity of non-action that a monk can perform while surviving and spreading the message of salvation. And the Jainas had to make an unavoidable concession in this respect in that any violence done unintentionally goes without blame. Thus the Sutrakrta 1.1.2.25 says that a mere intention of violence unaccompanied by physical action or the violence committed without intention is blameless (aviyattam khu savajjam), even though touched (possibly by the efficacy of revenge). 1.1.2.28 of the same text argues that a mendicant who (unknowingly) eats the flesh of a son killed by his father is not defiled by guilt. However, the Acara 1.5.4.158 reads that if any living being coming in contact with one s body is killed (without intention or from mere carelessness), he has to suffer a due fruit in this life; and if it is done intentionally, he has to perform viveka. MV himself probably thought that unintentional violence also bears its fruit, which however does not cause one to take rebirth in samsara. 36 Viveka would have been imposed upon a convict so that the sin already committed by him could be purified by performing due punishment, as was commonly believed in those days. Viveka is thus a type of punishment, however how it was actually practised is difficult to evince. (Also the content and meaning of viveka enumerated as one of the six types of internal tapas developed in later times are ambiguous in the context.) As to the forms of punishment, kayavyutsarga emerges, for instance, in the Dasavaikalika V.91, and pratikramana in the Dasavaikalika V.88. (Twice daily pratikramana occurring in the Uttara XXVI belongs to the fifth canonical stage.) We should mention in connection with this that samayika also makes its appearance, for instance, in the Sutrakrta 1.2.2.17 and 20. (Incidentally, the Ava'syakasutra in six chapters in its present form, each obviously developed independently in the long course of canonical age, is the product of the fifth stage.) Group wandering provides better chances of procuring food which is the basic need of monks, and this might have been the primary cause for them to have begun wandering together. Group wandering inevitably involves far more chances of committing arambha than wandering alone. The livelihood of worldly passions such as love and hatred, talkativeness and quarrels, etc. is increased. It was thus best to keep a monk alone away from kasaya-producing conditions. Buddha also insisted upon resorting to solitary life from his own experiences which tempered him to be self-reliant in order to accomplish his final awakening. However, the idealism of lonely wandering could not hold for long due to other historical circumstances.

Page #35
38 It is said that MV used to wander round Rajagrha, Vaisali, Pava, Sravasti, Ladha, etc., and his disciples' range of action must have been largely confined within these known and familiar areas in the age of the Acara I - Sutrakrta I. However, the Jainas could not remain in the same areas for too long when the Buddhists were advancing into new regions. As we will touch upon in the Second Section, the range of their action became widened in the Bihatkalpa and more so in the Ni'sitha, and inscriptional evidences attest to their advancement to the South via the East coast in the second stage. It is assumed that the extent of Jaina monks' action was beginning to take the course of expansion in the age of the Uttara-Da's avaika lika. If monks wandered alone in a known area, their danger and difficulty in procuring alms were less. However, if they had to cultivate totally new areas, their danger and difficulty in procuring alms were assumed to be obviously greater. Their sambhoga practice evolved naturally from this situation. In order to expand the Jaina school itself, the church authorities had to constantly recruit novices by attracting them from the lay society or from the rival schools, while developing and advancing MV's doctrines as other schools had been so doing. This would have been difficult to achieve if the practice of lonely wandering and lonely living were insisted upon. The more the rules of monastic conduct and doctrinal system developed, the more time would have been required for monks to meet together for discussing relevant problems. Consequently more time would have been required for studies and training students than at the time of genesis. This must inevitably have compelled students to stay longer with their teachers, thus creating a bond of attachment. Thus we hear in the Uttara XXVI a teacher's complaint that students leave him like birds in spite of his having fed and taught them for a long time. A rapid development of the doctrinal system of the Jainas made from the third canonical stage onwards would have been improbable, if monks had lived totally isolated from one another: but it was a sure product of the practice of joint wandering. 40 Buddha who preached the conduct of dana is said to have accepted in his lifetime the donation of ara mas from wealthy householders. And the early existence of aramas and avasas is said to have enabled his fellow monks to have a settled life together in the period of rain retreat, which would have given rise to a rapid growth of ethical rules and theoretical development in the Buddhist school, and a rapid growth of the education of lay followers. Close contact and link with lay society is basic requirement for the growth of a church. This practice of vassa vasa is said to have hastened the Buddhist monks' adoption of settled life by abandoning the mode of lonely wandering, which may have been accomplished as early as the 4th century B.C.' The historical circumstances as such in the inevitable course of development of the Jaina church while competing with rival schools, must have gradually forced the Jaina monks to give up the idealism of lonely wandering: and it was

Page #36
probably totally abandoned and disappeared in the third canonical stage. Even though the Uttara-Dasavaikalika generally cling to the idealism of lonely wandering, these texts already exhibit the advent of a transitional stage moving towards group wandering.

Page #37
SECTION II THE SECOND CANONICAL STAGE 41 To be examined in this section are the Da'sa'srutaskandha (excluding Chapters V, VI and X), Brhatkalpa, Vyavahara, Nisitha, Acaranga II (excluding the third appendix) and Sutrakrtanga I. Bhadraba hu I is believed to be the author of the first three Chedasutras, and the Ni'sitha is a compilation from a much later age. These four old Chedasutras and the Acara I are concerned with ascetic disciplinary rules and monastic jurisprudence, while the Sutrakrta I records the then theoretical and ethical problems raised by the heretics and takes up problems relevant to (lay conduct,) kriya and jiva. The essential rules of ascetic conduct such as five mahavratas, five samitis and three guptis must have been formulated in this second canonical stage. The Dasa VI fully expounds 12 bhiksu pratimas which make a partial appearance in the Vyavahara IX. A category-wise treatment of numerous injunctions and prohibitions pertaining to alms-collection, etc., is systematically offered in the Acara 1.1-2, that must have been developed on the basis of materials handled in the Da'savaikalika. In the Dasa I-I, vices concerned mainly with students' ill conduct, monks' blemishes and bad etiquette are listed: many of them are again developed upon the basis of the materials collected in the Uttara and Da'savaikalika. An atempt is made in the Dasa I to classify the qualities and capacities of a gana leader, such as his endowment with exemplary conduct and knowledge (matijnana along with its divisions listed here is obviously a later interpolation), his capacity of leadership in providing necessary provisions for the gana members, and so on. The qualifications of acaryas, upadhyayas, acaryopadhyayas and gana vacchedakas are enjoined in the Vyavahara I, which also lays down rules for instituting a new gana. Rules for changing ganas are prescribed in the Brhatkalpa IV. The regulations regarding performing prayascitta are laid down in the Vyavahara I, and 1.34ff. informs that prayas citta should be performed in front of a monk occupying as high a rank as possible, (but in case of his absence, one should perform it in front of a bahu'sruta upasaka; and in case of his absence, he should perform it by himself withnessed by arhats and siddhas. This portion seems to belong to a later age.) What to do in case of an acarya's death and who should inflict punishment in case of an acarya's absence are also prescribed in the Vyavahara IV. Vices committed by those who are confused, out of their senses, possessed by demons, etc., are said in the Brhatkalpa VI to be outside the rules of punishment. The Nisitha collects numerous punishable deeds/offences by classifying them according to appropriate types of punishment.

Page #38
15 The Brhatkalpa is said to deal with the problems of monastic discipline relevant to society at large, while the Vyavahara handles those relevant to fellow monks. The causes of punishment treated in these texts are enlarged upon and systematically presented in the Nisitha. The Dasa and the Acara I also develop the materials collected in the oldest text group. In this stage, whilst earlier contents are improved and developed, the monastic rules are laid down as a system. As evident from the main features of these monastic disciplinary text groups, monastic organization has grown into a hierarchical order, and the daily conduct and routine of the group members are strictly controlled by its leader's direction based on these rules. For the practice of sambhoga (joint eating) and samvasa (joint living), etc., a permission of the church authority seems to have still been required. However, since no one is allowed to stay alone in a very large town, the practice of lonely wandering is generally being replaced by joint wandering. At the same time, the duration of stay in one place formerly regulated by day-unit is extended to month-unit. 47 The Brhatkalpa 1.48 confines the range of monks' action to Ariga-Magadha, Kausambi, Sthuna and Kunali, while the Nisitha X.591 orders that a monk should not visit more than a few times at Campa, Mathura, Varanasi, Sravasti, Saketa, Kampilla, Kausambi, Mithila, Hastinapura and Rajagrha. An obvious time gap thus exist between the Brhatkalpa and the Nisitha. Mathura inscriptions commence in 150 B.C., which reach a peak in the Kushan dynasty. This indicates that Mathura became the centre of the Jainas by the 2nd century A.D. The Ni'sitha must therefore have been composed when the Jaina communities were gradually advancing towards Mathura, i.e., towards the 2nd-1st centuries B.C. It should be also noted in connection with this that there are Jaina inscriptions at Ha thingumpha (Orissa), Kalugumalai hill (Tamilland), Muttupatti cave (Tamilland) and Pava cave (Maharashtra), which belong to the 2nd-1st centuries B.C. The Jainas were thus marching towards the South along the East coast and towards Mathura in the North during this age, most probably following the routes opened by the Buddhist missionaries. The Eastern and Southern inscriptions are then nil until the 4-6th centuries A.D. This must signify that the expansion of Jainism there somehow stopped after the 2nd-1st centuries B.C. And in this respect it should be noted that the Brhatkalpa 1.48 permits monks to proceed to the places where jnana-darsana-caritra flourish. (The concept of jnana-darsana-caritra developed in the final canonical stage, therefore this must be the later accretion.) The existence of these inscriptions nevertheless suggests that some rules for such exceptional cases must have been existing during this stage.

Page #39
49 The archaeological sources of the lay Jaina activities during this second canonical stage is far smaller than those found in the third stage, where Mathura archaeological remains and inscriptions evince their full-fledged activities in donating the images of arhats, on which are usually inscribed the names of their spiritual teachers. The Jainas, both ascetic and lay, had probably settled down at Mathura by the middle of the third canonical stage, and the tie-up between the ascetic and lay Jaina communities must have become prominent thenceforth. Five anuvratas and seven silas along with their aticaras make their full appearance in the Upasakada'sa which belongs to the fourth-fifth stages, wherein eleven upa saka pratimas are also listed without exposition. The Angic story texts which are composed for the lay audience share the same fourth-fifth stages. In reality, the lay rules of conduct still continue to develop in the post-canonical period. All these corroborate that the ethical principles of the lay Jainas took a dilatory course of formulation. (The discussion advanced in the Sutrakrta 1.7 is developed upon the gross renunciation of himsa imposed on the Jaina laity, and in this connection are explained five anuuratas, samayika, pausadhopavasa, iccaparimana, desavaka'sika, anarthadanda and sallekhana. The Da'sa VI registers eleven upasaka pratimas which are still fairly rudimentary compared with those in the Upasakadasa. All these seem to belong, as a whole, to some later stages. Householders' activities are described in the Sutrakrta 1.2 in the two lower grades, i.e., the intermediate and the lowest, in contrast to ascetics' activities which are classed in the highest grade. This portion is also added to the original.) The Sutrakrta II details the issues raised by the heretics on some theoretical and ethical problems in those days, in continuation of those which are recorded here and there in the earliest text group. Since we did not touch upon this aspect in the previous section, let us begin with a cursory survey of those issues raised in the first canonical stage. They may help us to know what kinds of problems were regarded as more or less important by the Jainas then, and what kinds of thought provoked the Jaina thinkers to formulate their own views in the later stage. 52 MV scorns the heretical issues as 'no suyakkhae dhamme no supannatte dhamme' in the Acara 1.8.1.199 regarding their discussion of the world (loka) as to whether it is asti-nasti, dhruva-adhruva and sadi-anadi, and regarding their discussion of sukrta-duskrta, kalyana-papa, sadhu-asadhu, siddha-asiddha and naraka-anaraka. Besides these issues, and besides the well-known theories of kriyavada, akriyavada, ajnanavada and vinayavada, the Sutrakrta 11 details various heretical issues, which may be largely classified into the following categories: (1) The problem of reality, i.e., five mahabhutavada of the Lokayatas, etc., vijnanavada of the Vedantins, and the skandha theory of the Buddhists, etc; (2) The problem of free will which is denied by niyativada; (3)

Page #40
17 The existence or otherwise of rebirth and liberation which is negated by the Carvakas; (4) The problem of world-creation maintained by the Brahmanical circles; (5) Whether the knowledge of the highest man is with or without limit. The Acara 1 - Sutrakrta I merely enumerate these heretical views, but refutations are not yet coming forth from the side of the Jainas. After the Jainas entered the stage of theorization and formulation of their own doctrinal concepts in the third canonical stage, the majority of these problems came to be taken up, which we will see in Chapter I. 53 The problems of mahabhutavada, isvaravada (theory of world-creation) and niyativada are repeated in the Sutrakrta 1.1 basically in the same way but in a more systematic manner. The problem of anadi or otherwise and sa'svata or otherwise of the world in the Acara I is again repeated in the Sutrakrta 1.5 with an assertion that the Jainas should not take either side. (This seems to be too advanced to appear in this stage.) The Jainas are instructed to hold the same attitude pertaining to the following views: the view that preceptors someday come to cease or that all beings shall be eternally in bondage, etc., the view that there is or is not difference in killing small and large beings, the view that one is or is not defiled by accepting adhakarma (prepared food), and the view that virya does or does not exist elsewhere at any time. (In this connection it is ordained not to maintain the view that audarika, aharaka and karmana sariras are identical, which must be a later addition.) (On the other hand, the Sutrakrta 11.5.12-28 instruct students to maintain that the following concepts and concept-couples do exist; loka-aloka, jiva-ajiva, dharma - adharma, bandha-moksa, punya-papa, asrava-samvara, vedana-nirjara, kriya-akriya, krodha-mana-maya-lobha, preya-dve'sa, samsara in fourfold gatis, deva-devi, siddhi-asiddhi, a particular place of siddhas, sadhu-asadhu and kalyana-papa. Some concept-couples here are obviously the old ones. A noteworthy point here is that there is an obvious effort made in arranging these concept-couples of different categories, and thus innately unsystematic, in due ascending order towards liberation in the context of the karma theory and in the broad cosmographical framework. This kind of thinking pattern belongs to the later canonical stage.) The Sutrakrta 11.6 registers some criticisms laid against MV; that MV avoids public places for fear of meeting clever people and that MV attracts a crowd like a businessman to gain a profit. From this it appears likely that MV preferred to approach business class people who were potentially qualified to become Jainas. The other points brought together in this section are mostly relevant to the Jaina position of ahimsa, many issues of which were already raised in the Sutrakrta I, for instance, guilt or otherwise in the case of killing a being by mistake, guilt or otherwise in drinking cold water and eating seeds, etc. and the merits or otherwise in feeding so many monks and Brahmins.

Page #41
56 In relation to the topic of ahimsa, we would like to touch upon the controversial issue of monks' acceptance of meat in those days. The Acara 1.1.9.51 instructs a monk not to beg for such food as meat and fish which are prepared for the sake of guests or sick persons. This pertains to the prohibition from accepting prepared food, and a similar idea is likewise expressed in the Sutrakrta 1.6.37-39. Also Buddha is said to have established a rule that no monk should eat meat specially killed for them, because Jaina monks cried out on witnessing a scene where Buddhist monks were eating an ox killed for the sake of their dinner. On the other hand, the Acara 1.1.10.58 enjoins a rule that a monk should reject meat and fish with many bones, but it permits him to ask for meat and fish without bones; in case he has received flesh with bones, he can eat flesh by separating it from the bones. Likewise the Da'savaikalika V.1.73 prohibits a monk from accepting any eatables with many bones (bahu-atthiyam puggalam. The meaning of non-acceptance of bones is selfevident, for it incurs himsa on oneself. In the Sutrakrta 11.2.38, monks are instructed not to drink liquor or eat meat. Curiously enough, there is hardly any other direct reference forbidding monks receiving fresh in the earlier canonical texts. And the Uttara V.9 condemns meat-eating and liquor-drinking as the actions of a fool (i.e., layman), and a layman committing such actions is warned that he shall take rebirth in naraka in VI.6-7 (and in X IX.69-70 which must belong to later times). It is thus evident that there was a general rule for the ascetics binding them not to take meat and liquor. It then ensues that the above passage of the Acara II.1.10. 58 can be a special rule. However, it openly allows a monk to accept flesh without bones. And we should keep in mind that both the Sutrakrta I and Acara II were written at the time when the Chedasutras were enumerating numerous prohibitory rules incurring heavy punishments such as months of parihara or the expulsion of monks from the church for seemingly minor errors. And no type of punishment to monks is locatable in these old Chedasutras for receiving meat from the laity. 58 Certainly, the Nisitha X.581 charges heavy four-month parihara to a monk for receiving food from kings and warriors who are enjoying animal meat hunted by themselves. But this touches upon the prohibitory rule of the approval of himsa directly committed by donors. In general, laymen are not the immediate slaughterers of animals in obtaining their meat, thus the same problem would not arise for monks by accepting meat from them. It thus seems that a rule of not receiving flesh from laymen was in reality not rigidly binding to monks, because most Indians at that time were probably accustomed to the consumption of meat, and the lay Jainas were no exceptions. And unless all the Jaina laymen observed strict vegetarianism, Jaina monks had no choice but to accept meat in many circumstances, which is exactly what is found under discussion in the Acara Il passage. It seems that Pujyapada is the first author who

Page #42
19 criticized this point in his Sarvarthasiddhi VI.13, 'mamsa-bhaksanady-anavadyabhidhanam srutavarnavadah.! It is thus feasible to assume that the rigid vegetarianism of the present day Jainas commenced at such a later time, most probably after the mass exodus of the Jainas from Mathura to the South and West, where they were bound to impress the local people by their exemplary deeds in order to sail out for their new settlement life in the migrated places. Receiving meat from the laity was thus understood not touching upon himsa on the part of monks at that time. Otherwise it would have been absolutely prohibited. Here emerges a more accurate picture of the concept of ahimsa conceived in the olden days; (1) Monks should not directly commit himsa to any beings under any conditions whatsoever; (2) They should not accept animal meat specially killed for them, nor should they even take medicine which is prepared for them by killing living plants;(3) They should abstain from receiving food if any possibility of himsa is detected while it is served by donors; and (4) They should not receive meat if donors are known to be the immediate slaughterers of the animals. The first case relates to the direct commitment of himsa made by monks; the second and the third cases relate to causing himsa to the others for their own sake; and the fourth case relates to approving him. sa committed by others. All these rules are essentially based on MV's original teaching of ahimsa by way of three karanas, and the contempolary church authority was obviously not that fussy about monks' accepting meat from laymen. The Sutrakrta II raises the ethical problem relevant to kriya in a significant way for the first time. As previously noted, the term karma gradually came to be used in the sense of karma matter by abandoning its early meaning of "deed" or "action" in general. In the meantime, the Jainas adopted from the Buddhist camp the triple action committed by way of mind-speech-body. This triple action can conveniently express the total content of actions in general, conscious and unconscious, committed by any being. It thus seems that the early Jainas came to express the content of actions in general (thereby in the sense of neutral, i.e., neither good nor bad) by the triplet of mind-speech-body. The fact of overemphasizing this triplet as the content of both yoga and gupti is appreciable in the context of the doctrine of anarambha, otherwise it becomes a meaningless redundancy. Gupti can be interpreted as the variation of yoga practised in the context of ascetic conduct. On the other hand, the term kriya emerged as a technical term in the field of ethics denoting an evil action which ought to be eschewed by any aspirant. The term karma in the earliest sense thus seems to have developed into the three distinct technical terms, i.e., karma (matter), yoga-triplet and kriya. 61 The Sutrakrta 1.4 called Pratyakhyana-kriya deals with eighteen kriyas i.e. five aviratis, four kasayas, 10-11: preya-dve'sa, 12-15: kalaha-abhyakhyana

Page #43
paisunya-paraparivada, 16-17: rati-arati, 18: mayamrsa-mithyadarsana'salya). What is propounded here is that unless one renounces (pratyakhyana) all these vices (in other words, unless he follows the Jaina faith), he is bound to remain sinful even when he is actually not performing evil actions by way of yogatriplet, because there are positive chances of committing violence to the six types of beings at any moment.(In this context, the concepts, of sanjni-asanjni are brought in, where asanjnis who are not capable of distinguishing good and bad due to the lack of a thinking organ are assumed to be all sinful. This portion must also be a later addition.) The Sutrakrta 1.2 evinces a more advanced position in the treatment of kriya. (As pointed out by many scholars, this chapter-i.e., 1.2.29-42-is beset with later interpolations.) Twelve kriyas include artha-danda, anartha-d., himsa-d., akasmad-d., drstiviparyasa-d., mrsa-urtti, adinnadana-v., adhyatmika-v., mana-v., mitradvesa-v., maya-v. and lobha-v. These vices are well expounded with accompanying illustrations. If we compare this list of the twelve vices with that of the eighteen vices, it becomes obvious that the former stands in the more advanced position, as it shows further probing into the causes of vice even though the way they are presented is unsystematic. A noteworthy point here is that the list of twelve vices includes akasmad-danda and drsti-viparyasadanda which involve violence committed without intention on the point of the doer. As mentioned before, any action performed without intention is of no value as the cause of vice according to the Jainas, therefore these items are doomed to disappear sooner or later. Thirteen kriyas, i.e., the twelve kriyas above plus iryapatha-kriya which belongs to a later stage, taken up in this Sutrakrta 1.2 are referred to in the Pratikramana chapter of the Ava'syakasutra. Ultimately the list of twelve vices did not gain currency, while the list of eighteen vices came to be popular under the name of eighteen kriyas. 63 (The Dasa IX called Mohaniya-sthana enumerates thirty sthanas resulting from the rise of mohaniya karma. Its treatment is no doubt elementary and unsystematic, but it is noteworthy that one chapter is devoted to the problem of mohaniya karma. Mohaniya karma must be one of the mula prakrtis that evolved early in the history of karma prakrtis. Nevertheless, its appearance in the present form at this stage seems to be a little too early, and it must belong to the third canonical stage. Its introductory prose portion is the product of the fourth-fifth stages.) Since any living being has to survive at the expense of other living beings, it is not at all surprising that the early Jainas, the followers of the austere idealism of chimsa taught by MV, turned their keen eyes to the mechanism of ahara or taking food of beings. The Sutrakrta II.3 which takes this theme up is, however, as rudimentary as the earliest text group as a whole. The following three points which seem to have interested the early Jainas should however be noted.

Page #44
Firstly, an analysis of the ahara of plants is worked out in some detail-how a plant, which consists of one soul and its parasitic souls consisting of its roots, bulbs, stems, etc., lives on subtle beings. Secondly, the problem of ahara in the embryonic stage is taken into consideration. And thirdly, this chapter offers a list of the classification of five-sensed animals. (11.3.61 quotes four gathas concerning a list of earth-beings from the Uttara XXX V1.73-76, which is an obvious later addition.) Hardly any attention is paid to other beings in this chapter. 65 (Then a question is posed in the Sutrakrta 1.7 as to which are to be called movable beings and immovable beings because movable beings can be born as immovable beings and vice versa. The answer put forward is that movable beings are those which are movable in the present life due to the fruition of such karmas, as monks who have returned to the householders' position are then called householders. Another question is posed: that since movable beings can be born as immovable beings and vice versa and since immovable beings are inevitably killed by movable beings, it is possible that at some point there would be no immovable beings or no movable beings in the world. If it would happen that there would be no immovable beings in the world, householders become like monks, because there is no subtle being to be killed by them. But it is stated that thing will never happen in the three tenses of time. The latter question here was obviously raised before the time when the mechanism of rebirth in four gatis was not conceived of yet. However, this type of thought pattern belongs to a later stage. Furthermore, this chapter is presented with a view to showing the conversion of Parsvan monk Udaka -- who raises questions to Gautama, which follows a typical story style exhibited in the Bhagavati and the other canonical story texts. Thus this chapter as a whole must belong to the later period.) The Sutrakrta 1.5 describes in detail what kinds of miserable pains prevail in naraka, but it does not touch upon the structure of naraka at all. The Jaina cosmographical outlines has made no appearance yet in the first canonical stage. Fourfold gatis, i.e., H.A.M.G (Hellish beings, Animals, Men and Gods) were probably accepted by the Jainas by or upon entering the second canonical stage. The cosmographical framework provided with some details must have begun to be drawn in the third canonical stage when the inquiries into Jivapudgala advanced and it became imperative to think about their abiding places. (It is too early for the Jaina view of the existence of a special place reserved for siddhas occurring in the Sutrakrta 1.5 to make its appearance in this stage. Cosmograpohic features are touched upon in the Sutrakrta 1.2.36 and 38, and some subclasses of Bhavanavasi and Vyantara devas are also mentioned in 1.2.39; 1.3.56 touches upon karmabhumis, akarmabhumis and antaradvipas. All these passages must have been added in later periods.)

Page #45
SECTION I THE THIRD CANONICAL STAGE 67 The Bhagavati nucleus consists largely of the texts composed in the third canonical stage. This will become evident in the last chapter. This stage is, as previously explained, created and reserved for the purpose of finding which materials constitute the Bhagavati archetype. Briefly, the Jainas entered the age of theorization at this stage, and the concept of this stage directly developed into that recorded in the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage. We are placing in this stage the Surya p. and Candra p. which form the earliest science texts of the Jainas. The Sthana 11.1.203 refers to the Candra p., Surya p. and Duipasagara p., and IV.1.340 to the Candra p., Surya p., Jambu dvipa p. and Dvipasagara p. The Nandi 44 counts the Surya p., Paurusimandala and Mandalaprave'sa among the 29 Utkalika Angabahyas, and the Jambudvipa p., Dvipasagara p. and Candra p. among the 31 Kalika Angabahyas. The Surya p. and the Candra p. were thus primarily independent texts. However the text construction of the present Surya p. reveals that Chapter X ff. constitute the Candra p., and in all probability, Chapter I and X were originally the independent texts called Mandalaprave'sa and Paurusimandala in the Nandi 44 above. The present Surya p. and the Candra p. are practically identical. Therefore, under the combined designation SuryaCandra p., we are referring for their contents to the Candra p. in the Suttagame II. The cosmographcal framework of the Jainas must have begun to be set down upon entering the third canonical stage, and an inquiry into astronomical science was indispensable for this. As comparative studies of the ancient Indian cosmographies reveal," both Jalinas and the Buddhists built their own cosmographical features after the model of the Hindus. The Jainas started to collect the then available astronomical theories and data from the Jyotisa Vedanga pertaining to the orbit, motion, position of the sun, and so on, and the waning and waxing of the moon, the conjunction of naksatras, etc., etc., which are recorded and refuted in the Surya-Candra p. in order to prove that the relevant Jaina positions were more advanced than others. This proves that the Jainas had already mastered the then available astronomical science and came out with their own views and theories by the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. We are not going to 'summarize the contents of the Surya-Candra p. here, for their scientific technicalities do not have much relevancy to the Bhagavati contents. It is interesting, however, to notice that it informs us, for instance, that Sun light canot pierce Mt. Meru because light is of a material nature. The present Surya-Candra p. seems to be full of later additions as any other canonical texts.

Page #46
1 72 74 75 SECTION IV THE FOURTH CANONICAL STAGE We are examining in this section the Jivajivabhigama omitting Duipasagara p. and the Prajnapana in due order. These form the early philosophical texts of the Jainas. 73 The Jivajivabhigama is in short a catalogue of various types of classification of jivas arrived at during this canonical stage. It handles this theme by classifying samsari jivas into two to ten types and sarva jivas (i.e., samsaris and siddhas) into two to ten types. Samsari jivas are classified in the following way: (2 types) trasa-sthavaras; (3 types) by three sexes; (4 types) by four gatis; (5 types) by five indriyas; (6 types) five types of one-sensed beings plus trasas; (7 types) hellish beings (dual sex) plus beings in the rest of three gatis by male-female sex; (8 types) beings in four gatis by the first-instant-birth and non-first-instant-birth; (9 types) five types of one-sensed beings plus two to five-sensed beings; (10 types) one to five-sensed beings by the first-instantbirth and non-first-instant-birth. 23 In spite of its title, the Jivajivabhigama actually deals with the subject matter of Jiva alone (thus the Jivabhigama would be more suitable), and the treatment of ajiua is entrusted to the Prajnapana by so referring to it. Moreover, if we subtract the portions referring to the Prajnapana which must be the later additions and a large portion called Dvipasamudra, (ie., Duipasagra p. 123-190, v.2, pp.168-228), along with some other interpolations of miscellaneous items, the nucleus of this text emerges as a fairly brief treatise. The Third Valabhi Council must have been responsible for the edition of the Jivajivabhigama in its present form. While discussing twofold and threefold types of beings, the following points are dealt with: one-sensed beings are classified into suksma and badara which are each subdivided into paryaptaka and aparyaptaka; beings in each gati are di vided into main classes and subclasses; then this and that type of being are discussed in terms of anuyoga items such as sarira, avagahana, samghatana, samsthana, kasaya, sanjna, lesya, indriya, samudghata, sanjni, veda, paryapta, drati, darsana, jnana, yoga, upayoga, ahara, upapada, sthiti and gati. The rest of the types of beings receive similar treatment. Thus their expositions are bound to be redundant and summary. The classification of sarva jivas into two to ten types well demonstrates its mechanical nature. Let us take, for example, the classification of sarva jivas as of two types which consist of the opposing concept-couples as follows: siddhaasiddha, sendriya-anindriya, sakayika-akayika, savedaka-avedaka, salesyaale'sya, inani-ajnani, sakaropayukta-anakaropayukta, aharaka-anaharaka,

Page #47
24 sabhasaka-abhasaka, sa's ariri-a's ariri and carama-acarama. We can expand this list until suitable anuyoga items as such are exhausted. It is clear that the treatment of jiva made in the Prajnapana stands in the more advanced position, to which we will come soon. 76 It should be noted that the concept of nigoda also makes its appearance. Nigodas are classified into nigodas and nigoda-jivas, which are each subclassified into suksma-badara, then into paryaptaka-aparyaptaka in the manner of the one-sensed beings. 77 The Prajnapana which is traditionally said to have been comiled by Syamacarya is the acme of the then developed theoretical contents pertaining to jivaajiva. Not every chapter is systematically presented, nor is there any attempt to arrange the whole chapters in due order guided by a certain principle and purpose as is done in the later prakarana works. Nevertheless, a unique methodical feature of the Jaina theoreticians in the later canonical stages is already prominent in this text. For instance, the systematic application of various anuyogadvaras to this and that topic shows that they have already mastered the skill of employing anuyoga items. As a matter of fact, the basic ground of the later formulation of sthana triplet, i.e., 14 jivasamasas, 14 gunasthanas and 14 marganasthanas, is undeniably prepared in this text. 78 For instance, jivas are generally treated here in 24 dandakas, in which the major subclasses of H.A.M.G are roughly arranged in due ascending order of their abodes situated in the loka. (Likewise, the canonical authors as a rule describe the loka beginning with the lower world, in that they talk about moving clock-wise from the East.) These 24 dandakas are further subdivided by paryaptaka and aparyaptaka (in case of one-sensed beings, their subclassification into suksma and badara precedes it) as is done in the Jivajivabhigama. This classification yields short of a couple of sanjni-asanjni items to arrive at the list of 14 jivasamasas. From the classification of dar'sana-aryas and caritra-aryas made in Chapter 1 (Prajnapana), it is evident that the later 14 gunasthanas minus the second stage (sasvadana) and the eight stage (apurvakarana) are already recognized in this stage. 14 marganasthanas are covered in the list of 27 anuyoga items used in Chapter II (Alpabahutua) and in the list of 22 items in Chapter XV (Kayasthiti). Chapter XXVI (Ahara) conducts a discussion according to 13 dvaras and Chapter XI (Parinama) according to 10 dvaras. Another methodical tendency exhibited in this text is the use of standpoints by dravya, prade'sa and dravya-pradesa. The standpoints by dravya-ksetra-kalabhava do make a frequent appearance, but they are not yet extensively adopted

Page #48
as in the case of the Niryukti literature. 80 Jiva-ajiva (strictly speaking, jiva-pudgala in this stage) are handled in this text in a cosmographical framework. And as we will see below, the then Jaina theoreticians are busy establishing a picture of the universe pervaded by jivas and matter (pudgala) that possess their own peculiar behaviour patterns and natures according to their classes and subclasses. Numerous anuyogadvaras are posed in order to ascertain the natures and activities of jivas in this and that class, which are later crystallized in the form of 14 marganasthanas. Once an eternal picture of the universe pervaded by jivas and matter with their determinate characteristics is completed, the mechanism of the karma theory which is in progress in this text can easily be worked out. The Prajnapana is thus making a move towards the inevitable direction of Jaina philosophy, i.e., towards the fabrication of an edifice of the later karma doctrine. The concept of pudgala has been roughly worked out in the previous canonical stage. (The rest of astikayas and addhasamaye took a slow course of evolution and developoment. The classification of ajiva involving the doctrine of pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya offered in the Prajnapana Chapters I, II, etc., belongs to later ages.) Chapter V (Visesa) shows the then Jaina scholars' interest in determining how atoms and composites with so many pradesas can exhibit differences within each category, e.g., atom-class and two-pradesicomposite-class, etc., when viewed from the standpoints of dravya, prade'sa, avagahana, kala and bhava. From the last standpoint, for instance, the differences yielded within each category are said to be from 1/ananta to ananta times. An idea that ananta, for instance, consists of the difference by 1/ananta ~ ananta (that is, 1/ananta X ananta X ananta = ananta) was thus already known to them. Another peculiar aspect that the then Jaina theoreticians' interest exhibits is revealed in Chapter X (Carama). Here the text considers two sets of anuyoga items, i.e., caramals and acarama/s (part/s consisting of the spatial border line/s and part/s making up inside the spatial border line/s) and caramanta prade'sas and acaramanta pradesas (prades as constituting the spatial border lines and those constituting what is inside the spatial border lines). These two sets of anuyogadvaras are applied to the parts of loka (i.e., regions in the lower and upper worlds) and loka-aloka, which are considered from the standpoints of dravya, prade'sa and dravya-prades a, each offering an account of their relative numerical strength. The application of these carama-acarama anuyogas is then extended to the arrangement of loose atoms and composites by way of carama-acaramaavaktavya (avaktavya being neither carama nor acarama) in order to see how many alternative ways of arranging them are possible. It yields 7 major

Page #49
alternatives resembling the later saptabhangi formulae. A discussion of the arrangement of atom-composites by way of carama-acarama usually disappears in the context of atomic theory in a later period. The importance of this discussion here lies therefore not in the atomic theory for itself, but in the point that this way of applying anuyoga items to replace no-carama-acarama by avaktavya to such a topic, or the thought pattern of the Jainas as such, inevitably opened a path to the doctrine of saptabhangi in the post-canonical period. In Chapter XII (Parinama), 10 kinds of ajiva parinama are listed, i.e., bandhana, gati, sansthana, bheda, varna, gandha, rasa, sparsa, agurulaghu (which is too early to appear in this stage) and sabda. The rules of atomic combination are laid down in connection with bandhana. The concept that bhasa and le'sya are material is expounded in Chapter XI (Bhasa) and X VI (Le'sya). The classification of jivas including siddhas is made in Chapter 1 (Prajnapana), and their abiding places in the loka are described by way of specifying their abodes during a span of life (svasthana) and their abodes during marana samudghata and upapada in Chapter I (Sthana). While explaining how many bodies are possessed at present (and were possessed in the past) by this and that class of jivas, Chapter X (Carama) can offer a population census of beings in each class. A migration chart of beings from one gati to others is worked out in Chapter VI (Vyutkranti). This chapter informs us about the time during which no birth and no death take place in this and that gati, and how many are born in one instant in this and that gati. Chapter IV (Sthiti) and Chapter XVI (Kayasthiti) inform about the life span of beings in one birth and in the consecutive births in one and the same class. Chapter XX (Antakriya) computes how many in this and that class can attain siddhahood in the immediate next birth and/or after many births, and how many in this and that class can be liberated in one instant, minimum and maximum. All this convinces us that the then Jaina theoreticians were busy in drawing a cosmographical picture of the population and mobility of jivas, within the eternal and constant framework of which can be allowed the variant phases of the individual beings, that are again calculated in Chapter V (Visesa). Then, efforts are made to determine the characteristic features of living beings in this and that class. The physical structures and behaviour of these beings are discussed in Chapters XI (Sarira), XXI (Avagahana), NV (Sthiti), XV (Kayasthiti), XV (Indriya), XVI (Prayoga), VI (Ucchuasa), XXV (Ahara), IX (Yoni), XXXIV (Pravicarana), V (Sanjna) and XXXVI (Samudghata). The emotional and mental behaviour of living beings involving their religio-ethical activities is treated in Chapters XXXV (Vedana), XN (Kasaya), XVI (Le'sya),

Page #50
87 88 89 27 XI (Bhasa), XIX (Samyaktua), XXXI (Samyama), XXII (Kriya), XX (Antakriya) and XXXVI (Samudghata). Their cognitive aspects are treated in Chapters XV (Indriya), XXIX (Upayoga), XXX (Pasyatta), XXXI (Sanjini) and XXXI (Avadhi). In each case, questions are as a rule posed as to what the divisions and subdivisions of the topic under consideration are, by which class of beings these are possessed, what their time duration is, and what their relative numerical strength is. The corollary of all this is offered in Chapter II (Alpabahutva). These topics above pertain largely to marganasthanas and the karma theory. The subject matter of karma is mainly handled in Chapter XXI (karma prakrti), XXIV (karma bandhaka), XXV (karma vedaka), XXVI (Veda-bandhaka) and XXVII (Veda-vedaka). Chapter XXI which deals with karma praktis is di vided into two parts, and in it part 1 collects the earlier materials of uttara prakrtis which are expressed in terms of anubhava phalas. Peculiar here are the subdivisions of jnanavaraniya and nama, which are unknown in the later time; also vedaniya and gotra are here recorded with their subdivisions and sub-subdivisions. Part 2 lists uttara prakrtis nearly in the standardized form, while vedaniya and gotra retain their sub-subdivisions (which can however be easily dropped at any time.) Chapter XXIV calculates how many other mula prakrtis can possibly be bound while a certain mula prakrti is bound. The rest of the chapters conduct their discussions along similar lines, i.e., how many other mula prakrtis can possibly be experienced while a certain mula prakrti is bound (XXV), how many other mula prakrtis can possibly be bound while a certain mula prakrtis experienced (XXVI), and how many other mula prakrtis can possibly be experienced while a certain mula prakrti is experienced (XXVII). Karma prakrtis are thus considered within the class of mula prakrtis in relation to bandha and vedana. This leads us to infer that XXII.2 is a later addition. The Jainas at this stage usually show all possible alternative combinations of the division-subdivisions of a certain concept if these were at all established. The Uttara XXXI which belong to the fifth canonical stage still divides nama karma into sukha-duhkha, each of which are said to have many subdivisions following the treatment in the Prajnapana XXII.1; likewise it retains the sub-subdivisions of gotra karma. The list of uttara prakrtis must have been thus formulated in a standardized form by the time of Umasvati. Chapter XXII (Kriya) then poses quesions as to how many mula prakrtis are bound while committing three types of kriya group (ie., two sets of 5 kriyas and 18 kriyas), and how many kriyas are committed while a certain mula prakrti is bound. The peculiar features of ayur bandha (e.g., nirupakramasopakrama or uncurtailable-curtailable life span and akarsa or the mode of grasping ayus karma) are touched upon in Chapter VI (Vyutkranti). Vedana

Page #51
are classified into various types in XXXV (Vedana). And the expulsion of vedaniya, ayus, nama and gotra karmas by kevali samudghata is also explained in Chapter XXXV (Samudghata; this chapter seems to be full of later additions). In the light of the currents of thought running through the Bhagavati, the Prajnapana chapters seem to be replete with later interpolations. However, the Prajnapana offers all these theoretical contents in a very systematic fashion, and it is quite difficult for us in this cursory survey to point out which concepts belong to later ages. As a matter of fact, a stratification of the Prajnapana into chronological layers is an essential task to perform in order to ascertain the Bhagavati nucleus, for it offers the basic criteria to solve the problems. It is a huge task in itself, the undertaking of which is seriously urged. And it can be made possible by using the Bhagavati and other canonical and non-canonical texts which are relevant to the Prajnapana contents. www.jainebrary.org

Page #52
SECTION V THE FOURTH-EARLY FIFTH CANONICAL STAGES 91 The Jnatadharmakatha, Upasakada'sa, Antakrdda'sa, Anuttaropapatikada'sa and Vipakasutra are the story texts constituting the 7th-9th and 11th Argas. The stories are invariably told by Sudharman responding to the entreaty of Jambu, which generally end with the didactic remarks about heroes' and heroines' actions and their consequent outcomes, or by pointing out the aim of the story under consideration. Each text begins with a stereotyped introduction that a certain Arga has just been expounded and this particular Ariga will deal with such and such contents. Their formal uniformity as such (which is also shared by the 10th Anga) evinces that these story texts were retouched and finalized at the Third Valabhi Council. 92 Not only does the text construction possess a formal unity, but the plots are also extremely stereotyped and repetitive excepting the case of the Jnata. dharma I. Thus the stories, which may either concern themselves with ethicosocial aspects or mythological aspects, illustrate as a whole what kinds of action a hero or a heroine had performed, have performed or shall perform, and with what kind of consequence, i.e., resulting in either moksa or rebirth in a certain gati. 93 We have excluded the majority of stories in the Uttara from our discussion in the first canonical stage, because their contents show that they belong to the early age of story composition under discussion. These Uttara stories composed in verse are more refined and more succinctly narrated, in contrast to the verbose and irksome style of the Angic prose stories. These Argic stories are also narrated less skillfully compared to the post-canonical stories including Jaina pura nas, which came to be composed on a massive scale in the medieval age. The quality and quantity of story collections in the Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions by the time of the classical period are far superior to those of the Jainas composed by the same period (that is, including the Upangic story texts). From this we surmise that the Jainas entered in the fourth-fifth canonical stages an epoch of story composition, for the purpose of educating followers due to the following reasons: (1) The Jainas entered the age of solid church construction and organization, consisting of the ascetic and lay communities; (2) Principal upa saka dharmas were prepared during this period; (3) The finalization of the Jaina cosmographical features in the early fifth stage opened a path for the blossom of mythological stories told from a Jaina-centred world view. The Jainas must have been composing stories and parables for as long as any other religious sects, but their quantity was probably smaller. Also, many stories must have been lost in the course of time as the chapter-titles of

Page #53
the present Antakrt and Anuttaropapatika which are listed quite differently in the Sthana X.2030-31 show. We are not offering here the contents of the stories in these texts. Some salient features appearing in these story texts are the Arstanemi-Krsna motif, the conversion motif, and partiality shown to the Ksatriya class as demonstrated by the case of King Srenika and his son in particular. Ethically noteworthy points are that the Upasaka 1.1 offers an exposition of 12 upasaka dharmas, i.e., 5 anuuratas and 7 siksavratas, along with their transgressions, as well as enumerating 11 upasaka pratimas, and that the Antakrt VI describes various types of tapas to be performed by the ascetics. We should also list here the Bhagavati heroes appearing in these Angic story texts: Gosala (Upasaka), Jamali (Jnatadharma, Anuttaropapatika), Skandaka (Jnatadharma, Antakrt, Anuttaropapatika), Udayana (Vipaka), Mahabala (Anuttaropapatika), Gangadatta, Atimuktaka and Harinaigamesi (Antakrt). 96 These story texts frequently refer to the 11 Angas, 12 Angas and 14 Purvas, to which 'samayikadi' is often prefixed. The 12 Angas (the 12th being the Drstivada including the Purva as its 3rd book) are fully enumerated and explained for the first time in Nandi 41 and 46-57, and its 44 places "Samayika, etc." as the subdivisions of the Ava'syaka under the Angabahya class. Since the class Anga totally differs from the class Angabahya, it is anomalous to find the idiomatic expressions such as "the 11 Angas with Samayika at their head" or "the 14 Purvas with Samayika at their head". Evidently the Samayika here does not stand for the Acaranga. The "Samayika, etc." which consist of bare ritual formulae were probably referred to in such an idiomatic fashion due to their basic importance in the daily routine of the Jainas, both in the monastic and lay societies. No enumeration or exposition of the Angas occurs in our story texts. Since the Nandi is acquainted with them all and since the Digambaras also accept them as the basic class of canon as they are, the 12 Angas (also called the 12 Ganipit akas) must have been authorized in the previous Canonical Conferences, i.e., either the first one held at Pataliputra at the time of Bhadrabahu I, ca. the 3rd century B.C., or the second one held at Mathura and Valabhi before the middle of the 4th century A.D. 98 We may initially doubt whether the list of the 12 Argas was originally totally different from that presently accepted. This suspicion can be easily removed by the fact that no enumeration of a different list of the 12 Angas occurs in the present canonical literature. 99 Now let us come back to our present problem of whether the 12 Angas were authorized by the First Canonical Council or by the Second

Page #54
Canonical Council. A conspicuous feature of the Jaina Angas is that five Angas out of twelve consist of story texts which are aimed at educating the laity at large. These story texts as a whole belong to the later age. Historically speaking, laymen's participation in religious activities does not appear in a prominent form before the time of Mathura inscriptions and archaeological remains (i.e., the third stage), and concern shown for laymen in the existent canon at the time of Bhadrabahu I is as yet minimal in comparison with that shown to them in the literature belonging to the 4-5th centuries A.D. And it is during this Gupta age that the Jainas had to face the severest test in their history- a mass exodus of the Jaina communities from Mathura, due to the religio-socio-economic pressures imposed upon them by the Hindu revival movement, which must have been led by the Vaisnavas in particular. The lay business communities migrated to the then commercial and trade centres in the South and West, followed by the ascetic sangas. The realistic and economic capacities stored up by the then lay Jainas seem to have smoothed the exodus of the Jaina communities from Mathura. This historical incident of the mass migration of the Jaina communities to the South and West, and the fatally long famine that caused the Third Canonical Convention at Valabhi split the Jaina church into two, i.e., the present day Digambara and Svetambara. The Digambaras immediately accepted the 12 Argas as the basic class of their canon as well, while rejecting the list of other canonical texts authorized by the Third Valabhi Council." 100 In view of all this, it must have been the Second Canonical Council that was responsible for authorizing the 12 Angas as the basic class of the sacred texts of the Jainas including five story texts, for the then church authorities must have been fully obliged to the dedicated activities of the lay Jainas performed during this critical period. The selection of the Angas was thus ncessarily made not according to the criteria of the chronological value or doctrinal value of the then existing texts. 101 This fact can be also deduced from the implication hidden behind the choice of the number of Angas. It is likely that the number of the Angas as twelve instead of five or ten was determined as an analogy of the twelve limbs of the world-man (i.e., his two feet, two parts of bottom, two thighs, back-belly, two hands and neck-head') in meditation. By authorizing the 12 Angas as the basic sacred texts of the Jainas, both ascetic and lay, the Second Canonical Council probably wished to attach to both Angas (i.e., the fundamental code or the limbs of Jaina dharma) and Jaina communities (i.e., the bearers of Angas or the limbs of Jaina church) a symbolic sense of eternal continuity by using the metaphor of the World-man's limbs. The implication as such can be easily appreciated when we reflect upon the most unhappy historical circumstances that beset the Jainas at that time.

Page #55
102 103 104 105 32 The traditional account that MV's 11 ganadharas composed each Anga is unfeasible in the context of the historical development of the Jaina canon, which can easily be proved by our preceding study. It is therefore certain that the 12 Angas were authorized by the Second Canonical Council. The 12 Angas authorized in the Second Canonical Council thus came to be later attributed to MV's ganadharas in the trends of building up an official Jaina church history. Therefore the self-referring passages to the 11 Angas (the twelfth being lost) or mentions of the 12 Angas occurring in the story texts and the other Angic texts must have been written after the Second Canonical Council. The Drstivada is referred to in the list of the Vyavahara X, which, however, is an interpolation made in a considerably later age, possibly in the fifth canonical stage." Its contents are recorded in the Nandi 57 in five books, i.e., Parikamma, Sutta, Puvvagaya, Anuoga and Culiya. many of their chaptertitles and their subdivisions listed in the Nandi are obscure in meaning, however some subdivisions made under Parikamma and Anuoga must belong to the final canonical stage. On the whole, these seem to represent the doctrinal and theoretical discussions on jiva-ajiva. The present Nandi list of the Drstivada is thus scattered with later interpolations. The chapter-titles of the Purva enumerated are: Uppaya, Agganiya, Viriya, Atthinatthippavaya, Nanappavaya, Saccappavaya, Ayappavaya, Kammappavaya, Pacchakkhanappavaya, Vijjanu ppavaya, Avamjha, Panau, Kiriyavisala and Lokabindusara. Again not all of their meanings are clear, but some of them seem to belong to a considerably later age. It is unbelievable at least that Bhadrabahu I, who is said to be the last holder of the complete knowledge of the Purva, was acquainted with them all as listed in the Nandi, A curious thing said about the 14 Purvas by the classical authors like Umasvati is that the acquisition of the knowledge of the 14 Purvas is a prerequisite. qualification for achieving moksa. This means that someone possessing the 14 Purvas may not necessarily attain liberation, however, without their knowledge the final end-in-view cannot be fulfilled. And since Bhadrabahu I is believed to be the last person who had memorized them all, the Jainas after him have ever since been denied the necessary qualification to achieve liberation, which is indeed a queer idea. The later canonical commentators explicitly state a view that Jambu was the last sage who attained kevalihood in the history of the Jaina church. It is difficult to know when the Jainas began to take this pessimistic attitude towards the attainment of moksa. As has been previously touched upon, subsequent historical circumstances did not allow the Jaina monks to stick to the ancient idealism of lonely wandering that was exemplified by MV himself according to his rigid doctrine of ahimsa. And upon entering the Gupta period, the Jainas were driven away from Mathura by the Hindus, against whom

Page #56
33 revenge and repercussions were plotted continuously in various ways, for instance, in the guise of the mythological stories of Arstanemi-Krsna, adoption of Vasudeva-Baladeva under the dominion of tirthankara, concoction of MV's birth in the Ksatriya class, partiality shown to Ksatriyas against Brahmins, and so on. The then circumstances were causing some migrated monks to assist the warring kings, with a view to gaining royal patronage for the sake of establishing the Jaina communities in the newly settled places, as evinced by the early Southern inscriptions. The conditions of suffering must have been largely similar in the West as well. Then occurred the church split and the fight between the two Jaina sects. The basic principle of ahimsa by way of karana-triplet and yoga-triplet was thus becoming impossible to observe by the Jaina monks under the prevailing circumstances. It thus seems that their pessimistic attitude towards moksa grew more and more during the Gupta age as time marched on." 106 However, if salvation were utterly impossible for anyone after the time of Jambu, it would be suicidal to the Jaina school to remain as a religious sect, and the doctrine of moksamarga vindicated by the Jainas would come to be sheer nonsense. In order to solve this acute problem, the Jaina theoreticians came up with a solution by providing Mahavideha as the place for liberation. The then Jaina authorities had thus to make this inevitable excuse by escaping into the mythological range; that liberation is ever possible for the Jainas by taking a birth in Mahavideha in consequence of pious past actions performed according to the code of the Jainas. That one achieves liberation in the region of Mahavideha repeatedly occurs in our story texts, for instance, in the Jnatadharma 1.1, 9, 13, 16, 19, etc., and in the Upasaka I, VII, etc. 107 The idea that a possessor of the knowledge of the 14 Purvas alone is qualified for attaining final release does not yet arise in our story texts, for even those who have mastered the 11 Angas are caused to attain moksa in their very lives (e.g., Padmavati's case in the Antakrt V and Atimuktaka's case in the Antakrt VI). However, curiously enough, those who have attained immediate kevalihood by mastering the 14 Purvas are generally placed in the mythological age, for instance, at the time of Malli (Jnatadharma 1.8), at the time of Arstanemi (ibid., 1.5 and 16) and at the time of King Kanakaratha who does not seem to be a historical person (ibid., 1.14). Here there is already an obvious underlying motivation for mystifying the acquisition of the 14 Purvas. 108 The Purva thus stands out as an extremely important collection of Jaina texts, but strangely enough it is included in the Drstivada as a part, and never has it achieved independent position in the Jaina Angas. 109 It will become evident in Chapter IV that numerous texts relevant to the problems of jiva-ajiva composed in the pre-Prajnapana period faded away. This is

Page #57
110 but a part of the total amount of the lost texts in the long course of the canonical period. The Purva, as we will see in Chapter III, Section F-2, emerges in the mythological context involving the tirthankaras' roles in the cosmic church chronology of the Jainas. 34 In view of all this, it is more plausible to assume that the Jainas probably counted the Drstivada as the 12th Ariga, by way of attributing to it the total contents of the lost texts by the fourth canonical stage; the contents of the lost texts relevant to the doctrines of jiva-ajiva then continued to be added in the fifth canonical stage. They did not exist any more, but their inclusion in the Anga class with the status, that they had been the important Jaina doctrinal texts but now lost, adds weight to the total contents of the Jaina Angas. And the Purva section, meaning a collection of previous texts, may denote a collection of the early lost texts in the Drstivada, which was provided therein possibly by the church authorities in the early fifth canonical stage, so that it would enable them to solve on an authoritative basis the then acute problems relevant to moksa and the role of tirthankaras, etc., on the theoretical level.

Page #58
SECTION VI THE FIFTH CANONICAL STAGE 111 Included in the early fifth canonical stage are the Jambudvipa p., Dvipasagara p., and Pra'snavyakarana, of which the first two form the early texts of the Jaina geography, cosmography and mythology, and the last is an Angic work on ethics relevant to five vratas explained in connection with asrava-samvara. All these texts are composed in the heavily ornate style, typical of the age of story composition. 112 The purely geographical information of Jambudvipa with its minute 'datails is located in the Jambuduipa p. Chapters I, I and vi, added to which are Chapter VI offering the number, height, size, motion, etc., of the Jyotiskas, and Chapter II imparting the standard divisions of time. In relation to the Bharata region, the life stories of Rsa bha and Bharata are narrated in Chapters II - III, and Chapter V tells us how the birth of a jina is celebrated by the heavenly beings. A mythological description of the modes of life prevailing in each period of the descending-ascending time cycle occurs in Chapter I. 113 It has been reported that the account of King Bharata "can be called an exactly parallel text to Visnu-Purana I and Bhagavata-purana V".* And the appended portions to the essentially geographic information of Jambu dvipa seem to exhibit strong elements of the Puranic influence. The characteristics of the Puranic literature are said to be fivefold: (1-2) Sarga-pratisarga (periodic creation and destruction of the world); (3) Vamsa (genealogy); (4) Manvantarani (Manu-period of time); and (5) Vamsanucarita (history of dynasties).". The concept of the creation and annihilation of the world has no place in the Jaina cosmology, and is replaced by the concept of eternal time cycle, and its susamasusama period is comparable to Manu's period of time. We will touch upon the evolution of the time cycle of the Jainas in Chapter III, Section A-2. The Kalpasutra and a part of the Nandi may represent the third Puranic aspect, related to which are the life stories of Rsa bha and Bharata in our Jambudvipa p. The fifth feature of the Puranas is not at all relevant to the Jambudvipa p. which is primarily a work of geography. 114 The Jaina geographical construction of the rest of the ring-shaped continents which are each separated by an ocean is based on that of Jambudvipa. The cosmos of the Jainas thus impresses us with its symmetrically balanced structure. The number and dimension of mountains, rivers, regions and solar bodies, etc., in the rest of the continents increase as they proceed. And the calculation of the sizes of these continent-oceans, etc., was made using the then advanced knowledge of mathematics. The descriptions of all the rest of these continent-oceans including the minute details relevant to vedika surrounding Jambudvipa constitute the contents of the Duipasagara p. This text also

Page #59
abounds with mythological accounts. It describes, for instance, how the celestial gods and goddesses worship jinas' stupas and life-size images of Rsabha and MV. 115 A rough draft of the Jaina cosmography consisting of the three worlds must have been outlined during the third canonical stage along with the major classsubclasses of beings residing in the respective regions, upon the basis of which the Prajnapana worked out the previously examined contents. The Jambudvipa p. finalized the geography of Jambudvipa in detail, and the Duipasagora p. gave the final descriptions of the continent-oceans. The mythological accounts of the Jainas began to show their rapid blossom around the time when the Jambudvipa p. and Dvipasagara p. were composed. Uma sva ti offers the cosmographical and mythological outlines of the Jainas in his T.S. II-IV. Sarvanandi's cosmographical work in Prakrit which is now lost was composed in Saka 380/455 (458/538 A.D.), upon the ground of which Simhanandi composed the Lokavibhaga in Sanskrit. All these works drew their materials from the abovementioned Upangic texts. 116 The contents of the present Prasnavyakarana differ totally from those enumerated in the Sthana X.1033 under the title of Prasnavyakaranadasa. This text thus came to occupy the position of the tenth Anga by replacing the lost text. And this replacement must have been made at a fairly early date, because the Digambaras accept the 12 Angas in the present form. It considers five aviratis to be the fivefold asravadvaras and five viratis to be the fivefold samaradvaras. These constitute the then theoretical problems relevant to the karma theory and tattvas, which are taken up here in a purely ethical context. The text offers illustrations of various kinds of conduct and their consequences under each dvara as is generally done in the Angic story texts. 117 An ethically important concept raised here is bhavanas pertaining to samvaradvara. The third appendix to the Acara I similarly deals with five vratas each accompanied by five bhavanas. The treatment of these twenty-five bhavanas differs between the Acara II and the Pra'snavyakarana, the former of which was followed by Umasvati in his T.S., and the latter by the text of the Sarvarthasiddhi. A mention should be made in this respect that the Vyavahara X enumerates a list of the texts including Siminabhavana Caranabhavana, Asivisabhavana and Dittivisabhavana. Here the term bhavana must connote som, thing like an observance producing or affecting the objects as such. Likewise the term bhavana for vrata is used in the sense of an observance affecting or strengthening vrata. The subject matters of dream science and miraculous power become prevalent in the late canonical period. It thus seems that the concept of bhavana itself came into vogue at a considerably later time. The Sthana X.1034 also lists a chapter called Bhavana in the now lost text Bamdhadasao.

Page #60
118 The rest of the Angabahya texts are known to belong to the fifth canonical stage. The main branches of knowledge have all come out and the trends of the currents of thought therein can be roughly grasped from the contents expressed in the T.S. of Uma svati, a non-canonical text, that crowns the achievements made in various subject fields by the late middle 5th century A.D. How the epistemological interest of the then Jainas took its course is learnt from the Nandi and Anuyoga, including some Niryukti texts that are also noncanonical works belonging to the late 5th century A.D. How karma doctrine was progressing is known again from the non-canonical works such as the Kasayaprabhta and Satkhandagama, the latter of which appeared in the immediate post-canonical period. Then the Kalpa and a part of the Nandi represent the works relevant to the establishment of Jaina church chronology, and the Ava'syakasutra finalized the ritual formulae of the daily observances of ascetics and householders. All the branches of knowledge blossomed in a quick pace in the final canonical stage as a whole. 119 After the Third Valabhi Canonical Convention, the Great Schism took place which divided the Jaina church into two. The canonical age was followed by the commentarial period on the Svetambara side and by the prakarana period on the Digambara side, and the age of logie started in both camps at the same time. The grounds for this direction in the immediately succeeding postcanonical period were all laid in the final canonical stage.

Page #61
120 121 122 123 124 SECTION VI SUMMARY Let us now have a summary view of the currents of thought running through these five canonical stages, a cursory survey of which we have just completed. Excepting the doctrine of ahimsa supported by the theory of six jiva-nikayas, there is scarcely any doctrinal view that can be called typically Jaina in MV's teachings compared to those of the then leaders in rival sects. With this as the basic starting point, the subsequent Jainas took pain to develop their own doctrinal system through constant contact with the current thoughts of the nonJaina schools. 38 Generally speaking, the evolution of ethical principles preceded that of theoretical concepts, which is natural in the history of any religious school. The essential principles of ascetic conduct were in the process being made in the first canonical stage, and were then finalized in the second stage along with the jurisprudence of the monastic order. The principal codes of lay conduct emerged during the fourth-fifth canonical stages. On the theoretical level, the ethical problems of kriya arose in the second stage along with the ontological problem of jiua which as yet remains very elementary. The Jainas began to learn the art of theorization in the third canonical stage mainly through the theory of atoms which probably gained currency at the beginning of this stage. The Jaina theoreticians attempted to tackle the problems of pudgala and jiva mainly during this stage, side by side formulating the cosmographical outlines of the Jainas. The corollaries of achievement made in this stage are recorded in the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage, in which the Jaina theoreticians show mastery over their method in utilizing anuyogadvara. The doctrine of pancastikayas plus addhasamaya was finalized in the fifth canonical stage. The concept of karma which was in the process of fermentation in the early two canonical stages began to take a distinct shape when the concept of pudgala came to be formulated in the third stage. The karma theory took its most dilatory course of development which remains as a whole yet rudimentary during the canonical period. Story texts began to be composed on a massive scale during the fourth-fifth stages, and the completion of Jaina geography and cosmography in the early fifth stage brought out a rapid blossom of mythological stories. The Jainacentred world view became prominent in this period to demonstrate the supremacy of the Jainas over rivals, who were counteracting their own rivals in the same way. The 12 Angas were authorized by the Second Canonical Council, and codified in

Page #62
present form by the Third Valabhi Council. Also the church history of the Jainas had been compiled by the time of the Third Valabhi Convention. The church construction and community organization were thus virtually completed during this final canonical stage. The Jainas have, thus taking nearly 1,000 years, accomplished their church construction equipped with their canonical literature typical of the Jaina doctrinal system of jiva-ajiva. 125 All the then rival schools had likewise entered the age of maturity of their doctrinal tenets and the completion of their church construction, by undergoing similar stages of development. And with the long standing peace and socioeconomic stability in underpinning cultural florescence in the Gupta age, their daily life was becoming more and more ceremonial and ritualistic, with the Jainas being no exception. In our hasty survey above, we could not enter into a comparative study of the thought development of the Jainas in relation to that of the other systems of thought based on a study of the socio-cultural background in these respective stages. This aspect is important in research in this direction, and remains to be completed in the future.

Page #63

Page #64
CHAPTER II TEXT CONSTRUCTION OF THE BHAGAVATISUTRA I-XX Table of Synopsis

Page #65

Page #66
CHAPTER 11 TEXT CONSTRUCTION OF THE BHAGAVATISUTRA I-XX Table of Synopsis 126 We are going to handle the first twenty 'satakas or chapters of the Bhagavati, which are each subdivided into udde'sakas or subchapters, that then consist of sutras or passages. Since serial enumeration of these sutras is absent in the codices so far checked in the L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, their numbering appearing in our printed text must have been made by the editors' hands in the modern age. Sataka XV is an independent chapter devoid of any udde'saka. Some sutras are extraordinarily lengthy and some extremely short. Not only is the physical make-up of this text extremely uneven, but also no attempt seems to have been made to organize these sutras under definite subject headings. Thus the passages dealing with totally different areas of knowledge belonging to different canonical stages are jumbled together in one udde'saka in the worst possible condition. Our task is to assign chronological dates to these sutras. 127 A chronological stratification of these sutras is best facilitated if they are grouped together first according to their subject matter: this is the first task to be performed before entering into text analysis. Thus a subject-wise catalogue of the contents of sutras is going to be made in this chapter, along with other informative data which are helpful to our aim. This table of synopsis consists of eight columns which are indicated by Roman numerals (Column IT is added to Sataka V), and the dates of these sutras are to be entered in Column VI by way of assigning their corresponding canonical stages proposed in Chapter 1. The explanations required for the entries in this table are as follows: 128 Column I. Our index consisting of X and A-F. X represents a sutra or a sutra group which contains direct or indirect reference/s to the other canonical text/s which belong to the fifth canonical stage. X-sutras are therefore assigned to the fifth canonical stage. They do not require any further discussion for ascertaining their age, and their date is immediately entered in this chapter. All the rest of the sutras are examined in the next chapter in order to determine their chronological stages. 129 These sutras are classified into six subject fields from A to F, by which the next Chapter I is divided into six corresponding sections as shown in the Table of Contents. Our first entry 1.1.8, for instance, has two indicators, i.e., D-1b and E-2, which direct us to turn to Part 1 (b) "Calamane calie' under Section D "Ethical Problems", and Part 2 "Karma - Nature and Mechanism"

Page #67
under Section E "Karma" in Chapter II for discussions involving the evaluation of the age of this text. Our 1.1.16 has an indicator D-2a-2, which directs us to see Part 2 (a) (2) "Five vows" under Section D. The age of each text thus determined in the appropriate section/s in Chapter II is entered in Column VI. 130 Column II. A serial numerical entry of the sutras based on the Suttagame, v.1 of 1953 (S). In the Agamodaya Samiti edition of 1918-21 (A), sutra 11.1. 83 (S) is not enumerated, and therefore 1.10.82 (S) is immediately followed by 11.1.84 (S). S assigns 1.1.83 to the gatha of Sataka II uddesaka-titles. Since no gatha of uddesaka-titles at the outset of other 'satakas is counted as an independent sutra, it is likely that 1.1.83 (S) was lost. Then, sutra 1.1.90 (S) is not enumerated in A, which assigns II.1.91 (S) to it, thereby I.1.89 (S) is directly followed by 1.1.91 (S). S keeps orderly enumeration. The subsequent serial numbers of the sutras throughout the end of Sataka IX thereby differ by one between A and S, that is, S has always one number less than A. 131 A shows some more problems in enumerating sutras up to Sataka XX as follows: (1) 1.1.8 (S) is counted as two sutras in A, i.e. 1.1.7 and 8. In other words, A enumerates 1.1.7 twice. (2) 1.8.71 (S) is misassigned as 1.8.70 in A, that is, A enumerates 1.8.70 twice. (3) 1.5.160-11.7.166 (S) have their corresponding sutras in A as follows: 160 (S) =161 (A), 161 (S) =163 (A), 162 (S) =164 (A), 163-65 (S) =165-66 (A), 166 (S) = 167 (A). The enumeration of sutras 161-65 (S) is thus out of order in A. 132 Retaining Deleu's device, N.D. (non-dialogue text), S (story text) and H (heretical text) are added in parentheses to the relevant su tras in oder to distinguish the formal difference of these passages from the others which are composed in the form of dialogue held between MV and Gautama at Gunasilaka Sanctuary near Rajag ha as a rule. 133 Column II. Entered here are the other canonical text/s quoted by the relevant sutra/s. Indirect references are placed in parentheses, and references for varnaka which are made in short are placed in brackets. As to the indirect references and varnaka references, they are collected as suffices to determine the age of the text, but not exhaustively. The Third Valabhi Council is responsible for the insertion of varnaka references, which are therefore not always the determinant factors for the chronological evaluation of the texts. A few sutras in Sataka V are referred to by the Jambudvipa p., which are entered in Column I'. The abbreviations of the canonical texts cited in the Bhagavati are as follows (the Suttagame in two volumes is taken for the basis of our reference): Anu. Aup. Anuyogadvara Aupapatika

Page #68
134 135 136 137 138 139 D. Jam. Ji. Jn. N. P. R. S-C. Sam. Sth. Vy. Dasasrutashandha Jambudvipa p. Jivajivabhigama Jnatadharmakatha Nandi Prajnapana Rajaprasniya Surya-Candra p. (We refer to the Candra p.) Samavaya Sthana Vyavahara Column IV. Entered here are the previous Bhagavati passage/s quoted by the relevant sutra/s. Indirect references are again placed in parentheses, and references for varnaka in brackets. 42 Column V. Topics of each sutra or sutra group taken up for analysis. For the summary of each sutra, readers are advised to refer to the Viyahapannatti by Delue. Column VI. Indicates the presence of appended gatha/s. G signifies gatha/s offering guiding topics or a recapitulation of the topics in the sutra/s or uddesaka. It also includes the verse/s of quotation from the other texts. Historically speaking, these gathas begin to make their appearance in the fourth canonical stage when the doctrinal contents have advanced sufficiently to require their methodical systematization for mnemonic purposes. Column VII. Entered here are the subsequent sutra/s which refer to the content of the relevant sutra/s. Column VII. A chronological evaluation. The date of the relevant sutra/s is entered by way of assigning the corresponding stage/s proposed in Chapter I. We are frequently bound to assign a wider date to a text, for instance, 3> (the third stage onwards), which indicates that the upper limit of the content of the text under consideration falls in the third canonical stage, which however could have been composed in much later stage/s. Some texts containing postcanonical concepts are all placed in the fifth canonical stage. The following portions in the Bhagavati I-XX, that must have been added in later days are excluded from this table: (1) Uddesaka titles at the beginning of each sataka (excepting XV an independent story text without uddeskas; for Sataka 1, see footnote, v.1, p.384 of the Suttagame), (2) The prologue passages running through 1.1.4-8 1/2 entitled 'Rajagrha', and (3) Namaskara mantras offered at the outset of Satakas I (I.1.1-3), XV and XVII. --

Page #69
An udde'saka title is usually taken from the topic (often a proper name of the beginning sutra in each uddesaka obviously for mnemonic purposes. This uniform entry of the udde'saka-titles at the head of each sataka can be made only at the final redaction of the Bhagavati. Likewise, the opening passages of 1.1 which are composed in a stereotyped fashion full of rhetorical art like that of the Aupapatika, and which function as the prologue not only to 1.1 but also to the Bhagavati itself, must have been composed at the Third Canonical Council at Valabhi. Five namaskara mantras along with the salutation to lipi and sruta offered at the beginning of Sataka I are undoubtedly the products of the Third Canonical Council. The mangala attached to Satakas XV and XVI which read 'namo suya devayae bhagavaie', must likewise belong to the final canonical stage, when ritualism and ceremonial formalism came to penetrate every aspect of the religious activities of the Jainas.

Page #70
TABLE OF SYNOPSIS

Page #71

Page #72
S. TABLE OF SYNOPSIS TV VI VIII SATAKA 1 Udd. 1 CALANA D-lb. E-2 Calamane calie sthiti-ucchvasa-ahara-karma 9-15 P. IV, VI, X XVI.1 G (to 9,12,14) D-2a-2 Arambha C-1b Jnana-darsana E-3a-3 XI.1.439 D-3 Karma bandha Akama parisahajaya-- phala Vyantaraloka A-1-2 Udd. 2 DUHKHA Vedana (P.XV.1) G (to 21) XVI. 11//14.588: X 11.12.609 22 P. X V.2 Ahara, etc. Lesya Sunya kala, etc. Moksa Asamyata bhavya dravya deva Asanjni P.XX.556 (P. X X.567) (P.XX.568) 26 Udd. 3 KAN KSAPRADVESA E-2. E-36-2 27-28 G (to 28) E-36-2 29 D-2a-1 30-31 B-1 Kanksamohaniya bandha-- nirjara Kanksamohaniya vedana Jina; aradhaka Asti-nasti-parinama Gamaniya Kanksamohaniya bandha Udirana-upasama-vedana-nirjara Kanksamohaniya vedana D-2a-1 33 E-3a-4, E-36-2 E2 E3b-2 36-37

Page #73
45 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV V VIII Udd. 4 PRAKRTI P.XX 1.1 E-3b-2 E-3a-3 Karma prakrti Mohaniya karma Karma-pradesa, karma-anubhava Pudgala-jiva-sasvata Chadmasthas- 'kevali bhavitta tao paccha sijjhamti...' B-1 3 > C-1d-3 V.5.200; 7.8.292 | 34 Udd. 5 PRTHVI A-1-2 Prthvi X2.7.457 4-5 C-1b 44-49 H.A.M.G G (to 44) 4-5 G (to 46) Udd. 6 YAVAT A-2 Surya Lokanta-alokanta, etc. - sparsa A-1-1 D-la 18 kriyas XVI.4.600 A-1-1 (S) A-1-1 (Roha) Loka purvam, aloka purvam, etc. Loka sthiti Karma bandha Suksma sneha kaya E-3A-1 B-I, C-la Udd. 7 NAIRAYIKA Clc8, D-1b 57-58 45 59 Clc-7 Cic6; D-1b H-utpada-udvartana and ahara Vigrahagati G > AM 45 Cla, E-36-3 61-62 Garbhagata jiva 4-5 Udd. 8 BALA C10-6, E-36-5 63-64 Ayur bandha

Page #74
S. I-II D-la D-1b E-3b-1 C-1c-2 C-1c-7 B-2 D-3, E-36-2 E-36-5 D-2b-1 D-2a-2 E-3a-3 D-28-1 D-1b B-1 D-la D-la X X C-la X C-la I D-3 Udd. 9 (H) (S) Udd. 10 (H) (H) Udd. 1 p 65-69 68 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 " " 81 82 83 84 85 86 87-89 (P.VI.280ff.) P.XXW.1 IV (1.6.53 G) TABLE OF SYNOPSIS 5 kriyas 'Kajjamane kade' Viryavadhya karma Virya V GURUKA Jiva-guru-laghu Guru-laghu Kanksapradvesa ksina Ayur bandha (Parsvapatya sthaviras) Samayika, etc.. Apratyakhyana Karma bandha Sthira-asthira Kriya CALANA 'Calamane calie' Paramanu-sanghata-bheda; Bhasa Iryapatha-samparayika kriya H-viraha kala SATAKA UCCHVASA-SKANDAKA Ucchvasa-Skandaka gatha A-ucchvasa-nih's vasa Ucchvasa-nihsvasa Vayukaya Nirgrantha samsarana-mukti G VI XII.2.442 VII.8.297 VI.8.297 VI V.2.179 V.2.179; XVI.1.560 VIII 3 3 4-5 5 5 5 3-4 34 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 4-5 5 5 3 5 46 3 3-4

Page #75
n Education International S. II I A-1-1, C-1b, D-2a-3 X X X C-1c-4 C-la D-2a-2 D-3 C-la X X A-3-1 X (S) Udd. 2 Udd. 3 Udd. 4 Udd. 5 (H) (S) (H) Udd. 6 Udd. 7 Udd. 8 Udd. 9 II 90-95 96 97 98 99 100-4 105 106-11 112 113 114 115 116 P.XXXVI Ji.66ff. P.XV.1 P.XI Ji. 114ff., P. II.106ff. [Ji. 129ff.] Ji. 177ff. IV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS (Skandaka) Loka, jiva, etc.-santa-ananta; Marana Samudghata Prthvi Indriya G-veda vedana Garbhagata jiva Maithuna Bhasa Deva V Camaracanca Samaya ksetra SAMUDGHATA (Parsvapatya sthaviras) Samyama-tapas-phala, etc. Mahatapopatira prabhava PRTHVI INDRIYA ANYAYUTHIKA BHASA DEVA CAMARACANCA SAMAYA KSETRA VI G (to 111) VI XIII.7.495 XII.2.472 VIII 5 5 5 5 5 3-4 3 5 2 5 X.6.489; XVI.9.586- 5 5 47

Page #76
48 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV Udd. 10 ASTIKAYA Pancastikaya Astikaya and astikaya-pradesa 118 119 XI.4.480 120-21 Upayoga Lokakasa, alokakasa Dharma, adharma, lokakasa X.10.419, XX.2.662 122-24 G (to 124) X X 2.662 Ion SATAKA Udd. 1 A-3-3 125-32 133-40 KIDRSI-VIKURVANA Camara, etc.-rddhi...vikurvana Isana's radhi; Tamali; Isana and Sakra A-3-3 (S) [R] G (to 140) CAMARA Udd. 2 (S) 141-48 Camara and Sakra X V1.5.575 Udd. 3 KRIYA (S) 149-53 4-5 D-la 149-50 4-5 (Manditaputra) 5 kriyas; Kriya-vedana Kriya-pramada pratyaya-yoga nimitta Iryapatha kriya 151 4-5 D-la, E-3a-4 D-la, E-3a-3 152 V1.1.228 4-5 D-la 153 Pramatta-apramatta samyama-kala 154 Ji 156-73 Lavana samudra-vrddha-hani Udd. 4 C-id-3 155 4-5 Cla 156 YANA *Devam...jana-ruvenam jayamanam', etc. - janai pasai' Vayukaya-vikurvana Balahaka-parinama Lesya BI 157 - C-id-2

Page #77
S. II-IV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV D-26-1, D-26-3 159 Anagara-vikurvana X1.9.497 Udd. 5 STRI D-26-3 160 X 1.9.497 Anagara-vikurvana Anagara > G D-3 Udd. 6 NAGARA Cid-3 161 162 Avadhi-vibhanga-jnani Atmaraksas of Camara, etc. A-3-1 (R.) Udd. 7 PALA 163-67 Sakra's lokapalas G (to 165) 1.1-4/5-8.171-72 11.9.345 Udd. 8 ADHIPATI 168 Devadhipati Udd. 9 INDRIYA 169 Ji 191 Indriya Udd. 10 PARISAD 170 Ji. 118-22 Parisad SATAKA TV Udd. 1-4/5-8 VIMANA-RAJADHANI A-3-1 171-72 1.7.163-67 Isana's lokapalas Udd. 9/10 NAIRAYIKA-LESYA 173-74 P.XV.34 Lesya G (to 174)

Page #78
S.V A-2 A-2 C-la C-la X E-36-5 E-3b-5 C-id-3 E-3b-2 A-3-4, F-1-2 F-1-3 C-Id-3 D-2a-2 A-3-4 C-1d-3 X C-id-3 C-1d-3 C-1d-3 E-36-2 C-1d-3 Udd. 1 Udd. 2 Udd. 3 (H) Udd. 4 (S) (S) II 175-77 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 Jam.VI.150 Ji.172-73 Anu.145 (V.4.184) TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV II.1.85-86 (1.9.75) Anila Odana, etc. Lavana samudra Ayur bandha Ayur bandha CAMPA-RAVI Surya and kala vibhaga in Jambudvipa Surya and kala vibhaga in Lavana... Puskarardha Sabda V SATAKA ANILA V 'Sattha-parinamia agani-jiva-sarira' Kevala jnana-darsana GRANTHIKA SABDA Caritramohaniya karma Harinaigamesi Atimuktaka (Mahasukra devas) MV's antevasis-antakriya 'Deva nam no samjaya' Deva's bhasa Kevala jnana-darsana Pramana Kevala jnana-darsana Vaimanika deva-jnana-darsana Anuttaropapatika deva and mano-dravya-vargana labdhi Anuttaropapatika deva-upasanta moha VI V.10.227 V.10.227 IX.32.377 VI VII! 5 5 5 5 4-5 3-4 5 5 5 4-5 5 5 5 3-4 5 4 4 5 4-5 5 50

Page #79
S.v C-1c-2 D-26-3 C-1d-3 E-4 F-2-3 E-36-5 D-la E-2 D-la C-2 X D-2b-1 D-3 E-3b-2 B-1 B-1 B-1 B-1 B-1 D-2a-2 C-id-3 Udd. 5 (H) Udd. 6 (H) (N.D.) Udd. 7 II 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 " 205-6 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216-17 218 (N.D.) 219 "I' III Sam.246ff. Ji.89 (Sth. V.1.510) TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV I.4.42 Sayoga kevali Purvadhari CHADMASTHA Chadmasthas Kevali bhavitta tao paccha sijjhamti...' Vedana Kulakara, etc. V Ayur bandha 5 kriyas (Karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana Aradhana 5 kriyas 'Cattari pamca joyana-sayaim' H-vikurvana AYUS Acarya-upadhyaya-moksa Mrsavadi karma bandha and vedana Sarambha-saparigraha Hetu-ahetu Paramanu-skandha-ejana Paramanu-skandha-chedana, etc. Paramanu-skandha-sardha, etc. Paramanu-skandha-sparsa Paramanu-skandha-kalatah EJANA VI G (to 217) WI X VIII 10 642 VIII 34 5 g-gi-tshe 3-4 3 > 4-5 3 3-4 5 5 4-5 3 3 3-4 4 4-5 4-5 1 51 3 5

Page #80
S. V-VI B-1 C-2 D-2a-2 B-1, C-18-2 A-2 A-1-2 A-1-2 A-2 T X E-2, E-3a-3 E-2, E-3b-3 E-3a-2 E-3a-3 E-3b Udd. 8 (S) Udd. 9 (S) Udd. 10 Uda. 1 Udd. 2 Udd. 3 II 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233-34 235 236-37 Jam. VI.150 P.XX VIII TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV (V.I.177) V.1.175-78 I.3.152 Rajagrha (Naradaputra-Nirgranthiputra) Paramanu-skandha Jiva vrddha-hani Candra V Vedana-nirjara Sata-asata vedana Vedana-nirjara NIRGRANTHA Udyota-andhakara Kala vibhaga (Parsvapatya sthaviras) Loka Devaloka Ahara RAJAGRHA CANDRIMA SATAKA VEDANA AHARA VI MAHASRAVA (Karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana Bandha Sthiti bandha Karma bandha G G G VI IX.32.377 XVI.4.571 VI Viil 4-5 4-5 33555 5 5 5 5 5 4-5 5 5 52 133 481

Page #81
53 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS Udd. 4 SAPRADESA Clb 238 Jiva-sapradosa-apradesa (kalatah) Pratyakhyana and ayur bandha C-1c-6, D-2a-1, F-35-5 239 Udd. 5 TAMASKAYA A-1-3 240 Tamaskaya Krsnaraji A-1-3 241 242 Ji.209-21 Lokantika deva Udd. 6 BHAVYA (PRTIIVI) A-1-2 243 (1.5.43) Prthvi Chic-8 244 Marana sam udghata Udd. 7 SALI C-1c-5 245 Sali, ctc. --sthiti 246 (Jam. 11. 18-19) Kala vibhaga 247 (Jam. 1.20-25) Bharata in susamasusama Udd. 8 PRTHVI A-1-3 248 8 prthvis G (5.240-11) F-3a-3, E-3b-5 249 Ayur bandha 250 (Ji, 169) Lavana samudra Udd. 9 KARMA 251 P.XXIV Karma bandha A-3-4 252 G-vikurvana V1.9.298 C-10-2 253 lesya- janai pasai

Page #82
$. VI-V TABLE OF SYNOPSIS I VIII Udd. 10 ANYAYUTHIKA D-2b-3 (H) Sukha-duhkha upadarsana C-lb 254 255 256 Jiva E-36-4 (H) Sata-asata vedana C-Ic-1 -257 Ahara C-1d-3 258 (V.4.197) Kevala jnana-darsana Udd. 1 C10-7 259 (V.9.225) X1.10.419; X 1.4.486 A-1-2, C-1d-3 D-la, D-2c D-2c SATAKA AHARA Vigrahagati and ahara Loka sansthana, jiva-ajiva and kevala jnana-darsana Samayika Trasa samarambha pratyakhyana and aticara Ahara dana-phala Siddha's gati Duhkhi-duhkha Samparayika kriya Fsana dosa 23 D-2c 1-5 C-104 264 E-2 265 D-la 266 X.2.395 D-25-2 267-69 Udd. 2 D-2a-2 270 D-2a-2 271 (Sth. X.1021) VIRATI Supratyakhyana-duspratyakhyana Pratyakhyana Pratyakhyani-apratyakhyani Jiva-sasvata-asasvata 272 P.XXX B-1, C-ID 273 Udd. 3 274-75 2-3 STHAVARA Vanaspatikayika-ahara Ananta (kayika) jiva Lesya and karma 276 VIAL.3.323 C-1d-2 277

Page #83
55 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS VI VILL 278 w Karma vedana and no-karma nirjara Jiva-sasvata-asasvata B-1, C-1b 279 (V1.2.273) Udd. 4 JIVA 280 Ji. 1004 Jiva Udd. 5 PAKSI 281 Ji.96-99 Paksi Udd. 6 AYUS F-35-5 282-83 F-35-1 281 Ayur bandha Karkasa-akarkasa vedaniya Vedaniya karma Bharata in duhsamaduhsama E-3b-4 285 VIII.9.350 286-87 (=Jam. 36) XI 8.459 Udd. 7 ANAGARA Dla 288 X VIII.8.638 4-5 C-1b 289 Iryapatha kriya Kama-bhoga Ksina bhogi C-1d-3 290 291 Vedana Udd. 8 CHADMASTUA C-1d-3 1.4.42 Chadmasthas Revali bhavitta tao paccha sijjharti...' 4-5 293 R.71 Jiva samana, c.g.. hasti kunthu F-2 294 Jiva sukha-duhkha C1d-1 (N.D.) (Sth. X 1024-25) Sanjna; H-vedana 295 296 D-2a-2 Ilasti-kunthu - apratyakhyana kriya Karma bandha, sthira-asthira D-24-1, E-3a-3 297 1.9.78-79

Page #84
S. VI-V TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV V Udd. 9 ASAMVRTA D-26-3 298 VI.9.252 Anagara - vikurvana (Konika) Mahasila kantaka sangrama and Rathamusala sangrama D-3 (S) 299-303 Aup.] Udd. 10 (S) 301-7 (1.9: 1.1) B-2 304 ANYA YUTHIKA (Kalodayi) Pancastikaya 18 kriyas (Karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana Tejo lesya Dla 305 306 B-1 307 SATAKA Udd. 1 PUDGALA B-! 308-14 Pudgala parinama Udd. 2 ASIVISA Cla 4-5 315 316 (Sth. IV.4.435) (Sth. X.1026; R.70) (N.D.) 317-18 R.60; N.42 Asivisa Jnana-visaya Jnana: Jnani-ajnani Labdhi; jnani-ajnani Jnana-jnani C-1d-3 319-20 321-22 N.55-65: Ji.267; P. 1.177-80 (Ji.246. P.Xym 542) Udd. 3 VRKSA 323 P.1.32-33,40 7.3.276 Vrksa c1b XV1.7.634 Jiva pradesas 8 prthvis-carama-acarama 325 P.X Udd. 4 KRIYA 326 P.XXI Kriya

Page #85
57 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS Udd. 5 AJIVA D-2c 327 D-2c 328 Samayika Sthula pratyakhyana Ajivika upasaka Devaloka D-2c, D-3 (N.D.) 329 A-1-2 330 Udd. 6 PRASUKA D-2c 331 D-2b-2 (N.D.) 332 D-1B, D-26-1 333 Ahara dana-phala Pinda grahana and upabhoga Aradhaka 'Joi jhiyai 5 kriyas Cla 334 D-la 335 Udd. 7 D-1b, D-2b-4 (IT) [0.5; V.2] 336 337 ADATTA Tiviham tivihenam asamjaya...' Gati P. X V1.465-74 Udd. 8 PRATYANIKA D-2a-2 338 Pratyanika (Sth. 1.4.270) (Vy.X.276; Sth. V.2.519) D-2b-1 339 E36-6 340-41 Vyavahara Iryapathika-samparayika karma bandha Parisaha and karma bandha Surya: Jyotiska E-3b 342 343 (Jam. M. 136-41);Ji.179 (-Jam. 11. 140-41) Udd. 9 BANDHA 344-52 P.XXI 1.7.163-67 Bandha ARADHANA Udd. 10 (H) D-2a-1 353 Sila-sruta 4-5

Page #86
S. VI VIII-IX D-2a-1 B-1 B-1 B-2 E-3a-1 E-3b C-lb X X X E-2, F-2-1 F-3b-2 C-10-3 C-2 I F-1-2 D-lb, F-1-2 Udd. 1 Udd. 2 Udd. 3/30 Udd. 31 Udd. 32 (S) Udd. 33 (S) (S) 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364-69 364 365 370-78 379-81 382-89 Jam. I-VI Ji.153, 155.,174ff. Ji.109-12 [Aup.] IV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS V.4.184; V.9.225 [1.1&5] Aradhana Pudgala parinama Pudgalastikaya pradesa/s Lokakasa prades as and jiva prades as Karma bandha Karma bandha Jiva-pudgali-pudgala Jambudvipa Jyotiska Socca-asocca kevali Karma prakrti Vibhanga jnana V SATAKA 28 daksinantaradvipas JAMBUDVIPA JYOTISKA ANTARADVIPA ASRUTVA GANGEYA IX (Gangeya) Jiva-utpada-udvartana Rsabhadatta and Devananda Jamali KUNDAGRAMA VI XII.6.488 W VII 5 3 > 4-5 5 5 5 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 58 5

Page #87
59 s. x-x TABLE OF SYNOPSIS Udd. 34 PURUSA 390 Kriya D-la 391-92 5 kriyas X Udd. 1 SATAKA DISA 10 disas and jiva-ajiva A-1-4 393 (01.10.120) X1.10.419; X 1.4.478-79 X V1.8.582 394 P.XXI Sarira Udd. 2 SAMVRTANAGARA Iryapatha-samparayika kriya D-la 7.1.266 395 396 P.IX Yoni 397 Vedana P.XXV.682-83 (D.7) D-26-1 398 399 Bhiksupratima and aradhana Aradhana D-2b-1 (N.D.) Udd. 3 ATMARDDHI A-34 400 'viivaejja XIV.3.507 B-1 401 G-ddhi and "Khu khu Bhasa Udd. 4 SYAMAHASTI A-3-2 (S) 403 (1.6) (Syamahasti) Trayastrimsa deva Udd. 5 DEVI 404-5 Ji.2024 [R] (.1; W.7.etc.) Devi X1,6.455 Udd. 6 SABHA A 31 406 (R.) Sakra's sabha XV.5.602

Page #88
S. X-X TABLE OF SYNOPSIS VII Udd. 7/34 UTTARANTARADRIPA 28 uttarantaradvipas 407 Ji.112 Udd. 1/8 408-15 SATAKA XI UTPALA, SALUKA, PALASA, KUMBHIKA, NALIKA, PADMA, KARNIKA, NALINA Utpala...nalina P.V1.311-14 G (to 408) Udd. 9 (S) SIVA (Siva) Dvipa-samudra; vajra-rsabha-naraca-samhanana 416-18 Ji.123: Aup,42 1 (R; Aup.] (1.1, etc.) Udd. 10 LOKA A-1-2 419 1.10.120-21; 11.1.260: X.1.393 Loka-aloka A-1-2 420 4-5 421 Loka-aloka-vistara Jiva parasparavagaha Jiva pradesas-alpabahutva 4-5 ST' 422 4-5 Udd. 11 KALA | A-2, F-2-3 (S) 423-31 (R.; Aup.] [DX.33] 5 (Sudarsana) Kala; Mahabala Jiva-sthiti 426 P.IV Udd. 12 ALABHIKA C 1c-5 (S) 432-34 (1.5) 4.5 (Rsibhadra) G-sthiti (Pudgala) G-sthiti C-1c-5 (S) 435 (X1.9) 4-5 SATAKA SANKHA Udd. 1 (S) 436-39 (X1.12] (Sankha) D-2c 436-37 Pausadhopavasa Jagara D-2a-3 438

Page #89
61 s. x TABLE OF SYNOPSIS IV i V E-Za-3 439 1.1.18 Karma bandha Udd. 2 JAYANTI (S) 440-42 (LX.33] (Jayanti) F-1-2 440-41 Jayanti C-Ic-7. D-2a-3 442 1.9.72 Jiva-guru-laghu; bhavasiddhi: jagara, etc. Udd. 3 PRTHVI 443 Ji.66-80 Prthvi Udd. 4 PUDGALA Paramanu-skandha-sanghata-bheda; pudgala parivartana 444-47 Udd. 5 ATIPATA 448-19 450 Pranatipata,etc. - 'kati-vanne...?' Garbhagata jiva-parinama Jiva parinama XX.3,665 E 2 451 XX.3.665 Udd. 6 RAHU 452-55 (SC. XX.103-5) X.5.405 Rahu; Sasi and aditya Udd. 7 LOKA A-1-2, C-2 456-57 1.5.43 Loka-vistara; jiva-janma-marana X V1.8.582 Udd. 8 NAGA Cic6 458 G> naga, etc. D-1b, D3 459 7.6.286-87 A-gati

Page #90
XI-XM TABLE OF SYNOPSIS V Udd. 9 DEVA 460-65 P.1.310,317-19 Ji.56 Deva Udd. 10 ATMA st' 466-67 Atma and jnana-darsana Prtbviame or no-sm B-1 468 Paramanu-skandha SATAKA XI Udd. 1 PRTHVI 469-71 H-utpada-udvartana Udd. 2 DEVA 472 1.7.114 G-utpada-udvartana Udd. 3 ANANTARA 473 P.XXXIV.674 H-anantarahara, etc. Udd. 4 PRTHVI A-1-2, E-2 474 475-77 Ji.92-93 A-1-4 478-79 X.1.393 B-2 480 11.10.119 B2 481-82 H-(karma-)kriya-asrava-vedana-rddhi-dyuti H-sparsa, etc. Loka-madhya bhaga; asta-pradesika-rucaka and disa Pancastikaya Astikaya pradesas and kala-sparsa A'-avagahana Dharma-adharma-akasa- 'cakkiya kei asaittae...?' Loka- Kahi...bahusame?' Loka-sansthana and vistara C-103 483 484 B2 (R.) A-1-2 4-12 .1.260

Page #91
S. XI-XIV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS V VIN Udd. 5 AHARA 487 PXXVI 1.641-44 Ahara Udd. 6 UPAPATA 488 IX.32.370-71 C-2 A-3-1 D-3, F-1-2 489 (R.) [Aup.) 1.8.115 (IX.33:21.1.etc.) Jiva-janma-marana Camaracanca Udayana and Abhici (S) 490-91 5 : Udd. 7 BHASA Re B-1 492-94 34 Bhasa, manas, kaya Marana D-2a-3, E-36-5 495 11.1.90-95 Udd. 8 KARMA 496 P.XXI.2 8 karma praktis Udd. 9 ANAGARA KETAGHATIKA Anagara-vikurvana D-26-3 497 1.4.159; 1.5.160 Udd. 10 SAMUDGHATA 498 P.XX X V1.701 Samudghata SATAKA XIV Udd. 1 CARAMA Cid-2 499 Lesya en onwl Clo7 Vigrahagati 500 501 E 36-5 Ayur bandha

Page #92
X TABLE OF SYNOPSIS v VIII Udd. 2 UNMADA E-36-2 502 A-34 503 Unmada Parjanya Tamaskaya en A-3-4 504 on Udd. 3 SARIRA D-2a-3 505-6 A-3-4 507 X.3.400 G H.A.M.G-vinaya iddhi and 'viivaejja H-pudgala parinama and vedana parinama 508 Ji.89-94 (95) Udd. 4 PUDGALA 509 510 511 Pudgala parinama Jiva parinama Paramanu-sasvata-asasvata Paramanu-carama-acarama Jiva-ajiva - Parinama 512 513 P.XI Udd. 5 AGNI C-2 514 E-36-3 (N.D.) 515 Agnikaya Ista-anista sthana G-vikurvana 4-5 A 3-4 516 Udd. 6 517 C-Ic-1, E-2 Clc1 A-34 KIM AHARA Jiva-ahara-parinama-yoni-sthiti Jiva-ahara Devendra-bhoga and ratigrha 518 519 Udd. 7 SAMSLISTA F.13 520 MV and Gautama-moksa

Page #93
65 S. XIV-XV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS C1d-3 (V.4.195) 521 522 B-1 Anuttaropapatikas - "eyam-attham janamti pasamti' 6 tulyakas Bhakta pratyakhyani anagara and ahara Lavasaptama deva; Auttaropapatika dova D-26-1 523 A-3-2 524-25 Udd. 8 ANTARA A-1-2 C-10-6 526 527 528-29 (S) Aup.38-39 Abadhantara Sala vrksa, etc., and moksa Ambada parivrajaka Avyabadha deva Sakra Jrmbhaka deva A-32 530 A-3-4 A-3-2 Udd. 9 C-1d-2 B-1 ANAGARA Karma-lesya - 'janai pasai Sakarma lesya pudgala H.A.M.G-ista-anista pudgala "Ega nam bhasa C-1b A-3-4 B-1 Surya D-26-3 Nirgrantha's tapas Udd. 10 KEVALI C-1d-3 537 Kevali and siddha SATAKA XV TEJO NISARGA (S) F-14 (Aup. 538-59 P. 0.126 & XW.474 [0.1:X1.9) MV and Cosala

Page #94
s. XVI * TABLE OF SYNOPSIS VIN SATAKA XVI Udd. 1 1.1.86 ADHIKARANI Vayukaya-janma-marana Agnikaya in angarikarika-sthiti 5 kriyas Cla 561 D-la 562 D-la 563-64 Adhikarani-adhikarana Udd. 2 JARA 565 Vedana (S) 566-67 (Sakra) D-2a-2 566 Avagraha Sakra's bhasa A-34 567 1.1.140 E-2 568 Karma bandha caitanya-krta Udd. 3 KARMA 569 P.XXIV-Xkhi Karma Dharmantaraya kriya D-la, E-36-2 570 4-5 Udd. 4 YAVAT 571 VI.1.228 Nirjara Udd. 5 (S) 572-75 (R.) (1.2:11.6) A 34 572 GANGADATTA (Sakra and Gangadatta) G- Bahirae poggale pariyaltta...agamittae' *Parinamamana poggala parinaya' Gangadetta alsi 573-74 575 Udd. 6 SVAPNA D-2a-3 576 Svapna and jagara

Page #95
67 S. XVI-XV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS 577 D-2a-3, F-2-3 F-1-1 Svapna and mahasvapna MV's mahasvapna (N.D.) 578 (Sth.X.1022) D-3 (N.D.) 579 [XV) Svapna and moksa phala Ghrana-saha-gata pudgala B-1 580 Udd. 7 UPAYOGA 581 P.XX I X-XXX Upayoga; pasyatta Udd. 8 LOKA A-1-2, A-14 582 X.1.393; .7.456 Loka and jiva-ajiva B-1 583 4-5 Paramanu-gati (in one samaya) 5 kriyas D-la 584 585 A-1-1, B-2 Deva's gati not in aloka Udd. 9 BALI A31 586 11.8.115 Balicanca Udd. 10 AVADHI 587 P.XXXI Avadhi Udd. 11/14 DVIPA, UDADHI, DIK, STANITA Clb 588 1.2.21 Bhavanavasi - ahara, etc. XW 13.610; XIX 10.660 5 SATAKA XW KUNJARA Udd. 1 (S) D-3 589 590 D-la Udayi and Bhutananda 5 kriyas 5 kriyas D-la 591 592 Anu.127 Bhava

Page #96
6. XV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS Udd. 2 02-29-1 593 D-28-1 (H) (H) SAMYATA Dharma-adharma-dharmadharma Bala-pandita-balapandita Jiva and jivatma G-vikurvana 594 595 596 st' (X1.5.448-49) A-3-4 Udd. 3 SAILESI Clc-2 597 Ejana Cle-2 Calana D-3 599 Samvega, etc. - phala Udd. 4 KRIYA Dla 600 1.6.52 Kriya 4-5 E-2 601 Atma-krta duhkha and vedana Udd. 5 ISANA 602 P.1.123 X.6.406 Isana's sabha Udd. 6/11 603-8 PRTHVI, UDAKA, VAYU Prthvi-ap-vayu kayikas-marana sam udghata and ahara Clc-8 XX.6.670-72 Udd. 12 EKENDRIYA st' 609 1.2.21 A-ahara, etc. Udd. 13/17 NAGA, SUVARNA, VIDYUT, VAYU, AGNI st' 610-14 XVI.11/14.588 Nagakumara, etc.-ahara, etc.

Page #97
69 S. XV TABLE OF SYNOPSIS VILL SATAKA X VITE Udd. 1 PRATHAMA ST' 615 Jiva-prathama-aprathama and carama-acarama VISAKHA Udd. 2 (S) A-3-4 616 (R.) (0.1:X1,11; XVI.285] Sakra Udd. 3 (S) 617-21 (1.3) MAKANDIPUTRA (Makandiputra) Prthvi-ap-vanaspati kayikas and moksa Nirjara pudgala- 'janai pasai' Cid-2 617 618 P.XV.1.439-42 E3a-2 619 Bandha E-3a-3 620 Papa karma Pudgala ahara and nirjara E4 621 Udd. 4 c1b 622 (X1.5.448-49) P.XIV PRANATIPATA 18 kriyas, etc. - paribhoga-aparibhoga Kasaya Yugma catuska 'Amdhaga-vanhino jiva F-23 624 4-5 Udd. 5 ASURA Asurakumara-darsaniya-adarsaniya A-3-4 45 E2 4-5 E-3b-5 Karma-kriya-asrava-vedana Ayus karma G-vikurvana 34 A-34 Udd. 6 GUDA 629 Guda, etc. - varna, etc.

Page #98
TABLE OF SYNOPSIS I V __ 630 630 Paramanu-skandha-varna, etc. XX.5.667-68 KEVALI Udd. 7 (H) D-2b-3 631 3 > D-2a-2 (Sth. L. 1.188-89) B-2 (S) 632 633 634 [7.10;2.1) C. lb VI 3.324 Kevali's bhasa Upadhi-parigraha-pranidhana (Madruka) Pancastikaya Vaikriyika sarira Devasura sangrama G-dvipa-samudra gamana G-karma ksaya kala A-3-4 A-34 636 E4 637 Udd. 8 D-la 638 M.7.288 4-5 D-264 ANAGARA Iryapatha kriya : Tiviham tivihenam asamjaya...' Paramanu-skandha- 'janai pasai' (II) 639 C-1d-3 610 3-4 Udd. 9 BHAVYA C-Ic-5 641 Bhavya dravya jiva and sthiti Udd. 10 SOMILA D-26-3 642 V.7.213 B-1 643 B-1 644 Anagara-asidharavagaha Paramanu-skandha and vayukaya-sparsa Dravya (pudgala) parasparavagaha (Somila) Yatra, etc. 'Ege bhavam dve bhavam...' (S) 645-46 (R.) (Jn. I.5) D-2b-4 645 C-1b 646

Page #99
71 XIX TABLE OF SYNOPSIS V VIII SATAKA XIX LESYA Udd. 1 647 P.XV.4 Lesya Udd. 2 GARBHA 648 P.XV.6 Garbha and lesya Udd. 3 PRTHVI 649 & XX1.1.645 P.V1.311.14,372 XX.1.661 A'-pratyekasarira, etc. A'-avagahana C103 650-52 Udd. 4 MAHASRAVA 653 Asrava-kriya-vedana-nirjara Udd. 5 CARAMA 654 (Karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana 655 P.XXX V.685 Vedana Udd. 6 DVIPA 656 Ji.123ff. Dvipa-samudra Udd. 7 BHAVANA A-1-2 657 Devavasa Udd. 8 NIRVRTTI C. lc-9 658 Nirvrtti Udd. 9 KARANA C10-9 659 Karana

Page #100
S. XIX-XX I C-lb C-16 B-2 B-2 C-1b C-la, E-2 X B-1 B-1 C-1c-8 E-3a-2 Udd. 10 Udd. 1 Udd. 2 Udd. 3 Udd. 4 Udd. 5 Udd. 6 Udd. 7 II 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667-68 669 670-72 673 P.XV.2.447 IV XVI.11/14.588 XIX.3.649 II.10.120-24 XB.5.450-51 TABLE OF SYNOPSIS XVII.6.630 XVI.6/11.603-8 Vyantara-ahara, etc. Lokakasa-alokakasa Pancastikaya A-A-pratyekasarira, etc. Indriyopacaya V VYANTARA Paramanu SATAKA Prayoga bandha DVINDRIYA AKASA Pranatipata, etc. nannattha ayae parinamamti' Garbhagata jiva-parinama PRANAVADHA XX Paramanu-skandha-varna. etc. UPACAYA PARAMANU ANTARA Prthvi-ap-vayu kayikas-marana samudghata and ahara BANDHA VI WI WI 5 5 5 5 5 3-4 5 4 5 4-5

Page #101
s. xx TABLE OF SYNOPSIS Udd. 8 A-2, F-2-2 674 BHUMI Karmabhumi-akarmabhumi and utsarpini-avasarpini 24 tirthankaras F-2-2 675-81 (Sth. IV.1.329&IX.920) Udd. 9 CARANA Vidyacarana and janghacarana D-26-1. D-26-3 682-83 Udd. 10 SOPAKRAMA E-36-5 684 Sopakrama-nirupakrama ayus C-lc6, E-36-5 C-2 Jiva-utpada-udvartana Kati-sancita, etc.

Page #102
CHAPTER II TEXT ANALYSIS

Page #103

Page #104
CHAPTER TEXT ANALYSIS 140 We are now ready to enther our main theme of a chronological analysis of the Bhagavati I-XX, which is going to be conducted in six sections in this chapter. These six sections are each subdivided into parts and subparts as required, in which we will try to group together the texts sharing the same topic or problem so that it will make it easy to examine them closely. The Bhagavati includes some miscellaneous passages which do not quite fit in any of these topical groups. We are, however, for the sake of our convenience, placing these passages in any one of these groups which can absorb these miscellaneous topics. 141 It is incumbent upon us to bring to light all the relevant Bhagavati materials to determine the date of the relevant sutras. However, it is beyond this present attempt to introduce exhaustive contents of texts, to explain each and every related concept, or to elucidate the import of all relevant texts. We are here attempting to examine the contents of relevant materials in order to ascertain their dates. 142 The contents of some sutras may cover several subject fields. Where this is the case, we will choose one subject field from the sutras concerned to determine its date. And once its date is determined, we will not try to examine other subject fields contained in the same sutra unless this is absolutely necessary. Thus the materials gathered together under a certain topical heading in each section and part may not always demonstrate the total collection of the relevant materials in the Bhagavati 1-XX. Also X-sutras are excluded from our examination. Neither do we attempt to collect all the contents of a sutra or a sutra group. This limitation of our survey should be kept in mind. 143 As previously mentioned, the most serious limitation of the present task is that the criteria to stratify the Bhagavati into its chronological layers on the basis of the thought trends found in the other canonical texts in five stages are still on uncertain ground. At the present stage of progress of research, it is inevitable that many sutras will be wrongly dated, until this can be corrected in the future. Also it is very often difficult to assign a precise canonical stage to a sutra, and we are bound to suffer indeterminate modes of expression such as "probably" and "likely".

Page #105
SECTION A COSMOLOGY Part 1 Cosmography 144 The Jaina authors usually deal with the topic of loka-aloka in two aspects, i.e., cosmographical and cosmical. From the cosmographical aspect loka-aloka are deemed the eternal physical masses provided with their cosmographical details in structure and feature, but from the cosmical aspect they are deemed the mere spatial backgrounds or loci for jivas and ajivas to exist in. Both aspects are frequently considered together in the Bhagavati, and many sutras pertaining to the latter aspect are to be handled in Sections B and C on ajiva and jiva. The materials in this part can largely be divided into four topical groups, i.e., (1) Loka-aloka, (2) Loka(-aloka-shape, size and regions, (3) Tamaskaya and Krsnaraji, and (4) Theory of directions, which will be dealt with in due order. (1) Loka-aloka 145 A conspicuous feature of the Jaina cosmography is that it postulates the existence of aloka or non-universe by which loka or universe is supported. In the Bhagavati 1.6.51 it is stated that loka lies amidst aloka, a continent amidst the ocean and an ocean amidst the continent, inasmuch as a boat floats in the water, a hole exists in a piece of cloth and a shadow remains in the sunshine. These are expressed in terms of spar'sa or the external extension of one thing touching that of the other. The Jainas could not accept the idea that the universe exists by itself as conceived by the other systems of thought, because even a hole exists in a non-hole. It thus forces us to assume that the universe must exist in a non-universe. With this logic behind it, the Sutrakrta II.5 instructs the Jainas to maintain that loka-aloka exist. Our text above describes the ring-shaped continent-oceans, the idea of which is reported to make its first appearance in Patanjali's Mahabhasya.' The outline of the Hindu cosmography as such was therefore already known by the 2nd century B.C., the period in our second canonical stage. The text above shows that the Jainas had already adopted the ring-shaped structure of the continent-oceans from the Hindus. The rudimentary discussion above shows that the text belongs to the earliest layer of the Jaina cosmography, which we can place in the late second to early third canonical stages. 146 Then 1.6.54 considers the eightfold bases (sthiti) of loka, namely, that air rests on space, water on air, earth on water, jiva on earth, ajiva on jiva, jiva on karma, jiva on ajiva and karma on jiva. Ajiva here obviously means pudgala. This theory as a whole is justified by proof of the former half by an experiment which shows that water in a leather bag is held in the air, and that a man with an air-filled leather bag can remain on the water. The intention

Page #106
148 147 When loka-aloka were postulated as separate entities as such, the thought must have occurred sooner or later that they cannot intrude on each other, for otherwise the distinction between the two would become meaningless. XVI.8.585 expresses this idea by saying that a deva endowed with great power standing at the end of loka cannot bend or stretch his limbs in aloka, because there is no jiva nor pudgala in aloka, and because the motion of jiva-ajiva occurs when jivas try to fetch pudgala to nourish themselves. This idea was formulated before the concept of dharma-adharma has evolved. We place this text in the third canonical stage. 149 76 here is to demonstrate the Jaina position on the arrangment of loka-aloka in further detail; that the earth on which jiva-ajiva exist is supported by dense water, dense air, thin air and space in that order, but loka can't lie directly on the space. The nature philosophers pointed to this experiment to prove their position. The establishment of the theory and its proof as such also belong to the early stratum in the history of Jaina cosmography, and we assign this text to the early third canonical period. It is maintained in I .6.53 that loka-aloka, jiva-ajiva, bhavasiddhikaabhavasiddhika and siddhi-asiddhi are all sasvata, and their temporal priorityposteriority is not determinable like the egg and the chicken. This is, needless to say, spoken from the standpoint of kala; and this text must have been composed when the concept of temporal priority-posteriority, which shows a likely Vaisesika influence, was regarded as a rather new problem. The present sutra attempts to extend the application of the same logic to the various other topics, including the astikayas listed in the appending gathas. It becomes clear in B-2 that the doctrine of pancastikayas probably evolved in the fourth canonical stage and was rounded off in the fifth stage. We assign therefore the fifth canonical stage to this text. Similarly II.1.91 argues that loka is one, that it is santa (limited) from the viewpoint of dravya, santa from the viewpoint of ksetra, ananta (limitless) and 'sasvata from the viewpoint of kala, and ananta from the viewpoint of bhava. These well-known fourfold standpoints were established during the fourth-fifth canonical stages. This text which is a part of the Skandaka story can be placed in the fifth canonical stage (cf. C-1b). (2) Loka(-aloka)-shape, size and regions The Jainas improved the Hindu structure of seven continent-oceans into asankhyata continent-oceans on logical grounds. The construction of the upper and lower worlds was also adopted by the Jainas from the then Hindu cosmography. The dimensions of the cosmographic regions in the three worlds are calculated in the Jivajivabhigama and Prajnapana, and the shape of loka and its total size make their appearance in the Jambudvipa p. It thus seems that the Jaina cosmographers first drew a rough estimate of their sizes, which then

Page #107
150 151 152 153 77 soon gave shape to the total dimension of loka-aloka and a distinct profile of the universe. Yojana is the sole unit used for measuring the dimensions of loka and its cosmographic regions in the canonical period, and the unit of rajju for measuring the size of loka was invented in the post-canonical period. MV tells to Par'svan elders (Par'svapatya sthaviras) in V.9.225 that the infinite or finite number of days and nights come and go in the three tenses of time in this loka, which consists of innumerable pradesas. The reason for this is appealed to Parsva's authority that according to his preaching, loka is sasvata, anadi and ananta..., it is encircled by aloka, and it is vast at the bottom like a bed, slender in the middle like Indra's thunderbolt discus, and broad at the top like an up-turned drum. It is the performance of the canonical authors in the final stage to bring in Parsva's authority as such, which becomes lucid in Section F-2-2. XI.10.419, which we will take up again in A-1-4, describes that the lower world looks like a couch, the midle one like a cymbal, the upper one like an up-turned drum, and aloka like a hollow globe. Both texts were composed in the fifth canonical stage. The above sutra V.9.225 is indirectly referred to by the word 'ya vat' in VII.1.260, where it is said that a kevali alone can know and see jiva-ajiva located in loka having such a profile. The shape of loka mentioned in VII.1.260 is then referred to in XII.4.486, which offers the relative sizes of the three worlds. XII.4.485 argues that the point at the upper and lower layers in Ratnaprabha is totally devoid of curvature (loe bahusame) and Vigrahakanda in Brahmaloka is the most curved part in the configuration of loka. We can place all these texts in the final canonical period. The vast sizes of loka-aloka are then illustrated in XI.10.420 by way of the six speedy Dikkumaras' story, that how small a distance their velocity can cover to the end of loka and aloka in all the six directions by spending so many generations of their lives. A similar mythological illustration occurs in the Jivajivabhigama 99 in order to explain the sizes of vimanas. The size of loka is said to extend asankhyata kotikoti yojanas in all the six directions in XI.7.456, which is quoted in XVI.8.582. A noteworthy point in both cases here is that the size of loka is assumed to be equal in all six directions, concerning which the non-canonical texts inform us that loka is 7 rajjus wide and 14 rajjus high. We place XI.10.420 and XI.7.456 in the fourth-fifth canonical stages, and XVI.8.582 in the fifth canonical stage. XIV.8.526 calculates the extensions of intermediate spaces (abadhantara, by which each region is separated from the other) in the lower and upper worlds, and the distance from Isatprag bhara to the end of loka is said to be less than one yojana. The Jivajivabhigama 79 measures the more detailed structure of the intermediate regions in the lower worlds. Our text may share roughly the

Page #108
154 ! 155 156 same stage, i.e., the fourth canonical period. The number of the abodes of all beings in the three worlds is reported in I. 5.43, which is accompanied by quotation gathas. Its summarized account is repeated in VI.6.243 and referred to in XII.7.457. This topic is used in all cases as an introduction to open a topic of discussion offered in the same sutra or in the subsequent sutra. The Prajnapana II (Sthana), which is thoroughly acquainted with the number of jivas' abodes, approaches this problem from a different angle. One of the six gathas quoted in 1.5.43 is also quoted in the T.S. (Tattvarthadhigamasutra) .2 bhasya. All these texts should be placed in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 78 XIII.4.474 records the extensions of 7 earths and the number of hellish abodes in some earths, while explaining hellish beings in the context of the karma theory (cf. E-2). The information of narakas as such is of course fully known to, for instance, the Jivajivabhigama 65-70. The date of this text will be ultimately determined in the context of the karma theory in E-2. XIX.7.657 considers the number of the abodes of devas in various classes and the kinds of materials with which these abodes are built, which are known to the other Pannatti texts. We can place this text in the fourth-fifth stages. VII.5.330 enumerates four devalokas as an explanation of the content of the previous sutra which was composed in the fifth period (cf. D-2c, D-3). V.9.226 offers the subclassification of devas in this and that class. This text is accompanied by a gatha summarizing the contents of Udde's aka 9 which contains some sutras composed in the fifth period. Both texts thus fall in the final canonical stage. I.1.19 describes the beautiful wood regions of the Vyantaras by way of explaining Vyantaraloka, where some of those who did not take vows may be born as a consequence of their unwillingly suffered parisahas (cf. D-3). Here it gives the minimum and maximum life span of Vyantaras, which is known, for instance, to the Prajna pana IV.268. The description of Vyantaraloka offered in the Prajnapana II.116 is all inclusive. The date of this text will again be determined in D-3. (3) Tamaskaya and Krsnaraji 157 VI.5.240 pertaining to Tamaskaya or black body, VI.5.241 pertaining to Krsnaraji or black field and VI.8.248 pertaining to the eight earths share the common gatha located at the end of VI.8.248. This gatha considers whether gross one-sensed beings do or do not exist in Tamaskaya, Krsnaraji and the eight earths. And in all these three sutras common questions are posed, e.g., whether houses, and villages, etc., exist there, whether clouds and thunder exist there and who would cause them, whether gross one-sensed beings exist there, and whether the Jyotiskas exist there. These sutras must have therefore been

Page #109
79 originally composed in a series by the same hand, which came to be split into two sections, probably due to the insertions of V1.5.242 (X), which explains the abodes of the Lokantikas in relation to Krsnaraji. This exhibits a clumsy editorial skill. 158 It is said in XIV.2.504 that King I'sana creates darkness by way of Tamaskaya devas, which is but a temporary phenomenon (cf. A-3-4). Tamaskaya described in VI.5.240 is a huge cosmic wall of darkness which envelops the four lower kalpas rising from the Arunavara Ocean, and from its end Krsnaraji at Brahmaloka begins. (In describing their sizes, a mythological story of speedy gods makes its appearance again.) A mention is made of Krsnaraji in the descriptive account of MV's life in the Acara II which was composed in the fifth stage. The Sthana VI.790 probably took the whole account of Krsnaraji from our Bhagavati above. No mention seems to have been made of either Tamaskaya or Krsnaraji in the earlier texts. This suggests that an idea of the dark cosmic regions as such developed in the fifth canonical stage after the completion of the Dvipasagara p.. 159 From the description made in sutras 240-41, it is defficult to fathom what the actual functions of these dark regions are in the context of Jaina cosmography. Brightness inside and outside the regions is least affected, by their existence, because the Jyotiskas brighten the middle worlds, and the upper world is always bright due to the natural brightness of vimanas. It is therefore not likely that these dark regions were postulated in order to explain the cause of darkness over the relevant cosmographic zones. And these dark regions are placed above narakas which exist in eternal darkness. Then what would be the intention behind their being created in such a fashion? 160 It seems to be as follows. Taking the Jaina loka in a profile of the Worldman, Tamaskaya is situated in the position of a womb with Krsnaraji (a strange name)on top which assumes a symbolic form of swastika or 'srivatsa. (One of the popular interpretations of 'srivatsa is that it symbolizes the hairs of Krsna's chest.) These dark regions thus seem to signify the cosmic garbha, the innermost shrine of the Jainas. And in this shrine is located Mt. Meru in the form of a lingam. Aplausible explanation of all this is that the canonical authors adopted the then popular form of lingam worship in the field of Jaina cosmography in order to represent Mt. Meru as a symbol of the eternal potency of Jainism. These regions are thus placed above the profane lower world. There seems to be no other intention in creating these dark regions in the context of Jaina cosmography, and the idea as such must have occurred when the Jaina-centred world view was established. (4) Theory of directions

Page #110
161 We shall now take up the theory of directions expressed in the Bhagavati. x. 1.393 informs us that jiva-ajiva exist in the ten directions, which is quoted by X1.10.419, X III.4.478-79 and X V1.8.582. Here, the ten directions are expressed in terms of each having its own spatial limits with a definite shape and with their starting point at the centre of the middle world, which is explained in XI. 4.478-79. Without the exposition of this technical concept, X.1.393 and XVI. 8.582 are difficult to comprehend. Also X.1.393 repeats the classification of jiva-ajiva made in 11.10.120 (cf. B-2), which is again essential to understanding the topics discussed in the relevant sutras now to be dealt with. 162 Jiva is thus classified into jiva, jiva-de'sa (part) and jiva-prade'sa (spatial unit), each of which is subclassified into one to five-sensed beings and siddhas (anindriyas). Ajiva is likewise classified into ajiva, ajiva-desa and ajivaprade'sa, which are each divided into rupi and arupi. Rupi ajiva is then subdivided into skandha, skandha-desa, skandha-pradesa and paramanu; arupi ajiva is subdivided into dharmastikaya, its des a and prade's a, adharmastikaya, its de'sa and prade'sa, akasastikaya, its desa and prade'sa and addhasamaya. X. 1.393 attempts to examine which types of jiva-ajiva as such are locatable in the loka in the ten directions, and X VI.8.582( which repeats the content of X.1.393 by referring to it) tries to consider the same for the regions in the upper and the lower worlds. 163 According to X I.4.478-79, the directions start from the central point in the middle world, which is situated in the middle of two thin layers at the top of Ratnaprabha. The central point consists of a cube with eight prade'sas in all ( Actually, no space is allowed between the dots representing prade'sas. This figure of asta-prade'sika-rucaka is drawn with space to facilitate our explanation), each square surface of which consists of four prade'sas. The upper and lower directions which start from the square surface on the top and bottom of the cube form an infinite line upwards and downwards consisting of four prade'sas throughout loka-aloka. Four intermediate directions start from the four corners of the upper and lower surface in the form of a fan, thus drawing four continuous lines upwards and downwards, each consisting of one prade'sa throughout loka-aloka. A fan-shaped spatial dimension between the two intermediate quarters is the cardinal direction, of which the total number is four. Four quarters, four intermediate quarters and the upper-lower directions are thus expressed in terms of spatial units according to this strange theory of directions. 164 With this knowledge in mind, X.1.393 and X V.8.582 argue, for instance, as to whether or not a five-sensed being or a skandha is locatable in an intermediate quarter which consists of a continuous line of one prade'sa, and whether or not the simultaneous existence of a part of a one-sensed being and a part of a two-sensed being is possible therein. The questions posed here are absurd, and

Page #111
exhibit nothing but the Jaina theoreticians' plethoric inquisitiveness in applying the then newly fashioned theory of directions to their primary problem of jivaajiva. 165 The classification of jiva-ajiva as such, of which knowledge is essential to understand this theory of directions, was finalized in the fifth canonical stage. The theory of directions must have evolved hence in the final canonical period in connection with locating the central point of the world against which a kevali must fix the central point of his physical body in order to perform samudghata at the final moment of his life. (The Prajnapana XXX V1.711 informs us that kevali samudghata is performed within eight moments, which seems to be a later accretion.) A calculation of the relative number of beings in the four directions appears in the Prajnapana I.3, which however has nothing to do with the theory of directions. We can thus assign the last canonical stage to X.1.393, X I.4.478-79 and X V1.8.582. This Bhagavati account of ten directions and jiva-ajiva above is recorded nowhere in canonical literature. It evidently went no further with the Bhagavati than the experimental level and does not seem to have survived in the post-canonical period because of its obvious lack of value. 166 Lastly, X1.10.419 succinctly offers the Jaina concept of loka-aloka discussed above from the standpoints of dravya, ksetra, kala and bhava. References are made to 1.10.120-21 (cf. B-2), VI.1.260 (cf. C-1d-3) and X.1.393 (cf. A-1-4 above). This text cannot but belong to the final canonical stage.

Page #112
Part 2 Astronomy 167 The Jaina authors in the third canonical stage studied the then available astronomical science in order to formulate Jaina astronomical views to facilitate formulation of their cosmography. The Jaina astronomy in the canonical period thus became an auxiliary science. The Bhagavati materials included in this Second Part concern solar bodies and time divisions. 168 We are informed in 1.6.50 that the distance of the sun (singular) is equal at the time of sunrise and sunset. V1.8.343 (X), which refers to the Jambudvipa p. VI.136ff., offers a reason why the distance of the suns (plural) is equal, even though it appears different to the eye at sunrise, midday and sunset. Our text employs the term uvasamtara (avaka's antara) in the ordinary sense of open space. In the fourth canonicala stage, the term avaka'santara is popularly used in the technical sense denoting an intermediate space between two earths. Also 'surie cakkhu-pphasam havvam-agacchati' occurring in our text appears regularly in the Surya-Candra p., e.g., 1.3 (v.2, p.690). This view is not accepted by the later canonical authors who deny eye contact with an object in sense perception. Let us place our text in the third canonical stage. 169 V.1.175-77 explain the course of the suns, time duration proportional in N. and S. and E. and W., and the units of time such as samaya, avalika... palyopamasagaropama and avasarpini-utsarpini, prevailing in N.-S. and E.-W. in Jambudvipa. The same topics are taken up in sutra 178 in relation to the rest of samaya ksetra, i.e., Lavana ocean up to Puskarardha continent. V.10.227 which refers to V.1.175-78 takes up the same topic for the moons in samaya ksetra. All these sutras were evidently composed in a series by the same hand, and they came to be split by the editors into two udde'sakas at the beginning and the end of the Fifth Sataka. The Jambudvipa p. VI.150 refers (without naming the text) to V.1 for the relevant information of the suns and to V.10 for that of the moons, indicating precisely the Bhagavati passages above. It appears that the Jambudvipa p. absorbed these portions from the Bhagavati, possibly at the time of the Third Valabhi Council. Then, the Bhagavati V.9. 224 explains that the divisions of time such as samaya up to (yavat, indirectly referring to V.1.177) utsarpini exist for human beings alone, and for no other beings. In other words, the abstract time divisions as such prevail in samaya ksetra alone, because beyond it the Jyotiskas remain static and motionless. 170 We are informed that a table of time units emerges after the Manusmrti, and becomes prevalent in the Puranic literature in the Hindu tradition. The Hindu time divisions were largely adopted by the Jainas also. However, the Jainas invented their own peculiar high units of time called palyopama-sagaropama and avasarpini-utsarpini, of which the former set is used to measure the life span of beings, and the latter set cosmic time. Palyopama-sagaropama are

Page #113
83 well known to the texts belonging to the fourth canonical period. In the story of XI.11.423-31, upasaka Sudarsana raises a question as to whether or not the inconceivably long duration of palyopama and sagaropama sometime comes to an end. Answering his question, MV tells the story of Sudarsana's past lives; that he was previously Mahabala who was initiated into the ascetic order by Dharmaghosa, a grand-disciple of Arhat Vimala (the 13th tirthankara), born as a god in Brahmaloka, and after spending up 10 sagaropamas there, took his present birth as Sudarsana. In the course of this dialogue, time is explained as of four kinds, i.e., pramana kala, yathanirurtti kala, marana kala and addha kala, and the last one represents the abstract time consisting of samaya up to utsarpini. 171 Avasarpini-utsarpini constitute a cosmic cycle of time. Each half cycle, which consists of 10 kotikoti sagaropamas, is divided into six periods of uneven length. This kala cakra is said, in XX.8.674, to govern over 5 Bharatas and 5 Airavatas in samaya ksetra, but not over 5 Mahavidehas, and the subsequent sutras discuss the 24 tirthankaras relevant to the number of their vows to preach, the conditions of the 12 Angas in their interim periods and so on (cf. F-2-2). 172 All these texts above, i.e., V.1.175-78 including V.9.224, V.10.227, XI.11.423-31 and XX.8.674, involve this concept of kala cakra consisting of avasarpiniutsarpini, the age of which can determine the date of these texts. The Samavaya 132, for instance, explains about the great personages born in the Bharata and Airavata regions in Jambudvipa during each half time cycle. The story of Rsabha who ruled the Bharata region in the susamasusama period in this avasarpini is narrated in the Jambudvipa p. II, along with a description of the modes of life prevailing there in all the other periods. From all this it appears that the Jaina concept of kala cakra is involved with the 24 tirtharkaras and other great personages in the Jaina world. 173 As the Bhagavati XX.8.674 ff. hints, the concept of kala cakra seems to have evolved for the purpose of explaining the eternal continuity of the dharma cakra of the Jainas, which ought to be incessantly turned by tirtharkaras in order to establish the Jaina-centred world view that they are enlightening the world in the three tenses of time. The Jainas thus assume that a number of tirthankaras are constantly being born in certain world regions in each time cycle in order to turn the wheel of Jaina dharma. In deciding the number of tirtharkaras in the three tenses of time, the Jainas followed the Buddhists. 174 Likewise, they adopted the Hindu theory of four yugas or four kalpas (that are of uneven length), which are known to the Mahabharata and Puranas as prevailing in the Bharata region. It was necessary for the Jaina theoreticians to modify the Hindu concept of world creation and destruction which has no

Page #114
position in Jainism. Also they let the kala cakra run not only over five Bharatas but also over five Airavatas located in samaya ksetra, so as to keep a proportional balance in the cosmographical outlook. The rest of the regions are assumed to be permanently pervaded by the fixed modes of periods, e.g., Videha by the susamasusama period, Hari-Ramyaka regions by the susama period, and so on. Thus in samaya ksetra, only the beings in Bharata and Airavata are doomed to face the inevitable forces and effects brought about by this time cycle. This concept of dharma cakra pertaining to the 24 tirtharkaras in each half cosmic time cycle was then extended to the continuous birth of the other great personages such as the 12 cakravartis, who came into vogue in the late canonical stage, in order to exhibit the eternal strength, peace and order prevailing in the Jaina world. 175 The concept of time cycle evolved in this way in the final canonical stage in the trends of establishing the Jaina church chronology and Jaina-centred world view. All texts under our consideration must fall in the fifth canonical stage.

Page #115
Part 3 Mythology 176 The miserable life of hellish beings is already described in the Sutrakrta I. And the mythological accounts of the Jainas must have been developed gradually, after the classes of H.A.M.G (Hellish beings, Animals, Men and Gods) were accepted and their subclasses began to be developed, along with the formulation of the cosmographical outlines. It takes the course of a rapid growth in the fifth stage, keeping pace with the completion of the Jaina cosmography, Mythological stories, which are as a rule composed with a definite intention to attract and edify a popular audience, while infusing into their hearts a sense of the supremacy of the Jainas and the Jaina-centred world view, commence on the whole as the final canonical stage is entered; and they continue to grow into the form of puranas in the medieval age. The Jaina mythology thus blossomed in the Gupta period, the age of Hindu renaissance, when the then Hindu sects were competing by composing their own puranas from their self-centred world views, in order to establish their superiority over their rivals. The Jainas who were in a similar position during this trend adopted the then popular mythological figures of the Hindus, particularly their favourite Indra or Sakra under the dominion of a tirtharkara. 177 The Bhagavati materials collected in this part generally fall in the final canonical period, which covers the following topics: (1) Mythological accounts of the celestial kings, including the description of their capital cities, sabhas and retinues, etc., (2) Etymological explanation of certain classes of devas, (3) Devas' rddhi and vikurvana, and (4) King Sakra. (1) Mythological accounts of the celestial kings 178 Camara and Bali, kings of the Asurakumaras in the South and North, and Sakra and I'sana, kings of Saudharma and I'sana Kalpas located in the South and North, are the two pairs of gods who attracted the particular attention of the then canonical authors. 1.8.115 relates the location and size of Camaracanca, capital city of Camara, along with a description of his palace, sabha and so on therein. For details, the text refers to the accounts of Vijayadvara in the Jivajivabhigama (Duipasagara p.) 129ff. XII.6.489 which refers to 1.8. 115 tells us that Camara's residence, also called Camaracanca, is used for amusement alone and not for residence. These texts were composed in the fifth canonical stage, which must be likewise true of the accounts of Bali occurring in X V1.9.586 (which refers to [1.8.115). 179 The Rajapra'sniya is cited in X.6.406 for the location and size of Sakra's sabha as well as for the particulars of his abhiseka, retinues, and so on. In other words, the Rajapra'sniya is here referred to for the total content of this text. XVI.5.602(X) refers to the Prajnapana 11.123 for the location of I'sana's

Page #116
86 sabha, and to X.6.406 for its size and particular accounts of King I'sana. II. 6.162 offers the number of atmaraksas (body guards) of King Camara and the rest of the kings; these are all known to the Prajnapana II. This text refers for their description to the Rajapra'sniya, which again forms an essential part of this text. All these texts are thus placed in the final canonical atage. 180 The four lokapalas of Sakra, i.e., Soma, Yama, Varuna and Vaisramana, are described in 11.7.163-67, and those of Isana in IV.1-4/5-8.171-72 which quote II. 7.163-67 for their details. 1.7.163-67 describe the location, their abodes and capital cities, etc. Interestingly enough, each lokapala's duties over the three worlds are assigned here as follows: Soma takes the role of supervising meteorological phenomena incuding conflagrations and famines on the earth, Yama over wars, quarrels and diseases, Varuna over rain and floods, and Vaisramana over the distribution and consumption of treasures, wealth, natural products and so on. Probably due to their important and heavy duties as such, these lokapalas are ranked as high as an indra in II.8.168, which enumerates the dominating gods in each class and subclass of devas up to Kalpavasis. This idea that a lokapala ranks equal to an indra, however, did not receive the approval of the later authors. All these contents were obviously developed in the final canonical stage in the florescence of mythological accounts. (2) Etymological explanation of certain classes of devas 181 Etymological expositions are imparted for the following devas: the Trayastrimsa devas in X.4.403, Lavasaptama devas in Anuttaravimana in XIV. 7.524, Anuttaropapatika devas in XIV.7.525, Avyabadha devas of the Lokantika class in XIV.8.530, and Jrmbhaka devas of the Vyantara class in XIV.8.532. In the course of explanation, it is said in X.4.403 that the class of devas called Trayastrims as exists eternally in the three tenses of time when viewed from avyavacchitti-naya. This concept of naya belongs to the fifth canonical stage, Also while imparting the etymology of Avya badha devas, there occur thirtytwo kinds of dance which frequently apear in the canonical story texts. Generally speaking, an etymological interpretation of a word or a concept does not precede the formulation of a concept itself. The etymological exposition of devas rarely occurs in the fourth stage. Lavasaptama devas appear in the Pra'snavyakarana IV.27 (v.1, p.1232), but hardly do we hear about Jsmbhaka devas in the other canonical texts. (Jsmbhaka devas make their appearance in Jinadasa's Ava'syaka-curri, Rsabhadevaji Kesarimalaji Svetambara Sanstha edition of 1928, v.1, p.150.) We assign all these texts to the fourth-fifth stages excluding X.4.403 which falls in the fifth period. (3) Devas' rddhi and vikurvana 182 II.1.125-32 explain gods' extraordinary fortune (rddhi), splendor (dyuti), strength (bala), fame (yasa), enjoyment (anubhava), happiness (sukha) and capacity for magical creation (vikurvana), of which the dialogue proceeds be

Page #117
tween MV, Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti. The Prajnapana i informs us about all of them except for the last topic of vikurvana, which obviously developed in the fifth stage. An episode of Tisyaka, Sakra's samanika deva who is now MV's disciple, and an episode of monk Kurudattaputra, MV's disciple born as I'sana's samanika, are inserted in the middle (sutras 129 and 131) in order to explain samanika devas' rddhi through vikurvana. Then 11.1.133-40 narrate a story of how King I'sana attained his rddhi as a result of his past action. In his former life, he was Tamali, a householder, who became an ascetic in the Pranama Sect. He practised bala-tapas and died an exemplary death by fasting At that time Balicanca was without an indra, and the Asurakumaras entreated him to become their King, which he refused to do. He was then born as King Isana. On knowing this, the Asurakumaras in anger insulted his corpse. The Vaimanikas reported this account to King Is ana, who turned Balicanca into ashes by merely gazing at it: This was followed by the Asurakumaras' apology and submission to him. This story is based on the Siva motif. The text goes on to describe, for instance, how King Sakra and King I's ana greet each other and how their quarrel is settled. All these texts belong to the final canonical stage. (4) King Sakra 183 A story is told in II.2.141-48 that Sakra, enraged with Camara because of his sudden raid, threw his thunderbolt at him, which Sakra could barely seize in front of MV with whom Camara sought refuge. This story is narrated to explain why the Asurakumaras go up to Saudharma but not beyond, even though their range of action extends to Acyuta Kalpa. The reason is based on the legendary belief that the Asurakumaras cherish an inborn hatred against Sakra due to their natural enmity towards devas. They are thus said to rush up to Saudharma Kalpa at the end of utsarpini by seeking refuge with an arhat, but beyond this there is no specific reason for them to visit. The Jaina theoreticians here exhibit their usual inquisitiveness in calculating the relative speed of Sakra, Camara and the thunderbolt. MV who has not yet attained kevalihood by that time is already placed in the centre of the universe by taking the role of forgiving the faults of Sakra and Camara. This story is again the product of the fifth canonical stage. 184 Around the time when stories like this began to be composed, a rule expressed in X.3.400 and XIV.3.507 must have been formulated; that the deva-devis with superior rddhi can go and attack (viivaejja) those with inferior rddhi, but those with inferior rddhi cannot do likewise without using trickery on those with superior rddhi. As to the range of devas' ection, it is stated in X V1.7.636 that the devas with extraordinary rddhi, etc., circumambulate the continentoceans up to Rucakavara continent, however beyond that they go across the continent-oceans directly. The explanation for this is that there is nothing

Page #118
88 attractive to see in the continent-oceans beyond Rucakavara, therefore davas want to reach their destinations quickly without loitering on the way. Such an idea, which does not occur in the other Pannatti texts but is evident in the previous story of II.2.141-48, ought to belong to the last canonical period. 185 Many of these sutras above touch upon the topic of the devas' practice of magic called vikurvana. This capacity is, as a rule, said to be possessed by the devas with extraordinary rddhi up to happiness. With undue emphasis MV declares in XVI.2.596 that no deva can change himself from the state of rupi (i.e., samsari) into that of arupi (i.e., siddha) or from the state of arupi into that of rupi. The reason is self-evident, because otherwise siddhahood can be attained by merely performing vikurvana. It is said in X V1.5.628 that out of two devas in the same class abiding in the same place, the one with right faith can create things as he wishes, but the other with wrong faith cannot do so. Then, as to the employment of this capacity to perform magic, a rule came to be laid down that without attracting the external matter particles existing in the heavens, devas cannot perform activities such as going and coming (X V1.5.572), transversing or passing over a mountain (XIV.5.516), and transforming blue into black and the like (V1.9.252). XIV.6.519 informs us that all Kalpava si devas with the rank of king can create places for their amusement. X VII.7.635 tells us that in the war between devas and asuras, whatever devas touch transform into powerful weapons, but asuras have to continuously create them by way of their vaikriyika 'sarira (in other words, asuras have to transform themselves into weapons). X V1.5.625 reads that out of two devas in the same class abiding in the same place, the one using a vaikriyika 'sarira appears to be beautiful but the other, who is not, appears ugly. A similar account appears in the Jivajivabhigama 218. Then it is explained in XIV.9.534 that a thousand speeches spoken by a thousand bodies produced by a deva amount to a single speech. V.4.190 conveys the idea that devas' language is Ardhamagadhi in the three tenses of time. 186 The topic of devas' capacity to perform magic as such is hardly touched upon in the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage, nor does the Prajnapana XXXVI talk much about the nature of devas' vaikriya samudghata. Devas' capacities of vikurvana as such must have been largely daveloped when the Jainas entered the age of composing mythological stories. Therefore all these texts must belong to the fifth canonical period, excluding X VI.5.625 which we place in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. The idea that devas' language is Ardhamagadhi vividly reflects the then established Jaina-centred world view. 187 Finally, we shall take up King Sakra's accounts. When Sakra wishes to cause rain, he calls Parjanya, the rain-making god, to do so (X IV.2.503); likewise when Isana wishes to cause darkness, he calls Tamaskaya deva to do so (XIV. 2.504). Incidentally, it is added therein that all devas can cause rain on

Page #119
auspicious occasions such as the birthday of an arhat, and that all of them are capable of causing darkness when they want to hide themselves in order to enjoy love sports, when they want to trick their enemies, and so on. XIV.8. 531 describes Sakra's supernatural power that enables him to cut a man's head off and after chopping it into pieces, to reassemble them together and place the head back on the man's shoulders as it was before. Then, a story of Sakra's past life as the merchant Kartika, who became a Jaina monk initiated by Muni Suvrata (the 20th tirthankara), is told in X VI.2.616. It is said in X V1.2.567 that Sakra is a samyagva di as a whole, but he speaks truth, falsehood, truthfalsehood and neither-truth-nor-falsehood as well. It is added here that his speech is irreproachable if he speaks whilst protecting subtle living beings (suhuma-kayam nijuhitta; according to Abhayadeva, he should cover his mouth with his hand and robe, etc.), otherwise his speech is reproachable. Such an idea does not occur in the fourth canonical stage yet. All these texts fall in the final canonical period. 188 Harinaigamesi, commander of Sakra's foot army, is said in V.4.186 to be capable of transposing a womb from one woman to another without hurting them. In the Kalpasutra 20ff., Harinaigamesi executes Sakra's order to transfer MV from Devananda's womb into Trisala's. In the Antakrt II.8, Harinaigamesi, who merely exchanges Sulasa's dead child with Devaki's boy immediately after their simulaneous birth, does not appear yet to have this capacity. This makes clear that the topic of Harinaigamesi in our Bhagavati was composed in the fifth canonical stage after the Antakrt II.8, but before the composition of the Kalpasutra.

Page #120
SECTION B AJIVA 189 The realities of the Jainas, i.e., pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya or six drauyas, are in essence reducible to the doctrine of jiva and ajiva. We are going to treat pancastikayas along with addhasamaya as the fundamental realities of Jainism in this section, and jiva to which the following Section C is exclusively devoted, is only touched upon here where it falls in the frame of term of pancastikayas. 190 As the Bhagavati 11.10.118 defines, dharmastikaya, for instance, is the reality expressed by the sum total of the entire dharmastikaya prade's as in loka but not by its separate prade'sa/s. In other words, dharmastikaya consists of asti-kaya or the total mass that exists as it is by functioning the nature of dharma. Each astikaya thus functioning in its peculiar way is expressed by the total number of its prade'sas distributed in loka-aloka. Addhasamaya which is devoid of astikayatva as such is excluded from this category. It is already evident from this short introduction that the doctrine of pancastikayas evolved later than the theory of prade'sas, and that the quantity of their spatial units came to be computed after the rough outlines of Jaina cosmography had been drawn out. 191 A prade'sa is a unit of space measured by the size of an atom which is an indivisible, final element, and which is thereby beginning, middle and end in itself. This concept of prade'sa could not have evolved unless the concept of atom was first introduced to the Jaina scheme of pudgala. None of these concepts had yet arisen in the second canonical stage, but the canonical texts belonging to the fourth stage accept them as already established concepts. They must have thus evolved in the third canonical stage, and developed substantially in the fourth canonical stage. Fortunately, many relevant passages belonging to this period are preserved in our Bhagavati, which enable us to trace the process of their evolution and development. In view of all this, we would like to begin our survey with the scheme of pudgala documented in the Bhagavati before we proceed to take up the evolution of the doctrine of pancastikayas.

Page #121
192 193 Part 1 Pudgala 91 The materials falling in this part are on the whole concerned with atomcomposites that are the components of pudgala, added to which are several sutras dealing with the minor aspects of pudgala. We will take them up in due order, and at the end attempt to trace the evolution and development of the theory of prade'sas which represents a peculiar feature in the Jaina scheme of pudgala. In I.10.80, a heretical view of atomic combination and division is introduced; that two atoms cannot combine due to the lack of sneha-kaya (ie., sticky body), but three atoms can come into contact due to the presence of snehakaya, which can then be split into two, i.e., 1 1/2 each, or three, i.e., a single atom each. Against this, MV imparts the Jaina view that two atoms can be combined into one inasmuch as three atoms can be joined together, for snehakayas are present in both cases; the former can then be decomposed into two, i.e., one atom each, and the latter into two, i.e., an atom and a composite with two atoms, or into three, i.e., one atom each. The modes of this atomic combination and division are further computed in XII.4.444. This sutra forms an introduction to the following sutras 445-47 where pudgala parivartana is discussed (time cycle for a jiva in taking in and out the total matters in the universe) involving the cosmic time cycle. The 194 The above concept of sneha-kaya as the medium of atomic combination evidently belongs to the oldest stratum in the history of atomic combination. Bhagavati 1.6.56 informs us that the subtle sneha-kayas are incessantly falling in all directions, and are then immediately destroyed. This suksma-sneha-kaya must mean subtle water-being. The Jaina atomists thus seem to have at first assumed that the combination of atoms is made possible by the constant presence of these subtle sneha-kayas in all directions, and that the division of composites is caused by the dying away of these sneha-kayas, or by the lack of these subtle water-bodies. I.10.80 as well as I .6.56 must belong to the early third canonical period. Pudgala parivartana involving the cosmic cycle of time. is the concept evolved in the fifth canonical stage, and therefore XII.4.444-47 belong to the final canonical stage. 195 This external medium of atomic combination and division was then improved at some time into the concept of guna consisting of snigdha-ruksa which inherently subsists in pudgala itself. The rules of atomic combination caused by the degrees of snigdha-ruksa gusas are laid down in the gathas to the Prajnapana XII.418. (We should note in this connection that Umasvati's exposition of the rules of atomic combination offered in the T.S., which directly took its material from these gathas, differs from that of the Sat khandagama.) The combination of atom-composites is placed in the sadi visrasa bandha class, for instance, in

Page #122
V1.9.344-52 (X), which is a catalogue of bandha of all sorts including 'sarira bandha developed in the post-Prajnapana time (for bandha, cf. E-3a). 196 An stom is explained in V.7.214 as having no halves, no middle and no prade'sa. In other words, an atom is the final unit of the matter, and is indivisible and invisible. All the aggregates up to ananta-pradesi-composites are possessed of prade'sas, and those with an even number of prade'sas have halves but no centres, and those with an odd number of prade'sas have centres but no halves. That composites with an even or odd number of prade'sas do or do not have halves and centres recurs in XXV.4.742. This idea seems to have arisen when the Jainas began to give thought to the features of the construction of aggregates from the standpoint of ksetra, which occur, for instance, in the Prajnapana x (Carama) and the Bhagavati XXV.3 (Sansthana)ff. So let us place V.7.214 in the fourth canonical stage. 197 A mention is made in V.7.212 that the atom-composites may or may not vibrate, move... and undergo changes, which is stated as to the part, parts and whole of composites. Since the phenomenon of the combination-division of matter is occurring constantly, it can be easily postulated that the atomcomposites are sometimes in motion and sometimes in non-motion. It must have been postulated that they are in the state of motion when atomic combination and division are taking place and that they are in the state of nonmotion when atomic combination and division are not taking place. This text reads that when they are in motion they undergo transformation, but when they are in a state of non-motion they do not undergo transformation. The discussion made here is undoubtedly elementary, and we place this text in the third canonical stage. The later Jaina theoreticians assume that motion is necessarily inherent in matter, because atomic combination-division take place by the degrees of gunas existing in matter itself. And since the degrees of gunas are constantly changing, matter is ever undergoing constant transformation from the standpoint of bhava. The Vaisesikas postulate an independent category of karma or motion to explain the world occurrence alongside the other categories. 198 Mahabhutavada is an old theory, and the properties (gunas) of mahabhutas evolved during a considerably early period in India. X V1.6.630 expounds that an atom possesses one colour, one smell, one taste and two touches (either of snigdha-ruksa and of 'sita-usna), that a composite abiding in one prade'sa (suksma-parinata-skandha or a subtle composite) may have one to five colours, one to two smells, one to five tastes and one to four touches, and that a composite abiding in more than one pradesa (badara-parinata-skandha or a gross composite) has complete properties, i.e., five colours, two smells, five tastes and eight touches. We should remember that the properties of a subtle composite here are also shared by karma. Or we may say that the concept of

Page #123
199 200 201 93 a subtle composite inevitably had to evolve also in the context of karma bandha. The content of this text is well-known to the Prajnapana, and we may place this text in the late third-fourth canonical stages. The possible alternative combinations of these properties in the case of subtle and gross composites according to their subclasses, e.g., dui-pradesika and tri-pradesika, etc., are computed in II.5.667-68, which refer to XVI.6.60. The Prajnapana I conducts a similar computation, e.g., how many subdivisions of other properties can possibly be possessed by the colour black, for instance. XX.5.667-68 probably share the age of the Prajnapana, i.e., the fourth stage. A simple method of exposition of a concept by way of singular-plural already makes an appearance in the third canonical stage. And a theoretical advance made in the late third canonical stage in the fields of jiva-pudgala by way of division-subdivisions of a certain topic, led the then Jaina theoreticians to move towards a more systematic exposition, in the form of computing the alternative combinations of its division-subdivisions, and in the form of calculating their relative strength. These methods of exposition occur predominantly in the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage. Likewise, the canonical authors in the fourth stage frequently offer an exposition of a certain topic by way of a class in general and its subclass in particular, e.g., pudgala in general and its subdivisions in particular. This method of exposition requires a knowledge of all the peculiar features involving the class-subclasses of the relevant topic, which must have developed in the more advanced, i.e., fourth-fifth, canonical stages. VII.10.355 offers a memorandum of the kinds of pudgala parinama pertaining to the properties of a gross composite. This text could have appeared at any time in or after the late third canonical stage. XIV.4.509 reads that pudgala and a skandha possess at one moment ruksa-guna, at another aruksa or ruksa-aruksa in the three tenses of time due to a previous cause (purva karana: prayoga or visrasa, according to the commentary), but when its parinama as such comes to an end, it returns to the state of an atom of one colour, etc. This pertains to the fundamental theory of pudgala, which must belong to the late third canonical stage. Three types of pudgala parinama by prayoga, visrasa and by both, which are popularly known to the Prajnapana, must have already been recognized during the third canonical period. A minute and final exposition of them all is offered in VII.1.308-14, where a methodical exposition of prayoga parinama, for instance, presupposes a knowledge of the classification of jivas worked out in the Prajnapana I. This sutra group must be hence assigned to the fifth stage. Then I.4.41 reads that pudgala, skandha as well as jiva may be said to subsist eternally in the three tenses of time. XIV.4.511 concludes in the following way: we can say that in one sense an atom is eternal from the standpoint of dravya,

Page #124
202 203 204 but in another sense, that it is ephemeral from the standpoint of the transformation of its properties. The former text is spoken from the standpoint of dravya, which can theoretically appear at any time in or after the late third stage. Among the well-known four standpoints, bhava and kala took a slower course of development, thus the latter text was probably composed in the fourth stage. Incidentally, it is said in III.4.157 that a cloud can be changed into various forms such as a woman by others' power but not by its own. This text must belong to the third canonical stage. 94 V.7.213 states that an atom up to an asankhyata-pradesi-composite (abiding in one pradesa) cannot be cut, burnt, get wet, and so on, but an ananta-pradesicomposite (abiding in one pradesa) can. The Jambudvipa p. II.19, which says. that a vyavahara paramanu (i.e., an atom or a subtle composite) cannot be cut or split by a sharp instrument, is obviously acquainted with this passage. The text above is also quoted in XVI. 10.642 (cf. D-2b-3). The following sutra 643 then states that a wind-being can touch an atom up to an asankhyata-pradesicomposite but not vice versa, that an ananta-prades i-composite can touch a wind-being, and that a wind-being can touch a bladder but not vice versa. These texts must be expressing the solidity of an atom and a subtle composite by the number of atoms it contains. Sufficient solidness thus arises to an ananta-pradesi-composite. In other systems of thought, for instance, Vaisesika and Buddhist, atoms are assumed to consist of four elements, i.e., earth, water, fire and air, that are roughly comparable to the three forms of matter, i.e., solid, liquid and gas. These elements are totally absent in the Jaina concept of atoms. Probably for this reason, the Jaina atomists had to consider the nature of solidity of a thing, which came to be expressed by the number of atoms contained in a composite. It should be kept in mind in connection with this, that the canonical authors usually express the number of atoms in a composite by the number of its prades as, wherein the actual dimension of a composite is often not expressed, whether it is present in one pradesa (suksma parinata) or in more pradesas (badara parinata); this should be then determined in the given context. V.7.213 might have been composed in the late third and the fourth canonical stages, but XVII.10.643 must have been composed when the relative sizes of one-sensed beings came to be determined in the fifth canonical stage (cf. XIX.3.651 in C-1c-3). Then V.7.215 tries to show how the nine types of combination of pradesis (e.g., 1 pradesi+1 pradesi) yield the kind/s of spatial combination considered in nine. possible ways (e.g.. 'part+part' meaning 'by a part, a part is touched', and 'part+ parts' meaning 'by a part, parts are touched'. X indicates the occurrence of combination. Pt-part, pts parts, and w-whole) as follows:

Page #125
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 pt+pt pt+pts pt+ w pts+pt pts + pts pts+w w+pt w+ pts w+w (1) 1+1 (2) 1+2 (3) 1+3 up to ananta (4) 2+1 (5) 2+2 (6) 2+3 up to ananta (7) 3+1 (8) 3+2 (9) 3+3 up to ananta X x x x x 205 Since 'w+w' occurs in all nine cases, it should be understood that both parties to be combined have the same dimension regardless of the number of their prade's as. It is thus understood that the cases of (1-4) and (7) exhibit the combination of two matter particles occupying one prade'sa each, the cases of (5-6) and (8) exhibit the combination of two matter particles occupying two prade'sas each, and the case of (9) exhibits the combination of two matter particles occupying three pradesas each. A two-prade'si-composite allows interpenetration of other matter substance by its part (i.e., by one pradesa), and a three-prade'si-composite upwards allow interpenetration of the other matter substance by its part and by its parts (i.e., by two pradesis upwards). This table seems to be explaining the mechanism of increase and non-increase of the dimension of things as well as the production and non-production of the shape of things following from various modes of combination of prade'sis. Such an advanced technicality in treatment must have occurred in the fourthfifth canonical stages. 206 The canonical authors then discuss, in VI.10.356 whether pudgalastikaya prade'sas can be a dravya (whole) or dravya-desa (part) or otherwise in both singular and plural in the following way: pradesa/s 4 - ananta (1) dravya (whole) Kh Kh Kh (2) drauya-desa X X X (3) dravyas (more than two wholes) (4) dravya-desas (5) dravya and drauya-desa (6) dravya and drauya-desas (7) dravyas and drauya-desa Kh Kh (8) dravyas and dravya-desas This text uses the term pudgalastikaya, and its thought pattern belongs to the later stage. We would place this passage in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 207 It is mentioned in X VI.8.583 that an atom can reach the end of loka from its

Page #126
opposite end within a samaya. This idea must have occurred after the evolution of the concept that a liberated soul reaches the end of loka within a samaya, which is known to the Prajnapana XXXVI.714 and the Aupapatika 42 (v.2, p.37). Its motion as such is there known as asprstamana gati. It may mean that a liberated soul, which is totally devoid of karmic tinge, passes through things without touching them or without being touched by them. The Prajnapana XVI.474 explains that sprstamanagati belongs to pudgala, both paramanus and skandhas. This must signify that an atom, which belongs to pudgala, cannot pass through things without touching them or without being touched by them. According to these texts, both a liberated soul and an atom can reach the end of luka within a simaya. However, since friction necessarily occurs to the motion of an atom, its velocity as such must be said figuratively, inasmuch as an atom is said to be apradesa or invisible, even though it has one pradesa. Let us at present place X V1.8.583 in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 208 The problem of time duration (minimum and maximum) of pudgala is discussed in V.7.216 as to (1) atom-composites, (2) their states in motion and rest, (3) one up to ananta degrees of each of their properties, (4) matter transformed and not transformed to sound, and (5) time gap (antara kala) of each item above. V.7.217 then offers the relative strength of time among dravya, ksetra, avagahana and bhava sthanas of pudgala. These two sutras may belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 209 Carama-acarama anuyogadvaras are applied to the atom in XIV.4.512. An atom is thus said to be acarama (endless) from the viewpoint of dravya, but may be carama (with end) or acarama from the other three viewpoints. In XX.5.669, the nature of paramanu is considered from the four standpoints as follows: (1) dravyatah: achedya, abhedya, adahya and agrahya (cf. V.7.213), (2) ksetratah: anardha, amadhya, apradesa and avibhaga (cf. V.7.214), (3) kalatah: avarna, agandha, arasa and aspar'sa, and (4) bhavatah: varnavat, gandhavat, rasavat and sparsavat (cf. X V1.6.630). Here the characteristics of paramanu from the standpoint of kala is out of point. Let us place X VI.6. 630 which is referred to by XX.5.667-68 (fourth stage) in the third-fourth stages, and the rest of the texts in the fourth stage. 210 V.8.220 then summarizes the nature of pudgala in the following way. Generally speaking, matter is saprade'sa, aprade'sa and ananta from the four standpoints. Specifically speaking, an atom (aprade'sa by drauyatah) is necessarily aprade'sa from the standpoint of ksetra, but it may be sapradesa or aprade'sa from the standpoints of kala and bhava. It should be similarly understood in the case of aprade'sa by kalatah and by bhavatah. A subtle composite and a gross composite (saprade'sa by dravyatah) may be sapradesa or aprade'sa from the standpoints of ksetra, kala and bhava. It should be similarly understood as to saprade'sa by kalatah and by bhavatah. A gross composite

Page #127
(saprade'sa by ksetratah) is necessarily saprade'sa from the standpoints of dravya, kala and bhava. This discussion pertaining to sapradesa-aprade'sa of pudgala from the standpoint of kala can easily give rise to the concept that time is also possessed of prade'sa. This text must belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 211 A notion of equality is expressed in XIV.7.522 as being of six kinds, i.e., dravya, ksetra, kala, bhava, bhava and sansthana. This idea is explained in the way that one atom is equal to another atom from the standpoint of drauya, a twoprade-si-composite is equal to another two-prade'si-composite, and so on. The standpoint of bhava or the state of existence is concerned with jiva, thus from this viewpoint a hellish being is said to be equal to another hellish being. A similar notion is expressed in the Prajnapana V.269ff. The first five standpoints here however appear, as a rule, in the latest canonical texts including the Niryukti texts, hence let us place this passage in the final canonical stage. 212 It is then stated in X VI.10.644 that in each region of the upper and lower worlds, dravyas (here meaning atom-composites) are present with their full properties in a state of mutual combination and interpenetration. This idea is known to the texts belonging to the fourth stage. XI.10.468 argues whether each region of the upper and lower world is possessed of its own properties Catma), alien properties (no atma) or inexpressible in either way (avaktavya when looked at from both standpoints). The same anuyogadvaras are applied to an atom, a two-prade'si-composite up to an ananta-pradesi-composite. As in the case of carama-acarama-avaktavya of atom-composites in the Prajnapana X, here again seven major alternatives are produced resembling saptabhangi formulae. The thought pattern of the Jaina theoreticians in extending the application of the threefold anuyogadvaras considered in the cosmographical context to the context of pudgala is exactly the same in both cases. We would place both texts in the fourth canonical stage. 213 Some other minor aspects of pudgala are touched upon in the following sutras: V.9.223 reads that during day it is radiant because bright matter particles (subha-pudgala) transform to bright matter particles, while during night it is dark because dark matter particles (a'subha-pudgala) transform to dark matter particles. Then, to the questions, "What is the sun?" and "What is the meaning of the sun?", a reply is made in XIV.9.535 that it is 'subha or bright. It is said likewise for the sun's rays (prabha), reflection (chaya) and le'sya. A similar passage occurs in the Surya-Candra p. XVI (v.2, p.736). The Jainas insist on the old view that light, darkness and sound are independent entities, which seems to have been prevalent in the olden days when these were not yet considered as properties of substance. All these texts must belong to the third canonical stage. XIV.9.533 informs that sakarma-le'sya-pudgala discharged from the abodes of the sun and moon gods shines forth. VI.10.307 explains

Page #128
98 that non-sentient tejo le'sya emitted by an angry ascetic shines and burns where it falls. The former belongs to the earlier stratum of the le'sya theory in the third stage. The latter idea became popular when the Jainas began to talk about the miraculous powers of ascetics. We place this text in the fifth canonical stage. We will touch upon the le'sya theory in Section C-1d-2. 214 Heretics insist in 1.10.80 that it is called bhasa when it is not spoken, against which MV imparts the Jaina view that it is called bhasa only when it is spoken. This probably belongs to the third canonical stage. X II.7.492-94 try to prove that bhasa and manas are material in nature but kaya is both material and immaterial in the following way: bhasa is not atma but is rupi, acitta, ajiva, possessed by jivas and can be split only when it is spoken; the same is also true of manas, but not true of kaya. It also enumerates their respective subdivisions, i.e., 4, 4, and 7, which are known to the Prajnapana. This sutra group was probably produced around the late third through fourth canonical stages. 215 XVI.6.580 says that if one moves a vessel full of perfume made out of certain plants, only fragrant matter particles (ghana saha-gaya poggala) float in the air but not perfume. This amounts to saying that smell is a quality inherent in matter and that such matter particles float in the air (which may or may not touch the sense organ of smell ). This concept belongs to the basic theory of pudgala and its properties, which we place in the third canonical stage. 216 X.3.401 tells us that the sound of a galloping horse, 'khu khu' is produced by a wind called karkata or karvata (Pk. kabbada or kavvada) which arises between the heart and the liver. The age of this text, belonging to physiology which is thus miscellaneous and included here, is difficult to determine. The word karkata or karvata is hard to find in the sense of wind as such in dictionaries, and may be an ancient technical term of physiology used in a certain locality. This passage shows none of the sectarian tinge of the later days, and let us place it at present in the first canonical stage onwards. 217 As we have observed above, during the course of the development of this scheme of pudgala, the Jaina theoreticians came to establish a definite method of examining a problem by applying four standpoints, i.e., dravya, ksetra, kala and bhava. Such a way of looking at a problem never occurred in the initial stage of theorization. How atoms are combined and divided, what kinds of properties are possessed by atom-composite, etc., all these common topics pertaining to matter were answered by the Jaina theoreticians without positing them from any particular point of view in the beginning. But very soon they came to realize that it is difficult to advance a theory of atoms, without formulating these standpoints when they had to deal with it in the context of jiva

Page #129
219 karma. 218 The Jainas took the position of parinamavada in a very early stage. In the Bhagavati 1.3.32, MV emphatically pronounces that astitva (state of existence) transforms into astitva alone, and nastitva (state of non-existence) does so into nastitva alone, due to prayoga and visrasa. This text may belong to the late third canonical stage. This goes against the Vaisesika position that sat becomes asat upon the destruction of sat (the Vaisesikasutra, text of Candrananda, IX.2). According to the Jainas, a soul under the effect of karma undergoes constant transformations in samsara. The same being thus goes through the stages of childhood through old age, and is then born again and again in four gatis as long as he is not freed from karmic bondage. They postulate that the nature and size of all souls are uniformly the same, which are embodied differently in samsara due to the work of karma. (Siddhas are also encased in 2/3 of the size of their former bodies according to the Prajnapana II.136, gatha 4, which is probably a later accretion.) The Jainas maintain that the soul is coextensive with the size of its body, and they favour explanation by the simile of a lamp light which adjusts itself to any spatial dimension. 220 99 While going through this transformation in samsara, a soul must take a transit path to be born in its new body. According to the Jainas, a karmana sarira which resembles a suksma sarira of Sankhyas is the bearer of a soul's transmigration. Karma is the matter, and its size is, of course, larger than an atom. Supposing the standard theory of atomic combination by the mechanical interlinking of atoms is accepted in this context, a karmana 'sarira which consists of all types of karma matter accumulated in the previous life would become an enormously huge body, which makes a soul impossible to take its transit path. The theory of atomic combination received by the other systems of thought cannot be thus accepted by the Jainas. The Jaina thoreticians had therefore to solve this problem so that an enormous number of karmic particles can be located in an extremely tiny space. Karmic bondage occurring in a soul's pradesas must operate in a similar way to the combination of atom-composites, as far as the point of the rise of dimension derived by it is concerned. This point is particularly pressing in the case where a soul has to take a transit path. So the theory of atomic combination ought to be formulated in such way that a number of atoms can interpenetrate in the minutest space, as a soul with karma can penetrate any sizes of body, small or big. The size of an atom, the minimum unit of matter, is here taken to express as the minimum unit of space. This invisible unit of space (a-pradesa) was then named pradesa (pra/dis, to manifest). Etymologically speaking, the term pradesa must have been primarily so named as the cause of perceptibility, however, an atom is necessarily invisible, and therefore it must have been called apradesa. This concept of pradesa enabled the Jaina atomists to formulate a

Page #130
100 theory without trouble that one up to ananta atoms can interpenetrate in one prade'sa. And the same theory became the basis of karmic bondage with a soul. The Jaina theory of atomic combination had thus to take a peculiar direction in order to adjust itself to the Jaina position of parinamavada, precisely speaking, to yield itself to defend the basic Jaina position that the soul is coextensive with the size of its body at any stage of its transformation. 221 Thus evolved the Jainas' peculiar theory of prade'sas. It then immediately gave rise to the standpoint of ksetra or space as distinguished from the standpoint of drauya or substance, which is considered on the basis of the number of atoms existing in a thing. The number of atoms existing in a composite equals the number of its prade's as, therefore, the Jainas soon began to express the substance of a composite by the number of its prade'sas, as we have already noted. However, a composite with asankhyata prade'sas, for instance, does not express its actual dimension, whether it is occupying (avagaha) one prade'sa or many prade'sas, for it primarily expresses the standpoint of substance. So, in order to distinguish a composite with so many atoms occupying one prade's a (which is invisible) from that occupying more than one prade'sa (which is visible), the Jaina theoreticians came to formulate the concepts of a subtle composite (suksma-parinata-skandha) and a gross composite (badara-parinataskandha). That these standpoints of dravya and prade'sa were posited first is testified by the fact that the Prajnapana very frequently employs the standpoints of dravya, prade'sa and dravya-prade'sa. The standpoints of kala and bhava must have been added to them shortly after, because it is quite logical and natural to posit how long atom-composites subsist and what their actual properties are, inasmuch as jivas are always investigated as to their length of life span and what their specific characteristics in this and that class of beings are. 222 Thus in the fourth-fifth stages, the Jainas came to establish their method of investigating a problem by this basic set of four standpoints. And syadvada is inevitably latent in this very method of approach. (This theory of sya dva da could have also arisen inevitably in the thought pattern of the Jainas, who are accustomed to discussing a problem by indiscriminatingly applying the same anuyogadvara to jiva and ajiva alike.) The Jainas here for the first time arrived at the stage of possessing their own method of approach, which is epochmaking in their history of theorization. 223 Not only did this method of these standpoints dominate the thought pattern of the Jainas for long time, but it soon had to give rise to the famous naya dialectics called dravya stika and paryayastika in the post-canonical period, and their forerunners already appear in the Bhagavati. Avyavacchitti-vyavacchitti nayas, which occur in VI.3.279, were derived precisely from the standpoints of dravya-bhava in VII.2.273, which are made exactly in parallel in explaining the eternality or otherwise of jiva. Likewise, X VI.6.629 explains that treacle

Page #131
101 possesses five colours up to eight touches from the standpoint of niscaya naya, but possesses sweetness from the standpoint of vyavahara naya, that a bee possesses five colours up to eight touches from the standpoint of niscaya naya, but possesses black colour from the standpoint of vyavahara naya, and so on. These nayas are developed from the standpoint of bhava, in which theoretical existence of the full properties of pudgala is expressed by the term niscaya, and the actual appearance of its properties is expressed by the term vyavahara. All these nayas must have been developed in the post-Prajnapana period. VII. 2.273 may belong to a slightly earlier stage, and we place it in the fourth canonical stage. 224 The evolution of the theory of prade'sas, which took place in a context of the Jaina scheme of pudgala, thus brought forth a revolutionary change in the thought pattern of the Jainas. The classification of karma into prakrti, pradesa, sthiti and anubhava made in the final canonical stage was precisely based upon these four standpoints, i.e., drauya, ksetra, kala and bhava. The fundamental realities of the Jainas called five astikayas evolved under the sway of this theory of prade'sas. All this forcibly shows that the concept of prade'sa is genuinely unique to the Jaina system of thought. 225 The Varsesikas attempt to explain the world phenomena as a play of imperishable atoms, the mechanism of which is demonstrated by the relations between the six padarthas, i.e., dravya, guna, karma, samanya, visesa and samavaya. These six padarthas are, in other words, developed to explain the atomic theory that by the mechanical combination and division of atoms the world phenomena occur in the three tenses of time. It is difficult to trace the origin of the atomic theory, but there can be no doubt that the theory of atoms occupies a cardinal position in the doctrinal system of the Vai'sesikas. 226 The Jaina theory of atoms, as we have investigated above, turned its way to the parinamavada, upon which stands the Jaina doctrine of karma. The Jaina theory of atoms is thus not an integral part of the tenet of this school, which was adopted and modified by the Jainas in order to advance the theory of karma that is genuinely integral to their doctrinal system. The predominant interest of the Jainas was persistently turned towards the problems of the karma theory which went on developing till the medieval age, while the theory of pudgala did not continue to develop much further than what is recorded in the Prajnapana I (Prajnapana), I(Alpabahutua), V(Visesa), X (Carama), XI (Bhasa), XII (Parinama) and XVI (Le's ya), and in the Bhagavati passages above. The portion allotted here to the Jaina scheme of pudgala is very small. In other words, the fundamental theory of pudgala was substantially developed during the third-fourth canonical stages. The Jaina theoreticians in the fifth canonical stage exhibit a plethoric interest in discussing the problems of pudgala, which are often of minor importance in the total scheme of pudgala.

Page #132
102 Part 2 Pancastikayas-cum-Addhasamaya 227 The general characteristics of pancastikayas, i.e., dharma (motion), adharma (stoppage), akasa (space), jiva (soul) and pudgala (matter), are offered in II.10.117 from the five points of view. Dharmastikaya, for instance, is said to be one substance by dravyatah, pervading the lokaka'sa by ksetratah, eternally existing in the three tenses of time by kalatah, devoid of material properties by bhavatah, and functioning as the passive cause of motion by gunatah. The same treatment is given to the rest of the astikayas, the contents of which are all known to the T.S. V. Jivas' nature is explained in this text, and specifically in sutra 119 as upayoga in twelvefold divisions. (Umasvati proposes 'parasparopagrahojivanam' as the function of jivas in T.S. V.21.) The function of each astikaya is stated again in X II.4.480 which refers to 11.10.119. The concept of astikaya is stated in II.10.118 that the sum total of the entire dharmastikaya prade'sas, for instance, is called dharmastikaya but not its separate pradesa or prade'sas, inasmuch as a broken piece of a wheel cannot be called a wheel. 1.10.118 counts that aka'sa has ananta prade'sas but the rest of astikayas have asankhyata prade'sas. It is likewise said in VI.10.357 that lokaka'sa as well as each individual jiva have asankhyata prade'sas. 228 Jiva-ajiva with their divisions and subdivisions, which are enumerated in the Prajnapana I (the portion of ajiva here is a later accretion), are located in lokakasa (11.10.120). Aloka is defined as an ajiva-dravya-desa; it is agurulaghu, endowed with ananta agurulaghu gunas, and its size is told as of the entire aka'sa minus 1/ananta (size of loka) (11.10.121). Dharma, adharma, lokaka'sa, jiva and pudgala subsist in the entire loka (11.10.122). The lower world occupies 1/2 and a little more of dharmastikaya, the middle world its 1/asarkhyata, and the upper world its 1/2 and a little less. The same treatment is also extended to adharmastikaya and lokakasastikaya ( 11.10.123). Each region in the three worlds and each hull occupy 1/asarkhyata of dharmastikaya, while each intermediate space (avaka'santara) occupies its 1/sankhyata. And the same treatment is again extended to adharmastikaya and lokakasastikaya (11.10.124). This text II.10.124 is accompanied by a mnemonic gatha. XX.2.662 repeats the contents expressed in 11.10.120-24. 229 The essential information of pancastikayas in the final form is thus found in a nutshell in 11.10 called 'Astikaya udde'saka'. The Prajnapana I occupies itself in showing the numerical strength of pancastikayas from the standpoints of dravya, prade'sa and dravya-prade'sa; but it never bothers to explain their functions as such, which appears in later texts such as the Uttara XXV. This is a queer point to remember. 11.10.117-24 offer the then conclusive accounts of pancastikayas, which were composed in the post-Prajnapana period as we will soon prove. All the rest of the relevant passages above are also to be placed in the same final canonical period.

Page #133
103 230 As aforenoted, the Jaina cosmographers in the canonical age were accustomed to measuring the dimensions of cosmographic regions by the unit of yojana. The theory of prade'sas evolved in the field of ontology in the meanwhile, and the Jaina ontologists started to express the dimensions of ontological entities by the unit of prade'sa. The Jaina ontologists, who were already accustomed to a rational way of thinking, took a radical measure in expressing the dimensions of these ontological entities. Thus they assigned ananta prade'sas to the dimension of aka's a, which equals to the extension of loka-aloka. Loka can only be of a definite extension, to which they allotted asarikhyata prade's as. The unit of asankhyata or asankhyeya was thus conceived in the sense of a definite number from the beginning. The dimensions of the rest of the ontological entities can then be easily determined by the size of loka which is their locus. Thus dharma and adharma are of the extension of asankhya ta prade'sas. The minimum size of pudgala is that of an atom or one prade's a, and its maximum size is that of loka or asankhyata prade's as. The relative sizes of individual jivas depend upon the sizes of their bodies in embodiment; and their absolute size is that of loka, for all the jivas are potentially able to perform kevali samudghata at some time. Among these pancastikayas, the extension of akasa and pudgala must have been determined early, possibly by or in the fourth canonical stage; while the absolute size of jivastikaya must have been fixed when the concept of kevali-samudghata was formulated in the fourth-fifth canonical stages, and the extension of dharma-adharma in the final canonical stage. 231 The ontological unit of measurement by prade'sa and the cosmographical unit of measurement by yojana thus existed side by side in the canonical period. The cosmographers estimate that the size of loka is asankhyata kotikoti yojanas, which is asankhyata pradesas according to the ontologists. This gap had to be adjusted. Here the Jaina ontologists invented the idea that the quantity of asankhyata equals to the quantity of asankhyata x asankhyata (actually, 1/asankhyata x asankhyata x asankhyata), which is already known to the Prajnapana. Likewise, the Jaina ontologists made a rule that ananta prade'sis can be accommodated in one prade'sa up to asarikhyata prade'sas in loka. 232 How the doctrine of pancastikayas came to be formulated is shrouded in mist. XX.2.663 offers the synonyms of pancastikayas as follows: (1) Dharmastikayadharma, dharmastikaya, abstinence from 18 kriyas, 5 samitis and 3 guptis; (2) Adharmastikaya- reverse of dharmastikaya; (3) Akasastikaya- akasa, akasastikaya, gagana, nabhas, sama, visama, khaha, viha yas, vici, vivara, ambara, ambarasa, chidra, 'susira, marga, vimukha, urdana, vyardana, adhara, vyoma, bhajana, antariksa, 'syama, avaka'santara, agama, sphatika, ananta; (4) Jivastikaya- jiva, jivastikaya, prana, bhuta, sattva, vijna, ceta, jeta, atma, rangana, hinduka, pudgala, manava, karta, vikarta, jagat, jantu, yoni; svayam bhuti, 'sarira, nayaka, antaratma; (5) Pudgalastikaya- pudgala, pudgalastikaya,

Page #134
104 paramanupudgala, dviprade'si, triprade'si anantaprade'si. up to asankhyataprade'si and 233 These synonyms are couched in popular terms excepting the case of pudgala. This proves that the technical concept of pudgalastikaya was established first among them. The most confused positions shown here are the cases of dharma and adharma; and the function of the former is said in XI.4.480 (fifth stage) to include motion such as coming, going, speaking, blinking and mentalvocal-physical activities, and that of the latter stoppage of motion such as standing, sitting, lying down and mental concentration. XX.2.663 evidently belongs to the earliest layer in the history of the doctrine of panca stika yas, which we would like to place in the early fifth canonical stage. 234 Interestingly enough, the Bhagavati records heretics' reactions to this newly formulated doctrine of the Jainas. Thus in VI.10.304, some heretics, who are puzzled over how to understand the doctrine of pancastikayas which are classified into rupi-arupi and jiva-ajiva, catch hold of Gautama for explanation. Gautama then replies to them that what is existent is pronounced by the Jainas as existent and what is non-existent as non-existent, therefore they should try to understand it by themselves by pondering over it. Kalodayi goes to MV, who replies to his quests that one can sit or sleep or stand on pudgalastikaya but not on arupi astikayas, and that evil deeds ripen in jiva but not in pudgala. Kaloda yi understands the doctrine and gets converted to Jainism. The question whether one can stay, stand, sit and sleep on arupi astikayas recurs again in XI.4.484, which refers to the Rajaprasniya for varnaka. Impossibility of it is explained by way of a simile that one cannot stand and sit on a thousand lamp lights interpenetrated in a room. This queer question must have been raised when the curious term 'asti-kaya', suggesting a certain concrete physical mass was new to the ears. VI.10.304 forms a part of the kalodayi story running through 304-7, 307 of which we placed in the fifth canonical stage (cf. B-1). X 11.4.484 stands in a slightly more advanced posi. tion than VII.10.304. Both texts therefore belong to the final canonical stage. 235 In X V1.7.633, heretics including Kalodayi (here is an obvious editorial mistake, because this sutra refers for varnaka to VI.10.304 where Kalodayi is already converted) inquire Madruka, a lay Jaina, about the explanation of the existence of these five realities. Madruka here brings in a thesis that the existence of an imperceptible object can be inferred from its effect alone, and without knowing the effect its cause cannot be proved; for instance, ordinary men cannot see the air but its existence is known to them from its effect of blowing. By a similar logic, Madruka leads the heretics to affirm his position that if ordinary men's sense perception is trusted, many things maintained to be existent by their own schools would also turn out to be non-existent, therefore one should

Page #135
236 237 rely upon a kevali's testimony of the existence of pancastikayas. MV is extremely pleased with Madruka's defence. Inferential methods in proving the existence of an invisible thing as such occur to the Jainas only in the fifth canonical stage. Also a layman's repartee on the theoretical problem as such hardly occurs in the previous stages. Here Madruka appears to be well acquainted with the Jaina doctrinal system of jiva-ajiva. This text is thus assigned to the final canonical stage. 105 How the realities of dharma or the conditional cause of motion and adharma or the conditional cause of the stoppage of motion evolved is a bewildering problem. The Jainas assume that motion is inherent in jiva and pudgala. Dharma-adharma are thus the unnecessary realities for the Jainas to explain world occurrences. However, one problem crops up in this connection the Jainas allotted siddhas' abode at the top of loka, therefore they were in the position to explain logically why siddhas cannot go beyond the boundary of loka. XVI.8.585 attempts to offer the naive reason that motion always occurs when jivas try to fetch matter to nourish themselves, but jivas and matter do not exist in aloka, so devas are not able to go there (cf. A-1-1). However, siddhas do not require to nourish themselves, therefore there is no reason why they cannot stay in aloka according to this logic. The Jainas are here compelled to offer a logical reason why siddhas have to remain at the end of loka but are not allowed to go beyond, and for the sake of this, the realities of dharma-adharma had to be hypothesized. How these came to be formulated seems to be as follows." In a certain stage, the Vaisesikas introduced into their system of purely natural philosophical investigation of world phenomena the doctrine of adrsta or the invisible cosmic force, which is said to embody itself through the work of dharma or merit and adharma or demerit, as so evinced in the existent Vaisesikasutra. This doctrine of adrsta enabled the Vaisesikas to explain away any causes occurring in the natural phenomena that are inexplicable by known experience. For instance, the cause of the movement of a needle incurred by magnet, the cause of water circulation in plants, the cause of upward motion of fire, the cause of sideways motion of air, the cause of the motion of atoms when they come into contact, the cause of the initial movement of the mind and so on, are said to be due to adrsta in the Vaisesikasutra Chapter V. At the same time, as we understand in its Chapter VI, this doctrine enabled them to bring in a religio-moral basis to their purely natural pohilosophical system in the following way: a reward of rebirth in heaven is gained by adrsta, in consequence of dharma or virtuous practice of the prescribed observances, and in consequences of the knowledge of padarthas which is also produced by dharma, and liberation is attainable when the physical embodiment ceases to arise in the total absence of adrsta which causes the subsequent embodiment.

Page #136
106 238 Adrsta which is the cause of motion in natural phenomena inexplicable by empirical experience is the invisible cosmic force, which embodies itself in favourable or unfavourable ways according to the religio-moral actions of dharma-adharma. This concept was precisely as it is seized upon by the then Jaina theoreticians to solve their critical problem of the cause of siddhas' nonintrusion into aloka. Freed from the weight of his body and karma, the liberated soul which has returned to its own natural self darts upwards right away from the earth. Instantly it arrives at Siddha'sila on top of loka by the favour of adrsta due to its long-standing dharma or virtuous deeds. In case of a samsari, he cannot have the favour of adrsta because of his long-standing adharma or sinful deeds, and he is accordingly compelled to remain still in samsara like a gourd sunk under water. Adrsta naturally works inside loka alone, as the Vaisesikas do not postulate aloka. Dharma now works as the cosmic force of motion upwards and adharma as the mechanical force of standstill. Due to the mechanical, cosmic force of dharma, the liberated soul comes up to the end of loka, where it is compelled to remain still due to that of adharma. Neither can he descend below, for the world below belongs to samsaris. All knowing and all seeing siddhas of the Jainas thus cannot but remain still on top of man-shaped world, and contemplate untiringly upon the phenomena eternally occurring in the universe!! Dharma thus consists of the abstinence from 18 kriyas and the observance of samiti-gupti, and adharma its reverse contents. Synonyms of dharmastikaya and adharmastikaya expressed in XX.2.663 must have been offered at this early stage of their evolution, possibly at the early part of the fifth canonical stage. 239 A certain time must have been required for these crude concepts of dharmaadharma to be improved and established in the ontological context of reality, as they now stand. The denial of siddhas' intrusion into aloka due to the cause, dharmastikayabhavat', makes its first appearance in T.S. X.6, bhasya. And all the natures and functions of pancastikayas expressed in the Bhagavati 11.10 are known to the T.S. It thus appears that the doctrine of pancastikayas came to be finalized before Umasvati's time, i.e., by the late middle of the 5th century A.D. The Jaina realities of dharma-adharma were thus born by directly importing the Vaisesika concept of adrsta, and therefore the Jaina theoreticians kept total silence to explain how these came into being. In view of all this, it becomes clear why the Jainas had to maintain an extremely defensive attitude in explaining the existence of their fundamental realities. 240 The five realities of the Jainas thus evolved after the Vaisesikas introduced the doctrine of adrsta into their tenet. By this time the scheme of pudgala had been substantially developed on the part of the Jainas. No explanation was needed for the inclusion of jiva and pudgala in the category of ontological reality. Inclusion of akasa as an independent reality was inevitable due to the important role played by the theory of prade'sas in Jainism, without which the

Page #137
107 doctrine of astikayas could not have been formulated. And aka'sa or dik is also postulated as an independent substance by other systems of thought. Among the basic four standpoints (i.e., dravya, ksetra, kala, and bhava), bhava is another name of guna inherited in dravya. Thus the concept of bhava can be ultimately handled in the category of dravya. However, if aka's a were postulated as an independent reality but not as the parya ya of jivapudgala, the same consideration ought to be extended to the concept of kala or addhasamaya. The Vaisesikas also assume kala to be an independent substance. 241 Dharma, adharma, akasa, jiva and pudgala thus came to be categorized as the realities called pancastikayas due to their capacity to be expressed by spatial extension, while addhasamaya which lacks this capacity, came to be treated as an independent reality. The Jaina doctrine of pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya seems to have been formulated in this way. Their designation as six dravyas must have taken place soon afterwards. 242 In X 1.4.481-82, the modes of spatial contact of one astikaya pradesa with the same and other dravya prade'sas in loka are explained in the following way: one dharmastikaya pradesa comes in contact with a minimum of three but a maximum of six dharmastikaya pradesas; it does so with a minimum of four (3+1) but a maximum of seven (6+1) adharmastikaya prade's as; it does so with seven (6+1) akasastikaya pradesas; it does so with ananta prade's as of jivastikaya and pudgalastikaya; and it may or may not come in contact with addhasamaya, and when it does it contacts with ananta addhasamayas. The canonical authors consider a prade'sa as a square shape. (An atom is an infinitesimal force point, therefore its logical shape should be parimandala or a circle as was mantained by the non-Jaina atomists. This should then be likewise understood as to the shape of a prade'sa. For the Jainas, however, the dimension of a thing arises from the combination of its prade's as but not from the combination of its atom-composites. And since prades as are assumed to interlink to produce the size of a thing, the Jaina theoreticains seem to have graphically postulated a prade'sa in a square shape.) To explain the above account, one prade'sa (D) of any astikaya has the maximum capacity of coming in contact with six other prade's as of the same astikaya in all the six directions, i.e., four sides, above and below. However, a dharma'stikaya pradesa, for instance, which happens to be at the border of loka-aloka, can come in contact with only three dharmastikaya prade's as in the three directions, because dharmastikaya does not exist in aloka. Thus one dharmastikaya prade'sa has the minimum capacity of

Page #138
108 coming in contact with three dharmastikaya prade'sas and the maximum capacity with six dharmastikaya prade's as. However, when it comes in contact with a different astikaya, one more prade'sa should be added to the above formulae, because this dharmastikaya pradesa itself must come in contact with the other. In other words, one dharmastikaya pradesa has the minimum capacity of contacting with four (3+1) adharmastikaya pradesas, and the maximum capacity with seven (6+1) adharmastikaya prade'sas. 244 Similar calculation is made as to the other astikayas. Thus two pudgalastikaya pradesas can contact with six (4+2) dharmastikaya prade's as at minimum and with twelve (10+2) dharmastikaya prade'sas at maximum; three pudgalastikaya pradesas can do so with a minimum of eight (5+3) dharmastikaya prade'sas and a maximum of seventeen (14+3) dharmastikaya prade'sas, and so on. Such a consideration, which exhibits plethora of the then Jaina authors' theoretical exercise, does not mean much in the context of the theorem itself. This sutra group falls, without going to say, in the fifth canonical stage. 245 A catalogue of heavy, light, heavy-light and neither-heavy-nor-light is made in 1.9.73 on the basis of the items listed in 1.6.53, gathas (cf. A-1-1), which include the cosmographic divisions, astikayas-cum-addhasamaya and the characteristic qualities of jivas such as jnana and darsana. Heavy-light constitute two subdivisions of eightfold touches, which are said to be present in a gross composite but absent in an atom, subtle composite and karma. Therefore, these two gunas are not applicable to arupi dravyas as well as to atoms, subtle composites and karma. This problem of heavy-light must have then evolved from a different line of thought. 246 Since the Jainas assume that the soul ascends to Siddha'sila, it ought to be of a light nature. (It should be remembered here that the Sankhyas consider lightness as the nature of sattva and heavyness as that of tamas.) And if a liberated soul is postulated to reach the end of loka within a moment, akasastikaya ought to be heavier than the soul. Akasastikaya cannot be qualified as heavy, therefore it has to be neither-heavy-nor-light (agurulaghu), and likewise with dharma-adharma. Then there are things which do not belong to the classes of guru, laghu and agurulaghu, and that must be categorized as gurulaghu as so demonstrated in the Bhagavati 1.9.73 on the basis of a relative comparison between one item and another. The category of guru, laghu, gurulaghu and agurulaghu thus came to be applied to any kind of object. Our text must belong to the fifth canonical stage. 247 Agurulaghu nama karma must have also been derived in this context. Soon

Page #139
109 enough, the Jaina theoreticians then came to attach to this agurulaghu a totally different sense of quality which functions to retain the individuality of a thing. The Prajnapana X 1.417 reads that the transformation of agurulaghu is of one kind. Agurulaghu here must mean the quality of individuation. All these concepts must have occurred in the fifth canonical stage. 248 Likewise, XI.5.448-49 enumerate which items are possessed of material properties, which items are possessed of the properties of karma (here, four touches instead of eight), and which items do not possess material properties as follows: (1) Rupi class, fully possessing the matter properties - cosmographic parts (excluding avakasantara), bodies (excluding karmic body), dravya-les, 2, kaya yoga, pudgala; (2) karmic class, fully possessing the properties of karma, karma, 18 kriyas, mano-vag yogas; (3) Arupi class, not possessing any material property - astikayas (excluding pudgala), bhava-le'sya, jnana, sanjna, will and effort, buddhi, upayoga, abstinence from 18 kriyas. The problem posed here seems somewhat absurd, because unlike the previous catalogue of guru-laghu no positive new idea will come out of the catalogue as such. However, it is interesting enough to see from it how the then canonical authors' minds worked. This text again belongs to the early fifth canonical stage.

Page #140
SECTION C JVA Part 1 (a) Classes General Aspects of Beings 249 It was MV himself who classified living beings into sixfold jiva-nikayas, i.e., earth-beings, water-beings, fire-beings, wind-beings, plant-beings and mobile beings. Their classification into H.A.M.G based on gati was probably accepted by or in the second stage. Their subclassification into 24 dandakas, which is popularly known to the canonical texts in the fourth stage, must have been ready during the third canonical stage, keeping abreast with the cosmographical developoment of the Jainas. A classification of beings into one to five-sensed beings is again current in the fourth canonical period. The Sutrakrta 1.3 employs the term five-sensed being while enumerating its species, however the terms one to four-sensed beings do not make their appearance yet. This classification of beings based on indriya, therefore, must have come into being in the third canonical stage. (Incidentally, the Uttara X passages relevant to two to five-sensed beings along with their life span are later additions.) In the post-canonical period, one-sensed beings are, as a rule, placed in the sthavara class. In the canonical period, opinions are divided in two in this respect, i.e., the one representing the old view that includes tejo-vayu in the trasa class and the other that absorbs them in the sthavara class. Some classes of beings are taken up in the following Bhagavati passages. 250 Heretics argue in 1.5.112 that the overflow of a hot spring (Mahatapopatira prabhava) at the foot of Mt. Vaibhara near Rajagrha is caused by the showering activities of clouds which are formed and mixed therein. Against this, MV comes out with his view that it is caused by the activities of usna-yonija-jivas, who together with pudgala take the shape of udaka-jivas. This text may share the age of the Sutrakrta 11.3 which explains the birth of subtle beings in a similar way. We should note here that the term pudgala makes its appearance in this way in the second canonical stage. We have already touched upon the topic of suksma-sneha-kayas or subtle water-bodied beings occurring in 1.6. 56 in Section B-1. We should be aware in this connection that the canonical authors do not distinguish a water-being or a water-bodied being from a water-body, for instance. It is probably due to the Jaina view since olden days that the jiva is somehow indistinguishable from its body. 251 When a lamp burns, it is explained in V1.6.334, only fire (jyoti) burns, but not its lamp stand, wick, oil nor lid. A similar explanation is made as to the case of a house on fire. This text is couched in non-technical terms, and it can be placed in the second canonical stage. V.2.180 discusses that anything can be transformed into fire-bodies when burnt, for instance, rice and pulse, liquid, iron and copper, bone and skin, hay and cow dung, and one-sensed beings up

Page #141
252 253 254 to five-sensed beings. Then it is said in XVI.1.561 that fire-beings, whose life span in a fire place is one samaya at minimum and three days at maximum, cannot glow without the existence of wind-beings. We would like to assign the third canonical stage to these two texts. 111 As to the nature of wind-beings, II.1.86 reads that many hundred-thousand times they die and come into existence as the same wind-beings, and that they die by mere touch and go with or without bodies, for they take new birth with taijasa and karmana sariras, upon abandoning their old audarika and vaikriyika 'sariras. This text is cited in XVI.1.560 which informs us that windbeings are born in an anvil. A mention is then made in III.4.156 that a windbody transforms (vikurvana) itself into a single sheet like a flag to fly by its own power, in contrast to a cloud which is caused to change (parinama) into various forms by others' power (cf. III.4.157 in B-1). It is assured in II.1.84 that all one-sensed beings breathe inasmuch as two to five-sensed beings do, even though this fact is beyond our sense perception. The contents of all these sutras are generally known to the Prajnapana, therefore they ought to be placed in the third canonical stage. V.2.179 talks about four kinds of wind. blowing in all directions in each continent and ocean (cf. the Jnatadharma I. 11), and it says that these winds blow because wind-beings move according to their own accords, or because Vayukumaras and Vayukumaris cause them to move. This text refers to II.1.86 above, and to II.1.85 (X) which refers to the Prajnapana. We assign it to the fifth canonical stage. Pertaining to plant-beings, a list of ananta (kayika) jivas is offered in VII.3.276. A more advanced list of sadharana-sarira-badara-paryapta-kayikas appears in the Prajnapana I along with their exposition. Our text can therefore be placed in the third canonical stage. V.2.315 classifies asivisas or snakes into two,i.e., natural snakes (jati-asivisas) and metaphorical snakes (karma-asivisas). The venom of natural snakes, who are divided into four types, is explained by way of the analogy that it is intense enough to pervade the bodies comparable to the sizes of cosmographic regions such as Bharata and samaya ksetra. Metaphorical snakes consist of A.M.G, but not H, and an attempt is made here to locate to which precise class of A, for instance, they belong. The classification of beings offered here is well-known to the works belonging to the fourth stage. The Vyavahara X lists a text called Asivisabhavana which is now lost. A classification of jati asivisas makes its appearance in the Sthana IV.4.435. As we have previously discussed, the concept of bhavana is of a considerably later origin. And such an idea as karma-asivisa must be a product of around the age when mythological accounts came into vogue. We therefore place our text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages.

Page #142
112 255 In.connection with the classes of beings, we may also touch upon the topic of embryology. A being in the womb is said in XI.5.450 to undergo changes, because its physical properties such as fivefold colours transform. This is repeated in XX.3.665. This concept may belong to the late third canonical stage (cf. E-2). So let us place XI.5.450 in the third stage, and XX.3.665 in the thirdfourth stages. II.5.100-2 offer the life span (minimum and maximum) of embryonic beings, that of kaya-bhava-sthas and that of the sperms of A and M. It also refers to the life span of udaka-garbha, which metaphorically means, according to Abhayadeva, a water-being conceived in the form of snow and ice, etc. A kaya-bhava-stha jiva is explained by Abhayadeva to be an embryonic being who dies in the womb but is immediately again born in the same womb. Its maximum life duration is therefore considered to be double that of an ordinary embryonic being. 1.5.103-4 explain that an embryonic being is an issue of minimum one to maximum 900 beings (i.e., sperms), and that one being can generate minimum one to maximum 900,000 issues in life. The Prajnapana is well acquainted with all the technical terms used here, and I venture to say that 1.5.100-4 must have been composed in the late third through the fourth canonical stages. 256 1.7.61 argues that a being just received in a womb is not yet possessed of dravya-indriyas but is possessed of bhava-indriyas and that it has not yet acquired audarika, vaikriyika and aharaka 'sariras but is already equipped with karmana and taijasa 'sariras. Then it deals with the system of ahara of an embryonic being, with which we are already familiar in the Sutrakrta 11.3. I. 7.62 considers that a fully developed embryonic being can even make use of his vaikriyika 'sarira to fight a war with his foes. And if a being like this dies in the womb, he may be born in hell immediately; but if a deeply religious being dies in the womb, he may be born in heaven likewise. It continues to describe the activities of an embryonic being, and touches upon his postures at delivery, At this junction, it informs that if he has already bound varnavadhya karma and has not yet subsided it, he will be born with bad shape, colour, smell, taste and touch up to bad voice and unpleasant speech. This warnavadhya karma was probably current from the fourth to the early fifth canonical stages (cf. E36-3). And such an idea as employing a vaikriyika 'sarira to fight with enemies generally occurs in the age of mythological stories. So let us place this series of sutras in the fourth through early fifth canonical stages.

Page #143
113 Part 1 (b) Nature of Jiva - General Aspect 257 The term jiva is not necessarily a technically fixed terminology in the first canonical stage. It is used there like an udaka-jiva or six jiva-nikayas. However, a set of its synonyms 'Prana-bhuta-jiva-sattva' appears more frequently to express living beings in general. The early Jainas thus maintained that a jiva is somewhat indistinguishable from its body, but no further thought was given to the nature of jiva. The word jiva distinguished from ajiva occurs decisively in the third canonical stage, where ajiva denotes pudgala on the whole. The usage of ajiva in the sense of astikayas minus jiva and addhasamaya arises in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. Inquiries into the nature of jiva begin in the third canonical stage onwards when its antithesis ajiva becomes the object of serious investigation. 258 It is discussed in VI.10.255 that a jiva (a living being) is necessarily jiva (caitanya, according to Abhayadeva) and jiva (caitanya) is necessarily a jiva (a living being), that H, for instance, is necessarily a jiva but a jiva may not be necessarily H, and that he who is alive Givati) is necessarily a jiva but a jiva may not necessarily be alive (for a siddha is beyond samsara). The Jainas insist in VI.10.360 that a samsari jiva is a pudgala (an individual) on the basis of being a jiva, and he is also a pudgali (a possessor of pudgala)on the basis of possessing indriyas, inasmuch as a person having a danda (stick) is called a dandi. A siddha is said to be neither a pudgala nor a pudgali. The word pudgala retains here the sense of an individual soul which is a well-known Buddhist technical term. The term pudgala in this sense also occurs in the synonyms of jivastikaya (cf. XX.2.663 in B-2). All these texts must belong to the third canonical stage. 259 Heretics argue in X VI.2.595 that a jiva's atma differs from the jiva qualified by abstinence or non-abstinence from 18 kriyas, buddhi and will, etc., up to upayoga (yavat here refers to the items listed in XI.5.448-49, which we placed in the fifth stage in B-2). MV refutes that atma is identical with jiva as such. These items cited here are said in XX.3.664 to transform in the atma alone but in no other place. All these passages fall in the fifth canonical stage. 260 X1.10.466 proposes atma in eight kinds, i.e., dravya atma, kasaya a., yoga a., upayoga a., jnana a., darsana a., caritra a. and virya a. It then examines each type of atma as to whether or not dravya a. is identical with kasaya a., and whether or not kasaya a. is identical with dravya a. ... up to whether or not dravya a. is identical with virya 2., and vice versa. The succeeding sutra 467 poses a question whether atma is identical with jnana or with ajnana, then how is it in the case of the atma of H.A.M.G ? Darsana is also examined in like manner. The series of these two sutras exhibits a highly methodical skill in applying the anuyoga items, which cannot but belong to the final canonical

Page #144
114 stage. 261 1.1.17 explains that jnana and darsana are present in this life, in the other life, and in both lives, but caritra, tapas and samyama exist in this life alone. This text seems to be exhibiting the earlier stage when the Jaina theoreticians were trying to establish the intrinsic nature of jiva or atma, which is said to be upayoga in I1.10.119 (cf. B-2). Jnana-darsana in twelve divisions and sakaraanakara upayogas in twelve divisions are after all identical. But they are treated each independently in the Prajnapana and in the other canonical texts, thus they remain as different concept-couples in the canonical age. Jnanadarsana came to form the types of karma by the fourth canonical stage, and sakara-anakara upayogas, which probably originated under non-Jaina influence, came to connote later the psychic sources of conscious and unconscious activities of jiva in the Digambara tradition. These two concept-couples appear side by side in the list of anuyogadvaras until a list of 14 marganasthanas was formulated in the Sat khandagama by dropping upayoga therefrom. The term upayoga (upa/yuj; 'upa' meaning "towards") was probably employed by the Jainas originally in the sense of the source that utilizes yoga or action. 262 The synonyms of jivastikaya offered in XX.2.663 (cf. B-2), which we placed in the early fifth canonical stage, exhibit a long temporal distance to reach the final characterization of its nature as upayoga. It is thus possible that the Jaina theoreticians were compelled to define the nature of jiva sooner or later in the context of pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya. That upayoga is the inherent nature and function of the soul must have therefore been established around the time when the Uttara XXV and the Bhagavati 1.10, called 'Astikaya uddesaka' were composed: Jnana, dar's ana, caritra and tapas are the topics relevant to moksamarga, which became prevalent in the final canonical stage. We would therefore like to place our text 1.1.17 in the early fifth canonical stage. 263 Then replying to Somila's inquiry, MV says in X V1.10.646 that he is one from the viewpoint of dravya, two from the viewpoint of possessing jnana-darsana, imperishable, immutable and fixed in number (avasthita) from the standpoint of prade'sa, and many in the three tenses of time from the standpoint of upayoga. This must have been composed around the time when the Jainas had already established that jnana-darsana consist of the essential nature of jiva. Let us assign the fifth canonical stage to this text which forms part of the Somila story. 264 VI.7.289 considers that jivas are the agents of kama and bhoga, and their ob jects are classified on the basis of whether they are desired by this and that type of indriyas. Thus the objects of kama are those hankered after by the senses of hearing and seeing, and the objects of bhoga are those hankered

Page #145
115 after by the senses of smell, taste and touch. In consequence, A'-are kamis, A' are kamis as well as rupa-bhogis, and H.A.M.G are kamis as well as bhogis. This text may belong to the late third canonical stage. In this connection, XIV.9.534 informs that the material objects (pudgala) of H are unpleasant, those of A.M are pleasant as well as unpleasant, and those of G are pleasant. This passage probably falls in the late third canonical stage as well. Then the canonical authors discuss in X VI.4.622 that some jivas enjoy (paribhoga) commitment of 18 kriyas, one-sensed beings and gross-bodied beings, and some do not relish (the Jaina theories of) non-commitment of 18 kriyas, astikayas, atoms and kevalis-in-the-immovable-state. These items are said to consist of jiva-ajiva drauyas. We assign the fifth stage to this text. 265 The soul is expressed in terms of prade'sa as follows: The space in the soul of an animal or a man is contiguous to the soul, therefore jiva prade's as are least affected even when its body is touched, scratched, chopped or burnt (VI. 3.324). Referring to this sutra, X V1.7.634 says that in the fight of devas fought by way of creating many forms, these forms as well as their spaces are adjoined with one jiva, therefore weapons have no effect on them, nor can they be touched nor burnt. The former sutra can be placed in the third canonical stage, but the latter, being expressed in a mythological context probably belongs to the fifth stage. 266 Then, it is said in XI. 10.421 that the jiva prade'sas of one to five-sensed beings and siddhas can interpenetrate in one aka'sa prade'sa, inasmuch as a thousand spectators' gazes do not give obstacles to nor harm a dancing girl on the stage displaying the seventy-two forms of art, or inasmuch as the gazes themselves do not harm each other. In continuation, XI.10.422 offers a relative numerical comparison of jiva pradesas occupying the minimum aka's a prade's a, all jivas, and jiva prade'sas occupying the maximum aka'sa prades as. The Seventy-two forms of dance make a frequent appearance in the story texts. These two sutras, forming a series, must have been composed in the fourth-fifth stages. 267 Jivas' characteristics in this and that class are investigated by way of positing various anuyogadvaras. 1.5.44-49 examine the nature of H.A.M.G in terms of pre-formulated list of ten items which are offered at the beginning gatha, i.e., sthiti, avagahana, 'sarira, sanghatana, samsthana, le'sya, drsti, jnana, yoga, and upayoga. Sutra 46 quotes a mnemonic gatha pertaining to the lesya of H.A.M.G. From this formal presentation, these passages appear to belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. We should also note that the summary gatha at the head of sutra 44 includes prthui, which is the subject matter treated in the previous sutra 43 that we placed in the fourth-fifth stages (cf. A1-2). 268 1.2.21 (X) considers whether ahara, sarira, breathing, karma, varna, le's ya,

Page #146
270 vedana, kriya and lifetime of beings in this and that class are the same or not. This content is drawn from the Prajnapana XVII.1. XVI.11/14.588 handles the same topic as to some Bhavanavasi subclasses by referring to I.2.21; XVII.12 /17.609-14 do the same for the one-sensed beings and the rest of the Bhavanavasi subclasses by referring to 1.2.21 and XVI.11/14.588; XIX.10.660, which deals with the same topic for the Vyantaras, refers for the content to XVI.11/14.588. Likewise, XX.1.661, which investigates the characteristic features of two to fivesensed beings by way of positing anuyoga items such as pratyeka 'sarira and is the continuation of XIX.3.649 (X), does so for the one-sensed beings by drawing its material from the Prajnapana VI and XXVII.1. The age of all these sutras therefore falls in the fifth canonical stage. 269 VI.4.238 considers jiva in singular and plural as well as H.A.M.G and siddha from the standpoint of kala, whether they are sapradesa or apradesa from the standpoint of kala, whether they are sapradesa or apradesa as to their aspects of gati, ahara, bhavya, sanjni, lesya, drsti, samyama, kasaya, inana, yoga, upayoga, veda, sarira and paryapta. These anuyoga items come closer to 14 marganasthanas. XV.1.615 examines whether the beings qualified by the same anuyoga items above are prathama-aprathama and carama-acarama. An accompanying gatha here explains that whatever has already been acquired in the previous life is aprathama. The Prajnapana X.371 similarly examines caramaacarama of the beings qualified by the following anuyoga items: gati, sthiti, bhava, bhasa, anapana, ahara, bhava, varna, rasa, gandha and sparsa. Our Bhagavati passage stands in the more advanced position in handling the same problem. We place all these texts in the final canonical stage. 116 The Skandaka story in II.1.91 argues whether loka (cf. A-1-1), jiva, siddhi and siddha are santa ananta, which are explained from the standpoints of dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava. The text here brings in the problem of agurulaghu in the sense of the quality of individuation which belongs to the fifth canonical stage (cf. B-2). This text thus belongs to the final canonical stage. We have already touched upon the Jaina view that a jiva is in some sense eternal, but in some sense transitory from the standpoints of dravya-bhava and auyavacchitti-vyavacchitti nayas in VII.2.273 and VI.3.279 (cf. B-1).

Page #147
271 272 273 Part 1 (c) Nature of Jiva - Physical Aspects As we have already observed, the canonical authors made efforts to determine the nature of beings in this and that class by way of positing various anuyogadvaras, some of which have a long history behind them. For instance, ahara had been talked about since the genesis of this school, and the classifications of veda and yoni which were commonly shared by the then systems of thought make their appearance in the first canonical stage. Virya and jnanadar'sana, etc., are likewise old concepts occurring since the first canonical stage. However, various anuyoga items, which are methodically 'applied to this and that class of beings in the Jivajivabhigama and Prajnapana, must have been mostly formulated during the third canonical stage when the Jainas began a serious inquiry into the characteristic natures of beings. Anuyogadvara or a topic-wise method of investigation is thus a peculiar method developed by the Jainas during this period in order to ascertain the specific natures of beings in particular. 117 In this Part 1-c and in the following Part 1-d, we are attempting to assemble the Bhagavati materials relevant to the specific aspects of the nature of jiva, excluding those pertaining to the field of ethics which are to be handled in Section E. The nature of jiva relevant to psychical aspects is treated in Part 1-d, and that relevant to physical aspects is going to be dealt with in this Part 1-c, which includes the following topics: (1) Ahara, (2) Virya and vibration, (3) Sarira, (4) Veda, (5) Life span, (6) Rebirth chart, (7) Transit motion, (8) Marana samudghata and ahara, and (9) Nirvrtti-karana. (1) Ahara Regarding the topic of ahara, plants are said in V.3.274 to nourish themselves most heavily in the rainy season, and their capacity of ahara is said to decrease in the order of autumn, winter, spring and summer. In summer time, they nourish the least because together with pudgala, many usna-yonija-jivas come into the state of vegetal beings to give rise to blossom and fruits, etc. VII.3.275 offers an analysis of the system of their ahara in the way that rootbeings live on earth-beings, bulb-beings live on root-beings, and so on. Our text explains their system of ahara in a slightly more systematic way than the Sutrakrta II.3 does. However, these two sutras are as a whole moving in the same circle of thought exhibited in the Sutrakrta II.3. We would assign them to the second through early third canonical stages. It is interesting to note that flowers, buds, fruits, leaves and roots, etc., are regarded as parasites of a tree. This may be due to the considerations that these parts of a tree are, unlike animals, easily separable without shedding blood and without deforming the tree itself, and that these parts in majority appear and disappear on the tree regularly each year. (In India, roots are often seen hanging in the air

Page #148
118 from the branches of certain types of trees, e.g., a banyan tree.) 274 VI.10.257 reads that living beings nourish themselves with matter existing within their range but not beyond it (cf. Prajnapana XXVI.1.642). XIV.6.517 says that they nourish themselves with matter which transform into matter, that they are born of pudgala-yonis, and that they are affected by pudgala-sthiti, and that they bind karma and undergo transformation due to karma (cf. E-2). In continuation, sutra 518 explains that they nourish themselves with complete as well as incomplete substances (avici-vici dravyas). All these texts must have been composed in the third canonical period. The problem of ahara involving transit paths and marana samudghata will be taken up later. 275 (2) Virya and vibration Regarding the topic of virya and vibration, the limbs of a sayoga kevali who is possessed of virya (virya-sayoga-sad-dravya) are said in V.4.198 to be unable to occupy the same aka'sa prade'sas in the next moment due to their vibrations; but an ascetic who has entered the immobile state is said in X VI.3.597 to be unmovable unless he is caused to move by others. XVI.3.597 also considers the vibration of beings in four gatis from the standpoints of dravya, ksetra, kala, bhava and bhava. Fivefold 'sariras, fivefold indriyas and threefold yogas are said in the next sutra 598 to vibrate (calana), because in the three tenses of time jivas cause the transformation of matter particles (dravyas) which are capable of becoming 'sarira, etc. V.4.198 is probably the product of the late third through the fourth canonical stages, however X VI.3.597-98 ought to be placed in the final canonical stage. 276 1.8.71 examines beings in this and that class by applying savirya-avirya anuyogadvaras. The exposition here involves an advanced technicality as evinced by the usage of such terminology as karana-virya which appears in the final canonical stage. Thus it is said that an ascetic in the immovable state is savirya on the basis of labdhi, but avirya on the basis of karana. A siddha is surely said here to be avirya. We should however remember that a siddha comes to be qualified by ananta virya in the post-canonical period. Let us place this text in the last canonical stage. (3) Sarira 277 The relative sizes of one-sensed beings are imparted in XIX.3.650 by way of subclassifying them each into suksma-badara and paryapta-aparyapta. Nigodas are likewise subclassified into these four types. A comparison is thus made among the subclasses of one-sensed bodies. The subsequent sutra 651 offers a relative comparison made among the five classes of one-sensed bodies. It thus enumerates plant, wind, fire, water and earth in order from the subtlest to the largest and plant, earth, water, fire and wind in order from the largest to the

Page #149
119 subtlest. It is also said that ananta subtle vegetal bodies can pervade a subtle wind-body, that asankhyata subtle wind-bodies can pervade a subtle fire-body, that asankhyata subtle fire-bodies can pervade a subtle water-body, that asankhyata subtle water-bodies can pervade a subtle earth-body, and that asankhyata subtle earth-bodies can pervade a gross wind-body. X IX.3.652 explains the absolute sizes of one-sensed beings by way of similes. XIX.3.650-52 are composed in a series in continuation of the previous sutra 649 (X) which draws materials from the Prajnapana. Hence their age ought to be assigned to the fifth canonical stage. 278 The capacity for spatial interpenetration of one-sensed beings is discussed in XII.4.483: that the space occupied by an earth-body can allow the interpenetration of asankhyata earth bodies, or asankhyata water-bodies, or asankhyata fire-bodies, or asankhyata wind-bodies, or ananta vegetal bodies. This text is evidently acquainted with the rules expressed in XIX.3.651. We assign it to the final canonical period. In this connection, we should note that 'sarira bandha is explained in V6.9.344-52 (X). (4) Veda 279 Some heretics dispute in 1.5.99 that when a Jaina monk is born as a god, he creates a goddess out of himself to enjoy cohabitation, and thus he experiences two kinds of sex at the same time. MV refutes this wrong notion that he enjoys his own wife or a wife of the other god, and thus he cannot have two sexes at a time. It appears that an argument as such likely occurred at about the time when the topics of vaikriyika 'sarira and vikurvana gained popular currency among the Jainas in the fifth canonical stage. (5) Life span 280 As to the life span of beings, V1.7.245 discusses the miniinum and maximum time of the germinating capacity of stored seeds, which are categorized in three groups. X V1.9.641 offers the life span of bhavya-dravya-jivas, both minimum and maximum. Life span of beings is well-known to the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage. We place the former text in the late third-fourth canonical stages, and the latter text in the fourth stage, for its rebirth chart shown below shares the age of the Prajnapana. 281 X1.12.432-34 (Rsibhadra story) inform us that the life duration of devas is 10,000 years at minimum and 33 sagaropamas at maximum. XI.12.435 (Pudgala story) makes the Brahmin monk Pudgala declare that the life span of a Brahmaloka deva is 10,000 years at minimum and 10 sagaropamas at maximum as revealed by his vibhanga jnana (wrong avadhi). MV of course corrects the wrong notion as to his maximum age. These texts, which are composed with the motivation of showing the future and conversion of heroes, can be placed

Page #150
120 in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. (6) Rebirth chart 282 Rebirth and liberation are old themes discussed since the genesis of this sect, however the mechanism of rebirth of the beings from one gati to others came to be worked out at a considerably later time. The Prajnapana XX (Antakriya) imparts a final chart of rebirth as follows: H>A'M; A' (earth, water, plant)>A.M; A (fire, wind)>A; A-->A.M ; AM >H.A.M.G ; G > A' (earth, water, plant) A'M. The rebirth chart offered in the Bhagavati X V1.9.641 is as follows: A'M>H.G; A.M.G>A' (earth, water, plant) ; A.M> A' (fire, wind) AP-4; H.A.M.G>A'M. Both charts agree on the basic rules of rebirth, which are arranged from different angles. X V1.9.641 must share the age of the Prajnapana. 283 On what basis of criteria this table of rebirth came to be established is an interesting point to be investigated. X1.8.458 reads that a mighty god may be born as a snake, jewel or tree for two consecutive lives, then upon having been honoured and worshipped, he will be born as a human for the last time, and get emancipated. The criterion of rebirth chart expressed here, i.e., G>A> A>M and G>A'>A'>M, is based on popular belief which must have been formulated in the third canonical stage. It is likewise said in XIV.8.527 that a 'sala tree, its branch and the branch of an udumbara tree will be born as a sala tree, 'salmali tree and patali tree respectively in the next birth, then upon having been honoured and worshipped, they will be born in Mahavideha for the last time, and then get liberated. 1.7.60 reads that at the time of death, a mighty god fasts for a while out of shame and disgust to be born as an animal or a human being (G>A .M). XIV.8.527 touches upon Mahavideha as the place of liberation, and 1.7.60 is bound with the mythological account. These two texts must belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 284 In relation to ayus, XX.10.685 (cf. E-3b-5) discusses that the beings in this and that class are born and die by any cause of atmopakrama, paropakrama or nirupakrama, and by their own power (rddhi), karma and prayoga: 1.8.63-64 (cf. E-3b-5) argue which kinds of ayus ekanta-bala M, ekanta-pandita M and bala-pandita M will bind : V1.4.239 (cf. D-2a-1 and E-3b-5) mentions that ayur bandha of beings in this and that class is determined by their pratyakhyana, apratyakhyana and pratyakhyana-apratyakhyana in the present life. All these texts are acquainted with the rebirth chart. We place XX.10.685 in the fourthfifth stages, and the rest of sutras in the fifth stage (cf. E-3b-5). 285 Story texts follow the table of rebirth made in the Prajnapana in narrating the past and future lives of heroes and heroines. The rules of rebirth from one gati to others were alledgedly in the process of being made during the third

Page #151
121 canonical stage. However, excluding the case of XI.8.458 above, it is difficult to locate a hint as to on what basis the Jaina theoreticians came to formulate the rules as such. And it may not be idle to speculate how the canonical authors, possibly in the late third and fourth stages, came to establish this rebirth chart, which we attempt in the following. 286 A rule that M alone can accomplish emancipation must have been laid down by the third canonical stage, for it is well-known to the Prajnapana. The order of gatis in terms of spiritual development is therefore H.A-6 M.G.M in due order. And the canonical authors in the late third stage had been roughly acquainted with the general characteristic natures of beings in this and that class pertaining to their physical, psychical and ethical aspects. Let us keep all this in mind as the general background for our following speculation. 287 The behaviors of A and M who are possessed of mind have the widest range of action from the worst to the best. Therefore they are allowed to take rebirth in all forms of existence. H who have already suffered the worst possible kinds of existence are prepared to proceed to the higher types of existence, because they must have repented enough of their sins. It is also a common understanding that grave sinners and criminals can comprehend religion much more deeply, than ordinary believers. They can thus skip A', but they are not worthy of attaining G, therefore A and M may be the proper states of existence for them to proceed to next. That A repeat A' is well-known in the third canonical stage. Al who are without mind cannot behave positively well or badly, therefore the range of their action is free from the two extremes, and the nature of their action is confined within the range of their survival for existence, which is habitual, repetitive and non-progressive. Accordingly, they tend to repeat the existence within the circle of Al-, but cannot easily proceed to the other forms of existence. If Al* can proceed to the next higher stage at all they ought to be born as A and M, for their behaviour and action are neither too bad to be born as H nor too good to be born as G. G who have fulfilled the happiest and most prosperous modes of life without effort cannot be too bad to be born in the lowest states of existence, i.e., H and Al-, thus allotted to them are A and M. 288 We can somehow explain in this way how the canonical authors' minds worked in establishing these rules. These rules were then largely determined on the basis of the behaviour patterns of beings in terms of religious psychology and ethics. The canonical authors added to them the account of popular belief as a criterion to formulate the rebirth chart of beings. (7) Transit motion 289 The T.S. is well acquainted with the mechanism of a soul's transit motion to

Page #152
290 attain his new life after abandoning his old life, by taking a transit path with or without turns. However, the Prajnapana which is acquainted with the idea of a soul's transit path keeps on the whole silent about explaining its mechanism, which therefore must have been worked out in the post-Prajnapana period. The later Jainas explain it in the way that when a man in the Bharata region is to be born as a Lokantika deva on the other side of loka(for loka is 14 rajjus high, 7 rajjus wide and 7 rajjus thick), for instance, he has to first take an upward straight path till Brahmaloka, next take a sideways straight path to the end of Brahmaloka, then go straight back to its other side. In other words, it is a rule that a being must reach his destination by taking a straight motion either upward, downward, sideways, forward or backward, at each turn taking only one samaya. Thus H.A M.G reach their new places of birth at the 1st, 2nd or 3rd instant. The Jainas assume that some subtle onesensed beings exist all over the universe in contrast to the movable beings who are confined in the trasanali. So, suppose a wind-being at the furthest end of the 7th hell on the front side is to be born as a wind-being at the furthest end of Brahmaloka on the other side, for instance, he has to enter the trasanali first by taking a sideways straight motion, next go straight up to Brahmaloka, then take a sideways straight motion to the end of Brahmaloka, and finally he reaches his destination by taking a backward straight motion to the other side of loka. Thus one-sensed beings can arrive at their new places of birth at the 1st instant at the fastest, but at the 4th instant at the latest. 122 The concept of jivas' transit motion as such necessarily involves the concept of guru-laghu of beings, i.e., that a liberated soul alone can reach the end of loka within a samaya, but a samsari jivas cannot do so. The problem of guru-laghu of samsari jivas is hardly touched upon in the Prajnapana, which arose by the time the catalogue of guru-laghu was completed in the fifth canonical stage (cf. B-2). I.9.72 maintains that heaviness of a jiva is acquired by the commitment of 18 kriyas and lightness of a jiva by the abstinence from 18 kriyas. XI.2.442 which forms a part of the Jayanti story repeats the same by referring to the above passage. Let us place all these texts in the fifth canonical stage. 291 The Bhagavati XIV.1.500 reads that one-sensed beings reach their new birth places within one to four instants but the rest of beings do so within one to three instants, and that rebirth takes place within less time than it takes a strong man to bend or stretch his arms. I.7.59 considers that a single soul may take the transit path with turns or without turns, but when all souls are taken into consideration they may have a transit path without turns, and many may have a transit path without turns plus a turning path, or many may have a transit path without turns plus turning paths, excepting one-sensed beings (because some nigoda beings eternally remain in the same form of existence). We assign both texts to the fifth canonical stage.

Page #153
123 292 V1.1.259 discusses the time when beings begin to nourish themselves after abandoning their old bodies. They first start eating when they finish their transit path, therefore A' take nutrition at the 4th instant at the latest and the rest of beings do so at the 3rd instant at the latest. It also considers that they eat least at the first moment of their rebirth and at the final moment of their last birth. This text ought to be placed again in the final canonical stage. 293 (8) Marana samudghata and ahara Marana samudghata relevant to the problem of ahara is taken up in the following texts. In V1.6.244 it is said that after having performed marana samudghata, beings begin to nourish themselves and bind bodies in the places of their new birth, but some beings return to their old places, then upon having performed marana samudghata for a second time, they are born in their new places, nourish themselves and bind bodies. This idea of performing marana samudghata twice must have occurred from the empirical observations that sometimes men who are believed to be dead come back to life. It is said in X VI.6/11.603-8 that if partial marana samudghata were performed, earthbeings, water-beings and wind-beings take nutrition prior to taking rebirth, but if samudghata were completely performed, they are born first in their appropriate places prior to taking nutrition. XX.6.670-72 likewise take up the problem of marana samudghata and the time of ahara of earth-beings, water-beings, and wind-beings, while referring to X VI.6/11.603-8. The Prajn a pana XXVI (ahara) and IXXVI (Samudghata) are silent about the problem. We would at present like to assign V1.2.244 which does not involve the mechanism of transit path to the fourth-fifth stages, and the rest of the texts involving the mechanism of transit path to the fifth canonical stage. 294 1.7.57-58 consider the spatial modes of a soul when it takes birth in its new body and when it abandons its old body. It is said that a soul with its entire atma-prade's as is born in a whole body, and a soul with its entire atma. prade'sas departs from the whole body of its last birth. This concept is examined by a set of four spatial modes, i.e., by part in part, by part in whole, by whole in part, and by whole in whole. The Jainas insist that a soul seizes its new body and abandons its old body by way of 'by whole in whole'. This problem involves the concept of the carrier of a soul in its transit path. According to the Jainas, a soul's entire atma-prade'sas are encased in its kar. mic body accompanied by taijasa 'sarira to accomplish its transmigration. This concept is based on the old idea that a soul's entire atma-prade'sas necessarily pervade its body regardless of its size. But according to some non-Jainas, the soul is vibhu, therefore it must pervade the entire universe in its transmigratory path, which is expressed by 'by part in whole' in the formula above. These passages similarly discuss that a soul, upon departing from its old body and upon entering its new body, nourishes itself with complete or

Page #154
124 incomplete matters by means of its entire atma-prade'sas. The author then proposes to explain the contents above by another set of four spatial modes, i.e., by half in half, by half in whole, by whole in half, and by whole in whole. This is an incompetent mechanical duplication of the above set of formulae, which has no material value at all. The text considers the problem here in relation to Halone, which is of course applicable to all forms of existence. This sutra group is likely to belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 295 (9) Nirurtti-karana Lastly, X X.8.658 imparts a list of nirurtti as follows: 5 classes of beings, 5 one-sensed beings, 2 prthvi-kayikas (by suksma-badara), etc., 8 types of karma, 5 'sariras, 5 indriyas, 4 bhasas, 4 minds, 4 kasayas, 5 varnas up to 8 sparsas, 6 shapes of bodies, 4 sanjnas, 6 le'syas, 3 drstis, 5 jnanas, 3 ajnanas, 3 yogas and 2 upayogas. XIX.9.659 offers a list of karana which is considered in five kinds by dravya, ksetra, kala, bhava and bhava as follows: 5 'sariras, 5 indriyas, 4 bhasas, 4 minds, 4 kasayas, 7 samudghatas, 4 sanjas, 6 le'syas, 3 drstis, 3 vedas, 5 pranatipatas (by one to five-sensed beings), 5 properties of pudgala (i.e., varna up to sansthana) and their subdivisions. Nirurtti means here the completion of a certain category, thus sutra 658 above imparts it in terms of the classification of each categorical item, and the items after karma onwards are possessed by H.A.M.G. Karana must stand for a cause ensuing nirurtti of various kinds to the individual beings. The Niryukti texts touch upon the theme of karana, hence the series of these two sutras must belong to the post-Prajnapana period, i.e., the fifth stage.

Page #155
296 297 298 299 Part 1 (d) Nature of Jiva Psychical Aspects 125 The materials collected in this part are relevant to the following topics: (1) Sanjna and vedana, (2) Lesya, (3) Jnana, and (4) Ascent of a released soul. (1) Sanjna and vedana VII.8.295 is a non-dialogue passage enumerating tenfold sanjnas of beings and tenfold vedana of hellish beings, which constitute the contents of the Sthana X.1024-25. These two different topics sharing tenfold divisions must have been collected together by the Sthana first from the relevant sources such as the Prajnapana (Sanjna) and Jivajivabhigama 89 (on vedana), from which the Bhagavati above must have directly drawn its materials. This text can be thus assigned to the fifth canonical stage. (2) Lesya How the doctrine of lesya came into being in the Jaina system of thought is a frustrating problem to trace. Various aspects of lesya are taken up in the Prajnapana XVII and the Uttara IIIIV (which belongs to the fifth canonical stage). However, they exhibit conclusive discussions made in each stage, from which it is difficult to get a hint as to why and how the concept of lesya arose in what context. Lesya is included in the list of 14 marganasthanas, and it be came an important concept in the context of the karma theory in the postcanonical period. However, opinions are divided among scholars as to what the precise nature of lesya is, and many ambiguities remain in the lesya theory of the Jainas. It is not an easy task to tackle why all this happened so, which is a problem to be pursued independently. We will at present attempt to trace the evolution of lesya theory and the main line of its development in the light of some relevant Bhagavati materials within the purview of the current of thought during the third-fifth canonical stages. The Bhagavati II:4.158 reads that a bhavya-nairayika-jiva (a soul-to-be-hellishbeing) is reborn with the lesya of his last birth. That a jiva is born with his last lesya is a basic rule in the lesya theory occurring in the Prajnapana XVI. 473 and XVII.3, for instance. The Prajnapana XVI.3 already introduces a wider rule in this respect, namely, that an earth-being with black lesya, for instance, may be born with black lesya, or with blue lesya, or with grey lesya; it also mentions that a jiva as a rule departs from his present life with the same lesya that he has acquired during his life, but that an earth-being with black lesya, for instance, may depart with black le'sya, or with blue les ya, or with grey lesya. Our Bhagavati text above then must belong to the third stage. Lesya mentioned here stands for the later so-called bhava-lesya. The Prajnapana and the Uttara chapters above do not yet use the term drauya-lesya and bhava-lesya, while obviously distinguishing these two concepts. These terms .

Page #156
126 are currently used in the post-canonical texts. 300 The bearer of the soul's transmigration is a karmana 'sarira. A taijasa 'sarira also accompanies him in order to enable his ahara at the last moment of his life, and at the moment of his entry in the new birth place. Lesya is not karma. But the canonical authors here framed a basic rule that le'sya is to be carried by a soul in the course of his transmigratory path. Lesya must be therefore endowed with a certain definite function which a karmana 'sarira and a taijasa 'sarira cannot perform. The concept of le'sya must have been caught hold of by the Jainas to represent a certain role to be played by it for a soul in the course of his transmigration. Then what is its function? 301 The Bhagavati XIV.1.499 reads that a spiritually advanced monk, who has died with merit of attaining more than a certain heaven but does not merit the higher one, is to be born in the region between these two heavens where his last le's ya fits (je se tattha pariyassao tal-lesa devavasa tahim tassa uvavae pannatte). And if his le'sya transforms into a worse kind during his stay in the particular heaven, he has to be reborn bearing this worse type of karmale'sya. Two points here are important enough to be taken note of: firstly, 'tallesa devavasa' evinces the idea that the upper world regions are expressed in terms of corresponding lesyas of beings; and secondly, le'sya is here called karma-le'sya which stands for bhava-lesya in a later period. 302 The Prajnapana X VII.6 attempts to explain which kinds of lesya are possessed by human beings in the cosmographic regions such as Bharata-Aira vata, Devakuru-Uttarakuru, Antaradvipas and Dhatakikhanda, etc. This alleges that the cosmographic regions as such were expressed in terms of the corresponding le'syas possessed by the inhabitants. Now what would all this signify with regard to the function of le'sya? 303 As we have already noted in Chapter 1, Section IV, the Prajnapana is engaged in the task of drawing a picture of the population and mobility of beings in this and that class in the universe, by way of computing how many beings in a particular class are born and die in one moment in this and that cosmographic region, and so on and so forth. All this was in the process of being made during the late third canonical stage. And as we have just examined in the previous part, the rebirth chart of beings came to be worked out during the late third and the fourth stages. The le'sya theory of the Jainas also arose during this age. 304 The rebirth chart gives us a dynamic view of jivas' probable lines of mobility from one gati to others in the loka in the three tenses of time. Gati nama karma determines a jiva's next form of existence, and ayus karma decides his life quantum in his next gati. However, none of them can assign to a being the

Page #157
precise place in the universe where he ought to be born next. The faculty to determine to which cosmographic region an earth-being, for instance, should proceed next thus had to be entrusted to something else other than the ayus karma. And this must have been the acute problem that the Jaina theoreticians were facing during the late third and the fourth canonical stages. 305 Logically speaking, the capacity as such ought to be assigned to the sum total of karma prakrtis accumulated by an individual being in this very life. The concept of lesya, which expresses a general index of the total content making up an individual personality, was readily available in the then non-Jaina schools. (Cf. Glasenap: The Doctrine of Karman, p.47, n.2; Basham: History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas, pp.139, 244ff.) It thus appears that the Jaina theoreticians seized this current concept, and assigned to it a faculty to determine a being's next birth place. This explains why they formulated the basic rule that a soul has to carry his last le's ya in his transmigratory path even though it is not karma, and why le'sya was called karma-le'sya in the beginning. 306 Lesya is of six kinds, i.e., krsna, nila, kapota, tejo, padma and sukla, which differ from the five colours assigned as the properties of karma matter, i.e., krsna, nila, lohita, pita and 'sukla. These six le'syas exhibit psychical and emotional tinges, which are not the colours of karma matter. Curiously enough, the then canonical authors engage in argument involving the idea that le'sya can be perceived by avadhi, as we will see soon. Then, le'sya must have been conceived as something material in connection with colour, like shining light tinged with colour (V'slis to burn, see Tatia's foreword to Lesyako'sa, p.22; lesa, see Schubring's Doctrine of the Jainas, pp.195ff.). Light is material in nature for the Jainas. The shining light tinged with colour, which is expressive of a personality-index derived by the sum total of a being's karma prakrtis, is free from weight, and it can accompany his karmana 'sarira and guide him to reach his next birth place. The then Jaina theoreticians seem to have thus hit the mark in order to solve their immediate problem. 307 Now, these six le's yas had to be allotted to the samsari jivas, excluding the ayoga kevalis whose immediate next place to go to is Siddha'sila. Jivas in 24 dandakas are located in the universe in due cosmographic order except in the case of A'. The general characteristic features of beings in this and that class were already known to the Jainas in the late third canonical stage, and the rebirth chart was on the way of being made. Therefore, it was not a difficult task for them to assign three light le's yas to the heavenly beings and three dark le'syas to the hellish beings. Those occupying the upper cosmographic regions have lighter lesyas and those residing in the lower regions have darker le'syas as they proceed. In effect, these cosmographic regions came to be expressed in terms of le'sya of G and H. Likewise the le'syas of M were broadly mapped out by going over the geography of samaya ksetra (cf. Prajnapana For Private & Personal use only .

Page #158
128 X VI.6). Six le'syas were allotted to A'M, the last four les yas to A' (earth, water, plant), and the last three le'sya to A'(fire, wind) and A The allocation of their le'syas in the cosmographic regions in the universe must have been made in a similar way. The content expressed in our Bhagavati x IV.1.499 seems to be evincing the beginning process of the formulation of the Jaina theory of le'sya as such, so let us place it in the late third canonical stage. 308 A jiva's le'sya may change during his lifetime. However, the Jaina theoreticians created a rule that a jiva has to carry his last le's ya to his next gati. This makes it automatically clear which gati A with grey lesya, for instance, has to take next. He has no alternative choice but to take the form of H according to the rebirth chart of A'M>H.G, because grey le's ya is absent in G. He is thus to be born next as H with grey le'sya. It also mechanically determines his next birth place in loka unless his le'sya changes during his lifetime, for the cosmographic regions are expressed in terms of the corresponding le'syas of beings. 309 This rule of rebirth in relation to the le'sya theory is as follws: A M(bk.b.g)>H (bk.b.g), A M(r.p.w)>G(r.p.w) (bk=black, b=blue, g=grey, r=red, p=pink, w=white). Here A'M(r.p.w) cannot be born as H, and A' M(bk.b.g) cannot be born as G. Let us take some other rebirth rules likewise as an example at random. In the case of 'H>A'M, it is expressed in the context of the le's ya theory in the following way: H(bk.b.g)>A'M(bk.b.g). In the case of A'M>H.A.M.G: A'M(bk.b.g)>H.A'(F.Wi)-6M(bk.b.g), A'M(bk.b.g.r)> A' (E.Wa.P)(bk.b.g.r), A M(bk.b.g.r.p.w)>A M(bk.b.g.r.p.w), and ATM M(r.p.w)>A'M.G(r.p.w) (E=Earth, F=Fire, P=Plant, Wa=Water, Wi=Wind). Here A'M(r.p.w) cannot be born as H and A'(F.Wi)- ; A M(bk.b.g) cannot be born as G; and A'M(p.w) cannot be born as A'(E.Wa.P). In case of A.M.G>A' (E.Wa.P): A' (E.Wa.P)A M(bk.b.g.r)>A' (E.Wa.P)(bk.b.g.r), A' (F.Wi)-(bk.b.g)>A'(E.W.P)(bk.b.g), G(r)>A'(E.Wa.P)(r). Here, A.M.G(p.w) cannot be born as A'(E.Wa.P). We learn from these examples that the le's ya theory helps the rebirth chart in pinpointing more exactly what a being's mobility from one gati to others will be in the universe. This may be considered another role vested on the Jaina theory of lesya. 310 Le'sya was thus understood in terms of karma-le'sya in the beginning. XIV.9. 533 reads that a spiritually advanced monk cannot know or see his own karmale'sya but knows and sees a jiva in the material form accompanied by karmale'sya. This text is likely to belong to the early layer of the le'sya theory, which we place in the late third canonical period. V1.9.253 argues whether a deva with impure le'sya can or cannot know and see the pure or impure le'sya of the other deva or devi by concentrating, not concentrating or half concentrating his thought (here 'samohaya' must mean 'samahata' but not 'samudghata' nor. 'samavahata'). In all cases, the reply is nagative, but a deva with pure le's ya

Page #159
129 alone is said to be able to know and see either pure or impure lesya possessed by the other deva or devi by way of concentrating or half concentrating his thought. The parallel lines pertaining to an ascetic are located in the Jivajivabhigama 103. The Prajnapana X V.3.503 talks about the possessors of le'sya and the range of their avadhi. Our text above seems to be discussing the same theme even though it does not employ the term avadhi. Let us place this text in the fourth canonical stage at present. 311 Then VI.3.277 reads that a hellish being with black lesya may have less karma than a hellish being with blue le'sya from the standpoint of life span. A similar idea is expressed in the Prajnapana X VI.1.477. X V1.3.617 says that earthbeings and plant-beings with grey lesya (or black or blue) may also have the chances of liberation if they take human birth next and attain kevalihood. We place VI.3.277 in the fourth canonical stage, and X VI.3.617 which is a part of the Makandiputra story referring to the Prajna pana in the fifth canonical stage. 312 As we have already mentioned, the Prajnapana XVI and the Uttara XXXIV distinguish bhava-le'sya from dravya-le'sya without employing these terms. Karma-le'sya or bhava-le'sya thus immediately came to have its antithesis dravya-le'sya. The terms bhava-le'sya and dravya-le'sya occur in XI.5.449 which we placed in the fifth stage (cf. B-2). In connection with brightness-darkness of day-night, V.9.223 (cf. B-1) poses a question whether beings in this and that class are bright or dark. The reply forthcoming is that H and Al- are dark due to their a'subha pudgala parinama, A-s and M are both dark and bright due to their a'subha-subha pudgala parinama, and Gare bright due to their 'subha pudgala parinama (cf. XIV.9.534 in C-1b for the nature of the material object of H.A.M.G). Their colouration is not mentioned in each case, however, the author is showing here the precise parallel between their dravya-le'syas (i.e., skin colours) and their bhava-le'syas. This text seems to belong to the late third canonical stage. 313 . The original function assigned to le'sya is to determine a being's next place of birth in loka. However, this function can be easily forgotten once six le's yas are assigned to beings and the rule of the transformation of le'syas during their life span is established, because their next birth places are automatically and mechanically known from their le'syas and gati nama karmas. This can be likewise said about the additional role of le'sya in assisting the rebirth chart to pinpoint the more exact picture of jivas' mobility in the universe. For this reason, the original function vested on le'sya sunk into oblivion, and the fundamental concept of le'sya as the personality-index of beings came to the fore. Le'sya thus came to be treated independently as an anuyoga item in the capacity of a personality-index in the late canonical age, and talked about in relation to kasaya and yoga, etc. in the list of 14 marganasthanas in the context of the

Page #160
130 karma theory in the post-canonical age. This is the main direction that the le'sya theory of the Jainas took in later time. 314 (3) Jnana The Bhagavati materials relevant to jnana pertain to avadhi, manahparyaya and kevela jnana, which are taken up in due order. The Yogasutra I also enumerates these types of jnana in parallel, i.e., suksma-vyavahita-viprakrstajnana, para-citta-jnana and taraka-jnana. The Buddhists also accept something similar to avadhi and manahparyaya', and the term kevala jnana undoubtedly makes its appearance in the Sankhyakarika. The Jainas must have adopted these types of knowledge prevalent in those days and developed them in the context of Jaina doctrinal system. The divisions of these types of jnana and their possessors are recorded in the Prajnapana, and its Ch.XXX II is devoted to the exposition of avadhi. 315 1.4.155 poses the question, for instance, whether a monk who has cultivated his spiritual capacity knows and sees a god moving in the form of a vehicle created by his vaikriya samudghata. The reply comes forth that some monks can see the god alone or the vehicle alone, some can see both, and some cannot see either. The word avadhi is not employed here, however it is obvious that the texts is dealing with the problem of avadhi. The nature of avadhi is pretty well-known to the Prajnapana, but our text involves itself with vikurvana, a favourite topic of the canonical authors in the age of story composition. We can place it in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 316 1.6.161 explains that avadhi is acquired by possessing right faith, but vibhanga by possessing wrong faith. It is then said that a heretical monk (mayi mithyadrsti) with advanced spiritual capacity at Rajagsha can create Varanasi (said as Vanarasi) by his vaikriya samudghata and from this self-created city he can know and see Rajagrha, or he can know and see a vast cluster of towns which he has created between Rajagsha and Varanasi. He can perceive them all, but he cannot cognize them as they really are, because while he is perceiving Rajagrha he cognizes it as Varanasi, and while he is perceiving an unreal cluster of towns produced by his rddhi he cognizes it as a real cluster of towns. In other words, he cognizes real as unreal and unreal as real (cf. the definition of ajnana made by Umasvati). On the other hand, an orthodox Jaina monk (amayi samyagdrsti) with the same spiritual capacity can cognize them as they really are. We assign again the fourth-fifth canonical stages to this text. X. 31.365 similarly talks about the possessor, cause and range, etc., of vibhanga jnana which can be transformed into avadhi by acquiring samyaktva. This text is a part of a series of sutras 364-69 which belong to the fifth canonical stage (cf. E-2). 317 It is narrated in V.4.188 that two gods from Maha'sukra Kalpa converse with

Page #161
131 MV mentally as to how many of his disciples may attain liberation, to which MV replies also mentally. Gautama is incapable of knowing what has happened among them until he is told about it by these two gods themselves. Similarly, V.4.195 says that Anuttaropapa tika devas can communicate with a kevali on earth, because they have attained ananta mano-dravya-vargana labdhi. Repeating the very same reason stated above, they are said in XIV.7. 521 to be aware that MV and Gautama will be emancipated in this very life (this is the content of the previous sutra which must belong to the early fifth stage, cf. F-1-3). Again the term manahparyaya is not employed in these sutras. The Prajnapana XXX knows that manahparyaya jnana occurs to M alone but not to G. However, the contents of these texts cannot but belong to the age of story composition and the compilation of church chronology, i.e., the early fifth canonical stage. Also mano-dravya-vargana labdhi is a technical term occurring in a later age. It appears that manahparyaya jnana took a dilatory course of development. This makes us suspect that the relevant Prajnapana passage above and its XX.560 (which informs that manahparyaya jnana arises in a monk) are later additions. This jnana is said in the Nandi 65 to belong to an apramatta-samyata monk who has attained rddhi by way of penance. 318 V.4.194 mentions that among Vaimanika devas, those who are amayi samyagdrsti, paramparopapannaka, pariyaptaka and upayukta (with upayoga) alone can know and see that a kevali is equipped with the pre-eminent mind and speech. From the objects of knowledge discussed here, i.e., speech and mind, this text must be taking up the problem of avadhi and manahparyaya jnana. Manahparyaya jnana belongs to M alone, therefore this text was composed when avadhi and manahparyaya were not yet clearly distinguished. The Prajnapana XV.442 takes up a similar topic; that the Vaimanika devas who are amayi samyagdrsti up to upayukta can know and see the purged out particles (nirjara pudgala), which is no doubt relevant to avadhi. We will at present place our text in the fourth canonical stage. 319 That M That MV possessed ananta jnana and ananta der'sana is the old position of the Acara I, wherein the word ananta is meant as "extraordinary" or "unfathomable" in the sense of epithet. Cosmography and ontology of the Jainas took the course of evolution and developoment in the third canonical stage onwards. In the course of time an idea evolved naturally that all contents of the branches of knowledge so far developed should be known to a person who is entitled to attain salvation. The concept of kevala jnana-darsana must have thus become a serious concern of the Jainas in the late third canonical period onwards. And a rule that one can achieve liberation after attaining kevala jnana-darsana expressed in the Bhagavati 1.4.42 must have been framed around the late third-fourth canonical stages, because the Prajnapana XX.560, for instance, is acquainted with this idea. 1.4.42 is referred to by V.5.200

Page #162
320 321 322 323 132 and VII.8.292 for their entire contents, which we place in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. VII.7.290 mentions that ksina-bhogis (persons with weakened bodies) can still enjoy objects of pleasure through their efforts, and will, etc., therefore they can attain mahanirjara and mahaparyavasana (i.e., reward of rebirth in heaven or liberation) by renouncing enjoyment. It is explained that chadmasthaadho'vadhikas can gain reward of rebirth in heaven, and parama vadhikakevalis can achieve immediate liberation. Here a parama vadhika is treated equal to a kevali as to his capacity of achieving moksa. This seems to imply that there was a time when a paramavadhika was considered to be equal to a kevali as to his capacity of perceiving the material substances in loka, and can thereby attain immediate salvation. The above rule that a kevali alone can accomplish liberation evolved later than this concept. We can place this text in the late third canonical stage. The Prajnapana XXIII does not touch upon the problem of paramavadhikas. It seems that the distinction between adho'vadhika and parama vadhikas disappeared rather soon. In relation to chadmastha-avadhikas' capacity of knowing and seeing paramanu-skandhas, XVII.8.640 touches upon the theme of kramavada or non-simultaneous operation of jnana-dar'sana of a paramavadhika and a kevali. A similar discussion pertaining to a kevali is conducted in the Prajnapana XXX.663. Let us place this text in the late third-fourth canonical stages. A kevali is said in V.4.191 to be able to know and see a person who will be emancipated in this birth, which an ordinary person can do only by hearing about it from authoritative persons. This amounts to saying that a kevali alone can perceive lesya or the total karma matter of a being. Then it is said in XIV.10.537 that both a kevali and a siddha can distinguish an ordinary person, possessor of avadhi, possessor of paramavadhi and siddha, as well as all the cosmographic regions, atoms, composites with two to ananta prades as as they really are. These texts may belong to the late third-fourth canonical stages. 'V.4.193 reads that a kevali can know and see the final karmic particle of an emancipating soul and its final expulsion. This text may fall in the fourth canonical stage, for the Prajnapana XV.442 takes up a similar problem. as to Vaimanika devas (this however pertains to avadhi). V.4.184 says that a kevali can hear all sounds near around him or afar, while an ordinary man can hear sounds which come within earshot. It goes on to say that a kevali can know and see the finite (mita) and infinite (amita) objects along with their entire natures (bhavas) in all directions at all times, because the illuminating capacity of his jnana-dar'sana is infinite (ananta) and unobstructed(niravarana or uncovered). This reasoning is repeated in V.4.197,

Page #163
133 which states that a kevali knows and sees objects without using his sense organs. VI.10.258 then repeats V.4.197. It is quite difficult to know what exactly V.4.184 intends to say by "infinite (amita) objects". If the objects are meant to be atoms, jivas, akasa prade'sas, addhasamaya and jiva-ajiva paryayas in the cosmos, their number is ananta each, therefore a kevali's jnana-darsana can also be said to be infinite (ananta) correspondingly; then, all these texts belong to the final canonical stage. On the other hand, if it vaguely connotes the unfathomable number of atoms and jivas in the universe, V.4.184 at least can belong to the late third through the fourth canonical stages. The same ambiguity remains with the term "sarva bhava". At present we understand it in the former sense, and assign all these texts to the fifth canonical stage. 324 Similarly, VI.1.260 reads that a kevali can know and see the exact shape of loka and jiva-ajiva therein, and upon having known them all, he can be released from samsara. We have already placed this text in the fifth canonical period (cf. A.1-2). Here jiva-ajiva must mean pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya. Thus keeping abreast with the development of relevant branches of knowledge, the objects of kevala jnana-darsana also underwest changes accordingly. 325 7.2.319 enumerates tenfold labdhis and their subdivisions. The beings possessed of each of these subdivisions are then examined as to whether they are inanis or ajnanis, and if they are inanis how many jnanas are possessed and/or which types of jnana are possessed by them. Jnani-ajnani are applied in the succeeding sutra 320 to the beings possessed of sakara upayoga, anakara upayoga and so on. This examination is made in a series involving the previous and the follwing sutras which belong to the fifth canonical stage. VI.2.31920 therefore share the same age. We should remember here that a higher type of the application of jnani-ajnani makes a frequent appearance in the final canonical period. This is probably not alien to the fact that the formulation of 14 jivasamasas minus so naming was completed in the very late canonical period (cf. XXV.1.716) and became popular only after the Satkhandagama. 326 Finally, V.7.219 which is a non-dialogue text discusses five kinds of hetu in the following way: (A) 1) 'heum janai heum pasai heum bujjhai heum abhisamagacchati heum chaumattha-maranam marai' (One knows hetu, one sees hetu, one realizes hetu, one cognizes hetu, and one dies a chadmastha death in the form of hetu). 2) 'heuna janai heuna pasai heuna bujjhai heuna abhisamagacchai heuna chaumattha-maranam marai' (One knows by hetu... one dies a chadmastha death by hetu). (B) 1) 'heum na janai... heum annana-maranam marai' 2) 'heuna na janai... heuna annana-maranam marai'. (C) 1) 'aheum janai... aheum kevali-maranam marai'. 2) 'aheuna ja nai... aheuna kevalimaranam marai'. (D) 1) 'aheum na ja nai... aheum chaumattha-maranam marai'. 2) 'aheuna na janai... aheuna chaumattha-maranam marai'. The same im

Page #164
134 content is repeated in the Sthana V.1.510, in which it is arranged in the order of B.A.D.C. (C.2 relevant to the Bhagavati passage in the Suttagame contains a misprint - 'na' in 'aheuna na...' should be removed.) 327 He Hetu is considered here in the context of janai, pasai, bujjhai, abhisamagacchati and marai, of which the first four consist of the synonymous terms relevant to knowledge, and the last is stated in terms of the types of death either leading to rebirth or liberation. Thus the text seems to be discussing the causal relation between knowledge and rebirth/liberation. 'Heum expressed in the accusative case seems to mean "the cause of undergoing samsara", and 'aheum' "the cause of salvation". 'Heuna expressed in the instrumental case must mean "by karana or by using sense organs", and "aheuna' by akarana or without using sense organs". The types of jnana to be attained by karana are mati-sruta in both forms of right and wrong, and those to be attained by akarana are avadhi-manahparyaya-kevala which are in the form of right knowledge. 'Annana-marana' probably means the death of animals without mind, 'chaumattha-marana' the death of ordinary persons who may be either right or wrong believers, and 'kevali-marana' the final death of kevalis, i.e., emancipation. 328 Then it somehow makes sense that (B) 1) By not realizing the cause of samsara, a being without mind dies an unintelligent death, 2) By not realizing the same by way of karana, a being without mind dies an unintelligent death, and that (D) 1) By not realizing the cause of liberation, one dies a chadmastha death and 2) By not realizing the same by way of akarana (i.e., avadhi and/or manahparyaya) one dies a chadmastha death. The rest requires no explanation. In view of all this, the passages in the Sthana which are arranged in due sequence of spiritual development came to be rearranged in the Bhagavati on the basis of the formal uniformity of their wording, probably because the editor was unable to comprehend the purport of this text. The Prajnapana XX (Antakriya) argues as to which gati is to be acquired by the beings in this and that class in their next birth, which kinds of jnana are to be attained by them therein, and whether or not they achieve liberation in consequence. It is possible that the Sthana V.1.510 is a summaritical account made on the basis of discussion as such. Let us place V.7.219 in the fifth canonical stage. (4) Ascent of a released soul 329 Finally, the cause of the ascent of a soul freed from karma are stated in VI.1. 264 as follows: (1) Due to the absence of attachment and defilement, and due to its innate motion, (2) Due to its freedom from bondage, (3) Due to the exhaustion of fuel, and (4) Due to its momentum. These causes are explained by way of similes, which do not appear in the other canonical texts.' The T.S. X.6 and its bhasya drew their materials directly from this text. We can assign the final canonical stage to this text.

Page #165
135 Part 2 Cosmical Aspects 330 The Bhagavati materials pertaining to the cosmical aspect of jiva are relevant to the population and mobility of beings in this and that class in the course of undergoing transmigration in the universe. 331 V.6.207 makes some heretics say that the human world (manusya loka) is densely populated for 400 or 500 yojanas, against which MV proposes the Jaina view that naraka is densely populated with hellish beings for 400 or 500 yojanas. The Jainas and the Buddhists share the Brahmanical view that it is very difficult to be born as a human being, and from this state of existence alone can a being achieve emancipation. The Prajnapana m maintains that the relative number of M is the smallest among all classes of beings. It computes the relative strength of beings in this and that class, and it is known here that the population of hellish beings decreases as they descend the earths. We can place our text in the late third and fourth canonical stages, 332 It is maintained in X1.7.456 that there is no single aka'sa pradesa in loka where a jiva has never been born or died. The author explains by way of a simile that there is no single aka'sa pradesa in a goat pen that has never been polluted by goats' discharges. The author justifies it on the logical ground that it happens thus because loka is eternal, samsara is endless, jiva is everlasting, karma is manifold, and transmigration repeats itself again and again. The succeeding sutra 457 similarly vindicates that every being has been born many times or ananta times in each cosmic region in all forms of existence, and that he has been born many times or ananta times as a father, etc., an enemy, etc., a king, etc., and a servant, etc. The Jivajivabhigama, for instance, touches upon a similar idea. These sutras refer to the size of loka and jivas' abodes in loka, which we already placed in the fourth-fifth canonical stages (cf. A-1-2). 333 XIV.5.514 argues whether beings of this and that class are burnt or not when they run against fire-bodied beings, Agni-kayas here are meant as the gross fire-bodied beings which exist in the human regions alone. Thus it is said that H.A.M.G who run against the fire-bodied beings along their transit path with turn/s (vigraha-gati) are not burnt, because they are encased in karmana sariras which are free from the effect of any instrument. When they are taking the transit path without turns (avigraha-gati), A'M with rddhi and G (who are possessed of vaikriyika 'sarira) are not burnt by running against them, but A'M without rddhi and A2- are burnt. An idea as such can occur when the mechanism of transit path is known. We place this text in the fifth canonical stage. 334 V.8.221 informs that the total number of jivas, the sub-totals of beings in this

Page #166
136 and that class and the total number of siddhas are constant, but that increase (i.e., birth rate exceeding death rate) and decrease (i.e., death rate exceeding birth rate) occur to the beings in this and that class on the phenomenal plane, and that increase alone occurs to siddhas. All these cases are again considered from the standpoint of time. Jivas in general, samsari jivas in each class and siddhas are likewise discussed as to their aspects of sopacaya (occurrence of birth), sapacaya (occurrence of death), sopacaya-sapacaya (occurrence of birth-death), and nirupacaya-nirapacaya (non-occurrence of birth-death). This text may belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 335 Then 1.2.23 considers the entry and departure of beings in the same gati from the standpoints of 'sunya-kala(time duration within which all beings in the same gati depart from it), asunya-kala (time duration within which no beings in the same gati depart from it, i.e., no birth-death takes place), and misra-kala (time duration within which some beings in the same gati depart from it and some beings are born in it). It offers their relative numerical strength. The Jivajivabhigama 102 touches upon nirlepa-kala of earth-beings and plant-beings, which may be the forerunner of 'sunya-kala. The Prajnapana VI uses the terms viraha-kala and aviraha-kala in the place of sunya-kala and asunya-kala in dealing with the same problem as to the beings in this and that class. It appears that our text is a summarized account of the Prajnapana above. We place it in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 336 X.32.370-78 which form the Gangeya story discuss whether or not there is a time gap in jivas' entry into new lives and departure from their old lives. The answer forthcoming is that only the entry-departure of A' has no time gap, but that of all the rest is both with and without time gap (370-71). The text also computes how many different possibilities may arise for a single infernal being to enter all infernal regions, for two to ten infernal beings to enter there at a time, or for ananta infernal beings to enter there at a time. It then asserts that the phenomenon of rebirth as such is real but not unreal, because ananta jivas exist in the three tenses of time in the eternal profile of loka as so declared by Lord Parsva and as so realized by MV himself through his kevala jnana. XII.6.488 repeats this by referring to IX.32.370-71. All these texts are to be assigned to the fifth canonical stage. 337 XII.1.469 calculates the number of hellish beings to be born in one samaya in each earth in general, and the number of those who are to be born there in one samaya qualified by the following anuyoga items : grey le'sya, krsnapaksika, suklapaksika, sanjni, asanjni, bhavasiddhi, abhavasiddhi, jnana, darsana, sanjna, veda, kasaya, indriya, yoga and upayoga. Their minimum number is one, two or three and their maximum number is asankhyata. This is the same for the number of hellish beings departing therefrom in one moment, and as to the number of hellish beings remaining there at any given moment. The same

Page #167
137 questions are posed as to drsti and le'sya in the succeeding sutras 470-71. Then XII.2.472 examines the same content above as to gods in each heaven. Krsnapaksika and 'suklapaksika are explained by Abhayadeva to mean "the length of time a little more than and a little less than the half cycle of pudgala parivartana respectively". The concepts as such obviously belong to the postPrajnapana period, and we place these passages in the fifth canonical stage. 338 X V1.4.623 attempts to express the number of H.A.M.G by the yugma method consisting of four types, i.e., krta, tryoja, dvapara and kalyoja. it explains them in the following way: by dividing the total number by four, if the remainder is 0, it is called krta yugma; if the remainder is 3, it is called tryoja yugma; if the remainder is 2, it is called dvapara yugma; and if the remainder is 1, it is called kalyoja yugma. By assuming "a" as the total number, these can be expressed by way of the following formulae: krta=a/4+0; tryoja=a/4+3; dvapara=a/4+2; kalyoja=a/4+1. The minimum number can be expressed by krta by way of this yugma method, the maximum number by tryoja, and the medium number by kalyoja through dvapara. In consequence, the minimum number of H.A'M.G is krta, their maximum number is tryoja, and their medium number is kalyoja through dvapara; the minumum number of A' (except plants) and A2-4 is krta, their maximum number is duapara, and their medium number is kalyoja through dvapara. The number of plant-beings and siddhas is ananta each, therefore it is said inexpressible (apada) by this yugma method. The text similarly offers the number of female beings in general and in each individual class by way of the yugma method. 339 Without knowing the total number of beings in this and that class, the yugma method cannot be operated. And the number of the beings in a particular class is known in the fourth stage. Why, then, did the canonical authors have to devise such a method? They obviously wanted to express the huge number of beings in this and that class in a more simplified way. In other words, the age was demanding the Jaina theoreticians to find a method which could express them in a higher technical level. Thus was the yugma method invented, and it was in all probability suggested by the Hindu divisions of time, which were adopted by the Jainas to establish twelve divisions of the cosmic time cycle (cf. A-2). It is thus an unmistakable product of the fifth canonical stage. We should also remember that the number four has a significant association with the number of gati. 340 In the later Bhagavati 'satakas which we are not going to deal with, this method is developed into ksudra, maha and rasi yugmas, where maha yugma can be applied to the jivas whose number is ananta. The yugma method does not make its appearance again in the later canonical texts, and it does not seem to have survived long in the post-canonical period. An advantage of this method is that the minimum number can be expressed by "0" (i.e., krta=a/4

Page #168
138 +4 or 0), the maximum number by "0 - 1" (i.e., tryoja=a/4+3=a/4+ (4-1)), and the medium number by the rest falling within these two poles. It seems that the post-canonical authors made use of it. To explain it, the number is divided in the Gommatasara, for instance, into three categories, i.e., sarkhyata, asankhyata and ananta. Sarkhyata is divided into three types, i.e., minimum, medium and maximum. Asankhyata, is divided into three divisions, i.e., parita, yukta and asarkhyata, which are again subdivided each into minimum, medium and maximum. Ananta is similarly divided into nine divisions (3x3). Therein each maximum number is expressed by way of one minus the next higher number. For instance, utkrsta-parita-asankhyata is expessed by way of "jaghanyayukta-asankhya ta - 1", and utkrsta-yukta-ananta by way of "jaghanyaananta-ananta-1", which can be translated into "0-1" in terms of the yugma method. 341 Then the canonical authors similarly attempted to establish some other ways to express the modes of birth of beings in XX.10.686. They formulated here a set of categories called (1) kati-san cita, (2) akati-sancita, and (3) avaktavyasancita, which respectively mean (1) a group of a definite number of beings being born at the same moment, (2) a group of indefinite number of beings being born at the same moment, and (3) an individual being being born at a time. Accordingly, it is said that A' are akati-sancita, that siddhas are katisancita and avaktavya-sancita, and that the rest of beings share all three formulae. 342 Similarly, the satka method (method by six) is introduced in this text for the same purpose. It has five varieties as follows: (1) sat ka-samarjita (a group of six beings taking birth at the same moment), (2) nosatka-s. (likewise a group of less than six beings), (3) satka-nosatka-s. (likewise a group of beings consisting of 6 + less than 6), (4) satkaih-s. (likewise a group of beings consisting of 6n; n being the coefficient), and (5) satkaih-nosatka-s. (likewise a group of beings consisting of 6n +less than 6). It is said that the 4th and 5th are applicable to A', and all are applicable to the rest of beings. This method by six was likely hinted at in association with six jiva nikayas. Similarly, the method by twelve (6X2) and the method by eighty-four (6 x 14) are introduced in the same text. 343 These methods occurring in XX.10.686 were probably invented to improve the deficiency of the yugma method, which cannot be applied to the vegetal beings and siddhas whose number is ananta. This text belongs, needless to say, to the fifth canonical stage. 344 From the above examination of the evolution and development of various con cepts pertaining to the field of jiva, it is evident that their general aspects as

Page #169
139 well as their cosmic aspects had been substantially rounded off during the fourth canonical stage, and it took its course in the fifth stage to give them a final touch by way of developing certain concepts, mechanisms and features on the theoretical level, and to explain the earlier concepts methodically on the higher technical level. In so doing, many experimental attempts were made, and many of them had to be discarded in order to produce one with lasting value. 345 The Jaina theoreticians ware fundamentally natural philosophers from the beginning. This fact is evident from their way of employing anuyogadvaras throughout the canonical age. Anuyogadvara is an aspect-wise investigation of a thing, therefore all sorts of characteristics of one being can be utilized as the anuyoga items to examine other beings. We have been using the term anuyogadvara or anuyoga item in this broad sense in the field of jiva. In the narrow and strict sense, anuyogadvara is a standpoint of investigation universally applicable to all sorts of problems in all fields of knowledge, such as dravya and ksetra, etc., as employed with restriction by the late canonical authors and post-canonical authors. In the field of jiva, the task of the Jaina theoreticians was therefore to classify jivas, to enumerate their characteristics, to analyze and classify these characteristics, and to apply them to this and that class of beings. The problem of anuyogadvara is thus how to analyze and classify beings and their characteristics. 346 Once these basic points are mastered, the application of anuyoga items to this and that class of beings becomes a mechanical operation, even if it is a complicated case as makes frequent appearance in the final canonical stage. In a simpler case, H, for instance, it is asked if they are possessed of jnana, and if they are, which types of jnana they possess. In a complicated case, H possessed of this and that types of jnana, it is asked which kinds of le'sya and drsti they possess. In other words, the beings in a particular class qualified by a certain anuyoga item are examined in terms of other anuyoga items. And usually a group' of several anuyoga items are examined at a time, from which the later list of 14 marganasthanas is developed. 347 The classification of beings and the enumeration of their characteristics are indeed commonly practised by the old philosophical systems in India. However, no other systems of thought but the Jainas developed this pattern of practice into a unique method to tackle a theoretical problem. Since this anuyogadvara was the major method of approach, the canonical authors rarely attempted to define a concept. Instead, they offered a classified list of its characteristics in terms of anuyoga items or a list of its synonyms. The precise definition of a concept can never be obtained by these methods as such. Umasvati is the first author who introduced the practice of defining a concept into the Jaina school.

Page #170
140 348 When a new anuyogadvara was formulated, for instance, guru-laghu, the Jaina theoreticians at once applied it to the problems belonging to all sorts of fields, i.e., jiva, ajiva, ethics, karma and cosmography, which sounds slmost ridiculous. However, this was probably the way the canonical authors grappled with the problem of establishing a new anuyogadvara in the narrow and strict sense of the term. Anekantavada is, as previously mentioned, inevitably latent in their way of applying anuyoga items. It developed from the traditional thought pattern of the Jainas. And we should also remember in this connection that the Jainas came to show a keen interest in the theory of knowledge only in the late canonical period.

Page #171
141 SECTION D ETHICAL PROBLEMS Part 1 (a) Action Kriya 349 We have shown in Ch. I, Section II that the term karma, which was used in the sense of action in general in the first canonical stage, developed into three distinct concepts in the second canonical stage, i.e. karma in the special sense of matter, yoga denoting the totality of a being's actions (in the sense of neutral actions which are neither good or bad), and kriya denoting an evil deed. A presentation of kriya in the form of eighteen divisions (1-5: five aviratis, 6-9: four kasayas, 10-11: preya-dvesa, 12-15: kalaha-abhyakhyana-paisunyaparaparivada, 16-17: rati-arati, 18: mayamrsa-mithyadarsana) surfaces, rather frequently, in the second canonical stage. Another set of kriyas (12 divisions) was also formulated at this stage: artha-danda, anartha-d., himsa-d., akasmad-d., drst iviparyasa-d., mrsa-vrtti, adinnadana-v., adhyatmika-v., mana-v., mitraduesaU., maya-v., and lobha-v. However, this second set failed to establish itself as a popular categorical form of kriya. It is nevertheless obvious that the early canonical authors were keenly interested in the problem of kriya. 350 Two sets of fivefold kriyas which later became standardized do not yet occur in the second canonical stage and must therefore have been formulated in the succeeding period: these are (1) kayiki-adhikaraniki-pradvesiki-paritapanikipranatipata, and (2) arambhiki-parigrahiki-mayiurtti-apratyakhyanikimithyadarsanaurtti. The former, which emphasizes the physical aspect of kriya, was probably formulated on the basis of himsa, and the latter which lays stress on the mental aspect of kriya, was probably formulated on the basis of parigraha. One set of eighteen kriyas and two sets of five kriyas each became standardized by the time of the Prajnapana, where Ch. XXI is devoted to their treatment. All these kriyas express evil actions. 351 Another set of kriyas which receives treatment in the Bhagavati consists of the iryapatha-sampara yika couplet. Iryapatha, meaning the "path of careful movement", belongs to the ascetics who are free from kasayas; samparayika, meaning "disastrous", belongs to those human beings who are obsessed by kasayas and thereby destined to migrate in samsara. This kriya couplet, naturally, evolved from a totally different line of thought. We should remember in this connection that the T.S. counts twenty-five kriyas in VI.6. 352 There are several sutras in the Bhagavati which are not based on these formal groups of kriyas. Let us dispose of them first. A man who kills another man, for instance, is said in IX. 34.390 to also slaughter other living beings affected by the process of killing. The passage goes on to say that such a man is necessarily touched by the dead man's vaira, or he is touched by the dead man's

Page #172
142 vaira and another dead being's vaira, or he is touched by the dead man's vaira and the vairas of other dead beings. This concept is an old one. But the thought pattern of the alternative combinations of vaira, however simple, does not occur before the third canonical stage. 353 In 1.10.80 some heretics insist that actions committed in the past and future are painful (duhkha), that actions committed at present are not painful, that beings suffer pain due to akarana, and that actions uncommitted, untouched, and not in the process of commitment also cause beings to suffer pain. Here, Mahavira offers diametrically opposed views. The relevant passage is found in the context of 'calamane calie' (cf. D-1b), which we place in the third canonical stage. 354 X VI.3.570 takes up a case in which a doctor conducts a surgical operation on a tumour hanging out of the nose of a monk who has been engaged in kayotsarga. The doctor is said here to have duly performed his duty, and the monk has committed dharmantaraya kriya but is free from other transgressions. Dharmantaraya karma, which is a variation of caritramohaniya karma, occurs even in the fifth canonical stage (cf. (X.31.364 in E-3b-2). We assign the fourth-early fifth canonical stages to this text. 355 X V.1.563 takes up the problem of adhikarani (i.e., a being is the agent for using instruments) and adhikarana (i.e., a being is the instrument itself) of beings, which is again an old theme. Whether beings are sadhikarani or niradhikarani, or sadhikarana or niradhikarana is considered here on the basis of avirati, and both concept couples are viewed from the standpoints of being caused by and used for oneself, for others or both. This topic is extended to the discussion of nirvartana or building up of five sariras, five indriyas and three yogas in sutra 564. In case of aharaka-sarire-nirvartana which occurs to samyatas alone, whether they are adhikarani or adhikarana are considered on the basis of pramada. These sutras probably belong to the fourth-fifth stages. 356 As to the formal group of kriya, the problem of 18 kriyas is handled in the fol lowing texts. VII. 10.305, which is a part of the Kalodayi story belonging to the final canonical stage, reads that an evil deed (papa karma) brings forth a bad fruit and an auspicious deed (kalyana karma) ensues a good fruit. It is justified by way of a simile as follows: just as a man relishes good taste at the beginning when he eats food with 18 seasonings mixed with poison but soon finds it noxious, and just as he does not relish bad taste at the beginning when he eats food with 18 seasonings mixed with medicine but soon finds it helpful when the food is transformed, so the commitment of 18 kriyas brings forth bad results and the abstinence from them ensures good results. This amounts to saying that good or bad asrava results in good or bad karmic bondage and vedana in the context of the karma theory.

Page #173
143 357 1.6.52 argues, for instance, that souls are necessarily touched by 18 kriyas when they are committed, that H.A.M.G are touched by them in the six directions, but A are touched by them in three to five directions only when obstructed (for instance, when they remain at the end of loka), and that the commitment of these kriyas follows a definite order of sequence (anupurvi). The thought pattern as such belongs to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. Anupurvi is explained in X VI.4.600 that when a being commits kriya relevant to avirati, his soul is touched by it at the same moment, in the same place (de'sa), and in the same pradesa where the commitment is made. This text refers to 1.6.52. We place both texts in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 358 Regarding fivefold kriyas beginning with arambhiki, V.6.204 reads that while a vessel seller searches for his stolen vessel, he commits the first four kriyas, i.e., arambhiki, parigrahiki, mayavrtti and apratyakhyaniki, but he may or may not commit the last mithyadarsanavrtti, depending on whether he is a Jaina or not. Then, if he recovers the stolen vessel, he is said to commit less sin. It continues to consider four other instances wherein a buyer does or does not bring a vessel home after he does or does not pay a partial or full payment of the item. In all the cases, both the vender and the purchaser commit the first four kriyas, and the commitment of the last kriya depends on their being Jaina or not. The aphorist tries to show which of the two would commit a greater or lesser sin in each case. The Prajnapana III offers the general rule pertaining to the simultaneous occurrence of these kriyas that one who commits arambhiki, for instance, commits this and that kriya at the same time. Various illustrations of kriya as such must have been made prior to the formulation of this Prajnapana rule. Let us place our text in the late third canonical stage onwards at present. 359 There are abundant illustrations of another set of five kriyas in the Bhagavati as shown below. When a hunter sets a trap to kill an animal, he commits first three kriyas, i.e., kayiki, adhikaraniki and pra duesiki; when he traps game, he commits first four kriyas, i.e., with the addition of paritapaniki; and when he kills it, he commits all five kriyas, i.e., with the addition of pranatipata ( 1.8.65). The same treatment is made in the case where a man collects grass and woods, etc., in order to make fire, by way of distinguishing the first stage of merely collecting grass, etc., the second stage of setting alight but not yet burning them, and the third stage of burning them (1.8.66). In 1.8.67, the hunter and the trap of 1.8.65 are replaced by a hunter and an arrow. Similarly handled are the case when A breathe A' in IX.34.391 and the case when wind-beings blow over roots and other parts of a tree in IX.34.392. Fivefold kriyas are said to touch a blacksmith tempering iron (XVI.1.562), and a man who bends and stretches his hands, etc., to see if it is raining or not (X V1.8.584).

Page #174
144 360 1.8.68 demonstrates a slightly different case. When an archer has just shot an arrow which kills an animal, his head is immediately chopped off by another man. An interpretation offered here is that the archer is touched by the dead animal's vaira, and the slaughterer of the archer is touched by the archer's vaira on the ground of 'kajjamane kade'. The number of kriyas committed by the archer is stated according to the penal code of the days that he is responsible for the commitment of five kriyas if the animal dies within six months, but he is not responsible for pranatipata if it dies after six months. 1.8.69 repeats a similar account: if a man kills another man with a javeline or a sword, he is responsible for five kriyas and touched by the dead man's vaira. 361 V.6.205-6 illustrate the case in which an archer kills game with his bow and arrow. It says that the archer, all the parts making up his bow and arrow are touched by five kriyas. But if the arrow which he has accidentally shot kills game despite of the absence of his intention as such, the arrow and its parts alone are touched by five kriyas, but the archer and his bow along with its parts are not touched by pranatipata. Likewise it is said in X VI.1.590 that if a men, for instance, shakes up a palm tree by climbing on it until a fruit falls down, the man and the living beings consisting of the tree as well as the fruit are all touched by five kriyas. But if it happens accidentally in spite of the absence of his intention to obtain a fruit, the beings consisting of the palm tree and its fruit alone are touched by five kriyas, but he is not touched by prana. tipata. 362 Some of the above illustrations preserve the concepts which belong to the earliest stratum of karma theory. However, these texts are expressed within the framework of a formal category of five kriyas, which appears from the third canonical stage onwards. The Prajnapana XII again offers the general rule as to the simultaneous occurrence of these kriyas. We place all these texts in the third canonical period. 363 Then, V1.6.335 considers how many kriyas such as kayiki are committed by this and that class of beings with the tool of this and that type of bodies. Similarly argued in XVI.1.591 is the commitment of these kriyas while producing (nirvartana) five 'sariras, five indriyas and three yogas. The former text may belong to the late third canonical stage, but the latter to the fourth-fifth stages. The subdivisions of these five kriyas are offered in 1.3.149, which also make appearance in the Prajnapana XX 1.582 with a negligible difference. This text forms a part of the Manaitaputra story, which we place in the fourth-fifth canonical stages as we see below. 364 Finally, let us take up the problem of iryapatha and samparayika kriyas. II. 3.152 explains that beings constantly vibrate within their limit and that beings as such cannot perform antakriya or end-attaining-activity, for they inevitably -

Page #175
365 366 145 commit arambha, samrambha and samarambha kriyas. It goes on to say that a monk who does not vibrate can perform antakriya at the end. The reason forthcoming is that a disciplined monk who performs iryapatha kriya binds karma at the first moment, experiences it at the second moment and purges it out at the third moment, inasmuch as a bundle of hay burns as soon as it is thrown into fire, drops of water on red hot iron dry up instantly, and a boat with a hundred holes can float when the holes are closed. Iryapatha kriya is thus performed by a sayoga kevali but not by an ayoga kevali who does not vibrate any more. It is said in the preceding sutra 150 that kriya committed is followed by vedana but not vice versa, which amounts to saying that asrava is followed by bandha and vedana but not vice versa. Then sutra 151 reads that ascetics' kriya is caused by pramada-pratyaya and yoga-nimitta. The author like Umasvati does not distinguish pratyaya and nimitta here. The succeeding sutra 153 talks about the duration of pramattasamyama and apramattasam yama on the basis of a single soul and many souls. These sutras 150-53 constitute the Manditaputra story in continuation of the previous sutra 149. From this it is clear that iryapatha kriya was formulated to explain the mechanism of karma bandha-vedana-nirjara of a sayoga kevali who is free from kasayas. An ayoga kevali, who no longer vibrates and is to be liberated immediately, has no cause to commit any kriya to invite karma. Samparayika kriya was formulated as its antithesis. VI.8.340-41 employ the terms iryapathika karma and samparayika karma (cf. E-3b-6). This problem is too important to be neglected in the context of asrava-bandha-vedana-nirjara, which curiously enough is hardly touched upon in the Prajnapana of which Ch. I is acquainted with badara and suksma samparayikas. This problem is closely related to the types of bandha called 'slista-gadha, which are again scarcely mentioned in the Prajnapana but are touched upon in the Uttara IIIX belonging to the fifth canonical stage. Also we should note that even Umasvati falls short of correctly handling the concept of iryapatha in the context of asrava-bandhamoksa in his T.S. VI and X, which is duly improved in the Sarvarthasiddhi. All this makes us infer that the problem of iryapatha-samparayika kriyas evolved in the context of the karma theory probably during the fourth and the early fifth canonical stages. We place III.3.150-53 in the same period. VI.1.266 reads that a monk, who carelessly (anauttam) moves, stands, sits, sleeps, or accepts and sets things down, such as a robe and an alms bowl, performs samparayika kriya because his kasayas are not rooted out. This text is referred to in X.2.395, which explains that a monk whose attention is distracted by the things around him while proceeding on his alms tour, performs samparayika kriya. The reverse content of VII.1.266 is said in VII.7.288 to be applicable to a monk who performs iryapatha kriya. XVI.8.638 asserts, by referring to VII.7.288, that a monk who happens to kill a chick, a small quail or a small insect (kulinga) on the way while carefully walking by way of watching the

Page #176
distance of one yuga at his front and sides, duly performs iryapatha kriya but not samparayika kriya. Then, some heretics maintain in 1.10.81 that beings perform two kriyas at the same time, i.e., iryapatha and samparayika, to which MV retorts that they can perform one kriya at a time. We shall assign all these texts in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. VII.1.261 reads that a layman who observes samayika while staying at monks' upasraya performs samparayika kriya, which, from the usage of upasraya, must belong to the final canonical stage (cf. D-2c). 146

Page #177
147 Part 1 (b) "Calamane calie' 367 The Bhagavati inaugurates its discussion with the problem of 'calamane calie' (action in progress equals completed action), which in itself suggests its significant position in the context of the Bhagavati. This dictum makes its frequent appearance in the Bhagavati to explain certain types of problem falling in various subject fields, however it is hardly ever touched upon by the other canonical texts. It thus makes us presume that it involves itself with the peculiar nature of the Bhagavati, which deals with problems that it does not have in common with the other canonical texts. 368 "Kajjamane kade' expresses the concept of 'calamane calie' in more generic terms. It is logical and grammatical to maintain that any action in progress, either volitional or neutral, has been completed within its time limit, however it is difficult to maintain that any action in progress can be equated with its completed action. Let us illustrate this by the following diagram: A A ................................... A Action in progress Completed action A2 A' A? A* 369 At any given moment, action in progress equals its completed action within its time limit, i.e., A', A'... A . A . A!? belongs to the present progressive tense against A'- A2 which belongs to the present perfect tense; and both A. A'Z and A*. A? belong to the future tense against A'- A* which belongs to the past tense. The nature of action to be performed between A*. A'? and A*. A? may not be the same. There is absolutely no guarantee that the nature of A!? equals that of A? on the ground of the parinamavada of the Jainas. Take, for instance, verbs such as "to appease" and "to cure". To say "appeasing in process equals the state fully appeased" or "curing in process equals the state fully cured" is as absurd as to hold the view that a novice who has just begun his practice for liberation equals a monk who has accomplished his end. Parinamavada acclaimed by the Jainas cannot tolerate the dictum 'kajjamane kade', which thus failed to establish itself as the universally accepted cardinal law of the Jainas as so alleged by the fact that all the other canonical texts keep mum about it. The problem of 'kajjamane kade' must have thus arisen in the peculiar circumstances expressed in the Bhagavati itself. 370 This much is enough for us to suspect that this dictum is somehow related to Jamali's nihnava, because the Bhagavati is the earliest and sole text that collects a fairly good number of accounts relating to Mahavira's life and to the early church history of the Jainas including the Jamali story. The problem of nihnava is taken up in the Nandi and in the Visesava's yakabhasya which is a post-canonical work. Nihnava issues came to be taken up in these later texts

Page #178
148 with a view to condemning what is to be condemned in the past history of the Jaina church, in order to defend and pursue the common interest of the Jaina communities in the present and the future. Nihnava issues were thus silently transmitted in the Jaina tradition until the Jainas accomplished their church chronology and church construction in the final canonical stage. 371 The Jnatadharma 1.8 (v.1, p.1034) refers for varnaka to Jamali's account, which must mean our Jamali story in the Bhagavati 6.33.382-89 (cf. F-1-2). The outline of the story relevant to 'kajjamane kade narrated in sutras 385-86 is as follows: (385) Jamali requests MV to allow him to wander around with 500 monks, but MV disapproves of this by way of keeping utter silence. Nevertheless Jamali leaves him together with 500 monks. (This is his first offense against MV). Meanwhile Jamali becomes sick and he orders a monk to make his bed. Impatiently he asks the monk again if his bed has been made as so commanded, to which the latter replies, 'bho sami! kirai', 'no khalu devanuppiyanam sejjasamtharae kade kajjati' ( "Oh Sir, it is being made.", "Your bed has not yet been made."). At this moment, the thought strikes Jamali that MV's dictum calamane calie... nijjarijjamane nijjinne' is all wrong, because if the bed is in the process of being made, this action has not yet been fully completed. Jamali then declares that MV's dogma is wrong, thereby some monks disagree with Jamali and leave him. (This is his second offense.) (386) Jamali goes to see MV and claims that he has attained kevalihood, but he fails to answer Gautama's question whether or not loka and jiva are eternal, thus proving himself to be an ordinary man. Jamali does not believe MV's explanation of these problems and again leaves him. (This is his final offense.) 372 It is a problem for us to see how much historicity has been transmitted in this story which was composed in the early fifth canonical stage. Cosmic time cycle occurs in MV's exposition of the theoretical issues expressed in sutra 386 which therefore belongs to the fifth canonical stage. Quotation of calamane calie... nijjarijjamane nijjinne' is taken from 1.1.8 which belongs to the third canonical stage as we come to it very soon. Eliminating all these later portions along with the descriptive accounts involving the plot construction of the story, what remains here as the bare fact is that Jamali hits upon 'kajjamane akade' accidentally in connection with bed-making and this anti-dictum is understood in tradition in relation to his offenses. It thus seems to be historical to maintain that it was Jamali himself but no one else who came to realize that it is difficult to hold this dictum which was formulated by no other person but MV. The text shows here no interest in justifying Jamali's thesis which was obviously supported by some of his followers. This problem is thus understood by the Jainas as a nihnava issue in essence rather than as an issue of theoretical importance pertaining to kriya. 373 Then, how did MV's thesis. 'kajjamane kade' come into existence? Since no

Page #179
374 375 376 149 hint is available in any canonical texts other than the Bhagavati, let us collect the relevant Bhagavati passages that fall in the field of ethical conduct which likely hide a key to solving this problem. I.8.68 (cf. D-la) which belongs to the third canonical stage preserves the concept as early as the age of the Acara I. Here an archer, who has just shot an arrow which kills an animal, then, has his head cut off by another man. The text says that the archer is touched by the dead animal's vaira, and that the slaughterer of the archer is touched by the dead archer's vaira. It corroborates this account by way of the dictum 'kajjamane kade samdhijjamane samdhie nivvattijjamane nivvattie nisirijjamane nisit the' (doing done, aiming aimed, preparing prepared, throwing thrown). VII.6.333 (cf. D-2b-1), which belongs to the second canonical stage, conveys the idea that if a monk has set out from his abode to meet his elder (who is in another locality) with a view to performing alocana-pratikramana, he is regarded as loyal even if an accidental circumstance should prevent him from fulfilling his intended duty. The text supports this by way of the dogma 'chijjamane chinne pakkhippamane pakkhitte dajjhamane daddhe' and 'ukkhippamane ukkhitte pakkhippamane pakkhitte rajjamane ratte'. In VI.7.336 (cf. D-2b-4) which belongs to the third canonical stage, the Jaina elders win debates with heretics on some ethical problems by way of 'dijjamane dinne padiggahejjamane padiggahie nisirijjamane nissatthe' and 'gamamane gae vitikkamijjamane vitikkante rayagiham nagaram sampaviukame sampatte". It is the position of the Acara I - Sutrakrta I that the vaira invariably catches hold of a himsaka who slaughters a living being with an intention to kill. And it is also their position that an accidental himsa taking place in the absence of intention as such is free from guilt. It is inducible from these premises that as long as an action is accompanied by intention, whether good or bad, it can be judged as sinless or sinful regardless of the completion or incompletion of an action. (We should also keep in mind that all actions were considered to be evil in those days.) The absence of intention in action does not bring out any ethical issue. Hence the nature of the intention of an action alone can determine whether a certain action in progress or completed is sinful or otherwise. This easily leads one to formulate a thesis that the consequence of any volitional action which is in progress equals that of the completed action. And it is likely that 'kajjamane kade' was formulated by MV in such a purely ethical context. In the light of this, the contents expressed in the Bhagavati passages cited above somehow make sense. In IX.33.385, Jamali understands MV's ethical dictum as such in the purely theoretical context of kriya that any action in progress cannot be logically and grammatically equated with the completed action. Jamali is also absolutely right in maintaining his anti-djctum in the context of theory of kriya, and thus he was supported by some of his followers.

Page #180
377 378 379 MV and Jamali were therefore handling kajjamane kade' from the totally dif ferent angles. In I.10.80 which we would place in the third canonical stage, heretics hold an anti-dictum, 'calamane acalie... nijjarijjamane anijjinne', which is rejected by MV as wrong without offering any reason. Heretics here are obviously Jamali and his party. This issue has been thus taken up in relation to nihnava in tradition but not in relation to the theory of kriya. Kajjamane kade' is thus applicable to problems involving volitional action in the field of ethical conduct, of which the theoretical value is however negligible. And the Jaina theoreticians in their habitual way applied this dictum mechanically to other subject fields as we shall see below. 150 I.1.8 with which the Bhagavati commences its main discourse, reads that calamare calie, udirijjamane udirie, veijjamane veie and pahijjamane pahine constitute utpanna paksa, and that chijjamane chinne, bhijjamane bhinne, daddhamane (dajjhamane) daddhe, mijjamane mae and nijjarijjamane nijjinne constitute vigata paksa. The items in each paksa are said to share a common import even though their sounds and syllables are different. It appears from this that utpanna paksa denotes the process of asrava-bandha-vedana of karma up to the loss of its karmic efficacy, and vigata paksa denotes the process of the decomposition of the matter particle up to its final expulsion. Calana is understood here in the sense of vibration which is the basic cause to attract karma matter. We should refer on this point to the idiomatic sentence, 'saya samiyam eyati veyati calati phamdai ghattai khubbhai udirai tam tam bhavam parinamati. Also threefold calanas is dealt with in XVII.3.508 (cf. C-102). Prahana in I.1.8 above denotes the state of karma deprived of its karmic efficacy immediately after the completion of vedana. I.1.8 thus means that the vibration that invites karmic bondage, karmic rise, experiencing its fruit and the loss of karmic efficacy belong to the process of the appearance of karma, on the other hand, cutting, breaking, burning, decay and expulsion belong to the process of the disappearance of the matter particle. Karmic theory as such belongs to the third canonical stage (cf. E-2). The problem of 'parinamamana poggala parinaya'-cum-'parinamamana poggala aparinaya' become a point of dispute between two gods, i.e., a Jaina. god and a heretical god, in XVI.5.573-74. The umpire is MV who, of course, approves of the Jaina god's view. These sutras form a part of the Gangadatta story (cf. A-3-4), and are to be assigned to the fifth canonical stage. It is interesting that the canonical authors brought this MV-Jamali issue into the mythological sphere, which palpably reflects the then church authorities' attitude towards dissidents. And this must have been the spirit of the Third Valabhi Council that compiled 'calamane calie' at the beginning of the Bhagavati.

Page #181
151 380 'Kajjamane kade' is also extended to the field of jiva. 1.7.60 (cf. C-1c-6) says that the gods who are to be born as A and M stop eating for a while out of shame, etc., but upon being born they begin to eat food, which is then transformed by way of faharijjamane aharie parinamijjamane parinamie'. X1.8.459 (cf. D-3) quotes 'uvavajjamane uvavanne-tti vattavvam siya', which seems to be referring to the spatial mode of birth expressed in 1.7.57-58 by way of 'uvavajjamane uvavanne' (cf. C-1c-8). 381 We would like to consider here another type of problem relevant to kriya. In the Bhagavati in particular and sometimes in the other canonical texts also, there occurs a problem raised from the side of heretics that two actions can be performed simultaneously. The Jainas always retort that only one action can be performed at one time. It occurs in 1.9.75 (cf. E-3b-5) pertaining to the simultaneous bondage of future-present ayus karmas which is repeated in V.3. 182, 1.10.81 (cf. D-la ) pertaining to the simultaneous performance of iryapatha-samparayika kriya, 1.5.99 (cf. C-1c-4) pertaining to a deva's simultaneous acquisition of two sexes, and V1.10.256 (cf. E-3b-4) pertaining to the simultaneous occurrence of sukha-duhkha vedana. These heretic texts belong to the third-fourth stages onwards. 382 According to the Ava'syaka Niryukti g.780ff. and Visesava'syakabhasya g.2906ff., Ganga's fifth nihnava on yugapad kriya duaya vedana occurred 228 years after Vira nirvana. He maintains that one can simultaneously experience warm and cold sensations in a stream of which the upper part is warm and the lower part is cold, and therefore two kriyas can be experienced at one time. This nihnava issue, of which the theoretical value is slight, might have occurred at a considerably earlier stage when the problems of kriya and vedana came to be discussed. However, his offensive position seems to have become the object of ridicule and attack in the long succeeding stages as in the case of Jamali. He is openly denounced as a heretic here. And like Jamali's case, his position of the simultaneous experience of two kriyas is expanded to the idea of the simultaneous performance of two kriyas and so on. All this reveals that the Bhagavati stands in a curious position collecting as it does a number of texts involving nihnava issues.

Page #182
152 Part 2 (a) Ethics and Conduct General Aspect 383 Ethics and conduct are terms applicable to the human sphere alone in the ordinary sense. However, the Jainas tend to involve all forms of living beings in dealing with this theme, which often makes it difficult to demarcate a clear-cut line between the ethical activities of human beings and mythological ones. We are forced to endure this awkward position in handling this subject matter. The materials received here are divided into three groups, i.e., (1) Loyalty and faith, (2) Five vows, and (3) Minor ethical problems. (1) Loyalty and faith 384 1.3.30-31 read that the jina teaches only what is true beyond doubt and by accepting and abiding in his teachings, one becomes a loyal follower (aradhaka). Then MV commands his disciples in 1.3.33 that just as monks (ettha; etasmin) are to follow (gamaniya) his teachings so also should householders (iha) behave, and just as householders are to follow his teachings so also should monks behave. 1.3.30-31 and 33 are relevant to the problem of loyalty (aradhana), and are clumsily edited in the context of kanksamohaniya karma and parinamavada. In sutra 30, the concept that a kevali knows and sees all in the three tenses of time, thereby his teachings are true beyond doubt has not yet arisen. The term aradhana occurs in the Brhatkalpa 1.35, for instance, which became fashionable in the age of story composition when church construction was in process. MV himself might have said something like sutra 33 pronounces as the promulgator of the sect, but the text seems to be alluding to the age when the lay Jainas were in the process of forming their communities. We can therefore place these passages in the second and the third canonical stages. 385 Heretics maintain in VI.10.353 that conduct is supreme inasmuch as knowledge is supreme, and conduct without knowledge is supreme inasmuch as knowledge without conduct is supreme. According to MV's view, a person with conduct unaccompanied by knowledge and a person with knowledge unaccompanied by conduct are partially loyal, a person with both conduct and knowledge is completely loyal, and a person devoid of both is completely disloyal. This text reflects the time when this subject matter relevant to moksamarga was the point of debate among the philosophical circles, on which the Jainas could not have kept silence. Let us place this text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 7.10. 354 classifies loyalty into three types, i.e., jnana, dar's ana and caritra, which are each subdivided into the highest, middle and lowest grades. The text then attempts to exhibit their possible alternative combinations, for instance, the highest grade of jnana can go with the highest and middle grades of darsana or with the highest and middle grades of caritra. It also tries to see in which

Page #183
386 388 birth the highest grader of the triplet, for instance, attains liberation. This text belongs to the final canonical stage when the threefold pathway to moksa became the favourite topic of the canonical authors. 153 -4 XVII.2.593 reads that those from samyata up to renunciant (cf. VII.2.270 in this D-2a-2; third stage) abide (sthita) in religion (dharma), those from asamyata up to non-renunciant in non-religion (adharma), and those who are in-between in both religion and non-religion, and that H.A G abide in non-religion, A' in non-religion and religion-non-religion, and M in all three forms. The categorical characterization of living beings as such, which is based on the criterion of virati-avirati, goes in parallel with that of the renunciants discussed in VI.4. 239 (fifth stage) which will be taken up very soon. This text also mentions that abiding (sthita) in religion means to follow religion, but it does not mean that one can physically sit and lie down, etc., on it. This is a play of words. The canonical authors are amusing themselves by posing a question whether one can stand, sit and lie down, etc., on a certain item, which also occurs in X.10.304 (astikayas), XW.3.621 (nirjara pudgala) and II.2.663 (astikayas). XVII.2.593 is to be placed in the fifth canonical stage. 387 Then, I.9.79 maintains that an unresolved person (asthira) cannot stand firm and breaks but a resolved person does not break, that the foolish are eternal but foolishness is temporary, and that the wise are eternal but wisdom is temporary. The Jainas are accustomed to discussing whether beings are eternal or otherwise from various standpoints, for instance, from the standpoints of dravya and bhava (e.g., VII.2.273 in B-1 and C-1b). It appears that the aphorist here applied the same logic to these problems, i.e., bhava aspect to wisdom and foolishness, and dravya aspect to the wise and foolish. The discussion of wisdom and foolishness involves no problem, but that of the wise and foolish needs exposition. The standpoint of dravya is applicable to the classes of beings in the way that H, for instance, are eternal, for the Jainas believe in the permanent existence of living beings in this and that gati. The criterion of the wise and foolish must have been again based on virati and avirati. For in XVI.2.594 heretics insist that monks are wise, laymen are half wise, but those who do not renounce himsa even to a single living being are totally foolish. MV expresses his view against the last point that those who spare even one life are not totally foolish. On this basis it explains that H.A G are foolish, A' are foolish or half wise, and M are wise, foolish or half wise. In the light of this text, H, for instance, are the foolish, and the categorical foolish as such based on gati can be also said to exist permanently from the standpoint of dravya. This is likewise applicable to the wise. I.9.78 (cf. E-3a-3) and 79 are referred to in VII.8.297 for its total content. We assign all these texts to the final canonical stage. (2) Five vows.

Page #184
154 389 Pratyakhyana or renunciation is an old term signifying five vows. V1.4.239 reads that jivas are renunciants, non-renunciants and partial renunciants, and that H.A - G are non-renunciants, ATM are non-renunciants and partial renunciants, and all three types apply to M. The same rule naturally applies to the performance of pratyakhyana. Those with five senses know renunciation, but not Al- who do not possess a mind. A summary gatha attached at the end of this sutra reads that this text belongs to 'Saprade'sa udde'saka', i.e., VI.4.238 (fifth stage). Thus this text belongs to the final canonical stage. I. 9.77 reads that a merchant, pauper, miser and warrior equally perform nonrenunciation due to avirati. Then VI.8.296 says that an elephant and a kunthu are equally non-renunciants due to avirati. These texts also seem to have been composed in the final canonical stage in the same trends of thought. 390 Pratyakhyana or vrata which is an old theme, is thus discussed popularly in the fifth canonical stage, possibly because it came to be strictly imposed upon the lay Jainas in the fourth-fifth canonical stages as their cardinal obligatory law. This explains why the lost 10th Anga was replaced by the present Prasnavyakarana. 391 V1.2.270 declares that even if one claims to be a renunciant, he is a liar, asamyata by 'trividham trividhena', avirata, not renouncing bad actions, sakriya, asamurta, wholly harmful and totally stupid, unless he is well aware of the difference between jiva and ajiva and between mobile and immobile beings. Here, ajiva seems to denote pudgala. This charge must have been made against the heretics who call themselves renunciants according to their own ethical principles and rules of conduct. Later we come across lively scenes, in which the heretics and the Jainas argue back and forth accusing each other as 'trividham trividhena asamyata up to totally stupid.' This idiomatic expression was drawn from the Sutrakrta 1.4 (Pratyakhyana kriya). We place this text in the third canonical stage. VI.2.271 classifies pratyakhyana into mulaguna (fundamental rule of conduct) and uttaraguna (secondary rule of conduct), both of which are divided into sarva or complete (ascetic conduct) and desa or partial (lay conduct). Mulaguna consists of fivefold vows, i.e., mahavratas (sarva) and anuuratas (desa). The so-called later guna-siksa-vratas constitute the content of sevenfold desa uttaraguna. These are the standardized principles of the conduct of the Jainas. Sarva uttaraguna is of tenfold, i.e., anagata, atikranta, koti-sahita, niyantrita, sakara, anakara, parimana-krta, nirava's esa, samketa and addha pratyakhyana, of which the meanings are somewhat obscure. These are listed in the Sthana X.1021, and also reported to occur in the commentaries on some Chedasutras.' Sutra 272 (x) applies these divisions of pratyakhyana to this and that class of beings, and offers their relative frequency. VII.7.271 belongs to the final canonical stage. 392 1.1.16 takes up the age old topic of arambha by way of classifying jivas into

Page #185
155 samsaris and siddhas, then subdividing the former into asamyatas and samyatas consisting of pramattas and apramattas. Samsaris and asamyatas perform atmarambha, pararambha and both atmarmbha-pararambha, but siddhas and apramatta-samyatas do not perform arambha. Pramatta-sam yatas commit either arambha or anarambha depending on asuddha or 'suddha yoga. H.A.G and those with dark three le'syas commit arambha due to avirati, but M and those with light three le'syas commit both arambha and anarambha, Let us place this text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. Pertaining to the vow of satya, V.4.189 instructs how to express a notion that devas lack discipline. According to it, one should say that devas are no-samyata, but should not say that they are asamyata for it is considered to be rude. The right modes of speech had been taught since the days of the Da'savaikalika VI, and were then codified in the Prajnapana XI. The content of our text as such, which is not touched upon in the Prajnapana, seems to be a product of the late Gupta age where long standing peace brought out an advancement of formal ceremonialism and etiquette, i.e., the fifth canonical stage. 393 With respect to brahmacarya or the fourth vow, 1.5.105 asks what kind of asamyama is performed by committing sexual intercourse? It is answered by way of the simile that it is comparable to destroying the stalk of a cotton tree or a bura tree with burning fire. The age of this text is difficult to determine, however the question seeking the nature of asamyama as such can be posed in the third canonical stage. 394 V.7.218 reads that H.A.M.G perform sarambha-saparigraha, because they are after the possession of 'sarira, karma and all sorts of objects consisting of citta-acitta. Then the text offers a list of the objects of arambha and parigraha of this and that class of beings. v.9.222 says that RajagTha connotes all jivas and ajivas inclusively located in this city, while inexpressly referring to V.7.218 for the list of items by way of yavat. Here ajiva means pudgala. The discussions made in these texts are rudimentary, and may fall in the third canonical stage. 395 Upadhi, parigraha and pranidhana are classified in XVI.7.632 into three kinds each, which are then considered in relation to this and that class of beings as usual. The Sthana 11.1.188-89 record the same in non-dialogue style. Upadhi as well as parigraha consist of karma, sarira and personal belongings. According to Abhayadeva, parigraha is caused by mamatva or the hankering for possessions, which is absent in upadhi. Pranidhana is synonymous with yoga in threefold divisions. From the way they are discussed, there is not much interrelation between upadhi-parigraha and pranidhana. This suggests that the Bhagavati drew the material from the Sthana. And the content of upadhi-parigraha in the Sthana 11.1.188 is a summarised account of V.7.218 above. Then the Sthana must have drawn this material from the Bhagavati,

Page #186
156 which in turn reimported the processed material from the Sthana. XVI.7.632 thus probably belongs to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 396 Let us dispose of V.8.338 relevant to pratyanika (lit. opponent) in this connection. It enumerates the threefold oppositions or divisions of various categories relevant to ethics, monastic order and ascetic life as follows: (1) acarya, upadhyaya and sthavira on the basis of guru, (2) this life, the next life and both on the basis of gati, (3) kula, gana and sangha on the basis of the group of sadhus, (4) tapasvi, glana and 'saiksa on the basis of anukampa, (5) 'sruta, artha and both on the basis of 'sruta, and (6) jnana, dar's ana and caritra on the basis of bhava. The Sthana I.4.270 lists them all excluding the last pratyanika. Our text must have again drawn its material from the Sthana, to which it appended the then fashionable topic of tri-ratna. This text belongs to the fifth canonical stage. 397 MV explains to Sakra in X V1.2.566 that there are five kinds of avagraha or domain of ownership, i.e., deva indras', kings', house-owners', householders' and monks' (i.e., sheltering places in the main). These five types of avagraha are reckoned at the end of the Acara 11.7.2 after enumerating the rules relevant to the avagraha of monks and nuns. The first four types of avagraha have little to do with the subject matter of the Acara 11.7.2, therefore this Acara Il passage seems to be a later addition. XVI.2.566 is a part of the sakra story, which is assignable to the fifth canonical period (cf. XVI.2.567 in A-3-4). (3) Minor ethical problems 398 Minor ethical problems include the topics of wakefulness, dream, death and etiquette. Wakeful persons are classified in XI.1.438 into three types, i.e., buddhas (arhats), abuddhas (monks) and sudarsana (pious householders). Wakefulness is a common topic in ancient India, which also occurs in the Acara 1.3.1.105 that munis always keep vigil while others (amunis) are always asleep. Householders' wakefulness is considered here in relation to their bimonthly pausadhopavasa. X1.1.438 is a part of the Sankha story which belongs to the final canonical stage (cf. XI.1.436-37 in D-2c). In XI.2.442 which is a part of the Jayanti story, MV expresses his view that irreligious persons are better off asleep, or weak and lazy, for they are otherwise harmful to themselves and to others, while religious persons are better vigilant, strong and dilligent, for they render services to community members (vaiyaurtya). We have already placed the Jayanti story in the fifth canonical stage (cf. C-1c-7). 399 X V1.6.576 divides dreams into five types, i.e., true to reality, extensive, accompanied by worry, untrue and indistinct. It says that dreams occur when one is half asleep, and that H.A' G are always asleep, A' are asleep or half asleep, M are wakeful, asleep or half asleep. The criterion here is obviously based on

Page #187
157 virati and avirati. The same treatment is made in sutra 577 as to samurta and asamorta of this and that class of beings. It continues to say that the dreams seen by ascetics with discipline (samurta) are true to reality, while those seen by indisciplined beings are true or not to reality. We assign the fifth canonical stage to these passages, which are used as an introduction to the succeeding sutras. 400 Then, XT1.7.495 classifies death into five kinds, i.e., avicika, avadhi, atyantika, bala (foolish) and pandita (wise). The first three are concerned with the exhaustion of ayus karma which belong to the fifth canonical stage (cf. E-3b-5). Wise death already occurred in the Acara 1.7.8. For the classification of fooiish death, the text refers to the Skandaka story in 1.1.90-95 where foolish death is divided into twelve kinds and wise death into two kinds, of which the former increases samsara and the latter decreases it. 401 Finally, XIV.3.505-6 touch upon a problem of etiquette, namely, that the heretical gods do not come to salute and honour the spiritually advanced monks but the orthodox Jaina gods do, and that the etiquette of welcoming a guest, saluting him receiving and offering him a seat, etc., is found in A'M.G (A' do not offer a seat), but not in the rest of beings. These passages are the unmistakable product of the final canonical period when the Jaina-centred world view was established and when daily life became regulated by formal etiquette as such in the social and cultural background of the late Gupta age.

Page #188
158 Part 2 (b) Ascetic Conduct 402 The problems to be handled in this part pertain to (1) Loyalty, (2) Alms food, (3) Supernatural power, and (4) Dispute with heretics. 403 (1) Loyalty Whether or not an ascetic is a loyal follower of the school is considered on the basis of (1) ascetic conduct and (2) the performance of alocana and pratikramana (reporting and repenting) particularly at the time of death. X. 2.398 calls a monk practising twelve bhiksupratimas loyal, and V.8.339 calls a monk obeying fivefold vyavaharas (monastic jurisprudence) loyal. X.2.398 makes a bracketed reference to the Da'sa'srutaskandha for twelve bhiksupratimas, and the Vyavahara X.276 enumerates fivefold vyavaharas. Theoretically speaking, both texts were composed in or after the second canonical stage. 404 The idea that heretics do not perform alocana and pratikramana is already mentioned in the Sutrakrta II.2, which must mean that they do not perform them in the same way as the Jainas. Their performance and the consequent receipt of due punishment seems to have become an established monastic practice from this period onwards. The observance of alocana and pratikramana by itself is a mild punishment, which is also a preliminary ceremony to receiving due monastic penalties such as tapas, cheda, mula and so on." Then it soon became a regular daily rite along with samayika, etc. On the doctrinal level, its performance is put in the frame of theory that it promotes purifying the soul by way of purging out bad karma. The purity of a soul at the moment of death has been traditionally weighed heavily in India, for it assures a reward of birth in heaven. The Jainas also adopted this traditional view and laid down a rule that the observance of alocana and pratikramana of the sins committed in one's life is a grave duty to be performed at the time of death. This became an important death ritual for the Jaina ascetics as well as laymen, and thus came to be considered as the criterion of loyalty. It is difficult to know when this criterion was established. It however makes a sudden appearance in the story texts. In all probability, it evolved in the process of Jaina ritual making during the fourth-fifth canonical stages. And this rule was probably imposed upon ascetics first, and must soon have been extended to householders. 405 Here is one passage regarding the ascetic practice of alocana and pratikramana involving the topic of loyalty with no relevancy to its performance at the time of death. VH.6.333 (cf. D-1b) justifies that an ascetic (monk or nun) is loyal as long as he has set out to report and repent the sins committed during his alms tour, whether touring outside or sojourning in a village to his elder monk, even if an unavoidable accidental circumstance prevented him from

Page #189
159 fulfilling his aim. The unavoidable circumstances illustrated here are: (1) his elder monk happens to have become unable to speak by the time of his arrival, or he himself happens to be in such a condition, and (2) his elder monk happens to be dead before his arrival, or he himself happens to be so. This passage was probably composed in the second canonical stage when solitary wandering was still practised. 406 The rest of the passages pertain to the problem of loyalty involving death bed performance of alocana and pratikramana. X.2.399 which is a non-dialogue text, reads that a monk is disloyal if he dies without confessing and repenting his sins in spite of previously having planned to do this at his death bed, or if he dies likewise thinking, "If even a layman can be born in heaven, why should a monk not be able to be born as an Anapannika deva even without doing this?" The Anapannikas make their appearance in a different list of Vyantara class in the Prajnapana 1.116, which side by side offers a popularly known list of this class including the Pisacas. The former list of this class obviously disappeared in later times. The Anapannikas must have been the popular Vyantara devas in the fourth stage, for the Prajnapana 11.119 takes them up for further description. We can place this text in the fourth canonical stage. A monk is said to be disloyal in V.6.209 if he dies without performing alocana and pratikramana of the fact that he cherished, proclaimed and taught that adhakarma is sin-free or he himself enjoyed such food or shared such food with others. The same rule is applicable to the cases of nine other types of forbidden food, i.e., krita-krta, sthapita, racita, kantara-bhakta, durbhiksabhakta, bardalika-bhakta, glana-bhakta, sayyatara-pinda and raja-pinda. This list is reported to make a partial appearance in the Jamali story in our Bhagavati, Jnatadharma and Aupapatika." V.6.209 is a non-dialogue text, which must have been drawn from another work. 11.4.159 (cf. supernatural power in D-2b-3) says that heretical monks are disloyal because they die without confessing and repenting the fact that they have practised magic. Likewise, XX.9.682-83 (cf. supernatural power in D-2b-3) read that a monk is disloyal if he dies without confessing and reporting the fact that he has made use of vidyacarana and janghacarana. Let us place all these texts in the fifth canonical stage. 408 We would like to dispose of 1.9.76 at the same time in this connection. The Parsvan monk Kalasyavesikaputra addresses the elder monks in MV's camp, "You do not know the practice of nor the meanings of samayika, pratyakhyana, samyama, samwara, viveka and vyutsarga", against which the latter protest that they are well acquainted with these, and explain that they are identical with 'atma'. The former in turn ask the latter, "In that case, why do you censure (garha) four kasayas upon abandoning them (cf. samayika formula)?" The elders reply this is because garha means samyama by

Page #190
160 which all dosas are to be wiped out. At this point Kalasyavesikaputra is converted to MV's school which teaches five vows along with pratikramana. Abhayadeva explains all these old technical terms in the sense of guna belong to atma, therefore from the standpoint of dravya these gunas are nothing but atma itself (cf. X1.10.466 in C-1b). This text belongs to the fifth canonical stage. 409 Incidentally, X IV.7.523 reads that an ascetic, who breaks fast out of hunger and out of sense and dies a natural death, can eat food without attachment and greediness in his next life. This text was perhaps composed with the motive of encouraging monks failing in samlekhana, which must have happened frequently. Fast-to-death, accepted by the Jainas, occurs from the genesis of their literature. And ascetics who intend to die such a death go through gradual preparation for it by way of their regular practice of penance, and thus they are not likely to fail in achieving the honour of religious death. Around the time of the Upasakadasa, samlekhana came to be also permitted to laymen in the stage of final pratima. Around this age, the method of Jaina tapas also developed to an extreme point as evinced in the Antakrt, for instance. The method of practising the art of religious death was thus fully developed during the fourth-fifth canonical stages. In view of all this, our text seems to be alluding to a layman in the highest pratima who is regarded as a monk, and who is liable to fail in a death fast due to his shortage of training in penance. Then, we can assign this text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. (2) Alms food 410 Regarding alms food, VI.6.332 (a non-dialogue text) instructs a monk that when food enough for two to ten persons is donated to himself and to his elders, but if he is not able to find his elders around, he should dispose of the food in a solitary and clean spot. Excess alms of bowls, wiping clothes, brooms, robes, blankets, sticks and litters are to be handled similarly. This text was probably composed at the age when the practice of lonely wandering was still kept alive. The Acara 1.1.10 ordains that a monk may give excess food to others upon obtaining a permission from his teacher. We can place this text in the second canonical stage. 411 We have already touched upon the list of forbidden food including adhakarma in V.6.209. The meanings of the following technical terms relevant to esana dosas are expounded in VI.1.267-69: (267) angala, dhuma and samyojana; (268) ksetratikranta, kalatikranta, margatikranta and pramanatikranta; (269) sastratita, 'sastra-parinamita, esita, vyesita and samudayika. Three terms in sutra 267 form a part of paribhogaisana dosas, which are said to appear in the canonical commentaries. Also in explaining sutra 269, technical terms such as nava-koti visuddha, tenfold esana dosas, udgama dosas and utpadana dosas are

Page #191
used, which are mainly reported to occur in the Pindaniryukti." VI.1.267-69 are to be placed in the final canonical stage. (3) Supernatural power 412 It is a belief of the Indians since very remote antiquity that the practice of penance produces superhuman power, from which the Jainas are no exceptions. 1.4.159 tells us that a spiritually advanced monk can fly over Mt. Vaibhara and the like only by attracting external matter particles. This ability is however used by heretical monks alone, and never by the Jaina monks. Because the former consume prepared food (pranita), their bones and marrow become strong but their flesh and blood become weak, it is explained, but this works in reverse in the case of the latter. A spiritually advanced monk is also said in 1.5.160 to be able to create forms such as a woman up to syandamanika and so on and so forth by attracting external particles. The range of his capacity of vikurvana is explained by way of a simile as in the case of devas. Here again heretics alone are said to make use of such ability. X 1.9.497, which refers to .4.159 and 11.5.160, says that a spiritually advanced monk can fly up with a water pot tied with a rope in hand, or can fly by assuming the posture of a bat, and so on and so forth. Then, VI.9.298 reads that an indisciplined monk can also produce colour and the like by attracting the external particles which exist in this middle world. It refers to the deva's capacity of vikurvana in V1.9.252 (cf. A-3-4), which goes in parallel with the present text. 413 Here we find a parallelism between devas' and monks' vikurvana as to capacity, range and means. Using external help as such is not required for the tapasvis in order to exercise their miraculous power. Therefore, the contents expressed in these passages must have become fashionable after the mythological development of devas' rddhi and vikurvana. And in both cases, heretics alone are condemned for the actual employment of their magical power as such. The Jaina monastic authorities have long since been warning their fellow monks not to engage in astrology, dream reading and so on (cf. Dasavaikalika VI, for instance) in order to maintain the standard of ascetic conduct distinguishable from non-Jaina practice. All these sutras belong to the final canonical stage. X .10.642 reads that a spiritually advanced monk can penetrate the blade of a sword or a knife but he would not be cut, because a weapon has no effect on him. This text is making use of the material in V.7.213 (cf. B-1), to which reference is made. It does not display a mythological tinge, and we place it in the fourth canonical stage. In XIV.9.536 a pious monk's capacities resulting from his penance during one month up to twelve months after his initiation is compared with tejo le's ya possessed by the gods ranging from Vyantara up to Anuttaropapatika. He is said to attain liberation at the end of twelve months' penance. Abhayadeva explains tejo le'sya in the sense of happiness. This text

Page #192
416 415 Finally, in XX.9.682-83 the two types of superhuman gait are treated, ie., vidyacarana and janghacarana. An explanation is made as to the possessors of these capacities, the types of tapas to produce them, their range and velocity. The Vyavahara X lists the now extinct work called Caranabhavana which is not enumerated in the Nandi (cf. Appendix I, Ch. I, note 15), and the original content of the Prasnavyakarana understood from the Sthana involves the magical powers as such. This topic then might have arisen in a slightly earlier age, e.g., the fourth canonical stage. These sutras under discussion seem to be well acquainted with the details of continent-oceans worked out in the Dvipasagara p., and we place them in the fifth canonical stage. V.4.199 treats the magical power possessed by a knower of the 14 Purvas, namely, that he can, for instance, produce a thousand jars from a single jar. It says that this capacity is acquired by utkarika-bheda labdhi. Utkarika appears as one of the five bhedas in the Prajnapana XI.399 and XII.418. Here we can read the canonical authors' attempt to mystify the 14 Purvadhara's ability. This text must belong to the early fifth canonical period (cf. F-2-2). 417 shares the same trends of thought-world developed in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 162 Let us dispose in this connection of a few texts relevant to a kevali's ability and nature. VI.10.254 has the heretics say none of the beings in Rajagrha can make an external display of their happiness and misery even of the size of a berry seed. MV retorts that no one in the world can by any means make an external display of the happiness and misery of beings. The word kevali is not used here at all, however the question as such must have been raised in relation to a person endowed with the highest capacity. A kevali can know and see everything in the three tenses of time, but he is incapable of outwardly displaying the internal happiness and misery of beings. The question as such may arise in a considerably later time, e.g., in the fourth-fifth stages. Then some heretics argue in XVI.7.631 that a kevali speaks untruth and truth-untruth when possessed by Yaksas, against which MV insists that a kevali can never be possessed by Yaksas and he always speaks truth or neither-truth-nor-untruth. This question is rather rudimentary as to the nature of a kevali, and we can place it in the late third canonical stage onwards. (4) Dispute with heretics. Let us now deal with the disputes held between the Jainas and the heretics on ethical issues. Heretics accuse the Jaina elders in VII.7.336 (cf. D-1b), saying that Jaina ascetics are trividham trividhena asamyata up to totally stupid', because they consider alms food which has not yet fallen in their vessels to be theirs (transgressing the vow of asteya), because they tread upon living beings. while walking the road (transgressing the vow of ahimsa), and because they

Page #193
163 say that they have not yet arrived at Rajagsha when they are arriving at it (transgressing the vow of satya). The Jaina elders defend themselves by way of the dictum 'kajjamane kade' that food in the process of being given equals food already given, that the Jaina ascetics walk carefully by way of repeatedly observing their kaya (-yoga), yoga (i.e., vac and manas, that is, without chatting or thinking) and the motion of their walking (riya), and that an action in the process of arriving at Rajagsha equals the completed action, thereby no transgression can be incurred. Then the Jaina elders return with the retort that the heretics are 'trividham trividhena asamyata up to totally stupid', because they prove themselves to be so by their own argument. X V1.8.639 virtually repeats the above account pertaining to ahimsa, where repartee is made by Gautama against the heretics. MV is highly pleased with him saying that many of his disciples would not be able to defend themselves as he has done. We would place both texts which do not involve later technicalities in the third canonical stage. We should note here that VI.7.336 refers to 1.5.107 (cf. D-3; fifth stage) and VI.2.270 (cf. D-2a-2; third stage) for varnakas. This is a typical example of how varnaka references are not always useful in determining the age of a text. 418 Somila, a Brahmin monk, attempts to defeat MV by asking a series of puzzling questions in X V1.10.645 as follows: (A) Whether MV assents to yatra, yapaniya, avyabadha and prasuka vihara; what their meanings are and how he practises them, and (B) Whether or not the following items are enjoyable or eatable: sarisava (in Sk. it has two meanings, (a) a friend of the same age, and (b) mustard), masa (Sk. masa is in Pk.: (a) masa or month, and (b) masa which means (1) a weight of gold-silver, and (2) a kind of beans), and kulattha (Pk. kulattha is in Sk.: (a) kulastha meaning a woman, and (b) kulattha meaning a kind of pulse). Question series B is, in essence a word game. Somila is converted upon hearing MV's reply. In the Jnatadharma I. 5, the Brahmin Suka similarly troubles Thavaccaputra with the same series of questions excluding yatra, and the former is likewise converted by hearing the latter's reply. 419 MV explains in our text that yatra means yatana which he practises by way of yoga such as tapas, niyama, samyama, svadhyaya, dhyana and ava'syaka, etc. Tapas, svadhyaya and dhyana are here separately enumerated, though they belong to the category of tapas. Ava'syaka in this context must denote six kinds of daily rite. Umasvati separately enumerates six Ava's yaka chapters in his T.S. The Anuyogadvara classifies utka lika into avas yaka class and nonava'syaka class, and the Nandi divides angabaya into ava'syaka class and nonava's yaka class. Also Bhadrabahu, who was Umasvati's younger contemporary, composed the Ava'syakaniryukti. From this it is assumed that the six independent Ava'syaka chapters were codified under the title Ava'syaka in the late final canonical stage. At any rate, we can safely place our Somila story in the

Page #194
164 fifth canonical stage. 420 Taking advantage of this occasion, we would like to make a review of the nature of heretical texts which exhibit the heretical positions on problems in various subject fields. 421 Heretical texts are largely dividable into two groups, i.e., one which involves Jamali and Ganga's nihnava issues and the other which has nothing to do with them. The former group includes: 1.9.75 (cf. E-3b-5), 1.10.80-81 (cf. D-la, D1b), 1.5.99 (cf. C-1c-4), V.3.182 (cf. E-3b-5), V.5.201 (cf. E-4), V1.10.256 (cf. E-3b-4), VI.7.336 (cf. D-1b, D-2b-4) and X V1.8.639 (cf. D-2b-4). We have already discussed the nature of these texts in D-1b, the theoretical importance of which is negligible. The latter group includes: 1.5.112 (cf. C-la) pertaining to the cause of the hot spring, V.6.207 (cf. C-2) pertaining to the thickly populated region, V1.10.254 (cf. D-2b-3) pertaining to the impossibility of displaying happiness and misery, VI.10.353 (cf. D-2a-1) pertaining to conduct and knowledge, X VI.2.594 (cf. D-2a-1) pertaining to the wise and the foolish, X VII.2.595 (cf. C1b) pertaining to the nature of jiva, and X V1.7.631 (cf. D-2b-3) pertaining to a kevali's speech. These texts each produce clear-cut Jaina positions in contrast to those held by the heretics, however the problems dealt with here are in general of minor importance. Neither can we distinguish, in most cases, to which school these heretics belong. 422 The Sutrakrta introduces many important heretical issues of the days when the Jainas had barely anything that could yet be called their own philosophical tenets. The Jainas entered the age of theorization in the succeeding third canonical stage, and they came to develop their own doctrinal system by way of absorbing and rejecting the thoughts of the other schools as we have previously examined. We should remember in this connection that many early non-Jaina concepts came to be utilized by the Jainas in considerably later stages when the Jainas had developled their own way of theorization by making use of them. Thus the important doctrinal concepts of the heretics that helped the formulation and development of the Jaina concepts came to be integrated into the Jaina doctrinal system itself, which therefore did not take the distinct form of the heretical texts. Perhaps for this reason, the heretical sutras in the Bhagavati are more or less of a minor nature. These heretical sutras were after all composed with the intention of showing the superiority of the relevant Jaina positions over their rivals. It is still noteworthy that the Bhagavati collects a good number of heretical sutras, which the later canonical texts do not contain. We should also note that the Bhagavati stories describe vividly and lively how the individual heretics met the Jaina monks for dispute in the classical period, which must have taken place daily in a similar manner in olden times.

Page #195
Part 2 (c) Lay Conduct 423 The Bhagavati stories describe the lay religious activities of various social classes in the classical period, the details of which we will not go into. Pratyakhyana of laymen along with some 'sila-vratas appears in the Sutrakrta II.7, which was perhaps finalized in its present form at a considerably later time, and the designation of pratyakhyana as anuvrata does not seem to occur until the Upasakado'sa. The Dasa'srutaskandha VI enumerates eleven upasaka pratimas which again probably belong to a considerably later time, for the Dasa'srutaskandha is primarily a text for ascetics. The later so-called anuvrata must have soon been distinguished from the mahavrata when it became the essential code of ascetic conduct. Samayika and pausadhopavasa might also have been practised by the laity before the age of the Upasakada'sa much as lay Buddhists had similarly been practising their observances in their own way. However, these come into vogue in the age of story composition, when the Upasakada'sa talks about twelve upasaka dharmas along with their aticaras, and enumerates eleven upasaka pratimas. We should also recall the stereotyped phrases such as 'Sama yika di 11 Angas' occurring in this age. This causes us to assume that these fundamental rules of lay conduct were seen as obligatory duties for all the lay community members in the age of church construction, i.e., in the fourth-fifth canonical stages, but samayika, etc., practised in the early age were not yet obligatory to each individual layman but probably voluntary. 424 It is said in VI.1.262 that if a layman, who has renounced himsa to animals or plants but not to earth-beings, accidentally happens to kill an animal or a root, he is not considered to be a transgressor of the vow. It is an old position of the Jainas that an unintentionally committed action is outside the rule of aticara. Similar illustrations also appear in the Sutrakrta 1.2 in relation to akasmad-danda. This text is not couched in any of the later technical terms, and we place it in the second-early third canonical stages. 425 Acceptance of the vow of gross renunciation means, it is said in VI.5.328, that a layman confesses his past wrong deeds (pratikramana), repels his present wrong deeds (samara) and renounces his future wrong deeds (pratyakhyana). It offers alternative possible combinations in observing fivefold gross renunciations by way of threefold karanas and threefold yogas in the three tenses of time, which amount to 735 different ways. This thought pattern resembles Umasvati's exposition of kriya made in the T.S. VI.9. We place this text in the fifth canonical stage. 426 In VI.1.261 (cf. D-la), it is said that a layman who observes samayika by staying at monks' upa'sraya (samanovasae) performs samparayika kriya but not iryapatha, because his soul is functioning as the agent of instruments

Page #196
166 (adhikarani). Likewise V1.5.327 reads that if a layman's personal properties such as his cloth and his wife were stolen and seduced while he is engaged in samayika in monks' upa'sraya, he surely searches for his personal belongings by considering them as his own, because he cannot renounce his mamatva or sense of possession, even though he practises samayika which precisely aims at the renunciation of mamatva. The latter text in particular casts ridicule upon laymen in that they are incapable of practising samayika even for a moment. These texts must have been composed at the time when samayika became an established obligatory duty to all individual laymen. A mention of upa's raya does not occur even in the fourth canonical stage. We assign these texts to the fifth canonical stage. 427 How laymen observed bimonthly pausadhopavasa is vividly described in the Sarkha story in XI.1.436-37. Here Sankha, contradicting the agreement made with his friends to take a full meal before the fortnightly fast, fasts in the pausadhasala observing chastity, abandoning all ornaments and weapons, and keeping awake throughout the night on darbha grass. Taking a full dinner before the day of pausadha was thus common practice at that time. XI.1.439 of the Sarka story refers to 1.1.18 (cf. E-3a-3), therefore our text belongs to the fifth canonical stage. 428 With reference to the donation of food, VI.1.263 reads that a layman, by offering pure food to worthy monks, either Jaina or Brahmin, gives them peace, at the same time gaining peace for himself, and by so doing he can renounce life, renounce things difficult to renounce... and finally attain emancipation. V1.6.331 says that if a layman offers pure food to worthy recipients, it ensues nirjara alone but not binding bad karma, that if he offers impure food to worthy recipients, it ensues more nirjara than binding bad karma, and that if he offers pure or impure food to unworthy recipients, it results in binding bad karma alone but not nirjara. Whether the recipients are worthy or not is considered here more important than the purity or otherwise of the object of donation. This idea must belong to later ages, because purity or impurity of food was the main topic discussed in olden times. The T.S. VII.34, relevant to dana, is derived from the Bhagavati XV.540, which belongs to the fifth stage. Also Umasvati probably consulted the content expressed in VI.1.263 in composing his T.S. VI.33. We place these texts in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. VII.5.329 which is a non-dialogue text offers the following information: (1) The Ajivikas hold the principle that all beings eat living beings, therefore they take it for granted that beings survive by killing other beings; (2) List of twelve lay Ajivikas, whose teacher is Go'sala; (3) The five prohibited fruits and the fifteen prohibited occupations of lay Ajivikas; and (4) Rebirth of lay Ajivikas. All this information was probably collected here in one place to justify that lay Ajivikas are to be born in heaven (cf. D-3). The five forbidden udumbara fruits appear

Page #197
167 in the post-canonical literature relevant to lay Jaina conduct, and the fifteen forbidden jobs make their precise appearance in the Sravaka Avasyaka IV.7. The canonical authors began to show their interest in the Ajivikas in the age of story texts, e.g., in the Upasakada'sa, when the Ajivika school was in decline but the Jainas entered the final stage of church construction. In all probability, these lay Jaina rules of abstinence from eating five udumbara fruits and prohibition from engaging in fifteen professions were borrowed from the Ajivika school. The lay Jainas must have also been bound by some similar rules by that time, but which were not yet formalized. We place this text in the early fifth canonical stage. 430 Material relevant to the rules of lay conduct is not at all rich in the Bhagavati, but can be supplemented by the abundant stories composed for the benefit of householders. This holds true likewise for the other canonical texts composed in the fourth-fifth stages, and it is in the post-canonical period that the minute injunctions and prohibitions relevant to lay conduct were laid down. The Jaina canonical texts of the early age totally neglected the problems of laymen, probably because MV expected extraordinarily austere ascetic practice from his followers by absolutely condemning the value of worldly life. There is a strong undercurrent here insisting that Jainism, which stands on strict ahimsa practice, is primarily a religion for ascetics. 431 As we have noted in Ch. I, Sec.1, the Buddhist monks adopted the settled life as early as the 4th century B.C., which naturally prompted earlier education of the laity and the formulation of the rules of lay conduct. The Jaina monks, strict followers of MV's teachings, kept on wandering around from place to place without settling down in one place, except in the rainy season. Frequent and long lasting contact between lay Jainas and ascetics began at Mathura as archaeological remains show, thenceforth the Jaina monks must have began to show a serious concern for establishing lay rules and producing lay literature. Thus the process of the education of the laity and the formulation of lay rules took a dilatory course for the Jainas.

Page #198
432 433 434 Part 3 Rebirth and Liberation 168 We have touched upon this theme of rebirth and liberation here and there in the previous sections as required by circumstances. According to MV's world view, the criterion for whether one repeats or cuts off samsara was as a whole based on the performance of himsa or ahimsa. This simple criterion developed into complexity in accordance with the doctrinal development made in various branches of knowledge in the subsequent course of time, and it came to be framed in the theory of karma that the presence or absence of karma decides whether one is to go through samsara or to achieve moksa. Thus nirjara of the total karma matter in eight types can release one from samsara, otherwise one is destined to remain in the cycle of rebirth. Meanwhile, a rule was established by the fourth canonical period that the acquisition of kevala jnanadarsana is the proviso for accomplishing emancipation. Added to this by the time of Umasvati was that acquisition of the knowledge of the 14 Purvas is a necessary requirement for the same. And since the Purvas are said to have long since been lost, Jaina idealism of moksa came to be at a loss. This was rescued by way of creating a rule that it is attainable to anyone who takes birth in Mahavideha. Needless to say, this escape into the mythological sphere is a desperate excuse that the Jaina theoreticians had to make in order to defend the raison d'etre of their religious sect. Let us leave aside the texts relevant to this theme which have already been handled in the previous sections. II.1.87 reads that if a Jaina monk who takes pure food has not reduced or cut off the cycle of rebirth and feeling(vedaniya) towards samsara, and if he has not yet attained his end-in-view, he must repeat transmigration: but he who acts up in the opposite ways is said in sutra 89 to accomplish salvation. Sutras 88 and 89 offer synonyms of samsari jiva (cf.II. 2.663 in B-2) and siddha. I.9.74 enumerates laghavikam, alpopadhikam, amurccha, agrddha, apratibaddha and akasaya in four divisions to be the praiseworthy qualities for a monk. It is said that after a monk becomes free from kanksa-praduesa (raga-doga), he will be soon released from the misery of samsara. All these sutras seem to belong to the late third-fourth canonical stages. XVII.3.599 enumerates ideal ethical concepts such as samwega which lead a monk to emancipation. These numerous categorical items relevant to ascetic ethics and conduct are in the majority found in the Uttara XXIX (Samyaktuaparakrama) which belongs to the final canonical stage. Sutras II.5.106-11, which are composed in a story style, have the Parsvan elders saying that samyama and tapas performed in the previous life, karma and attachment (sangi, having attachment) are the causes that lead one to devaloka (cf. T.S. VI.20). This is approved by MV. In continuation of the Parsvan elders' exposition of the results of samyama-tapas, MV preaches the causal relation held

Page #199
169 among paryupasana, sravana, jnana, vijnana, pratyakhyana, samyama, anasrava, tapas, vyavadana (nirjara), akriya and siddhi. Each one of them from 'sravana up to akriya stands in such a way that it is the result of the previous item as well as the cause of the succeeding item. The items 'sravana and vijnana can be somewhat traceable in the Uttara XXIX.23-24, pratyakhyana and anasrava in its 13, and samyama up to siddhi in its 26-28 exactly as they are. Paryupasana is of course postulated here in this actual scene of gathering in the story. The content expressed in our passages seems to have improved the material in the Uttara IXX, or they were composed in trends of the same thought. We place them in the final canonical stage. It should be noted in this regard that 1.5.106 describes Jaina laymen as being well acquainted with the principles of jiva-ajiva-punya-papa-a srava-samvara-nirjara -kriya-adhikaranabandha-moksa. 435 X V1.6.579 enumerates 14 dreams which lead one to salvation as follows: (A) (1) dreaming oneself mounting a herd of horses, etc., (2) picking up a rope extended over the ocean from the east to the west, (3) cutting a rope extended over Lokanta from the east to the west, (4) disentangling knots of white and black threads, (5) mounting on heaps of silver and gold, etc., (6) scattering hay, etc., (7) pulling out and throwing away the stalks of reeds and bamboo, etc., (9) entering a pond full of blooming lotus, (10) crossing a wavy ocean, (11) entering a house built of precious stones, (12) mounting the celestial car made of jewels; (B) (1) mounting on a heap of iron and copper, etc., and (2) breaking a jar of wine and sour gruel, etc. These are made up of symbolism relevant to popular belief and karma theory. Immediate emancipation is said to follow from dreaming of the items in the group (A), while emancipation is promised within two lives by dreaming of those in the group (B). This nondialogue text is a continuation of the topic of dreams seen by MV on the eve of his moksa told in the previous sutra 578 (cf. F-1-1). XVI.6.579 falls in the fifth canonical stage. It is interesting to see that the Jaina theoreticians expanded the criterion of moksa to this extent under the sway of the general trends current in those days. 436 It is said in V.6.210 that an acarya and an upadhyaya who have unwearyingly served their gana by way of helping students shall attain liberation in this life or in their third birth at the latest. This passage may belong to the time when the canonical authors were attempting to consider the attainment of moksa of people by their kind of occupation. This probably occurred in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. X1.8.459 reads that animals such as a monkey, a cock, and a frog that are devoid of sila, vrata, guna, marya da, pratya khya na and pausadhopavasa are reborn in Ratnaprabha as infernal beings. It is similarly said to be true with those such as a lion that are described in VII.6.286-87 (X), which draw its materials from the Jambudvipa p. [..36. This passage thus belongs to the fifth canonical stage. There is, however, something wrong in the

Page #200
170 transmission of its original text; possibly some lines are missing here." 437 1.1.19 talks about one who is asamyata up to non-renunciant of bad actions. If such a man happens to perform parisahajaya over thirst, hunger, brahmacarya, cold, heat and so on accidentally and involuntarily, he shall be born in Vyantaraloka (cf. A-1-2). The text seems to be speaking of non-Jainas who happen to perform penances similar to those prescribed for Jaina monks, or it may be speaking of lay Jainas who came to endure things under certain circumstances. This text may belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 1. 5.160 informs that a heretical monk with spiritual advancement who dies without performing alocana-pratikramana is to be born as an abhiyogika deva (servant god), but a Jaina monk who duly performs this death rite shall be born in heaven not as an abhiyogika deva. This text was composed in connection with monks' vikurvana (cf. D-2b-3), which is to be placed in the fifth canonical stage. V1.5.329 says that the lay Ajivikas who shun the five kinds of fruits and do not engage in the fifteen kinds of professions involving himsa are to be born in heaven. We have already placed it in the final canonical stage (cf. D-2c). The reward of heaven is made here on the basis of ahimsa. 438 The Prajnapana XX.567 lists precise celestial regions in which the following fourteen types of beings and persons are to be born: asamyata-bhavya-dravya-deva, one not opposed to samyama, one opposed to samyama, one not opposed to samyama-asamyama, one opposed to samyama-asamyama, asan ini, ta pasa, kandarpika, caraka-parivrajaka, kilbisika, tiryanca, Ajivika, abhiyogika, and svalirgi but dar'sana-vyapanna (i.e., nihnavaka). This list must be the conclusive account of the individual cases which were independently worked out in the Bhagavati and other texts. Such being the case, this Prajnapana passage must have been added at a slightly later time. Its 566, which talks about cakravarti, etc., is also a later accretion. 439 There are a few historical stories in the Bhagavati, of which the purpose is to show what kinds of action cause what kinds of future life, or to exhibit the life chronology of some beings. VI.9.299-303 narrate two wars fought by king Konika against eighteen tribal kings of Kasi and Kausala. It is said that the 8,400,000 people who were killed in the war of great stones (maha'sila kantaka sangrama which was helped by Sakra) were born as animals and infernal beings, and that out of the 9,600,000 killed in the war of chariots with maces (ratha-mu'sala sangrama helped by Sakra and Camara), 10,000 were born in a fish as its roe, Varuna who died as an exemplary Jaina monk went to heaven, his friend who died as a lay Jaina took rebirth in a good family as a man, and the rest became animals and infernal beings. The past and future lives of King Konika's two elephants, Udayi and Bhutananda, are mentioned in X VI.1.589; they were Asurakumaras in the past, and they are to be born next in Ratnaprabha as hellish beings, then upon taking birth as men in Mahavideha

Page #201
they are destined to be released from samsara. 440 X VI.1.589 must have been composed in relation to the story of King Konika, about whom the Jainas talk eagerly with special favour in the age of story composition. VI.9.299-303 refer to the Aupapatika for varnaka. Sataka XV. 553 also records maha'sila kantaka sangrama as one of the eight carama vastus of Go'sala. The stories of Konika's wars which are entwined with mythological elements are said to differ from the commentaries on the Nandi and Uttara on the one hand, and the Nirayavalika on the other. There are no other literary or archaeological sources in both Jaina and non-Jaina traditions to check upon the historicity of these two wars, which therefore remain a complete mystery. We place both of the texts above in the fifth canonical stage. 441 X 11.6.490-91 narrate that King Udayana (here already converted as so known from XI.2.440-41) was initiated by MV into the Jaina order of monks, upon having enthroned his nephew Kesi instead of his real son Abhici. He did this fearing that his son's worldly attachments might spoil his future life. King Udayana attained immediate liberation. Abhici, who cherished a grudge against his father and died without performing alocana and pratikramana which he should have done as a lay Jaina, was born as an Asurakumara, and then attained emancipation from Mahavideha in the succeeding birth. This text again belongs to the fifth canonical stage. As to the uncertainty of its historicity, readers may be interested in the account offered by Deleu in his Viyahapannatti, p.44. 442 S+ Stories and episodes collected in the Bhagavati are usually accompanied by distinct signs at their beginning and ending which take the form of a stereotyped prologue and epilogue, often involving the change of places and persons coming into the scene. These are largely dividable into two groups, i.e., one concerned with showing the theoretical discussions, and the other attempting to illustrate the future rebirth or liberation of the persons, which may or may not involve discussion of theoretical topics. In the case of conversion stories, theoretical topics are, as a rule, offered for debate, in order to prove that the heretics were converted due to their inferior positions concerning relevant problems. Both categories of stories are aimed at edifying laymen at large, and are in the majority composed in the late canonical age, as evident from the reciprocal references made between the Bhagavati stories and other canonical stories. 443 Bhagavati stories belonging to the first group are as follows: (1) The cases in which heroes are on the side of MV's camp: 1.6.53 (Roha), I.3.149-53 (Manditaputra), V.4.188 (Gautama and two gods), V.8.220 (Naradaputra and Nirgranthiputra) and XVI.3.617-21 (Makandiputra); (2) The cases in which heroes are on the side of Parsva's camp: 1.5.106-11 (Par's van elders).

Page #202
172 These stories are not attempting to show the problem of their rebirthliberation, and are therefore outside our present consideration. 444 The stories and episodes belonging to the second group are composed with a definite intention of showing who attains liberation or rebirth when and where and for what reasons. Their plots are generally well calculated for dramatic effect, often bringing in mythological elements in order to appeal to a popular audience. Included in this category are the stories which we have just discussed in this part D-3 and those which are treated separately in each subject field. Now let us make a cursory review of the rest of the stories in continuation. The heroes and heroines of these stories are either Jainas or non-Jainas. The Jainas may belong to MV's camp or Parsva's camp. And the stories relevant to the Parsvans and the heretics are composed with an obvious motivation of showing their conversion to MV's camp and their consequent rebirth or liberation. 445 The heroes and heroines on the side of MV's camp are either ascetics or laymen. Laymen cannot achieve liberation unless they are initiated into the order of ascetics. Immediate liberation in this life is forecasted for the following ascetics: MV and Gautama in XIV.7.520 (cf. F-1-3, actually this text does not take the form of a story), Atimuktaka who is a child monk in V.4.187 (cf. F-13), Jayanti who becomes a nun in XI.2.440-42 (cf.C-1c-7, D-2a-3, F-1-2), and Sudarsana (his past as Mahabala, Brahmaloka deva) who becomes a monk in X1.11.423-31 (cf.A-2, F-2-3). The following lay Jainas become monks in this life, and will be born in Saudharma Kalpa in their next life, then in Mahavideha to attain their end: Rsibhadraputra in XI.12.432-34(cf. C-1c-5), Sankha in XI.1.43639 (cf. D-2a-3, D-2c, E-3a-3) and Madruka in X V1.7.633 (cf. B-2). Gangadatta in Maha'sukra (X V1.5.572-75; cf. A-3-4, D-1b) and Sakra (X V1.2.616; cf. A-3-4), who were formerly the Jaina ascetics, will be born in Mahavideha to achieve salvation. Jamali in IX.33.382-89 (cf. D-1b, F-1-2), who is a dissident, is predicted as being born as a kilvisika deva in Brahmalokanta, then upon repeating his lives as an animal and man for four or five times, he will be released from samsara. 446 As to the converts from Parsva's camp, Kalasyavesikaputra (1.9.76; cf. D-2b1) and Gangeya (IX.32.370-78; cf. C-2) are said to accomplish their end immediately. Some elders converted from Parsva's side in V.9.225 (cf. A-1-2) are likewise said to attain immediate emancipation, and some others to attain birth in heaven. 447 As to the converts from the heretical schools, mostly Brahmanical, the follow ing ascetics are said to achieve immediate salvation in the present life: Kalodayi in VI.10.304-7 (cf. B-1, B-2, D-la, E-2), Rsabhadatta and Devananda (who were already converted to Jainism) in IX.33.379-81 (cf. F-1-2), Siva in XI.

Page #203
173 9.416-18 (X) and Pudgala in XI.12.435 (cf. C-1c-5). Skandaka in 1.1.90-95 (cf. A-1-1, C-1b, D-2a-3) is to be born in Acyuta Kalpa, then in Mahavideha to attain moksa. Somila in X V1.10.645-46 (cf. C-1b, D-2b-4) is told to be first born in Saudharma, then in Mahavideha to achieve liberation. Go'sala in XV (cf. F1-4) who dies by avowing his errors is to attain Acyuta Kalpa, then going through all the other forms of existence, he is finally released from samsara. King Isana (his past as bala-tapasvi Mauryaputra in 1.1.133-40; cf. A-3-3) and King Camara (his past as bala-tapasvi Purana in 1.2.141-48; cf. A-3-4) are predicted to be born in Mahavideha to attain salvation. 448 In allotting rebirth or liberation to these heroes and heroines, the canonical authors discriminated least between the long standing orthodox Jaina ascetics and the newly converted ascetics. The punishment of a dissident for nihnava is very heavy, which is a universal practice in any institution. Go'sala who is said in XV to be MV's disciple is here treated like a nihnava case. MV's followers honoured Parsva's followers who were apparently the minority, but they did not seem to have ever mixed with each other. 449 TL These stories relevant to various classes of people are reducible to several typestories or case-stories such as ascetics stories, laymen stories, heretical stories, historical stories, conversion stories, and nihnava stories, upon the basis of which the Jaina authors continued to compose numerous stories and episodes in the canonical and post-canonical ages. And the canonical authors, as a rule, offer a full account of a certain type-story only at the beginning, then in giving a similar description later, they simply refer to it in order to avoid repetitions. The Third Valabhi Council is responsible for this varnaka method. Varga style is a typical example developed from a similar mode of composition, which is also adopted in writing philosophical treatises. This technique naturally developed in the late canonical age while reworking or compiling the earlier materials. Some of these Bhagavati stories record various heretical practices of penance prevalent in the classical period, which are valuable materials from the historical point of view.

Page #204
174 SECTION E KARMA Part 1 A Preliminary Review 450 The Jaina theory of karma took a long course of development. The Prajnapana (XXII - XXVII, cf. Ch. I, Sec. IV; XXI.2 is a later accretion) conducts a discussion of the karma theory in terms of bandha-vedana within the class of mula prakrtis, and uttara prakrtis are here in only the early stage of formulation. This text is not even acquainted with the well-known fourfold divisions of karma bandha by prakrti-sthiti-anubhava-pradesa, in which prade's a bandha is kept totally intact, and anubhava is discussed in the sense of karmic fruition but not in the sense of the intensity of karma bandha. This is quite natural in the context of the history of theorization, because the four standpoints by dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava, after which the bandha quadruplet was formulated, came to be thoroughly established only in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. The standard list of uttara prakrtis was finalized in the fifth canonical stage by the time of Umasvati, and the fourfold types of karma bandha was formulated by the time of the Uttara XXXIII. 451 In the immediate post-canonical age, the Satkhandagama for the first time conducts a discussion of bandha-udaya-satta of both mula and uttara prakrtis in terms of the sthana triplet, i.e., 14 jivasthanas, 14 marganasthanas and 14 gunasthanas. Thence the technicalities of karma theory develop noticeably up to the early medieval age. However, the karma doctrine represented here in the Gommatasara, for instance, is a product of scholasticism, which deals with it in terms of a complicated mathematical computation, that even advanced readers fail to understand. This fantastic product of the Jaina theory of karma must be correlative with their pessimistic reality of salvation that no one after Jambu can attain moksa anymore. It appears as if the karma specialists in those days attempted to bury this utter vacuity of reality in an equally fantastic abstraction of the karma theory in order to defend the raison d'etre of Jainism itself. 452 This itself is enough for us to grasp how slowly the doctrine of karma took the course of its development. According to MV's world view, vaira works as the principle of retribution and as the cause of transmigration within the purview of arambha or himsa. The Sutrakrta 1.2.1.4, for instance, expresses the idea that beings are seized by self-wrought deeds, which is stated in the same context of the vaira theory. According to the later doctrine of karma, eight mula prakrtis with so many subtypes are the determinants of the total personality of & being, either psychological, physical, spiritual or social. These karma prakrtis thus represent the universal make-up of beings in samsara. Here the concept of arambha or himsa totally recedes into the background as an impor tant cause of binding some karma prakrtis (cf. T.S. VI.16 and 18), and these

Page #205
175 numerous karma prakrtis are pushed forward as the determinant causes of retribution and transmigration. Strictly speaking, the principle of vaira remains as the remote source for the evolution of the so-called karma theory of the Jainas. And the concept of rajas or mala occurring in the late first canonical stage, which even though it proves an advancement made in casting off the remnant of the primitive notion of vaira, largely shares the same circle of thought as the vaira theory. 453 Upon entering the second canonical stage, the concept of vaira was replaced by the concept of kriya which is inevitably the cause of inviting vaira. As we have previously examined, the canonical authors in the second stage onwards engaged in formulating and illustrating the categorical kriya groups such as 18 kriyas. And with the entry in the third canonical stage, they turned their keen attention to the character-analysis of beings, which can be ultimately reducible to various types of kriyas in a broad sense, e.g., physical, cognitive, emotive, conative, affective, and so on." Such an inquiry falls beyond the narrow sense of kriya expressed in terms of categorical kriya groups, which therefore remained in the field of ethics alone and eventually ceased its development. On the other hand, the majority of mula and uttara karma prakrtis and the contents of the sthana triplet came out of numerous anuyoga items formulated in the process of the character-analysis of beings, which thus became the direct source for the development of the karma doctrine. The concept of kriya in narrow sense thus stands in a transitory position between the principle of vaira and the karma theory. And we should remember that these formal kriya groups were frequently discussed with the same language of karma theory. 454 The Jainas began to develop their scheme of pudgala in the third canonical stage, without which the theory of karma could have never been advanced. A serious inquiry into the nature of pudgala naturally called for a serious investigation into the nature of jiva, and vice versa. Here the Jainas were ready to grasp the distinct nature of jiva, pudgala and karma as well as the relation between them, which are again absolutely essential in dealing with the theory of karma. It thus appears that the evolution of the so-called karma doctrine in the most rudimentary stage began in the third canonical period. e of jiva, en pudgala natud have neve 455 All this lucidly explains why the Jaina theory of karma had to take a dilatory course of development after the other branches of knowledge had been well advanced. The doctrine of karma expresses in a theoretical form the essence of Jainism developed in religious, ethical and ontological fields, culminating in the principle of tattvas which evolved in the final canonical stage. It thus made a rapid advancement in the immediate post-canonical stage, which had enough vitality to keep on developing until the medieval age. For Private & Personal use only.

Page #206
176 Part 2 Karma - Nature and Mechanism 456 It is maintained in XVI.2.568 that caitanya is the agent of karma bandha. The reason forthcoming is that a jiva eats matter and accumulates it in his 'sarira, which then transforms accordingly. Likewise he accumulates karma matter (pudgala), which transforms into hardship, discomfort, illness, mental occupation (sankalpa) and death. All this is caused by caitanya but not by acaitanya. This exposition is couched in non-technical terms, and we place this text in the third canonical stage. Then, X VI.4.601 expounds that a being in any class binds and experiences misery wrought by himself, and that his vedana is self* wrought and he experiences vedana wrought by himself. This is a basic position of the karma theory. The method of discussion by taking up beings in this and that class, which is usual in the fourth canonical stage, must have commenced in the third canonical stage. We assign the third canonical period to this text. 457 X1.5.451 reads that a single being as well as the world (jagat; jiva-samuha, according to Abhayadeva) transform into various states because of karma, but not because of akarma (without karma). This again belongs to the fundamental theory of karma. This text along with sutra 450 (cf. C-la) are referred to in XX.3.665 for its total content. A similar idea is expressed in XIV.6.517 in the following way. All the beings eat matter which then undergoes changes, and they are born of material yonis and attain life-span due to matter. Similarly, they obtain their states of existence and life span, and undergo transformation by binding karma matter. Karma is examined here on the analogy of ahara and pudgala parinama, as in the case of X V1.2.568 above. These texts belong to the early stratum of karma theory, which we assign to the third canonical stage excepting XX.3.665 that we place to the third-fourth canonical stages. 458 VI.8.294 explains that beings in all classes are in a state of happiness when all miseries made in the three tenses of time are exhausted. Likewise, XIV.4.510 says that a being undergoes transformation by way of suffering at times, not suffering at times, and both suffering and not suffering at times. But when miseries are experienced and exhausted, he remains in his everlasting original nature. VI.3.278 offers the explanation that beings in all classes experience karma and purge out no-karma, and thereby vedana differs from nirjara, which each take place at a different time. The distinction between karma and no-karma must have been made at the earlier stage of karma history when karma was examined in the context of pudgala. This distinction generally disappears in the later age. These discussions relevant to vedana and nirjara made in the texts above are all elementary, and we allot to them the third canonical stage. 459 The following passages express the mechanism of karmic process. 1.1.8 (cf.

Page #207
177 D-1b) reads that calama ne calie, udirijama ne udirie, veijjama ne veie and pahijjamane pahine belong to utpanna paksa, while chijjamane chinne, bhijjamane bhinne, daddhamane (dejjhamane) daddhe, mijjamane mae and nijjarijjamane nijjinne belong to vigata paksa. The distinction of the phenomenon called prahana or the state of losing karmic efficacy immediately following vedana came to be disregarded in later times. Here 'udirie' denotes udaya, but not udirana or the earlier maturation of karma prior to its natural development into udaya. Vigata paksa is largely considered on the analogy of the atomic decomposition, which must have occurred in the early stage of karma theory, i.e., the third canonical stage. 460 An idiomatic sentence, 'eyati veyati calati phandai ghattai khubbhai udirai tam tam bhavam parinamati' occurs in 1.3.152 (cf. D-la, E-3a-3) in relation to beings' vibration, in V.7.212 (cf. B-1) in relation to atom-composite, in X VI.3. 597 (cf. C-1c-2) in relation to sailesi, and in X V1.3.620 (cf. E-3a-3) in relation to papa karma. 'Veyati' here must mean 'vepana' but not 'vedana', thus 'eyati' through 'udirai' expresses the process of kriya-asrava-bandha-udaya. The application of this idiomatic passage to the subject matter of atom-composite clearly suggests that the karmic process as such was originally considered in the context of pudgala. Also 'jiva kim bamdhae kim pakareti kim cinati kim uvacinati?' occurring in XV.1.439 (cf. E-3a-3) expresses the process of karma bandha through satta. 461 It is said in 1.3.27 that beings in all classes bind kanksamohaniya karma by way of 'sarvena sarvam' (" by a whole, a whole is bound"; "a whole" meaning "the entire soul pradesas", cf. V.7.215 in B-1). The succeeding sutra 28 reads that beings bind kanksamohaniya karma in the three tenses of time which is likewise true with its upacaya, udaya, vedana and nirjara. These texts are concerned with kanksamohaniya, however the theory expressed here is applicable to all the karma prakrtis. Thus the mode of karmic bandha-upacayaudaya-vedana-nirjara takes place constantly by the entire soul pradesas. 1.3. 27-28 belong to the fifth canonical stage (cf. E-3b-2). 462 VI.1.265 reads that a suffering jiva in any class is touched by misery, grasped by misery, experiences misery and purges it out, but not in the case of an unsuffering jiva in any class. According to the old idea, H are constantly in a state of pain, and G are constantly in a state of happiness. However, when mythological accounts went on developing in the way that G fight among themselves and so on (cf. A-3), this idea also took the course of change that H experience ekanta duhkha but occasionally sata also, and G do ekanta sata but occasionally asata also (cf. VI.10.256 and VI.6.282 in E-3b-4). "An unsuffering jiva in any class" must be expressing the later idea as such. We place this text in the fifth canonical stage.

Page #208
178 4631.3.35 reads that when one maturizes karma (udirana) he develops immature karma into a state of maturity, then he censures himself (garha) and carefully guards himself (sanwara) with effort and will, that when one subsides karma (upa's ama) he subsides immature karma, then he censures... with effort and will, that when he experiences karma he experiences already matured karma, then he censures... with effort and will, and that when he expels karma he expels that which has just brought about its fruit, then he censures... with effort and will. Here the text takes up the ethical principles such as samwara and garha in the essentially ontological context of karmic udirana, upa'sama, vedana and nirjara. Samwara is primarily an ontological principle denoting the stoppage of karmic inflow, the equivalent term of which in the field of ethics is samyama. However, the text here uses this term samvara in the sense of samyama inasmuch as garha expressed here denotes a mild punishment in the field of tapas. It is already symptomatic here that the then direction was heading towards the later formulation of tattvas. The concept of udirana does not occur in the early stage of karma history, and we would assign this text to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. We should recall that 11.5.106 (cf. D-3) de. scribes the Jaina laymen as well acquainted with the principles of jiva-ajivapunya-papa-asrava-samvara-nirjara-kriya-adhikarana-bandha-moksa. 464 The Jaina theoreticians show interest in determining who are liable to gain maha or alpa of (karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana. The Prajnapana X VI.1 takes up the problem whether beings in this and that class are sama-vedana and sama-kriya, which stands in a less advanced stage than the ones that are taken up below. X V1.5.626 reads that in one and the same class of beings (H.A.M.G) abiding in the same abode, heretics are liable to gain (maha karma-) kriyaasrava-vedana but orthodox Jainas alpa kinds as such. X X.5.654 reads that H.A.M in the final life span subject to alpa (karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana but those in the beginning life span to maha karma up to vedana, while this is the opposite in the case of G (because G are destined to be born as AS and M). These texts must fall in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 465 V1.10.306 discusses that he who lights fire is liable to have maha (karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana, while another who extinguishes fire is liable to gain alpa kinds as such, because by lighting fire he commits samarambha to a greater number of beings, either trasa or sthavara, than by extinguishing it. This text is part of the kalodayi story which we placed in the fifth canonical stage. V. 6.204 conducts a similar discussion, and we may assign it to the fourth-fifth stages. 466 V1.3.232 offers the idea that he who subjects to maha (karma-) kriya-asrava vedana binds matter particles (i.e., karma matter) in all directions, accumulates them constantly, and experiences pain and undergoes changes just as a fresh piece of cloth absorbs impure matter particles, but he who subjects to For Private & Personal use only .

Page #209
alpa karma, etc., cuts them off and experiences happiness just as a dirty piece of cloth leaves off impure matter particles when washed. This text introduces here the concept of varnavadhya karma (cf. E-36-3). V1.3.232 is accompanied by a gatha covering the topic in Udde'saka 3 which includes sutras belonging to the fifth canonical stage. Hence this text is assignable to the final canonical period. Likewise, the hellish beings in the seven earths are discussed in XII. 3.474 in relation to maha-alpa (karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana-rddhi-dyuti, and we assign it to the fourth-fifth stages. X IX.4.653. computes alternative combinations of maha-alpa asrava-kriya-vedana-nirjara, which yields sixteen different types. H are said to have maha a srava-kriya-vedana and alpa nirjara, G have maha asrava-kriya and alpa vedana-nirjara, while A and M may have all kinds of alternative combinations. Here we note that kriya is reckoned after asrava, which must be an error made in the process of transmitting the text. Nirjara is a topic which is not properly handled even in the Prajnapana, and a discussion of the quantity of nirjara generally occurs in the final canonical stage. We can place this text in the fifth canonical period. 467 VI.1.230 says that monks practising pratimas attain maha vedana-nirjara, hellish beings in the 6th and 7th earths attain maha vedana and alpa nirjara, monks in the state of saile'si attain alpa vedana and maha nirjara, and Anuttaropapatika devas attain alpa vedana-nirjara. This text was composed obviously after V1.1.228 which reads that maha vedana means maha nirjara and maha nirjara means maha vedana (because as much karma is experienced so much karma has to be expelled by the end of samsara), however praiseworthy nirjara is the best whether vedana is maha or alpa. It continues to explain that hellish beings in the 6th and 7th earths subject to maha vedana, but their nirjara is not as much as that of the monks. The reason forthcoming is that hellish beings bind karma tightly (gadha) therefore they cannot expel them easily in great quantity upon experiencing it, while ascetics bind karma loosely ('slista), and therefore they can easily purge it out in great quantity. Gadha bandha and 'slista bandha are illustrated by similes of difficulty and easiness of washing a mud-stained cloth and a dust-stained cloth, difficulty of beating off fragments of an anvil, easiness of burning hay and speed of evaporating water dropped on red hot iron. Thus nirjara derived by 'slista bandha is praiseworthy as it quickens the end of samsara. These texts belong to the fifth canonical stage. 468 We can recognize in these texts above that vedana-nirjara form a distinct categorical couplet. Asrava is taken up in relation to kriya, both of which are virtually synonymous, the one expressing the ontological aspect and the other expressing the ethical aspect of the same phenomenon. Bandha is usually coupled with moksa as evinced in 1.5.106. We have already observed how the concept of samwara was pushing its way towards this line. The doctrine of tattuas was thus in the process of formulation during the fourth-fifth canonical stages."

Page #210
180 469 Finally X.31.364-69 offer a detailed process of attaining emancipation for a person who has either heard or not heard (socca-asocca; 'srutva-asrutva) the religious discourses delivered by those belonging to a kevali's camp as follows: (364-68) Asocca: (364) Several stages to attain kevalihood, which are couched in terms of karma prakrtis (cf. E-3b-2); (365) Heretics with vibhanga jnana can obtain avadhi by way of attaining samyaktva (i.e., by being converted to Jainas) (cf. C-1d-3); (366) Description of an avadhika and his steps for attaining kevalihood (cf. E-2); (367-68) Description of an asocca kevali (cf. F-2-1); (369) Socca: The same accounts as asocca, the differing points of which alone are here explained (cf. F-2-1). 470 What concerns us here is the content expressed in sutra 366. It considers an avadhika in terms of le'sya, jnana, yoga, upayoga, samhanana, samsthana, 'sarira (height), ayus, veda and kasaya. The text continues to explain that an avadhika as such gradually abandone 4 gatis, 4 kasayas, 5 jnanavaraniyas, 9 dars anavaraniyas and 5 antarayas, then thoroughly cutting off mohaniya karma accoumulated like a head-heavy plam tree, and upon scattering the dusts of karma, he becomes totally free from karmic obstructions and instantly attains kevala jnana-darsana. This concept is apparently the forerunner of so-called ksapaka 'sreni." Apurva-karana which is mentioned in this context does not make its appearance in the Prajnapana. The karma specialists are here making their way towards the formulation of the mechanism of gunasthanas. This text belongs to the final cononical stage.

Page #211
181 Part 3 Bandha (a) General Aspects 471 We are going to handle here the materials relevant to the following topics: (1) Mode of karma bandha, (2) Karma bandha treated in the category of bandha in general, (3) Types of karma bandha, and (4) Causes of karma bandha. Karma prakrtis will be treated in Part 3-b. (1) Mode of karma bandha 472 1.6.55 expounds the mode of karma bandha in the way that jiva and pudgala (i.e., karma) are mutually bound, mutually touched, mutually penetrated, mutually tied up with sneha (cf. sneha-kaya in 1.6.56 in B-1) and remain in a mutually united state. It is exemplified by a simile of a boat with a hundred holes which remains under water due to the inflow of water through holes. This text must share the age of 1.6.56, i.e., the third canonical stage. 473 It is explained in V1.10.358 that the entire soul prade'sas of beings in all classes are thickly covered (avibhaga-pariccheda, without leaving any space) and interpenetrated (avistita-pravestita) by the infinite number of each mula prakrti. This is likewise true with each soul prade'sa of all beings excluding the case of jnanavaraniya-darsanavaraniya-mohaniya-antaraya (i.e., ghatikas) of M (i.e., kevalis). Here it touches upon the concepts of ghatika (-aghatika) without so naming, the designations of which were probably offered in the post-canonical age because Umasvati, while distinguishing these concepts, also does not know these names. Ghatika-aghatika types of karma necessarily involve the concept of kevali samudghata, and the Prajn a pana XXXVI.710 talks about kevali samudghata and the expulsion of veda-ayur-nama-gotra karmas (agnatikas). This passage is however too early to occur yet in this stage, because the concept of 'slista bandha which must be closely related to the expulsion of aghatika karmas in kevali samudghata does not yet arise in the fourth canonical stage. Also a simple operation of grouping karma prakrtis into punya-papa divisions which have relevancy to ghatika-aghatikas is not yet performed in the fourth canonical stage, which make their first appearance in the T.S. VH.26 and bhasya. The concepts of ghatika-aghatika minus so naming must have occurred in the fifth canonical stage. We assign our text to the same period. 474 The Jainas attach the term avaraniya karma' to jnana and darsana. And they habitually explain the mode of karmic bondage in terms of avarana of the soul pradesa's much as the other schools do, for instance, Yoga school. However, the descriptions of the mode of karma bandha offered in these texts above patently reveal that they considered it in the way that each soul-prade's a as well as all the soul prade's as are interpenetrated by all types of karma

Page #212
182 matter. A soul pradesa which is the size of an atom is amurta, therefore from the standpoint of ksetra it can allow interpenetration of numerous karma matter, though each is larger in size than an atom from the standpoint of dravya. We should keep in mind that the Jainas formulated the concept of karma bandha primarily on the analogy of atomic combination in the context of pudgala (cf. B-1). 475 "Avarana' which expresses an idea of enveloping the surface of a certain thing is therefore not the exact term to describe the mode of karmic bondage of the Jainas in the strict sense of the terms. The Jainas must have adopted the terms such as jnanavaraniya and dar's anavaraniya in the metaphorical sense that the illuminating capacity of a kevali's jnana-darsana, for instance, becomes manifest when these types of karma disappear. According to the Jainas, ananta pradesas of a being exist within its 'sarira, wherein ananta karma matters of all types are tightly interpenetrated as in the case of atomic combination. And karmic bandha-upacaya-udaya-vedana-nirjara are constantly in a state of operation in the entire soul pradesas by way of 'sarvena sarvam'. Mind is also of the size of a 'sarira according to the canonical authors, therefore jnana-darsana avaraniyas are uniformly spread in all the soul prade's as. Head-angopanga nama karma matter, for instance, must be also deemed as uniformly pervading all the soul prade's as but not confined in the part of a head alone. The function of head-angopanga nama karma is to produce the physical constitution as such. Thus all the karma prakrtis are uniformly interpenetrated in the entire soul pradesas, while functioning their respective roles, otherwise the operation of 'sarvena sarvam' becomes difficult. (2) Karma bandha treated in the category of bandha in general 476 Before we handle the types of karma bandha, let us glance over the position of karma bandha treated in the context of the category of bandha in general. XX. 7.673 classifies bandha into three types, i.e., jiva-prayoga, anantara and parampara. Anantara bandha and parampara bandha constitute the successive process of bandha occurring immediately after jiva-prayoga bandha or bandha caused by the impulse of a being, the classification of which did not seem to have survived for long. This text thus discusses prayoga bandha alone in terms of twenty-four dandakas or types of beings. It offers a treatment of these three types of prayoga bandha in connection with karma bandha of eight mula prakrtis, udaya-prapta-karma-bandha, and the bondage of veda, dar'sanamohaniya, caritramohaniya, 'sarira, sanjna, le'sya, drst i and jnana. This apparently exhibits a clumsy editorial skill. Our text probably falls in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 477 V1.3.233 maintains that pudgala upacaya (accumulation of matter particles) of a piece of cloth is due to prayoga (effort) and visrasa (spontaneity), while

Page #213
478 479 karma upacaya of a jiva is due to prayoga, i.e., threefold yogas. It repeats an old account that A' have kaya prayoga, A- have kaya-vak prayogas and the rest of beings have all the three types, through which they accumulate karma matter. In other words, it considers yoga as the cause of asrava and bandha. VI.3.234 considers sadi-santa of the relevant types of bandha expressed in the previous sutra. Accordingly, pudgala upacaya of a piece of cloth is sadi-santa. As to karma upacaya, that of an iryapathika bandhaka is sadi-santa, that of a bhavasiddhika is anadi-santa, and that of an abhavasiddhika is anadi-ananta. The state of samsaris, is then said to be sadi-santa and that of siddhas sadi-ananta. These sutras may also fall in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 183 XVI.3.619 classifies bandha into dravya bandha and bhava bandha, the former of which is divided into prayoga bandha consisting of 'slista-gadha and visrasa bandha consisting of sadi-anadi, and the latter of which is divided into mula prakrti bandha and uttara prakrti bandha. Slista-gadha bandhas are here enumerated in the dravya class in contrast to prakrti bandha listed in the bhava class. This text belongs to the fifth canonical stage as we see below. (3) Types of karma bandha The following three types of karma bandha receive treatment in the Bhagavati, i.e.. (1) iryapathika-samparayika, (2) slista-gadha, and (3) prakrti-sthitianubhava (anubhaga)-pradesa. We have already discussed in III.3.152 (cf. D. la) that iryapatha kriya and samparayika kriya have evolved in the context of karma theory during the fourth and early fifth stages. This text also says of iryapathika bandha that it binds karma at the first moment, experiences it at the 2nd moment and purges it out at the 3rd moment, which explains the mechanism of karma bandha-vedana-nirjara of a sayoga kavali who is free from kasayas. Samparayika bandha belongs to all the rest of samsaris who are beset with kasayas. 480 Slista-gadha types of bandha which are touched upon in the Uttara XXIX are closely related to iryapathika-samparayika types of bandha. 1.1.18 reads that an undisciplined monk does not attain liberation because by binding seven karma prakrtis excluding ayus (prakrti bandha), he changes their 'slista bandha into gadha bandha, their short duration into long duration (sthiti bandha) their mild anubhava into intense anubhava (anubhava bandha), their lesser pradesas into more prades as (prade's a bandha), and thus by enjoying and accumulating them, he remains in samsara, on the other hand a disciplined monk attains salvation because the reverse of the same occurs to him. This text is referred to in XII.1.439. Similarly I.9.78 asserts that a monk who takes adhakarma binds seven karma prakrtis excluding ayus and changes slista bandha into gadha bandha... up to remains in samsara (yavat here inexpressly

Page #214
482 483 484 184 refers to 1.1.18), because he transgresses dharma by way of committing himsa to living beings. The opposite result is said to ensue to a monk who takes permitted food. I.9.78 and 79 are referred to in VII.8.297 for its total content. Slista-gadha bandhas occur, besides these texts, in VI.1.228 (cf. E-2), XVI.4.571 (cf. E-4) and XVI.3.619 above wherein these are placed in the class of dravya bandha. From this it appears that 'slista-gadha types of bondage denote the physical modes of binding things either loosely or tightly. In the context of karma theory, these are thus understood as the loose-tight types of karmic bondage which effect nirjara easily or with difficulty. There is no doubt that iryapathika bandha and samparayika bandha originated from iryapatha kriya and samparayika kriya, which are distinguished by the absence and presence of kasayas on the part of the agents. And slista-gadha bandhas must have been primarily considered as the loose-tight modes of karmic bondage corresponding to iryapathika-samparayika bandhas which pertain to the types of agents as such. Note VI.1.228 (cf. E-2) where the same simile used for iryapathika bandha in III.3.152 (cf. D-la) occurs for 'slista bandha. It thus seems that these two couplets of bondage evolved to explain the same phenomenon by expressing its different aspects. Bandha couplet of iryapathikasamparayika remained to be discussed in the context of karma theory, while bandha couplet of 'slista-gadha soon came to be widely taken up in the context of bandha in general. We place all these texts above in the final canonical stage. We have previously mentioned that the well-known four types of karma bandha by prakrti-sthiti-anubhava-pradesa were formulated in the post-Prajnapana period. We have observed above that I.1.18 brings in these fourfold types of bandha for discussion. I.4.40 emphatically declares by appealing to the authority of arhats that no being can achieve salvation without experiencing the fruits of bad karma (papa karma) wrought by himself. Because karma is said to be as of two kinds, i.e.,. pradesa karma and anubhava karma, of which the former is inevitably experienced, and some of the latter are experienced but some are not. Pradesa karma must mean the pradesas of karma, and anubhava karma the anubhava of karma." Prades a karma and anubhava karma are expressed here in the context of vedana, but not in the context of bandha. This leads us to assume that pradesa bandha and anubhava bandha originally evolved in the context of vedana, because from our empirical experience of sensations it is easy and natural to have an idea that the space and intensity of karma can be experienced. The theorization of these two divisions in the category of karma bandha was then made on the rational level that whatever divisions thought

Page #215
185 about in the category of karmic udaya (i.e., vedana) had to exist correspondingly at the time of bandha. And when bandha established itself in four divisions according to the well-known four standpoints, these two divisions came to be disregarded and no longer talked about in the context of vedana, for it would be a tautology. The concept expressed in this text is then the ancestor of anubhava-pradesa bandhas, which can be placed in the early fifth canonical stage. 485 X V1.3.620 reads that differences exist in papa karma bound (kade) in the past, present and future, which can be illustrated by the different motions of an arrow shot in the air at the beginning, middle and end. Papa karma in this context must mean karma matter but not kriya. According to Abhayadeva, this text attempts to show that karmic intensity undergoes transformations in the course of time as shown in the illustration. Then this problem must have arisen at the time when the concept of anubhava bandha arose, which happened in the final canonical stage. Sthiti bandha (karma sthiti) of eight mula prakrtis is taken up in VI.3.235 by way of minimum and maximum time duration. This is explained in relation to abadha kala (i.e., period prior to niseka) of these type karmas and the period of karma niseka (i.e., drip by drip process of karmic rise)which is calculated by way of karma sthiti munus abadha kala. This passage which involves later karma technicalities, should be placed in the final canonical period. 486 Finally VI.8.249 expounds ayur bandha in six divisions, i.e., jati-nama-nidhatta, gati-n.n., sthiti-n.n., avagahana-n.n., prade'sa-n.n., and anubhava-n.n., which also make appearance in the Prajnapana VI.326-27. Nidhatta means, according to Abhayadeva, niseka-prapta. Ayur bandha in these sixfold divisions are easily reducible to the bandha quadruplet, the former of which thus stands a precursor of the latter. This text must belong to the early fifth canonical stage. The Prajnapana V.326-27 must therefore have been added in later times. 487 (4) Causes of karma bandha Umasvati enumerates mithyadar's ana, avirati, pramada, kasaya and yoga as the causes of bandha, which are known as the causes of asrava to the Sthana V.2.517 and Samavaya 16. The causes of asrava and those of bandha are needless to say identical. We have just noted that yoga in three divisions is considered as the cause of karmic bondage in V1.3.233. As aforementioned, I. 3.151 offers pramada-pratyaya and yoga-nimitta as the causes of ascetics' kriya (cf. D-la). 1.3.34 asserts that kanksamohaniya karma is bound due to pramada-pratyaya and yoga-nimitta, which further pursues its origin in the way that pramada is derived from yoga, yoga from virya, virya from sarira, and sarira from jiva. This text probably falls in the early fifth Canonical stage.

Page #216
488 186 The Prajnapana XIII.1.600 informs that mula prakrtis are bound due to ragaduesa or kasayas. It is said in the Bhagavati XI.1.439 (which refers to 1.1.18) that one binds seven karma prakrtis excluding ayus by giving way to four kasayas. 1.1.18 and I.9.78 discussed in E-3a-3 consider that an indisciplined monk (asamarta) and a monk enjoying adhakarma bind seven karma prakrtis excluding ayus. These are relevant to avirati. Mithyadar's ana is the obvious cause of avirati. These texts belong to the fifth canonical stage, which testifies that the causes of bandha in five kinds were theorized in the very late canoni cal period.

Page #217
187 Part 3 (b) Karma Prakstis 489 Eight mula prakrtis were established by the time of the Prajnapana, which must have been known at the end of the third canonical stage. The Prajnapana XXI.2 belongs to the final canonical stage. Uttara prakrtis are still at the early stage of formulation in Prajnapana XXI.1, where those of darsanavaraniya, ayus and antaraya alone appear in the standardized form, while those of mohaniya are expressed in terms of vedaniya in five divisions, i.e., samyaktva, mithyatva, samyak-mithyatva, kasaya and nokasaya (of which subdivisions are not offered). The rest of uttara prakrtis show lots of peculiarities. The Prajnapana XXIV-XXVI calculate the number of mula prakrtis which can be simultaneously bound and experienced. 490 We previously handled in Part 3 (a) a few texts which exhibit how many mula prakrtis are bound at the same time by committing certain actions. The possibility of simultaneous bondage of various mula prakrtis is also computed in V1.10.359 to the effect that he who binds mohaniya necessarily binds all the rest, he who binds jnanavaraniya, darsanavaraniya or antaraya binds all the rest except mohaniya which he may or may not bind, and he who binds vedaniya, ayus, nama or gotra(i.e., aghatikas)binds the rest of mula prakstis except jnanavaraniya, dar'sanavaraniya, mohaniya and antaraya(i.e., ghatikas) which he may or may not bind. This text takes up the problem with regard to the later so-called ghatika-aghatika types of karma, which must fall in the final canonical stage. 491 V1.3.236 argues who does or does not bind, or may or may not bind which mula prakrtis. The agents are expressed in terms of anuyoga items, i.e., those with or without veda, samyama, drsti, sanjna, bhavasiddhi, darsana, paryapta, bhasa, parita, jnana, yoga, upayoga, ahara and sarira (suksma-badara and carama-acarama). The succeeding sutra 237 offers their relative strength in conclusion. The Prajnapana deals with the problem of karmic bondage in terms of twenty-four dandakas or types of beings. In the post-canonical age, our problem is treated in terms of sthana triplet. The anuyoga items utilized in our text shows some distance to arrive at the list of 14 marganasthanas. It is, however, noteworthy that the canonical authors made use of these anuyoga items in the context of karmic bondage. We assign this text to the fifth canonical period. 492 The karma specialists take up the problem of parisaha and karmic bondage in V1.8.342. The text explains that jnanavaraniya, vedaniya, mohaniya and antaraya are responsible for causing twenty-two parisahas, and enumerates which karma prakrti brings about which parisahas. It continues to consider which types of agent bind how many parisahas and experience how many of them at the same time. The T.S. K took its relevant materials directly from

Page #218
188 this text. This text must belong to the last canonical stage. 493 All these texts in the fifth canonical stage handle the problem of karmic bondage within the class of mula prakrtis. And it was only in the post-canonical age that uttara prakrtis were brought into discussion in the same context. This implies that the Jainas formulated the final list of uttara prakrtis in the fifth canonical stage. Let us now take up the following karma prakrtis in due order : (1) Antaraya karma, (2) Mohaniya karma, (3) Nama karma, (4) Vedaniya karma, (5) Ayus karma, and (6) Iryapathika-samparayika karmas. (1) Antaraya karma 494 A queer term occurring in 1.8.70 is viryavadhya karma, which however is unambiguous that it means viryantaraya. According to the text, when two persons who are alike in colour and age possessing similar weapons fight, one wins the fight and the other loses it, because the one who loses it has bound viryavadhya karma and has not subsided it. Viryantaraya occurs as a division of antaraya karma in the Prajnapana XXIII.1. However, varnavadhya occurs in the fourth-fifth stages (cf. 1.7.62); indriyavadhya and vedavadhya (cf. XXXII.1. 843) likewise occur in the fifth stage. The term viryavadhya was probably in use at about this time. We would place this text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. (2) Mohaniya karma 495 The Prajnapana XXI.1 enumerates five subdivisions of mohaniya karma without classifying them into two main divisions, i.e., darsana and caritra. The Uttara XXXII classifies them into two types in the standardized form, however its XXLX.20 speaks of kanksamohaniya in the sense of darsanamohaniya. Since the Prajnapana does not know kanksamohaniya, but it is still talked about in the Uttara, it must have been current in the early fifth canonical stage. The Bhagavati 1.3 collects a number of passages relevant to karksa mohaniya karma as follows. 496 1.3.29 enumerates the following fivefold causes of kanksamohaniya vedana, i.e., s arkita (disbelieving in dharma), kanksita (having worldly desires), vicikitsita (becoming suspicious of things and persons), bheda-samapanna (becoming dissentient) and kalusa-samapanna (becoming censurable). This content is repeated in 1.3.37, which further explains that these five causes occur for ascetics due to the difference in jnana, darsana, caritra, linga, pravacana, pravacani, kalpa, marga, mata, bhanga, naya, niyama and pramana. Here kanksamohaniya clearly denotes dar's anamohaniya. These causes of karksamohaniya vedana are virtually identical to the causes of its bondage, and we should also remember that the Prajna pana XXI.1 makes five divisions of mohaniya karma in terms of vedaniya. These five causes are listed in T.S. VI.

Page #219
497 498 500 18 in similar terms as the fivefold aticaras of samyagdrsti. We place both texts in the fifth canonical stage, the latter of which is clearly stamped with the advanced concepts of the late period. 189 Then by appealing to the authority of a jina whose teachings are true beyond doubt (cf. I.3.30 in D-2a-1), I.3.36 asserts that all the beings including A' experience kanksamohaniya karma. This text indirectly refers to 1.3.35 (cf. E-2; fourth-fifth stages) by way of java purisakkaraparikkamei va. This passage again falls in the final canonical stage. We have already touched upon I.3.2728 (cf. E-2) which explains the mode of bandha up to nirjara of kanksa mohaniya karma by way of 'sarvena sarvam', and I.3.34 (cf. E-3a-4) which inquires into the causes of kanksamohaniya karma bandha in due order of pramada yogaPage #220
190 501 V.4.196 says that Anuttaropapatika devas are upa'santa-moha, and their moha (for sexual desire) is neither active nor exhausted. XV.2.502 maintains that madness occurring to all the classes of beings is of two kinds, i.e., possessed by Yaksas or due to the rise of mohaniya karma. The former is said easier to bear and easier to get rid of than the latter. Living beings are possessed by madness (Yaksave'sa) when gods throw a'subha pudgalas at them, and gods in the lower order are possessed by madness when gods in the higher order throw a'subha pudgalas at them (cf. XVI.7.631 in D-2b-3). Both of these texts seem to fall in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 502 V.4.185 expounds that the ordinary men laugh (hasya) or become sad (utsuka which is usually called 'soka) due to the rise of caritramohaniya karma, while kevalis don't due to its absence, and that by laughing or by in sorrow, beings excluding A' bind seven or eight mula prakrtis. The same exposition is made as to nidra-pracala due to darsanavaraniya (i.e., darsanamohaniya) karma. This text may belong to the fifth canonical stage. 503 IX.31.364, which is a part of 'socca-assocca kevalis' (cf. E-2) composed in the final canonical period, describes some stages after which kevala jnana dawns to an aspirant. It reads that dharma is obtained by ksayopa'sama of jnanavaraniya, 'suddha-bodha by that of darsanavaraniya, the state of anagara by that of dharmantaraya, brahmacarya by that of caritravaraniya, samyamayatana by that of yatanavaraniya, samwara by that of adhyavasanavaraniya, sruta jnana by that of 'sruta-jnanavaraniya, avadhi jnana by that of avadhijnanavaraniya, and kevala jnana by that of kevala-jnanavaraniya. 504 Anomalouse here are the types of karma called darsanavaraniya, dharmantaraya, caritravaraniya, yatanavaraniya and adhyavasanavaraniya. Darsanavaraniya which occurs in V.4.185 above is equivalent to darsanamohaniya. We have already come across dharmantaraya kriya in X V1.3.570 (cf. D-la), which occurs in the context that when a doctor cuts off a tumour of a monk who has been engaged in kayotsarga, the monk is said to have committed dharmantaraya kriya. Unmistakably, dharmantaraya means producing obstacles to following the monastic codes of ascetics, which must have been later absorbed in the class of caritramohaniya. Caritravaraniya is here used in the context of brahmacarya, which can only be caritramohaniya. Likewise, yatanavaraniya and adhyavasanavaraniya must be the variations of caritramohaniya karma. Darsanamohaniya and caritramohaniya occur in the Uttara XXXI, before the time of which our text must have been composed.. (3) Nama karma 505 The Prajnapana XXI.1 enumerates manojna 's abda-rupa-gandha-rasa-spar's a and mano-vak-kaya sukhata as the fruits of sata-vedaniya and the reverse

Page #221
191 contents as the fruits of asata vedaniya. Likewise, it reckons ista 'sabda-rupagandha-rasa-sparsa-gati-sthiti-lavanya-yasahkirti-utthanakarma-bala-virya-purusakaraparakrama-svara and kanta-priya-manojna svaras as the fruits of sukha nama karma, and the reverse contents as the fruits of duhkha nama karma. Its XXXV classifies vedana into various types, i.e., sita-usna-misra, dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava, 'sarira-mano-misra, sata-asata-misra, duhkhasukha-aduhkhasukha, abhyupagamiki-aupakramiki (voluntary-involuntary) and nida-anida (consious-unconscious). The Uttara XXXII follows the subdivisions of vedaniya and nama karma listed here. All this explains that vedaniya and nama karma were primarily considered in the context of physical sensation, thus these two karma prakrtis were not clearly distinguished from each other in the early stage. Sata-asata and sukha-duhkha are often used synonymously in the Bhagavati. We have already handled in E-2 some sutras pertaining to sukhaduhkha, upon which we will not dwell any more. 506 Let us first take up the passages relevant to nama karma. XIV.5.515, which is a non-dialogue text, offers ista-anista sthanas of H.A.M.G which are expressed in terms of pratyanubhava. It informs that H experience 10 anista sthanas beginning with 'sabda up to utthana, G experience 10 ista sthanas, and A.M. experience both. We place this text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. 507 In relation to the delivery of a child, 1.7.62 (fourth-fifth stages) holds a view that if he has bound varnavadhya karma and has not subsided it he is born in bad shape, with bad colour, smell, taste and touch, he is born ugly (anista, akanta, apriya, asubha, amanojna and amanapa) with a voice which is low, pitiful, anista up to amanapa along with unpleasant speech, but if he has not bound it he is born in the opposite form. Likewise, V.3.232 (cf. E-2; fifth stage) offers a similar account as to those who subject to maha-alpa of (karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana. The term varnavadhya karma is not employed in this text. Duhkha nama karma was thus called varnavadhya karma also. (4) Vedaniya karma 508 The following passages pertain to vedaniya karma. VI.6.285 reads that compassion to beings, not giving them pain, sorrow, distress, beating and difficulty cause one to bind sata vedaniya karma, and their opposite to bind asata vedaniya karma. The T.S. VI.12-13 enumerate similar causes that bind sata-asata vedaniyas, which must have been directly drawn from this text. We can place this text in the fifth canonical stage. 509 Some heretics maintain in V1.10.256 that all beings experience duhkha alone, against which MV retorts that H experience duhkha alone but occasionally sata also, G experience sata alone but occasionally asata also, and A.M, experience both sata and asata (cf. V.1.265 in E-2). We place this text in the fifth For Private & Personal use only .

Page #222
510 511 canonical stage. VII.6.284 reads that H.A.M.G bind karka's a vedaniya karma by committing 18 kriyas, but Malone bind akarkasa vedaniya karma by refraining from them. Abhayadeva explains karkasa in terms of raudra-duhkha and akarkasa in terms of sukha as in the cases of Skandaka Acarya and Bharata, etc. are no doubt the variations of sata-asata vedaniyas, however karkasa-akarka'sa vedaniyas seem to have been used in a specific context. We would at present place this text in the fifth canonical stage. These 192 (5) Ayus karma Ayus karma exhibits various peculiar features in contrast to the other karma prakrtis. It has fourfold divisions, i.e., H.A.M.G. It is bound during the last six months or 1/3, 1/9 or 1/27 part of the total ayus (see also the Prajnapana VI.324) when the cause of death arises. Its fruition occurs as soon as a being enters his new life, until then it remains intact in a dormant state. It is bound loosely or intensely depending on the mental perturbation of the agent at the time of its bondage, and if the bondage is loose his life span in the next birth is apavartaniya or his temporal duration can be reduced, but if the bondage is tight his life span in the next birth is anapavartaniya or his temporal duration equals the destined life quantum. Ayu karma thus expresses a gross quantity of life, but not the exact length of years of survival. 512 These are some of the peculiar features of ayus karma, and they seem to have emerged from carefully observing the occurrence of death. Death often comes all suddenly, for instance, through accident or disaster, and the moral conduct of the agent is not responsible. It is thus difficult to let ayus karma express itself in terms of the length of years, and there is enough room to give rise to the concept of karana such as upakrama (cf. Prajnapana VI.324-25). other karma prakrtis are bound, all the samsaris are destined to bind their next life quantum. Ayur bandha operates inevitably and automatically due to the bondage of other karma prakrtis. The next ayus karma has to be bound sometime in the present life, however, such being the case, it is difficult to determine when it is to be bound. The karma specialists came up with a solution to this problem by establishing a rule that it ought to be bound when the causes of death arise close to the time of death. The peculiar rules regarding the time of ayur bandha seem to have been made primarily on the basis of logic. 513 Beings' gati is determined by gati nama karma, but not by ayus karma. The divisions of ayus karma based on gati can only express the life quantum of beings in the relevant gati. However, since the divisions of ayur bandha are made on the basis of gati, the causes of ayus karma came to be theorized in

Page #223
514 515 517 terms of ethical context at the time of its bondage, wherein 'slista-gadha bandhas are brought in to explain sopakrama-nirupakrama of the next ayus. We can see from this short review that the concept of ayur bandha was rationally formulated in conformity with empirical observations. The Prajnapana seems to be roughly acquainted with the mechanism of ayur bandha, but the theorization of its causes as such must have been made in the later period. 193 V.3.183 tells that ayus karma, which has led a being to take the present birth in the respective yoni, i.e., respective gati, was bound in the previous life. XVI.5.627 reads that the next ayus karma bound by any being remains intact during his present life, which is experienced at the moment when he takes birth in the new place. We place these texts in the late third-fourth canonical stages. VI.6.282 also says that the next ayus karma of H.A.M.G is bound in the present life, which is experienced when they are being born and after they are born in the next birth places. It brings maha-alpa vedana of beings into discussion in the context of when they are being born and after they are born, and which kinds of vedana H.A.M.G acquire. Here it is said again that H experience duhkha alone but occasionally sata also, and G experience sata alone but occasionally asata also. The succeeding sutra 283 reads that all beings bind ayus karma unconsciously (anabhoga-nirvartita). A series of these passages must belong to the fifth canonical stage. According to II.10.684, A and M are of both sopak-ama ayus and nirupakrama ayus, but H and G are of nirupakrama ayus. The following sutra 685 (cf. C1c-6) explains that the rebirth of H.A.M.G takes place due to death caused by atma upakrama, para upakrama or nirupakrama, but A and M due to all three causes. We place these sutras in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. XIV.1.501 argues that paramparopapannakas in all classes of beings alone bind ayus karma but not anantaropapannakas nor anantaraparamparopapannakas (those in the transit path/s). Likewise paramparanirgatas in all classes of beings bind ayus karma but not anantaranirgatas nor anantaraparamparanirgatas. This text involving transit path belongs to the final canonical stage. 516 It is informed in V.6.203 that short life span is bound by committing pranatipata and mrgavada as well as donating impure food to the right recipients, while long life span is bound by doing the opposite, and that unhappy long life span is bound by committing pranatipata and mrsavada as well as by insulting, abusing, talking ill of, despising right recipients and offering unwholesome food to them, while happy long life span is bound by doing the opposite. This text was composed when the principal rules of lay conduct were on the process of being established, i.e., the later third-fourth canonical stages. VI.4.239 (cf. C-1c-6, D-2a) asserts that the ayus of living beings in general and that of Vaimanikas are determined by pratyakhyana, apratyakhyana and

Page #224
194 pratyakhyana-apratyakhyana, while the ayus of the rest of beings is determined by apratyakhyana. 1.8.63-64 (cf. C-1c-6) read that totally stupid M will repeat samsara as H.A.M.G, totally wise M may bind deva ayus in kalpopapanna or may never bind ayus by attaining salvation, and half wise M will bind deva ayus due to partial subsidence (desa-uparama) and partial renunciation (desa-pratyakhyana). We place these texts in the fifth canonical period. 518 In 1.9.75 some heretics insist that the present and future ayus karma can be bound simultaneously, which is opposed by MV saying they cannot be bound at the same time. This text may fall in the third-fourth canonical stages. The same account is repeated in V.3.182, which describes the mode of ayur bandha in the way that thousands of ayus karma matter are tightly linked up each other like the meshes of a net one after the other. This text may belong to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. Avici marana or wave like disappearance of ayus karma expressed in X 1.7.495 (cf. D-2a-3) also concretely explains how the karma specialists conceived the mechanism of the bondage and disapperance of ayus karma. This text refers to avadhi marana and atyantika marana, which are distinguished on the basis of a criterion as to whether the same division of ayus karma can be bound again by the same agent or not. These types of marana are expounded in terms of dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava-bhava. This text belongs to the final canonical stage. We have already touched upon the six divisions of ayur bandha expressed in VI.8.249 in E-3a-3. 519 (6) Iryapathika-samparayika karmas The canonical authors formulated iryapathika karma and samparayika karma corresponding to these types of bandha. These types of karma continued to be discussed even in the post-canonical stage." V1.8.340-41 argue that iryapathika karma is bound by M who are free from sex inclinations (avedaka) at present, but samparayika karma is bound by H.A.M.G. The aphorist here tries to show the possible combinations of vedas that the avedaka may have had in the past, and attempts to demonstrate the possible combinations in binding these types of karma in the three tenses of time. Then, iryapathika bandha is said to be sadi-santa, which is bound by way of 'sarvena sarvam'. The plethora in computing the alternative combinations in this way does not mean much in the total context. We place these passages in the final canonical stage.

Page #225
195 Part 4 Vedana and Nirjara 520 We have already examined some passages relevant to vedana and nirjara in the foregoing parts, which we shall not dwell on any more. This part is very short as a result. 521 The discussions of the karma theory conducted in the Prajnapana as well as in the Bhagavati are in the main concentrated on the problems of bandha and vedana. The karma specialists formulated the mechanism of karmic process of bandha-vedana-nirjara essentially on the analogy of the mechanism of atomic process of sanghata-parinama-bheda as a whole. However, karma is bound with the soul, which ontologically differs from the phenomenon of pudgala bandha, thus the karma specialists had to formulate the concepts of bandhavedana-nirjara occurring between the soul and karma with the help of empirical observations. We have previously noted that many karma prakrtis were originally conceived in the context of vedana, and the types of bandha called anubhava-pradesa were primarily considered in the context of vedana. These were then theorized and systematized in the context of bandha. In other words, without a scrupulous analysis of the empirical phenomena of vedana, it was impossible for them to formulate the concept of karma bandha. It thus stands to reason that the karma specialists in the canonical age engaged themselves in the discussion of bandha-vedana in the main. 522 1.2.20 reads that a being and beings in all classes experience self-wrought misery (duhkha) when its fruit has arisen (udinna), but not when it has not yet arisen. Therefore some beings experience it but some do not (i.e., when some beings experience it, some others do not experience it). The same rule is said to be applicable to self-wrought ayus. Udaya and vedana express the same phenomenon by the different agents, i.e., karma and the soul. This text can be placed in the late third canonical stage. 523 X V1.2.565 says that old age is experienced by a body, but sorrow by the mind. Therefore A- who do not possess a mind experience old age alone, while other beings experience both old age and sorrow. This text may belong to the late third canonical stage. It is explained in VI.7.291 that A- as well as plants and some asanjni trasas (i.e., sammurchimaja) experience sensations involuntarily (akama-nikarana) due to the absence of the mind, that some sanjnis also experience the same due to inattentiveness or not utilizing the mind, and that some capable sanjnis experience strong voluntary or purposive desire (prakamanikarana) but in this case they are unable to attain the other shore and devaloka, etc. The Prajnapana XXXV enumerates the types of vedana called abhyupagamiki-aupakramiki (voluntary-involuntary) and nida-anida (consciousunconscious). Let us place this text in the fourth canonical stage.

Page #226
196 524 Some heretics argue in V.5.201 that beings have vedana corresponding (evambhuta vedana) to action (karma), against which MV offers his view that beings in all classes have vedana which does or does not correspond to action. This text takes up the problem of kriya-vedana, but not bandha-vedana because karma prakrtis necessarily produce their corresponding types of vedana unless sankramana takes place. This problem involves the relation held between kriya and bandha, which is expressed in V.6.211 (cf. E-3b-2; 3rd stage) that a man who tells a lie binds the same sort of karma as such. In this case, the action of telling a falsehood yields to bind maya kasaya karma in the class of caritramohaniya. This is, however, an old view. False speech falls in the categories of kasaya and avirati, which also causes one to bind animal ayus karma (cf. T.S. VI.17). By telling a lie, he thus binds both caritramohaniya karma and animal ayus karma, then experiences the fruits of these two different karma prakrtis. Then his vedana does and does not correspond to his original action. If this is the import of this text, it belongs to the fourth-fifth canonical stages. Abhayadeva explains this passage by bringing in the case of ayur bandha and sudden death occurring due to accidental calamities, etc. for which the agent's moral action cannot be responsible, and in relation to the problem of sthitighata-rasaghata. 525 V1.1.229 maintains that asata vedana occurs to H by fourfold a'subha karanas, i.e., manas, vak, kaya and karma, but not by akarana, that sata vedana occurs to G by these fourfold 'subha karanas, but not by akarana, and that both sata and asata occur to A and M by both 'subha and a'subha karanas but not by akarana (Al do not of course possess all threefold yogas). This text enumerates yoga and karma of both 'subha-a'sbha types as the causes of experiencing sata-asata vedana. Subha-a'subha types of yoga necessarily cause 'subhaa'subha types of karmic bondage, which inevitably bring forth sata-asata vedana. Subha-asubha here are expressed in terms of karana. It is likely that the definition of asrava made in the T.S. VI and the division of karma into punya. papa groups expressed in its VI.26 and bhasya were suggested when the text came to be composed. We place this passage in the fifth canonical stage. 526 It is said that nirjara or purging of karmic particles from the soul prades as constantly occurs by way of 'sarvena sarvam' or by the entire soul prade's as (cf. 1.3.28 in E-2). Karmic particles thus purged are mere matter particles (pudgala) devoid of karmic efficacy. As afore-examined, the canonical authors frequently raise the question of who can know and see these purged matter particles which are intangible to the sense organs. Nirjara of karma matter is thus considered by the Jainas as the real physical phenomenon on the theoretical level inasmuch as skandhas are decomposed in the natural phenomena. On the ethical level, they believe that nirjara is effected by way of tapas and parisahajaya (cf. T.S. IX.3 and 8), the thought of which has been prevalent in India since remote antiquity.

Page #227
197 527 X V1.3.621 informs that beings take in 1/asankhyata of matter particles (pudgala ahara) and purge out 1/ananta of them. It continues to say that no one is able to sit... sleep on the purged matter particles, for they are intangible. XVI.4.571 offers an idea that even by spending kotikoti years, H cannot exhaust as much karma as an annaglayaka monk (i.e., a monk who eats food cooked during the previous day at an improper time, as he is unable to wait for the right time) can exhaust it within a short fast. The reason forthcoming is that karmic bondage of H is too tight (gadha) to effect nirjara easily just as an old man cannot cut a ko'samba tree with a blunt axe, but karmic bondage of monks is loose enough ('slista) to effect nirjara easily just as a young and strong man can easily cut a 'salmali tree with a sharp axe. Then X v1.7.637 informs that devas exhaust ananta karmic particles during 100 and 500,000 years. Abhayadeva explains them to be punya karma matter particles. According to this text, Vanamantara devas take 100 years to exhaust these karmic particles ... and Sarvarthasiddhi devas do 500,000 years. All these texts which compute the quantity of karma nirjara belong to the final canonical stage.

Page #228
198 SECTION F JAINA CHURCH Part 1 Mahavira and Related Persons 528 MV's life account depicted in the earliest stratum of the canon as an austere tapasvi and the promulgator of Jaina faith went through a complete transformation in the kalpasutra, in which he is portrayed as the saviour of the three worlds. The accounts of MV, his family, relatives, close disciples, dissident and rivals make their sudden appearance in the canonical story texts including the Bhagavati and the texts dealing with church chronology such as the 3rd appendix to the Acara I, Nandi and Kalpa. All of them belong to the fourth through the fifth canonical stages when the Jaina church entered the stage of compiling its own history. 529 Many of these materials in the Bhagavati had thus been silently transmitted in the school for nearly one thousand years until they had the opportunity of official expression in the late canonical period. Such being the case, these materials reflect the then church authorities' intentions and motivations in handling these historical personages. It is thus impossible for us to evaluate them as conveying truthful facts that actually occurred in the days of M.V. And proving to what extent they are historical and valid is an independent problem, which is beyond our present attempt. We must here confine ourselves to our original objective of determining the chronological stages of the relevant materials at our disposal. Our discussion will proceed according to the order of the following topics: (1) Mahavira, (2) Mahavira and his relatives, (3) Mahavira and his disciples, and (4) Mahavira and his rivals. (1) Mahavira 530 X V1.6.578 is a non-dialogue text pertaining to ten kinds of dreams seen by MV on the eve of his achieving moksa, which also appears in the Sthana X.1022. The content of dreams and their interpretation are described as follows: (1) a devil-like palm tree- a sign of the destruction of mohaniya karma, (2) a white feathered cuchoo - a symbol of 'sukla dhyana, (3) varigated feathers- a sign of conversance with the 12 Angas, (4) double stringed jewels - preaching twofold dharmas, i.e., lay and ascetic, (5) a herd of white cows - four sanghas, (6) a big pond full of blooming lotus- proclamation of religion to the four classes of gods, (7) a great ocean- crossing samsara, (8) a huge sun - revelation of kevala jnana-dar/sana, (9) Mt. Manusottara made of blue cat's eye gems - a symbol of MV's fame spreading over the three worlds, and (10) MV himself seated on the throne on top of Mt. Meru - preaching religion to the three worlds. 531 A rule that one attains moksa by way of 'sukla dhyana was formulated in the

Page #229
532 533 534 final canonical stage, to which this text belongs. The concepts expressed in 6, 9 and 10 above can occur only when the Jaina-cend world view we accomplished in the final canonical age. This non-dialogue text must ha been drawn from the Sthana in order to add more information on the topic of dreams introduced in the previous sutras 576-77 (cf. D-2a-3). (2) Mahavira and his relatives XI.2.440 and XIII.6.490-91 (cf. D-3) offer the lineage of king Udayana as follows: Sahasranika (of Kausambi) Jayanti Supar'sva Nandivardhana Yasoda Satanika (of Kausambi) Anojja Udayana (of sindhu-Sauvira) If we place this lineage in the chronological lines relevant to MV (copied from the S.B.E. XXII, Introduction, p.xv), the total picture of the relationship held among those appearing in the relevant Bhagavati stories below will become much clearer: Siddhartha Mrgavati Vardhamana Jamali Trisala Cetaka (of Vaisali) Sudarsana Abhici Cetaka (of Vaisali) Prabhavati Bimbisara (of Magadha) 199 Subhadra Cellana Konika (er Ajatasatru) Udayin (founder of Pataliputra) Jayanti is called as the first patron of the Jainas in Vaisali in XI.2.440, which is a part of her story running through 440-42. Sutra 441 is a mere descriptive

Page #230
200 account of our heroine Mrgavati and Udayana attending MV's sermon. In the last sutra, Jayanti is initiated into the Jaina order of nuns. King Udayana is likewise initiated into the order of monks in X 11.6.490-91, while distressed Abhici runs to King Konika (cf. D-3). We have already placed these texts in the fifth canonical stage. 535 A dramatic scene where MV meets his parents is described in X.33.379-81. Brahmin Rsabhadatta who has been already converted to Jainism and his wife Devananda who is also a lay Jaina, approach MV to attend his sermon; there upon milk flows out of Devananda's breast, and she remains steadfastly gazing at MV as if possessed by something. The reason for this strange happening, MV explains, that this Brahimin lady is actually his real mother and he is her own son. His parents are then both initiated, by MV's hand, and Devananda is entrusted to Arya Candana for special care (also cf. D-3). 536 The Kalpasutra describes that MV was removed from the womb of Brahmani Devananda and transferred to the womb of Ksatriyani Trisala by Harinaigamesi. We have already touched upon Harinaigamesi's position expressed in the Bhagavati V.4.186 (cf. A-3-4). Mysterious birth account of MV in the Kalpasutra was obviously concocted on the basis of the Bhagavati X. 33.379-81 and V.4.186. Then, the text under our consideration, although expressed in the form of a pure dramatic fiction, is probably hiding a historical fact concerned with MV's real parents, that remains to be investigated. At present we content ourselves with surmising that MV was in all probability born as the son of this Brahmin couple, and was then for some reason or other adopted and brought up by a Ksatriya couple. He was thus probably in a position to be claimed by both classes. 537 That MV is a Ksatriya never occurs before the time of Kalpasutra.'? The Jainas' disgust with the Brahmins and the consequent claim of their Master in the Ksatriya class seems to be related to the mass exodus of the Jainas from Mathura which took place in the Gupta age due to the Hindu revival movement led by the Vaisnavas in the main. This historical event was sufficient to cause the then Jaina authorities to make up their Master's birth story without hesitation as told in the Kalpasutra. This text was probably written around the time when V.4.186 was composed, i.e., the early fifth canonical stage. 538 In contrast to the above story which is designated 'Brahmana Kundagrama', Jamali's story occurring in IX.33.382-89 is designated 'Ksatriya Kundagrama'. This story tells that Jamali, after hearing MV's sermon, finally obtains his parents' permission and is initiated into MV's order; but after committing offences against MV, he leaves him and dies without performing alocanapratikramana (cf. D-1b; also cf. D-3 for his future). Here his relationship with MV as his son-in-law, which must have been an open secret in tradition, is

Page #231
201 least mentioned. In this story, Jamali is depicted with honour in the former half; and even the latter half relevant to his offences offers indifferent factual information of his misconduct without openly condemning him as a dissident. This careful treatment of his account becomes clear in comparison with that of Go'sala who is ridiculed throughout. Very soon the church authorities brought a verdict of guilty upon Jamali as the first nihnavaka when they had to compile the official history of the Jaina church. We have already placed this story in the early fifth canonical stage. (3) Mahavira and his disciples 539 MV MV. and Gautama (Indrabhuti, the 1st ganadhara) appearing as the catechist and the interlocutor in this formal catechistic style of writing do not convey their historical personalities. This is likewise true with the 2nd and the 3rd Gautamas (Agnibhuti and Vayubhuti, the 2nd and the 3rd ganadharas) appearing in II.1.125-32. A good number of MV's other disciples, lay or ascetic, also appear in the stage of the Bhagavati stories. However, these disciples were in majority used as the models of such and such type-story, and are therefore unlikely to be historical figures. If we exclude them along with MV's relatives treated above, there are only a few texts which convey some specific relationship held between MV and his disciples, namely, those pertaining to Gautama and Atimuktaka. 540 After delivering a sermon, MV calls Gautama in XIV.7.520 and says, "You. have been devoted to me for a long time, praised me, you have been known to me, served me, followed me, attended to me and co-operated with me since the last birth in heaven through to the immediately succeeding human life in the previous birth. But we will soon become equal (i.e., to attain siddhahood) after fulfilling this present life." This affectionate scene between MV and his favourite disciple is probably the product of the early fifth canonical stage when the church authorities were attempting to compile the historical account of MV and persons related to him. This theme then came to be developed later by Hemacandra in his Trisast i-salaka-purusa-caritra, for instance." 541 The story of Atimuktaka, a child monk, is told in V.4.187. One day, after heavy rain, Atimuktaka went out in response to the call of nature with his duster in armpit and his alms bowl in hand. He saw a small pipe-line from which water was flowing. He then clogged it with mud to stop the water flow, and started to play a boat game by floating his alms bowl on the water. His senior monk reported it to MV, who rebuked the monk saying no one should speak ill of this child as he would accomplish liberation in this very life. 542 In which life one attains salvation is a favourite topic of the canonical authors in the fourth-fifth stages. The Antakrt VI tells about the story of child

Page #232
202 Atimuktaka's initiation into the monastic order, but it occurs in no other earlier canonical text. The peculiar position of child monks, had they existed in the earlier age, should have brought about relevant rules and many stories. From MV's rigid idealism of ahimsa by way of practising lonely wandering, it is hard to imagine that MV himself allowed children into the monastic order, which must have began when group wandering had become a customary practice for the ascetics. And the Atimuktaka stories must have been composed when the church authorities began to accept children in their order. At present we would place our text in the fourth-fifth canonical stages. (4) Mahavira and his rivals 543 Regarding MV's opponents, Go'sala, the leader of the Ajivikas, alone comes in the Bhagavati story in its XV (sutras 538-59), which is an exceptional 'sataka devoid of udde'sakas. As was early pointed out by many scholars, this 'sataka was originally an independent story, which must have been incorporated into the Bhagavati probably on the decision of the Third Valabhi Convention. The Vyavahara X lists 'Teyanisagga', which again occurs in the Nandi 44. And the Jainas began to talk about Go'sala and the Ajivikas in the age of canonical story texts. From this it is difficult to support an assumption that there was an archetype of this text composed in a much earlier age. This is also borne out by its well knit plot showing the relationship held between the leaders of the two schools motivated by a unique intention, which if deleted would have nothing substantial in this story. Sutra 549 refers to the Prajnapana 1.126, and sutra 553 to the Prajnapana X VI.474. This Sataka XV thus belongs to the fifth canonical period. 544 A bare summary of the Bhagavati XV is as follows: (1) After the twentyfourth year of his ascetic life, Go'sala expounds his doctrine to six travellers, who in turn explain to him the eight nimittas which are said to have been drawn from the Purvas. On this basis, Go'sala formulates his doctrine of the six inevitables. (2) Gosala's life story before becoming a mendicant. (3) Gosala is finally accepted as MV's disciple after having been refused three times, and they practise asceticism together for six years. (4) They quarrel over the reanimation of sesame seeds, and Go'sala loses. (5) Go'sala teases bala-tapasvi Vaisyayana, who in anger emits at him hot tejo le'sya, which is neutralized by cold tejo le's ya emitted by MV to save him. (6) Gosala, by then practising tapas, is capable of emitting tejo le'sya, and claims that he has attained jinahood, which MV denounces. (7) Go'sala in anger threatens MV through MV's disciple Ananda by telling a parable. (8) MV prohibits monks from associating with Gosala. (9) Go'sala's past lives; his theory of moksa; MV criticizes him saying his behaviour is comparable to that of a thief. (10) Gosala in anger emits tejo le'sya at MV, which comes back at him. (11) Gosala declares that MV will die within six months, against which the latter retorts that he will live

Page #233
203 sixteen more years but Gosala will die within seven days. (12) Gosala becomes mad, and in that condition formulates the eight caramas and the four panakas; he dies by confessing that MV alone is a jina but not he himself; his death cermony. (13) MV becomes sick from an attack of bilious fever on the way of wandering tour, which worries his disciple Simha because of Go'sala's forecast; MV dispels his worry and sends him to Revati to get a chicken killed by a cat cooked for him instead of two pigeons that she is about to prepare for him; MV regains his health. (14) Future rebirth and liberation of Go'sala. 545 Many scholars have already made critical studies and historical evaluation of this text.** We should remember here that the doctrines and history of the early Ajivikas are not preserved on the side of the Ajivikas but are available only through the opponents' literature, either the Buddhist or the Jaina. The Bhagavati text above therefore reflects the Jaina view of Go'sala as the leader of the rival school offered in the fifth canonical stage, when the Jainas gained strength while the Ajivikas lost theirs. Ajivika school was probably a stronger sect than Jaina school until A'soka's reign at least, and the Jainas must have faced severe pressures from the Ajivikas. This text was composed when the Jainas did not need to worry at all about the repercussion from their opponents who had already lost their battle. We should also recall here that the Jainas probably absorbed the Ajivika lay rules into theirs in the final canonical stage (cf. 7.5.329 in D-2c). 546 A point of interest in this story is the ending portion pertaining to MV's meat eating. This item 13 is a fiction made up in relation to Go'sala's prophesy, therefore its historicity can well be doubted. MV here ordered a chicken killed by a cat, instead of the two pigeons she was especially preparing for him. MV was therefore going to take meat which was not especially killed for his sake, thus abiding by his own teaching of ahimsa by way of three karanas, and safeguarding the prohibitory rule of adhakarma. 547 The Acara 1.9.4.509 reads that MV, who ate less, was never attacked by diseases, and that he never desired to have medical treatment when wounded or not wounded. Its 516 informs us that MV, having entered a village or a town, begged for food which had been prepared for somebody else. According to MV's teaching, taking sin-free meat as nutriment in the place of medicine must have been preferred to taking medicine which inevitably involves himsa of plant and mineral lives. Fasting is, no doubt, the best medicine. However, when fasting was judged not to be immediately helpful in curing certain types of illness, Jaina ascetics in the canonical age must have also prescribed similar kind of sin-free meat in the wake of MV's story told in the Bhagavati XV above. For the rule of absolute vegetarianism must have been imposed upon the Jaina communities, both ascetic and lay, in the post-canonical age, as we have discussed on this problem in Ch. I, Sec. II.

Page #234
Part 2 Tirtharkaras 548 Jaina cosmography was completed in the fifth canonical stage and Jaina mythology was then rapidly developing, which prompted the canonical authors to establish the roles of arhats on the cosmic level, in both time and space, from the Jaina-centred wrid view. In this final part, we would like to discuss the problems relevant to (1) Socca-asocca kevalis, (2) 24 tirthnkaras and (3) Great personages of the Jainas. (1) Socca-asocca kevalis 549 The topic of socca-asocca kevalis is taken up in X.31.364-69, which we placed in the fifth canonical stage (cf. E-2 for the outline). According to sutra 364, one is called socca (srutva) or having heard religious lore from any one of the following ten types of persons: (A) a kevali, his 'sravakas, 'sravikas, upasakas and upasikas, (B) a kevali's paksika (the same kevali's succeeding disciple/s, i.e., ganadhara/s in succession), his 'sravakas, sravikas, upasakas and upasikas. Sutra 367 states that an asocca kevali, who attains kevalihood without hearing any discourse from these persons, may answer some questions when asked, but would not preach himself, and he may recommend others to be initiated into a monastic order, but he would not initiate them himself. A socca kevali, who attains kevalihood by hearing the discourses delivered by them, is said in sutra 369 to participate in preaching activities and initiate his disciples. The residing places of both types of kevalis in the three worlds and the number of relevant kevalis attaining moksa in one minute are recorded in sutras 368-69. 550 This text thus distinguishes socca kevalis who are the active members of a mo nastic order from asocca kevalis who are outside the church organization. As far as their social activities are concerned, they resemble bodhisattvas and pratyekabuddhas. Tirtharkaras are necessarily asocca kevalis in the mode of their awakening, but they organize their independent tirthas to promulgate their religion of salvation, which is said to be the role of socca kevalis. The same is true for the position of buddhas who are necessarily pratyekabuddhas in the mode of awakening, but they are necessarily bodhisattvas as to the role of their activities in the world. Pratyekabuddha is originally said to mean "Buddha himself" in the state of hesitation in preaching what he had just realized to the public. Later when the bodhisattva concept arose, the term pratyekabuddha came to be used in the sense of an arhat who can be awakened by himself without hearing others' discourses and devotes himself for the accomplishment of himself alone, not for the sake of others. The Jainas have no such tradition, and the nature of tirthankaras certainly differs from that of bodhisattvas. The classification of kevalis into socca-asocca mentioned above must be felt needed in the process of formal theorization of church organiza tion, and it is likely that their concepts were formulated much under the sway

Page #235
205 of Mahayanism-cum-Hinayanism of the Buddhists. 551 (2) 24 Tirthankaras The roles of 24 tirtharkaras are discussed in XX.8.675-81. The previous sutra 674 offers in introduction that the cosmic time cycle of avasarpini-utsarpini governs five Bharatas and five Airavatas, but not five Maha videhas (cf. A-2). Sutra 675 explains that 24 arhats preach the doctrine of four yamas in Maha videhas, that 22 arhats in the middle do the same in Bharatas and Airavatas, and the first and the last arhats preach the doctrine of five uratas accompanied by pratikramana (twice daily repentance) in Bharatas and Airavatas. The same idea occurs in the Sthana IV.1.329. Our text imparts a list of 24 tirthan karas born in Bharata in Jambudvipa in this avasarpini, wherein the 6th is called Suprabha and the 8th Sa'si, who are respectively called Padmaprabha and Candraprabha in the later literature. The position of the 12 Angas in relation to 24 tirtharkaras is taken up in sutra 676 that kalika 'srutas (here meaning the 11 Angas) exist during the eight interims at the beginning and end, which do not exist in the seven middle interims (i.e., the 9th-16th), and that the Drstivada does not exist throughout these twenty-three interims. Sutra 677 mentions that MV's Purvagata lasts for 1,000 years and other tirtharkaras' Purvagata lasts for sarkhyata or asankhyata years in Bharata in Jambudvipa in the present avasarpini. 552 In the same Bharata in the same present cosmic time, MV's tirtha is said in sutra 678 to last for 21,000 years, and the tirtha of the 24th future tirthankara is said in sutra 679 to last for sarkhyata years, which equals the length of time that Rsabha of Kausala enjoyed as a jina. This sutra must be acquainted with the content expressed in the Sthana IX.920 which offers 9 kot ikoti sagaropamas as the duration of Rsabha's jinahood. Sutra 680 then defines that arhats are necessarily tirtharkaras, and a tirtha consists of four varna 'sramana sanghas, i.e., monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. Finally, sutra 681 tells that these arhats are necessarily pravacanis or preachers of pravacana, that pravacana consists of the 12 Angas (dvada'sanga gani-pitakas), and that the Ksatriyas of noble families (i.e., the Ugras, Bhogas, Rajanyas, Ik'suvakus, Jnatas and Kauravas) attain liberation or devaloka by embracing the Jaina dharma. 553 Here the concept of 24 future tirtharkaras that naturally presupposes the existence of 24 past tirtharkaras creeps in. Since 24 present tirtharkaras were born in Bharata in this present avasarpini, 24 future tirtharkaras are to be born in the immediately succeeding utsarpini, and 24 past tirtharikaras had been born in the immediately preceding utsarpini. And since this kala cakra is turning round eternally, the number of the past and future tirtharkaras is assumed to be innumerable. * 554 The roles of 24 tirtharkaras authorized by the then canonical authorities are:

Page #236
206 (1) To preach the 12 Angas, (2) To preach five vratas or four yamas in Bharatas, Airavatas and Mahavidehas, and (3) To organize tirthas. The rule that the 11 Angas exist in the first and the last eight interims but do not exist in the seven interims in the middle must be an expression of the idea that the 11 Angas are not constantly maintained by the people due to their nature and conditions. The plan of its distribution by dividing twenty-three interims into roughly three equal divisions is however a mechanical one. Likewise, the rule that five vratas are taught by the first and the last tirthankaras alone is obviously a mechanical and formal operation, because the 1st tirtharkara takes his birth in susamadusama period when people can observe the vows better than those in dusamasusama period in which the rest of 23 tirthankaras take their birth (see also Uttara XXI.26 for the exposition of preaching five vows and four vows.) 555 The canonical authorities must have therefore considered logically and mechanically that the 12 Angas to be preached by the rest of 23 tirtharkaras are fundamentally the same as those taught by MV himself in order to express an idea that the 12 Angas subsist in the universe eternally, even though they sometimes disappear totally or partially depending on the nature and conditions of their holders. We may recall here that the nature and profile of the universe are said in V.9.225 (A-1-2) to have been proclaimed by Parsva already, which is referred to in IX.32.377 (C-2). This is conveyed by MV to Parsva's followers in V.9.225, and upon hearing it these Parsvans are immediately converted to MV's order. It would be normal to expect that these Parsvans would react by becoming more proud of their master and deepen their faith in Parsva. However, they are immediately converted here, obviously because MV shows the supreme knowledge that this fact had already been known to Pars va. Calling for the previous tirthankara's authority as such must have been done during the current of thought that the 12 Angas are preached by all the tirtharkaras and they subsist eternally in the world. 556 In this connection, we should recall the intriguing problem of the lost Purva included in the Drstivada which also came to be lost. In our text above, the Jainas in the final canonical period are putting the problem of the Purva in the frame of a rule that MV's Purva lasts for 1,000 years. One more obvious intention noted here is to extol the Ksatriya class and their noble families including Jnata clan. The self-evident intention is to assert that MV belongs to the Ksatriya class. The church authorities thus attempted to theorize tirtharkaras' roles and positions in the mythological context, which was also a trend then current in all the religious schools. This text was composed in the early fifth canonical stage.

Page #237
207 (3) Great personages of the Jainas 557 The topic of great personages including 24 tirtharkaras makes its appearance in V.5.202. According to it, in Bharata in this present avasarpini 7 kulakaras, 24 tirthankaras, their parents, their first female followers, 12 cakravartis, their mothers and consorts, 9 baladevas, 9 vasudevas, their parents, and 9 prativasudevas are born. It refers to Samavaya 246ff. for further information. X V1.6.577 (cf. D-2a-3) mentions that there are fourty-two common dreams and thirty great dreams, which are also known to Sthana X.1035, for instance. It then informs the number of dreams to be seen by the mothers of the great personages as follows: fourteen dreams by the mothers of tirtharkaras and cakravartis, seven out of fourteen by the mothers of vasudevas, four by the mothers of baladevas, and one by the mothers of mandalikas. In the Sudarsana story in X1.11.427-31 (cf. A-2), the mother of Mahabala (Sudarsana's past life) dreamed one of these fourteen dreams, by which he was foretold to become a mandalika or a provincial governor. 558 Needless to say, vasudevas, baladevas and prativasudevas, who are merely expressing the hierarchical positions of the Jaina great personages, were taken over from the Vaisnavas who kept on troubling the Jainas at Mathura from the late Kushan through the Gupta period to the effect that the Jainas had to desert the city. The Jainas, in revenge, placed all these great Vaisnavas under the dominion of tirthankaras. This theme then expanded to produce the Jaina puranas in the medieval age. All these texts belong to the final canonical stage. 559 Finally, X V1.4.624 reads that as many 'vara amdhaga-vanhino jiva' exist so many 'para amdhaga-vanhino jiva' do. Andhaka-vrsnis are the descendants of Krsna. 'Vara purisa' denotes Vasudeva Krsna. Therefore, 'vara... jiva' are vasudevas and 'para... jiva' are prativasudevas. There are 9 vasudevas, 9 baladevas and 9 prativasudevas. This text therefore amounts to saying that the number of vasudevas and that of prativasudevas are equal. This passage seems to be exhibiting an earlier position prior to the formulation of the number of these personages. From an archaeological source, a class of Neminatha image flanked by Vasudeva and Balarama is said to make appear, ance in the late Kushan and post-Kushan age." Vasudeva occurring in the Jnatadharma 1.5 and 16, for instance, is expressed in the singlular, but the Jambudvipa p. VI.175 expresses him in the plural. In all probability, this text was composed in the fourth-early fifth canonical stages prior to the Jambudvipa p.

Page #238
CHAPTER CONCLUSION

Page #239

Page #240
208 CHAPTER I CONCLUSION 560 Our task of a chronological analysis of the sutras in Satakas I-XX is over, and its results have been entered in the final column of the table in Chapter I. We have previously posed a series of questions, i.e., (1) Which texts constitute the Bhagavati nucleus and what is its nature?, (2) How and why it developed into the present form?, and (3) What is the position of the Bhagavati in the Jaina canonical literature? Let us answer these problems in this chapter of conclusion. 561 That Satakas XXI-XLI belong to the fifth canonical stage has been already testified by Dixit in his article, "A Recent Study of Bhagavatisutra Reviewed ", by analyzing their formal structure exhibiting a uniform methodical tendency of the authors in utilizing the earlier materials. Excluded from this uniform structural construction is Sataka XIV: its Udde's akas 1-5 deal with the ontological problems of jiva-ajiva (six dravyas) and the rest of Udde'sakas 6-12 deal with ethical problems relevant to nirgranthas, samyatas and samsari jivas. This Sataka XXV is a collection of systematic treatises on these subject matters, which distinguishes itself from Satakas I-XX that on the whole consist of a disorderly assembly of numerous fragmentary passages on various topics. XXV.3 takes up the problems of sansthana and 'sreni involving yugma method. The T.S. is acquainted with the ethical problems handled in this 'sataka in general. However, Umasvati does not make use of the list of the later so-called 14 jivasamasa which occurs in XXV.1.716 in terms of 14 samsari samapannaka jivas. The former portion of this 's ataka pertaining to the ontological problems is probably a post-Umasvati product. 562 As already examined by Deleu, XXVI-XL I which deal with the ontological problems including jiva, ajiva and karma can be conceived as a whole in terms of the structure of their subdivisions, i.e., (1) XXVI-XXX>XXX II-XXXIV; (2) XXXI-XXXI> XXXI-XL and XLI.' And it is a salient feature of Satakas XI-XLI that they are dividable into distinct formal groups, i.e., XXI-XXII, XXIV, XXV, XXVIXXX, XXX I XXXII, XXXIII-XXXIV, XXXV-XL and XLI. XXI-XXI reproduce the materials dealt with in XI.1/8.408-15 (X-sutras: reference is made to the Prajnapana); XXV.3.731 refers to the Nandi for the information on the 12 Anga ganipitakas; XXV.4.733 refers to XVI.4.623 for the yugma method; XXV.4.737 refers to the Prajnapana XI; XXV.5.748 refers to the Jivajivabhigama for the information of nigoda; and XXV.5.749 refers to X VI.1.592 (X-sutra: reference is made to the Anuyogadvara). The yugma method is developed into ksudremaha-ra'si yugmas in Satakas XXXI-XXXI, XXXV-XL and XLI. Also vaggas and avantara'satas (sub-satakas) become the popular and formal divisions of these 'satakas. It is thus indisputable that Satakas XXI-XL I belong to the fifth canonical stage, which are placed after the former twenty 'satakas due to their formal distinction taking the form of a collection of systematic treatises on

Page #241
563 564 565 566 567 568 jiva-ajiva. Now, on the basis of the chronological evaluation of the texts made in the Table of Synopsis in Chapter II, let us sort out which texts in Satakas I-II belong to which canonical stages in the following Table 1. When a sutra or a sutra group covers a few subject fields, we underline only one of them to be taken up in the succeeding Table IV. In a few cases, there occurs a text which covers two totally different subjects belonging to two different ages. These should have been treated as two independent texts, which the Bhagavati editors in the modern age counted as one. Such a text is entered here twice under two different age groups. From this naturally ensues the fact that the number of texts entered in Table I is larger than the original number of texts reckoned in the present printed text. As we have cautioned at the beginning of Chapter III, the topical entries of the contents of sutras shown in the 1st column of the Table of Synopsis are not always complete and exhaustive, and this limitation should be kept in mind. And in order to avoid complication, subject fields are indicated in the tables of Ch.IV up to 2 units only, that is, A-1 and C-lc, etc., but not A-1-1 and C-1c-2, etc., as recorded in the Table of Synopsis and Ch. III. The first stage onwards (1>) X. 3.401 B-1 The second stage II. 5.112 (H) C-la VI. 6.332 (N.D.) D-2b 6.333 6.334 The second stage onwards (2>) VI. 8.339 D-2b X. 2.398 D-2b The second-third stages I. 3.30-31 D-2a D-2a A-1 D-2c C-1c VII. TABLE D-1b, D-2b C-1a 3.33 6.51 1.262 3.274-75 569 I The third stage I. 1.8 8.65-69 10.80 (H) 1.84 1.86 5.105 III. 4.156 4.157 4.158 V. 2.180 II. 2.20 3.32 6.50 6.54 6.55 6.56 209 6.205-6 6.211 7.212 D-1b, E-2 E-4 B-1 A-2 A-1 E-3a B-1, C-la D-1a, D-1b D-la, D-1b, B-1 C-la C-la D-2a C-la B-1 C-1d C-1a D-la E-3b B-1

Page #242
569 D-3 VI C-1d 7.218 D-2a 570 XVI. 7.631 (H) D-2b 9.222 D-2a 9.223 B-1, C-1d 571 The third-fourth stages VI. 10.255 C-1b I. 4.39 E-3b 10.257 C-1c 4.42 C-1d 2.270 D-2a 9.74 D-3, E-3b 3.276 C-la 9.75 (H) E-3b 3.278 E-2 II. 1.87-89 7.289 C-1b 5.100-4 C-la 7.290 C-1d 3.183 E-3b 8.294 E-2 4.191 C-1d 3.324 C-1b 4.198 C-1c 6.335 D-la 6.203 E-3b 7.336 (H) D-1b, D-26 6.207 (H) C-2 10.360 C-1b 7.213 B-1 IX. 34.390 D-la VI. 7.245 C-1c 34.391-92 D-la VF. 7.492-94 B-1 5.450 C-la XIV. 10.537 C-ld 5.451 E-2 XVI. 5.627 E-3b 8.458 C-1c 6.630 B-1 XIV.1.499 8.640 C-1d 4.509 B-1 XX.3.665 C-la, E-2 4.510 6.517 C-1c, E-2 572 The fourth stage 6.518 C-1c V. 4.193 C-1d 9.533 C-1d, B-1 4.194 C-1d 9.534 C-1b 7.214 B-1 9.535 B-1 VI. 9.253 C-ld XVI. 1.560 C-la VI. 2.273 B-1, C-16 1.561 C-la 3.277 C-1d 1.562 D-la 7.291 E-4 2.565 E-4 x. 2.399 (N.D.) D-2b 2.568 XI. 10.468 B-1 6.580 B-1 XIV.4.511 B-1 8.584 D-la 4.512 B-1 8.585 A-1, B-2 8.526 A-1 XVI. 1.590 D-la XVI. 9.641 C-1c 4.601 E-2 10.642 D-26 X VI. 8.639 (H) D-2b 10.644 B-1 XX.5.667-69 B-1 570 The third stage onwards (3>) I. 4.41 B-1 573 The fourth-fifth stages V. 6.204 D-la I. 1.16 D-2a VI. 10.355 B-1 1.19 D-3, A-1 E-2 E-2

Page #243
211 A-3 7.60 A-3 D-la F-1 573 2.23 C-2 573 XIV. 2.502 E-3b 3.35 E-2 5.515 (N.D.) E-3b 5.43 A-1 7.523 D-26 5.44-49 C-1b 7.524-25 6.52 D-la 8.527 C-1c 7.57-58 C-lc, D-16 8.530 A-3 C-1c, D-1b 8.532 7.61-62 C-la, E-3b 9.536 D-2b 8.70 E-3b XVI. 1.563-64 D-la 10.81 (H) D-la 3.570 D-la, E-3b I. 3.149-53 (S) D-la, E-3a 8.583 B-1 4.155 C-1d XVI. 1.591 D-la 6.161 C-ld 4.600 V. 3.182 (H) E-3b XVI. 4.624 F-2 4.187 (S) 5.625 A-3 4.196 E-36 5.626 E-2 5.200 C-id 7.632 D-2a 5.201 (H) E-4 8.638 D-la 6.204 E-2 XX.5.654 E-2 6.210 D-3 7.657 A-1 7.215 B-1 XX. 7.673 E-3a 7.216-17 B-1 10.684 E-3b 8.220 (S) B-1 10.685 C-1c, E-3b 8.221 C-2 VI. 3.233-34 E-3a 574 The fifth stage 6.243 A-1 I. 1.17 C-1b 6.244 C-1c E-Za 10.254 (H) D-26 3.27-28 E-2, E-3b 1.263 D-2c 3.29 E-3b 1.266 D-la 3.34 E-3a, E-36 7.288 D-la 3.36-37 E-3b 8.292 C-1d 4.40 E-3a 2.315 C-la 6.53 (S) A-1 6.331 D-2c 7.59 C-IC 10.353 (H) D-2a 8.63-64 C-1c, E-3b 10.356 B-1 8.71 C-1c X. 2.395 D-la C-1c XI. 10.420 A-1 9.73 B-2 10.421 C-1b 9.76 (S) D-2b 10.422 C-16 9.77 D-2a 12.432-34 (S) C-1c 9.78 E-3a 12.435 (S) C-lc 9.79 D-2a XII.7.456-57 A-1, C-2 I. 1.90-95 (s) A-1, C-16, D-2a XI.4.474 A-1, E-2 5.99 (H) C-1c 1.18 VI. 9.72

Page #244
212 574 574 VI. II. D-2b D-2a I. V. 5.106-11 (S) D-3 8.115 A-3 10.117-24 B-2 1.125-32 A-3 1.133-40 (S) A-3 2.141-48 (S) A-3 4.159 D-2b 5.160 D-2b, D-3 6.162 A-3 7.163-67 A-3 8.168 A-3 1-4/5-8.171-72A-3 1.175-78 A-2 2.179 C-la 4.184 C-ld 4.185 E-3b 4.186 A-3, F-1 4.188 (S) C-1d 4.189 D-2a 4.190 A-3 4.195 C-1d 4.197 C-1d 4.199 D-2b 5.202 F-2 6.209 (N.D.) D-26 7.209 (N.D.) C-1d 9.224 A-2 9.225 (S) A-1 9.226 10.227 1.228 E-2, E-3a 1.229 E-4 1.230 E-2 3.232 E-2, E-3b 3.235 E-3a 3.236-37 E-3b 4.238 C-1b 4.239 C-1c, D-2a, E-3b 5.240 A-1 5.241 8.248 A-1 8.249 E-3a, E-36 9.252 A-3 10.256 (H) E-3b 10.258 C-ld 1.259 C-1c 1.260 A-1, C-1d 1.261 D-la, D-2c 1.264 C-1d 1.265 E-2 1.267-69 2.271 3.279 B-1, C-1b 6.282-83 E-3b 6.284 E-3b 6.285 E-3b 8.295 (N.D.) C-ld 8.296 D-2a 8.297 D-2a, E-3a 9.298 D-2b 9.299-303 (S) D-3 10.304-7 (S) B-1,B-2,D-la, E-2 1.308-14 B-1 2.319-20 C-10 5.327 D-2c 5.328 D-2c 5.329 (N.D.) D-2c, D-3 5.330 8.338 D-2a 8.340-41 E-3b 8.342 E-3b 10.354 D-2a 10.357 10.358 E-3a 10.359 E-36 31.364-69 C-1d, E-2,E-3b,F-2 32.370-78 (S) C-2 33.379-81 (S) F-1 33.382-89 (S) D-1b, F-1 1.393 3.400 A-3 4.403 (S) A-3 6.406 A-1 B-2 A-1 A-2 VI. LX. X. A-1 - A-3 A-1 X1.10.419 A-1 11.423-31 (S) A-2, F-2 X 1.1.436-39 (S) D-2a,D-2c,E-3a 2.440-42 (S) C-1c, D-2a, F-1

Page #245
213 574 : : : : : C-2 A-1 D-3 4.485 c-2 A-3 A-3 4,444-47 B-1 5.448-49 B-2 8.459 D-1b, D-3 10,466-67 c-1b Xx . 1.469-71 C-2 2.472 4,478-79 4.480 B-2 4.481-82 B-2 4.483 C-1c 4.484 B-2 A-1 4,486 A-1 6.488 6.489 6.490-91 (s) D-3, F-1 7.495 D-2a, E-3b 9,497 D-2b XIV , 1.500 C-1c 1.501 E-3b 2.503 A-3 2.504 A-3 3.505-6 D-Za 3.507 A-3 5.514 c-2 5.516 6.519 A-3 7.520 F-1 7.521 C-1d 7.522 8.531 A-3 9.534 A-3 XV. 538-59 (s) F-1 XVI, 2.566-67 (s) A-3, D-2a, 4.571 5.572-75 (s) A-3, D-1b 6.576 D-2a 6.577 D-Za, F-2 6.578 (N,D.) -1 6.579 D-3 8.582 A-1 9.586 A-3 11/14.588 C-16 XV. 1.589 (s) D-3 2.593 D-2a 2.594 (H) D-2a 2.595 (H) C-1b 2.596 A-3 3.597-98 C-1c 3.599 6/11.603- 8 C-le 12.609 | C-1b 13/17.610-14 C-1b XVII. 1.615 | C-1b 2.616 (s) A-3 3.617 (S) C-1d 3.619-21 (S) E-3a, E-4 4.622 C-1b 4.623 c-2 5.628 6.629 B-1 7.633 (S) 7.634 C-1b 7.635 A-3 7.636 7.637 E-4 10.643 B-1 10.645-46 (S) C-1b, D-2b XIX. 3.650-52C-lc 4.653 E-2 8.658 C-lc 9.659 C-1c 10.660 C-1b XX.1.661 C-1b 2.662-63 3.664 C-1b 6.670-72 C-1c 8.674-81 A-2, F-2 9.682-83 D-2b 10.686 B-2 A-3 A-3 : : nuuN 3 36 3 4 3 3 kvii 2 B-1 E-4 B-2 c-2

Page #246
575 The fifth stage (X) I. 1.9-15 2.21 2.22 2.24 P. 2.25 2.26 4.38 10.82 1.83 IV. Sthiti-ucchvasa-ahara-karma (P.) Ahara, etc. Lesya Moksa Asamyata bhavya drauya deva Asanjni Karma prakrti H-viraha kala Ucchvasa-Skandaka gatha Ucchvasa-nihsvasa Samudghata Prthui Indriya Bhasa Deva Samaya ksetra Lavana samudra - urddha-hani Indriya Parisad Lesya Lavana samudra Anu. Pramana H-vikurvana P. Ahara Lokantika deva (Jam.) kala vibhaga (Jam.) Bharata in susamasusama (Ji.) Lavana samudra Karma bandha Pratyakhyani-apratyakhyani Ji. Jiva Ji. Paksi (=Jam.) Bharata in duhsamaduhsama R. Jiva samana, e.g., hasti-kunthu (R.,Sth.) Jnana-visaya R.,N. Jnana; jnani-ajnani N.,Ji.,P. Jnana-jnani Vrksa 8 prthvis -carama-acarama Kriya Gati Ji.,(=Jam.)Surya: Jyotiska P. Bandha Ji. 1.85 2.96 3.97 4.98 6.113 7.114 9.116 3.154 9.169 10.170 9/10.173-74 2.181 4.192 6.208 2.231 5.242 7.246 7.247 8.250 9.251 2.272 4.280 5.281 6.286-87 8.293 2.316 (N.D.) 2.317-18 2.321-22 3.323 3.325 4.326 7.337 8.343 9.344-52 Ji. VII. P. VM. P. P.

Page #247
576 IX. X. 1.361 2.362 3/30.363 1.394 2.396 2.397 3.402 5.404-5 7.34.407 XI. 1/8.408-15 9.416-18 (S) 11.426 XII. 3.443 6.452-55 9.460.65 XII. 3.473 4.475-77 5.487 8.496 10.498 XIV. 3.508 4.513 8.528-29 (S) XVI. 3.569 7.581 10.587 XVII. 1.592 5.602 XVII. 3.618 (S) 4.623 XIX. 1.647 2.648 3.649 5.655 6.656 XX. 4.666 Jam. Ji. Ji. P. P. P. P. Ji. Ji. P. Ji.,Aup. P. Ji. (S-C) P.,Ji. P. Ji. P. P. P. Ji. SA P. Aup. P. P. P. Anu. P. P. P. P. P. P. P. Ji. P. Jambudvipa Jyotiska Table 28 daksinantaradvipas Sarira Yoni Vedana Bhasa Devi 28 uttarantaradvipas Utpala...nalina (Siva) Duipa-samudra Jiva-sthiti Prthui Rahu; sasi and aditya Deva H-antarahara, etc. H-sparsa, etc. Ahara 8 karma prakrtis Samudghata H-pudgala parinama and vedana parinama Jiva-ajiva-parinama Ambada pariurajaka Karma Upayoga; pasyatta Avadhi Bhava Isana's sabha Nirjara pudgala- janai pasai' Kasaya Lesya Garbha and lesya A'-pratyekasarira, etc. Vedana Dvipa-samudra Indriyopacaya The total number of sutras belonging to each canonical stage is shown in the following Table II: 215 II

Page #248
216 The first stage onwards The second stage The second stage onwards The second third stages The third stage The third stage onwards The third-fourth stages The fourth stage The fourth-fifth stages The fifth stage The fifth stage (x) 355 118 687 + 7 694 577 We have added here 7 su tras which form the opening passages of the Bhagavati (i.e. namaskara mantras and prologue passages entitled 'Rajagrha'). The total number we have entered in this table is 694, and the total number of sutras in the Suttagame is 686. The reason for this difference has already been explained. 578 The sub-totals of sutras belonging to the following age groups are shown in two groups in Table I below. We are not quite certain of the exact dates of the texts falling in the first stage onwards, the second stage onwards and the third stage onwards, which we include in their later age groups. Thus, group (1) indicates the approximate number composed in each age group. Table 579 - 14 (1) (a) The first stage onwards - the second-third stages - the third stage - the third-fourth stages - the fourth stage : - the fourth-fifth stages (2) The fifth stage (a) The texts in Satakas 1-XX (b) X-sutras + 7 opening passages (c) The texts in Satakas XXI-XLI (687-867) 78 109 127 214 (661) 355 125 181 580 The Bhagavati colophon which forms the final sutra says that it contains 8,400,000 padas (culasiya-saya-sahassa). The Samavaya 162 records that the Vivahapannatti contains 84,000 padas (caura siim paya-sahassa). And the Nandi 50 counts 288,000 padas in it. Pada is said by the post-canonical authors to be of three kinds, i.e., artha-pada, pramana-pada and madhayama-pada.

Page #249
217 Artha-pada is based on a word conveying a meaning, therefore the number of artha-padas in a passage equals the number of words therein. Pramana-pada is based on eight syllables. Madhyama-pada is a technical term involving the total number of the possible combinations of all the letters in Ardhamagadhi in relation to the canonical texts, and it is said that the Nandi calculation above is based on this madhyama-pada.' We can at present disregard the Nandi calculation of words in the Bhagavati. 581 The Bhagavati runs through pp.384-939 in the Suttagame v.1, that is, it covers 556 pages in all. One page therein contains over 300 words. Then, 300 X 556 = 166,800: thus it actually contains over 166,800 words. We have now counted it by artha-pada. 582 84 is one of the favourite numbers of the Jainas, therefore the accuracy of calculation offered by the Bhagavati colophon and the Samavaya is highly questionable. The Bhagavati colophon counts the number of its padas 'culasiya-saya-sahassa', which means 8,400,000 but not 184,000. The Samavaya 162 collects various items whose number amounts to 'caurasum sahassa' (84,000) and 'caurasiim saya-sahassaim (8,400,000). It counts the number of Prakirnakas as 84,000 also. 583 8,400,000 thus stands for a huge number, which does not convey the accurate number of padas contained in the Bhagavati. We should also be aware of the fact in this connection that the Third Valabhi Council redacted and penned down the previous Mathura version instead of the previous Valabhi version, and no record remains as to which canonical texts were copied at the Third Valabhi Council. 584 In the following Table I, we will see what kinds of contents are expressed in the texts belonging to these age groups, excluding X-sutras (of which contents are shown in Table I) and the sutras belonging to Satakas XXI onwards. Table IV is based on Table 1. As previously mentioned, when a sutra or a sutra group covers more than one subject field in Table I, we enter the underlined entry only in Table IV to make our analysis simpler. From this it ensues that certain subject fields in certain age groups appearing in Table I are not at all shown in Table IV, or they are shown less in Table IV than they are actually offered in Table I. These differences are indicated in parentheses. For instance, "(D-1b-1)" in the second stage means that D-lb in the second stage in Table I which has only one entry is not shown in Table IV at all, or "B-1 (+2)" in the third stage means that there are originally two more entries under B-1 in the third stage in Table I, but they are not shown in Table I. Their sutra numbers can easily be checked in Table I, and their contents are easily locatable in the Table of Synopsis in Chapter II.

Page #250
585 586 587 588 589 The first stage onwards B-1 The second stage C-la (D-lb -1) D-2b The second stage onwards D-2b A-1 C-1c D-2a D-2c The third stage A-1 The second-third stages I. 6.51 VII. I. 3.30-31 X. 3.401 A-2 B-1(+2) II. 5.112 VII. 6.334 (B-2-1) C-la VI. 6.332 6.333 VI. 8.339 X. 2.398 3.274-75 3.33 VII. 1.262 I. 6.54 X VI. 8.585 I. 6.50 I. 3.32 10.80 III. 4.157 V. 7.212 9.223 XIV. 4.509 9.535 XVI .6.580 I. 6.56 II. 1.84 1.86 II. 4.156 V. 2.180 Table VII. 3.276 X II.5.450 IV Khu khu Mahatapopatira prabhava 'Joi jhiyai' Pinda grahana and upabhoga Aradhaka Vyavahara Bhiksupratima and aradhana Lokanta-alokanta, etc.-spar'sa Vanaspati kayika-ahara Jina; aradhaka Gamaniya Trasa samarambha pratyakhyana Loka sthiti Deva's gati not in aloka Surya Asti-nasti-parinama Paramanu-sanghata-bheda; bhasa Balahaka-parinama Paramanu-skandha-ejana Udyota-andhakara Pudgala parinama Surya Ghrana-saha-gata pudgala Suksma sneha kaya A-ucchuasa-nihsvasa Vayukaya 218 Vayukaya-vikurvana Odana, etc. sattha-parinamia agani-jiva sarira' Ananta (kayika) jiva Garbhagata jiva-parinama

Page #251
589 590 C-1b C-1c 6.518 C-1d(+1) III. 4.158 VII. 7.290 XIV. 1.499 9.533 D-la(+1) I. 8.65-69 V. 6.205-6 VII. 6.335 IX. 34.390 D-2b XVI. 1.560 1.561 VI. 10.255 VII. 7.289 VI. 3.324 10.360 XIV. 9.534 VI. 10.257 X II.8.458 XIV.6.517 E-2(+1) D-1b(+3) I. 1.8 D-2a E-3a E-3b E-4 34.391-92 XVI. 1.562 8.584 XVII 1.590 II. 5.105 V. 7.218 9.222 VII. 2.270 VI. 7.336 XVI. 8.639 VII. 3.278 8.294 XII.5.451 XIV. 4.510 XVI.2.568 XVI. 4.601 I. 6.55 V. 6.211 I. 2.20 XVI. 2.565 The third stage onwards B-1 I. 4.41 VI. 10.355 Vayukaya-janma-marana Agnikaya in angarikarika-sthiti Jiva Kama-bhoga Jiva pradesas Jiva-pudgali-pudgala H.A.M.G-ista-anista pudgala Ahara G>naga, etc. Jiva-ahara-parinama-yoni-sthiti Jiva-ahara Lesya Kaina bhogi Lesya Karma-lesaya- janai pasai" 5 kriyas Kriya 5 kriyas " " "1 "Calamane calie' Maithuna "I Sarambha-saparigraha Rajagrha " Supratyakhyana-duspratyakhyana "Tiviham tivihena asamjaya..." "I Karma vedana and no-karma nirjara Jiva-sukha-duhkha Jiva parinama " " Karma bandha caitanya-krta Atma-krta duhkha and vedana Karma bandha Mrsavadi-karma bandha and vedana Vedana Pudgala-jiva-sasvata Pudgala parinama 219

Page #252
220 590 5 D-la D-26 V. 6.204 XVI. 7.631 kriyas kevali's bhasa 591 The third-fourth stages B-1 V. 7.213 XI. 7.492-94 XVI. 6.630 C-la II. 5.100-4 XX. 3.665 C-lc V. 4.198 VI. 7.245 C-ld I. 4.42 V. 4.191 XIV. 10.537 X V. 8.640 C-2 V. 6.207 D-3 I. 9.74 I. 1.87-89 (E-2-1) E-3b (+1) I. 4.39 9.75 3.183 6.203 XVI. 5.627 Paramanu-skandha-chedana, etc. Bhasa, manas, kaya Paramanu-skandha--varna, etc. Garbhagata jiva -parinama Sayoga kevali Sali, etc.-sthiti Chadmasthas- 'kevali bhavitta...sijjhamti' Kevala jnana-darsana Kevali and siddha Paramanu-skandha- janai pasai' 'Cattari pamca joyana-sayaim Kanksapradvesa ksina Nirgrantha-samsari-mukti Mohaniya karma Ayur bandha Ayus karma 592 The fourth stage XIV.8.526 Abadhantara B-1 (+1) V. 7.214 Paramanu-skandha-sardha XI. 10.468 Prthvi and paramanu-skandha-atma or no. atma XIV.4.511 Paramanu-sa'svata-a'sa'svata 4.512 Paramanu-carama-acarama XV. 10.644 Dravya (pudgala) parasparavagaha XX. 5.667-68 Paramanu-skandha-varna, etc. 5.669 Paramanu VI. 2.273 jiva-'sa'svata-a'sa'svata XV. 9.641 Bhavya dravya jiva and sthiti C-1d V. 4.193 Kevala jnana-darsana 4.194 Vaimanika deva-jnana-darsana VI. 9.253 . Lesya - 'janai pasai' VI. 3.277 Lesya and karma D-2b x. 2.399 Aradhana XV. 10.642 Anagara-asidharavagaha E-4 VI. 7.291 Vedana C-1b C-1c

Page #253
221 593 Prthui A-3 17 The fourth-fifth stages A-1 (+3) 1. 5.43 VI. 6.243 X I. 10.420 XIX. 7.657 XIV.7.524-25 8.530 8.532 XV.5.625 B-1 V. 7.215 7.216-17 8.220 VI. 10.356 XVI. 8.583 1. 7.61-62 . 2.315 C-1b I. 5.44-49H X 1.10.421 10.422 C-1c 1. 7.57-58 7.60 VI. 6.244 XI. 12.432-34 12.435 XIV.8.527 XX. 10.685 C-1d I. 4.155 6.161 v. 5.200 VI .8.292 1. 2.22 V...: XI., 5, 57 D-la I. 6.52 10.31 I.3.149-53 VI. 1.266 7.288 X. 2.395 XVI. 1.563-64 3.570 XVI.1.591 4.600 8.638 Loka-aloka-vistara Devavasa Lavasaptama deva; Anuttaropapatika deva Avyabadha deva Jrmbhaka deva Asurakumara-darsaniya-adarsaniya Paramanu-skandha-sparsa 1 1 -kalatah Paramanu-skandha Pudgalastikaya pradesa/s Paramanu-gati (in one samaya) Garbhagata jiva Asivisa .A.M.G Jiva parasparavagaha Jiva prade'sas-alpabahutva H-utpada-udvartana and ahara G>A.M. Marana samudghata G-sthiti C-la Sala vrksa, etc., and moksa Jiva - utpada-udvartana 'Devam...jana-ruvenam'- 'janai pasai' Avadhi-vibhanga-jnani Chadmasthas- 'kevali bhavitta...sijjhamti' 0.2 Sunya kala, etc. Jiva-vrddha-hani Loka-vistara; jiva-janma-marana 18 kriyas Iryapatha-samparayika kriya Kriya-pramada pratyaya-yoga nimitta, etc. Samparayika kriya Iryapatha kriya Iryapatha-samparayika kriya Adhikarani-adhikarana Dharmantaraya kriya 5 kriyas Kriya Iryapatha kriya

Page #254
593 Arambha Sila-sruta Upadhi-parigraha-pranidhana Sukha-duhkha upadarsana Bhakta pratyakhyani anagara and ahara Nirgrantha's tapas Ahara dana-phala (D-1b-2) D-2a I. 1.16 VI. 10.353 XV. 7.632 D-2b VI. 10.254 XIV.7.523 9.536 D-2c VI. 1.263 VI. 6.331 D-3 I. 1.19 V. 6.210 E-2 I. 3.35 V. 6.204 X I.4.474 XV. 5.626 X X.5.654 E-3a (+1) VI. 3.233-34 XX. 7.673 E-3b (+3) 1. 8.70 V. 3.182 4.196 XIV.2.502 5.515 XX. 10.684 E-4 V. 5.201 V. 4.187 F-2 XVI. 4.624 Akama parisahajaya-phala Acarya-upadhyaya-moksa Udirana-upa'sama-vedana.nirjara (Karma-Skriya-asrava-vedana H-karma-kriya-asrava-vedana-rddhi-dyuti (Karma-Skriya-asrava-vedana Bandha Prayoga bandha Viryavadhya karma Ayur bandha Anuttaropapatikas-upasanta moha Unmada Ista-anista sthana Sopakrama nirupakrama ayus Vedana Atimuktaka 'Amdhagavanhino jiva' F-1 594 The fifth stage A-1 (+1) I. 6.53 I. 1.90-95 V. 9.225 9.226 VI. 5.240 5.241 8.248 V. 5.330 X. 1.393 X1.10.419 XI.4.478-79 4.485 4.486 XVI. 8.582 v. 1.175-78 Loka purvam, aloka purvam, etc. Loka, jiva, etc.-santa-ananta Loka Devaloka Tamaskaya Krsnaraji 8 prthuis Devaloka 10 disas and jiva-ajiva Loka-aloka Loka-madhya bhaga; asta-prade'sika-rucaka Loka- 'kahi...bahusame?' Loka-sansthana and vistara Loka and jiva-ajiva Surya and kala vibhaga A-2 (+1)

Page #255
594 A-2 A-3 (+1) 9.224 Kala vibhaga V. 10.227 Candra X 1.11.423-31 Kala; Mahabala 1. 8.115 Camaracanca II. 1.125-32 Camara, etc. --rddhi...vikurvana 1.133-40 I'sana's rddhi, etc. 2.141-48 Camara and Sakra 6.162 Atmaraksas 7.163-67 Sakra's lokapalas 8.168 Devadhipati IV.1-4/5-8.171-72 I'sana's lokapalas V. 4.190 Deva's bhasa V. 9.252 G-vikurvana X. 3.400 G-rddhi and 'viivaejja' 4.403 Trayastrimsa deva 6.406 Sakra's sabha XII. 6.489 Camaracanca XIV.2.503 Parjanya 2.504 Tamaskaya 3.507 G-rddhi and 'viivaeija 5.516. G-vikurvana 6.519 Devendra-bhoga and ratigrha 8.531 Sakra 9.534 'Ega nam bhasa X VI. 2.566-67 Sakra's bhasa 5.572-75 Gangadatta 9.586 Balicanca XVI. 2.596 G-vikurvana XVI. 2.616 Sakra 5.628 G-vikurvana 7.635 Devasura sangrama 7.636 G- dvipa-samudra gamana V.1.308-14 Pudgala parinama XII.4.444-47 Paramanu-skandha-sanghata-bheda; pudgala parivartana XIV.7.522 6 tulyakas XV. 6.629 Guda, etc. - varna, etc. 10.643 Paramanu-skandha and vayukaya-sparsa I. 9.73 Guru-laghu I. 10.117-24 Pancastikaya VI. 10.304-7 VI. 10.357 Lokaka'sa and jiva pradesas X 1.5.448-49 Pranatipata, etc.- kati-vanne...?' XII.4.480 Pancastikaya B-1 (+1) B-2

Page #256
224 594 . Anila C-la C-1b (+2) C-1c (+2) 4.481-82 Astikaya pradesas and kala-sparsa 4.484 Dharma-adharma-akasa X V1.7.633 Pancastikaya XX. 1.662 Lokaka'sa-alokaka'sa 2.663 Pancastikaya V. 2.179 I. 1.17 Jnana-dar'sana VI. 4.238 Jiva-saprade'sa-apradesa VI. 3.279 Jiva-'sa'svata-asa'svata XII. 10.466-67 Atma and jnana-darsana 11/14.588 Bhavanavasi-ahara, etc. X VI.2.595 Jiva and jivatma 12.609 A-ahara, etc. 13/17.610-14 Nagakumara, etc.-ahara, etc. XV 1.615 Jiva-prathama-aprathama and carama acarama 4.622 18 kriyas, etc. - paribhoga-aparibhoga 7.634 Vaikriyika sarira XIX. 10.660 Vyantara-ahara, etc. XX. 1.661 AP-A-pratyekasarira, etc. 3.664 Pranatipata, etc. - nannattha ayae parinamamti' I. 7.59 Vigrahagati 8.71 Virya 9.72 Jiva-guru-laghu II. 5.99 G-veda vedana VI. 1.259 Vigrahagati and ahara XII. 4.483 A'-avagahana XIV.1.500 Vigrahagati XVI. 3.597-98 Ejana; Calana 6/11.603-8 Marana samudghata and ahara XX. 3.650-52 A-avagahana 8.658 Nirurtti 9.659 Karana XX. 6.670-72 Marana samudghata and ahara V. 4.184 Sabda 4.188 MV's antevasis-antakriya 4.195 Anuttaropapatika and mano-dravya-vargana labdhi v. 4.197 kevala jnana-darsana 7.219 Hetu-ahetu V. 10.258 Kevala jnana-darsana VI. 1.260 Loka sansthana, jiva-ajiva and kevala jnana-darsana C-1d (+2)

Page #257
594 1.264 Siddha's gati 8.295 Sanjna; H-vedana V. 2.319-20 Labdhi; jnani-ajnani XIV.7.521 Anuttaropapatikas- 'eyam-attham janamti pasamti' C-2 x. 32.370-78 Jiva-utpada-udvartana XI. 1.469-71 H-utpada-udvartana 2.472 G -utpada-udvartana 6.488 Jiva-janma-marana XIV.5.514 Agnikaya XVI. 4.623 Yugma catuska XX. 10.686 Kati-sancita, etc. (D-la -2) (D-1b-3) D-2a (+6) 1. 9.77 Apratyakhyana 9.79 Sthira-asthira V. 4.189 'Deva nam no samjaya' VI. . 2.271 Pratyakhyana 8.296 Hasti-kunthu-apratyakhyana kriya 8.297 Sthira-asthira; karma bandha VI. 8.338 Pratyanika 10.354 Aradhana XII. 7.495 Marana XIV.3.505-6 H.A.M.G-vinaya XV. 6.576 Suapna and jagara XVI. 2.593 Dharma-adharma-dharmadharma 2.594 Bala-pandita-balapandita D-2b I. 9.76 Samayika, etc. II. 4.159 Anagara-vikurvana 5.160 V. 4.199 Purvadhari . 6.209 Aradhana VI. 1.267-69 Esana dosa 9.298 Anagara-vikurvana X 1.9.497 XV. 10.645-46 Yatra, etc. XX. 9.682-83 Vidyacarana and janghacarana D-2c VI. 1.261 Samayika . 5.327 5.328 Sthula pratyakhyana 5.329 Ajivika upasaka X 1.1.436-39 Pausadhopavasa D-3 (+3) II. 5.106-11 Samyama-tapas-phala, etc. VI. 9.299-303 Mahasila kant aka sangrama and Ratha

Page #258
594 X II.8.459 XVI. 6.579 X VII. 1.589 3.599 E-2 (+3) VI. 1.228 1.230 3.232 VII. 1.265 XIX. 4.653 E-3a (+5) I. 1.18 4.40 9.78 VI. 3.235 XVII. 617-21 E-3b (+3) I. 3.27-28 3.29 3.34 F-1 3.36-37 8.63-64 V. 4.185 VI. 3.236-37 4.239 8.249 10.256 VII. 6.282-83 VI. XIV. 1.501 E-4 (+4) VI. 1.229 XVI. 4.571 XVI. 7.637 V. 4.186 IX. 6.284 6.285 8.340-41 8.342 10.359 33.379-81 33.382-89 X II.2.440-42 X III. 6.490-91 XIV. 7.520 XV. 538-59 XVI. 6.578 musala sangrama A-gati Svapna and moksa phala Udayi and Bhutananda Samvega, etc.-phala Vedana-nirjara "I (Karma-)kriya-asrava-vedana Asrava-kriya-vedana-nirjara Karma bandha Karma-pradesa, karma-anubhava Karma bandha Sthiti bandha Duhkhi-duhkha Bandha; papa karma Kankaamohaniya bandha...nirjara Kankaamohaniya vedana bandha vedana "I Ayur bandha Caritramohaniya karma Karma bandha Pratyakhyana and ayur bandha Ayur bandha Sata-asata vedana Ayur bandha Karkasa-akarkasa vendaniya Vedaniya karma Iryapathika-samparayika karma bandha Parisaha and karma bandha Karma bandha Ayur bandha Sata-asata vedana Nirjara G-karma ksaya kala Harinaigamesi Rsabhadatta and Devananda Jamali Jayanti Udayana and Abhici MV and Gautama-moksa MV and Gosala MV's mahasvapna 226

Page #259
594 595 596 597 598 599 600 F-2 (+1) V. 5.202 IX. 31.364-69 XVI. 6.577 XX. 8.674-81 Kulakara, etc. Socca-assocca kevali Suapna and mahasvapna 24 tirthankaras 227 Let us see below what kinds of peculiarities emerge from this Table IV. Those bearing an asterisk are the important concepts occurring in the Bhagauti, as discussed in the previous chapter. The first stage onwards This text X.3.401 is a miscellaneous item and is of an uncertain date. The second stage: the second stage onwards: the second-third stages Here occurs a text which exhibits the early stage of the formulation of Jaina cosmography.* The discussion of jiva is yet rudimentary, and in the field of ethics, ascetic conduct is the main focus of attention. The third stage The texts showing the early stage of Jaina cosmography continue to appear. The scheme of pudgala* commences its formulation, i.e., anu-skandha, parinama and minor problems relevant to pudgala. The nature of jiva, though elementary, begins to be taken into consideration. A' are the beings frequently discussed in this stage. The chart of rebirth* and lesya theory* start to be formulated. Frequent illustrations of 5 kriyas* are offered, and the problem of 'calamane calie' occurs here for the first time. The most elementary step of karma doctrine* begins in this stage, which is concerned in general with the problems of bandha-vedana. The third stage onwards: the third-fourth stages Advance is made on the scheme of pudgala,* and the theory of pradesa* must have been formulated during this stage. The rule is established that one achieves moksa upon attaining kevala jnana-dar'sana. The problem of 'janai pasai* begins to appear. The fourth stage: the fourth-fifth stages The scheme of pudgala* is substantially rounded off, and four well-known standpoints are firmly established during these stages. The remote ancestor of saptabhangi* makes its appearance. The problems of jiua are mainly tackled from the cosmic aspect. The problem of kriya involving Ganga's nihnava* makes its appearance in this age. Iryapatha and samparayika kriyas emerge. The karma theory takes up the aspect of maha-alpa of (karma-) kriya-asrauavedana, etc., along with sopakrama-nirupakrama ayus. Also curious types of karma such as viryavadhya" begin to appear. A story of Atimuktaka and the problem relevant to the number of vasudeva-prativasudevas make their

Page #260
228 appearance. 601 The fifth stage All subject fields are dealt with in this stage. Frequency of entries by subject is as follows (only larger figures are offered here): A-3 (30); E-36 (20); D-2a (19); C-1b (16); A-1 and C-1c (15); C-1d (13); B-2, D-2b and E-3a (10); D-3 (9); E-2 and F-1 (8); C-2 and E-4 (7). As indicated above, the composition of mythological accounts and stories* suddenly becomes prominent. Also in this stage, the story texts relevant to MV, his family, relatives, disciples, dissident and rival* emerge, and it should not be lost sight of that the problem of MV's birth is relegated to the Ksatriya class.* The Jaina cosmography is completed during this stage with the provision of Tamaskaya* and Krsnaraji.* The theory of directions* also evolves here. The table of time divisions including kala cakra* gets ready. The doctrine of pancastikaya* is established, thus enabling the completion of the classification of ajiva.* The concept of guru-laghu* evolves herein, related to which are the mechanisms of transit path, * the siddha's gati*, agurulaghu nama karma* and agurulaghu guna*. The nature of jiva* comes to be more clearly defined. The sizes of A'* are taken into consideration and the technicalities involving nirurtti-karana* creep in at this stage. Also devised here are the methods of computing the number of jivas by yugma, sancita and satka, etc.* The forerunner of nayavada* also makes its appearance. In the field of ethics, the problems of pratyakhyana, * aradhana,* ascetics' supernatural powers* and lay conduct* are predominantly treated. Moksamarga* also becomes a favourite topic in this age. The types of karma bandha* are established and various uttara karma-prakrtis* make their appearance. The quantity of karma nirjara* comes to be calculated. The 24 tirthankaras' roles and positions in relation to the Angas and vows, etc., * are expressed in terms of a dogma; and the concepts of socca-assoca kevalis* and the great personages make their appearance. 602 Frequency of entries of heretical texts, non-dialogue texts and story texts in various canonical stages is as follows: H. The second stage The third stage The third stage onwards The third-fourth stages The fourth-fifth stage The fifth stage N.D. The second stage The fourth stage The fourth-fifth stages The fifth stage The fourth-fifth stages The fifth stage

Page #261
229 603 The peculiar problems treated and developed in the Bhagavati but not in the other canonical texts are; nihnava issues involving 'calamane calie'; the theory of directions; yugma and sancita methods, etc. 604 Case illustrations or realistic illustrations of a certain topic or concept applied in daily experience are prominently found in the Bhagavati: for instance, those of categorical kriya groups; those of maha and alpa of (karma-kriya-asravavedana, etc.; those of deva's and anagara's vikuruvana; and those of aradhana made on the basis of death bed performance of a locana and pratikramana (which frequently appear in the canonical story texts also). 605 The following problems are traceable of their evolution and/or development in the Bhagavati if the relevant passages in the other canonical texts are examined together: scheme of pudgala; theory of prade'sas; doctrine of pancastikayas; guru-laghu and related concepts; characteristic nature of jija; le'sya theory; rebirth chart; karma theory and related concepts; anuyogadvaras and four standpoints; nayavada; MV's birth account, etc. 606 The following concepts treated in the Bhagavati are accepted in the other canonical texts: rule of achieving moksa upon attaining kevala jnana-darsana; iryapatha and samparayika kriyas; Tamaskaya and Krsnaraji; kala cakra; roles of the 24 tirthankaras and related concepts, etc. 607 In the other texts, both canonical and post-canonical, the following topics are developed: cosmography; mythology; story composition; church history; codes of ascetic and lay conduct; karma theory; theory of knowledge and dialectics; mechanism of transit path; problems pertaining to moksa and moksamarga, etc. 608 As we have examined in the Third Chapter, various methodical forms of exposition are devised and experimented with in the Bhagavati, so that earlier thoughts can be expressed in a more systematic way. Many of them came to be used in composing the other canonical texts. Satakas XXI ff. also exhibit typical examples as such, which are derived from the practice of applying anuyoga items to classified items. 609 Then the Bhagavati incorporates passages from the other canonical texts in a large scale by indicating reference sources for the relevant problems. Frequency of the entries of X-sutras based on Table I is as follows: 610 Direct references Indirect references Referred texts Prajnapana Jivajivabhigama Jambudvipa p. 23 2

Page #262
230 Rajaprasniya Aupapatika Nandi Anuyogadvara Surya-Candra p. Sthana 611 Acording to Deleu's analysis, the Bhagavati absorbs (1) practically the entire Prajnapana contents, (2) major portions of the Jivajivabhigama (i.e., nearly the whole Third Pratipatti which includes the Duipasagara p., a part of the Second Pratipatti and the last section of the Fifth Pratipatti, which excludes the parts already covered by the Prajnapana, and (3) nearly the whole Jambudvipa p. (i.e., Vaksaras I-VI and a part of Vaksara VI). It means that the Bhagavati absorbed all these Pannatti texts belonging to the late canonical age in order to avoid unnecessary duplications, which implies that this incorporation was made on the whole with a definite intention and plan. 612 References made to other canonical texts by non-X-sutras in Satakas I-XX are: (1) direct reference to the Samavaya (V.5.202; F-2-3, fifth stage); (2) indirect references to the Sthana (V.7.219 N.D.; C-1d-3, fifth stage), (VI.2.271; D2a-2, fifth stage), (VI.8.295 N.D.; C-1d-1, fifth stage), (V1.2.315; C-la, fourthfifth stages), (V1.8.338; D-2a fifth stage), (X VI.6.578 N.D.; F-1-1, fifth stage), (XVI.7.632; D-2a-2, fourth-fifth stages), and (XX.8.675-81; F-2-2, fifth stage); (3) indirect reference to the Vyavahara (V1.8.339; D-2b-1, second stage onwards); and (4) direct reference to the Das as rutaskandha (X.2.398; D-2b-1, second stage onwards). This implies that the Bhagavati absorbed several texts belonging to the late canonical stage from the Sthana in the main. It should be noted, however, that the absorption of the other canonical texts started in the earlier stage, i.e., the second stage onwards. 613 Bhagavati contains a number of heretical texts, non-dialogue texts and story texts including an independent story called the 'Tejo nisarga', besides numerous fragmentary dialogue passages consisting of Satakas I-XX and systematic treatises consisting of Satakas XX I-XLI. Heretical texts are gener lly composed with the intention of demonstrating the supremacy of the Jaina Sect among the then philosophical schools pertaining to the relevant theoretical problems. Heretical texts also include those involving Ganga's nihnava issue. 614 Story texts in the Bhagavati are largely of three groups, i.e., (1) those expressing, in some way or other, the theoretical problems of various topics on jivaajiva in the guise of stories in order to edify the lay followeres, (2) those showing the early Jaina church history pertaining to MV, his family, relatives, disciples, dissident and rival, and (3) mythological stories. The first two

Page #263
231 groups are typical of the Bhagavati in contrast to the other Angic story texts, which are generally of a didactic nature on ethics and conduct illustrating what kinds of action bear what kinds of result. The last group is shared by the works on cosmography and geography. 615 These are the important and salient features of the Bhagavati I-XX. As to XXI-XLI, We have already noted their features in the beginning of this chapter. The Bhagavati thus stands in a peculiar position in contrast to the other canonical texts, for the latter generally take the form of compilations of treatises on certain branches of knowledge, which are composed more or less systematically in order to offer the corollaries arrived at each period of thought development. 616 From the analysis made above, it is evident that the Bhagavati is fundamentally concerned with the general theoretical problms of jiva-ajiva in the loka-aloka, which are the essential problems treated in the Pannatti texts. For this reason story texts were easily classified into the relevant subject fields. Mythological stories are, of course, the concern of the Pannatti texts. Another peculiar theme offered in the Bhagavati is the early Jaina church history centered around MV, which is expressed in a group of stories and dissidents' issues, i.e., Jamali's and Ganga's. These problems can be embraced in the category of jiva in a broader sense, inasmuch as various problems pertaining to ethics and conduct can be included herein. Thus despite the external appearance of pellmell, the Bhagavati has a vital consistency in dealing with the doctrines of jiva-ajiva as a whole. As we classified the contents of Satakas I-XX into six sections, i.e., Cosmology, Ajiva, jiva, Ethical Problems, Karma and Jaina Church, the contents of Satakas XX I-XL I can also be absorbed into any one of these six sections. In other words, the Bhagavati deals with the problems of jiva-ajiva relevant to these subject fields developed in the canonical age. 617 These six sections abound in key texts expressing the evolution and development of the concepts of jiva-ajiva, upon the basis of which the relevant thoughts documented in many other canonical texts are established in the final form, particularly the later Pannatti texts. Therefore, without the help of the Bhagavati, the evolution and development of a number of important concepts relevant to jiva-ajiva occurring in the other canonical texts are difficult to trace. This is particularly true of the sections on Ajiva and Karma. The Bhagavati is thus indispensable in order to stratify the layers of the other canonical texts that are replete with the later additions, as has been attested in the previous chapters. This must be the most significant feature and value of the Bhagavati, and for this reason it must have remained through the long canonical stages without being totally destroyed.

Page #264
232 618 These key texts are scattered all over Satakas I-XX at random, and as they stand would not be easily comprehended by ordinary persons. It makes us wonder if such an assembly of fragmentary passages might have been used as something like a memorandum by the theoreticians in the canonical age, and a basis from which they attempted to improve the relevant concepts further and explain their later development. It even exhibits features of a possible exercise book for the Jaina theoreticians, in which they freely experimented to formulate novel ideas, tried to offer case illustrations of various topics, and worked out how to express the earlier thoughts anew in more methodical way and on a higher technical level. On the other hand, the Bhagavati takes the role of attracting and educating lay followers mainly through its lively story texts. 619 The Bhagavati assembles numerous passages bearing such characteristics mentioned above, and it is a curious point for us to investigate why such features emerged. This inevitably directs us to examine what was the nucleus of the Bhagavati and how it came to be developed into the present form, for such peculiarities must have arisen in the process of its accumulation and filtration of materials guided by the aims and policies of the church authorities in tradition in the long canonical period. 620 The Viyahapannatti (Vyakhya-prajnapti) is a product of the age that produced a group of Pannatti texts or the Jaina doctrinal treatises on jiva-ajiva in lokaaloka involving the relevant subject fields, i.e., astronomy, geography, cosmography and mythology, which include the Surya-Candra p. (third stage), the nucleus of the Jivajivabhigama (fourth stage), Prajnapana (fourth stage), Jambudvipa p. (fifth stage) and Dvipasagara p. (fifth stage). The nucleus of the Jivajivabhigama could easily absorb the Dvipasagara p., for it does not contradict the nature of a Pannatti text. A style of composition in which topics develop through the dialogue between MV and Gautama is commonly shared by the Bhagavati, Jivajivabhigama including Duipasagara p., Prajnapana (even though not in all its chapters), and Jambudvipa p. We have previously discussed that the 12 Angas must have been authorized at the Second Canonical Council held at Mathura or Valabhi. All this suggests that the Bhagavati was presumably compiled for the first time under the name Viya hapannatti at about the time of the Second Canonical Council. The Vyavahara X enumerates the Viyahapannatti, and we have already mentioned that this list of Vyavahara was probably added in the fifth canonical stage. 621 Let us now go back to Tables I and II. According to our analysis, the texts composed duri g the third stage count 64. The Jainas entered the stage of theorizatio upon entering the third canonical period when the theory of atoms began to be circulated among the philosophical schools. The Jaina authors learnt the art of theorization from them predominantly, and the Jaina scheme of pudgala began to develop thenceforth. The rudimentary theory of karma

Page #265
622 623 624 625 233 took a course of development on the analogy of atomic combination. Likewise, the classification and character-analysis of beings in the broad cosmographical outlines were taking place during this third canonical stage. It is therefore easy to presume that numerous passages pertaining to these fields must have been composed during this period, which directly developed into the thought system recorded in the texts belonging to the fourth canonical stage. The number of texts falling in the pre-third stage is very small, and must have in reality been larger. However, since philosophization by the Jainas in the ontological field (jiva-pudgala including karma and the relevant ethical subject matters) and the formulation of cosmography began in the third stage, the passages composed in the pre-third stage would not have been so large and even negligible in comparison with the supposedly bulky passages composed during the third canonical stage. The pre-Prajnapana theoretical and conceptual contents of jiva, pudgala, karma and loka-aloka are only locatable in the Bhagavati, which could have been systematically compiled in the form of a Pannatti text inasmuch as the SuryaCandra p. was compiled in the field of cosmography in the third canonical stage. We may assume that there was such a plan which did not materialize, probably because all conclusive accounts came to be culminated in the Prajnapana. And what remains with us at present is a thoroughly reduced collection of bare fragmentary passages on these subject matters. These supposedly numerous materials in the third canonical stage must have then existed in the form of a sizable collection of fragmentary passages in a state of presystematization. If these materials were in a state of pre-systematization, it is not at all strange to find therein various miscellaneous passages falling outside the said main subject fields. A small number of materials handed down from the pre-third canonical stage must have likewise been jumbled together in the same collection. It thus seems that the Bhagavati nucleus texts consisted of a small number of pre-third stage texts, which include the texts on ethics and conduct, and a huge number of the third stage texts, the essential concern of which was the subject matter handled in the Pannatti texts. In other words, the Bhagavati nucleus largely consisted of the texts composed in the third canonical stage. Since the nucleus materials were not codified into an independent work, they must have been handed down as they were. Then, gradually added to this collection were the texts falling in the subsequent stages. However, numerous texts must have been filtered out in the course of time, being unable to cope. with the theoretically more advanced positions reached at each given period of time. And in the course of this filtration, the nature of the Bhagavati

Page #266
234 characterized as a treasure house of key texts must have gradually emerged. Thus only those texts which were judged to be more or less important or worthy of preservation must have been selected by the first compilers of the Viyahapannatti at about the time of the Second Canonical Convention. This process of filtration must have continued till the Bhagavati took shape in the present form at the Third Valabhi Convention. Also many texts must have been accidentally lost in the course of time, for instance, by the death of many monks who memorized the passages, due to famines, etc. 626 It is clear from a glance at Table I and Table N that texts dealing with the same topic belonging to the first through fourth stages are placed at random in Sataka I-XX. This implies that the Viyahapannatti must have been a mere assembly of the texts as such which did not go through the process of systernatic organization at the time of its first compilation. We would also assume that the nucleus texts did not have a definite style of writing, and the uniform style of catechism between MV and Gautama came to be gradually prevalent around the time when the Bhagavati was first compiled. 627 To this collection the texts composed in the fourth-fifth stages were added next. As we can see in Table IV, many texts falling in this period are of theoretical importance or of novel interest to the age. By going through the Table of Synopsis in Chapter II, it becomes clear at once that these texts falling in this age are generally placed in each udde'saka at random without having any topical relevancy to the earlier texts in the same uddesaka. Some uddes akas consist of text/s composed in the fourth-fifth stages alone. And some udde'sakas consist of text/s composed in the fourth-fifth stages and those composed in the fifth stage. It is thereby obvious that these texts belonging to the fourth-fifth stages were on the whole, randomly added to the previous collection as they were composed. These numerous passages must have then generally arranged by sound connections and assonances for mnemonic purpose. 628 We should recall that the case illustrations of five kriyas were already frequently used during the third canonical stage, and this must have easily encouraged the continuation of a similar practice for other topics in subsequent ages, for instance, the case of maha and alpa of (karma-)kriya-asrava-vedana in the fourth-fifth stages. And efforts had been constantly made by the fourth-fifth canonical stages, so that the earlier contents of the Jaina dogmas could be explained and expressed more methodically on a much higher technical level. Also during the same canonical age, the five story texts including the Atimuktaka story were incorporated into the Bhagavati. Many important key texts also made their appearance during this period. Thus the aforementioned peculiar features of the Bhagavati gradually came to emerge, and became more prominent in the final stage.

Page #267
629 630 631 632 633 235 While going through the process of filtering unworthy materials, the Bhagavati came to stand out as a work abounding in key texts. And together with this emerged a feature characterized as a collection of memoranda for the use of the Jaina theoreticians. If the Bhagavati gives us an impression that it might have been an exercise book for the Jaina theoreticians, it is because the work happened to be a collection of materials covering 1,000 years of canonical period, and there were constant calls to improve the contents of their thoughts and their methods of exposition. This feature is not so distinct in the other canonical texts, for they were generally compiled in a short period of time within certain restricted canonical stage/s. A few texts on lay conduct already make appearance in the pre-third canonical stage. The 12 Angas authorized at the Second Canonical Council include five story books. It was therefore not difficult for the Bhagavati to absorb some story passages in the fourth-fifth canonical stages, reflecting the then church policy that the 12 Angas were the common sacred codes for both ascetics and laymen. And we should remember that the Bhagavati stories in general pose the problems of jiua-ajiva in the guise of stories to edify lay followers. Thus the said features of the Bhagavati emerged. And if the materials consisting of the Bhagavati nucleus were ever compiled as an independent work, all these features in the Bhagavati would not have arisen. Added to this collection were the texts belonging to the fifth canonical stage, which are categorically of three groups: (A) Those in Satakas I-IX excluding X-sutras; (B) X-sutras in Satakas I-II; (C) Those in Satakas III-XLI. Let us consider each group one by one. Group A The texts falling in this group were composed in the early fifth stage through late fifth stage. Some of them were obviously retouched in the post-canonical period, e.g., VII.1.267 (cf. D-2b-2) and VII.2.271 (cf. D-2a-2). We learn from the Table of Synopsis that less than 1/3 of these texts are placed in the uddesakas having topical relevancy to the other texts, less than 1/3 without having any relevancy as such, and over 1/3 form independent uddesakas which include many story texts. This indicates that a conscious effort was made for the first time in this stage to integrate the newly composed texts in a coherent context. This must have been done by the editors of the Third Valabhi Council. Group B We have already discussed that X-sutras are composed in terms of reference the later Pannatti texts, i.e., Prajnapana, Jivajivabhigama (including Duipa sagara p.) and Jambudvipa p., and the references made to the other canonical texts are of negligible importance in the total context of X-sutras. These Xsutras in the majority constitute independent uddesakas, and those placed

Page #268
634 635 636 637 236 among other texts generally show no topical relevancy to other texts in one and the same uddesaka. Since the references to the other canonical texts made by non-X-sutras already occur in the earlier age, some of these X-sutras must have been composed gradually in the final canonical stage as the texts referred to were composed or compiled in almost the final form. However, since the total incorporation of these Pannatti texts into the Bhagavati to avoid mutual reiterations can only have been done intentionally, X-sutras in the majority must have been inserted by the Third Valabhi Convention, which must have had a definite policy for compiling each canonical text by conferring to it a specific characteristic feature and role. Since the fundamental problems treated in the Bhagavati are shared by the other Pannatti texts, there is no doubt that it was easy for the Bhagavati to absorb their contents. It did not absorb the total contents of the SuryaCandra p., but it incorporated almost the entire contents of the other Pannatti texts. The true intention of the then church authorities in doing so is a curious point to be speculated on. The Surya-Candra p. is a treatise on astronomy that asserts the then relevant Jaina views, which go against the early astronomical data and the then prevalent views of the Hindus on the whole. This text stood in the position of an auxiliary science for the Jainas, in assisting them to establish a general plan of their solar bodies or Jyotiskas and Jaina cosmography. It therefore soon lost its original function when the classes of jivas were firmly established in the cosmographical background. As we have examined in Ch. III, Sec. A-2, the Bhagavati has little to do with the so-called astronomical features. It is hence not at all strange that the Bhagavati did not integrate the Surya-Candra p. The Bhagavati essentially deals with the problems of jiva-ajiva in loka-aloha. And many passages falling in the fifth canonical stage were composed later than the Jivajivabhigama, Prajnapana and Jambudvipa p. In other words, the Bhagavati contains materials on jiva-ajiva developed in the pre-Pannatti texts as well as the post-Pannatti texts. Therefore, by incorporating these Pannatti texts into the Bhagavati, it can represent the total doctrinal system of jiva-ajiva developed by the Jainas in the canonical period. The Bhagavati stories often describe pious laymen who are well acquainted with the doctrine of jiva-ajiva (abhigaya-jivajiva). And this idiomatic phrase 'abhigaya-jivajiva' is expressed in a capacity of representing the Jaina doctrinal system as a whole, in contrast to the Brahmanical doctrinal system which is often represented by the Vedas, Itihasas, Puranas and so on. In other words, the doctrine of jiva-ajiva came to be recognized as the fundamental doctrinal system of the Jainas distinguished from that of the other schools, and this doctrine of jiua-ajiva was imposed upon all Jainas, ascetic and lay, to be

Page #269
237 studied as their essential tenet. The position of jiva-ajiva as such must have been recognized in the final canonical stage, when the realities of the Jainas called pancastikayas-cum-addhasamaya were firmly established and when the Jaina church construction was thoroughly accomplished. The designation of the content of the Jivabhigama as the Jivajivabhigama, by referring for its total content of ajiva to the Prajnapana, must have been made in the same circle of thought, in order to proclaim it as a treatise of the essential doctrinal system of the Jainas. 638 The 12 Angas which are the basic sacred texts of the Jainas, ascetic as well as lay, do not include these Pannatti texts, which deal with the doctrine of jivaajiva developed in the fourth stage through early fifth canonical stage. In order to proclaim and authorize that the doctrine of jiva-ajiva constitutes the cardinal doctrinal system for all the Jainas, it was best if all these Pannatti texts were incorporated in some way into the Bhagavati or the fifth Anga." The Bhagavati as such, then, represents the total Jaina doctrinal system of jiva-ajiva developed during the long canonical age. The composition of X-sutras on a massive scale in the Bhagavati was made, in all probability, with such aim and intention held by the authorities of the Third Valabhi Council. The other important Angabahya texts were not absorbed by the Bhagavati, because they take up specialized fields of knowledge and thereby fall outside the range of a Pannatti text handling the generic problems of jiva-ajiva. 639 Group C We have described at the beginning of this chapter the summaritical features of Satakas XXI-XLI, which formally distinguish themselves from the previous twenty satakas, and thereby were placed after them. The contents treated here largely belong to the middle or the late fifth canonical stage. However, XXI - XX II and XXIV are easily transferable to the earlier 'satakas. Also if we compare the anuyoga items used in Satakas XXI-XLI with those employed in IV. 4.238 and X V1.1.615 (cf.C-1b), the latter stands in the more advanced position than the former. 640 From all this, it is difficult to assume that Group C was composed later than Groups A and B, because some texts in Group A and the majority of X-sutras in Group B were obviously composed after the texts in Group C. It is thus more plausible to conclude that the composition of the texts falling in all these three groups was simultaneous in the final canonical stage. Those belonging to Group C were placed after the former twenty 'satakas due to their distinct formal feature, most probably according to the decision of the Third Valabhi Council. The final filtration and selection of non-X-sutras in Satakas I-XX and the final addition of X-sutras on a massive scale must have likewise been made by the Third Valabhi Council.

Page #270
238 641 The expansion of the Bhagavati materials to the present size seems to have happened by the stages of process explained above. The clumsy editorial skill exhibited elsewhere in the Bhagavati naturally emerged in the process of absorbing new materials. The same concepts were frequently repeated, as they must have been considered important enough to be reiterated by the editors at each given time. 642 The Bhagavati in the present form is the product of the final retouches made at the Third Valabhi Council, which is responsible for the final edition of these passages as they stand at present. Besides the final selection and placement of the texts composed in the fifth canonical stage as mentioned above, this Canonical Council chose the problem of 'calamane calie' as the opening topic of the Bhagavati. It also included a group of story texts relevant to the early history of Jaina church centred round MV, including an independent story called 'Tejo nisarga'. It divided the whole book into 'satakas and udde'sakas, etc., composed the introductory passages and colophon both at the beginning and end of the book, listed the udde'saka titles at the head of each 'sataka, and reshaped the outlook of text construction by inserting the stereotyped prologue and epilogue passages (as a rule, a prologue is made at the beginning of 'a sataka; as a rule, an epilogue is offered at the end of an udde'saka and at the end of the sutra immediately proceding a story text; and a story text is usually accompanied by both prologue and epilogue), and so on. The Third Canonical Convention is also responsible for deciding the ordering principles and methods for editing the Bhagavati in the present form as enumerated by Deleu (Viyahapannatti, pp. 47 ff.): (1) the method of prefixing, interpolation, addition and integration; (2) the methods of recurrence, enframement and parallelism; (3) the principle of 'initial' and 'final' topics; and (4) the numerical principle. It is also responsible for the insertion of varnaka references which are made in due sequential order. 643 Moreover the Third Valabhi Council prescribed a study plan of the Bhagavati in its colophon. The chronological layers of the Bhagavati passages are hopelessly entangled, and many expository passages of the earlier concepts must have been filtered out and lost in the course of time. Abhayadeva frequently finds difficulty in understanding the earlier passages, the meaning of which had already been lost by his time. The Bhagavati as a whole must have only been comprehensible to brilliant theoreticians even in the final canonical stage, and even these theoreticians must have had a hard time in comprehending some early passages. Such being the case, it is very doubtful how the Bhagavati prescription of its study plan was put into practice in reality. The value of this study plan seems to be merely nominal, to express the important position of the Bhagavati in the Jaina canon. 644 The Vyavahara X.304 and the Nandi 44 (v.2, p.1074) enumerate a text called

Page #271
239 offered by Viyahaculiya or Vivahaculiya, which from its description Schubring' seems to have nothing to do with our Bhagavati. 645 The analysis made above itself answers the question, "What is the position of the Bhagavati in the Jaina canonical literature?" The Bhagavati or the fifth Anga of the Jainas represents the fundamental Jaina doctrinal system of jivaajiva developed during the long canonical age. By receiving the system of thought developed in the pre-Bhagavati age, the Bhagavati developed it into the typical Jaina doctrinal system of jiva-ajiva which essentially distinguishes the Jaina School from the other philosophical schools. The T.S. which crowns the theoretical achievement made in the canonical age came directly from the later thoughts expressed in the Bhagavati that embraces the other major Pannatti texts, as well as from the theory of knowledge current in the Nandi and Anuyogadvara that is again the specialized line of development following in the wake of the Bhagavati conceptual contents. In other words, the Bhagavati as it stands offers a panoramic record of the Jaina theoreticians' system of thought developed during the canonical period once they entered the stage of theorization, and this prepared the direction of thought developed in the postcanonical period. Its value in the Jaina canonical literature becomes at once obvious if we would imagine about the absence of the Bhagavati which is a treasure house of key texts pertaining to the evolution and development of the important concepts on jiva-ajiva. It is not at all surprising, then, that the Viyahapannatti came to be popularly called by the Jainas, both ascetic and lay, by its epithet 'Bhagavati'. ww.ainelibrary.org

Page #272
APPENDICES

Page #273

Page #274
240 APPENDIX I NOTES CHAPTER 1 1. Some scholars ascribe the origin of the theory of atoms to the Ajivikas, particularly to Pakudha's theory of seven kayas. However, the sources supporting it are later works like the Manimekalai (cf. Basham: History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas, pp.262 ff.). According to Dr. T. Kimura, no Buddhist text touched upon the problem of paramanu before the Mahavibhasa which was composed ca. 2nd century A.D. He surmises that the circulation of atomism in the Buddhist circle must have begun before the Mahavibhasa, possibly in the 1st century A.D. (cf. his collected Works, v.5, pp.210ff.) The Bhagavati preserves a more primitive theory of atoms than does the Mahavibhasa (e.g., its 136 and 137. Cf. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Buddhism (Mochizuki Bukkyo Daijiten), by S. Mochizuki, v.2, under "Gokumi (paramanu)". Sekai Seiten Kankokai, Tokyo, 1973). Such being the case, we may be allowed to place the date of circulation of the atomic theory in the Jaina fold in the 1st century B.C. - Ist century A.D. Kane seems to place the lower limit of the date of the Surya p. in the 3rd century A.D. in his Hisrory of Dharmasastra, V-1, p.484, and S.S. Lishk places it in 200 A.D. in his "Jaina Jyotisa Vijnana" in Jain Journah XI-1, P.36. 3 & 4. See Ohira: A Study of the Tattvarthasutra with Bhasya, Ch. II, Sec.IV, pt.2, (1). All of his works and articles listed in the Bibliography are recommended. Our survey made in this Chapter I is based, to a large extent, on his Early Jainism and Jaina Ontology. Dixit: "The Problem of Ethics and Karma", p.4. Datt: Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India, p.57. Epigraphia Indica, v.20, pp.71ff. K. V. Ramesh: "Jaina Epigraphs in Tamil", Appendix to A. Chakravarti's Jaina Literature in Tamil, pp.139-41, nos.1-3 (Bharatiya Jnanapit ha Publication, Delhi, 1974). Jaina sila-lekha-sangraha, v.5, p.3, no.1 and p.4, no.2 (Manikcandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala Samiti, Bombay, 1971) 9. Vinaya 1.233f.; Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, v.2, p.1165. (Ref. from Anguttara-Nikaya iv.179f.) 10. In this connection, see also, Sukhlal: Dar'san aur cintan, pt.2, pp.60ff.

Page #275
241 11. Schubring: The Doctrine of the Jainas, pp.101-2 12. For instance, cf. Kirfel: Die Kosmographie der Inder. For the historical background of the Jainas in the Gupta age involving the great schism, refer to Ohira: A Study of the Tattvarthasutra with Bhasya, Ch. II, Sec.IV, pt.1. 14. Kapadia: History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas, p.21, 15. The Vyavahara X records a standard list of texts used for educating monks (based on their year-wise experiences after having been initiated) as follows: Ayarapakappa, Suyagada, Dasa, Kappa, Vavahara, Thana, Samavaya, Viyaha, Angaculiya, Vaggaculiya Viyahaculiya, Garulovavaya, Dharanovavaya, Vesamanovavaya, Velamdharovavaya, Devimdovavaya, Nagapariyavaniya, Siminabhavana, Caranabhavana, Teyanisagga, Asivisabhavana, Ditt hivisabhavana and Ditt hivaya. In the Nandi 44, reckoned in the kalika class are all texts beginning with the Angaculiya, with the sole exception of the Caranabhavana (the Siminabhavana and the rest of the works are placed in brackets). This Nandi list makes us suspect that the Vyavahara list above is probably an interpolation made in the fifth canonical stage. The concept of bhavana belongs to the fifth stage. Also the texts involving mythological accounts belong to the last canonical stage. See Krishna Rao: "Kudlur Plates of Marasimha", in Mysore Archaeological Report, 1921, pp.19 and 16, as referred to by S.R. Sharma: Jainism and Karnataka Culture, p.15, n.54 (Karnataka Historical Research Society, Dharwar, 1940). Also see Indian Antiquary, v.6, no.20. 17. Pt. Malvania explains this point as follows: "We see that amongst Buddhists also the tendency of becoming just like Buddha is not favoured, and it is accepted henceforth that no one has the right to change the 'Vinaya' rules. This is just to say that no one in these days has the right to become Buddha. This is the general tendency of the sectarians that they would rigidly follow the founder, as no one can take the position of the founder, If they allow others to become the same as the founder, then anyone can become Tirthankara and guide all. So a break is made in the form that soon after the founder, no one can have that position which was for the founder or the Tirthankara. This is the explanation of rejecting moksa after Jambu." 18. Leuman (Z.D.M.G., 48 & 82), referred to by Winternitz in his History of Indian Literature, v.2, p.457, n.3. 19. Winternitz: ibid., v.1, p.522.

Page #276
242 CHAPTER 1. Jainendra siddhanta kosa, v.3, p.453. Kane: History of Dharmasastra, V-1, pp.475ff. Kane: ibid., V-1, p.687, n.1081a. . 4. Deleu: Viyahapannatti, p.97 (his note to this text). Frauwallner: History of Indian Philosophy, v.2, pp.16 and 20, etc. Jacobi attempts to explain the origin of dharma-adharma in rajas-tamas of the Sankhyas in his Studies in Jainism, pp.18 and 84-85. The difficulties in accepting his view are as follows. Firstly, dharma-adharma are explained in the Bhagavati XX.2.663 to mean punya-papa, which are in conflict with the concepts of rajas-tamas. Secondly, the Sankhya prakrti consisting of tri-gunas is equivalent to pudgala for the Jainas, whereas dharma-adharma are the cosmic principles which have no relevancy to the concept of pudgala. Frauwallner already hinted in his History of Indian Philosophy, v.2, p.62 that dharmaadharma of the Jainas evolved under the influence of adrst a. His view was evidently well founded. The following is an attempt to explain how dharmaadharma came to evolve on the basis hinted at by Frauwallner in the light of the Bhagavati passages. Frauwallner: ibid., v.1, p.143. Dixit: "The Problem of Ethics and Karma Doctrine as Treated in the Bhagavati Sutra", p.8. Dixit: "A New Contribution to the Discussion of a Problem of Jaina Monastic Discipline", p.41. For a comparative study of these concepts, see Caillat: Atonements in the Ancient Ritual of the Jaina Monks, pp.116ff, etc. 11. For its historical analysis, see Dixit: "A New Contribution to the Discussion of a Problem of Jaina Monastic Discipline", pp.29ff. 12. Deleu: Viyahapannatti, pp. 112-13.

Page #277
243 13. Schubring: The Doctrine of the Jainas, p.271. S.B.E., XLV, pp.131ff., notes. Deleu: ibid., pp.132-33. 14. See also Deleu: ibid., p.190 (his note to this text). 15. For their explanation, see Malvania's English introduction to Pannavanasuttam, pt.2, pp.368-69. 16. Bhagavatisutra, Sailana edition, v.3, p.1199. 17. his Jaina See Dixit's analysis of jiva in the Prajnapana, for instance, in Ontology. It shows the right direction of its analysis. 18. For the development of the doctrine of tattvas, see Dixit: "Jaina Theory and Practice of Non-violence", pp.26ff. 19. Dixit: Jaina Ontology, p.38. Dixit: The Problems of Ethics and Karma Doctrine as Treated in the Bhagavati Sutra", p.8. 21. Shah: "Rajas and Karman". pp.60ff. 22. Malvania: "Tirthankara Mahavira", p.12. 23. Deleu: ibid., p.209. 24. For their references, see Deleu: ibid., p.214. 25. Ghosh, A., ed.: Jaina Art and Architecture, v.1, ch.6, p.66. (Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1974) CHAPTER 1. Deleu: Viyahapannatti, p.22. Dixit: "A Recent Study of the Bhagavatisutra Reviewed", pp.63ff. This is the interpretation offered by J.L. Jaini in his introduction to the Gommat asara Jivakanda, pp.12ff. This is the Digambara interpretation. According to Malvania, the Nandi has its own system of counting words in a canonical text by way of doubling its original number; then the Nandi took 144,000 for the basis of its calculation.

Page #278
244 4. Deleu: ibid., pp.26ff. This speculation is developed upon the basis of Malvania's view. 6. Dixit: ibid., p.65. Schubring: The Doctrine of the Jainas, p.122.'

Page #279
245 APPENDIX I BIBLIOGRAPHY Abhidhana-rajendra, ed. by Vijayarajendrasuri. 7 vols. Samasta Jaina Svetambara Sangha, Ratlam, 1910-34. Acarangasutra. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1916. Acarya Jinabhadra's Visesava'syakabhasya, pt.2, ed. by D.D. Malvania. L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1968. Ava'syakasutraniryukteravacurni, v.1, Devcand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar, Surat, 1965. Basham, A.L.:History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas. Luzac & Co., London, 1951. don 1951. . Bhagavatisutra, With Abhayadeva's Commentary. 3 vols. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1918-21. Bhagavati sutra, ed. by Ghevaracandra Bamthiya. Vols.2-7. Akhila Bharatiya Sadhumargi Jaina Samskrti Raksaka Sangha, Sailana, 1966-72. Bhatt, B.: "Stratification in Satakas 1-20 of the Viya hapannatti", in Indologica Taurinensia, 11, 1983, Torino. Dasavaikalikasutra. (Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar, Bombay, 1918] Dasgupta, S.: A History of Indian Philosophy, vol.1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1963. Deleu, J.: Viya hapannatti (Bhagavai), The Fifth Ange of the Jaina Canon, Introduction, Critical Analysis, Commentary & Indexes. De Tempel, Brugge, 1970. "A Further Inquiry into the Nucleus of the Vyahapannatti", in Indologica Taurinensia 14, 1987-88, Torino. The Dhammapada. Mahabodhi Sabha, Banaras, (no date] Dictionary of Pali Proper Names. Vol.2. Luzac & Co., London, 1960. Dixit, K.K.: Jaina Ontology. L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1971. Early Jainism. L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1978. (L.D. Series 64) "The Problem of a Historical Evaluation of the Ancient Jaina Texts" in Sambodhi, 1-1, April 1972, Ahmedabad. "A Recent Study of Bhagavatisutra Reviewed", in Sambhodhi, 1-3, Oct.1972, Ahmedabad. "Evolution of the Jaina Treatment of Ethical Problems", in Sambodhi, II-1, April 1973, Ahmedabad. "The Problem of Ethics and Karma Doctrine as Treated in the Bhagavati Sutra", in Sambodhi, 1-3, Oct. 1974, Ahmedabad. "A New Contribution to the Discussion of a Problem of Jaina Monastic Discipline", in Sambodhi, V-2/3, July-Oct. 1976, Ahmedabad. Dutt, S.; Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, 1962. Eighteen Principal Upanisads. ed. by V.P. Limaye and R.D. Vedekar. Vol.1. Vaidika Samsodhana Mandala, Poona, 1958. Frauwallner, E.: History of Indian Philosophy. 2 vols. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1973.

Page #280
246 Glasenapp, H. von: The Doctrine of Karman in Jaina Philosophy, Bai Vijibai Jivanlal Panalal Charity Fund, Bombay, 1942. Itivuttakam, ed. by Rahula Sankiccana, etc. Uttamabhikkhu, Rangoon, 1937. Jacobi, H.: Studies in Jainism (Being a Collection of Three Original, Important Informative Articles on Jainism), ed. by Jinavijaya. Jaina Sahitya Sam sodhaka Kalyalaya, Ahmedabad, 1946. Jaina sahitya ka brhad itihasa, ed. by D.D. Malvania and M.L. Mehta. Vols. 1-2. Parsvanatha Vidyasrama Sodha Sansthana, Banaras, 1966. Jaina Sutras, tr. by H. Jacobi. 2 vols. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1964. (S.B.E. Vols.22 & 45) Jainendra siddhanta kosa, ed. by Jinendra Varni. 4 vols. Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Delhi, 1970-73. Jambudvipaprajnapti. 2 vols. Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Fund, Bombay, 1920. Jivajivabhigama. Devchand Lalbhai Jain Pustakoddhar Fund, Bombay, 1919. Kamal, K.: Ganitanuyoga, tr. by M.L. Mehta, ed. by S.C. Bharilla. Agama Anuyoga Publication, Sanderao, V.N. 2495. Kane, P.V.: History of Dharmasastra. Vols. IV & V-1/2. Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, 1953, 1958 & 1962. Kapadia, H.R.: A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas. Surat. 1941. Keith, A.B.: Indian Logic and Atomism. Clarendon press, Oxford, 1921. Kimura, T.: Collected Works. Vol.5. Daihorin, Tokyo, 1968. Kirfel, W.: Die Kosmographie der Inder. Kurt Schroeder, Bonn, 1920. Lishk, S.S.: "Jaina Jyotisa Vijnana", in Jain Journal XII-1, July 1977, Calcutta. Malvania, D.D.: Introduction to Namdisuttam and Anuogaddaraim, ed. by Punyavijaya, Malvania and Bhojak. Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1968. Introduction to Pannavana suttam, pt.2, ed. by Punyavijaya, Malvania and Bhojak. Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1971. "Tirthankara Mahavira", in Journal of the Oriental Institute, XXIV-1/2, Sept. Dec. 1974, Baroda. Narain, H.: "Vedic Origins of the Sankhya Dialectic", in Sambodhi, IV-1, April 1975, Ahmedabad. Nemicandra: Gommat asara (Jivakanda), ed. by J.L. Jaini. The General Jaina Publishing House, Lucknow, 1927. Prajnapana. 2 vols. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1918-19. Ratnacandra: 'Revatidana samalocana. Jaina Vira Mandala, Kekaoi. 1934. . Sabhasya tattvarthadhigamasutra of Umasvati, ed. by Khubcandra, Manilal Revashankar Jagajivan Jhaveri, Bombay, 1932. The Sankhyakarika of Isvarakrsna, ed. by S.S. Suryanarayan Sastri. 2nd ed. University of Madras, Madras, 1935. Schubring, W.: The Doctrine of the Jainas, Described after the Old Sources. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1962. Shah, N.J.: "Jainism and Sarkhya", in Sambodhi, 1-3, Oct. 1972, Ahmedabad.

Page #281
247 "Rajas and Karman", in Sambodhi, VI-1/2, April-July, 1977, Ahmedabad. Sthananga. 2 vols. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1918-1920. Sukhlal, S.: Darsan aur cintan. Pt. Sukhlalji Sanman Samiti, Ahmedabad, 1957. Suryaprajnapti. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1919. Sutrakrtanga. Agamodaya Samiti, Mehesana, 1917. Suttagame, ed. by Pupphabhikkhu. 2 vols. Sutragama Prakasaka Samiti, Gurgaon, 1953-54. The Suttanipata, ed. by. P.V. Bapat. Poona, 1924. Udanam, ed. by Rahula Sankiccana, etc. Uttamabhikkhu, Rangoon, 1937. The Upanisads, tr. by F. Max Muller. 2 vols. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 1965. (S.B.E., vols.1 & 15) Uttaradhyayanani. 2 vols. Atmananda Sabha, Bhavanagar, 1918. Vai'sesikasutra of Kanada, ed. by Jambuvijaya. Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1961. Weber, A.: "Weber's Sacred Literature of the Jainas", tr. by H.W. Smyth from Indische Studien, in Indian Antiquary, XVI-X I X, 1888-1890, Bombay. Winternitz, M.: History of Indian Literature. Vols.1-2. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1972. The Yogasutra of Patanjali, with the Scholium of Vyasa and the Commentary of Vacaspatimisra, ed. by R. Bodas. 2nd ed. Government Central Press, Bombay, 1917.

Page #282
APPENDIX I DHARMA-ADHARMA Dharma and adharma constitute the Pancastikayas together with akasa, jiva and pudgala. The function of dharma is said to be the conditional cause of motion and that of adharma the conditional cause of rest. Each of them is the one unseparable substance from the standpoint of dravya, pervading in the lokaka'sa from the standpoint of ksetra, existing eternally in the three tenses of time from the standpoint of Kala, and devoid of material properties from the standpoint of bhava. All these are known to the Tattvarthasutra.' Motion is, however, inherent not only in a jiva but in pudgala also according to the doctrines of the Jainas. The function of pudgala is said to provide for a jiva his body, speech, mind and respiration. And because Jainism stands on the animistic view of life since the beginning, we find pudgala either in the form of a jiva's living body at present, or in the form of his dead body in the past. For instance, each dust particle exists either in the form of an earth-being's living body at present, or in the form of its dead body from which life has already departed. And as long as pudgala coexists with a jiva as his living body, his motion is caused, consciously or unconsciously, by the jiva himself, for a jiva is of the size of his own body. The dead body in which a jiva is no more found consists of atoms and composites. And these matter particles are constantly undergoing the process of division and combination, which will be used by jivas again and again by way of forming their body, speech, mind and respiration in the eternal process of cosmic recycling of pudgala. According to the Jainas, atoms are eternal from the standpoint of dravya, but they are not eternal from the standpoint of bhava or from the constantly changing modes of their properties. The cause of motion or dharma is thus a jiva himself and pudgala itself. Then, the cause of rest or adharma is no other than the absence of motion. It is therefore difficult to understand why the Jainas had to establish dharma and adharma as independent dravyas. Moreover, the word dharma usually connotes the 'order', 'law', 'virtue', 'good deed', and so on, and the word adharma its opposite. It is therefore very strange that quite abnormal meanings such as the 'cause of motion' and the 'cause of rest' are attached to dharma and adharma, which are the cosmic principles peculiar to the Jaina school alone. In this 'appendix', we would like to trace how these two principles came to be established in the Jaina sect. The Bhagavatisutra XX.2.663 lists the synonyms of dharmastikaya as follows: dharma, dharmastikaya, cessation of 18 Kriyas (5 aviratis, 4 Kasayas, preya-dvesa, Kalahaabhyakhyana-paisunya-paraparivada, rati-arati, mayamrsamithyadarsana), 5 samitis and 3 guptis. It also lists the synonyms of adharmastikaya as follows: adharma, adharmastikaya, 18 kriyas, 5 asamitis and 3 aguptis. Dharma here connotes the rules of monks' ethical practice, and adharma transgressions of these rules. The synonyms of the former mean 'order', 'law', 'virtue', 'good deed', and so on, in

Page #283
249 the ordinary sense of this term, and those of the latter are expressive of their opposites. Then, the Bhagavatisutra X 1.4.480 which takes up the functions and peculiar features of pancastika yas states about those of dharma stika ya (or dharma) and adharmastikaya (or adharma): "All states of moving such as coming and going of a jiva, his speaking and blinking of the eyes, and his mental, vocal and physical activities are enabled by the presence of dharmastikaya, and its peculiar nature is motion (gati). All states of keeping still such as standing, sitting, lying down and mental concentration are enabled by the presence of adharmastikaya, and its peculiar nature is stand still sthiti)." Catalogued here are centrifugal energy that moves outwards, and centripetal energy that moves inwards as in the case of mental concentration or energy that works to keep it standstill. In other words, dharma is the conditional cause of outward motion, and adharma that of inward motion or of keeping still. The contents of dharma and adharma listed in the Bhagavatisutra XX.2.663 exhibits the most confused position among those of pancastikayas. This text seems to have been composed sometime in the early fifth stage,' and X 1.4.480 in a later period of the fifth stage. At the end of the canonical stage, Umasvati poses the question in his Tattvarthasutra X.6, Bhasya, "Why a liberated soul does not go beyond the end of the world?" To this it is replied, "Because dhartmastikaya does not exist. For dharmastikaya is indeed the conditional cause of motion. It does not exist there." From the materials gathered above, dharma and adharma, which were principles originally foreigh to the Jainas, came to be established as the causes of motion and rest, pertaining to the denial of upward motion of a liberated soul into aloka at the time of his final release from samsara. And the reason why dharma and adharma came to bear the strange meanings of the causes of motion and rest seems to be involved with this problem. From a considerably early period, the Jainas had advanced a view that loka does not exist by itself, but is surrounded by aloka. This view is supported by the Bhagavatisutra 1.6.51' in the following way: "Loka lies amidst aloka, a continent amidst the ocean, and an ocean amidst the continent, inasmuch as a boat floats in the water, a hole exists in a piece of cloth and a shadow remains in the sunshine." However, it is difficult to postulate that this heavy loka can lie directly on absolute space, aloka. So they started to assume that loka in which jivas and ajivas abide is supported by dense water, dense air, thin air, and then by absolute space, in due order. The Bhagavatisutra 1.6.54 justifies the above theory by proving it in the fol. lowing way: "Someone fills a large leather bag with air, and ties the center of it very tightly with a string; then, he lets air out of its upper portion and fills it with water, and unties the string in the middle; now he will find that water in the leather bag is held in the air. Or someone enters water with an air-filled leather bag tied around his waist, and he can surely float on the water."

Page #284
250 An outline of the Jaina cosmography thus came to be drawn centering around loka supported by aloka. The Trasanali runs vertically throughout the center of loka which resembles a man practising dhyana. All jivas are said to reside in this Trasanali, as a rule. Siddhasila is placed on top of Trasanali, in which are found the three worlds in the upper, middle and lower portions. Therefore, the beings who can stand at the very end of loka are siddhas, or devas and human beings endowed with great rddhi. A deva with great rddhi is touched upon in the Bhagavatisutra X V1.8.585' in the following way: "A deva endowed with great redhi standing at the end of loka cannot bend or stretch his limbs in aloka, for there is no jiva nor pudgala in aloka. Because motions of jivas and ajivas (in this case, pudgala) occur when jivas try to fetch pudgala for the purpose of nourishing themselves." Jivas, however, will not bend or stretch their limbs only in order to catch other jivas or matter particles for the purpose of eating them. The reasoning given in the above sutra is therefore not at all convincing. The Sthananga x.931 reads roughly as follows: "Loka cannot become aloka, and aloka cannot become loka in the three tenses of time. Similarly, loka and aloka can never allow their mutual intrusion. Motion occurs inside loka only when Jivas and pudgla exist. And pudgala gets all dried up and crumbles to pieces at the very end of loka, therefore jivas and pudgala cannot go beyond it." These texts are thus maintaining that the universe consists of loka and aloka, and that these two are independent spaces not allowing mutual intrusion. The argument here is based on the ontological differences of these two spaces: jivas and pudgala exist in loka, but nothing exists in aloka, which is no other than the vast extension of absolute space. The world view of the Jainas had been developed on the basis of this cosmographic dualism. Their world view would have collapsed if this cosmographic dualism had been abandoned. For this reason, it was a pressing issue for the then Jaina theoreticians to demonstrate why jivas and pudgala exist in loka alone but not in aloka. The naive arguments shown in the Bhagavatisutra XV1.8. 585 and the Sthananga X.931 become understandable in the light of this context. These texts, of course, belong to the age prior to the time when the principles of dharma-adharma were established. The Bhagavatisutra X V1.8.585 takes up a deva with great rddhi as an object of demonstration. However, the highest beings among jivas are the siddhas. Siddhas reside eternally on top of loka that borders on aloka, where devas cannot reach since they are samsaris. The places at the end of the man-shaped loka where devas can stand are those other than Siddha'silla. This text must therefore have been composed at the time when Siddhasila did not yet occur in the world map of the Jainas. And since siddhas stand at the highest position among jivas, the demonstration becomes most effective if even these siddhas are placed in the condition not able to go to

Page #285
251 aloka as explained in the Tattvarthasutra X.6, bhasya. The problem of dharmaadharma surfaces here for the first time with respect to a liberated soul. Jacobi early proposed in his "Studies in Jainism" that dharma-adharma of the Jainas must have been originated in rajas-tamas of the Sankhyas.' However, since dharma-adharma originally mean good-bad deeds in the context of the rules of Jaina monks' ethical practice as shown in the Bhagavatisutra XX.2.663, these come in conflict with the concepts of rajas-tamas. Also the Sankhya prakrti consisting of trigunas is equivalent to pudgala of the Jainas, whereas dharma-adharma are the cosmic principles that have no relevancy to the concept of pudgala. It is thus difficult to accept his view. Then, Frauwallner hinted that dharma-adharma of the Jainas must have evolved under the influence of adrsta of the Vaisesikas. At some stage, the Vaisesikas introduced into their system the doctrine of adrst a or the invisible cosmic force, which works favourably or unfavourably to human beings according to the contents of their meritorious actions (dharma) and demeritorious actions (adharma). All the world phenomena occuring in the three tenses of time, of which moksa stands as its final end in view, are deemed to be brought about by this adrst a. The Jainas explain that jivas' meritorious and demeritorious deeds invite karmic particles to flow in, and their fruits cause the phenomena of transmigration. This karma theory, however, cannot explain, according to Frauwallner, the phenomena occurring in the world. The Jainas, therefore, introduced the doctrine of adrsta that had become popular among the other systems of thought, and tried to explain the world phenomena by establishing the principles of dharma and adharma. Merit or dharma causes a driving movement, and demerit or adharma hinders a movement and brings it to rest. But sooner or later their ethical meanings came to be lost, and became pure natural forces of motion and rest, but their names still remind us of their origin." Considering the texts that we have consulted above, Frauwallner's point of argument is very suggestive. Therefore, accepting Frauwallner's suggestion, and upon the basis of the materials introduced above, we would like to examine why and how the two principles of dharma-adharma came to be established in the Jaina School. This doctrine of adrst a enabled the Vaisesikas to explain away any causes occurring in the natural phenomena that are inexplainable by known experience. For instance, according to the Vai'sesikasutra," the cause of the movement of a needle incurred by a magnet (V.1.15), the cause of water circulation in plants (V.2.8), the cause of upward motion of fire, the cause of sideways motion of air, the cause of motion of atoms when they come in contact, and the cause of initial movement of the mind (V.2.14) are said to be due to adrsta. Then, the departure of one's life and mind from his old body and their entry into his new body, the conjunction of food and drink in the womb and the conjunction of other products (V.2.19) are said to be caused by adrsta. One's virtuous deeds (dharma) or evil deeds (adharma) bring .

Page #286
252 about adrst a, which then works upon him favourably or unfavourably accordingly. We learn further from the Vai's esikasutra in this connection: "Ablution, fast, brahmacarya, residence in the family of the preceptor, life of retirement in the forest, sacrifice, gift, oblation, directions, constellations, seasons, sacred hymns and religious observances conduce to adrsta (VI.2.2). Observance of four asramas becomes the source of adharma and dharma depending on unfaithful and faithful actions (VI.2.3). Application to dharma and adharma has desire and aversion for its antecedents (VI.2.17). The accumulation of dharma and adharma causes the conjunction of the soul with its body and senses (i.e. life), and the disappearance of them causes their disjunction (i.e. death)(V1.2.18). It has been expounded that salvation results from the soul's actions (VI.2.19)." A comparison of the contents of dharma-adharma expressed in the Vaisesikasutra above and the synonyms of dharma-adharma listed in the Bhagavatisutra XX.2.663 evinces that dharma and adharma connote observance and non-observance of the rules of ethical practice in each school. Adrst a which embodies itself in a favourable or unfavourable way according to the religio-moral actions of dharma-adharma, is said by the Vaisesikas to be the cause of motion in the natural phenomena that is inexplainable by empirical experience. This doctrine of adrst a and the concepts of dharma-adharma were seized upon precisely as they are by the then Jaina theoreticians to solve their critical issue in hand - the issue of demonstrating why jivas and pudgala exist only in loka but not in aloka. Here surfaced the problem of a siddha's ascent to Siddhasila at the time of his deliverance. The Tattvarthasutra X.6 reads, "This ascent(of a liberated soul) occurs because the soul is previously impelled, because it is free from attachment, because its bondage has been snapped, and because it is of the nature of darting upwards." Its bhasya reads as follows. "Why a liberated soul cannot go beyond loka? It is replied -Because dharmastikaya does not exist. Dharmastikaya is indeed the conditional cause of motion for jivas and pudgala. It doesn't exist there. Therefore, since there is no causal condition of motion, motion cannot occur in aloka. It is just like a gourd sunk to the bottom of water which doesn't move upwards nor sideways. A liberated soul darts upwards to the end of loka, where it remains still and does not move." Now, the Digambara edition of the Tattvarthasutra X.7 was produced by bringing together upakarikas 10-12 and 14 that are attached to Umasvati's own bhasya on his Tattvarthasutra X.7.' It reads, "(The liberated soul darts upwards) like the potter's wheel, like the gourd devoid of mud, like the shell of the castor-seed, and like the flame of a candle." These four illustrations given in this Digambara sutra X.7 are arranged so that they can elucidate the four reasons of a liberated soul's ascent listed in sutra X.6. 'A candle flame' is used here as an illustration of the reason for a siddha's ascent, and "because it is of the nature of darting upwards" is suggestive of the "upward motion of fire" caused by adrsta in the Vai'sesikasutra V.2.14.

Page #287
253 Freed from the weight of its body and karma, the liberated soul that has returned to its own natural self darts instantly upwards from the earth. It arrives right away at Siddha'sila on top of loka by the force of adrst a due to its long-standing dharma or virtuous deeds. A samsari cannot rely on the favour of adrsta because of his long-standing adharma or sinful deeds, and he is accordingly compelled to remain still in samsara like a gourd sunk under water. Adrsta naturally works inside loka alone, as the Vaisesikas do not postulate aloka. Dharma now works as the cosmic force of upward motion, and adharma as the mechanical force of standstill. Due to the mechanical cosmic force of dharma, the liberated soul comes up to the end of loka, where it is compelled to remain still due to that of adharma, and neither can it descend below there, for the world below belongs to samsaris. The all-knowing and all-seeing siddhas of the Jainas thus cannot but remain still on top of the man-shaped world, and contemplate untiringly upon the phenomena eternally occurring in the universe!! Dharma and adharma thus seem to have been established as the cosmic principles of causing upward motion and its rest at Siddhasila, pertaining to a liberated soul at the time of its release from samsara. And if siddhas, the highest beings among jivas are not allowed to enter aloka, the rule surely applies to the rest of beings. If jivas do not exist in aloka, pudgala that forms their body, speech, mind and respiration can never be found therein. Aloka consists of vast absolute space alone. And inside loka are found the principles of dharma and adharma, in addition to jiva, pudgala and akasa, which turned out to be pancastikayas, the fundamentals of the Jaina ontology. The principles of dharma and adharma must thus have been created in order to maintain the cosmographical dualism of the Jainas, for the sake of which the Jaina theoreticians made use of the Vaisesika doctrine of adrst a. This problem is therefore important from the ontological and cosmographical viewpoints in the Jaina doctrines. Interestingly enough, the Bhagavatisutra records heretics' reactions to this newly formulated doctrine of the Jainas in VI.10.304 and X V1.7.633 ( 8 234-35). No doubt, the concepts of dharma-adharma began to be established at about the time when the Bhagavatisutra IX.2.663 was composed. These two principles, however, could never have been conceived without having relevance to a siddha's ascent to Siddhasila at the time of his deliverance from samsara. The first text that touches upon this problem is the Tattvarthasutra X.6, bhasya, 'Dharmastikaya bhavat' (Because Dharmastikaya does not exist). This bhasya indeed clinched the issue. It came to be quoted soon by the Vi'sesavasyakabhasya of Jinabhadra'' on the Svetambara side, and the Digambaras treated it as an independent sutra X.8 in their edition of the Tattvarthasutra."

Page #288
254 Uma svati, who is admittedly well acquainted with why and how the realities of dharma-adharma came to be established, holds an influential position in the postUmasvati literature regarding this issue. This leads us to infer that these two principles of the Jainas must have been established in a not so remote period from the time when Umasvati was active. . wooo Notes 1. This article is an improvement made on my article, "Dharma-Adharma", printed in the Sambodhi, April 1979 - January 1980, vol.8, nos.1-4, pp.110-12. It is attached here because it was written after the present work had been revised and indexed The Tattvarthasutra V.3, 5, 13 ibid. V.19 The Bhagavatisutra XV.4.511 8 232-33 8233 8 145 8 146 8 147 10. H. Jacobi: Studies in Jainism, pp.18, 84-85 11. E. Frauwallner: History of Indian Philosophy, v.2, pp.62-63 Vaisesikasutra of Kanada with the Commentary of Candrananda 13. S. Ohira: A Study of the Tattvarthasutra with Bhasya, pp. 12-13 14. S. Ohira: ibid. p.72 15. S. Ohira: ibid. p.67

Page #289

Page #290
SUTRA INDEX

Page #291

Page #292
SUTRA INDEX 1 ........Sataka 3 .........Sutra/s 1 53 (A-1-1) 2 .........Uddesaka/s 4 .........Paragraphic section/s 1 I 2 - 3 - (A-1-1) (E-3a-1) (B-1,C-la) 56 148, 245, 443, 574, 594 146, 569, 589 472, 569, 589 194, 250, 472, 569, 589 294, 380, 573, 593 291, 574, 594 283, 380, 573, 593 256, 573, 593 256, 494, 507, 573, 57-58 8 (D-16, E-2) (C-10-8,D-1b) (C-1c-7) (C-1c-6.D-1b) (C-la, E-36-3) (C-la, E-36-3) 62 9-15 16 17 (X) (D-22-2) (C-16) (E-3a-) 593 284, 517, 574, 594 359, 569, 589 360, 569, 589 (A-1-2, D-3) 373 (E-4) 63-64 (C-1c-6, E-3b-5) 65-67 (D-la) 68-69 (D-la) 68 (D-15) (E-36-1) (C-1c-2) 72 (C-1c-7) 73 (B-2) (D-3,E-36-2) (E-36-5) 9 (X) (x) (C-2) (X) (E-2, E-3b-2) 131, 494, 573, 593 131, 276, 574, 594 290, 574, 594 245-46, 574, 594 433, 498, 571, 591 381, 421, 518, 571, 3 23 24-6 27-28 28 29 30-31 591 (E-36-2) (D-2a-1) 139 139, 495 139 131, 139 131, 139, 372, 377-78, 459, 569, 589 575 392, 573, 593 261, 574, 594 427, 480, 483, 488, 574, 594 156, 437, 573, 593 522, 569, 589 268, 575 575 335, 573, 593 575 461, 497, 574, 594 526 496, 574, 594 384, 568, 588 497 218, 569, 589 384, 568, 588 487, 497, 574, 594 463, 497, 573, 593 497, 574, 594 496, 574, 594 575 500, 571, 591 484, 574, 594 201, 570, 590 319, 571, 591 154, 573, 593 267, 573, 593 168, 569, 589 145, 568, 588 357, 573, 593 (D-2b-1) (D-2a-2) (E-3a-3) (B-1) (D-2a-1) (E-3a-4,E-36-2) (E-2) (E-3b-2) (E-3b-2) (D-2a-1) (B-1,D-la, D-1b) 408, 446, 574, 594 389, 574, 594 388, 480, 488, 574, 594 387-88, 480, 574, 594 193-94, 214, 353, 376, 421, 569, 589 366, 381, 421, 593 130, 575 (D-la) 82 (x) (x) I 183 (x) (C-la) 85 (X) 86 (Cla) 87-89 (D-3) (E-3b-2) (E-3a-3) (B-1) (C-1d-3) (A-1-2) (C-1b) (A-2) (A-1-1) (D-la) 130, 575 130, 252, 569, 589 252, 575 252, 569, 589 433, 571, 591 5 89 130 43 44-49 50 51 52 6 90-95 (A-1-1,C-16, D-2a-3)400, 447, 574, 594 90 130 130, 148, 270

Page #293
II 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 96 97 98 99 100-4 (C-la) 105 106-11 (D-3) 106 107 112 113 114 115 116 118 119 120-24 120 121 117-24 (B-2) 117-19 (X) (X) (X) (C-1c-4) 149 151 I 1 125-40 (A-3-3) 125-32 152 (D-2a-2) 133-40 2 141-48 (A-3-4) 3 149-50 (D-la) 153 154 4 155 156 157 158 159 5 160 (C-la) (X) (X) (A-3-1) (X) 6 161 (D-18, E-3a-4) (D-1a, E-3a-3) (D-1a) (X) 575 575 575 279, 381, 421, 574, 594 (C-1d-3) 255, 571, 591 393, 569, 589 434, 443, 574, 594 463, 468 417 250, 421, 566, 586 575 575 178, 574, 594 575 229, 239, 262 229, 574, 594 227 190 261 228 161, 166 166 182, 574 539, 594 447, 594 183-84, 447, 574, 594 364, 443, 573, 593 363 364, 443, 487, 573, 593 364, 443, 460, 479, 482, 573, 593 364, 443, 573, 593 575 (C-1d-3) 315, 573, 593 (C-la) 252, 569, 589 (B-1) 201, 252, 569, 589 299, 569, 589 (C-1d-2) (D-2b-1,D-2b-3) 407, 412, 574, 594 (D-2b-3,D-3) 131, 412, 437, 574, 594 131, 316, 573, 593 II 162 (A-3-1) 7 163-67 (A-3-1) 8 168 (A-3-1) 9 169 (X) 10 170 (X) IV 1-8 171-72 (A-3-1) 9-10 173-74 (X) V 1 2 3 - 175-78 (A-2) 179 (C-la) 180 (C-la) 181 (X) 182 (E-3b-5) 183 4 184 185 186 6 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 (F-1-3) (C-id-3) (D-2a-2) (A-3-4) (C-1d-3) (x) (C-id-3) (C-1d-3) (C-1d-3) (E-3b-2) 197 (C-1d-3) 198 (C-1c-2) 199 (D-2b-3) (C-1d-3) (E-4) (F-2-3) (E-3b-5) (D-la, E-2) 98888881 5 200 201 202 203 204 (E-3b-5) (C-1d-3) (E-3b-2) (A-3-4, F-1-2) 205-6 (D-1a) 207 (C-2) 208 (X) 131, 179, 574, 594 131, 180, 574, 594 180, 574-594 575 575 180, 574, 594 575 256 127 169 169, 172, 574, 594 252, 574, 594 251, 569, 589 575 381, 421, 518, 573, 593 514, 571, 591 323, 574, 594 502, 504, 574, 594 188, 536, 537, 574, 594 445, 541, 573, 593 317, 574, 594 392, 574, 594 185, 574, 594 322, 571, 591 575 322, 572, 592 318, 572, 592 317, 574, 594 501, 573, 593 323, 574, 594 275, 571, 591 415, 574, 594 319, 573, 593 421, 524, 573, 593 557, 574, 594, 612 516, 571, 591 358, 465, 570, 573, 590, 593 361, 569, 589 331, 421, 571, 591 575

Page #294
V 7 8 9 10 - 2 3 4 VI 1 228 229 230 231 232 5 209 (D-2b-1) 210 (D-3) 211 (E-3b-2) 212 (B-1) 213 (B-1) 214 (B-1) 215 (B-1) 216-17 (B-1) 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 6 226 7 * 227 (D-2a-2) (C-id-3) (B-1) (C-2) (D-2a-2) (B-1, C-1d-2) (A-2) (A-1-2) (A-1-2) (A-2) 8 248 249 250 (E-2, E-3a-3) (E-4) (E-2) (X) (E-2, E-3b-3) 233-34 (E-3a-2) 233 235 236-37 (E-3b) 238 (C-lb) (E-3a-3) 240-41 (A-1-3) 240 242 (X) 243 (A-1-2) 244 (C-1c-8) 245 (C-1c-5) 246-7 (X) 407, 411, 574, 594 436, 573, 593 500, 524, 569, 589 197, 460, 569, 589 202-3, 414, 571, 591 196, 572, 592 204-5, 461, 573, 593 208, 573, 593 394-95, 569, 589 326-28, 574, 594, 612 210, 443, 573, 593 334, 573, 593 394, 569, 589 213, 312, 569, 589 169, 172, 574, 594 150-51, 446, 555, 574, 594 156, 574, 594 169 169, 172, 574, 594 467, 481-82, 574, 594 525, 574, 594 467, 574, 594 575 466, 507, 574, 594 477, 573, 593 487 485, 574, 594 491, 574 594 239 (C-1c-6, D-2a-1, E-3b-5) 284, 386, 389, 517, 574, 594 157, 159, 574, 594 158 269, 389, 574, 594, 639 157, 575 154, 573, 593 293, 573, 593 280, 571, 591 575 157, 574 594 (A-1-3) (E-3a-3, E-3b-5) 486, 518, 574, 594 (X) 575 VI 9 251 (X) 252 (A-3-4) 253 (C-1d-2) 10 254 (D-2b-3) 255 (C-1b) 256 (E-3b-4) VI 1 259 260 2 3 257 258 7 271 (C-1c-1) (C-1d-3) (C-1c-7) (A-1-2, C-id-3) 261 262 263 264 265 (E-2) 266 (D-1a) 267-69 (D-2b-2) 267 270 (D-1a, D-2c) (D-2c) (D-2c) (C-1d-4) 282 284 285 (D-2a-2) (D-2a-2) (X) 272 273 (B-1, C-1b) 274-75 (C-1c-1) 276 (C-la) 277 (C-1d-2) 278 (E-2) 279 (B-1, C-1b) 280 (X) 281 (X) 4 5 6 282-83 (E-3b-5) 286-87 (X) 288 289 290 291 (E-3b-4) (E-3b-4) (D-1a) (C-1b) (C-1d-3) (E-4) 257 575 185, 412, 574, 594 310, 572, 592 416, 421, 573, 593 258, 569, 589 381, 421, 462, 509, 574, 594 274, 569, 589 323, 574, 594 292, 574, 594 151, 166, 324, 574, 594 366, 426, 574, 594 424, 568, 588 428, 573, 593 329, 574, 594 462, 509, 574, 594 366, 573, 593 411, 574, 594 632 386, 391, 417, 569, 589 391, 574, 594, 612, 632 391, 575 223, 270, 387, 572, 592 273, 568, 588 253, 569, 589 311, 572, 592 458, 569, 589 223, 270, 574, 594 575 575 514, 574, 594 462 510, 574, 594 508, 574, 594 436, 575 366, 573, 593 264, 569, 589 320, 569, 589 523, 572, 592

Page #295
258 VE 8 195, 278, 575 385, 421, 573, 593 385, 574, 594 200, 570, 590 206, 573, 593 227, 574, 594 473, 574 490, 574, 594 258, 569, 589 9 10 575 575 594 575 316, 469, 549-50, 574, 594 316, 354, 503-4 316 470 336, 446, 574, 594 VI 1 2 575 555 447, 535-36, 574, 594 371, 445, 538, 574, 3 292 (C-1d-3) 319, 573, 593 9 344-52 (x) 293 (X) 575 10 353 (D-2a-1) 294 (E-2) 458, 569, 589 354 (D-2a-1) 295 (C-1d-1) 297, 574, 594, 612 355 (B-1) 296 (D-2a-2) 389, 574, 594 356 (B-1) 297 (D-2a-1, E-3a-3) 388, 480, 574, 594 357 (B-2) 298 (D-26-3) 412, 574, 594 358 (E-32-1) 299-303 (D-3) 439, 440, 574, 594 359 (E-36) 304 (B-2) 234-35, 386, 447, 574, 360 (C-16) 594 305 (D-la) 234, 356, 447, 574, X 1 361 (X) 594 2 362 (X) 306 (E-2) 234, 447, 465, 574, 3-30 363 (X) 31 364-69 (E-2, F-2-1) 307 (B-1) 213, 234, 447, 574 594 364 (E-3b-2) 365 (C-1d-3) 308-14 (B-1) 200, 574, 594 366 (E-2) 315 (C-la) 254, 573, 593, 612 32 370-78 (C-2) 316-18 (X) 377 319-20 (C-1d-3) 325, 574, 594 33 379-81 (F-1-2) 321-22 (X) 575 382-89 (D-1b. F-1-2) 323 (x) 575 324 (C-16) 265, 569, 589 385 325 (x) 575 - 386 326 (X) 575 34 390 (D-la) 327 (D-2c) 426, 574, 594 391-92 (D-la) 328 (D-2c) 425, 574, 594 329 (D-2c, D-3) 429, 437, 545, 574, X 1 393 (A-14) 594 (A-1-2) 156, 574, 594 394 (x) 331 (D-2c) 428, 573, 593 2 395 (D-la) 332 (D-26-2) 410, 566, 586 396-97 (X) 333 (D-1B, D-26-1) 374, 405, 566, 586 398 (D-2b-1) 334 (C-la) 251, 566, 586 399 (D-26-1) (D-la) 363, 569, 589 3 400 (A-3-4) 336 (D-1b, D-2b-4) 374, 417, 421, 569, 401 (B-1) 589 402 (X) 337 (X) 575 4 403 (A-3-2) 338 (D-2a-2) 396, 574, 594, 612 5 404-5 (x) 339 (D-2b-1) 403, 567, 587, 612 6 406 (A-3-1) 340-41 (E-36-6) 365, 519, 574, 594 7-34 407 (x) 342 (E-36) 492, 574, 594 343 (x) 168, 575 x 18 408-15 (1) 594 376 372 4 5 352, 569, 589 359, 569, 589 330 6 161-62, 164-66, 574, 594 575 366, 573, 593 575 403, 567, 587, 612 406, 572, 592 184, 574, 594 216, 565, 585, 596 575 181, 574, 594 575 179, 574, 594 575 335 0 7 8 562, 575

Page #296
259 532 x 9 416-18 (1) 447, 575 480 (B-2) 227, 233, 574, 594 10 419 ' (A-1-2) 150, 161, 166, 574, 481-82 (B-2) 242, 574, 594 594 483 (C-1c-3) 278, 574, 594 420 (A-1-2) 152, 573, 593 484 (B-2) 234, 574, 594 421-22 (C-16) 266, 573, 593 485-86 (A-1-2) 151, 574, 594 11 423-31 (A-2, F-2-3) 170, 172, 445, 574, 5 487 (X) 575 594 488 (C-2) 336, 574, 594 426 (X) 575 489 (A-3-1) 178, 574, 594 427-31 (F-2-3) 557 490-91 (D-3, F-1-2) 441, 532, 534, 574, 12432-34 (C-1c-5) 281, 445, 573, 593 594 435 (C-1c-5) 281, 447, 573, 593 7 492-94, (B-1) 214, 571, 591 495 (D-2a-3, E-3b-5) 400, 518, 574, 594 X 1 436-37 (D-2c) 427, 445, 574, 594 8 496 (X) 575 438 (D-2a-3) 445, 574, 594 9 497 (D-26-3) 412, 574, 594 439 (E-3a-3) 427, 445, 460, 480, 10 498 (X) 575 488, 574, 594 2 440-41 (F-1-2) 441, 445, 534, 574, XIV 1 499 (C-1d-2) 301, 307, 569, 589 594 (C-1c-7) 291, 574, 594 440 (E-3b-5) 515, 574, 594 442 (C-1c-7, D-2a-3) 290, 445, 534, 574, 2 502 (E-36-2) 501, 573, 593 594 503 (A-3-4) 187, 594 3 443 (X) 575 504 (A-3-4) 158, 187, 574, 594 4 444-47 (B-1) 193-94, 574, 594 3 505-6 (D-2a-3) 401, 574, 594 5 448-49 (B-2) 248, 259, 574, 594 507 (A-34) 184, 574, 594 312 508 (X) 575 450 (C-la) 255, 457, 569, 589 (B-1) 200, 569, 589 451 (E-2) 457, 569, 589 510 (E-2) 458, 569, 589 6 452-55 (X) (B-1) 201, 572, 592 7 456 (A-1-2, C-2) 152, 332, 573, 593 512 (B-1) 209, 572, 592 457 (A-1-2, C2) 154, 332, 593 513 (X) 575 8 458 (C-1c-6) 283, 285, 569, 589 5 514 (C-2) 333, 574, 594 459 (D-16,D-3) 380, 436, 574, 594 515 (E-36-3) 506, 573, 593 9 460-65 (X) (A-3-4) 185, 574, 594 10 466-67 (C-16) 260, 574, 594 6 517 (C-1c-1, E-2) 274, 457, 569, 589 466 408 518 (C-1c-1) 274, 569, 589 468 (B-1) 212, 572, 592 519 (A-34) 185, 574, 594 7 520 (F-1-3) 445, 540, 574, 594 21 469-71 (C-2) 337, 574, 594 521 (C-1d-3) 317, 574, 594 2 472 (C-2) 337, 574, 594 522 (B-1) 211, 574, 594 3 473 (X) 523 (D-2b-1) 409, 573, 593 4 474 (A-1-2, E-2) 155, 466, 573, 593 524-25 (A-3-2) 181, 573, 593 475-77 (X) 575 8 526 (A-1-2) 153, 572, 592 478-79 (A-14) 161, 163, 165, 574, 527 (C-1c-6) 283, 573, 593 594 528-29 (X) 449 509 575 575 516 575 575

Page #297
260 575 XV 530 531 10 587 11-14 588 (x) (C-16) 268, 574, 594 532 (A-3-2) (A-3-4) (A-3-2) (B-1, C-1d-2) (A-3-4, C-1b) 9 533 534 181, 573, 593 187, 574, 594 181, 573, 593 213, 310, 569, 589 185, 264, 312, 569, 574, 589, 594 213, 569, 589 414, 573, 593 322, 571, 591 591 535 536 537 (B-1) (D-26-3) (C-1d-3) 592 10 XV. 538-59 (F-1-4) 126, 139, 447-48, 543-47, 574, 594 428 543 440, 543 XVI - - 1 589 (D-3) 590 (D-la) (D-la) (X) 593 (D-2a-1) 594 (D-2a-1) 595 (C1b) 596 (A-3-4) 3 597 (C-1c-2) 598 (C-1c-2) 599 (D-3) 4 600 (D-la) 601 (E-2) 5 602 (x) 6-11 603-8 (C-10-8) 12 609 (C-16) 13-17 610-14 (C-16) 139 439, 440, 574, 594 361, 569, 589 363, 573, 593 562, 575 386, 574, 594 388, 421, 574, 594 259, 421, 574 534 185, 574, 594 275, 460, 574, 594 275, 378, 574, 594 434, 574, 594 357, 573, 593 456, 569, 589 179, 575 293, 574, 594 268, 574, 594 268, 574, 594 XV 1 2 560 (C-1a) 561 (C-la) 562 (D-la) 563-64 (D-la) 565 (E-4) 566 (D-2a-2) 567 (A-3-4) 568 (E-2) 569 570 (D-la, E-3b-2) 571 (E-4) 572 (A-3-4) 573-74 (D-15) 575 576 (D-2a-3) 577 (D-2a-3, F-2-3) XVI 1 2 252, 569 ,589 251, 569, 589 359, 569, 589 355, 573, 593 523, 569, 589 397, 574, 594 187. 574, 594 456-57, 569, 589 575 354, 504, 573, 593 481, 527, 574, 594 185, 445, 574, 594 379, 445, 574, 594 445, 574, 594 399, 531, 574, 594 399, 531, 557, 574, 594 435, 530-31, 574, 594, 612 435, 574, 594 215, 569, 589 6 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 (C-16) (A-34) (C-10-2) (X) (E-3a-2) (E-32-3) (E-4) (C-16) (C-2,X) (F-2-3) (A-3-4) (E-2) (E-3b-5) (A-3-4) (B-1) (B-1) (D-2b-3) 269, 574, 594, 639 187, 445, 574, 594 311, 574, 594 575, 594 478, 481, 574, 594 460, 485, 574, 594 386, 527, 574, 594 264, 574, 594 338, 562, 574-75, 594 559, 573, 593 185-86, 573, 593 464, 573, 593 514, 571, 591 185, 574, 594 223, 574, 594 198, 209, 571, 591 416, 421, 501, 570, 578 (F-1-1) 579 580 6 (D-3) (B-1) (X) (A-1-2, A-1-4) 575 8 582 7 590 . 583 584 585 586 (B-1) (D-la) (A-1-1, B-2) (A-3-1) 152, 161-62, 164-65, 574, 594 207, 573, 593 359, 569, 589 147, 236, 569, 589 178, 574, 594 632 633 634 635 (D-2a-2) (B-2) (C-1b) (A-34) 395, 573, 593, 612 235, 445, 574, 594 265,574, 594 185, 574, 594 9

Page #298
261 * * * * * * * * 636 637' XVI 8 638 639 640 9 641 10 642 (A-3-4) (E-4) (D-la) (D-2b-4) (C-1d-3) (C-1c-5) (D-26-3) (B-1) (B-1) (D-2b-4) (C1b) 184, 574, 594 527, 574, 594 366, 573, 593 417, 421, 569, 589 321, 571, 591 280, 282, 572, 592 202, 414, 572, 592 202-3, 574, 594 212, 572, 592 418-19, 447, 574, 594 263, 447, 574, 594 XXI-XLI XXI ff. XXI-XXII XXIV XXV 1.716 3 ff. 3.731 4.733 561-62, 616, 639 608 562, 639 561, 639 561 325, 561 196 562 644 645 646 575 742 196 562 562 XX 1-2 647-48 (X) 3 649 (X) 650 (C-10-3) 651 (C-Ic-3) 652 (C-10-3) 4 653 (E-2) 5 654 (E-2) 655 (X) 6 656 (X) 7 657 (A-1-2) 8-9 658-59 (C-1c-9) 10 660 (C-16) 268, 277, 575 277, 574, 594 203, 277, 278, 594 277, 594 466, 574, 594 464, 573, 593 575 575 156, 573, 593 295, 574, 594 268, 574, 594 5.748-49 XXVI-XXX XXVI-XLI XXXI-XXXI xxx-xxXIV xxxsh-XL XXXV-XL XLI 562 562 562 562 562 xx1 661 (C-16) 268, 574, 594 2 662 (B-2) 228, 574, 594 663 (B-2) 232-33, 238, 258, 262, 386, 574, 594 3 664 (C-16) 259, 574, 594 665 (C-la, E-2) 255, 457, 571, 591 4 666 (X) 575 5 667-68 (B-1) 198, 209, 572, 592 669 (B-1) 209, 572, 592 6 670-72 (C-108) 293, 574, 594 7 673 (E-32-2) 476, 573, 593 8 674 (A-2, F-2-2) 171-73, 551, 574, 594 675-81 (F-2-2) 173, 551-56, 574, 594, 612 9 682-83 (D-26-1, D-26-3) 407, 415, 574, 594 10 684 (E-3b-5) 515, 573, 593 685 (C-1c-6, E-36-5) 284, 515, 573, 593 686 (C-2) 341, 343, 574, 594

Page #299

Page #300
GENERAL INDEX (Note: English terms appearing in the concerned paragraphic sections are often found under the equivalent Sanskrit terms.)

Page #301
262 GENERAL INDEX . 4. 20 . Agnibhuti, 182 agnikayika, 251 agurulaghu (neither-heavy-nor-light), 228, 245-46 agurulaghu (quality of individuation), 247, 270, 601 A', 283, 287, 292, 307, 336, 341-42, 357, 359, 523, 598, 601; see also ekendriya A?, 287, 333, 523; see also dvindriya A', 287, 333, 523; see also trindriya A', 287, 333, 523; see also caturindriya A', 283, 287, 333, 401; see also pancendriya abadha kala, 485 abadhantara, 153 abhavasiddhika, 148, 477 Abhayadeva, 187, 255, 258, 337, 395, 408, 414, 457, 485-86, 510, 524, 527, 643 Abhici, 441, 532, 534 abhigaya-jivajiva', 637 abhiyogika, 438; deva, 437 abhyupagamiki(vedana), 523 acarama, see carama-acarama Acaranga 1, 3, 5, 12-14, 20-24, 26-28, 32-33, 35, 38, 52, 319, 373, 375, 398, 400 Acaranga II, 3, 12, 41-42, 45, 56-58, 117, 158, 397, 410, 528; - later additions, 3 acarya, 436 action in progress, 367-69, 371, 375-76 Acyuta (Kalpa), 183 adattadana, 27 addha kala, 170 addhasamaya, 190, 240-41 adhakarma, 53, 407, 411, 480, 488, 546 adharma (astikaya), 227-28, 230, 232-33, 236, 241, 246 adharma (demerit, non-religion), 237-38, 386 adharmastikaya pradesa, 243 adharmika, 398 adhikarana, 355 adhikarani, 355, 426 adho'vadhika, 320-21 adhyavasanavaraniya karma, 503-4 adrsta, 237-40 Agamodaya Samiti edition, 130-31, 436, 466 aggregates, see skandha . aghatika karma, 473, 490 agni-jiva-sarira, 251 agni-kaya, 333, 465 agurulaghu nama karma, 247, 601 ahara, 64, 256, 271-74, 292-93, 457 aharaka s arira, 256, 355 aharijjamane aharie...' 380 ahimsa, 18, 55, 59, 105, 432, 546; see also anarambha Airavata, 551, 554 anabhoga-nirvartita, 514 anadi-sadi, 53 ananta-santa, 148, 270 ajiva, 77, 80-81, 146, 162, 189-248, 257, 601, 617; parinama, 84 Ajivika, 429, 437-38, 543-45 ajnana, 260-61, 316 akarkasa vedaniya karma, 510 akarma, 33, 35 akasa, 227-28, 230, 232, 240-41, 246: prades a, 266 akas astikaya, 227-28, 230, 232, 240-41, 246 akasmad-danda, 62 akati-sancita, 341 akriya, 434 alika vacana, 524 alocana-pratikramana, 374, 403-7, 437, 441, 604 aloka, 82, 145, 147, 150, 152, 228, 236, 238 amayi samyagdrsti, 185, 316, 318 amita, 323 anagara, 503; bhavitatma, 315 Ananda (MV's disciple), 544 ananta, 81, 323: (kayika) jiva, 253; pradesi, 231 anantara bandha, 476 anantara-param paranirgata, 515 anantara-param paropapannaka, 515 anantaranirgata, 515 anantaropapannaka, 515 Anapannika deva, 406 anapavartaniya, 511 anaradhaka, 385 :

Page #302
263 anaram bha, 15, 19, 28, 120; see also ahimsat anasrava, 434 Andhaka-vrsni, 559 andhakara, 213, 312 anekantavada, 348 Anga (11), 96, 102, 107, 551, 554 Anga (12), 4, 96-102, 108, 110, 116, 124, 551-52, 554-55, 601, 620, 638 Angabahya, 3, 7, 11, 68, 118, 638 anida (vedana) , 523 animals, see tiryanca animism, 16 annaglayaka sramana nirgrantha, 527 Anojja, 533 Antakrdda's a, 3, 91, 94-95, 107, 188, 409, 542 antakriya, 364 antaraya karma, 473, 489-90, 492-94 anu, see paramanu anubhava bandha, 450, 480, 484-85, 521 anubhava karma, 484 anubhava phala, 87 anupurvi, 357 Anuttaravimana, 181 Anuttaropapatika deva, 181, 317, 467, 501 Anuttaropapatikada's a, 3, 91, 94, 409 anuvrata (5), 49, 95, 390-91, 423, 425 anuyoga items, see anuyogadvara Anuyogadvara, 118, 133, 419, 562, 610, 645 anuyogadvara, 77-78, 80, 83, 122, 222, 261, 271, 313, 345-48, 605, 608, 639; (a group of,) application of, 74-75, 260, 267-69, 325-337, 470, 491 apavartaniya, 511 apkayika, 194, 250, 293 aprades a, 220 apramatta-samyama, 364 apramatta-samyata, 317, 392 apratyakhyana, 284, 389, 425, 517 apurvakarana, 470 Aradhaka, 384-85 aradhana, 383-88, 402-9, 601, 604 arambha, 14-15, 26-28, 33, 37, 364, 392, 394, 452; see also himsa archer, 360-61 Ardhamagadhi, 185-86, 580 arhat, 548, 550-52 arrangement of passages, 627, 642 arrow, 359, 361 Arstanemi, 107; -Krsna, 95, 105 artha-pada, 580-81 aruksa, 200 Arunavara Samudra, 158 arupi, 185, 214, 248 asam vrta, 399, 488 asamyama, 393, 408 asam yata, 392, 437 asankhyata, 230-31 asankhyeya, see asankhyata asat, 218 asata, 462, 514, 525; vedaniya karma, 505, 508-10 asivisa, 254 Asivisabhavana, 254 asocca see socca-asocca; kevali, 548-550, 601 asprstamana gati, 207 asrava, 23, 26, 356, 468, 477, 487; dvara (5), 116 asta-prades ika-rucaka, 163 asthira, 387 astikaya, 148, 190; pradesa, 242 astitva, 218 astronomy, Jaina, 69, 167-75, 620, 635 asubha-pudgala, 213, 501 as unya-kala, 335 asura, 185 Asurakumara, 178, 182-83 Atimuktaka, 95, 107, 445, 539, 541-42, 600 atma, 260-61, 408; -no-atma-avaktavya, 212 atmaraksa (G, rank of), 179 atmavada, 19, 25 atmopakrama, 284 atomic combination, see paramanu-skandha - combination and division atomic theory, see paramanu-skandha-theory atyantika marana, 518 audarika-s arira, 256 aupakramiki (vedana), 523 Aupapatika, 133, 139, 207, 407, 610 avadhi, 306, 310, 314-16, 318, 327, 469, 503; jnanavaraniya karma, 503; marana, 518

Page #303
avadhika, 469-70 Bhadrabahu 1,5, 41, 103 avagraha, 397 Bhagavata purana, 113 avakas antara, 168 Bharata, 112-13, 510, 551-52, 554 avaktavya sancita, 341 bhasa, 84, 185-86, 214, 392 avantarasata, 562 bhava bandha, 478 avarana, 474-75 bhava-indriya, 256 avasarpini-utsarpini, 170, 172, 551; see also kala bhava-les ya, 299, 312 cakra bhavana (25), 117, 255 avasyaka, 419 Bhavanavasi, 268 Avas yakaniryukti, 382, 419 bhavasiddhika, 148, 477 Ava's yakacurni of Jinadasa, 181 bhavya-dravya-jiva, 280 Avas yakasutra, 36, 62, 96, 118, 419 bhavya-nairayika-jiva, 299 avedaka, 519 bhiksa, 30 avici marana, 518 bhiksu pratima (12), 42, 403 aviraha-kala, 335 bhoga, 264 avirati, 355, 357, 386, 388, 392, 399, 487-88, 499, bhogi, 264 524 bhramara, 223 Avyabadha deva, 181, 418 bhuta, 257 avyavacchitti-naya, 181, 223 Bhutananda (King Konika's elephant), 439 ayoga kevali, 307, 365 Bimbisara (of Magadha), 533 ayur bandha, 89, 284, 486, 511-13, 518 blacksmith, 359 ayus, 255, 272, 280-81, 284, 311, 457. bodhisattva, 550 ayus karma, 381, 400, 473, 480, 488-90, 493, 511. bow, 361 19, 522, 524; -akarsa, 89; - nirupakrama- brahmacarya, 393, 503-4 sopakrama, 89 Brahmaloka, 158; deva, 281 Brahmana Kundagrama', 538 Brahmin, 537 badara-parinata-pradesa, 203 Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 19 badara-parinata-skandha, 198, 200, 221 Brhatkalpa, 3, 38, 41, 44-45, 47, 384; - later addiBaladeva (baladeva) (9), 105, 557-59 tions, 48 balahaka, 201 buddha, 550 balaka, 387-88 Buddha, 20, 23, 26, 37, 40, 56 Balarama, 559 Buddhist thoughts, 258; vs.Jaina thoughts, 19-23, Bali (King), 178 26-28, 314 Balicanca, 182 Buddhists, lay, 423 bandha, 195, 468, 476 bed-making, 371-72 Bhagavati, 1, 126, 367, 369-70, 373, 382, 560, 583, caitanya, 258, 456 616-45; -number of padas, 580-83; nucleus, 2, cakravarti (12), 174, 557 3, 8, 67, 90, 560, 619, 624-26, 630 'calamane calie', 353, 367-82, 459, 598, 603, 642 Bhagavati I-XX, 595 ff.; -method of chronolo- calana, 272, 275-76, 364, 378 gical analysis, 2, 10-11, 127-39. 140-43, 563-64, calculation, method of, 338-43 584, 595; -number of sutras, 576-77, 579 Camara (King), 178-79, 183 Bhagavati XV, 543-45 Camaracanca, 178

Page #304
265 616, 642 church policy, 529, 538, 542, 619 'cittamamtam-acittam', 15 colophon, 580, 582, 642 completed action, 367-69, 371, 375-76 composites, see skandha conduct, 383-441; ascetic, 27, 42, 121, 402-22, 434, 597, 607; lay, 121, 423-31, 601, 607 conversion stories, 442, 444, 446 cosmographic regions, 302, 307-8 cosmography, Jaina, 69, 111, 115, 122-23, 144-66, 597-98, 601, 607; Hindu, 145, 149 cosmology, Jaina, 144 ff., 167, 176, 620, 635 Candana (Arya), 535 candra, 169 Candra prajnapti, see Surya-Candra prajnapti Candraprabha (Tirthankara), 551 Canonical Council, First (Pataliputra), 97, 99; Second (Mathura & Valabhi), 6, 97, 99, 1002, 124, 620, 625; Third (Valabhi), 7, 91, 99, 124, 133, 139, 449,583, 621, 625, 632-33, 638, 640, 642-43 canonical period, 1-2, 9, 645 canonical stages, 2-3, 9; first stage, 3, 5, 13-40, 121, 452; first stage onwards, 578, 585, 596, 626; second stage, 3, 5, 41-66, 121, 453, 586, 597; second stage onwards, 578, 587, 597, 612; second-third stages, 588, 597; third stage, 3, 5, 8, 67-70, 122, 199, 453-54, 589, 598, 622-24; third stage onwards, 578, 590, 599; thirdfourth stages, 591, 599; fourth stage, 3, 6. 71-90, 122, 199, 344, 592, 600, 626; fourth(early) fifth stages, 3, 94, 121, 123, 199, 593, 600, 627; fifth stage, 3, 7, 111-19, 122-24, 344, 594, 601, 631-40 caraka-parivrajaka, 438 carama (8), 544; vastu, 440 carama-acarama, 82, 209, 269; -avaktavya, 83, 212 cararna karma, 322 Caranabhavana, 415 caritra, 261-62, 385 caritramohaniya karma, 26, 354, 499-500, 502-4, 524 caritravaraniya karma, 503-4 case illustrations, 618, 628 catechism, style of, see dialogue caturindriya, 268; see also A' Cellana, 533 Cetaka (of Vaisali), 532-33 chadmastha-avadhika, 320-21 chadmastha M, 323, 502 chaya, 213 Chedasutras, 5, 41, 57, 391 'chijjamane chinne...', 374 child monk, 542 church history, 102, 124, 370, 528, 538, 540, 607, dana, recipient of, 428 dandaka (24), 78, 249, 307 darsana, 261-63, 271, 319, 385, 606 dar's anamohaniya karma, 495, 497, 499, 504 dars anavaraniya karma, 473-75, 489-90, 495, 502-4 Das a's rutaskandha, 3, 41-43, 45, 133, 403, 423, 499, 612; - later additions, 43, 50, 63 Da's avaikalika, 3, 12-13, 24, 28, 36, 40, 42, 392, 413; - later additions, 3, 24, 26-27, 30-31, 36, 38, 56 definition, 347 Deleu, J., 132, 562, 611 deva, 177-87, 236, 265, 279, 281, 283, 379-80, 392, 401, 527; see also, G Devaki,188 devaloka, 20, 156, 434 Devananda, 188, 447, 535-36 Dhammapada, 19, 22 dharma (astikaya), 190, 227-28, 230, 232-33, 236, 241, 246, 503; -adharma, 147, 236, 239, Appendix dharma (merit, religious law), 237-38, 386 dharmantaraya karma, 503-4 dharmantaraya kriya, 354, 504 dharmastikaya, 227-28, 230, 232-33, 236, 241, 246; prades a, 242-44 'dharmastikayabhavat', 239 dharmika, 398 dialogue, 132, 182, 620, 626 .

Page #305
Digambara, 99, 116, 261 'dijjamane dinne...", 374 Dikkumara, 152 dimension, 203, 205, 220-21, 230, 243 directions, 161-63, 165, 357 directions, theory of, 144, 161-66, 601, 603 Dixit, K.K., 10, 21 duhkha, 353 The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, by H. von Glasenap, 305 Doctrine of the Jainas, by W. Schubring, 306 dravya, 189, 241; see also pancastikaya: avici. vici, 274; bandha, 478, 481; -indriya, 256; -les ya, 299, 312 dravya (whole) and dravya-desa (part), 206 dravyastika naya, 223 Drativada, 103, 108, 110, 551, 556 drstiviparyasa-danda, 62 duhkha, 416, 456, 458, 462, 509, 514, 522 duhkha nama karma, 505, 507 dusamasusama, 554 Dvada's anga gani-pitaha, see Anga (12) dvapara yugma, 338 dvesa, 26 dvindriya, 268; see also A' dvipa-samudra, 114-15, 145, 149 Dvipasagara prajhapti, 3, 68, 72, 111, 114-15, 158, 415, 620, 633; see also Jivajivabhigama earth-(bodied-)beings, see Prthvikayika editorial skill, 641 ekendriya, 252, 268, 277-78, 289; see also A' embryology, 255 epilogue, 442, 642 epistemology, Jaina, 118. esana dosa, 411 ethical principles, ascetic, 29 ethics and conduct, 383-441, 434, 561 etiquette, see vinaya evil action, 350, 375 'eyati veyati calati... parinamati', 460 exercise book, 629 exposition, method of, 199, 608, 628 fire-(bodied-)beings, see agnikayika G, 156, 283, 287, 333, 337, 401, 462; see also deva gadha bandha, 365, 467, 478, 480-82, 511, 513, 527 ganadhara, 102 gandha, 198 Ganga, 382, 421, 600, 613, 6161 Gangadatta, 95, 445; story, 379 Gangeya, 446; story, 336 garbha, transposition of, 188 garha, 408, 463 gatha, 136 gati (forms of existence) (4), 66, 249, 286, 304, 307, 309, 339, 513-14; nama karma, 304, 313, 513 gati, avigraha, 333; siddha's, 296, 329, 601; vigraha, 333; vigraha-avigraha, 219-20, 272, 289-94, 300, 515, 601, 607 Gautama (Indrabhuti, 1st Ganadhara), 122, 317, 371, 417, 445, 539-40, 620, 626; (Agnibhuti, 2nd Ganadhara), 539; (Vayubhuti, 3rd Ganadhara), 539 geography, Jaina, 111, 114, 123, 620 ghana saha-gaya paggala', 215 ghatika karma, 473, 490 ghrana, 215 Gommatasara, 340, 451 Gosala, 95, 429, 440, 447, 543-46 gotra karma, 87-88, 473, 490 great personages, Jaina, 172, 548, 557-59, 601 gross composites, see badara-parinata-skandha group wandering, 32, 37, 39-40, 46, 542 guda, 223 guilt, see sins guna (property), 197-98, 240, 248 guna-siksa-vrata, 391 266 Gunasilaka Sanctuary, 132 gunasthana (14), 77-78, 451, 470 gupti (3), 27-28, 42, 60, 231, 238 guru, 245-46; -laghu, 245-46, 601, 605 gurutva, 290

Page #306
267 H, 155, 287, 297, 331, 337, 462, 466-67, 469, 527 jagarika, 398 H.A.M.G. 66, 249, 260, 264, 267-69, 275-76, 282, jagrata, 399 286-87, 289, 307-9, 312, 333, 357, 363, 386, 388- Jainas, 358, 537; at Mathura, 47-49, 99; in the 89, 392, 394, 399, 464, 466, 506, 509-11, 513, South, 105 515, 523; -- abodes, 85, 154, - number, 338- Jamali, 95, 370-72, 376, 382, 421, 445, 533, 538, 41; see also jiva 616 Harinaigamesi, 95, 188, 536 Jambu, 91, 104, 106, 451 hasti, 389 Jambudvipa, 112-15, 551 hasya, 502 Jambudvipa prajnapti, 3, 68, 111-13, 115, 133, heretical text (H), 132, 420-22, 602, 613 149, 168, 196, 172, 202, 436, 559, 610-11, 620, heretics, 214, 234-35, 250, 259,279, 331, 353, 366, 633, 636 374, 376, 381, 385, 391, 404, 407, 412-13, 416- janai pasai', 599 18, 421-22, 437, 442, 444, 447, 509, 518, 524 janghacarana, 415 heroes and heroines, 444-45, 448 janma-marana, mode of, 293-94 hetu (5), 326-28 jara, 523 himsa, 350, 375, 424, 432, 452, 480, 547; see also Jayanti, 445, 532, 534, story, 398 arambha jina, 112, 114, 384, 497 History and Doctrine of the Ajivikas, by A.L. jiva, 73-78, 80, 85, 121-22, 201, 211, 218-20, 223, Basham, 305 227-28, 230, 232, 240-41, 246, 249-348, 357, householders, see laymen 389, 392, 456-58, 461-63, 472, 477, 487, 517, hunter, 359 522, 524, 527, 597-98, 600-1, 605, 635; see also H.A.M.G; - birth, mode of, 341-42; - birth and death, 335-37; - classification, 73-75, 78, immovable beings, see sthavara 85, 162, 249; - nature and features, 86, 257Indra, 176 329; - population and mobility, 85, 303, indra (G, rank of), 182 330, ff.; -ajiva, 110, 124, 144, 146-48, 151, 161, indriya, 249, 264, 275, 355, 363 189, 235, 324, 394, 561-62, 616-17, 620, 629, indriyavadhya karma, 494 636-38, 645; -nikaya (6), 14-15, 25, 120, 249, intentional action, 62, 375-76 342; pradesa, 265-66, 473-75; -prayoga bandha, intentional violence, 35, 62, 375 476 iryapatha karma, 365, 493, 519 Jivajivabhigama, 3, 6, 71-73, 78, 133, 149, 152-53, iryapatha kriya, 351, 364-65, 381, 479, 482, 600, 155, 178, 185, 271, 297, 310, 332, 335, 562, 606; - illustrations of, 366 610-11, 620, 633, 636-37; - later additions, 72 iryapathika bandha, 479-81 jivasamasa (14), 77-78, 325; 561 iryapathika bandhaka, 477 jivastikaya, 227-28, 230, 232, 240-42, 246, 262 Isana (Kalpa), 178 jnana, 260, 262-63, 271, 296, 314-28, 385, 434, 606 Isana (King), 158, 178-82, 187, 447 jnanavaraniya karma, 87, 473-75, 490, 492, 503 I's atpragbhara, 153 jnani-ajnani, 325 is varavada, 52-53 Jnata (clan), 556 Itihasa, 637 Jnatadharmakatha, 3, 91, 106-7, 133, 252, 371, Itivuttaka, 19 407, 418, 559 Jrmbhaka (deva) 181 jyoti, 251 jagat, 457 Jyotisa Vedanga, 69

Page #307
Jyotiska, 112, 157, 159, 167, 169, 635 'kajjamane kade', 360, 368-69, 371-73, 375-76, 380, 417 kala, 112, 170, 210, 240; units, 167, 169-70, 601 kala cakra, 112-13, 171-72, 174-75, 553, 601, 606; see also avasarpini-utsarpini Kalasyavesikaputra (Parsvan monk), 408, 446 kalika sruta, 551 Kalodayi (heretic), 234-35, 447; story, 356, 465 kalpa (4), 174 Kalpasutra, 113, 118, 188, 528, 536-37 Kalpavasi (deva), 185 kalyana karma, 356 kalyoja yugma, 338 kama, 264 kami, 264 Kanakaratha (King), 107 kandarpika, 438 kanksa-pradvesa, 433, 498 kanksamohaniya karma, 461, 487, 495, 497 kanksamohaniya vedana, 496 karana (3), 15, 28; list of, 272, 295, 601; -virya. 276 karkaka vedaniya karma, 510 karkata, 216 karma, 21, 23-24, 60, 198, 218, 224, 248, 284, 300, 322, 349, 378, 434, 450-527, 617; bandha, 89, 198, 220, 356, 364, 450, 456, 471-88, 493-93. 521, 525, 601; bandha-prakrti-sthiti-anubhavapradesa, 483-84; -lesya, 301, 305, 310, 312; prakrti, 87, 305, 452, 469, 473, 475, 480, 488519, 521, 524, 601; theory of, 19, 80, 87, 118, 122, 226, 298, 362, 365, 378, 432, 435, 450, 452-55, 457, 521, 598, 605, 607; upacaya, 477 karma (action), 20, 60, 349, 524 karma (motion, Vaisesika category of). 197, 23738 karmadana, forbidden (lay Ajivikas), 429, 437 karmana sarira, 219, 252, 300, 306, 333 karmavada, 19, 25 karmic process, 459-60;-asrava-bandha-moksa, 365;-asrava-bandha-vedana, 377; - asrava bandha-vedana-nirjara, 365; bandha-udayasatta, 451; bandha-upacaya-udaya-vedananirjara, 461, 475; bandha-vedana-nirjara, 365, 479, 521; kriya-asrava-bandha-udaya, 460: asrava-kriya-vedana-nirjara, maha or alpa of, 466;-(karma-) kriya-asrava-vedana, maha or alpa of, 464-66, 507, 600, 604, 628 Kartika, 187 karvata. 216 kasaya (4), 26, 351, 365-66, 408, 482, 487-88, 524 Kasayaprabhrta, 118 - 268 kati-sancita, 341 kaya, 214; -bhava-stha jiva, 255; -vyutsarga, 36 Kayotsarga, 354 Keli, 441 kevala jnana, 314, 327, 336, 503; -dars ana, 319, 323, 432, 470, 599 kevala jnanavaraniya karma, 503 kevali, 151, 317-18, 320-24, 384, 416, 469, 473, 502, 549; samudghata, 89, 230, 473 key texts, 617-18, 625, 628-29, 645 nhu khu, 216 kilbisika, 438 knowledge, theory of, 348, 607, 645 Konika (or Ajatas atru), 439-40, 533-34 kramavada, 321 kriya, 25, 60, 89, 121, 349-66, 376, 381-82, 468, 487, 524, 604; -one action at a time, 381; two actions at a time, 381; illustrations of, 352, 354 kriya (5, arambhiki, etc.), 350, 362; illustrations of, 358, 598, 628 kriya (5, kayiki, etc.), 350, 362-63; illustrations of, 359-61, 363, 598, 628 kriya (12), 62, 349 kriya (13), 62 kriya (18), 61-62, 232, 238, 248, 264, 290, 349, 356-57 kriya (25), 351 kriyavada, 19, 25 Krsna, 559; see also Arstanemi-Krsna krsnapaksika, 337 Krsnaraji, 144, 157-160, 601, 606 krta yugma, 338

Page #308
. 269 ksapaka sreni, 470 "Ksatriya Kundagrama', 538 Ksatriya, 96, 105, 837, 582, 560, 601 ksayopasama, 503 Ksina-bhogi, 320 ksudra yugma, 340 ksudra-maha-rasi yugma, 562 kulakara (7), 557 kulattha, 418 kunthu, 389 Kurudattaputra (monk), 182 L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, India, 126 labdhl (10), 325 laghu, 245-46; -tva, 290 Lavasaptama (deva), 181 lay Jainas, 409, 629 laymen, 31, 58, 99-100, 442 les ya, 84, 213, 296, 298-313, 322, 392, 598, 605 Les yako'sa, by N. Tatia, 306 lingam worship, 160 loka, 15, 52-53, 78, 82, 145, 147-53, 228, 230-31, 236, 238, 270; adhas, 228: Hindu, 174; tiryak, 228; tiryak - center, 161, 163, 165; urdhva, 228; -aloka, 144-48, 152, 166, 190, 230; sthiti (8), 146 lokakasa, 228, 332 Lokantika (deva). 157, 181 lokapala (G, rank of), 180 lokavada, 19, 25 Lokavibhaga of Simhanandi, 115 lonely wandering. 30, 32-34, 37, 39-40, 46, 405, 410, 542 lower world, see loka, adhas mahaparyavasana, 320 Mahasila kantaka sangrama, 439-40 Mahas ukra Kalpa deva, 317 Mahatapopatira prabhava, 250 Mahavidoha, 106, 283, 432, 445, 447, 551, 554 Mahavira, 132, 158, 182-83, 188, 249, 317, 319, 336, 370-72, 376, 441, 445, 528-47, 551-52, 555, 801, 606, 616, 620, 626; - ascetic practice, 33-34; - date of death, 5; - heretics' views, 66; - images, 115; - regions of wandering, 38; - teachings, 14 ff., 120, 432 mahavrata (5), 27, 42, 391 Mahayanism-cum-Hinayanism, 550 mahayugma, 340 maithuna, 27, 393 mala, 24, 452 Malll, 107 mamatva, 396, 420 mamsa, acceptance of, 56-59; eating of, 57, 546 47 manah paryaya, 314, 317-18, 327 manas, 314, 318, 475, 523 Mandalapravesa, 66 maagala, 139 mani, 283 mano-dravya-vargana labdhi, 317 Manusmrti, 31, 170 Manusottara (Mt.), 530 manusya leka, 301 marana, 327, 400, 512, 618 marana kala, 170 marana samudghata, 272, 293-94 marganasthana (14), 77-78, 80, 261, 269, 298, 313, 346, 451, 491 masa, 418 Mathura, 47-49, 99, 431, 537; inscriptions, 47-48, 99 mati, 327 Mauryaputra, 447 maya kasaya karma, 524 mayi mithyadrsti, 185, 316 measurement, units of, 231 meat, see mam sa memorandums, 618 M, 283-84, 286-87, 331, 333, 401 madhyama-pada, 580 Madruku (laymen), 235 Mahabala, 95, 170, 557 Mahabharata, 174 Mahabhasya, 145 mahabhuta, 16, 198; -vada, 52-53, 198

Page #309
270 478 Meru (Mt.), 530 nirgrantha, 561 middle world, see loka, tiryak nirjara, 428, 458, 463, 466-67, 481, 520, 526-27, miraculous power, see rddhi 601; pudgala, 318; miscellaneous passages, 140, 216, 624 nirlepa-kala, 335 misra-kala, 335 nirupakrama, 284; ayus, 513, 515, 600 mithyadarsana, 487-88 nirvartana, 355, 363 mobil beings, see trasa nirvrtti, 272, 295, 601 moha, 26 Niryukti texts, 79, 118, 211, 295 mohaniya karma, 63, 473, 489-90, 492-93, 495-504 niscaya naya, 223 moksa, 19, 104-7, 110, 237, 283, 286, 311, 319-20, niscaya-vyavahara naya, application of, 223 414, 432-36, 439, 441, 444-48, 451, 468, 480, niseka, 485; -prapta, 486 484, 530-31, 541-42, 549, 599, 606-7; marga, Nisitha, 3, 38, 41, 44-45, 47, 58 262, 385, 601, 607 niyativada, 52-53 motion, 236 no-karma, 458 movable beings, see trasa no-samyata, 392 Mrgavati, 532, 534 non-dialogue text (N.D.), 132, 602, 613 mosavada, 27, 516 non-Jaina schools, 125 mula praksti, 87, 89, 450, 488-91, 493; bandha, non-Jaina thoughts vs.Jaina thoughts, 19-20, 51. 52, 125, 294 muni, 398 nrtya (32), 181 mythology, Jaina, 111, 115, 176-88, 607, 620 nucleus sutras, see Bhagavati nucleus padartha (6), 225, 237 Padmaprabha (Tirthankara), 551 naga, 283 Padmavati, 107 nairayika, see H palyopama, 170 nama karma, 87-88, 473, 490, 493, 505-7 panaka (4), 544 namaskera mantra, 139, 577 pancastikaya, 190, 224, 227, 229-30. 232-35, 239, Nandisutra, 68, 96-97, 113, 118, 133, 317, 370, 415, 241, 600-1, 605; -cum-addhasamaya, 81, 122, 419, 440, 528, 543, 562, 580, 610, 644-45; . - 189, 227-48, 324 later additions, 103, 118 pancendriya, 268; see also A. Nandivardhana, 533 pandita, 387-88 naraka, 66, 331 Pannatti texts, 156, 184, 611, 616-17, 620, 623-24, nastitva, 218 633-34, 636; 638 nature philosophers, 146, 345 papa karma, 356, 460, 473, 484-85 naya, 223, 601, 605 para-citta-jnana, 314 Neminatha, 173 paramanu, 81, 191, 196, 198, 201, 207, 209, 243; nida (vedana), 523 Buddhist thought of, 203; Vai's esika thought nidhatta, 486 of, 203, 225; -skandha, 192, 197, 202, 221, nidra, 502 460, 598; -skandha - combination and divinigoda, 76, 277, 562 sion, 84, 193-95, 197, 220; -skandha - theory, nihnava, 370-72, 376, 382, 421, 600, 603, 613; -ka, 5, 122, 217, 219, 226 379, 438, 448, 538, 616 paramavadhika, 320-21 nimatta (8), 544 param para bandha, 476 Nirayavalika, 440 param paranirgata, 515

Page #310
param paropapannaka, 515 473, 486 paribhogaisana dosa, 411 prakama-nikarana, 523 parigraha, 27, 350, 394-95 Prakiraka, 582 parinama, 197, 252, 457-58, 598; -vada, 218, 220, praksti bandha, 480 226, 369 pramada, 355, 487; -pratyaya, 364, 487 'parinamamana poggala parinaya'. 379 pramana kala, 170 parisaha, 492; -jaya 437, 526 pramana-pada, 580 paropakrama, 284 pramatta-samyama, 364 Parsva, see Pars vanatha pramatta-samyata, 392Parsvanatha, 18-19, 150, 336, 555 prana, 257 Parsvans, 150, 434, 443-44, 446, 448, 555 Pranama (sect), 182 paryapta-aparyapta, 277 pranatipata, 27, 516 paryayastika naya, 223 Pras navyakarana, 3, 111, 116-17, 181, 390, 415 paryupasana, 434 Prasnavyakaranadasa, 116 patali (vlksa), 283 prasuka esaniya, 428 Paurusimandala, 68 prasuka vihara, 418 pausadhopavasa, 398, 423, 427 prathama-aprathama, 269 penal code, 360 pratikramana, 36, 403-4,425, 551; see also alocanaperceptibility, 220 pratikramana personality-index, 305-6, 313 pratima, 409, 467 pinda, 402, 410-11 pratisamvedana, 500 Pindaniryukti, 411 prativasudeva (9), 557-59, 600 plants, see vanaspatikayika pratyakhyana, 27, 61, 284, 389-91, 423, 434, 517, popular belief, 435 601 post-canonical period, 119, 455, 645 pratyakhyana-apratyakhyana, 284 prabha, 213 pratyakhyani, 391, 408 Prabhavati, 532 pratyanika, 396 pracala, 502 pratyanubhava, 506 pradesa, 81, 190-91, 196, 203, 220-21, 224, 227, pratyekabuddha, 550 230-31, 243; theory of, 190, 192, 221, 224, 230, pravacana, 552 240, 599, 605; bandha, 450, 480, 484, 521; pravacani, 552 karma, 484 prayascitta, 44 pradesi, combination of, 204-5 prayoga, 200, 218, 284, 477; bandha, 478 prahana, 459 prologue, 442, 642; (Rajagsha'), 577 Prajnapana, 3, 4, 6, 71-72, 75, 77-90, 115, 149, prthvi (7), 155; (8, including Isatpragbhara), 157 154, 156, 165, 179, 182, 186, 195-96, 198, 200, prthvikayika, 293 207, 214, 218, 221, 226, 229, 252-53, 255, 261, Pudgala (Brahmin monk), 281, 447 268-69, 271, 274, 278, 282, 285-86, 289-90, 297. pudgala (individual), 258 99, 302-3, 307, 310-12, 314-15, 317-19, 321-22, pudgala (matter), 81, 122, 192-228, 230, 232-33, 328, 331, 335, 350, 358, 362-63, 365, 392, 406, 240-41, 250, 264, 472, 598-600, 605; scheme of, 415, 438, 464, 466, 470, 486, 488-89, 491, 494- 191-226, 240, 454, 598; ahara, 527: parinama, 96, 505, 511-13, 521, 523, 543, 562, 610-11, 620, 200, 312, 457; parivartana, 193-94; -sthiti, 623, 633, 636-37; - later additions, 81, 84, 274; upacaya, 477; -yoni, 274 88-90, 133, 165, 211, 228, 231, 317, 438, 450, pudgalastikaya, 227-28,230, 232-33,240-41; pradesa,

Page #311
272 206, 244 Sakra (King), 176-80, 182-83, 187 pudgali, 258 Sala (vpkna), 283 punishment, 36, 44-45, 57-58, 404, 463 salmali (vskna), 283 punya karma, 473 sama-kriya, 464 puranas, Hindu, 113, 170, 174, 176, 637; Jaina, sama-vedana, 464 176, 558 samanika (G, rank of), 182 Purva (14), 96, 103-4, 107-10, 415, 432, 544, 556 samarambha, 364-65 purva-pascat, 148 Samavayanga, 11, 133, 172, 487, 557, 580, 582, 612 purvadhara, 415 samaya, 207, 290, 337; koetra, 169, 171, 174, 307 Pirvagata, 551 samayika, 36, 366, 404, 408, 423, 426 "Samayikadi 11 Angas', 423 sambhoga, 30, 38, 46 raga, 26; -dvesa, 488 samiti (5), 27, 42, 231, 238 Rajagsha, 132, 316, 394, 417 samlekhana, 8, 223, 409 Rajapra's niya, 133, 179, 234, 610 sammurchimaja, 523 rajas, 24, 452 'samohaya', 310 rajju, 149 samparayika bandha, 479-80, 482 rasa, 198 samparayika karma, 365, 493, 519 rasi yugma, 340 samparayika kriya, 351, 364-65, 381, 426, 479, ratha-musala sangrama, 439 482, 600, 606; illustrations of, 366 Ratnaprabha, 151, 163, 436 samrambha, 364 rddhi, 118, 177, 182, 284, 316, 333, 402, 412-16, samsara, 218, 332, 400, 432, 480 601 samsari, jiva, 258, 290, 307, 334, 341-42, 392, 433, rebirth, 281-88, 291, 432-39, 441, 444-48; chart, 477, 479, 512, 561 272, 282-88, 303-4, 307, 309, 313, 598, 605 samsari samapannaka jiva, 561 "A Recent Study of Bhagavatisu tra Reviewed". samvara, 27, 46, 408, 425, 463, 468, 503 by K.K. Dixit, 561 sam varadvara (5), 116-17 Revati, 544 sam vega. 434 . Rsabha, 112-14, 172, 552 sam vrta, 399 Rsabhadatta, 447, 535 samyagdrsti - aticara, 496 Rsibhadraputra, 445 samyaktva, 316 Rucakavara (dvipa), 184 samyama, 27, 261, 434, 463 ruksa, 200 samyata, 386, 392, 561 rupi, 185, 214, 248 sancita method, 341, 601, 603 sanghata-parin ama-bheda, 521 sangi, 434 s abda, 213, 323 sanjna (10), 296-97 Sacred Books of the East, XXII, 533 sanjni, 523 sadharana-sarira-badara-paryapta-kayika, 253 Sankha, 427, 445; story, 398, 427 sadi-santa, 477, 519 Sankhya thoughts, 219, 246 sagaropama, 170 Sankhyakarika, 314 Sahasranika (of kaus ambi), 532 sankramana, 524 's ailesi, 460, 467 sansthana, 561 sakarma-les ya-pudgala, 213 santara-nirantara, 336

Page #312
sapradeka-apradeka. 210 saptabhangi, 83, 212, 600 sarira, 272, 277-78, 355, 363, 475, 487; bandha, 278 sarisava, 418 sarva bhava, 323 Sarvanandi, 115 Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada, 58, 117, 365 'sarvena sarvam', 204-5, 294, 461, 475, 519, 526 Saki (Tirthankara), 551 sas vata, 148 sat, 218 sata, 462, 514, 525 sata vedaniya karma, 505, 508-10 kataka, 642 Satanika (of Kausambi), 532 satka method, 342, 601 Satkhandagama, 118, 195, 261, 325, 451 sattva, 257; (Sankhya concept), 246 satya, 392 Saudharma (Kalpa), 178, 183 savirya-avirya, 276 sas vata-asa's vata, 53, 201, 223, 387 'saya samiyam eyati veyati calati...", 378 sayoga kevali, 275, 365, 479 shape, 205 siddha, 207, 218, 236, 238, 258, 269-70, 276, 290, 322, 334, 338, 341, 343, 433, 477 Siddhartha, 533 Siddhasila, 238, 246, 307 siddhi, 270, 434; asiddhi, 148 siksavrata (7), 85 sila, 27, 423; see also conduct Simha (MV's disciple), 544 similes, 218(lamp light),234(sleeping on astikaya), 332 (goat pen), 356 (18 seasonings), 364 (bundle of hay; boat with hundred holes), 393 (stalk of a tree with burning fire), 467 (mud-stained cloth, washing of), 472 (boat with hundred holes), 485 (motions of an arrow), 527 (cutting a tree with a blunt or sharp axe) sins, 17, 358, 375, 404-5 Siva, 447; motif of, 182 size, see dimension Skandaka, 95, 447; story, 400 Skandaka (Acarya), 510 skandha, 81, 196, 201, 207, 526; see also paramanu skandha slista bandha, 365, 367, 473, 478, 480-82, 511, 513, 527 anoha, 472; -kaya, 193-94, 472 snigdha-ruksa (guna), 195, 198 sacca-asocca, 469 socca kevali, 548-550, 601 soka, 523 solidity, 202-3 solitary wandering, see lonely wandering Soma, 180 Somila (Brahmin monk), 263, 418, 447 sopakrama ayus, 513, 515, 600 soul, see jiva; prades a, see jiva-prades a spar's a, 34, 145, 198, 242-44 sprstamana gati, 207 sramana nirgrantha, 433 sramana sangha, 552 Sravaka Ava's yaka, 429 sravana, 434 273 sreni, 561 srota, 22-24 sruta, 327, 503 kruta-jnanavaraniya karma, 503 standpoints, 217, 221, 600, 605; - dravya-bhava, 223;-dravya-ksetra-kala-bha va, 217, 221-24, 240, 450; dravya-prades a-dravyaprades a, 221: application of, bhava, 387; dravya, 387-88, 408, 474; kala, 148, 208, 269, 334; ksetra, 196, 474; -dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava, 79, 148, 166, 201, 209-10, 229, 270; dravyaksetra-kala-bhava-bhava, 518; dravyaksetra-kala-bhava-bhava-samsthana, 211; dravya-ksetra-kala-bhava-guna, 227; -dravyapradesa-avagahana-kala-bhava, 81, 208, 275; - dravya-prades a-dravyaprades a, 79, 82 - sthana, ista-anista, 506 sthana triplet, 77, 491 Sthananga, 11, 68, 94, 116-17, 133, 158, 255, 297, 328, 391, 394, 396, 487, 530-31, 551-52, 557,

Page #313
274 Suttanipata, 19, 22, 28 suvrata, 27 Suvrata (muni), 187 svapna, 54, 399, 435, 530-31, 557 Svetambara, 99 swastika, 160 syadvada, 222 Syamacarya, 77 * 610, 612 sthavara, 65, 465 sthira, 387 sthiti bandha, 480, 485 stories, mythological, 123, 176, 186, 601, 616 stories and episodes, 442-44, 449, 629 story texts (S), 4, 49, 91-102, 123, 132, 181, 285, 404, 528, 543, 601-2, 613-14, 616, 618, 642 study plan, 643 style of composition, 111 subha-asubha, 525 subha-pudgala, 213 Subhadra, 533 subtle composites, see suksma-parinata-skandha Sudarsana (upasaka), 170, 445 Sudarsana (MV's mother), 533 s udha-bodha, 503 Sudharman, 91 Suka (Brahmin), 418 sukha, 416, 458; nama karma, 505 s ukla dhyana, 531 s uklapaksika, 337 suksma-badara, 277 suksma-parinata-pradesa, 203 sukyma-parinata-skandha, 198, 221 suksma-sarira, 219 suksma-sneha-kaya, 194, 250 suksma-vyavahita-viprakrsta-jnana, 314 sunya-kala, 335 Suparsva, 533 Suprabha, 551 supta, 398-99 surya, 168-69, 213 Surya-Candra prajnapti, 3, 5, 68-70, 133, 168, 213. 610, 620, 623, 634-35 Surya prajnapti see Surya-Candra prajnapti susamadusama, 554 Sutrakrtanga 1, 3, 12-13, 20-21, 24, 26-28, 32, 36, 38, 66, 176, 375, 422, 452; - later additions, 25, 52 Sutrakrtanga 11, 3, 12, 41, 51, 55-57, 60-61, 64. 145, 249, 256, 273, 391, 404, 423-24; - later additions, 50, 53-54, 61-62, 64-66 Suttagame, 12, 130-31, 133, 139, 436, 466, 577, 581 taijasa sarira, 252, 294, 300 tala (vsksa), 361, 470, 530 'tal-lesa-devavasa', 301 Tamali (householder), 182 tamas, 246 Tamaskaya, 144, 157-160, 601, 605; deva, 158, 187 tapas, 34, 95, 261-62, 409, 414, 419, 434, 449, 463, 526 tapasa, 438 taraka-jnana, 314 tattva, 434, 455, 463, 468 Tattvarthadhigamasutra of Umasvati, 115, 117 18, 154, 195, 227, 239, 289, 329, 351, 425, 428, 452, 473, 492, 496, 508, 524-26, 561, 645 tejaskayika, 249, 333 tejo lesya, 213, 414, 544 *Tejonisarga', 543-45, 642 *Teyanisagga', 543 Thavaccaputra, 418 theory of atoms, see paramanu-skandha - theory time cycle, see kala cakra tirtha, 552 tirthankara, 109-10, 173, 551-53 . tirthankara (24), 172, 174, 548, 550-57, 601, 606 tiryanca, 436 Tisyaka, 182 transit motion/path see gati, vigraha-avigraha trasa, 65, 249, 289, 465; -nali, 289 Trayastrimsa (deva), 181 trindriya, 268; see also A' Trisala, 188, 533, 536 Trisasti-salaka-purusa-caritra, 540 'trividham trividhena' 28 'trividham trividhena asamyata..., 391, 417

Page #314
tryoja yugma, 338 vacana, 318 tulya, 211 vagga, 562; see also varga type-story, 449, 539 Vaibhara (Mt.), 250, 412 udaka-garbha, 255 vaikriya samudghata, 186, 315 udaka-jiva, 250 vaikriyika sarira, 185, 252, 256 Udana, 19 Vaimanika deva, 182, 318, 322, 517 udaya, 484, 522 vaira, 17-19, 21-24, 352, 360, 375, 452-53 Udayana (King), 95, 441, 532, 534 Vaisali, 534 Udayi, (King Konika's elephant), 439 Vaisesika thoughts, 218, 237, 240; influence of, Udayin (founder of Pataliputra), 533 148, 238-39 uddes aka, 627, 632, 642; independent; 632-33; ti- Vaisesikasutra, 237; text of Candrananda, 218 tles, 139, 642 Vaisnava, 99, 537, 558 udinna, 522 Vaisramana, 180 udirana, 463 Vaisyayana, 544 'udirie', 459 vaiyavstya, 398 udumbara (vrksa), 283; phala, 429, 437 vanaspatikayika, 253, 273, 338, 343 udyota, 213, 312 Varanasi, 316 Umasvati, 88, 104, 316, 348, 364-65, 487, 561 Vardhamana, 533 unintentional action, 62, 424 varga, 449; see also vagga unmada, 501 varna, 198, 306 upacaya-apacaya, 334 varnaka, 133-34, 417, 449, 642 upadhi, 395 varnavadhya karma, 256, 466, 507 upadhyaya, 436 varuna, 180 upakrama, 512, 515 Varuna (Jaina monk), 439 Upanisad, 20 vassavasa, 40 upasaka dharma (12), 423 Vasudeva (vasudeva) (9), 105, 557-59, 600 upasaka pratima (11), 49, 95, 423 Vasudeva Krsna, 559 Upasakada'sa, 3, 91, 95, 106, 409, 423, 429 vata, 252 upasama, 463 Vayubhuti, 182 upasraya, 366, 426 vayukayika, 202, 249, 251-52, 293, 359 upasanta-moha, 501 Vayukumara, 252 upayoga, 227, 261-62, 325 Vayukumari, 252 upper world, see loka, urdhva Veda, 271-72, 279, 381, 519, 637 usna-yonija-jiva, 250, 273 vedana, 89, 296-97, 364, 381-82, 450, 456, 458, 463, utpanna paksa (karma), 377, 459 467, 484, 500, 505, 514, 520-21, 523-25; -nirjara, utsarpini, see avasarpini- utsarpini 468 utsuka, 502 vedaniya karma, 87, 473, 489-90, 492-93, 508-10 uttara prakrti, 87-88, 450, 489, 493; bandha, 478 vedavadhya karma, 494 Uttaradhyayana, 3, 12-13, 24, 30-31, 34, 38-40, 42, vegetal beings, see vanaspatikayika 57, 88, 93, 229, 262, 298, 312, 365, 434, 440, vibhanga jnana, 281, 316, 469 450, 495, 504-5, 554; - later additions, 3, 27, vibhu, 294 31, 36, 57, 249, 299 vidyacarana, 415 'wvavajjamane uvavanne', 380 vigata paksa (karma), 377, 459 Vigrahakanda, 151

Page #315
276 X-sutras, 128, 142, 609, 611, 631, 633-38, 640 'viivaejja', 184 vijayadvara, 178 vijnana, 434 vikurvana, 177, 182, 252, 315, 412-13, 604 vimana, 152 vinaya, 30, 400 Vipakasutra, 3, 91 viraha-kala, 335 virati, 386, 388 virya, 53, 271-72, 275-76, 487, 500 viryantaraya karma, 494 viryavadhya karma, 494, 600 Visesavas yakabhasya, 370, 382 visibility, see perceptibility Visnu purana, 113 visrasa, 200, 218, 477 Vivahaculiya, 644 viveka, 35-36, 408 Viyahaculiya, 644 Viyahapannatti, by J. Deleu, 441, 642 Viyahapannatti, 620, 625-26, 645 volitional action, see intentional action vrata (5), 383, 389-90, 551, 554, 601 vrksa, 283 vyanjana (18), 356 Vyantara deva, 156, 181, 268, 406 Vyantara loka, 156, 437 vyavacchitti naya, 223 vyavadana, 434 Vyavahara, 3, 41-42, 44-45, 103, 117, 133, 254, 403, 415, 543, 620, 644; - later additions, 44 vyavahara (5), 403 vyavahara naya, 223 vyavahara paramanu, 202 vyutsarga, 408 Yajnavalkya, 19 Yaksa, 416 Yaksaves a, 501 Yama, 180 yama (4), 551, 554 yapaniya, 418 Yas oda, 533 yatanavaraniya karma, 503-4 yathanivetti kala, 170 yatra, 418-19 yoga (3), 28, 60, 275, 349, 355, 363, 392, 395, 477, 487, 525; -nimitta, 364, 487 Yoga school, 474 Yogasutra, 314 yojana, 149, 230-31 yoni, 271, 280, 514 yuga (4), 174 yugma method, 338-39, 343, 561-62, 601, 603 water-bodied-) beings, see apkayika *whole by whole', see 'sarvena sarvam wind-(bodied-) beings, see vayukayika world-man, 101, 160 world view, Jaina centred, 123, 173, 175-76, 186, 401, 531, 548

Page #316